Proceedings of International Science Education Conference 2009 Science Education: Shared Issues, Common Future 24 to 26 November 2009 National Institute of Education, Singapore
Edited by Mijung KIM, SungWon HWANG, and Aik-Ling TAN
Proceedings of International Science Education Conference 2009, 24-26 November 2009, National Institute of Education, Singapore. Event jointly organized by the Ministry of Education and National Institute of Education and supported by Singapore National Commission for UNESCO. Copyright 2009 by Natural Sciences and Science Education, National Institute of Education, http://www.nsse.nie.edu.sg All rights reserved. No part of this CD may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the prior written permission of the Natural Sciences and Science Education, National Institute of Education The Natural Sciences and Science Education, National Institute of Education is not responsible for the use which might be made of the information contained in this CD-Rom. ISBN 978-981-08-1056-6
Cover & Logo Designed by Timothy TAN
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Table of Contents
Preface The effects of inquiry-based computer simulation on scientific thinking and conceptual understanding among madrasah pupils Faizah ABDUL RAHMAN, Rosli ABDULLAH, Subaidah ASMIN, and Noor Isham SANIF
Page 1 2
Investigation of project based method effect on physical chemistry laboratory teaching at undergraduate chemistry students Rasol ABDULLAH MIRZAIE, Alireza ASSAREH, Javad HATAMI, Lila TABAN, Zinab NIKFARJAM, and Arezo ASFA
17
Study of macroscopic and microscopic aspects of entropy concept effect on creation misconception in chemistry teachers Rasol ABDULLAH MIRZAIE, and Massomeh SHAHMOHAMMADI
31
The explicit teaching of process skills questions to improve pupils‟ answering techniques Noor Aishah ABU BAKAR, Manickam SUMATHI, Zahrah Mohamed ABBAS, and Cassandra CHOO
53
Investigating the effects of animation on learning the concept of covalent bonds in high school chemistry B. ARABSHABI, A. BADRIAN, and R. DABAGHIAN
66
Misconceptions about misconceptions Anjana Ganjoo ARORA
82
Development of two-tier diagnostic test for examination of thai high school students‟ understanding in acids and bases Romklao ARTDEJ, Thasaneeya RATANAROUTAI, and Tienthong THONGPANCHANG
103
A comparative study between Iran, Japan, England and Pakistan high school chemistry textbooks Alireza ASSAREH, Rasol Abdullah MIRZAIE, and Ashraf ANARAKI
123
Defining a creative and co-operative science and technology education course Ossi AUTIO
137
What does science look like for 3 and 4 year old children in early learning centres and how can early childhood educators take advantage of this? Elaine BLAKE and Christine HOWITT
155
iii
Pre-service teachers` environmental knowledge, attitudes and behaviour Mohamad Termizi bin BORHAN, and Zurida binti Hj ISMAIL
184
An investigation of practical performance and attitude and interest towards laboratory work by using an online game designed based on Kolb‟s experiential learning cycle for a particular topic in chemistry (Qualitative Analysis) Shasikumaran CHANDR SEGARAN and M. LOSINY
212
A preliminary study on kindergarten children‟s abilities in science problem solving Ching-Yi CHANG, Jen-Mein KUNG, Shu-Hui LIN, and Wen-Shin CHIU
241
Learning chemistry with the game “Legends of Alkhimia”: Pedagogical and epistemic bases of Design-for-Learning and the challenges of boundary crossing Yam San CHEE, Daniel Kim Chwee TAN, Ek Ming TAN, and Ming Fong JAN
273
Integrating socio-scientific issues into science instruction: Taiwanese elementary science teachers‟ views and teaching practices Chao-Shen CHENG and Ying-Tien WU
293
TRIZ – Inventive problem solving with high school students Tyng Yong CHEW
309
An introduction to analysis of science knowledge construction in an asynchronous discussion forum Kok Pin CHIA
349
A case study approach to science knowledge construction and mis-construction in an asynchronous discussion forum Kok Pin CHIA
370
The bamboo project: A place-based early childhood science curriculum coconstructed with kindergarten teachers in northern Taiwan Tayal tribal village Shu-Chen CHIEN
449
Information of biotechnology: Taiwanese students‟ sources and trust Kuan-Chiao CHIEN, Hsin-Mei LI, and Chen-Yung LIN
472
Fundamental thermal concepts: An evaluation of Year 11 students‟ conceptual understanding in everyday contexts Hye-Eun CHU, Kim Chwee Daniel TAN, Lee Choon LOH, and David TREAGUST
497
The effectiveness of web-based problem-based learning for secondary school students Sherine Shi Yun CHUA
515
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What are students up to during problem solving? Shien CHUE and Kim Chwee Daniel TAN
554
Moving science as inquiry into the classroom: Research to practice Barbara A. CRAWFORD
575
Talk about a walkabout: pathways and potholes using ICT in science education Julie CROUGH, Jenni WEBBER, and Louise FOGG
600
Lived experiences of teachers: A reflection on interpersonal relationships Maria Antonia CRUDO-CAPILI
630
Role play as an innovative strategy to actively engage students in the learning of physics Mohun CYPARSADE, K MUHEEPUT, and S. CAROOPPUNNEN
667
Thai grade 11 students‟ conceptual understanding versus algorithmic problemsolving in quantitative chemistry Chanyah DAHSAH
693
Using MT as an alternative learning tool for deaf in learning science Nadh DITCHAROEN, Kanlaya NARUEDOMKUL, and Srisavakon DANGSAART
713
Conceptual change – Still a powerful framework for improving the practice of science instruction Reinders H. DUIT and David F. TREAGUST
725
The development of an attitude scale towards science experiments Demet EROL, Ercan AKPINAR, Bülent AYDOĞDU, and Can ÖZTÜRK
745
Information literacy is indispensable for senile resident Zhang FENG
756
Infusing environmental education elements into the junior secondary school curriculum: A school-based experience in Hong Kong Leo Sun Wai FUNG
765
Public attitudes towards science and technology in China Hongbin GAO, Wei HE, and Fujun REN
779
Investigating teaching and learning with lesson package designed using BSCS 5E instructional model Su Fen GOH, Tan Ying CHIN, Susan LeAnne SIM, and Jalela Bte ATAN
793
Inculcating environmental awareness among primary school pupils James HAN, Jamilah YACOB, and Abdul LATIFF
811
v
Spaceward bound for development of cross-curricular programs in middle school Nicolette Anne HILTON
841
Using discrepant events with questioning and argumentation to target students‟ science misconceptions Kelvin HO and Christine CHIN
848
Exploring the impact of achievement motivation on learning performance Jon-Chao HONG, Jiann-Yeou CHEN, and Ming-Hsien LI
864
The innovative approach of science and technology learning: A case of POWER TECH contest Jon-Chao HONG, Tien-Hao WU, Jiann-Yeou CHEN, and Ming-Hsien LI
882
Science argumentation in situated blended learning Jon-Chao HONG, Jiann-Yeou CHEN, and Ming-Hsien LI
901
Collaborating with „real‟ scientists and engineers to increase pre-service early childhood teachers‟ science content knowledge and confidence to teach science Christine HOWITT, Elaine BLAKE, Martina CALAIS, Yvonne CARNELLOR, Sandra FRID, Simon LEWIS, Mauro MOCERINO, Lesley PARKER, Len SPARROW, Jo WARD, and Marjan ZADNIK
931
Development of (Scientific) concepts in children‟s learning geometry: A Vygotskian, body-centered approach to literacy SungWon HWANG, Wolff-Michael ROTH, and Mijung KIM
968
Developing a research-based model for enhancing PCK of secondary science teachers Shy-Jong JANG
985
What went wrong? A case study of hypothesis-verification process in science inquiry teaching Mijung KIM, Yong Jae JOUNG, and Hye-Gyoung YOON
1024
Observation through different lens: Gifted-in art student‟s perspectives on the biological world Pi-Chu KUO and Yu-Ju HSIEH
1051
The development of the nanotechnology attitude scale for K-12 teachers Yu-Ling LAN
1069
Using video paper builder as an effective tool for achieving understanding in the learning of organic chemistry Veron Mui Keow LEE
1092
The use of wikis in teaching research Wen Pin LEOW
1103
vi
Effectiveness of the 5E learning cycle model and Predict, Observe, Explain (POE) teaching & learning strategies in the acquisition of science concepts for primary 6 students Agnes LIM, Jalene LIM, and Adrian LIM
1129
Illuminating mental representations-use of gestures in teaching and assessing understanding of college biology Yian Hoon LIM and Yew Jin LEE
1165
Writing for publication: a tool for collaborative science education Yu Min LYE
1199
Applying a hybrid learning model and cooperative learning for engaged learning in chemical education Swe Swe MIN and Raymond TSOI
1214
Toys @ work: A Nanyang primary school initiative Yasmeen MOHAMAD and Si Ming TAN
1224
Multi-modal representations of science: What affordances are offered by interactive whiteboard technology? Karen MURCIA
1250
Using interactive lecture demonstration to promote active learning in a large science class: A case study of magnetic field Pattawan NARJAIKAEW and Narumon EMARAT
1265
Understanding photosynthesis and respiration – is it a problem? Eighth graders‟ written and oral reasoning about photosynthesis and respiration Helena NÄS and Christina OTTANDER
1281
A constructivist technology-aided instruction and its influence on preservice science teachers beliefs & understanding Lorna Milly A. NAVAJA
1318
The effect of classroom demonstrations based on conceptual change instruction on students‟ understanding of electromagnetism and electromagnetic induction Chai Seng NEO and Kueh Chin YAP
1346
Questioning as a learning strategy in primary science Joan S K NG-CHEONG and Christine CHIN
1387
Cooperative learning in biology: Enhancing the academic, community, and spiritual lives of second year seminarians of Our Lady of Guadalupe Minor Seminary Noel F. NOBLE
1410
Learning on basic chemistry using experimental kits Kulthida NUGULTHAM and Juwadee SHIOWATANA
1443
vii
Teachers‟ questioning techniques and their potential in heightening pupils‟ inquiry Siti Omairah OMAR, Rehanna DAWOOD, and Anne ROMAN
1459
Pedagogical practices and science learning with a focus on sustainability for pre-service primary and middle years educators: Directions and challenges Kathryn PAIGE and David LLOYD
1486
Development and application of curious note program teaching-learning model (CNP Model) for enhancing the creativity of scientifically gifted students Jongseok PARK, Yohan HWANG, Eunju PARK, and Jaeheon PARK
1512
Characteristics of images on science teaching-learning, depicted on science educational television cartoon “Magic School Bus”: Focusing on the analysis of teacher-student interactions Sohye PARK and Hee K. CHAE
1541
Creativity methodologies in performing scientific experiments Hoa PHU CHI, Pham Hong QUY, and Bui Tuan ANH
1579
Creating real experiments in teaching scientific subjects Hoa PHU CHI, Pham Hong QUY, and Pham Viet THANG
1588
Using a T5 instructional design model in the large-enrolment biology classes: Method to promote cooperative learning in an undergraduate study Supaporn PORNTRAI
1601
Engaging pupils in an inquiry-based science lesson through questioning Grace QUEK
1612
Exploring pupils‟ engagement in an inquiry-based lesson through lesson study Grace QUEK, Edwin WAN, Sabrina KAUR, Elaine CAI, Junhua CHEN, Veronica CHER, Sok Kheng YEAN, and Nora TEO
1626
Use of concept cartoons as a strategy to address pupils‟ misconceptions in primary 4 science topic on matter Farah Aida RAHMAT
1642
Deepening pupils‟ understanding of wheel and axle through station-based learning Tayeb RAJIB, Puwen WU, Chao Hen FOO, Siti Nor RAFIDAH, Christine Lay Koon TAN, and Safarina SATAR
1673
Engaging Mauritian primary school pupils to develop core construct in science using PDA with a learner centered pedagogy Yashwantrao RAMMA, Kah Chye TAN, and Hyleen MARIAYE
1703
Using simulations in science: An exploration of pupil behaviour Susan RODRIGUES
1720
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Physics at the theme park: Providing the authentic real-life experiential learning tool in enhancing students‟ understanding of conceptual and contextual applications of the laws of physics Surianah ROSLI
1738
Developing and validating performance-based assessment tasks in science: A how-to guide Gouranga SAHA and Rodney L. DORAN
1768
Grade-7 students‟ views on science-technology-society Wiangchai SANGTHONG, Chatree FAIKHAMTA, and Naruemon YUTAKOM
1783
Evaluation and content analysis of physics textbook (1) by the Merrill model N. SARIKHANI, F. AHMADI, and M.R. EMAMJOMEH
1801
An analytical frame to explore scientific literacy in intended curriculum: Bangladesh perspective Md. Mahbub Alam SARKAR
1811
Interactive whiteboard technology in primary science: What are teachers‟ beliefs and concerns about the ICT in their classrooms? Rachel SHEFFIELD and Karen MURCIA
1842
Development and validation of a two-tier multiple-choice diagnostic instrument to evaluate secondary school students‟ understanding of electrolysis concepts Ding Teng SIA, David F. TREAGUST, and A.L. CHANDRASEGARAN
1870
An inquiry approach in learning science with engaging web-based multimedia interactive resources Khang-Miant SING and Charles CHEW
1898
Introducing students to authentic inquiry investigation through odour classification experiment with an artificial olfactory system, nose simulator Niwat SRISAWASDI, Bhinyo PANIJPAN, Pintip RUENWONGSA, and Teerakiat KERDCHAROEN
1911
Implementation of paper-based T5 learning model to enhance student understanding: The case for low-achievement students in organic chemistry course Saksri SUPASORN
1936
Portfolio assessment: Its impact on the academic achievement and attitudes of non-biology majors Joy De La Pena-TALENS
1951
What is the purpose of practical work in school science? What are the possible solutions? Hoe Teck TAN
1963
ix
Informal learning during the Taiwan astronomy & earth science field trip Hoe Teck TAN
2008
Chemistry through children‟s eyes: Hands-on activities for ages 9-11 Samantha TANG and Martyn POLIAKOFF
2029
The “NanoWhat? Totally ting technology!” roadshow Samantha Li Yu TANG and Sally Ann RYMER
2041
The periodic table of videos Samantha Li Yu TANG and Martyn POLIAKOFF
2068
Using Facebook as a multi-functional online tool for collaborative and engaged learning of pre-university science subjects Kai Yun Karen TAY, May May Daphne TAN, and Xiao Juan Magdalene OHTAN
2080
Developing teacher identity, teacher confidence and classroom practice: The influence of a blended science teacher education programme Neil TAYLOR and Susan RODRIGUES
2108
Improving student science learning through modified writing-to-learn strategy Hang Chuan TENG and Jashanan KASINATHAN
2130
Teachers‟ collaborative practice in teaching and learning of science Siew Lee TENG, Fazleen MAHMUD, Sarawanan s/o KASINATHAN, Chun Ming TAN, Hui Boon TANG, Ying Zhi TEO, and Widayah OTHMAN
2149
Tutees in the footsteps of Rutherford – Discovering the atom‟s model by analogy to the solar system Jacob THIMOR and Taha MASSALHA
2172
Investigating practice teachers‟ mathematics teaching conception development Chih-Yeuan WANG
2186
Idea of „heat‟ and students‟ understanding of earth phenomena Xueli WANG, Beaumie KIM, and Mi Song KIM
2208
Promoting an integrated teaching approach to enhance student expectation in quantum physics classroom Sura WUTTIPROM
2235
Dispelling the stereotypical myths of a scientist through an integrated literature approach Francis Jude YAM and Yin Kiong HOH
2244
Knowledge advancement in environmental science through knowledge building Jennifer YEO and Yew-Jin LEE
2273
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Development of a chemistry educational card game for meaningful learning in the classroom Shyh Yuan Don YEO
2291
A study on prospective teachers’ attitudes towards Internet Yusuf YILMAZ, Abdülkadir KARADENİZ, and Ercan AKPINAR
2321
Use of concept mapping to facilitate deep learning in biology Cheng Wai YIP
2343
Writing to become a member of the science education discourse community: Bridging the gap between authors and readers Larry A. YORE and Sharyl A. YORE
2372
Science literacy for all – More than a logo or rally flag Larry YORE
2393
Fairness and professionalism: What counts in school-based assessment? Benny Hin Wai YUNG
2428
Engaging children in learning plant-based science: Two botanic garden educators’ pedagogical practices Junqing ZHAI
2458
Attitude toward 5T in “T5” design model via D4LP: A case study of selected topic in organic chemistry Karntarat WUTTISELA
2493
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PREFACE
The International Science Education Conference 2009 is hosted by the Natural Sciences and Science Education academic group, National Institute of Education from 24 to 26 November 2009. This is the second time that we are hosting this conference together with the Ministry of Education (Singapore).We are privileged to have UNESCO as the supporting organiser this year. This year’s theme is Science Education: Shared Issues, Common Future and it reflects the need for science educators and science education researchers from diverse cultures and societies to come together and discuss the current issues of science education that affect all aspects of our lives. While there are no magic formula for successful science education targeted at improving the lives of people all over the world, urgent issues like environmental education and improving scientific literacies of students are discussed by participants of this conference. Other pieces of the science education puzzle such as science curriculum development, science teacher education and professional development and assessment issues in science education are also areas that are highlighted in this conference. Participants at this conference celebrate 242 paper presentations, symposiums, posters, plenary sessions as well as workshop sessions. The five keynote speakers, Larry Yore, Reinders Duit, Fouad Abd-El-Khalick, Barbara Crawford and Benny Yung provided insightful ideas and questions for many conference participants by tackling issues in the areas of the nature of science, conceptual development, science inquiry, science literacy and assessment. Readers will also enjoy 107 full papers that have been submitted in this conference proceeding. This conference would not be possible without your participation and support. We would like to thank you for your participation and also all those involved in the organisation of this conference. We hope that you have had a fruitful and memorable conference and a delightful stay in Singapore.
Mijung KIM, SungWon HWANG & Aik-Ling TAN Singapore 2009
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The Effects of Inquiry-Based Computer Simulation on Scientific Thinking
The Effects of Inquiry-Based Computer Simulation on Scientific Thinking and Conceptual Understanding among Madrasah Pupils
Faizah Abdul Rahman, Rosli Abdullah, Subaidah Asmin & Noor Isham Sanif
Department of Mathematics & Science Madrasah Al-Irsyad Al-Islamiah, Singapore 579711
[email protected],
[email protected],
[email protected],
[email protected] Page 2
The Effects of Inquiry-Based Computer Simulation on Scientific Thinking
Abstract The purpose of the study was to investigate the effects of inquiry-based computer simulation (IBCS) and heterogeneous-ability cooperative learning (HACL) on (a) scientific reasoning and (b) conceptual understanding among primary 6 pupils in Madrasah Al-Irsyad AlIslamiah. A quasi-experimental method was applied in the study. The sample consisted of twenty-four 12 year olds were all randomly selected and assigned to treatment (IBCS & HACL). The results showed that pupils in the IBCS+HACL group significantly outperformed their counterparts in the HACL group in scientific thinking and conceptual understanding. The findings of this study suggest that the inquiry-based computer simulation with heterogeneous-ability cooperative learning method is effective in enhancing scientific reasoning and conceptual understanding for pupils of all reasoning abilities, and for maximum effectiveness, cooperative learning groups should be composed of pupils of heterogeneous abilities.
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The Effects of Inquiry-Based Computer Simulation on Scientific Thinking
The Effects of Inquiry-Based Computer Simulation on Scientific Thinking and Conceptual Understanding among Madrasah Pupils
Introduction Inquiry-Based Computer Simulation (IBCS) represents a major break-through in process of scientific exploration, and this technology has the potential to fundamentally change the way pupils generate scientific thinking. Inquiry-based learning is not about memorizing facts - it is about formulation questions and finding appropriate resolutions to questions and issues. Inquiry can be a complex undertaking and it therefore requires dedicated instructional design and support to facilitate that pupils experience the excitement of solving a task or problem on their own. Carefully designed inquiry learning environments can assist pupils in the process of transforming information and data into useful knowledge. The purpose of inquiry-based learning is therefore to engage the pupils in active learning, ideally based on their own questions. Learning activities are organized in a cyclic way, independently of the subject. Each question leads to the creation of new ideas and other questions.
Computer simulation is defined as having the following two key features: (1) There is a computer model of a real or theoretical system that contains information on how the system behaves. (2) Experimentation can take place, i.e. changing the input to the model affects the output.
As a numerical model of a system, presented for a learner to manipulate and explore, simulations can provide a rich learning experience for the pupil. They can be a powerful resource for teaching: providing access to environments which may otherwise be too
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The Effects of Inquiry-Based Computer Simulation on Scientific Thinking
dangerous, or impractical due to size or time constraints; and facilitating visualisation of dynamic or complex behaviour. Simulations can be considered a variant of cognitive tools, i.e. they allow pupils to test hypothesis and more generally "what-if" scenarios. In addition, they can enable learners to ground cognitive understanding of their action in a situation. (Thomas and Milligan, 2004; Laurillard, 1993). In that respect simulations are compatible with a constructivist view of education. The use of simulations needs to be pedagogically scaffolded. Research shows that the educational benefits of simulations are not automatically gained and that care must be taken in many aspects of simulation design and presentation. It is not sufficient to provide learners with simulations and expect them to engage with the subject matter and build their own understanding by exploring, devising and testing hypotheses. (Thomas and Milligan, 2004: 2). The principal caveat of simulations is that pupils rather engage with the interface than with the underlying model (Davis, 2002). This is also called video gaming effect. Various methods can be used, e.g.:
the simulation itself can provide feedback and guidance in the form of hints
Human experts (teachers, coaches, guides), peers or electronic help can provide assistance using the system.
Simulation activities can be strongly scaffolded, e.g. by providing built-in mechanisms for hypothesis formulation (e.g. as in guided discovery learning simulation)
Simulation activities can be coached by humans
The paper concludes that Inquiry-Based Computer Simulation methodologies can be very useful for many aspects of learning, mainly those dealing with experience and ideas sharing,
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The Effects of Inquiry-Based Computer Simulation on Scientific Thinking
such as scientific and critical thinking. With T-Value (one tailed) = 1.746 and P(x > t) = 2.328, the probabilistic study indicates that there may be a difference in sample behavioral means at Alpha level of 0.05. This serves to reject the null hypothesis and thus concludes that there is evidence that the Inquiry-Based Computer Simulation served to influence the pupils learning behaviour. Objectives
Pupils adopt a scientific approach and make their own discoveries; they generate knowledge by activating and restructuring knowledge schemata (Mayer, 2004). This paper briefly explains how we explored the possibility of using Inquiry-Based Computer Simulation to facilitate these scientific thinking processes. Next, it attempts to compare children’s scientific thinking outcomes with and without Inquiry-Based Computer Simulation.
Instrumentation This project involved a group of 24 pupils from primary six of Madrasah Al-Irsyad AlIslamiah. This activity took place in the madrasah’s science laboratory. Initially, these pupils were given a specific task of tabulating (refer to annex 1) and drawing the graph of length of a pendulum of a metal bob, whose mass ranged from 100g to 500g, against the time taken to make one complete swing (period). However they were also given strings of different lengths and were told that they were free to conduct other experiments related to the period of a pendulum. The pupils were given all the necessary apparatus to conduct their experiment or experiments. The pupils first drew the graph of length of the pendulum (in cm) against period (in seconds). They were also given blank tables which would allow them to tabulate other measurements which may involve other variables. They were given 1 hour to discuss by writing down all questions they have in their mind. They were also asked to write hypothesis, conduct the experiment, make deduction and conclusion about the whole experiment. We call
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The Effects of Inquiry-Based Computer Simulation on Scientific Thinking
this first method as heterogeneous-ability cooperative learning (HACL). These pupils were also given survey questions to answer.
On the next day, these same set of pupils were introduced to Inquiry-Based Computer Simulation (IBCS) of the same experiment. In this scientific simulation, the pupils were free to change different variables like the weight of the bob, the starting angle of the pendulum, and the length of the pendulum. After using IBCS, these pupils went through the normal HACL method. They were given 1 hour to discuss by writing down questions they have in their mind. They were also asked to write hypothesis, conduct the experiment, make deduction and conclusion about the whole experiment. We call this second method InquiryBased Computer Simulation (IBCS) plus heterogeneous-ability cooperative learning (HACL). These pupils were given survey questions to answer.
We performed a t-Test. The null hypothesis is that the mean difference between the two observations (pretest mean: behavioral indicator mean without IBCS & posttest mean: behavioral indicator with IBCS is zero. It suggests that there is no difference between the two types of learning environment. The alternative hypothesis is that the mean difference between the two observations is not zero. It suggests a difference in learning outcome provided by activities with and without IBCS environments.
The test statistic is t with degrees of freedom equals 16. If the p-value associated with t is low (< 0.05), there is evidence to reject the null hypothesis. Thus we would have evidence that there is a difference in means across the paired observations. This stands to show that there could have been mark and positive changes in the behaviour and the outcome of the pupils during the project. Besides this statistical study, we also used other observation and survey methods to identify behavioral changes taking place with my pupils.
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The Effects of Inquiry-Based Computer Simulation on Scientific Thinking
Observations Each pupil was assigned an indicator of 0 to 5 for every response they made. A ‘0’ represents no response from the observed child while a ‘5’ denotes that the child responded more than what was expected of him (refer to Table 2a).
Table 2a: Indicator Values Indicator
0
1
2
Characteristic
No response at all
No response most of the time
No response some of the time
3 Respond most of the time
4
5
Respond all the time
Respond beyond expectation
Table 2b: Comparative Behavioral of IBCS + HACL versus HACL group (refer to annex 2) Behavioral Observations Scientific Thinking & Conceptual Understanding
HACL Group (X1 )
IBCS + HACL Group (X2 )
Using Empirical evidence
75
105
Practicing logical reasoning
47
93
Self-questioning
72
101
Holding tentative conclusions
46
85
Willingness to change one's beliefs
26
81
Willingness to test hypothesis
98
104
Effective use of diagram
92
100
Generation of alternative scientific outcomes
23
75
Generation of predictions
46
71
Planning systematic investigation
46
51
Making scientific interpretations
21
33
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The Effects of Inquiry-Based Computer Simulation on Scientific Thinking
Generating scientific inference
26
32
Seek to formulate scientific law
17
35
Willing to accept different perspective
15
25
Wondering about things and asking questions
45
52
Scientific reasoning based on data
24
42
TOTAL
719
1085
MEAN
44.94
67.81
Standard Deviation
26.53
28.98
16
16
Number of items
From the information gathered from Table 2b, we can calculate the following details:
where
Degree of freedom = 16.0 T Value (one tailed) = 1.746 P(x > t) = 2.3283 This Probability indicates that there may be a difference in sample means at Alpha level of 0.05. We, therefore, reject the null hypothesis and thus conclude that there is evidence that the inquiry-based computer simulation and heterogeneous-ability cooperative learning served to influence our pupils’ scientific thinking in Science.
Critical thinking process within our young learners involves reflective process (Miller & Miller 1992). Reflection is an important element in the construction of meaning (Piaget,
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The Effects of Inquiry-Based Computer Simulation on Scientific Thinking
1980). The inquiry-based computer simulation and collaborative environment facilitates the process of reflection among these young learners. Heterogeneous-ability cooperative learning discussions sparked our pupils to question their scientific learning.
In this project, pupils were involved in scientific thinking. This scientific thinking involves the following process: • Wondering about things. • Asking questions. • Making predictions (telling what might happen). • Looking, listening, touching, smelling, and tasting to get information. • Organizing information and talking about it. • Comparing things by talking about how they are alike and different. • Using words to explain why something happened. Table 3: Pupils’ Responses to the Given Statements Percentage of response(n=24) Item
Statements (in abridged form)
True
False
Not sure
1
A inquiry-based computer simulation is rich with illustrations to make us better understand different variable and its relationship.
91.7 (22)
8.3 (2)
0 (0)
2
I believe inquiry-based computer simulation is a useful practice in every other science activity.
83.3 (20)
4.2 (1)
12.5 (3)
3
We are able to understand a science concept after we run through an inquiry-based computer simulation.
75 (18)
16.7 (4)
8.3 (2)
4
inquiry-based computer simulation gives us a chance to generate questions
95.8 (23)
0 (0)
4.2 (1)
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The Effects of Inquiry-Based Computer Simulation on Scientific Thinking
5
Although we argued and disagreed with one another, yet we see this as opportunity for us to learn.
75 (18)
20.8 (5)
4.2 (1)
6
We were able to settle our differences in believe and ideas.
62.5 (15)
20.8 (5)
16.7 (4)
From a survey (refer to Table 3), we can deduce that about 91.7 % of the pupils viewed the inquiry-based computer simulation as vast resource for experiential learning. They were able to enhance their understanding of their scientific concepts through discussion of ideas. 75% of them made co-ownership and shared decision-making as the norm for their practice. About 95.8% of these pupils found that inquiry-based computer simulation could facilitate dialogue, inquiry and reflection as their method for learning and research. Discussions with them indicated they preferred learning through inquiry-based computer simulation.
Conclusion An inquiry-based computer simulation (IBCS) and heterogeneous-ability cooperative learning (HACL) creates opportunity for pupils to systemically construct meaning in scientific concept. It is evidence that this systemic thinking offers children to view learning in the following perspectives:
whole rather than parts
relationships rather than individuals, or separated objects
process rather than structure
networks rather than hierarchy
dynamic balance rather than constant growth
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The Effects of Inquiry-Based Computer Simulation on Scientific Thinking
interdependence rather than independence
cooperation rather than competition
partnership rather than domination.
The use of an inquiry-based computer simulation (IBCS) and heterogeneous-ability cooperative learning (HACL) worked very well. It has helped children to view, evaluate and self-reflect their work in different perspectives. References
Azmitia, M. 1988. Peer interaction and problem solving: When are two heads better than one? Child Development 59:87--96. Baker, M. J. 1991. The influence of dialogue processes on the generation of pupils' collaborative explanations for simple physical phenomena. In Proceedings of the International Conference on the Learning Sciences. Illinois, USA August 1991. Cumming, G., and Self, J. 1989. Learner modelling in collaborative intelligent educational systems. In P.Goodyear., ed., Teaching Knowledge and Intelligent Tutoring. Ablex. Davies, C., H., J. (2002). "Student engagement with simulations." Computers and Education 39: 271-282. Doise, W. 1990. The development of individual competencies through social interaction. Children helping Children. J.Wiley and Sons. 43--64. Harasim, L. 1993. Collaborating in cyberspace: Using computer conferences as a group learning environment. Interactive Learning Environments, 3,2, 119-130. Laurillard, D. (1993). Rethinking University Education: a framework for effective use of educational technology, Routledge.
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The Effects of Inquiry-Based Computer Simulation on Scientific Thinking
Mayer, R. E. (2004). Should there be a three strikes rule against pure discovery? The case for guided methods of instruction. Am. Psych. 59 (14). Miller, J.H. & Miller, S.A. 1992. Cognitive Development. Prentice Hall Humanities/Social Sciences. Papert, S. 1994. The Children's Machine: Rethinking School in the Age of the Computer. Reprint edition. Basic Books. Piaget, J. 1980. The constructivist approach: recent studies in genetic epistemology. Chicago. London: Univ. of Chicago Press. Thomas, R.C. and Milligan, C.D. (2004). Putting Teachers in the Loop: Tools for Creating and Customising Simulations. Journal of Interactive Media in Education (Designing and Developing for the Disciplines Special Issue), 2004 (15). Webb, N. 1985. Learning to cooperate, cooperating to learn. New York: Plenum Publishing.
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The Effects of Inquiry-Based Computer Simulation on Scientific Thinking
Annex 1 Madrasah Al-Irsyad Al-Islamiah Tabulation and Graph Plotting
Name :
____________________
Class :
__________________
Tabulation of Leangth of Pendulum (cm) versus Period of Pendulum Swing (sec)
Test
Length of pendulum (cm)
1
50 cm
2
100 cm
3
150 cm
4
200 cm
5
250 cm
Pendulum period (seconds)
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The Effects of Inquiry-Based Computer Simulation on Scientific Thinking
Annex 2 Madrasah Al-Irsyad Al-Islamiah Survey 1 on Scientific Thinking Name
:
_______________________
Class
:
________________________
Indicator Characteristic
0 No response at all
1 No response most of the time
2
3
4
No response some of the time
Respond most of the time
5
Respond all the time
Respond beyond expectation
Please tick your response Behavioral Observations Scientific Thinking & Conceptual Understanding
0
1.
We use empirical evidence
2.
We know how to practice logical reasoning
3.
Our group is very self-questioning during our discussion
4.
We hold tentative conclusions
5.
We are willingness to change one's beliefs
6.
We are willing to test hypothesis
7.
We know how to use diagram effectively
8.
We know how to generate of alternative scientific outcomes
9.
We are able to generate predictions
10. We are able to plan systematic investigation 11. We make scientific interpretations 12. We are able to generating scientific inference 13. We seek to formulate scientific law 14. We are willing to accept different perspective 15. We wonder about things and asking questions 16. We are able to generate scientific reasoning based on data
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1
2
3
4
5
The Effects of Inquiry-Based Computer Simulation on Scientific Thinking
Annex 3 Madrasah Al-Irsyad Al-Islamiah Survey 2 on Scientific Thinking Name
:
_______________________
Class
:
________________________
Please tick appropriately Your response Item
Statements
True
1
A inquiry-based computer simulation is rich with illustrations to make us better understand different variable and its relationship.
2
I believe inquiry-based computer simulation is a useful practice in every other science activity.
3
We are able to understand a science concept after we run through an inquiry-based computer simulation.
4
inquiry-based computer simulation gives us a chance to generate questions
5
Although we argued and disagreed with one another, yet we see this as opportunity for us to learn.
6
We were able to settle our differences in believe and ideas.
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False
Not sure
Running head: Investigation of Project Based Method Effect on Physical Chem…
Investigation of Project Based Method Effect on Physical Chemistry Laboratory Teaching at Undergraduate Chemistry Students
2
Rasol Abdullah Mirzaie1, Alireza Assareh , Javad Hatami 3, Lila Taban4, Zinab Nikfarjam4, Arezo Asfa5
1- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Shahid Rajaee Teacher Training University ,P.O. Box 167855-163 – Tehran-IRAN 2- Department of education, Faculty of humanity Science, Shahid Rajaee teacher training University - P.O. Box 167855-163 – Tehran-IRAN 3- Faculty of education, University of Tabriz, Tabriz, Iran 4- Master of science in chemistry education student, Faculty of Science, Shahid Rajaee Teacher Training University, P.O. Box 167855-163 – Tehran-IRAN 5-science and mathematics education research group, research institution for curriculum development and education innovation, ministry of education, IRAN
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Abstract As a considering constructivism theory for teaching and learning process, the project based method have been used in undergraduate physical chemistry laboratory courses.. The heat of solution experiment was selected in this research. In this study, expository and project based instructional methods have been applied in physical chemistry laboratory. After doing experiment, the attitudinal test was used in two groups. The study assessed how students in each instructional method, made conclusions about using heat of solution in context such as meal. The research's results have been shown that project based instructional method intend to fostering attitude and reinforcement abilities and skills of students to applying chemistry content in context projects.
Key words: chemical education, attitude change, laboratory work, project based method
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Investigation of Project Based Method Effect on Physical Chemistry Laboratory Teaching at Undergraduate Chemistry Students
Introduction Project-Based Learning (PBL) definition
Educational researchers maintain that, although Project-Based Learning (PBL) is a constructivist teaching–learning strategy with significant educational potential, teachers need support to successfully implement this strategy in their classrooms (Marx, 1997; Thomas, 2000). Project-based learning is a comprehensive approach to classroom teaching and learning that is designed to engage students in investigation of authentic problems. PBL has been defined as a teaching–learning approach that guides students to learn the concepts of selected disciplines while using inquiry skills to develop research or design products (Blumenfeld, 1991; Thomas, 2000). This educational approach has been recognized for many years throughout the world; from elementary schools to universities (Knoll, 1997).The Project Based Education concept is based on what interests and motivates the student. Because the instructor cannot customize lesson plans for each student, he must implement student responsibility. It becomes the student's responsibility to develop and research projects and develop a plan of action. The instructor acts as a coach or facilitator. Instructors take an interest in students' projects instead of students having to take an interest in topics handed down by administrators. We engage in project-based learning for at least two reasons: (1) project-based learning holds theory assumptions of students and taps into their internal motivations to find meaningful learning; and, (2) project-based learning helps equip students with the knowledge,
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skills, and dispositions needed to make a positive and significant difference to be salt and light. The purpose of utilizing project-based learning is to help the students to receive the instructional objectives and servant leader dispositions from intense experiences that require students to "drink from a fire hose" (Stritzke, 2008). In project based learning approaches, students define the purpose for creating the end product and identify their audience. They research their topic, design their product, and create a plan for project management. Students then begin the project, resolve problems and issues that arise and finish their product. Students may use or present the product they have created, and, ideally, they are given time to reflect on and evaluate their work (Blumenfeld, 1991). Subjective knowledge includes selfawareness, social awareness, and character building. For instance, project based learning facilitates inclusion: it helps us learn about each other. It motivates us to work with others of different ethnic, age, or experience-related backgrounds (Ramirez, 2008). Objective knowledge includes knowledge of servant leadership and the leadership journey as well as knowledge of relevant concepts, models, and processes (that is, technical competence in a given field). Skills include those of learning, thinking, communicating as well as skills for rapid learning (gaining and applying new knowledge), narrowing one's focus to dig deeply, framing key issues, seeing issues from multiple perspectives (to foster team-based learning from a global perspective), and anticipating the future. In addition, project-based learning enhances our task-related and people-related skills—such as teamwork-related skills (Atkinson, 2001). Servant leadership dispositions include being other-focused, open minded, purpose-driven, and internally-motivated (also to foster team-based learning from a global perspective). Finally, project-based learning provides teachable moments in the moment (Ramirez, 2008).
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How Did PBL Develop? PBL first appeared in the late Renaissance in the architecture schools of Italy (1590– 1765). The approach, which initially focused on the technological aspects of building machines, eventually incorporated scientific knowledge and became prominent as part of the syllabus of engineering schools in the United States (1765– 1880; see Pannabecker 1995; Westerink n.d.). From 1880 to 1915, projects were integrated into public schools in America as part of the manual training movement. About that time, John Dewey and his group advocated projects as a means of learning by doing based on student self-interest and a constructivist approach. In1918, Dewey’s student Kilpatrick (1918) defined ‘‘The Project Method,’’ which became popular in the progressive era. In parallel, the use of projects in education blossomed in Europe (Greoire and Laferriere, 1998) and Russia. Between the 40’s and 60’s, there were two variations of this approach in Israel (Round, 1995). During the 60’s and 70’s, the project approach lost popularity in the United States (Blumenfeld, 1991); but, since 1980, the approach has gained in popularity. Within the last two decades, a great deal of experience and knowledge about PBL has been reported (e.g., Knoll, 1997; Koschmann, 2001; Krajcik and Blumenfeld, 2006; Krajcik, 1994; Mergendoller and Thomas n.d.; Thomas et al. 1999; Rosenfeld and Fallik, 2002; Ruopp , 1993; Thomas, 2000; Tinker, 1997).
Throughout its history, learning through project work has been based on different educational models. Today, different variations of PBL exist. For example, one version of PBL, called PBS (project-based science), includes five basic components:
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(a) Driving questions, (b) investigations, (c) artifacts, (d) collaboration, and (e) technological tools (Krajcik, 1994). Based on an extensive review of the existing literature, the basic criteria for PBL appear to be the following (Thomas, 2000): Centrality: PBL projects are central, not peripheral to the curriculum; Driving question: PBL projects are focused on questions or problems that ‘‘drive’’ students to encounter (and struggle with) the central concepts and principles of a discipline; Constructive investigations: the central activities of the project must involve the construction of knowledge on the part of students; autonomy: projects are student driven to some significant degree; and realism: projects are realistic or authentic, not school-like projects. The PBL approach is well known for its benefits for students. Many studies have shown that students engaged in PBL perform better on achievement tests than do students in the control groups. The study employed a questionnaire, which had two parts: open-ended and close-ended answers.
Three types of projects:
Class Motivated - In this case, the instructor initiates the project and sets the goal. Competition type projects are effective. Some students may need to be taught the art of project development before they are assigned to smaller groups.
Team Motivated - A team of 2 to 5 members agree on a common interest project. With teams, the opportunity to share knowledge has a powerful influence on team members. It motivates others to find ways to contribute information or skills. When things go wrong,
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strong team members can support and encourage the weaker ones. Support from associates is a powerful force. Peer pressure motivates all to excel.
Self-Motivated - Some students are independent, strong-willed and have a natural talent with projects. They might do best on their own.
Projects make it possible to offer a wide verity of subjects, determined by the interest of the students. It becomes the students' responsibility to develop the project with available resources, not the instructor.
With a wide verity of learning environments, a student has greater opportunity to find a project that is in harmony with his natural talent. All teenagers want to learn, be creative and productive, but they need opportunity.
Project Special Education has developed programs in these areas. The programs can help you because they are:
1. Content rich - so you'll be able to give students all the key information that they need to pass basic competency tests. 2. Reinforcement-oriented with extra exercises - so you can help students retain the information that they need to succeed. 3. Exciting to read - so you can keep student interest high throughout the course. 4. Well-Structured and formatted - so the students can easily work 5. Clearly written - so you can teach the course confidently even if you don't have a background about that subject.
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Methodology For comparing the attitude and knowledge between project based and traditional education method in physical chemistry lab (1) at the university of Shahid Rajaei's students a short instructional course was established. In this period 60 students were invited and randomly divided into 2 group, control and experimental (PBL) groups. All of them had passed the physical chemistry lab 1 unit. In this study have been applied pre- test, presentation, behavior and lab process assessment, post- test, lab portfolio. Pre-test had 7 question with multiple choice, close-ended and open- ended responses those were related to (regarding) experiment. We tried questions included behavioral objective in cognitive domain that based on bloom's taxonomy. The number of question was more than 6 because 2 of them were related to knowledge level. At first a pre-test was taken of students individually for assessing student's pre knowledge. In the next stage we divided student in groups whit 3 member and gave them teacher note, that was included some information about experiment. Our purpose was they infer whit some mind challenges and can get their ideas. Because our other purpose was skill learning and method was project based definition, so in notation 2 we attend to say some information about solubility, math equations, securities, materials, experiment temp. The experiment goal was determination the substance solubility in water; account the heat of solution and its relevance to cheating in the food. We divided students 10 groups in 2 sections. Every group had 3 members. Some of them in working whit oven or thermostat had problem so the other group members helped each other.
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At the beginning they have entered into lab amazing; because despite past sections they had no recipe for their new experiment and should develop their stages regard to some explanations (teacher note) themselves. The laboratory technician was assessed students skills in working whit lab instruments and securities using the list of oral evaluation. Some body had difficulties in making saturated solutions, other was argued in their solution temperature and consequently their reasoning and discussion skills were invigorated. The groups had set their works one of them was weighing materials, other was provided instruments and another member documented all of observations through the experiment; so with help each other were made solution and temperature equilibrium. Through this experiment if instructor was observed a group is in incorrect way she jus was warned them but did not show right way, the students should thought, had an idea to receive and discovering the right one. In addition she will alert the groups to safety information. At the end of time they got precipitates into oven until dry. They performed this experiment in 3 various temperatures. After 24 hours they exit precipitates from oven and weigh them by digital balance.Then they design solubility diagram by solubility KNO3 or PbNO3 in 30, 40 , 50 in their lab portfolio.
Next week we had taken a post test from them, which were pre test questions! To seeing their knowledge increase, and are there any meaningful difference between 2 tests or not?
Data Analysis The analysis of the results was based on a comparison between the PBL and the control groups regarding attitude test and post- test. Therefore we specify 4 grade for each question,
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except question 1 and 2 that both of them had 2 grades. Both data groups were analyzed quantitatively by the SPSS software. When we compare results from 2 groups , we found that students in PBL group had better sense during lab work and got higher degrees in attitude test (91.51/115) than traditional group(49.03/115). In the questionnaire we reported the grades of students by using a Likerttype scale. According t test results, the difference between two groups was significant. Table1.comparison of the attitude degrees between PBL and control group Group Statistics taraditional based attitude
N
Mean
Std. Deviation
Std. Error Mean
traditional method
29
49.0345
6.43918
1.19573
project based method
31
91.5161
11.72425
2.10574
Independent Samples Test Levene's Test for Equality of
t-test for Equality of Means
Variances
95% Confidence Interval of the Difference
F attitude
Equal variances assumed 3.947 Equal variances not
Sig.
t
df
.052 23.533 58
Sig. (2-
Mean
Std. Error
tailed)
Difference
Difference
Lower
Upper
.000
44.16667
1.87683 40.40978 47.92355
23.533 55.036 .000
44.16667
1.87683 40.40547 47.92786
assumed
For knowledge after one week a post-test was taken of students in (PBL) group individually. Post-test was similar to pre-test. This test was taken of traditional group. Our results showed PBL group responded to questions better than traditional group. Even results of post-test PBL were better than pre-test especially in open ended questions like 4 and 5 questions.
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When we compare results from 2 groups , we found that students in PBL group had better sense during lab work and got higher degrees in assessment test (19.07/24) than traditional group(12.31/24). According t test results, the difference between two groups was significant.
Table2.comparison of the assessment degrees between PBL and control group Group Statistics taraditional based assessment
N
Mean
Std. Deviation
Std. Error Mean
traditional method
31
12.3145
2.28123
.40972
project based method
31
19.0726
2.48596
.44649
Independent Samples Test Levene's Test for Equality of Variances
t-test for Equality of Means 95% Confidence Interval of the Difference
F assessment
Equal variances
.000
Sig. .993
t
df
Sig. (2-
Mean
Std. Error
tailed)
Difference
Difference
Lower
Upper
-11.152
60
.000
-6.75806
.60599
-7.97023
-5.54590
-11.152
59.562
.000
-6.75806
.60599
-7.97041
-5.54572
assumed Equal variances not assumed
Conclusion
The purpose of this research was to determine the effectiveness of project method on physical chemistry laboratory learnig on undergraduate chemistry students. Amount of time of this project spent 110 minute that just 20 min more than traditional method. At first students looked at teacher note paper surprised. They faced with unknown
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situation that was very different of previous sections of physical chemistry lab (1). They confused because they should perform experiment without any recipe. They infer whit some mind challenges. After 10 min every group made decision to thinking. They took essential equipment and tried to get new idea for this problem. Qualitative results of oral evaluation list of students skill in lab working, presented some body had difficulties in application of lab instruments. For example, some of them didn’t know how to use thermostat or how to recognize saturated and supper saturated solution. Some body used flame substitution thermostat or hot water bathroom for temperature equilibrium.
Some themes emerged while observing students. They are helped together. They exactly listened to co-working talking and tried to modify their ideas, if it possible, about choice of procedure. Indeed, they made competitive and safe environment with other groups. In addition, speaking, listening and practical skills were undergirded. They found inner team motivation. Most of groups could guess right procedure and design before determinate time for this project. After 24 hours every groups exited precipitations from oven (a drier device in lab). Then they plotted 2 diagrams based on obtained data in their portfolio: 1) Solubility diagram in three experimental. 2) Heat of solution for solute such as ammonium chloride or potassium nitrate. All of groups could find relation between temperature and solubility and heat of solution. We and students satisfied this method. Students said: ―We feel same as small scientists without any recipe and we can explore every thing in real world. It was new interesting experience for us ―. They enjoyed and encouraged to do another experiment with project method in future.
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In according to research results in attitude test and knowledge assessment, meaningful difference was between traditional and project method. Project method had benefits for students such as: learning by doing, self-confidence, satisfaction, interest and experience, motivation, be active, curiosity, learning with pleasure, discovery learning and so on.
References Ak. Chakra varty (1996). Investigatory projects in chemistry (translation by: Ali reza Azimi).madreseh publication.Iran. Atkinson, Jean (2001), Developing Teams through Project-based Learning, Hampshire, England: Gower. Blumenfeld, P. C., Soloway, E., Marx, R. W., Krajcik, J. S., Guzdial, M., & Palincsar, A. (1991). Motivating project-based learning: Sustaining the doing, supporting the learning. Educational Psychologist, 26, 369–398. Buck Institute for Education (2008), see: http://www.bie.org/index.php/site/PBL/pbl_handbook_introduction/#histor Fallik, Orna .,Eylon ,Bat-Sheva., Rosenfeld, Sherman. (2008). Motivating Teachers to Enact Free-Choice Project-Based Learning in Science and Technology (PBLSAT): Effects of a Professional Development Model. J Sci Teacher Educ, 19:565–591. Helle, Laura., Tynjala,Paivi ., Olkinuora,Erkki. (2006). Project-based learning in postsecondary education – theory, practice and rubber sling shots. Institute for Educational Research, University of Jyva¨skyla¨ Finland; Department of Education, University of Turku, 20014 Turun Yliopisto, Finland . Higher Education , 51: 287–314 .
Knoll,M.(1997).The project method:Its vocational education origin and international development.Journal of Industrial Teacher Education,34(3),59 -80. Krajcik,J.S., & Blumenfeld,P.C.(2006). Project- based science. In R.K.Sawyer (Ed),The Cambridge handbook of the learning sciences.New York, Cambridge. Marx, R. W., Blumenfeld, P. C., Krajcik, J.S., & Soloway, E. (1997). Enacting project-based science: Challenges for practice and policy. Elementary School Journal, 97, 341-35. Ramirez, Michael (2008), notes from interview. Thomas, J. W. (2001) A reviews of research on Project-Based-Learning. Available online at: http://www.autodesk.com/foundation/pbl/research
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Thomas,J.W.(2000). A review of research on project- based learning. Autodesk Foundation PBL. http:// www. Bie.org / index . php / site / resource / item 27 / . Thomas,J.W., Megendoller , J., & Michalson, A.(1999).Project – based learning : A handbook for middle and high school teacher . Novato, CA : Buck Institute for Education.
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Running head: Study of macroscopic and microscopic aspects of entropy…….
Study of macroscopic and microscopic aspects of entropy concept effect on creation misconception in chemistry teachers
Rasol Abdullah Mirzaie1, Massomeh Shahmohammadi2
1- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Shahid Rajaee Teacher Training University, P.O. Box 167855-163 – Tehran-IRAN
2- Master student chemistry education, Faculty of Science, Shahid Rajaee Teacher Training University, P.O. Box 167855-163 – Tehran-IRAN
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Abstract Due to importance of concept of entropy in issues of thermodynamics, this concept is studied in educational courses of chemistry in universities in the world and high school level in some countries. Entropy in high school is introduced simply as a promoting factor of chemical reaction or more simply as criterion of structure disorder. In the Hoffman's taxonomy, we can consider macroscopic, microscopic, symbolic and human levels in chemistry education. In this study, relation between macroscopic and microscopic aspects of entropy in creation of misconception was studied. Science teachers are supposed to have adequate knowledge and understanding about the subject matter they teach. Unfortunately, research findings provide evidence that science teachers have various misconceptions in their knowledge of the subject matter. As a result, in this research chemistry teachers were chosen as a statistical society. After evaluating results, our findings showed the chemistry teachers have various misconceptions in entropy concept. This effect reveals the more when the teachers pay attention to one aspect of Hoffman's taxonomy. In other words, the only macroscopic aspects attention, prevent to attention to other aspects. This intend to misconception in completely understanding one concept.
Key words: entropy, disorder, misconception and Hoffman's taxonomy.
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Study of macroscopic and microscopic aspects of entropy concept effect on creation misconception in chemistry teachers
Introduction
Diverse forces shape the teaching and learning of chemistry at the beginning of the 21st Century. These include fundamental changes in the contours of chemistry as defined by new interfaces and research areas; changes in our understanding of how students learn, and how that applies to chemistry education; the wide-spread implementation of computer and information technologies to visualize complex scientific phenomena; and external forces, such as global concerns about energy and water resources and the environment, and the level of chemical literacy and public understanding of science. In responding to those forces, new dimensions to learning chemistry must be emphasized. Tetrahedral chemistry education is a new metaphor that emphasizes these dimensions, stressing the importance both of the human learner and the web of human connections for chemical reactions and processes.
Figure 1. Tetrahedral chemistry education: A new emphasis on the human element
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Students live and operate in the macroscopic world of matter. Unfortunately, they do not perceive chemistry as related to their surroundings. Moreover, they do not easily follow shifts between the macroscopic and microscopic levels (Johnstone, 1991; Gabel, 1996; Tsaparlis, 1997; Robinson, 2003). Chemical concepts are very abstract and students find it difficult to explain chemical phenomena by using these concepts.
Chemical structure and bonding is a topic in which understanding is developed through diverse models, which, in turn, are built upon a range of physical principles; students are expected to interpret a disparate range of symbolic representations standing for chemical bonds (Taber & Coll, 2002). According to Johnstone (1991), matter can be represented on three levels, as represented in Figure 1. Frequently these are referred to as the macroscopic (physical phenomena), microscopic (particles), and the symbolic levels (chemical language and mathematical models).
Gabel (1996) claimed that often teachers unwittingly move from one level to another in their teaching. In that way, they do not help students integrate the levels, and each level can be interpreted in more than one way. Thus students become confused rather easily. More recently, Robinson (2003) has suggested that students must first thoroughly understand how to convert a symbol into the meaningful information it represents. Only then will they be able to cope with the quantitative computation.
According to Bodner and Domin (1998), it is very important to distinguish between internal representation, which is the information stored in the brain, and external representation, which is the physical manifestation of this information. Individuals with very different internal representations might write similar external representations. The instructor writes symbols, which represent a physical reality. Very often, students write letters, numbers, and lines, which have no physical meaning to them. In order to understand the structure of
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matter, the students need to be familiar with the multiplicity of terms, with the meaning of scientific models, as well as the difference between the macroscopic and the sub-microscopic worlds.
Gabel (1993) worked with high-school students to determine whether their understanding of chemistry could be enhanced by emphasizing the particulate nature of matter in relation to the macroscopic and symbolic levels of representation. Molecular-level representations were a major feature in the instruction, in the form of overhead transparencies, work-sheets and circle cut-outs. Results showed that treatment classes performed better on all three levels of representation – sub-microscopic , macroscopic and symbolic, compared with the control group. This transfer of knowledge indicates the importance of directly teaching molecular level occurrences and suggests that emphasis on the molecular level improves students’ conceptual understanding of equations and laboratory work.
Interestingly, teachers themselves may have misconceptions regarding scientific concepts and models. Some teachers conceive scientific models in mechanical terms and believe that models are true pictures of non-observable phenomena and ideas (Gilbert, 1991). Models are not “right answers”; they are scientists’ and teachers’ attempts to represent difficult and abstract phenomena in everyday terms for the benefit of their students. Chemistry teachers seem to focus their practice on the content of specific models, rather than on the nature of models and modeling (Van Driel, 1998). In order to teach chemistry in the way that we have advocated, teachers need to have a clear and comprehensive view of the nature of a model in general, how their students construct their own mental models, how the expressed models can be constructively used in class, how to introduce scientific consensus models in their classes, and how to develop good teaching models and to conduct modeling activities effectively in their classes (Gilbert, 1997).
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It is apparent that the assessment of teachers’ misconceptions is not only meaningful but also important. It enables us to better understand the possible origins and sources of students’ difficulties and misconceptions. In addition, pre-service and in-service science teacher training institutions may use the information to ensure that science teachers are equipped with appropriate knowledge of the
subject matter before they enter the teaching profession. Science teachers play an important role in curricular reform. In the current reform that integrates all science subjects as one, science teachers have to teach subjects in which they were not well trained. Therefore, science teachers’ readiness is particularly critical to the success of the reform (Ching-Yang Chou).
Due to importance of concept of entropy in issues of thermodynamics, this concept is studied in educational courses of chemistry in universities in the world and high school level in some countries. Entropy in high school is introduced simply as a promoting factor of chemical reaction or more simply as criterion of structure disorder.
If information of chemistry teachers about thermodynamic analysis is not enough, this case will have effect on their teaching methods and their educational content will be limited to this simple concept and they can not prevent from misunderstanding in students by mentioning suitable examples. Furthermore, the findings show that “visual disorder” and “entropy” were considered as synonymous. This may be because of the fact that the meaning of the word “disorder”, as used in the context of chemical thermodynamics, is inconsistent with its everyday meaning and misleading. Textbook writers and teachers commonly use “disorder” without defining it and the meaning varies among users. Whatever is meant by “disorder” should be clearly
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stated, defined, and consistently used throughout by the users. )Johnstone and Macdonald, 1977), )Carsona and Watson, 2002(
In Iran, concept of entropy is studied in third year course of high school. Although entropy has fundamental and important concept in thermodynamics and progress of chemical reactions, in our country, this concept is considered in simplistic form and limited to particle disorder. Then, with regard to changes of entropy in reactions and its signal, spontaneity of the reaction is studied. In our course book, entropy is studied in processes such as temperature change, expansion of gases in vacuum, dissolution of material in water and change of gaseous moles during performance of a chemical process. In spite of multilateral study of this concept in high school, chemistry teachers study entropy changes in the form of high molecular mobility , facility in mobility and increase in molecular collisions and generally disorder and ways in which molecules are placed in space and are arranged relative to each other and uncertainty in a structure are not studied.
With regard to approach to entropy and macroscopic index look of the textbook to this concept, this research tries to answer this question that whether this kind of introduction is effective on attitude of the teachers and they look at the word entropy thermodynamically or macroscopic approach has effect on attitude of the teachers and they consider it as equivalent to disorder, molecular collision and or particles distribution or they can establish relationship between macroscopic and microscopic levels in description of this phenomenon?
Reaserch methodology: This reaserch is not experimental and survey and has been done in descriptive – analytic method. In this research, a questionnaire including 3 items was presented to the chemistry teachers. Data analysis has been done in descriptive-analytic form with use of
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frequency, percentage of frequency and the related diagrams. For facility of data analysis and decrease of statistical errors, SPSS 16 software was used.
Population
Population in this reaserch was chemistry teachers of Tehran City in academic year 2007-2008 and the questionnaire was distributed among 120 chemistry teachers of different education districts in Tehran City. Population includes 97 female chemistry teachers and 23 male chemistry teachers. Among them, 100 teachers had bachelor's degree and 19 teachers had master's degree and one teacher had PhD degree.
Result
In the first question, the statistical population teachers were asked to determine the best expression or expressions for defining entropy among the given choices.
Question 1: what are the expressions which describe entropy correctly?
a) Entropy is disorder of the system. b) Entropy is a criterion of uncertainty in a system. c) Entropy is another form of energy like enthalpy and internal energy. d) Entropy is a criterion of the lost work which is converted to the heat. e) Entropy is a criterion of inaccessible energy in a system of thermodynamic package.
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The following is a list of definitions of entropy from a collection of textbooks.
a direct measure of the randomness of a system.( Chang, Raymond (1998))
A measure of energy dispersal at a specific temperature ( Atkins and Julio De Paula ,
2006)
An index of the tendency of a system towards spontaneous change( Haynie and
Donald, 2001).
A measure of the unavailability of a system’s energy to do work; also a measure of
disorder; the higher the entropy the greater the disorder.
A parameter representing the state of disorder of a system at the atomic, ionic, or
molecular level (Barnes & Noble 2004).
A measure of disorder in the universe or of the availability of the energy in a system to
do work ( Gribbin, 2000).
With regard to the above definitions, choices C and D are incorrect and the remaining choices can give a correct meaning of entropy. In textbook, concept of entropy has been emphasized. This question lacks descriptive part. In study on the given answers to question of entropy definition, most of the teachers have selected choice A. If we obtain total relative frequency of those who have selected choice A, we will observe that more than 90% of teachers know disorder as one of the concepts of entropy. Results show that male and female teachers prefer disorder concept of entropy. 71% selection by the female teachers and 73.5% selection of male teachers show this case. With regard to the above percentage, disorder meaning of entropy has been considered among the male teachers.
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With regard to results, 60.1 % of the teachers independently and totally 90.4 % know entropy as system disorder. On the other hand, the most acceptable definition for the teachers is concept of entropy disorder. Even those who have selected two or three choices as correct answer have selected choice A. study shows that only 7.3% of the teachers have not selected choice A. in fact, most of the teachers consider change of disorder as criterion for entropy change. Another note is that 14.6% of the teachers have selected incorrect choices C and D independently or with other choices. On the other hand, these persons have incorrect concept of entropy in their mind. Results show that totally only 19.5% of the participants who selected choices B and C are familiar with thermodynamic concept of entropy.
Figure2. Relative Population of male and female teachers in answering to question 1
Purpose of the second question is to generalize concept of entropy to ordinary life positions. The teachers were asked to write two examples about entropy increase and two examples for entropy decrease. It is necessary to note that some of the teachers have given only one example about entropy decrease and increase for each part. The mentioned examples can be classified in the following groups:
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A- Entropy decrease
1) 125 cases have written the scientific examples mentioned in textbook. 2) They have mentioned 56 examples which refer to disorder in macro matters. 3) 50 persons have used environmental phenomenon in the field of phase change (state). 4) They have used 12 examples relating to change of system volume. 5) 7 cases have referred to a kind of limitation in distribution or replacement of the particles. 6) 27 cases have not answered this part. 7) 10 persons have referred to different cases.
B- Entropy increase
1) 146 cases have written the scientific examples mentioned in textbook. 2) They have mentioned 78 examples which refer to disorder in macro matters. 3) 63 cases have used environmental phenomena and routine life. 4) 3 cases have referred to a kind of limitation in distribution or replacement of the particles. 5) 20 cases have not answered this part. 6) 14 persons have referred to different cases.
Although in textbook, expression of particles distribution routes have been referred, the number of the written examples has been 10 from the recent point of view. Attention to the examples mentioned by teachers indicate strong macroscopic attitude among them.
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Entropy decrease
Entropy increase
Ordering tools in one place
Disorder
of
play
tools
in
children's
room(house) The students standing in line after the break
Exit of the students from classroom during break
Ordering the classroom(while teacher enters Disorder of books in the library after use the classroom or teaches) Arranging the books in library
dropping the beads on the stairs and mixing them
Gathering around the dining table
Watching that the desirable team score a goal in football
Lowering commotion of the children in Increase of noise in party winter
The examples mentioned by the teachers get help from macro matters in the field of the number of particles arrangement ways and there is no example which refers to particles arrangement or distribution ways, for example: wearing clothes in work place due to limited color selection deposition of hedge mustard in water accommodating the children in classroom or fixed place putting pea out of a large container to a smaller container so that it can be filled completely
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30 person classroom in comparison to 10-person classroom (the way the students sit on the benches) deposition of soil in water and soil mixing sedimentation of suspending starch in water
In another question, generalization of entropy concept to the number of particles arrangement ways was studied.
Question 3- in what arrangement of the following numbers set the replacement process has higher entropy?
a) 111111 b) 100000 c) 110000 d) 111000 e) 111100
Study on the question shows that in choice D, ratio 50 to 50 of the figures zero and one creates the maximum variety of figures arrangement and as a result, the maximum entropy. Results of the teachers' answers show that totally 53.4% of the answer is correct and 46.6% of this answer is incorrect or has not given any answer. As seen in figure, the maximum selection is 53.4% and relates to choice D. this case is seen both in male and female teachers. Although teachers have not studied entropy in other questions in terms of system particles arrangement ways, in this question, they have recognized the ways of numbers arrangement well. In fact, their macroscopic attitude to entropy is stronger than their microscopic attitude is. Comparison of frequency percentage of selection of choice D based
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on gender of the teachers shows that female chemistry teachers have been more successful in recognition of numbers arrangement ways.
Figure3. Relative Population of male and female teachers in answering to question 3
Discussion:
Discussion of entropy in third year chemistry book of high school has started with introduction of natural instantaneous reactions. For this purpose, some natural processes which accompany with decreasing of energy level are studied and have introduced negative sign of reaction enthalpy change (∆H) as one of the instantaneous reactions factors. Then by mentioning endothermic examples of which enthalpy change is positive, they attract attention of the learners to the second factor. The mentioned examples for description of entropy concept are as follows:
Melting zero degree ice in ordinary condition: the book attracts attention of the reader to order and disorder of the particles in ice and steam immediately after giving an example
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(by referring to figure (figure 4)). Te first note which any person receives is a factor called disorder and order.
Figure 4. studies different states of water and entropy change in textbook.
Gas distribution in larger space: in this example, the number of possible ways for distribution of particles in new space has been introduced as the main reason for disorder in role of the dependent factor.
Figure 5. Textbook analysis about gas volume increase
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Dissolution of ammonium nitrate in water: in this case, order of nitrate ammonium crystal lattice before dissolution in water has been referred and particle disorder increase in the obtained solution has been considered as progressing factor of this process.
Effect of temperature on entropy:In explanation of effects of temperature change, particles disorder in higher temperature has been referred due to increase in molecular motion.
Figure 6. introduction of all kinds of irregular movements and effect of temperature on entropy
The number of gas mole in the system: This part has been given under title of "think" and in the form of a figure for analysis reaction of gas N2O4. With regard to presuppositions about the previous examples which have expressly referred to disorder, the learners looking at the figure notice disorder and entropy except for type of the molecules.
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Figure 7. The relationship between the number of gas mole and entropy in textbook
Textbook has concluded that the progressing factor in such instantaneous processes is entropy and has introduced it as "a criterion for system disorder". In this book, in order to establish relationship between microscopic and macroscopic levels, different pictures were used but the used terms and words promoted macroscopic attitude which is barrier to correct interpretation of entropy in microscopic level.
In statistical study of the choices selected in question 1, it is found that most teachers considered word disorder as equivalent to entropy and are less familiar with other thermodynamic definitions of this concept. In fact, they use the concepts mentioned in textbook for description of entropy. Low percentage of the teachers is familiar with entropy concept in terms of inaccessible energy, while the textbook referring to Gibbs free energy has introduced its equation and relation with entropy and mentioned Gibbs free energy as accessible energy for performing work. But this interpretation is hardly found in independent selections of teachers or its selection accompanied with other choices. In this part, teachers couldn't have established necessary relationship between macroscopic and microscopic levels in interpretation of this concept due to macroscopic dominant attitude which has been used in description of entropy. They get help from disorder and chaos in macro matters in justification of micro particles behavior and don’t pay attention to the exchanged energy
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between system and environment and manner of distribution and destination of this energy in microscopic level.
The studies done by Sozbilir confirm the mentioned result. He found that most chemistry students defined entropy as disorder and equivalent to visual disorder. Finding shows that major problem of bachelor's students who participated in this study is their understanding of "disorder". Almost all answers have defined entropy from the visual point of view which refers to chaos and disorder, randomness, collision of the particles or their mixture. This finding can be observed in Ribiero as well. In this study, students consider entropy as disorder factor. A study done among the high school students in Scotland showed that generally entropy was interpreted as rate of disorder. Similar findings by Ribiero et al and Selepe and Bradley show that the students have learned to use symbols without understating the concepts. Thermodynamic definitions are presented only in mathematical relations. For example, definition of Gibbs free energy in relation G = H-TS allows the student to ignore intrinsic concept of this expression while using it in calculation.
In spite of mentioning the factor of "the number of particles distribution ways", study shows that most of the teachers have not paid attention to this expression in study on entropy concept. Perhaps, use of disorder word caused the reader to consider disorder factor more important. On the other hand, facilitation of teaching or its imaging in macro particles led the teachers to emphasize more on this factor for promoting understanding level of the learners. In fact the teachers select the most tangible and simplest expression for transferring their meaning so that they feel good about teaching and learning process. In this case, disorder is the best choice.
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High number of entropy increases in macro matters. In fact, they have attributed the word "entropy" to disorder and confusion and they can not select a class relating to physical or chemical changes in molecular level among the environmental events.
A classroom-based study (Tomanek, D. 1994) conducted in a secondary environmental science class that explored the idea of entropy in the study of basic ecology revealed many incorrect ideas developed by secondary students. In addition, the study suggests that students could develop scientifically acceptable ideas if they are taught concisely.
Since textbook has used word "disorder" for description of all examples and changes, therefore, it has directed mind of the teachers to common application of this term. Although the examples mentioned by the teachers are not incorrect, our teachers face two problems in examples of entropy increase and decrease. One is that they are dependent on textbook and another problem is that they have misunderstood application of word" disorder" in molecular dimensions and physical and chemical processes and consider it as noise and chaos and apply this characteristic to large matters of which displacement doesn't change energy of molecules and particles.
The teachers can recognize mathematically the numbers arrangement ways and concept of variety of figures is clear to them and they define displacement in one figure as a new position. But relationship between mathematics and chemistry is not clear for them, that is, they don’t relate partial change in molecular motion, addition of the number of particles, increase in system volume to variety of particles and definition of new positions for them. Perhaps because they see numbers and they are tangible for them and it is easy for them to work with figures, they can define different arrangements. In question 3, it is evident that macroscopic attitude is stronger.
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This research shows that macroscopic attitude of textbook has effect on attitude of the teachers in study on a concept and covers attention to microscopic aspects of a process which makes the attitude of person far from scientific concept and emphasizes on nonscientific applications. Education for scientific literacy and training the citizens compatible with environmental changes are of the purposes of science education in each society. coercive expansion of science and population growth in today's world clarifies necessity of correct understanding of chemical theories. In most of chemistry texts, quality and quantity remarks are used for description of observable matter behavior. Introduction of macroscopic specifications (observable), microscopic specifications (particle nature) and symbolic specifications (the number of particles involved in the process) is effective on learning. Unimportance of each one of the above three aspects in chemistry teaching can lead to essential misconceptions. Each can not show behavior of the particle solely and each has facilitating role in learning and leads to meaningful transfer of the concept to learner. Concurrent attention to these levels in chemistry teaching causes strong relationship between students and scientific meanings of theories.
Resources
Atkins, Peter; Julio De Paula (2006). Physical Chemistry, 8th edition. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-870072-5.
Barnes & Noble's Essential Dictionary of Science ( 2004).
Behdad,S.
second
law
of
thermodynamic
thermodynimics-law/index.htm
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,
http://edu.tebyan.net/physics/second-
Chang, Raymond (1998). Chemistry, 6th Ed.. New York: McGraw Hill. ISBN 0-07-1152210. Ching-Yang Chou (2002). Science Teachers’ Understanding of Concepts in Chemistry, Proc. Natl. Sci. Counc. ROC(D) Vol. 12, No. 2, 2002. pp. 73-78. E.M.Carsona and J.R.Watson (2002). Undergraduate students’ understandings of entropy and Gibbs freeEnergy, U.Chem.Ed., 6 , www.Rsc.Org/Pdf/Uchemed /Papers/2002/P2_Carson
Gabel, D. (1996). The complexity of chemistry: Research for teaching in the 21st century. Paper presented at the 14th International Conference on Chemical Education. Brisbane, Australia.
Gribbin's Encyclopedia of Particle Physics (2000).
Haynie, Donald, T. (2001). Biological Thermodynamics. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-79165-0.
Johnstone, A. H. (1991). Why is science difficult to learn? Things are seldom what they seem.Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 7, 75-83.
Johnstone, A. H. (1991). Thinking about thinking. International Newsletter of Chemical Education No. 36, 7–10.
Johnstone, A. H.; MacDonald, J. J.; Webb, G. (1977). Physics Educ., 12, 248–251 Levynahum,T et al.(2004).Can Final Examinations Amplify , Students’Misconceptions in Chemistry.Chemistry Education:Research and Practice-2004,vol.5,No.3,pp.301-325.
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Mustafa Sözbilir (2007).A Study of Turkish Chemistry Undergraduates’Understandings of Entropy,
Journal
of
Chemical
Education
•
Vol.
84
No.
7
July,
www.entropysite.com/TurkishJCE7-07.pdf
Peter Mahaffythe (2004). Future Shape Of Chemistry Educationresearch And Practice , Vol. 5, No. 3, Pp. 229-245. Read, J. R. (2004). Children’s Misconceptions and Conceptual Change in Science Education. Available from http://acell.chem.usyd.edu.au/Conceptual-Change.cfm
Robinson, W. (2003). Chemistry problem-solving: Symbol, macro, micro, and process aspects.Journal of Chemical Education, 80, 978-982.
Robinson, W. R. (1998). An alternative framework for chemical bonding. Journal of Chemical Education, 75, 1074-1075. Selepe, C., Bradley, J. (1997). Student-Teacher’s Conceptual Difficulties In Chemical Thermodynamics, pp 316–321.
Tomanek, D. (1994). Cases Of Content: Studying Content As A Part Of A Curriculum Process. Science Education, 78(1), 73-82.
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Explicit Teaching
Explicit Teaching of Process Skills Questions
The Explicit Teaching of Process Skills Questions to Improve Pupils’ Answering Techniques
Noor Aishah Abu Bakara, Manickam Sumathib, Zahrah Mohamed Abbasb, Cassandra Chooc a
MacPherson Primary School. bPark View Primary School. cSt Hilda’s Primary School.
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Explicit Teaching
Abstract It is a common concern amongst Science teachers that our pupils lack the techniques in answering some process skills questions. This action research attempts to evaluate the effectiveness of the use of explicit teaching of answering process skills questions to improve pupils’ answering techniques. Three schools in the E5 & E6 clusters collaborated on this project with a total of 119 Primary 5 pupil-participants from four classes of three different ability groups. Two process skills, namely inference (explanation) and communication (interpretation of graphs), were selected for this project. The intervention crafted included careful selection of open-ended questions based on Primary 3 and 4 topics for the pre-post test and the weekly worksheets for explicit teaching. As much as possible, standardised teaching of the features of answers was ensured. It was then followed by modelling of answers done through scaffolding by teachers first and then independent work by pupils over a period of 6 weeks. The pre-post scores were used as data. A paired sample t-test analysis was done to compare the means of the pre and post test scores as followed: i) combined schools and ii) according to pupils’ ability group. The results of the analysis showed that there is a significant statistical difference between the means of the pre and post test scores (t = 14.40, p 1000
~ 250
~ 19
Group observed and ages
Pre-kindergarten 20 x 3 & 4 yr old
Pre-kindergarten 15 x 3 & 4 yr old
Play-group from 3 months to 4 year olds
Educators
Teacher plus one education assistant
Teacher plus one education assistant
Parents
Training and Experience of teacher and Education Assistant (EA)
Primary trained with ECE units 15 years ECE EA: qualified
Primary trained, some ECE units limited ECE experience EA: qualified
Fully Parent assisted program
Gender
Boys and girls
Boys and girls
Boys and girls
Specific science offered
Daily
None obvious
Incidental learning
Parent involvement in class
Minimal – could choose to participate on rostered help. Fathers and mothers involved.
Invited to start day with child and help him/her settle. Mothers and grandmothers attended. Roster being developed.
Total involvement by mothers.
Data collection
Final term 2008
First term 2009
Third term 2008
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ELC3
No specific training or experience discussed by researcher
Science in early learning centres
Educators In each pre-kindergarten (ELC1 and ELC2) a qualified teacher was assisted by a trained education assistant (EA). EAs attend to the children‟s emotional and social needs, as well as assisting the teacher, preparing lessons and arranging the classroom. In the playgroup (ELC3), parents helped each other in the physical set up of the learning area and took sole responsibility for their own child‟s welfare. Teachers were interviewed separately to find whether or not they thought science an important part of the ELC curriculum and to find their levels of confidence and experience in teaching science concepts to 3 and 4 year old children. Parents were engaged in casual conversations in all three learning centres. The teacher in ELC1 was trained to teach primary school and her 15 years teaching experience lies within early childhood education, mainly in kindergarten and pre-primary classrooms. She thoroughly enjoys teaching young children and has a rich background teaching in Australia and overseas. Science is her favourite subject as she finds it easy to integrate other curriculum areas into science activities and investigations. While spending three years teaching in USA, she rigorously sought professional development to assist the teaching of science to early learners. Currently she feels restricted by political pressure to „push-down‟ the curriculum which she believes would restrict children‟s time for discovery learning. The teacher in ELC2 was also trained to teach primary school. In her 12 years teaching experience she has taught in a number of different year levels, five of which were in Year 1 and pre-primary classrooms. This teacher had been a science teacher for other primary year levels but didn‟t feel confident in this role. She recalls only having learnt how to teach science to upper primary students at university. She did not specifically seek professional
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development to teach science in early childhood as she did not consider science to be an important part of the pre-kindergarten curriculum. Being a playgroup, there was no main teacher in ELC3. A parent, who was trained as an English as a Second Language teacher, participated in an interview and conducted a conversation with other parents regarding their thoughts about learning science concepts in an ELC. The collaborative view was that as science was a part of “nearly everything we do. It should be a part of what the kids do in kindergarten and every other year at school”. One parent who contributed said that she didn‟t see the relevance in the current research as “these children are too young to do science”. She thought science could be “dangerous and was really a high school subject”. It became clear to the researcher that considering whether or not science was an important part of an ELC was something that had not been previously discussed by any of the centre‟s communities. Data collection Being thoroughly familiar with the detail of the context in which data would be collected was an essential starting point. Each ELC was visited once a week and over the period of one school term during the centre‟s morning session. ELC1 was visited 7 times, while ELCs 2 and 3 were visited 6 times each. Visits were designed to collect data through conversations with children, parents and teachers; recorded and casual interviews with teachers; collection of work samples from children; and the researcher‟s journaling to record observations of children engaged in scientific activities within their ELC. A four stage approach was used by the researcher at each ELC; pre-research, initial visit, subsequent visits, post-data collection. In the pre-research stage, initial contact was made with each ELC to determine their willingness to participate. Once the centres agreed to
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participate, approval was sought and gained from the Principal of each of the three centres. In the initial visit stage, the researcher discussed details and implications of the research with classroom teachers and parents. After discussion with teachers, children were identified who were considered appropriate for observation, and parents were approached for permission. Booklets containing ethical implications, information on the research and consent forms, for both teachers and parents, were delivered to each ELC. In subsequent visits, the researcher become familiar with the context of the ELC, and started to unobtrusively observe the interrelationships between children and adults, other children, available resources, and the physical and socio-cultural environment exposed to them during their time in the ELC. So that all children in the centre became familiar with the researcher‟s presence, she became an active participant by being engaging in activities and, where appropriate, assisting the teacher. This strategy strengthened the relationship within the centre and with children. These visits ensured adequate time was available to obtain detailed observations and conversations with children and teachers. Where permitted, photographs and children‟s drawings were taken. Post-data collection involved a return visit to the ELC to share photographs and initial findings. Construction of vignettes Based upon the data collected at each ELC, short vignettes were written to capture the science learning available to the young children. Each vignette incorporates sufficient detail to provide authenticity, and captures the action and interaction of the children with their environment in a vivid and life-like manner. Additional media, including construction, drawings, design and painting were used to support the observation and conversation within each vignette, and to assist in the interpretation of the vignettes.
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Findings Detailed vignettes have been constructed and analysed to provide a snapshot of what science looks like for 3 and 4 year old children in the three ELCs. Although rich data and many stories were collected, only three vignettes are presented to illustrate the variety of science teaching and learning opportunities. Those vignettes chosen provide a view of what science actually looked like in the participating centres. Each vignette demonstrates a different aspect of scientific inquiry: individual pursuit, a group experience and a collision of ideas and potential. These three vignettes have been placed under three headings: Skater boy, Flying corn and The nature of things. Under these headings there is a general introduction to provide a context for the vignette, the actual vignette, and the interpretation of each vignette. Skater boy Introduction This vignette was taken from the community play group (ELC3) and features a three and a half year old boy who will be called Skater Boy (SB). SB has attended this playgroup for 3 hours per week with his mother and sister for more than two years. He is confident in the setting, knows all the other parents and children who attend, and is familiar with the routines and resources. As children arrive at the playgroup they chose an activity, set up by parents, or ask for specific resources if they are not already on display. All children play freely and direct their own experiences. Vignette 1 SB announced to no-one in particular that he was going to make a skate board. He noticed the researcher (E) was close by and mentioned, without direct contact, his plan to make a skate board. He collected two wooden cylindrical and one rectangular 3D wooden
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building block from the block box and placed the cylinders under the rectangle. “These are rollers”, he said out loud. He tested his design and found the original prototype unsuccessful. He went back to the block collection, found another cylinder and added it to his skate board (see Figure 1). “There‟s three now,” SB said to himself. The new model was tested but again the result was not acceptable (see Figure 2) so he retrieved more wooden cylinders to act as rollers.
Figure1. SB modifies the prototype
Figure 2. Testing the new model
For each new design SB patiently added just one more cylinder, counted them (see Figure 3), then tested his skateboard by standing on it. With each trial, the cylinders rolled out from under the rectangle. SB then moved his testing to include holding onto a bookcase for stability (see Figure 4). During construction he continually chatted away to himself counting cylinders, planning his next move, testing, thinking out loud and trying to gain balance.
Figure 3. Counting extra rollers
Figure 4. Using support during a test
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SB never displayed any frustration with the unsuccessful trials but did engage E in his conversation from time to time: SB:
It‟s not working.
E:
Why isn‟t it working?
SB:
It needs more rollers.
SB:
Look there‟s five of „em.
Finally SB announced, “There‟s no room left. It‟d better work.” Carefully SB stood on the rectangle covering the five cylinders, again hanging onto the bookcase, and discovered that his skate board felt more stable. His smile indicated he was happy with the result. He then let go of the book case, bent his knees and balanced momentarily. In a celebratory salute he held his arms aloft before he felt the skate board start to topple and had to jump off. SB:
Did you see? Did you see it? It worked. Good!
SB disassembled his skate board, threw the pieces back in the block box and disappeared into another room without further comment. Interpretation SB told the story of his skate board without prompting, and communicated using egocentric speech or „self-talk‟ during the activity. His curiosity had been aroused after, as he explained to E, after watching older boys playing with skate boards in a car park. Within his unstructured play space SB was able to test his curiosity by designing and making his own skate board. Beginning with self interest, SB constructed a plan in his mind, talked his thoughts through, gathered components, tested his ideas, and redesigned them until he was satisfied. Because self interest was being served, SB demonstrated creativity, confidence, concentration, sustained interest and determination. SB had unwittingly used a „designmake-appraise‟ scheme of technology development that saw him redesign his skate board
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until he was satisfied. SB‟s individual approach satisfied his needs at this stage of his development. Had intervention been provided, he may not have achieved his goal. This unsolicited engineering activity demonstrated clear thought processes and provided unintentional learning brought about by his curiosity. SB was confident that a cylinder would roll but never articulated the name of the shape. Although he didn‟t use the word „balance‟ in his dialogue it was clear he understood the scientific concept. He demonstrated integrated and consolidation of prior learning as he included the mathematical concept of one to one correspondence, verbally counting and adding-on. The process of scientific investigation, along with concepts relating to the Science Learning Area of Energy and Change were in his play. Complex higher order thinking was also clearly demonstrated. Socially, SB worked alone. When other children came close, he shielded his work and made it clear (in a non-threatening way) this was his territory. Later in the morning, SB was noticed building a ramp. When asked about his ramp, he said it had to be the right size because he was going to ride his skate board down it “real fast”. SB was transferring his own learning. Flying corn Introduction A small room within ELC1 had been prepared for this corn-popping experience. All furnishings had been removed and in the centre of the room an electric fry pan had been placed in the middle of a circular carpet of paper. Children were assembled as they arrived at school in another area and told about the science investigation they were about to perform. Curiosity was running high as the eager children were given instruction to sit around the edge
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of the paper and not to touch the cord. The EA was sitting with the pan to ensure children kept a safe distance. Vignette 2 Once the group was settled, they were asked about their experiences with pop corn. The teacher initiated questions such as: “Who has eaten popped corn?” “How was it cooked?” “When and where did you eat it?” Responses governed by each child‟s experience included: “It cooks in the microwave, in a bag.” “It stinks.”
“You put butter on to make it
taste nice.” “No, you put salt on it.” “You eat it when you watch a DVD.” “It‟s white.” “If you buy it, it‟s got colours.” “It‟s only white.” “You buy it in a bucket at the movies.” After a prolonged question and answer time, the children were informed that they were going to pop their own corn and then have the opportunity to eat it. For safety reasons, the children were also told that they must remain seated in their place. Each child was given a piece of corn in its seed state and asked to use their five senses to describe the corn seed with the person sitting beside them. They were told that they could keep this corn seed. Selected children reported their findings to the group regarding the look, smell, sound, feel and taste of the seed. The teacher prompted and insisted on „full sentence answers‟, modeled possible responses and congratulated participation. When the oil in the electric fry-pan was heated, the teacher placed corn seeds into the pan and the corn started popping all over the place! Shrieks of joy and laughter filled the room. Exclamations included: “It‟s flying.” “It‟s shooting.” “It‟s going up high.” “Look! It‟s on the shelf.” “Look! It‟s landed on me.” “It‟s everywhere.” Continuous excited chatter and wide eyed amazement from the children, as the corn popped around the room, made this activity a joy to observe.
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The children were then asked to collect one wayward piece of popped corn each that had landed near them and to use their five senses again to describe the corn with the person sitting next to them. While this happened, the teacher and EA safely removed the pan and paper from the floor. The EA cooked more corn in the kitchen, placed it into small paper bags and then into each child‟s locker to take home. Once the children were reseated in their circle, they were asked for a comparison between the uncooked and cooked corn, to start a discussion on how the corn had changed. Comparisons included: hard to soft; no smell to good smell; hard to squishy; brown to white; and small to big. Again, responses had to be elaborated and questions from the teacher prompted more descriptive and expansive language. For example, if a child stated, “It smells different”, the teacher would ask “What did it smell like before it popped and how is it different now?” Other comparisons from the children included “The corn was hard before it was cooked and now it is soft” and “The corn changed from brown to white”. One child reasoned that “they were all the same”, referring to all seeds were small and brown before cooking, while all the corn was white and bigger after cooking. Using this idea as a motivation, the teacher challenged the group to find some proof that they were not all the same. This produced sporadic discussion which was mostly off-task, as the children‟s interest began to wane. The teacher persisted with many “What else?” questions. One child pointed out that his popped corn had a sharp piece on it and the un-popped corn didn‟t. Others compared theirs to this suggestion and found that some popped corn had a sharp point while others didn‟t. There was now obvious reluctance to expand responses and some refusing to respond at all. Realising the children had lost interest, the teacher finished the activity and dispersed the children. The children were free to play independently. There was no further follow-up with the popping corn activity until just before „home time‟.
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Before leaving for home the children participated in a „sharing circle‟. Here, the children were asked to recall what they had done over the day. The only details about popping corn that the children remembered were the smell, the pieces that “flew up high”, and they had some popcorn to take home. The science concept of „change‟ had been largely forgotten as other play activities had overtaken the experience. Information about the day‟s activities, including the popping of corn, was written on a notice page and placed in the window for parents to read while they waited to pick up their children. Interpretation The children thoroughly enjoyed watching change take place as the corn popped. They soon grew listless however when they were not practically engaged and had to sit in a group longer than their concentration span and interest allowed. Most children were able to report change when questioned during the activity, yet had difficulty recalling change and other details of the experience during the sharing circle at the end of that day‟s session. Treated as a one-off science activity, little learning has occurred as a consequence of the popping corn activity. However, many strategies could have been used to capitalise on the initial excitement and wonder of the children, some of which are described below. With assistance from the EA, small groups of children could have cooked their own take-home serve of popcorn. This more intimate experience with the EA could allow the children to talk through their experience, providing an opportunity to ask more questions and consolidate the experience. A free-play learning centre could have been established where children could expand their experience with corn. This centre could include a container of corn seeds to play with, plunge hands into, measure, spoon, pour or count. Implements to inspire play, such as containers, a balance and a ladle, along with an assortment of pens, pencils and paper could have been added for more learning opportunities. The provision of materials to encourage
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different representation of the corn popping experience could have been provided. Such ideas include role playing popping corn, dancing to popping music, fine-line drawing of the corn before and after it was cooked, or drawing the sequence of the corn popping and having an adult annotate the drawing. Use of digital media would provide the children with an opportunity to visually revisit the experience. As photographs were taken for the parent newsletter and the child‟s portfolio, these could have been copied and used to make small book for children to revisit the experience. This range of ideas and activities would have provided the children with a more in-depth personal experience of popping corn, provided more child satisfaction, and subsequently a stronger recall of the experience. The nature of things Introduction This third and final vignette has been selected because it provides an example that differs from those already presented. Where this vignette does not elaborate a single incident, its purpose is to provide a broader view of what science teaching and learning concepts might look like in ELCs. E was on her third visit to ELC2, where the children had only been attending for six weeks. Separation anxiety was apparent as some of the children had only recently turned three and found it difficult to be apart from their parents. Oliver (O), a boy, and Aylie (A), a girl, (pseydonyms) were the focus of the observations. Both children are three and a half years olds. Each morning they arrived with their mother and a younger sibling with time to do a puzzle or read a book together before a bell told the start of the day. O and A were confident and cooperative children who enjoyed being the centre of attention in the class.
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The ELC was set up so that during free-play the children could move about freely, thread beads, do puzzles that were placed on tables or on the floor, colour in pictures and draw on paper. A wooden train set was placed in the middle of the floor with which the children could play. This had wooden tracks and magnets at the ends of the carriages to which other carriages could be attached. A folding book case housed a selection of picture books in the reading corner. The home corner consisted of a cupboard with cups, a silver service tray holding tea, coffee, sugar and milk containers, a table and two chairs, a low rail with dress-ups on hangers, some hats and cardboard crowns on top of the hanger and a vase of feathers. Noticeably, there were no curiosity tables containing items of interest to investigate. During free play the children flittered about from table to table, while the more immature children tended to stand and watch other children play. As much as the children were encouraged to go to activities they seemed to be unsure about what to do and didn‟t spend their free time engaged in any activity in depth. Vignette 3 Having noticed the lack of a curiosity table for the children to explore objects, E asked the teacher if she could bring some natural products into class for children to investigate. It was agreed and a tray of various seed pods, leaves, bark and a bird‟s nest were brought in and set up on a table for children to freely explore. When parents arrived at school they took their children to the table with the natural products, modeled curiosity and pointed out features of the leaves and pods to their children. However, nothing was touched. Later in the morning, during the free play time, E stayed at that nature table to encourage investigation. Although children were slightly curious they were, by and large, not keen to touch or play with these natural items which they described as
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“dirty” and “not toys”. A and O were invited to join E and to use their five senses to find differences between two objects, a gum nut and a pine cone. They participated but showed little initial interest in the objects. E suggested the items be classified and asked the children to sort the seeds pods into big and small pods (see Figure 1). Once big pods were separated from small pods E asked the childern to reclassify one of these groups using the same criteria: big and small (see Figure 2).
Figure 1. O compares the size of pods
Figure 2. A reclassifies the pods
When the children were left to make their own classifications, O put all the pods with „sharp‟ edges into a group (see Figure 3), while A sorted all the pine cones from the rest (see Figure 4).
Figure 3. O sorts the pods with sharp edges
Figure 4. A sorts just the pine cones.
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Rather than take the children back to the mat for the next session, E asked the teacher if these children could remain at the table to see if they took the sorting any further. Once O and A were given the freedom to play with the natural objects they extended the classification skills and manipulated the items according to their needs. O put leaves end to end to represent the outline of a track for his „train‟ to travel along, while A imagined palm bark to be a boat and sailed it on an imaginary sea. When the mat session had finished other children began to gather around the table wanting to take objects from the table for their own games. The objects became popular and soon it was obvious there were not enough for everyone. The investigations ended abruptly as a boy grabbed a pine cone, tossed it across the room and called “hand grenade”. The teacher responded by bringing all children back to the mat where she cleverly continued a classifying activity for everyone. She had a „mystery bag‟ that contained several familiar objects that were collected from around the room. One at a time each child was called to blindly select an object from the bag and, depending on the colour of that object, the child had to place it in a group that was „red‟ or a group that was „not red‟. The teacher ensured there were enough items in the bag so that everyone had a chance to classify the object chosen. Interpretation Children in this ELC displayed shallow and immature skills of engagement as they seemed to skim the surface of activities during their free play time. They became easily distracted and required adult support to refocus. Initially the teacher explained that she did not include science activities in her planning as she was not confident to teach science to such young children. Also, she felt that science concepts were not as important to teach in prekindergarten classes as social and emotional development. Gaining basic literacy and numeracy skills were considered the most important teaching and learning areas. Other
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skills, however, were recognized as important and where they may not have been explicitly taught, they were imbedded in other areas of teaching. For example, observation was being taught while children were sorting coloured objects from the mystery bag. An opportunity to acquire the skill of observation often needs someone to encourage children to look closely and engage other senses to discover detail. The concept of classification was vicariously taught to the children and although not considered a science lesson in this instance, the children were unwittingly given an opportunity to develop the scientific skills of observation and classification. Long periods of sitting, and not being engaged physically or mentally does not match the attention span of these young children causing them to fidget and display disruptive behaviour. The immaturity of these children was obvious given they had only been at school for six weeks and still settling into a routine. There unsettled behaviour was understandable. To help them gain perseverance and concentration, guided activities that were guided by an adult and presented in small groups would have invoked curiosity, especially if they were investigating items brought from home. Such young children still require a vast amount of nurturing and time for uninterrupted play. Children who ask questions about why things are and how they work are exercising their curiosity and they often need the help of others to help to satisfy that curiosity. According to Fleer (2009), if children are to gain the most of a playful context for learning they require adult mediation in order to pay attention to the scientific opportunities being offered. In a safe location and with guidance, young children can hone a plethora of skills including how to observe closely, imitate, test actions and respond to reactions. As they participate in productive activities they can interact with a variety of materials, develop persistence, creativity, and move their curiosity to an understanding while creating social relationships. Such activities, through play situations, can
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assist young children to problem solve, make their own choices, and discover their individual strengths. Conclusion The three vignettes have presented a window into three ELCs, providing a snap-shot of what science looks like for 3 and 4 year old children. These vignettes highlight that there is no one way to deliver science to such young children. While the approach taken at each ELC has its merits, there is much that could be added to extend the value of science teaching and learning within each centre. Children are innate explorers and researchers, and require facilitation to encourage these characteristics. Children are constantly trying to make sense of their everyday experiences and satisfy their curiosity. Play is an excellent medium for them to achieve this. Often a messy play space or natural environment, where they can interact with their own surroundings in an unstructured manner, makes it easier for children to test their ideas, gain confidence, stretch their current knowledge, and to set their own learning agenda. For a sound platform on which harmonious and positive learning can occur, this research has found that space to move about and explore ideas, stimulating learning centres that expand learning, relevant resources, and an inviting social and cultural context are essential ingredients. Where opportunities through guided play are provided, children can elaborate an experience, extend their knowledge and develop scientific concepts that will capitalize their learning. Of course, an interested adult as an active participant in the child‟s learning environment is essential to offer guidance, stimulating talk, and to model how to think things through in a logical sequence. Over regulated demands and practical constraints can impede a positive attitude to learning. The greatest challenge for early childhood educators is to convince others that play
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is an integral part of a child‟s life, even after school has started. Rigorous efforts must be made by educators to reinforce the value of guided play for the sound development of scientific skills and concept development in ELCs. This can be enhanced by thoroughly developing use of the five senses in observation. For the future, more research is required to discover an even broader picture of what good science looks like in ELCs. Questions need to be asked regarding the preparation of pre-service early childhood teachers, the attitudes and competence of early childhood teachers to teaching scientific concepts, the value of an integrated curriculum, and importantly, whether or not scientific concepts are in fact being included in early childhood classrooms. Teachers who actively listen to a child‟s interpretation of how things work, provide interactive investigations, and reflect on engaged learning, will develop a greater understanding of a child‟s thought processes and be provided with rich information to plan further relevant science teaching and learning experiences. Acknowledgements The children, teachers and parents associated with the three early learning centres engaged in this research are sincerely thanked for their willing participation and thoughtful responses to assist the researcher gather data. References Creswell, J.W. (2005.) Educational research. New Jersey: Pearson Education Curtis, D., & Carter, M. (2008). Learning together with young children: A curriculum framework for reflective teacher. St Paul: Redleaf Press. Fleer, M. (2006). In Appleton, K. (Ed.). Elementary science teacher education: International perspectives on contemporary issues and practice. New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
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Fleer, M. (Ed). (2007). Children’s thinking in science – what does the research tell us? Watson: Early Childhood Australia Fleer, M., & Robbins, J. (2003). “Hit and run research” with “hit and miss” results in early childhood science education. In Research in Science Education 33: 405-431. Fleer, M., Edwards, S., Hammer, M., Kennedy, A., Ridgeway, A., Robbins, J., et al. (2006). Early childhood learning communities: Sociocultuiral research in practice. Frenchs Forest: Pearson Education Australia. Howitt, C., Morris, M., & Colvill, M. (2007). In Dawson, G. & Venville, G. (Eds.), The art of teaching primary Science. (pp. 233-247). Crows Nest: Allen & Unwin. Johnston, J. (2007, July). How does the skill of observation develop in young children? Paper presented to the 2007 World Conference on Science and Technology Education (ICASE 2007), July 8-12, 2007. Perth, Western Australia. Merriam, S.B. (1998). Qualitative research and case study applications in education. San Francisco: John Wiley & Sons. Millikin, J. (2003).Reflections: Reggio Emilia Principles within Australian Contexts. Castle Hill: Pademelon Press. Mulaguzzi, L., (1998). History, ideas and basic philosophy: an interview with Lella Gandidni. In Edwards. C., Gandidni, L., & Forman, G. (Eds.). The hundred languages of children: Advanced reflections. London: ABLEX Publishing. O‟Sullivan Smyser, S. (1996). Professional’s guide: early childhood education. Sydeny: Hawker Brownlow Education. Punch, K.F. (2009). Introduction to research methods in education. London: Sage Publications.
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Rinaldi, C. (2005). In dialogue with Reggio Emilia: Listening, researching and learning. London: Routledge Falmer. Robbins, J. (2005). Brown paper packages: a socio-cultural perspective on young children‟s ideas in science. Research in Science Education, 53, 151-172. Robbins, J. (2008, July). The mediation of children’s thinking about natural phenomena through conversations and drawings. Paper presented at the thirty-ninth annual conference of the Australasian Science Education Research Association, Brisbane Queensland. Szarkowicz, D. (2006). Observations and reflections in childhood. South Melbourne: Thomson Social Science Press. Venville, G., Adey, P., Larkin, S., Robertson, A., & Fulham, H., (2003) Fostering thinking through science in the early years of schooling. International Journal of science education, 25 (11), 1313-1331. Wright, S. (2007). Young children‟s meaning-making through drawing and „telling‟: Analogies to filmic textural features. Australian Journal of Early Childhood, 32, 3749. Retrieved January 5, 2008, from http://www.earlychildhoodaustralia.org.au/ajec_index_abstracts/young_childrens_me aning_making_through_drawing_and_telling.html
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PRE-SERVICE TEACHERS` ENVIRONMENTAL KNOWLEDGE, ATTITUDES AND BEHAVIOUR
Mohamad Termizi bin Borhan (
[email protected]) Zurida binti Hj Ismail (
[email protected])
Pusat Pengajian Ilmu Pendidikan (School of Education) Universiti Sains Malaysia (USM) Contact No: 012-9156343
Abstract The lack of awareness among the general public about the environment has been a topic of international concern and was reported in the 1972 United Nations Conference in Stockholm. In 1977, a United Nations conference held in Tbilisi, Georgia resulted in the Tbilisi Declaration which affirmed the international commitment to international environmental education. This commitment to create awareness about environment in the general population was renewed in 1992 at the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro and is manifested in Chapter 36 of Agenda 21. Chapter 36 of Agenda 21 stresses on the following: Education, including formal education, public awareness and training, should be recognized as a process by which human beings and societies can reach their fullest potential. Education is critical for achieving environmental and ethical awareness, values and attitudes, skills and behavior consistent with sustainable development and for effective public participation in decision-making. Both formal and non-formal education
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is indispensable to changing people attitude so that they have the capacity to assess and address their sustainable development concerns. This paper will present the findings from a survey that was aimed at assessing the pre-service teachers‟ knowledge about the cause, effect and solution for climate change, their attitudes towards the environment, and their readiness to participate in various pro-environmental behaviors. A total of 173 preservice teachers enrolled in a chemistry teaching methods course participated in this study. The pre-service teachers were in their third year of the teacher education program. Data were collected through questionnaires containing true-false items to measure factual knowledge about climate change and Likert-type items designed to assess the degree of environmental concern and readiness in pro-environmental behaviors. In general, the findings showed that the student teachers have an average understanding of the climate change phenomena. However, they are concerned about the environment and most indicate readiness and have actually practiced pro-environmental behaviours.
1.0 Introduction Climate change, one of the world-wide dimensions of environmental problems has received national and international concern. In the recent UN General Assembly, President Obama said that the treat from climate change is serious, urgent and growing (Huffington Post, 2009). As the general public has become increasingly aware of the environmental problems facing the world today,
the so-called „green issues‟ have
become important political matters as well as discussion topics in the mainstream conferences. The problem is caused by human being alone, and the most effective solution to the environmental problems would be to enlighten society on the subject of
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environment along with the legal arrangements. As John F. Kennedy once observed that “Our problems are man-made, therefore they may be solved by man”.
Education is undeniably considered to be of the most utmost importance for the development of the country, provided that the status of education significantly affects its social, cultural and economic development. Through formal education, ways of thinking and behaviour of the students are cultivated apart from acquisition of the knowledge and dexterities, attitudes, perceptions (Skanavis et al., 2004). Environmental Education (EE) is considered as an essential component of the education for future citizens in order for them to be able to confront and deal with the upcoming environmental issues. Environmental Education (EE) is one of the tools that help to achieve sustainable development. EE is also an instrument to enable the participation and learning of various age groups based on a two-way communication, both formal and non-formal. Through the process of EE, individuals obtain an understanding of the concepts of and knowledge about the environment. They also acquire experience, values, skills and the knowledge necessary to form judgments to participate in decision-making and to take appropriate action in addressing environmental issues and problems.
EE was first defined in the Tbilisi Declaration which affirmed the international commitment to international environmental education. This commitment to create awareness about the environment in the general population and changes in the human behaviour must be made in order for individuals and social groups to be actively involved, at all levels in working towards resolution of environmental problems
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(UNESCO-UNEP, 1978). EE was re-oriented and renewed to the direction of sustainable development in 1992 at the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro and is manifested in Chapter 36 of Agenda 21. Chapter 36 of Agenda 21 stresses on the following: Education, including formal education, public awareness and training, should be recognized as a process by which human beings and societies can reach their fullest potential. Education is critical for achieving environmental and ethical awareness, values and attitudes, skills and behavior consistent with sustainable development and for effective public participation in decision-making. The publication of the Agenda 21 Report strengthens the effort and is regarded as a blue print for countries to pursue sustainable development. It is a plan to achieve a sustainable society in this environmentally and economically inequitable world. With rapid population increase and economic growth in many countries, the environment is becoming more vulnerable and natural resources are depleted faster to meet the basic needs.
Malaysia, as with most countries in the region, has reacted to integrate EE in the curriculum. The Education Planning Committee of Ministry of Education made the decision to integrate and infuse EE throughout the New Primary School Curriculum (NPSC) and Integrated Curriculum for Secondary Schools (ICSS) in 1991 (Thiagarajan and Norshidawati, 2005). In line with the recommendations of Agenda 21 also, Malaysia‟s National Policy has outlined Green Strategies which emphasize on Education and Awareness (Ministry of Science, Technology and the Environment (MOSTE), 2002). EE in Malaysia is geared towards addressing environmental challenges such as littering, water pollution, air pollution and the degradation of biodiversity (Susan, Tagi &
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Periasamy, 2005). The school curriculum is focused on educating the society to be more sensitive and concerned about environmental issues, to be knowledgeable, skilled and committed to act individually or collectively to address environmental issues has been instituted. At the tertiary level, various environmental science and environment-related courses are offered at degree level. After years of research, several local universities have built up their expertise in the environment-related fields (Arba`at et al., 2009).
Against this background, teachers which have always been regarded as the agent for social changes, play a very important role to environmentally educate their student. To this end, they have to be equipped with good environmental knowledge, attitudes and behaviour. As rapid advances are made in environmental science, it is essential for educators to have up-to-date, relevant teaching material that present basic concepts in ways that could stimulate student interest. The implementation of EE definitely depends initially on the attitudes or the receptivity of teachers to this innovation (Skanavis et al., 2004). Furthermore, Volk (1982) notes that it is important that teachers not only support the goals of EE theoretically but they feel a personal responsibility to implement EE in their classrooms.
Studies have shown that teachers are not well-prepared to integrate EE into their classrooms and that inadequate teacher training is the predominant reason teachers are not teaching EE (Gabriel, 1996). Studies of trainee teachers` ideas about global environmental issues have suggested that teachers might be less than well prepared in this respect (Boyes et al., 1995). If teachers do not have sufficient knowledge, dexterities or
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the desire to implement EE in the program, it is improbable that environmentally literate students will graduate from school. In order for students to have sound knowledge and good values towards environment, the knowledge base of the teachers themselves is of great importance as good subject knowledge is essential for best teaching (Summers, 1994). Many support the notion that educators need to have deeper and wider knowledge than their students, for much reason: i.e. to be able to “diagnose” the students` learning difficulties, to correspond flexibly in their needs and to answer unanticipated questions (Summers et al., 2001). Misinformation and low levels of understanding amongst student teachers as well as practicing teachers suggest that misconceptions are being perpetuated within their classrooms (Hooper, 1988).
As Hart (1997) points out, the time has come to finally investigate what EE means in the minds of teachers and in their school practices. This knowledge is essential to academics researching in the fields of EE, as well as anyone involved in the design of educational policy for the promotion of EE. This knowledge also can assist teachers themselves in critically reflecting on the conceptual and theoretical underpinnings of their teaching practice, and in this way, help them understand and formulate their own personal “theory” of EE (Robottom, 1993).
It is fundamental to know how much the pre-service teachers already know, how they feel and what they are doing regarding environmental matters (Chin Ivy et al., 1998). As Sharifah Norhaidah (2006) asserts, pre-service teachers need to be equipped with the knowledge of action strategies, to understand the intricacy of problem involved
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and more importantly to be sensitized to the root causes of unsustainable future as upon graduating, they are suppose to infuse environmental education or sustainability education into the Malaysian Secondary Curriculum. In order to deal with these growing issues, a survey was conducted to assess the pre-service teachers` environmental knowledge, attitudes and behaviors.
2.0 Methodology
The study involved 173 pre-service teachers enrolled in a chemistry teaching methods course. The students were in their third year of the teacher education program. Data were collected using questionnaires. The questionnaire consisted of three parts: environmental knowledge, attitudes and pro-environmental behaviour. The time required to complete the survey was approximately 30 to 45 minutes.
2.1 Environmental Knowledge
Environmental knowledge refers to the knowledge and understanding of facts, concepts and generalizations related to the environmental concerns (Chin Ivy et al., 1998). It is defined as the information that enables someone to study and reach conclusions about the physical, social and cultural conditions that affect the development of an organism. Environmental knowledge tested for causes (16 items), consequences (19 items) and cures/solutions (18 items) of climate change. Each of the section contained items expressing scientifically accepted statements and. Idiosyncratic statements are the
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ideas which oppose the scientific explanation, also known as misconception or alternative conception. The instrument was adapted from the questionnaire developed by Boyes, Chamber and Stanistreet (1993). The items used a True/False format and scoring for each item was done by allocating one point for each correct answer giving a possible range of 0 to 53 for the overall environmental knowledge score. The Cronbach coefficient alpha or internal consistency for the knowledge section was 0.789.
2.2 Environmental Concern Scale (Environmental Attitudes)
Environmental attitudes deal with the affective domain, evaluating whether the students agree or disagree, are favorable or unfavorable, with regard to aspects of the environment. It is defined as the predispositions that affect how someone perceives and interprets the physical, social, and cultural conditions that affect the development of an organism (De Chano, 2006). To measure attitudes towards the environment, the Environmental Concern Scale consisting of 11 items was used. The Environmental Concern Scale consists of two dimensions (Chan, 1996): personal sacrifice with five items (Q1, Q3, Q6, Q7, and Q11) and optimism/issue with six items (Q2, Q4, Q5, Q8, Q9, and Q10). Personal sacrifices refer to the willingness of the respondents to act to protect the environment although this action will require sacrifice of time and money. Optimism/Issue refers to the tendency of the respondents to believe that there are always solutions for environmental problems. For instance, they believe that contamination of rivers, oceans and air will soon return to normal by natures purifying processes. The questionnaire was first developed by Weigel and Weigel (1978). The items used a four-
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point Likert-type scale ranging from Strongly Agree to Strongly Disagree. The Cronbach alpha or internal consistency for the attitude section was 0.630.
2.3 Pro-environmental Behaviour
Environmental behaviour refers to the overt and observable actions taken by a student in response to the environment. Hence, programs created to enhance environmental awareness should be designed to engage the target audience in not only increasing their environmental knowledge but their environmental skills, attitudes and behaviour as well (Grodzinska-Jurczak et al., 2003). Environmental behaviour was measured using 11 pro-environmental behaviour statements. Students were required to indicate their willingness to participate in pro-environmental behaviour. The statements were taken from two different sources: Chan (1996) and Volk and McBeth (1997). The items also utilized a four-point Likert-type scale (1= strongly agreed and 4=strongly disagreed) which is used for the codification of the answers. The behaviours were selected on the basis that (1) the students would be familiar with them and that they were within their capabilities to participate, (2) the behaviour were clearly related to the environmental issues and (3) the behaviour were different in nature and situations (Chan, 1996). The internal consistency of the behavioural intention score, as measure by the Cronbach coefficient was found to be very high (0.831). This indicates that the proenvironmental behaviour was selected from a consistent set of behavioural indicators.
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3.0 Results and Discussion
The results of the study are discussed in four parts: students` environmental knowledge, attitudes, students` willingness to participate in pro-environmental behaviour and degree of relationship between environmental knowledge, attitudes and behaviour. The analysis and discussion on environmental knowledge are divided into three aspects: causes, consequences and cures/solutions.
Table 1 Mean and standard deviation of climate change knowledge according to component
Component
Mean
SD
Causes (16 items)
8.10
1.29
Consequences (19 items)
12.64
1.854
Cures/solution (17 items)
10.86
1.631
Overall (52 items)
31.59
3.638
Descriptive statistics related to students` correct response on the climate change are presented in Table 1 calculated based on the component of climate change knowledge as well as for overall questionnaire. The causes component shows that most of the students only manage to answer half of the component correctly. While for consequences and cures/solution components, students only demonstrate moderate ability to answer these component. The relatively low mean total knowledge score indicated that students did not
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acquire a satisfactory understanding of environmental issues, specifically in climate change. The standard deviations were relatively small. These deviations, which ranged from 1.29 to 3.638 indicated that students` environmental knowledge were relatively consistent and uniform.
3.1.1 Causes of Climate Change
The first component of the questionnaire was designed to examine the distribution of student knowledge and misconception about factors that cause climate change.
Table 2 shows the frequency count for each item of the causes of climate change. Causes of climate change dealt with factors or human activities that exacerbate climate change. Students are well informed about causes of climate change if the statements have high percentages of correct responses. Generally, most of the students know that increase in CO2 and CFC concentration in air composition, deforestation, artificial fertilizers gases, and heating and cooling system in the house are among the factors that could lead to climate change. Consequently, only a small number of students (25.8%) knew eating meat is one of the contributing causes. In a special report on health and energy in the latest version of medical journal The Lancet, experts urged people to less consume on steak and burger. It also reported that reducing global red meat consumption by 10% would cut the gases emitted by cows, sheep and goats that contribute to global warming (Berita Harian, 2007).
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There are three most prevalent misconceptions regarding causes of climate change: using of aerosol spray and refrigerators, space program that can punches hole in the atmosphere and holes in the ozone layer. They were confused between global warming and ozone depletion, as the majority though that the “hole” in the ozone layer is one of the causes of global warming (Boyes and Stanistreet, 1993; Groves and Pugh, 1999). In Papadimitriou`s (2004) research, the explanation given by students is that the ozone “hole” allows more sunlight to penetrate the atmosphere and heat the earth. The ozone hole only expose the earth to higher UV radiation levels from the sun. Although also harmful to the life, the ozone hole problem differs from that of global warming. Rye et al., (1997) found that 54% of the students believe that ozone layer depletion is the predominant cause of global warming. In general, connection of ozone layer depletion with climate change seems to be common misconception held by people of all ages (Papadimitriou, 2004).
Using aerosol cans has almost no effect on climate change. In the past, aerosol spray cans contained CFCs which contributed to the depletion of the ozone layer (not the same as global warming). However, the sale of aerosol cans containing CFCs has been banned in the United States and Canada since 1979. A notable misconception is related to the view that climate change is connected with the radioactive waste and significant percentage of the students named acid rain as one of the causes of climate change. In Kilinc et al., (2008) study, radioactivity was held by more than half of the students to be a cause of global warming. The misconception concerning causes of climate change, probably have implication in effecting peoples` ideas about action taken to alleviate it. As
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Bostrom et al., (1994) have claimed, when causes are not well understood, it is clearly difficult to devise effective solutions to the problem and this may lead even concern citizen to avoid undertaking the proper action. Table 2 Percent of correct response for scientific and idiosyncratic statements of causes of climate change
Items
% (N=182)
Scientific Statement
Increase CO2 volume in air composition
100.0
Gas from artificial fertilizers
95.1
Rainforest depletion
97.8
Eat the meats
25.8
Too much CFC volume in air composition
99.5
Rotting waste
73.6
Use of heating & cooling system in house
90.7
Too much ozone near the ground
27.5
Sunrays cannot escape from the earth
77.5
Idiosyncratic Statement:
Rubbish dumped in rivers and streams
77.5
Use of aerosol spray and refrigerators
0.5
Acid in the rain
12.1
Radioactive waste from nuclear power station
2.7
Holes in the ozone layer
0.5
Space program (punches holes in the atmosphere)
0.5
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3.1.2 Consequences of Climate Change
The second component of the questionnaire was designed to examine the distribution of student knowledge and misconception about the effect of climate change. Table 3 shows the frequency counts for each item of consequences of climate change. The consequences of climate change dealt with what might be happen or already happen if the climate change got bigger. According to the results, most of the students (more than 80% of the population) were well informed about the real consequences that might or already happen with the occurrence of climate change. They were aware and know that changes in global weather pattern can lead to hotter earth, melting of ice will result in arise of sea water level and loss of habitat for polar bear and penguin and flooding. However, only 2% knew that climate change will never cause skin cancer. Kilinc et al., (2008) found that the most common misconception, held by more than three quarters of the students was that global warming will result in an increase in the prevalence of skin cancer. Perhaps this misconception is based on a deeper confusion between climate change and ozone layer depletion. Most of them were aware that ozone layer depletion will increase the incidence of skin cancer, but may think that climate change is linked to ozone layer depletion, either cause it, or being cause by it (Pekel and Ozay, 2005).
Table 3 Percent of correct response for scientific and idiosyncratic statements of consequences of climate change
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Items
Pre-test (%, N=182)
Scientific Statement:
Change in global weather pattern
100.0
Ice of the both pole will melts
98.4
Flooding occur more frequently
89.0
More deserts in the world
65.4
Earth become hotter
97.3
More pests and bugs populations
55.5
Arise sea level and coastal erosion
96.7
Loss of habitat for polar bear and penguin
96.2
Mass extinction of many animal species
87.9
Certain types of disease will spread
96.2
Some region may become prone to deadly storms
80.2
Affect global agriculture output
92.9
Idiosyncratic Statement:
More earthquake occur
26.9
Fish and other aquatic life poisoned
20.9
People will get food poisoning
31.9
Skin cancer to human
2.1
Unsafe to use tap water
19.2
More people will die of heart attack
55.5
War among countries
51.6
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3.1.3 Cures/solution of Climate Change
The third component of the questionnaire was designed to examine students‟ knowledge and misconceptions about how climate change might be ameliorated.
Table 4 Percent of correct response for scientific and idiosyncratic statements of cures/solution of climate change
Items
%, N=182
Scientific Statement:
Save electricity
88.5
Plant more trees
98.9
Do not frequently use car
97.3
Car pooling among colleagues
90.1
Initiate to use renewable energy
94.5
Having more nuclear power station
16.5
Banning of CFCs from spray cans and Styrofoam
94.5
Recycle paper, tin and plastic
97.8
Always prefer public transport
97.3
Alternative energy like wind, waves and solar
94.0
Choose to use hybrids cars
63.7
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Idiosyncratic Statement:
35.2
Reduce starvation among people
Protect rare plants and animals
5.5
Keeping beaches clean
7.7
Always prefer unleaded petrol
2.2
Prefer healthy foods
20.9
Apply sun block cream
2.2
Table 4 shows the frequency count for each item (both scientific and idiosyncratic statement) on cures/solution of climate change. Cures/solution of climate change discuss measures the student may adopt to mitigate the impact of climate change on the environment, economy, lifestyles and community. Most of the students correctly mentioned and were able to identify steps or actions that can alleviate climate change such as plant more trees, recycle the trash, less use of cars as well as more frequently use public transportations. The majority of the students also affirmed that saving the electricity could lead to reduction in climate change. This is good because this is one action that falls partly within the locus of control of students themselves. Furthermore, establishment of good habits during young years might well persist into lifetime practice (Kilinc et al., 2008). However, the advantages of nuclear power as one of the solution for climate change were appreciated by only 16.5% of the students. This may be because nuclear power has a negative environmental image, possibly due to the accidents in nuclear power stations or they associated it with nuclear warfare.
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Several notable misconceptions were revealed among the students in cures components. The majority of the group made erroneous connection between climate change and protecting rare species. Habitat degradation from the effect of climate change might endanger certain species, but this action would not alleviate climate change. It shows that students are confused between cause and effect. Most of them also thought by keeping the beaches clean, it will curb the effect of climate change. Grove and Pugh (1999) through research have found that 72% of the pre-service primary teachers believe that keeping beach clean will help to reduce the greenhouse effect. This action is generally environmentally sympathetic which has nothing to do with the solution of the problem. The most prevalent misconception, however, is about connected to unleaded petrol and sun block cream. Students were apparently confused climate change, air pollution and lead compound. Applying sun block cream might effectively to protect their skin from harmful sun rays, but it could not be the solution for climate change.
3.2 Environmental Attitudes
Table 5 summarized the frequency distribution, mean score and standard deviation for each of the eleven items of the environmental concern scale. The mean score for negatively worded items which are Q1, Q3, Q6, Q7 and Q11 were reversed so that high scores represent positive environmental attitudes.
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Table 5 Frequency distribution, mean and standard deviation of environmental attitudes Item
SA (%)
Q1
34.3
Q2
A (%)
D (%)
S D (%)
Mean
SD
58.7
5.8
1.2
3.26
.618
1.2
1.7
23.7
73.4
3.69
.564
Q3
20.2
0
69.9
9.8
3.10
.540
Q4
1.2
5.2
35.8
57.8
3.50
.653
Q5
1.7
9.3
53.5
35.5
3.23
.685
Q6
30.6
56.6
10.4
2.3
3.16
.694
Q7
64.2
34.1
.6
1.2
3.61
.566
Q8
4.6
15.0
62.4
17.9
2.94
.717
Q9
6.9
41.0
48.6
3.5
2.49
.679
Q10
8.1
52.6
35.8
3.5
2.35
.679
Q11
23.1
69.9
6.4
.6
3.16
.543
SA, strongly agree; A, agree; D, disagree; SD, strongly disagree
The results indicate that the respondents showed overwhelmingly positive environmental attitudes. The mean scores ranged from 2.35 to 3.69 based on a four-point scale. As future teachers, they strongly advocate the need for courses focusing on conservation of natural resources to be taught in school (Q7). The respondents also scored very strong attitudes on conservation of wild animals and natural resources (Q2 and Q7 respectively). Indeed, they strongly urged the government to tackle the pollution problems by introducing harsh measures. Two items, development of anti-pollution technology by
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local industries (Q10) and anti-pollution organizations more interested in disrupting society than they are in fighting pollution (Q9), obtain the lowest mean score.
3.3 Environmental Behaviour Frequency distribution, mean and standard deviation of environmental behaviour are reported in Table 6. The mean score for each item were reversed so that a high score represents positive environmental behaviour.
Table 6 Frequency distribution, mean and standard deviation of environmental behaviour Item
SA (%)
A (%)
D (%)
S D (%)
Mean
SD
Q1
59.5
38.7
1.7
0
3.58
.529
Q2
53.8
45.7
.6
0
3.53
.512
Q3
50.3
47.4
2.3
0
3.48
.545
Q4
53.2
44.5
2.3
0
3.51
.546
Q5
69.9
30.1
0
0
3.70
.460
Q6
39.3
55.5
5.2
0
3.34
.575
Q7
46.8
52.6
.6
0
3.46
.512
Q8
45.7
54.3
0
0
3.46
.500
Q9
39.0
58.7
1.7
.6
3.36
.550
Q10
31.8
55.5
11.0
1.7
3.17
.685
Q11
6.9
20.8
48.0
24.3
2.10
.850
SA, strongly agree; A, agree; D, disagree; SD, strongly disagree
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The mean score ranged from 2.10 to 3.70. The results indicate that students were very willing to actively participate in paper recycling (Q1), support environmental education in schools (Q5) as well as planting more trees near house premises (Q2). Most of the items show high mean scores which indicate their strong willingness to participate in proenvironmental behaviour. The low mean score was exhibited for items asking the respondents to support an increase on gasoline (petrol) prices and to use public transportation more than they do now. They are less likely to adopt the behaviour which could bring about direct, significant changes in their convenience and economic conditions (Fortner et al., 2000). In general, the score of pro-environmental behaviour indicated that students would be willing to adopt environmentally responsible behaviours.
3.4 The Environmental Knowledge-Attitude-Behaviour Relation
Correlation analysis was performed to identify possible relationships among the three variables: knowledge, attitudes and behaviour. Pearson‟s product moment correlation (r) was calculated to show the strength of the relationships among the variables investigated. From the calculation, there is no statistically significant relationship between knowledge and attitude towards the environment, attitudes and behavior and knowledge and behavior. Previous research found that a positive relationship exists between environmental knowledge and attitude toward the environment. It was suggested that knowledge may act as a mediating variable between attitudes and behavior (Arbuthnot & Lingg, 1975). Several researchers argued that an increase in knowledge about the
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environment is necessary for improving attitudes towards the environment (Arcury, 1990). The hypothesis that greater environmental knowledge is positively correlated with environmental attitudes was not supported by data from this study (Table 5).
Table 7 Interrelation between environmental knowledge, attitudes and behaviour
Variable
Behaviour
Attitudes
Behaviour
-
Attitudes
.063
-
Knowledge
.124
-.081
Knowledge
-
Note. All correlations are not significant
Conclusion
The results from the present study can be summarized as follows: for the knowledge component, students‟ environmental knowledge is generally at the moderate level with several notable misconceptions like assuming aerosol spray and refrigerators, space program and holes in the ozone layers are factors that exacerbate climate change, climate change will result in an increase in the prevalence of skin cancer. They believed that unleaded petrol and applying sun block cream could be the solution for climate change. Students showed positive environmental attitudes and were very willing to adopt proenvironmental behaviours such as actively participating in paper recycling, supporting
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environmental education in schools and planting more trees near house premises. However, they were less likely to adopt behaviours which could bring direct effect to their convenience and economic condition.
Consequently, the results of this study have some implications in designing curriculum on environmental education in teacher training courses to increase the knowledge, enhance attitudes and behaviours of students regarding environmental issues. The pre-service teachers need to be engaged in class discussions on environmental issues that are meaningful to them and related to their everyday lives. Students can be assigned to conduct an in-depth research on environmental issues and present the results in classroom open discussion. During the discussions, students will be exposed to a variety of ideas from other students and the exchange of ideas among them helps student to evaluate as well as correct their pre-existing conceptions. Students also can be encouraged to do extensive research on environmental issues which can also help to correct their misconceptions in some raising issues, especially environmental problems. Further research, such as qualitative and longitudinal studies, is needed to investigate deeply the enhancement of students` attitudes and behaviours, as well as the formation of true environmental knowledge.
References Arba‟at, H., Kamisah, O., and Pudin, S. (2009). The adults non-formal environmental education (EE):A scenario in Sabah, Malaysia. Procedia Social and Behavioral Sciences 1, 2306–2311.
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Arbuthnot, J., & Lingg, S (1975). A comparison of French and American environmental behaviors, knowledge, and attitudes. International Journal of Psychology, 10(4 ) 275 - 281
Arcury, T.A. (1990) Environmental attitude and environmental knowledge. Human Organization 49, 300–304.
Boyes, E., Chamber, W., & Stanisstreet, M. (1993). The greenhouse effect: Children‟s perceptions of causes, consequences and cures. International Journal of Science Education, 15, 531-552.
Boyes, E., Chambers, W. & Stanistreet, M. (1995) Trainee primary teachers` ideas about the ozone layer. Environmental Education Research, 1(2), 133-145.
Chan, K.K.W. (1996). Environmental attitudes and behaviour of secondary school students in Hong Kong. The Environmentalist. 16, 297-306.
Chin Ivy ,T. G., Eng Lee, C. E., & Guan, G. H., (1998). A survey of environmental knowledge, attitudes and behaviour of students in Singapore. International Research in Geographical and Environmental Education. 7(3).
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DeChano, L.M.(2006). A multi-country examination of the relationship between environmental knowledge and attitudes. International Research in Geographical and Environmental Education, 15(1), 15-28.
Fortner, R.W., Lee, J-Y., Corney, J.R., Romanello, S., Bonnell, J., Luthy, B. Figuerido, C., & Ntsiko, N. (2000). Public understanding of climate change: Certainty and willingness to act. Environmental Education Research, 6(2), 127-141.
Grodzinska-Jurczak, M., Bartosiewicz, A., Twardowska, A., & Ballantyne, R. (2003). Evaluating the impact of a school waste education programme upon students`, teachers` and parents` environmental knowledge, attitudes and behaviour. International Research in Geographical and Environmental Education 12 (2), 3033
Groves, F., and A. Pugh, 1999: Elementary pre-service teacher perceptions of the greenhouse effect. Journal of Scence in Eduational. Technology, 8, 75–85.
Hart, R.A. (1997). Children.s Participation: The theory and practice of involving young citizens in community development and environmental care. UK: Earthscan.
Hooper, J.K. (1988). Teacher cognitions of wildlife management concepts. Journal of Environmental Education, 19, 15-19.
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Huffington Post (2009). Obama UN Climate Change Speech. [online] http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2009/09/22/obama-un-climate-changes_n_294628.html.
Kilinc, A., Stanisstreet, M., and Boyes, E. (2008). Turkish students` ideas about global warming. International Journal of Environment and Science Education, 3(2), 8998.
Ministry of Science, Technology and the Environment (MOSTE). (2002). National policy on the environment. Bandar Baru Bangi, Selangor: Ministry of Science, Technology and the Environment.
Papadimitriou, V. (2004). Prospective primary teachers` understanding of climate change, greenhouse effects, and ozone layer depletion. Journal of science Education and Technology, 13(2), 299-307.
Pekel, F.O. and Ozay, E. (2005). Turkish high school students` perceptions of ozone layer depletion. Applied Environmental Education & Communication, 4(2), 115123.
Robottom, I. (1993). Beyond behaviourism: Making EE research educational. In R. Mrazek (Ed.), Alternative paradigms in environmental education Research,
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Monograph in Environmental education and Environmental Studies (Vol. VIII, pp. 133-143). Troy, OH: NAEEE.
Sharifah Norhaidah, S. I. (2006). Exploring environmental behaviours, attitudes and knowledge among university students: positioning the concept of sustainable development within Malaysian education. Journal of Science and Mathematics Education in S.E Asia, 29(1), 79-97.
Skanavis, C., Petreniti, V., & Giannopoulou, K. (2004). Educators and environmental education in Greece. Protection and Restoration of the Environment VII: Social, Cultural, Educational and Sustainability Issues, 7(2)
Summers, M. (1994). Science in the primary school: The problem of teachers` curriculum expertise. The Curriculum Journal, 5, 179-193.
Summers, M., Kruger, K. and Childs, A. (2001). Understanding the science of environmental issues: development of a subject knowledge guide for primary teacher education. International Journal of Science Education, 23, 33-53.
Susan, P., Tagi, K. and Periasamy, A. (2005). Environmental Education in Malaysia and Japan: A Comparative Assessment. Paper presented at the International Conferences of Education for Sustainable Future, Ahmedabad, January, 18-20.
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Thiagarajan, N., and Nor Shidawati, A.R. ( 2005). The Implementation of EE in Malaysian Schools: A NGO's Overview. Paper Presented at Best of Both Worlds International Conference on Environmental Education for Sustainable Development, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, September.
UNESCO-UNEP. (1978). The Tbilisi Declaration: Final report intergovernmental conference on environmental education. Organized by UNESCO in cooperation with UNEP, Tbilisi, USSR, 14-26 October 1977, Paris, France: UNESCO ED/MD/49.
Volk, T.L. & McBeth, B. (1997) Environmental Literacy in the United States. Troy, OH: North American Association for Environmental Education.
Weigel, R. & Weigel, J. (1978) Environmental concern: the development of a measure. Environment and Behaviour, 10, 3-5.
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Kranji Secondary School Online Game Developed for W5 Cluster
An Investigation of Practical Performance and Attitude and Interest towards laboratory work by using an online game designed based on Kolb’s experiential learning cycle for a particular topic in Chemistry (Qualitative Analysis). Mr Shasikumaran & Miss M.Losiny (ICT Dept, Kranji Secondary School)
Kranji Secondary School Contact No: 67662464 Email :
[email protected] /
[email protected] Page 212
Kranji Secondary School Online Game Developed for W5 Cluster Abstract This study aims to use online game designed based on Kolb‘s experiential learning cycle (Kolb, 1984) to support upper secondary-level chemistry students‘ meaningful chemistry learning and develop science process skills which are related to the Science Practical Assessment (SPA) and O level Science (Chemistry) practical examination. To prepare for the practical examination, teachers conduct practical lessons which are meant to be investigative. But due to a lack of time to cover syllabus and preparation, the focus is still on the outcome of the reactions. Hence, when students are tested on the process skills in SPA or O level Science (Chemistry) practical examination, they have difficulty answering the questions. This eventually also leads to a lack of confidence and motivation in students during practical lessons and examinations. To improve students‘ process skills, an online game is developed. The game will be a single player and role playing game. The online game to be developed will be based on Kolb‘s experiential learning cycle. Kolb‘s four-stage learning cycle shows how experience is translated through reflection into concepts, which in turn are used as guides for active experimentation and the choice of new experiences. This online game aims to improve students‘ process skills which will lead to better performance in SPA assessment (for qualitative analysis) and O level Science (Chemistry) practical examination and develop students‘ interest and motivation in laboratory work. The game is made online so that students can play the game outside curriculum time. Before playing the game, students need to have prior knowledge in qualitative analysis (test for cations, anions and gases). They must also have done a practical in qualitative analysis.
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Kranji Secondary School Online Game Developed for W5 Cluster An Investigation of Practical Performance and Attitude and Interest towards laboratory work by using an online game designed based on Kolb’s experiential learning cycle for a particular topic in Chemistry (Qualitative Analysis).
Abstract This study aims to use online game designed based on Kolb‘s experiential learning cycle (Kolb, 1984) to support upper secondary-level chemistry students‘ meaningful chemistry learning and develop science process skills which are related to the Science Practical Assessment (SPA) and O level Science (Chemistry) practical examination. To prepare for the practical examination, teachers conduct practical lessons which are meant to be investigative. But due to a lack of time to cover syllabus and preparation, the focus is still on the outcome of the reactions. Hence, when students are tested on the process skills in SPA or O level Science (Chemistry) practical examination, they have difficulty answering the questions. This eventually also leads to a lack of confidence and motivation in students during practical lessons and examinations. To improve students‘ process skills, an online game is developed. The game will be a single player and role playing game. The online game to be developed will be based on Kolb‘s experiential learning cycle. Kolb‘s four-stage learning cycle shows how experience is translated through reflection into concepts, which in turn are used as guides for active experimentation and the choice of new experiences.
This online game aims to improve students‘ process skills which will lead to better performance in SPA assessment (for qualitative analysis) and O level Science
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Kranji Secondary School Online Game Developed for W5 Cluster (Chemistry) practical examination and develop students‘ interest and motivation in laboratory work. The game is made online so that students can play the game outside curriculum time. Before playing the game, students need to have prior knowledge in qualitative analysis (test for cations, anions and gases). They must also have done a practical in qualitative analysis.
Research Questions The following are the research questions:
a) Is there a significant difference between pre and post, practical test means, as they pertain to a learner‘s development of process skills by using an online game designed based on Kolb‘s experiential learning cycle for a particular topic in Chemistry (Qualitative Analysis)?
b) Does online game, designed based on Kolb‘s experiential learning cycle for a particular topic in Chemistry (Qualitative Analysis), improve students‘ attitude and interest in practical work? Background Gaming The resource is designed in the form of a game because computer games are today an important part of most children‘s leisure lives and increasingly an important part of our culture. Many of them have solved mysteries (Blues Clues, Sherlock Holmes); built and run cities (Sim City), theme parks, (Roller Coaster Tycoon), and businesses (Zillionaire,
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Kranji Secondary School Online Game Developed for W5 Cluster CEO, Risky Business, Start-up); built civilizations from the ground up (Civilization, Age of Empires); piloted countless airplanes, helicopters, and tanks (Microsoft’s Flight Simulator, Apache, Abrams M-1); fought close hand-to-hand combat (Doom, Quake, Unreal Tournament); and conducted strategic warfare (Warcraft III, Command and Conquer)—not once or twice, but over and over and over again, for countless hours, weeks and months, until they were really good at it (Prensky, 2001). As adults, we often watch in amazement as children dedicate hours mastering a game, sharing tips and tricks with online communities (Prensky, 2002) and how they spend their holidays in LAN (local area network) gaming centres. It is clear that games engage and motivate. These games are even more accessible now with powerful home gaming systems like Microsoft‘s Xbox360 and Sony Playstation 3 that may be internet-enabled. According to Csikszentmihalyi (1990), these games induce the flow state ie positive subjective experience is increased, thereby enhancing motivation.
Category of Games
As games have become more complex in terms of graphics, complexity, interaction and narrative, so a variety of genres have increasingly come to dominate the market. There is, however, no standard categorisation of such games; different stakeholders in the games industry, eg game outlets, developers, academics, web review sites, use a taxonomy appropriate to their own audience. Such categorisations are discussed in Orwant (2000), who also illustrates the system employed by Herz (1997) which closely resembles that used by many in the contemporary games industry.
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Kranji Secondary School Online Game Developed for W5 Cluster
The Herz system presents these major categories:
action games - these can be subcategorised into shooting games, ‗platform‘ games (so called because the players‘ characters move between on-screen platforms) and other types of games that are reaction-based
adventure games - in most adventure games, the player solves a number of logic puzzles (with no time constraints) in order to progress through some described virtual world fighting games - these involve fighting computer-controlled characters, or those controlled by other players
puzzle games - such as Tetris
role-playing games - where the human players assume the characteristics of some person or creature type, eg elf or wizard
simulations - where the player has to succeed within some simplified recreation of a place or situation eg mayor of a city, controlling financial outlay and building works
sports games
strategy games - such as commanding armies within recreations of historical battles and wars.
Even with this taxonomy, there are exclusions; a small number of games will be released every year that defy categorisation. In addition, some games fall into more than one category; for example, football manager games (where you buy, sell, select and position players) arguably fall into the categories of simulation, strategy and sports games. This
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Kranji Secondary School Online Game Developed for W5 Cluster classification also leaves out the individual or multiplayer contrast, which is making a real difference to how games can be played
Effective Learning Design Principles
Gee (2004b) articulates a large set of effective learning design principles that effective educational games embody. Some examples are:
Learning is based on situated practice
There are lowered consequences for failure and taking risks
Learning is a form of extended engagement of self as an extension of an identity to which the player is committed
The learner can customize the game to suit his/her style of learning
The learning domain is a simplified subdomain of the real domain
Problems are ordered so the first ones to be solved in the game lead to fruitful generalizations about how to solve more complex problems later
Explicit information/instruction is given ―on demand‖ and just-in-time
Learning is interactive (probing, assessing, and reprobing the world)
There are multiple routes to solving a problem
There are intrinsic rewards within the game keyed to a player‘s level of expertise
The game operates at the outer edge of a player‘s ―regime of competence‖
Basic skills are not separated from higher-order skills
The meaning of texts and symbols is situated in what one does; it is never purely
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Kranji Secondary School Online Game Developed for W5 Cluster verbal or textual.
Meaning/knowledge is built up through various modalities
Meaning/knowledge is distributed between the player‘s mind, objects in the environment in the game world, and other players
Knowledge is dispersed as player‘s go online to get help and discuss strategy
Players become members of affinity groups dedicated to a particular game or type of game
The game constitutes a complex designed system, and the player orients his/her learning to issues of design and the understanding of complex systems.
In seeking to introduce the use of computer games in classroom-based learning, Chee (2007) has proposed that we need to address the following issues:
What should students be trying to learn? Should teachers be trying to use games with standard curriculum subjects (e.g. English, mathematics, science, geography), non-standard curriculum subjects (e.g. music appreciation, sex education), or non-curriculum subjects (e.g. golf, handicrafts)?
How should games be used? Should students play games in the classroom or outside of the classroom? Should they play within or outside of official classroom teaching time?
Why should games be used? What exactly should drive the adoption of gamebased learning? Is it to enhance motivation for ―boring‖ subjects, to increase
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Kranji Secondary School Online Game Developed for W5 Cluster student engagement, or something else? How should we deal with design issues, both with respect to the game itself as well as the design of the broader classroombased learning environment so that game adoption can be scaled up and sustained?
How do we help schoolteachers to assimilate and internalize suitable pedagogies for game-based learning?
How do we evaluate the effectiveness of game-based learning, and what forms of assessment can we use?
Three Characteristics of Learning in Immersive Game Environments (adapted from Chee, 2007)
Three salient characteristics of immersive game-based learning environments that fundamentally alter what it is typically like to learn in school. These three characteristics are (1) embodiment, (2) embeddedness, and (3) experience.
Embodiment An embodied view of cognition leads to different epistemological entailments with respect to knowledge. Rather than seeing knowledge as an object, something to be transmitted by teaching and acquired through learning, the embodied perspective is more consonant with participatory and collaborative modes of learning where knowledge is viewed in terms of the capacity for intelligent behavior rather than the possession of any mental ―thing‖.
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Kranji Secondary School Online Game Developed for W5 Cluster
Embeddedness The criterion of successful learning is performative, driven by goal-directedness, intentionality, and strong personal agency. This mode of learning represents a significant departure from traditional modes of classroom learning that seek to impart knowledge and assess the acquisition of knowledge. In environments that support embedding, behaviors that subsume knowledge are what count, not knowledge per se. Just as we value surgeons for their ability to perform surgeries successfully based on sound knowledge-in-practice, so too learning in environments that require the demonstration of knowledge-in-action represent a more authentic, more meaningful, and more powerful mode of learning. Thus, embeddedness supports ―person-in-the-world‖ learning.
Experience Learning environments that support embodiment and embeddedness yield experience as a natural side-product. Kolb‘s (1984) experiential learning cycle (reconstructed in Figure 1) illustrates how active experimentation in the world, yielding concrete experience, leads to reflective observation and, over multiple cycles, the formation of more abstract concepts. These concepts are continually re-tested through application to the material world, leading either to confirmation of existing understanding or expectation failure (Schank, 2002). In the latter case, reflection will lead to concept modification and/or refinement as appropriate. Hence, a student‘s knowledge is always in flux and remains a constant workin-progress, open to being disproved and corrected.
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Kranji Secondary School Online Game Developed for W5 Cluster
Figure 1. Kolb’s experiential learning cycle
A key strength of Kolb‘s model is that it portrays a student as an embodied, active agent embedded in a material world, constantly learning by doing, observing the outcomes of his actions, testing his hypotheses about the world, and reflecting further on his own understanding. This perspective is better aligned to developmental approaches to learning. It frames learning in terms of iterative attunement to the experienced world which may include other learners as well. Thus, the model is more authentic and more inclusive compared to cognition-as-mentation models.
Kolb’s experiential learning cycle Building upon earlier work by John Dewey and Kurt Levin, American educational theorist David A. Kolb believes ―learning is the process whereby knowledge is created
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Kranji Secondary School Online Game Developed for W5 Cluster through the transformation of experience‖ (1984, p. 38). The theory presents a cyclical model of learning, consisting of four stages shown below. One may begin at any stage, but must follow each other in the sequence: Kolb‘s four-stage learning cycle shows how experience is translated through reflection into concepts, which in turn are used as guides for active experimentation and the choice of new experiences. The first stage, concrete experience (CE), is where the learner actively experiences an activity such as a lab session or field work. The second stage, reflective observation (RO), is when the learner consciously reflects back on that experience. The third stage, abstract conceptualization (AC), is where the learner attempts to conceptualize a theory or model of what is observed. The fourth stage, active experimentation (AE), is where the learner is trying to plan how to test a model or theory or plan for a forthcoming experience.
Kolb identified four learning styles which correspond to these stages. The styles highlight conditions under which learners learn better. These styles are:
assimilators, who learn better when presented with sound logical theories to consider
convergers, who learn better when provided with practical applications of concepts and theories
accommodators, who learn better when provided with ―hands-on‖ experiences
divergers, who learn better when allowed to observe and collect a wide range of information
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Kranji Secondary School Online Game Developed for W5 Cluster Identity in Games
Gee (2003, 2005c) explains that there are three distinct identities that we need to distinguish between in the context of game play. First, there is a virtual identity that represents the character one is playing in the game, whether shown in the first person or not. Virtual characters in a role playing game will have an associated repertoire of actions that they are capable of enacting, e.g. jumping, waving, provided by the game developer. Second, a player always also possesses a real world identity, that is, the person as he or she is known in the real world. Third, there is a projective identity that represents the projection of the real world person, with his or her goals and intentions, onto the game character. This projection yields a so-called blended character constituted in part by the real world player‘s own motives and in part by the repertoire of actions that the game character is able to enact, consistent with the virtual identity. Thus, the in-game ―person‖ being enacted is always a mixture, driven on the one hand by what the gamer wishes to do and achieve and constrained on the other by what actions have been programmed as do-able by the character. The conflation between real world player and virtual persona as they jointly enact a trajectory of experience through the game space creates a strong sense of projection into the game world, a sense of being (firstperson embodiment) in the world as well as a sense of ―being there‖ (embeddedness) in the world. This tripartite interplay of identities—virtual, real world, and projective—creates a powerful context for learning because of its dual active and reflexive characteristics.
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Kranji Secondary School Online Game Developed for W5 Cluster Research Method Data would be collected through attitude survey (Goh, 1997) and pupils‘ practical performance (pre & post O level practical tests).
The pre & post test (practical test and attitude survey) would enable us to answer our research question on the implication of the use of the online game to pupils‘ practical performance and attitude towards practical work.
One Secondary Four Express and one Five Normal Academic classes would be used for the testing. The topic to be taught was qualitative analysis. The dependent variable, student performance, was operationally defined as the numerical test average based upon 15 marks. The independent variable was the online game. One-tailed t-test (repeatedmeasures study) would be done. An alpha of 0.05 would be used as the marker of statistical significance. The null hypothesis was that there was no difference between pretest and posttest practical means. The alternative hypothesis was that there was a positive difference between pretest and posttest practical means. The same teacher would be teaching both the classes but there would be no random choosing of students.
Data would also be collected through interviews with students, classroom observation and attitude test. A one-tailed t-test would also be conducted using the attitude survey. The dependent variable was the attitude test which had 58 questions. The independent variable was the online game. A t-test (repeated-measures study) would be done. An alpha of 0.05 would be used as the marker of statistical significance. The null hypothesis
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Kranji Secondary School Online Game Developed for W5 Cluster was that there was no difference between pre and post attitude scores in terms of agree and strongly agree. The alternative hypothesis was that there was a positive difference between pre and post attitude scores in terms of agree and strongly agree.
Results Practical Test Ho: μD = 0 H1: μD ≥ 0 We would set α = 0.05 This was a repeated measures study. The one tailed t-test was as follows: df= 28 The t-distribution for df = 28, α = 0.05 had boundaries of t= + 1.701. t=+4.120
The obtained value t=+4.120, was in the critical region. Hence, we rejected Ho and concluded that the online game had a positive difference on the students‘ practical results. More importantly, using the online game improved students‘ practical results.
d= 0.766 ≈ 0.8
According to cohen‘s criteria, using the online game had a large effect on students‘ practical performance. The calculations are shown in Annex A.
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Kranji Secondary School Online Game Developed for W5 Cluster Attitude Test
Ho: μD = 0 H1: μD ≥ 0 We would set α = 0.05 This was a repeated measures study. The one tailed t-test was as follows: df= 57 The t-distribution for df = 57, α = 0.05 had boundaries of t = + 1.671. t=+7.43
The obtained value t=+7.43, was in the critical region. Hence, we rejected Ho and concluded that the online game had a positive difference on the students‘ attitude towards practical work. More importantly, using the online game improved students‘ attitude towards practical work..
d= 0.974 ≈ 1
According to cohen‘s criteria, using the online game had a large effect on students‘ attitude towards practical work. The calculations are shown in Annex B.
Below were some of the comments from students.
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Kranji Secondary School Online Game Developed for W5 Cluster Positive Comments
The game is interesting and very animative, it helps me to learn more about anions and cations.
It makes me want to play more and try to get the gold award so that next time I do better in practical.
Very fun and interesting and very useful. Makes me want to replay.
This programme allows us to understand the experiment better. With this programme, it will be easier for me to remember the experiments.
Negative Comments
Faster loading
Animation too slow
Discussion
As a classroom teacher, it was very encouraging for us when we saw our students were actually engaged while playing the game. We were quite apprehensive before the online
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Kranji Secondary School Online Game Developed for W5 Cluster game was rolled out. We felt the students might find the game too long and boring. But the students actually managed to complete the game in one hour. They wanted to play the game again so that they can get the gold award.
Most of the students complained that the loading of the game was too slow. This was understandable as twenty students assessed the game at the same time. They also felt that the animations‘ speed could be faster.
Generally, the secondary five normal academic students were very interested in the visual interpretation of the game while the secondary four express students asked very contentspecific questions.
The main challenge in designing this game lies in doing the storyboard for this game. The storyboard has to be amended or improved many times as understanding and using Kolb‘s experiential learning was very challenging. The concrete experience was the phenomenon that was observed from the software. The reflective observation was done using the questions that were asked after the phenomenon. The abstract conceptualisation was enabled by asking the students to represent their observation in chemical formulaes. The active experimentation was done in level 2 where they apply their knowledge in qualitative analysis in new context.
The positive findings from this research, was very encouraging and would motivate us to use more games in our lessons. But since the sample size was small (29 students), we
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Kranji Secondary School Online Game Developed for W5 Cluster could not generalise the findings from this research to a larger population. We actually realised that students who did much better in subsequent practicals were those who played the game at least three times. They seemed to be more confident of their answers and knew what to record in their observation.
Many educational games are now developed by vendors who are not trained teachers. Hence, they attempt to craft the game form into traditional content orientated learning goals. Thus, a game may place the students inside a room and require them to correctly respond to a number of mathematical problems before which an entrance to the next room appears. This type of design would reflect poor appreciation of pedagogy and demonstrate a lack of understanding of the power of games for learning. This would also mean new technologies are not adequately harnessed to maximise the use of games for learning. Budget could also be a constraint. As in the case of the online game, flash was the software used in the design of the game. We could not totally create an immersive learning as recommended by Prof Chee (2007) due to the lack of budget. The effects were mostly visual. Nevertheless, we can still design relatively low budget games with pedagogical background and bring about positive learning outcomes as seen in this online game.
Conclusion
This research highlighted the impact of using online games to improve students‘ attitude & performance in practical work. Student attitude and performance in practical work
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Kranji Secondary School Online Game Developed for W5 Cluster improved as they were able to understand what was going on at the microscopic level. Hence, they were able to infer their observations and also apply these process skills in a new context.
There is no single best way forward in game-based learning. But using Kolb‘s experiential cycle, for the design of the game, seems to be a promising approach. The use of other learning designs, are also possible. We believe the main aim of designing educational games to achieve the learning outcomes would be to create an immersive and fun learning environment for our students.
Acknowledgements
The work reported in this paper is funded by W5 cluster. We would like to thank W5 cluster chemistry teachers who have vetted the storyboard of the online game.
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Kranji Secondary School Online Game Developed for W5 Cluster Annex A
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Kranji Secondary School Online Game Developed for W5 Cluster
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Kranji Secondary School Online Game Developed for W5 Cluster Annex B
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A Preliminary Study on Kindergarten Children’s Abilities in Science Problem Solving
Chang, Ching-Yi a Kung, Jen-Mein Lin, Shu-Hui Chiu, Wen-Shin
a
Corresponding Author
MAIL:
[email protected] TEL: 886-8-7628015 FAX: 886-8-7626762
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Abstract The purpose of this study was to explore the kindergarten children’s science inquisition ability. The subjects of this study were twenty six-year-old children, including ten boys and ten girls. They were randomly selected from kindergartens at Kaohsiung city and Pingtung city. Research group first designed a science inquisition ability list for data analysis, and then designed three stories with contextual problems focusing on scientific phenomena of buoyancy, inclined plane and simple pendulum. Each subject received two interviews. Data were collected through the subjects’ manipulation as well as their verbal explanation on solving the three science problems. Based on the data collected, the research group analyzed their abilities in identifying the problems, putting forward the solutions, carrying out the solutions, and determining the best solution. Furthermore, the research group detected the subjects’ integration and application abilities. The results showed that nearly all of the children could recognize the problem to be solved immediately. After the children were encouraged to try more possible solutions and were offered more time, more than 90% could put forward the solutions and carry them out, and 70% could describe the solutions in orderly and systematic ways.
Key word: young children, problem solving, scientific inquiry.
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A Preliminary Study on Kindergarten Children’s Abilities in Science Problem Solving Introduction Everyone may do something wrong and be in need of problem-solving skills sometime in his/her life (Huang and Chen, 2005). Britz (1993) proposes that the young children must learn how to solve the problem because problem-solving capability is requisite. Everything is always changing except “change” itself. So problem-solving is an essential skill to our life (Huang, 2002). However, problem-solving is very significant in the childhood, thus the researcher started to implement “The Study in Promoting Capability of Children Problem Solving with Combining DISCOVER (discovering intellectual strengths and capabilities observing varied ethnic response) and Science Inquiry” which was subsidized by National Science Council. The main targets of this study are written bellow: 1. Analyzing how the teachers teach the young children to learn problem-solving. 2. Studying the application of DISCOVER in the preschool classroom. 3. Designing the assessments when DISCOVER is used in training the capability of problem-solving. To understand the ability degree of the young children applying thinking strategies to problem-solving, the researcher designs 3 questionnaires of problem-solving scientific inquiry in the initial stage of this research.
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Literature review The most common definition of ‘problem’ is one kind of psychological states where there are not only the differences between the goal and present situation, but unable for us to obtain the solutions immediately (Newell and Simon, 1972). In the terms of psychology, Zhang (2001) proposes that ‘problem’ means that someone feels confused when he/she cannot find appropriate way to pursue something. The American psychologist, Sternberg (2003) identifies seven steps in problem-solving, each of them may be illustrated in the simple example of choosing a restaurant: A. Problem identification: In this step, the individual recognizes the existence of a problem to be solved: he recognizes that he is hungry, that it is dinnertime, and hence that he will need to take some sort of action. B. Problem definition: In this step, the individual determines the nature of the problem that confronts him. He may define the problem as that of preparing food, of finding a friend to prepare food, of ordering food to be delivered, or of choosing a restaurant. C. Resource allocation: Having defined the problem as that of choosing a restaurant, the individual determines the kind and extent of resources to devote to the choice. He may consider how much time to spend in choosing a restaurant, whether to seek suggestions from friends, and whether to consult a restaurant guide.
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D. Problem representation: In this step, the individual mentally organizes the information needed to solve the problem. He may decide that he wants a restaurant that meets certain criteria, such as close proximity, reasonable price, a certain cuisine, and good service. E. Strategy construction: Having decided what criteria to use, the individual must now decide how to combine or prioritize them. If his funds are limited, he might decide that reasonable price is a more important criterion than close proximity, a certain cuisine, or good service. F. Monitoring: In this step, the individual assesses whether the problem solving is proceeding according to his intentions. If the possible solutions produced by his criteria do not appeal to him, he may decide that the criteria or their relative importance needs to be changed. G. Evaluation: In this step, the individual evaluates whether the problem solving was successful. Having chosen a restaurant, he may decide after eating whether the meal was acceptable.
Problem identification
Evaluation
Problem definition
Monitoring
Resource allocation
Problem representation
Strategy construction
Figure 1
the Problem-solving Cycle Page 245
People always see the ability of problem-solving as common, but we should think it needs practice just like other skills. The best environment of learning how to solve the problem is in the early childhood. When you create circumstances to let the young children solve the problem in their way, they not only know the importance of thoughts but also study the new concept. Fisher (1990) proposes the ability of the children to apply them thinking to solve problems will be the key to success in life. There are more immediate gains to be had from bringing children up as problem solvers. Problem-solving activities will stimulate and develop skills of thinking and reasoning. They utilize and make relevant the child’s knowledge of facts and relationships. Getting results helps developing confidence and capability, the “I-can-think-this-out-for-myself” attitude. It can also provide opportunities for children to share ideas and to learn to work effectively with others, the “Let’s-work-this-out-together” approach. Problem solving activities not only promote knowledge, skills and attitudes, they also provide adults/teachers with opportunities to observe the way children approach problems, how they communicate and learn. There is no better way checking if a child understands a process or body of knowledge than to see if he/she can use that understanding in the solving of a problem. Feedback is gained on the way a child can apply skills and knowledge. Working on common problems can be a way to get the ferries moving between islands of experience, linking and extending the network of thinking.
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Relate to a child’s needs
Involves group work and interaction skills
Fosters skills of evaluation
Offers challenge and motivation Encourages planning and forward thinking
Involves learning to think for oneself
Gives learning relevance and purpose
Is concerned with applying knowledge and skill
Problem solving
Develops confidence and competence
Fosters language experience develops investigative skills
Provides first hand experience
Encourages observation And hypothesis creation Stimulates creative And critical thinking
Relates to all Areas of learning
Raises questions and issues
Figure 2
Function of problem-solving
To inquire and evaluate the behaviors of the young children in solving problems, we must take into account in different patterns of thinking. First Sperling, Walls, Hill, & Lee (2000) utilized seven steps to observe and assess children’ problem-solving ability. The seven steps are: (1) understanding the goal status, (2) reporting the goal status, (3) identifying the problem, (4)solving the problem, (5) providing systematic strategies to solve the problem, (6) pointing out the connection between the solving strategies and the problem,
and (7) employing the
problem-solving experience to other contexts. The process of the young children to solve problems focuses on three essential factors:
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first, problem identification, second, problem reformation identification, and the third, tactics for problem-solving identification. According to these essential factors, we could predict the behavior of the young children to solve problems. The young children are voluntary and can use methods to overcome difficulties which prohibit accomplishing the goals. However, the young children can effectively achieve destinations step by step according to relative information in the process of the young children to solve problems (Siegler, Deloache, &Eisenberg, 2003). There nowadays are not many but various ways to study how the young children to solve problems: McCusker (2001) discussed how the young children to solve problems in music on “Emerging Musical Literacy: Investigating Young Children's Music Cognition and Musical Problem-Solving through Invented Notations ” ; Dougherty & Slovin(2004)proposed that students use the diagrams to help solve word problems by focusing on the broader structure rather than seeing each problem as an entity in and of itself. The consistent use of the diagrams is related to students' experience with simultaneous presentations of physical, diagrammatic, and symbolic representations used in measure up on “Generalized Diagrams as a Tool for Young Children's Problem Solving”; Kritzer(2008) implemented qualitative study to examine the relationship between young deaf children's level of mathematics ability and opportunities available for the construction of early mathematics knowledge during a
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problem-solving task implemented by their parents. Findings indicated that the manner in which the mathematically based concepts (number/counting, quantity, time/sequence, and categorization) were incorporated into the activity was more meaningful for children who demonstrated high levels of mathematical ability. In addition, children who demonstrated high levels of mathematical abilities experienced a more purposeful use of mediation during activity implementation. However, overall use of mediated learning experience was limited for children from both ability groups on Family Mediation of Mathematically Based Concepts while Engaged in a Problem-Solving Activity with Their Young Deaf Children. As mentioned above, there is no study discussing about the young children solving science problem, so in problem this research will regard “science” as the study subject. What is science? Science is not just a collection of facts. Of course, facts are an important part of science. Science involves trial and error—trying, failing and trying again. Science doesn’t provide all the answers. It requires us to be skeptical so that our scientific “conclusions” can be modified or changed altogether as we make new discoveries. Children Have Their Own “scientific concepts”. Very young children can come up with many interesting explanations to make sense of the world around them. When asked about the shape of the earth, for example, some will explain that the earth has to be flat because, if it were round like a ball, people and things would fall off it. Presented with a globe and told that this is
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the true shape of the earth, these children may adapt their explanation by saying that the earth is hollow and that people live on flat ground inside it (Washington, 2005) . In similar viewpoint, Huang (2007) considers that the young children have no adequate experience, intelligence, and tactics before six years old. The point of science-learning is to obtain experience, such as natural, social phenomenon. As the above-mentioned, the young children will not only mature step by step and develop the ability of defining abstract phenomenon, but also establish scientific world outlook. In the end, the young children will apply “science inquiry” to common life. Scientific inquiry is the formal, educational process through which students learn to seek answers to questions they develop about the natural world: 1.Inquiry is the through the act of asking for information or conducting an official investigation. 2.Through which students learn more about the natural world and themselves (Teresa, 2008). Students have a natural fascination and wonder about the natural world in which they live. Inquiry is an ongoing process that can occur anytime and anywhere. Children are inquisitive about their world; they are constantly making observations, performing investigations, making analyses, and drawing conclusions about the phenomena of their natural world. Providing children with a context for hands-on, personal experience allows them to form mental representations of complex phenomena. Students need hands-on experiences to make brain connections and to learn; the
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senses are the medium for these experiences. As Aristotle wrote, “There is nothing in the mind that was not first in the senses.” Providing opportunities for children to develop and refine the use of their sensory motor skills and investigatory skills ultimately allows children’s to answer their questions about nature (Teresa, 2008). Scientific inquiry begins with the infant who is constantly exploring his/her environment. The Pre-K classroom is the place to introduce children to the formal process of scientific inquiry. The goals of this introduction to scientific inquiry for the Pre-K classroom, according to the Core Curriculum for the School District of Philadelphia, are for children to (Teresa, 2008): A.
Investigate new materials as they explore their world and environment.
B.
Ask and pose questions during group or individual times to further their understanding of the organisms and environmental phenomena of their world.
C.
Make predictions about what will happen next based on previous experience, reflections, and inquiry experiences.
D.
Develop listening skills.
E.
Communicate observations through pictures, journals, and dictation.
F.
Hone the use of the senses in the making of observation and to learn about objects, organisms and phenomena for a purpose.
G.
Use the senses for classifying, sorting, and ordering in terms of observable characteristics
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and properties. H.
Record observation and findings through a variety of methods.
I.
Begin to interpret observations through pictures, conversations, dramatizations, etc.
J.
Discuss and share findings.
K.
Describe and illustrate simple cause and effect relationships.
L.
Proposing explanations.
M. Begin to explain some of the characteristics of the natural world, materials on earth, characteristics of living things and natural processes. N.
Predict what will happen next based on previous experiences, reflection, and the planning of science experiments. The role of the teacher is to facilitate the process of learning whereby students are able
to follow a process of inquiry to construct meaning on a subject and construct the desired knowledge. The teacher prepares the environment for Inquiry learning by: A. Designing the activity. B. Preparing the materials. C. Building background knowledge as appropriate. D. Constructing open-ended, evocative questions. E. Extracting students questions on the subject.
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F. Facilitating conversation between students. G. Modeling procedure as necessary. H. Guiding student inquiry by providing support for the procedure/investigation by asking questions, answering questions, making observations, and providing information, as necessary. I. Facilitating post-inquiry discussion to help students identify similarities and conflicts in understanding, revising understandings and relating their findings to existing knowledge bases. “Early learning content standards” such as the process of problem-solving which proceed in an orderly way include: 1. Ask a testable question. 2. Design and conduct a simple investigation to explore a question. 3. Gather and communicate information from careful observations and simple investigation through a variety of methods (Jennifer, 2007). Table 1 Early learning content standards Pre-K Indicators
Kindergarten Indicators Grade 1Indicators Scientific Inquiry Standard
Grade 2 Indicators
1. Ask a testable question. Ask questions about objects, Ask “what if” questions. organisms and events in their Explore and pursue student environment during shared -generated “what if” stories conversations and questions. play . Show interest in investigating unfamiliar objects, organisms and phenomena during shared stories, conversations and play. Predict what will happen next based on previous experience. Investigate natural law acting upon objects, events, and organisms.
Ask “what happens when” questions. Explore and pursue student generated “what happens when” questions.
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Ask “how can I/we”question. Ask “how do you know” questions (not “why” question) in appropriate situation and attempt to give reasonable answers when others ask questions. Explore and pursue student generated “how” questions.
Table 1 Early learning content standards Pre-K Indicators
Kindergarten Indicators
Grade 1Indicators
Grade 2 Indicators
2. Design and conduct a simple investigation to explore a question. Use one or more of the senses Use appropriate safety Use appropriate safety Use appropriate safety to observe and learn about procedures when completing procedures when completing procedures when completing objects, organisms and scientific investigations. scientific investigations. scientific investigations. phenomena for a purpose. Use the five senses to make Use appropriate tools and Use appropriate tools and Explore objects, organisms observations about the simple equipment/ simple equipment/instrument and events using simple natural world. instrument to safely gather to safely gather scientific equipment. Use appropriate tools and scientific data. data. simple equipment Measure properties of objects /instruments to safely using tools such as rulers, gather scientific data. balances and thermometers. Make new observations when people give different descriptions for the same thing. 3. Gather and communicate information from careful observations and simple investigation through a variety of methods. Begin to make comparisons Draw pictures that correctly Work in a small group to Use evidence to develop between objects or organisms portray features of the item complete an investigation explanations of scientific based on their characteristics. being described. and then share findings with investigations. Record or represent and Recognize that numbers can others. Recognize that explanations communicate observations be used to count a collection Create individual conclusion are generated in response to and findings through a variety of things. about group findings. observations, events and of methods with assistance. Measure the lengths of Make estimates to compare phenomena. objects using non-standard familiar lengths, weights and Use whole numbers to order, methods of measurement. time intervals. count, identify, measure and Make pictographs and use Use oral, written and describe thing a experiences. them to describe observation pictorial representation to Share explanations with and draw conclusions. communicate work. others to provide opportunity Describe things as accurately to ask questions, examine as possible and compare evidence and suggest with the observations of alternative explanations. others.
The young children are curious about natural by birth. Science inquiry not only is important for the young children, but also is the foundation of constructing thinking system. The best time of life to construct scientific interests is in the childhood, so the Pre-K education can provide the young children chance to learn and practice how to solve basic questions which normally include steps bellows: 1.Understanding a social situation and confirming the question. 2. Proposing alternative solutions. 3. Evaluating the solutions. 4. Accepting and
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implementing one of the solutions. 5. Making sure the solution is successful. According 5P of DISCOVER from Multi-dimensional Intelligent Theory which is proposed by Maker (1992) , this research develops the questionnaire of problem-solving of children science inquiry. The researcher expects to have the preliminary understanding for the degree of the young children to solve the question.
Research method A. Research framework. Based on the data inquiry, the researcher designed the ‚The detailed analysis of children’s problem-solving ability‛ at first. (App.1) The sections of the analysis are based on a simple model and are deepened and broadened step by step, which includes: Be able to recognize the problem → Be able to provide solutions based on the problem → Be able to execute the solution → Decide the best solution → Integrated application. Depends on the analysis, the researcher designed three story settings as “The Questionnaire of Problem-Solving of Children Science Inquiry” (get details at the end of this article).The researcher invited young children to operate the experiment personally and have a face-to-face interview with each one, therefore, in order to observe the children’s thinking and action in the problem-solving process of children science inquiry. The research framework is like picture 3 below.
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Problem-Solving of Children Science Inquiry
Setting 1
Setting 2
Setting 3
A. Make sure the question and describe it clearly.
A. Make sure the question and describe it clearly.
B. Provide possible solutions
B. Provide possible solutions
B. Provide possible solutions
C. Execute the solution 方案
C. Execute the solution 方案
C. Execute the solution 方案
D. Decide the best solution
D.Decide the best solution
D. Decide the best solution
E. Integrated application
E. Integrated application
E. Integrated application
A. Make sure the question and describe it clearly.
Figure 3
research framework
B. Research location and testee. The researcher chose 2 kindergartens in Kaohsiung and 2 in Ping Tong as the test location of ‚The Questionnaire of Problem-Solving of Children Science Inquiry‛ and picked 5 children from each kindergarten. There were total 4 kindergartens and 20 six-years-old children (half of them are boys and the others are girls) who participated in this research. The average age of the children is 73.7 months. (SD=3.74) The percentage of the parents’ occupation is as follows: white-collar worker 15%, blue-collar worker 19%, businessman 18%, officer 20%, educator 8%, service industry 15% and job seeking 5%. C. The procedure of executing research. The researcher use ‚The Questionnaire of Problem-Solving of Children Science Inquiry‛ in the research and let children operate the experiment personally and have face-to-face interview. One research assistant is the main tester and another is responsible for record. The child sat beside the main tester randomly, no Page 256
matter at the right side or left side. The main tester interpreted and led the child into the story setting. Then let the child operate the experiment personally and answer the question based on the questionnaire. Each child had to complete three story settings. It took about 25 minutes to fulfill the questionnaire of each setting. The average time for children to fulfill the whole questionnaire is about 75 minutes. To consider that child is not suitable to sit for such long time, the researcher separated the test time into two parts. Otherwise the researcher prepared several gifts for children to encourage them to try. The main tester will be based on the order of the questionnaire and ask children to operate the experiment personally and have orally interpretation and answer. The three story settings have the same question pattern. (a) Be able to recognize the problem: The main tester constructs the story setting first and then leads the testee into the setting. By asking ‚Is anything wrong with it? ‚Why does it become this way?‛ to observe if the testee can recognize the problem in the setting and discover anything unreasonable or different from their thought. Moreover, the researcher also wants to know if they can point out the core of the problem and clarify the problem clearly. (b) Be able to provide solutions based on the problem: Ask the child to figure out the solution of the problem. The tester provides the possible materials depends on different settings and let testee wonder which material can be used to solve the problem they discovered, otherwise, consider and estimate the possible solution and limitation. (c) Be able to execute the solution: Ask the testee to operate the experiment personally based on the materials they have chosen and change the original situation in order to solve the problem. The number of experiment times is no limitation. The tester observes if the testee can operate the experiment personally and fulfill it orderly. (d) Decide the best solution: When the testee stops operating the experiment, by asking “Among the solutions you thought of and you had done, which solutions can succeed?” “Among these solutions, which one is better?” “What reasons make the solution better than the
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others? Is there anything else?” to let him/she estimate the best solution and explain the reason. Moreover, let the testee make reasonable explanation and evaluation based on the solution. It’s no need to ask the questions of this section when these situations happened: the testee only tried one solution; only one solution succeeds; none of the solution succeeds. (e) Integrate application: The main purpose of the question in this stage is to let children integrate what they have done and discovered. By asking “What’s the function of what you have done?” “Is there any difficulty within the solution you had taken?” “Could you give some advices?” the researcher hopes the tester can point out: the connection between problems and solutions; the advices for approving solutions; the other situations for the tester to apply the problem-solving experience. D. Data analysis. Based on the question of ‚The Questionnaire of Problem-Solving of Children Science Inquiry‛, the outcome is judged as ‚1‛if the children answer or operate the experiment right and is judged as ‚0‛if not. As for the children’s explanation of the answer and the experiment process, we have two trained research assistants to type and check the reason of the answer and the experiment process with the record such as: video record, radio record and on-the-scene record. The researcher establishes the judgment standard. Two research assistants judge the level of the taster’s answer according to the judgment standard. The tester’s consistency of judging the answer is 99%. If there is any inconsistent item, the researcher will prejudge it based on the record.
Results I. The Questionnaire of Problem-Solving of Children Science Inquiry. The questionnaire contains three stories , which are” Walt’s Boat‛,‛ May’s Ball-Rolling Board”, and ” Bob Saves the Earth‛. (a) Setting1” Walt’s Boat‛
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Setting: It is designed as a legislature can not be floating on the water surface of the ship, the researcher hopes to be able to find children care after the boat can not float on the surface of the water legislation of the problem and try to use the materials to change the boat.
Materials: 2 PET bottles, 2 cartons, 2 pudding boxes, 2 Yakult bottles, 2 hoses, 2 corrugated cardboards (2L2S), 2 plastic plates (2L4S) .
(b) Setting2 “May’s Ball-Rolling Board”
Setting: It is designed as a bowl, the building blocks of a long board, as well as a ball. May wants to make a Ball-Rolling Board. She takes an iron bowl, blocks, a ball, and a long board. She wants the ball to roll into the bowl without pushing and roll by itself. Let’s see what will happen to May’s ball-rolling board. (Let go the ball on the board and observe the rolling condition with the subject)
Materials: one set of blocks, 2 thick cardboards (1 long 1 short), 2 pieces of monthly calendar paper (1 long 1 short), 2 corrugated cardboards (1 long 1 short)
(c) Setting3 ‚Bob Saves the Earth‛
Setting: Bob has to defeat the monster to save the world. This tool is invented by Bob to defeat the monster. Now, let’s try to defeat the monster and see what will happen. The researcher wants to enable children to use the material provided hands-on trial to make changes in the original furnishings, including the rope length, light and heavy objects, positioned so that children seek to overthrow the solution.
Materials: several ropes with different length, Ping-Pong ball, plastic ball, batteries, light block (triangle, square, circle), heavy block (triangle, square)
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The Questionnaire of Problem-Solving
ofChildren Science Inquiry 1: Walt’s Boat Ball-Rolling Children 2.May’s Science Inquiry
3. Bob Saves the Earth
Board
Figure 4 Design of the questionnaire of problem-solving of children science inquiry II. The detailed analysis of children’s problem-solving ability. The study is based on “The detailed analysis of children’s problem-solving ability” to design the settings. The analysis includes be able to recognize the problem”, “be able to provide solutions based on the problem”, “be able to execute the solution”, “decide the best solution”, and “integrated application”.20 6-year-oldchildren test the settings, it shows the results of analysis, and compares the analysis of the data. (a) Be able to recognize the problem. At first, the researcher talked a story. He asks some questions to observe children that who could recognize the problem or not. For example, he may ask “Do you feel something wrong in the story?” to help the kids to figure out something wrong in the story.
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Table2. The number and proportion of recognizing the problem. Setting1
Setting2
Setting3
A1. be able to recognize the problem
19 (95%)
19 (95%)
19 (95%)
A2. be able to confirm the problem
12 (60%)
6 (30%)
19 (95%)
From the Table2, the study shows that children can identify the core of a very high proportion of problem. The setting 2 is the most difficult from the Table2. Only 30% children could be able to confirm the problem. For children, the tilt of the scientific issues related to the most difficult at the test. 95% children can recognize the setting 1, they usually answer ”the board is too flat to move.” 95% children can recognize the setting2, they usually answer ”the coffee bottle is too heavy.” , ” the bottle is too small.” 95% children can recognize the setting3, they usually answer” the rope is too short”, “the Styrofoam balls is too light.” Although the child can identify a high proportion of problem, they confirm the key point hardly. Research has shown that the higher difficulty problem, the less the proportion of correct answers. The researchers let children use the appropriate tools and simple equipment to collect scientific information. In this process, it shows that 6-year-old children's life experiences can be utilized to cope with the simple scientific concept, they simply have some basic scientific concepts.
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(b) Be able to provide solutions based on the problem. Table3. The number and proportion of providing solutions based on the problem. Setting1
Setting2
Setting3
B1. be able to provide workable solutions based on the problem
8(40%)
8 (40%)
16 (80%)
B2. be able to confirm the problem
3 (15% )
1(5%)
3 (15%)
B3.be able to consider and estimate the usable solution and limitation
10 (50%)
7(35%)
7(35%)
He researcher asks the children to use materials and come up with a solution. The researcher asks question B1 without providing any materials. Children externalize thought through cognitive ability. Table3 shows that comes forward with a logical solution to child ratio for the setting1 is (40%), setting2 is (40%), setting3 is (80%). At setting1children have logical way to answer this question ; Setting2 shows that children in this part of the life experiences may be insufficient ; Settinging3 is able to guide children's imaginative capabilities, and ease of scientific concepts more in line with the extent of six children. The researcher asks children to provide different materials in the questionB2.Children can answer different solutions base on creativity and imagine. However, children's answers are logical answers to the proportion of small. The researcher should change the way of question is asked, or change the situation. From Table3, it is weak that children assess the materials.
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(c) Be able to execute the solution Table4. The number and proportion of executing the solution.
C1. to choose usable materials or resources based on the solution C2. to try to carry out the solution they figure out.
Setting1
Setting2
Setting3
19 (95%)
12 (60%)
19 (95%)
18 (90%)
12 (60%)
19(95%)
The researcher asks students to do the experiments in the Question C. Table4 shows that comes forward with executing solutions to children for the setting1 is (95%), setting2 is (60%), setting3 is (95%) and trying to carry out the solution for setting1 is (90%), setting2 is (60%), setting3 is (95%). If the children have at hand materials to experiment, he will be quite a logical concept and can be carried out structured problem-solving. For example, in the Setting1, most of children choose the plastic plate or surface boxes on the boat to increase load force so that ships could float on the water. In the Setting2, children often increase the height of blocks, so that the ball because the slope of the change to move to a bowl; in the Setting3 children use the longer rope with heavy blocks to defeat monsters. In the Setting 1 and Setting3, Almost all the children execute the solution, it shows that children’s science ability. (d) Decide the best solution.
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Table5. The number and proportion of deciding the best solution.
D1 to point out effectual solutions D2 be able to estimate better solutions D3 to aim at effectual solutions to put forth reasonable explanations and evaluations
Setting1
Setting2
Setting3
15 (75%) 14 (70%)
8(40%) 6 (30%)
12 (60%) 17(85%)
9(45%)
2 (10%)
12(60%)
When children finish the experiment, the researcher starts to ask children some questions to observe that children can estimate better solutions. The researcher asks children to decide the best solutions. From Table5, it shows that kids point out effectual solutions the ratio Setting1 is 75% , Setting2 is 40%, Setting3 is 60%.it shows that Setting2 is more difficult than other settings and kids may be unable to remember the experiment has just been done. Then the researcher asks children to estimate better solutions and externalize. From D2, it shows that children answer Setting3 better than others. From D3, children aim at effectual solutions to put forth reasonable explanations and evaluations, in the question, it shows that Setting 2 is more difficult then other settings. (e) Integrated application. Table6. The number and proportion of integrating application.
E1 to point out the connection between the problem and the solution. E2 to point out the difficulties during the problem-solving process. E3 to provide suggestions for improving the solution.
Setting1
Setting2
Setting3
12 (60%)
12 (60%)
19(95%)
14(70%)
11(55% )
14 (70%)
14 (70%)
12 (60%)
17(85%)
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At this step, the researcher wants to observe children could integrate the settings and discovery the key point at settings, and then provide suggestions for improving the solution. The researcher asks children to point out the connection between the problem and the solution. More than 60% of the children can point out the connection between the problem and the solution clearly at these Settings. For example, in the Setting1 children answer “Walt’s Boat is round and mind is flat.” , or “because the paste is flat , I can success.”; in the Setting2 children may answer “ I add the wood.” ; in the Setting3 they may answer “I try to change the rope.” or “ I change the weapon (the blocks).”It shows excellence creativity and imagination of 6-year-old children's scientific ability and children’s problem-solving ability.
Conclusion The researcher uses hands-on experiments to observe and research for 6-year-old children's scientific ability and children’s problem-solving ability. Through this study, teachers can analyze three settings for the following indicators: A. To recognize the problem: it shows that 6-year-old children's life experiences can be utilized to cope with the simple scientific concept. They simply have some basic scientific concepts. B. To provide solutions based on the problem: at this step, students try to seek information from other sources to assist them in understanding and explaining the settings. The
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researcher observe students to find solutions, but students provide solutions which are the lack of creativity and imagination. C. To execute the solution: at this step, students have to a logical idea to solve the problems and have material to solve the solutions. D. To decide the best solution: at this stage, children have to decide the best solutions to explain the logical and reasonable method. E. Integrated application: students integrate their conceptual and thinking. The purpose of settings is not only to reward the expression of positive attitudes, but to reward children for representing their feelings and attitudes about the science experience through oral externalizing. Pre-school children in Taiwan for the study of scientific inquiry to solve the problem is very rare .Through the study the researcher finds Pre-school children’s problem-solving ability, but the sample size is too small. The researcher looks forward to be able to expand the settings into a teaching module. In the future, the teaching module will be used general to observe and analysis children’s scientific concept and problem-solving ability.
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References Britz, J. (1993). Problem solving in early childhood classrooms. Retrieved August 16, 2009, from http://www.ericdigests.org/1993/early.htm Chen, J. P. (2002). Learning science through play. Taiwan: Scholastic Inc. Dougherty, B. J & Slovin, H. (2004). Generalized Diagrams as a Tool for Young Children's Problem Solving. Norway : International Group for the Psychology of Mathematics Education, 28th. Fisher, R. (1990). Teaching children to think. Spain: Basil Blackwell Ltd. Huang, M. Z. & Chen, W. D. (2005). The ability of problem solving. Nine year consistent curriculum. Taiwan: National Taiwan Normal University. Huang, S. Y. (2002). Learning through play: problem solving. Taiwan: Scholastic Inc. Huang, X. M. (2004). Children's problem solving in mathematics. Taiwan: The Profile of Psychological Publishing Co., Ltd. Huang, Y. S. (2007). Natual science for young children. Taiwan: Huateng Publishing Co., Ltd. Jennifer G. (2007). Early Childhood Building Blocks: Turning Curiosity into Scientific Inquiry. Retrieved July 2, 2009, from http://serendip.brynmawr.edu/exchange/node/2846in Kritzer, K. L. (2008). Family Mediation of Mathematically Based Concepts while Engaged in
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a Problem-Solving Activity with Their Young Deaf Children. Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf Education, 13(4), 503-517 Maker, C. J. (1993). Creativity, intelligence, and problem solving: A definition and design for crosscultural research and measurement related to giftedness. Gifted Education International, 9(2), 68-77. McCusker, J.(2001). Emerging Musical Literacy: Investigating Young Children's Music Cognition and Musical Problem-Solving through Invented Notations. Retrieved July 5, 2009, from http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/contentdelivery/servlet/ERICServlet?accno=E D46006 Newell, A. & Simon, H. A. (1972). Human problem solving. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall. Siegler, R., Deloache,J. & Eisenberg, N. (2003). How children develop. U.S.A.: Worth Publichers. Sperling, R. A., Walls, R. T., Hill, L. A. & Lee A. (2000). Early Relationships among Self-Regulatory Constructs: Theory of Mind and Preschool Children's Problem Solving. Child Study Journal, 30(4), 233-52. Sternberg, R. J. (2003). Problem-solving cycle. U.S.A.: Wadseorth, a division of Thomson Learning, Inc.
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Teresa A. (2008). Developing the Process of Science Inquiry In The PreK Classroom. Retrieved August 30, 2009, from http://serendip.brynmawr.edu/exchange/node/2846 Washington, D.C. (2005). Helping Your Child Learn Science. Retrieved October 5, 2008, from http://www.ed.gov/parents/academic/help/science/index.html Zhanng, C. XI. (2001). Modern psychology. Taiwan: Zhwng Da Ltd.
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Appendix 1 The detailed analysis of children’s problem-solving ability: □ A. be able to recognize the problem □ A1 be able to discover or detect the problem and figure out something different □
A1-1 be able to detect the differences of the setting which is different from their thought
□
A1-2 be able to detect the unreasonable thing of the setting
□ A2 be able to confirm the problem □
A2-1 be able to point out the core of the problem (or be able to connect the beginning and the ending of the problem)
□
A2-2 be able to describe the problem clearly
□ B. be able to provide solutions based on the problem □ B1 be able to provide workable solutions based on the problem □ B2 be able to choose usable materials and resources based on the problem ( be able to figure out usable solutions during the psychological process and not definitely be able to choose and use from the resources. □ B3 be able to consider and estimate the usable solution and limitation □ C. be able to execute the solution □ C1 be able to choose usable materials or resources based on the solution □ C2 be able to try to carry out the solution they figure out. □ C3 be able to proceed the steps of solution orderly □ D decide the best solution □ D1 be able to point out effectual solutions □ D2 be able to estimate better solutions □ D3 be able to aim at effectual solutions to put forth reasonable explanations and evaluations □ E integrated application □ E1 be able to point out the connection between the problem and the solution □ E2 be able to point out the difficulties during the problem-solving process □ E3 be able to provide suggestions for improving the solution □ E4 be able to apply the problem-solving experiences to the other settings
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Appendix 2
The Questionnaire of Problem-Solving of Children Science Inquiry Setting 1 Walt’s Boat Name:_______________
School:_______________
Birth:________________
Gender:_______________
Class:_______________ Test Date:_____________
Introduction: Hello! Today, we are going to have a game. You see! This boat is made by Walt himself and he wants it to float on the water (show the boat). Now, I am going to put the boat on the water. Let’s see what will happen to Walt’s boat? (Put the boat on the water and observe the change of the boat with the subject.) A. Be able to recognize the problem A1、Is there anything wrong with Walt’s boat? Is there anything else? (Keep asking until the subject answers No) A2、Why does Walt’s boat become this way? Is there anything else? (Keep asking until the subject answers No) B. Be able to provide solutions based on the problem B1、Think about the boat. If you can change whatever you see, is there any solution to keep the boat from falling? Is there anything else? (Keep asking until the subject answers No) B2-1、Walt wants to ask you to help him to keep the boat from falling. He asks Candy to bring a scissor, a tape and some materials 【Open the material box and introduce all the stuff one by one: 2 PET bottles, 2 cartons, 2 pudding boxes, 2 Yakult bottles, 2 hoses, 2 corrugated cardboards (2L2S), 2 plastic plates (2L4S)】If you can change whatever you see, is there any material can be used to change the boat to keep it from falling? Is there anything else? (Now, let the subject choose the material by himself.) B2-2、Do you think of any material which is not included here? Is there anything else? (Keep asking until the subject answers No) B3、Could you tell me the reason you didn’t choose the other materials? (Question Page 271
orderly by each material) Is there anything else? (Keep asking until the subject answers No) C. Be able to execute the solution These are the materials you have chosen. Now, please change Walt’s boat. C1 Observe whether the subject can complete the change or not. C2 Observe whether the subject can complete the change orderly or not. C3 Walt’s boat would fall on the water. Is there any difference or sameness between your boat and Walt’s boat on the water? (Ask the subject to put his boat on the water) (If the subject has the other solutions, this question group should be continually questioned until he answers NO.) D. Decide the best solution D1、Among the solutions you thought of and you had done, which solutions can successfully keep the boat from falling? Is there anything else? (Keep asking until the subject answers No. However, if the subject only has one solution, it’s no need to ask this question) D2、Among these solutions, which one is better? (If the subject only has one solution, it’s no need to ask this question) D3、What reasons make the solution better than the others? Is there anything else? (If the subject only has one solution, it’s no need to ask this question) E. Integrated application E1、What’s the function of your boat to keep it from falling like Walt’s? Is there anything else? (Keep asking until the subject answers No) E2、Is there any difficulty within the solution you had taken? (Keep asking until the subject answers No) E3、Could you give Walt some advices to keep his boat from falling? Is there anything else? (Keep asking until the subject answers No) E4、If your friend also wants a floating boat, in order to keep boat from falling, what will you remind him to pay attention to? Is there anything else? (Keep asking until the subject answers No) Thanks for your help. Page 272
Learning chemistry with ―Legends of Alkhimia‖
Learning Chemistry with the game “Legends of Alkhimia”: Pedagogical and Epistemic Bases of Design-for-Learning and the Challenges of Boundary Crossing
Yam San Chee Daniel Kim Chwee Tan Ek Ming Tan Ming Fong Jan
National Institute of Education, Nanyang Technological University 1 Nanyang Walk, Singapore 637616
Email:
[email protected] Page 273
Learning chemistry with ―Legends of Alkhimia‖
Abstract Typical textbooks in Chemistry present the field as a fait accompli represented by a body of ―proven‖ facts. In the teaching and learning of Chemistry, students have little, if any, agency to engage in scientific inquiry and to construct their personal understanding of the field. An emphasis on pre-determined ―knowledge‖ and the execution of laboratory experiments designed mainly to confirm pre-determined ―findings‖ can lead students to a grave misunderstanding of the nature of science. In this paper, we report on ongoing work to design a learning environment for learning chemistry that addresses the concerns raised above. Pitched at the lower secondary school level, our game-based learning innovation, using the multiplayer game ―Legends of Alkhimia‖, is directed at helping students learn to imbibe the values and dispositions of professional chemists and also to think like them. Drawing on Bourdieu‘s construct of habitus, we seek to foster students‘ capacity for practical reason as they ‗become themselves‘ via engagement in the scientific practice of doing chemistry, rather than just learning about it. We explain how our design for learning seeks to develop epistemic reflexivity and the identity of students in relation to professional chemists, as part of an ongoing trajectory of becoming. Learning innovations invariably introduce perturbations to existing schooling practices. In bringing our learning innovation into the social milieu of the classroom, we have experienced notable challenges related to boundary crossing. In the paper, we share these challenges so that teachers and school administrators can be better prepared for the changes in mindset, values, and beliefs that enacting pedagogical innovations such as game-based learning demand.
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Learning chemistry with ―Legends of Alkhimia‖
Learning Chemistry with the game “Legends of Alkhimia”: Pedagogical and Epistemic Bases of Design-for-Learning and the Challenges of Boundary Crossing Introduction Typical textbooks in Chemistry present the field as a fait accompli represented by a body of ―proven‖ facts. For example, a textbook (Heyworth, 2002) used in the lower secondary science curriculum in Singapore makes the following claims: •
―Atoms are so small that nobody has ever seen a single atom. But scientists are certain they exist.‖ (p. 26, italics added)
•
―Scientists have discovered that atoms are made up of three smaller kinds of particles — protons, neutrons and electrons.‖ (p. 32, italics added)
•
―It’s a Fact! In 1915, Ernest Rutherford fired particles containing protons at some nitrogen gas (atoms of proton number 7). Protons entered the nuclei of the nitrogen atoms and changed them into oxygen atoms (of proton number 8).‖ (sidebar entry, p. 35, italics added) The examples above are indicative of the common rhetoric of science that revolves
around assertions of fact, certainty, and scientific discovery. Students with the capacity for critical thinking would invariably wonder why scientists are so certain of the existence of atoms if no one has ever had the opportunity to seen an atom. The textbook author provides no explanation for his existence claim. Student questioning is also not invited. The second example makes use of authorial privilege to assert a claim that atoms, although never ever seen, are composed of protons, neutrons, and electrons. But do scientists merely discover this ―fact‖, or is the atom merely a model invented by scientists to help them explain and predict chemical phenomena and does not exist at all? The final example appeals to the textbook
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Learning chemistry with ―Legends of Alkhimia‖
writer‘s authority as subject expert to assert a factual claim concerning what Ernest Rutherford succeeded in doing. Why would a thinking student believe such a claim? How would a student even begin to conceive of firing particles containing protons into nitrogen gas? Given the extensive gaps in explanation and credibility, it is hardly surprising that students‘ mastery of chemistry ―facts‖ through memorization is associated with minimal understanding of the domain and of chemistry processes. Overall, the presentation style reflected in the textbook is dogmatic, and it does not entertain any form of interrogation or challenge by the student reader. The underlying message is clear: ―Do not question; just accept what you are told.‖ In a classroom where the teaching of chemistry is conducted in a traditional manner, teachers further reinforce the image of science as a form of proven dogma. Teachers verbalize and expound the facts. The students‘ role is to memorize and profess the ―right facts‖. If not, they risk being penalized in their chemistry assessments. Regrettably, students have little, if any, agency to engage in scientific inquiry and to construct their personal understanding of the field. An emphasis on pre-determined ―knowledge‖ coupled with the execution of laboratory experiments designed mainly to confirm pre-determined ―findings‖ can lead to students leaving school with a grave misunderstanding of the nature of science. Students will not realise that scientists actually require imagination and creativity to invent explanations and models to explain phenomenaand that scientific knowledge is tentative, subjected to change and can never be absolutely proven (Lederman, Abd-El-Khalick, Bell, & Schwartz, 2002; Schwartz & Lederman, 2002). They will also be surprised when they find out that there is competition among rival theories and camps of scientists, that experiment data can be interpreted in more than one way depending on the theory one subscribes to, and that theories can contradict each other (Niaz, 2001). These issues are seldom brought up or discussed in class. In general, then, students are not provided with access to authentic science education (Roth, 1995). Page 276
Learning chemistry with ―Legends of Alkhimia‖
Neither are they helped to understand that engagement in the practice of doing science is the human activity that makes knowledge as a process of constructing reality (Berger & Luckmann, 1966; Knorr-Cetina, 1999). In the next section of the paper, we first share our general framework for human learning that provides a basis for design-for-learning with our chemistry game. We also explicate, in particular, the pedagogical and epistemic bases of our learning design. The following section describes what it is like to play Level 1 of the game ―Legends of Alkhimia‖. At the time of writing, the game is still under development, with Level 2 being close to completion. The next part of the paper then articulates the challenges that we have faced in conversing with teachers about taking up and implementing the Alkhimia gamebased learning curriculum in their schools. Positioned in terms of boundary crossing, we explain how pedagogical innovations that demand changes in mindsets and practices face institutional and professional barriers to change. The paper concludes by summarizing a set of issues that teachers can consider in advance to facilitate the process of change. Design-for-Learning The specific design-for-learning that we have adopted in our Alkhimia learning environment is based on the general framework for human learning that is shown in Figure 1. This framework is inspired by Collen (2003) who proposed a philosophical foundation for a general methodology for human systems inquiry. In this original framework, the philsophical basis for human systems inquiry comprises three fundamental ideas from Greek philsophy: namely, ontos, logos, and praxis. Together, they yield a praxiology for human inquiry. In our design-for-learning with respect to the Alkhimia chemistry curriculum, we have found it fruitful to adopt a view of learning as a form of inquiry (Postman, 1995; Postman & Weingartner, 1969). We have appropriated Collen‘s framework into the context
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of learning as it provides us with a tractable model for considering the fundamental components of human learning. Ontos, or ontology, is the study of human being, human existence, and of what is. Logos, referring to epistemology, is the study of human knowing, what can be known, and what constitutes human knowledge. Praxis, or praxiology, is the study of action, the practices of human beings, and of what we (as humans) do. To understand human learning in its authenticity as well as complexity, it is vital that learning be studied in the context of humans in situated action, including speech acts (Austin, 1975; Bruner, 1990; Clancey, 1997; Dewey, 1938; Gergen, 1999). In adopting this position, we explicitly reject learning outcomes where students can only talk about chemistry, without the ability to engage in the practice of chemistry. The framework in Figure 1 emphasizes that human knowing is inseparable from human doing (Dewey, 1916/1980) and human being (Heidegger, 1953/1996). The components of the framework are of necessity embedded within a context of axiology, the study of human values. Knowing, doing, and being are inherently value-laden activities (Ferré, 1996, 1998; Putnam, 2002). Humans make basic value distinctions related to the processes and outcomes of learning. These distinctions guide their learning actions toward outcomes that have positive value.
Figure 1. General framework for human learning.
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Learning chemistry with ―Legends of Alkhimia‖
Pedagogical Basis In striving for a chemistry learning environment that can support authentic, disciplinary learning, we have taken professional practice as a basic reference point for our pedagogical design. We seek to foster a form of learning that will enable students to begin to think, feel, and act like professional chemists. Our first level of theoretical reference, therefore, in designing the Alkhimia learning environment, is to the work of Bourdieu (1977, 1998) and to his theory of practice. As a social theorist, Bourdieu wrote extensively about social structures in relation to everyday human practices. A key concept in Bourdieu‘s discourse of practice is that of habitus, which expresses the way in which individuals ‗become themselves‘ through the development of attitudes and dispositions related to a professional field on one hand, and the ways in which individuals engage in everyday practices of the field on the other. The notion of habitus mirrors the concept of practical reason (also referred to as practical sense) that refers to a person‘s ability to understand and negotiate positions within the sites of cultural practice that are comparable to a sportsperson‘s ‗feel‘ for the game. It should be evident from the foregoing, that this orientation is praxiological. It is altogether situated in practice and the enaction of behaviors that signify the values associated with a practice. It seeks to help students develop the vocabulary-in-use, the discourses, and the practices of a professional community, such as a scientific community. In short, it helps students learn to be a chemist, an orientation that is ontological. There is a second level of theoretical reference for our pedagogical design. This level is that of designing for students to participate in scientific inquiry. Like authentic scientists, students are made to engage in ―world construction‖ and meaning making processes to construct their personal, and justifiable, understanding of the chemistry-related regularities that operate in the game world of ―Legends of Alkhimia‖. The scientific inquiry process involves, constructing pertinent questions for inquiry, framing candidate hypotheses that Page 279
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address the questions, engaging in empirical investigations to test the hypotheses, analyzing the data collected from the investigations, constructing an explanatory model of the experience phenomena, and evaluating the robustness of the model. Epistemic Basis The epistemic basis of learning with the Alkhimia learning environment is depicted in Figure 2, which shows our Play–Dialog–Performance (PDP) Model of game-based learning (Chee, in preparation). This model instantiates a performance epistemology, which views knowledge as constituted in action, rather than existing a priori to action, and performance as the activity that allows students to develop competence in the field they are trying to master. By engaging in game play accompanied by speech acts in the form of dialogic conversations that help to make sense of what took place in the game world, students manifest their understanding of chemistry phenomena in the game world of Alkhimia by performing (by word and deed) the actions that lead to successful in-game and out-of-game outcomes. Game play takes place in the virtual world of the game; the learning experience is embodied through the student‘s in-game avatar, embedded in the game world, and richly experiential in nature (Chee, 2007). It is necessary, however, to step out of the world of realtime game play and into a dialogic space of conversation where different ideas and viewpoints, or ―voices‖, can interact with one another (Bakhtin, 1981). From the Bakhtinian perspective of dialogicality, a voice refers to a ―speaking personality.‖ Utterances come into existence by being produced by a voice. As Clark and Holquist (1984) explain: ―An utterance, spoken or written, is always expressed from a point of view, which for Bakhtin is a process rather than a location. Utterance is an activity that enacts differences in values.‖ Dialog is thus an activity that creates a space for different student ideas and values to collide and interact with one another.
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This process is factilitated by a teacher within a broader context of structured post-gameplay activities that scaffold students‘ meaning making efforts.
Figure 2. The Play–Dialog–Performance Model of game-based learning.
As students engage in multiple levels of game play, they iterate over the Play–Dialog cycle that places them on a forward trajectory of competence-through-performance. That is, they are envisaged to develop a performative capacity to think, talk, and act increasingly like professional chemists. This trajectory of learning, projected forward into time, is depicted by images of the student that become more faint as they move upward in Figure 2. Learning in this manner operationalizes the dialectical interplay between first-person learning by doing and third-person learning by thinking/reflection that is key to Dewey‘s epistemology of learning by doing. In addition, performative learning is characterized by the gradual development of a self-identity that becomes professional practice in the domain; in this context, chemistry. This conception of learning is consistent with Thomas and Brown‘s
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(2007) call for student learning to shift away from ―learning about‖ to ―learning to be.‖ As an approach to learning that places identity development as a key focus, the development of the student‘s professional identity constitutes a trajectory of becoming (Rogers, 1961, 1980). Learning can thus be conceived as a journey of becoming a certain kind of professional person. Returning to the sociology of Bourdieu, the epistemic design outlined here is intended to encourage students to be reflexive about their learning, critically interrogating assumptions and biases that may shape the construction of their understanding. In this way, students are encouraged to practise epistmological vigilance, so that social and cultural biases in their thinking can be exposed. In summary, our design-for-learning seeks to address all three aspects of the general framework shown in Figure 1. Student learning is conceived of as knowing that arises from doing within the broader context of learning to be; that is, becoming. Learning with “Legends of Alkhimia” The game ―Legends of Alkhimia‖ was designed to serve as the technology-mediated component of a broader learning environment that instantiates the PDP Model of game-based learning. The learning environment includes not only the game but also associated curricula materials for in-class use that provide the activity structure for the dialogic component of learning. The game is conceived of as an eight-level multiplayer game that support up to four players simultaneously. It is played over a local area network, typically in a computer laboratory in school. The game has been developed to run on PCs. At the time of writing, two out of the eight levels of the game have been completed. Our in-class research use of the game is scheduled to commence in July 2010. The research intervention will take place in two schools.
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The game begins in Level 1 with a scenario where the four student players crash-land in the region of the ancient town of Alkhimia. While exploring their environs, they suddenly find themselves attacked by a group of fireball-hurling monsters that emerge from a ravine (see Figure 3.)
Figure 3. Players fending off a monster attack in Level 1 of the game.
The players try to repel the monsters with the weapons they are carrying. These weapons, a form of gun, can shoot ammunition drawn from cartridges attached to the weapons. The players find that their weapons are not very effective against the monsters. Furthermore, their weapons frequently jam, making it even more difficult to destroy the monsters. After a short but furious battle, the monsters retreat into the ravine, leaving the
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players wondering about the composition of the ammunition in their cartridges and why the ammunition was ineffective in destroying the monsters. The narrative above establishes the context for students to engage in a process of inquiry. Receiving an instruction from their master, Aurus, to return to their headquarters, the students are asked to act on their master‘s suspicion that their ammunition in their weapon cartridges was contaminated, thus causing their weapons to jam. Aurus suggests that they perform separation techniques to purify the ammuniton substance. The students proceed to their respective lab benches and perform the separation technique that each one thinks will work best. Each student then chooses what she believes is the purified substance and loads her cartridge with this substance. Unknown to the players (but known to us as the designers of the game), the original substance comprises a mixture of acid and sand. A separating funnel (shown in Figure 4) is thus not an effective apparatus for separating the original mixture as this apparatus works only for immiscible liquids. If a player uses the coarse filter paper, she will obtain two derivative substances, and she can choose to load her weapon cartridge with one of the substances. When the players encounter the monsters a second time in Level 1 of the game, they will find that they are no better off than before. If a player used the separating funnel, the mixture of sand and acid will flow straight through the funnel; hence, their experience in trying to ward off the monsters will be the same as before. If a player used the substance in the beaker that was derived from mixture separation with the coarse filter paper, she will find that her ammunition is more effective than previously, but her weapon still jams occasionally. However, if the player used the substance collected in the filter paper as her ammunition, she would find her weapon jamming even more frequently than before. In addition, she will find that her ammunition is not totally ineffective against the monster. It is only when a student uses the fine filter paper and she chooses the filtered substance in the beaker as her Page 284
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ammunition that she will experience the most success in killing the attacking monsters. Thus, the game space allows students to experiment with quite different solution paths and to put the different solutions to the test in the second battle with the monsters. In this manner, the game allows divergent solution paths; students are not all required to do the same thing at the same time. This design allows for greater personal agency in game play and in learning.
Figure 4. A player performing a chemistry sepration technique at the laboratory bench.
Assuming that students execute different methods of mixture separation and based on the fact that the associated consequences of those actions will manifest differently in the second encounter with the monsters, the question that students will invariably ask is why? For example, why was Peter able to kill the monsters when I was not able to do so?
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The cognitive dissonance generated by students‘ game play transitions into a classroom space of dialogic learning where, under the guidance of a teacher, students learn with one another to construct the answers to their pressing questions. This form of dialogic learning can take place first at the student group level, then at the whole class level. In this process, students engage in making sense of their collective game experience. They reason to establish what different ammunition effects were observed, then work to identify the causal chain of actions that led to the observed effects. This process requires systematic reasoning that parallels the cycle of scientific inquiry involving questioning, hypothesizing, testing, analyzing, modeling, and evaluating. As students continue playing ―Legends of Alkhimia,‖ the chemistry involved becomes increasingly complex. Like the apprentice scientists that the game positions them to be, they are required to develop their own classifications of the substances that they encounter in the game world. They do not experience the world as a pre-labelled and a preconfigured place. This pedagogical design inducts students into an authentic practice of science making by requiring them to construct functional and concise representations and organizations of knowledge. Drawing upon the knowledge constructions of different student groups, the teacher will be able help students to make critical evaluations about the constructions proposed by different groups. In this manner, students will begin to appreciate that the construction of scientific knowledge is a social enterprise that is based upon a set of values that esteem explanations that are simple, parsimonious, and generalizable. Students thus learn to imbibe the values, dispositions, and beliefs that undergird the practice of science making. It should be evident that learning chemistry in this manner will yield rather different outcomes compared to traditional emphases on content mastery.
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Challenges of Boundary Crossing School teachers are faced with significant challenges when they consider the adoption of modes of teaching and learning that are implied in our pedagogy of game-based learning. Because our pedagogy embeds deep epistemic change, teachers need to adopt a different mind set in approaching their role and responsibilities. Adopting this different mind set, in effect, requires crossing a boundary into a new mode of teaching practice that is based on quite different epistemic assumptions. We outline below the kinds of challenges that teachers face when contemplating adoption of a game-based learning pedagogy. The distillation of these challenges arises from the conversations that we have had with teachers working with us on this research project. It is our hope that by identifying the challenges explicitly, teachers who are not familiar with the pedagogy can be better equipped to understand the issues they are likely to have to consider to enact the pedagogy successfully. Learning outcomes and epistemology Traditional ways of teaching lower secondary school chemistry focus on students‘ mastery of content that arise from didactic teaching on the part of the teacher. We have argued that student learning outcomes associated with this mode of teaching are weak because students have no opportunity to engage in the practices of doing science and constructing meaning in science. A performance epistemology values learning outcomes that enable students to enact authentic practices related to the doing of science as part of a broader goal of learning as being and becoming. This orientation represents a fundamental change in student learning goals toward identity development and professional practice. It is based on an epistemology of learning by doing rather than learning by being told. Curriculum and assessment
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Conventional curricula goals and forms of assessment place great emphasis on students‘ mastery of subject content. Teachers are concerned that the adoption of gamebased learning should not harm traditional content mastery given the same number of teaching hours. While this outcome may be desirable from a pragmatic perspective, it is not likely to hold in practice. Student mastery is likely to correlate highly with what a pedagogy seeks to promote. Thus, teaching for content mastery will lead to student excellence in content mastery, while teaching for performative outcomes will lead to student excellence in performative outcomes. Teachers are also concerned about modes of student assessment and conforming to standard tests across a class level in school. The modes of student assessment need to be broadened to encompass more qualitative and rubric-based assessments given that outcomes are no longer evaluated purely in terms of getting the answers to standard questions right or wrong. In addition, the practice of common tests works against pedagogical innovation when the innovation replaces old learning goals with new ones. Concerns relating to student prior knowledge Many teachers voice the fear that students will not know how to play the game successfully if they are not first taught the facts of the subject domain. This challenge reflects the difficulty that teachers face in recognizing that from a learning-by-doing perspective, competence is achieved only with performance. That is, students gain performance mastery in the domain through what they do. Distilling the knowledge products of learning is merely a by product of learning by doing. The promotion of learning by doing does not take place in lieu of learning content. Rather, the latter is ancillary to the former. School logistics The structure of student learning in schools is organized in terms of discrete blocks of time that range from about 35–60 minutes. Enacting a game-based learning curriculum Page 288
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typically requires blocks of approximately 120 minutes in order for game play and dialogic interaction and reflection to take place without feeling rushed. It is necessary, therefore, for schools to make special arrangements with respect to timetabling in order for a game-based learning curriculum to be enacted. Furthermore, we have found that, in practice, the ―official‖ amount of time allocated to any portion of curriculum usually cannot be met because of the many other co-curricular activities and school events that intrude into curriculum time. Thus, a curriculum segment that is allotted, say, 10 weeks may have to be compressed to fit within the space of 8 weeks. Time needed and time available are often not aligned. Sustaining innovation Game-based learning, as a pedagogical innovation, takes place within the cultural space of schools. Schools are inherently culturally-bound spaces that are largely resistant to change. As stable systems, school practices have an inherent tendency toward self perpetuation. Given that game-based learning requires change at a deep, epistemic level, there is often no assurance that a teacher who adopts an innovation will continue with it in future. This challenge is the outcome of deep tensions and is not easily resolved because the tension is systemic in nature.
Conclusion In this paper, we have articulated our conception of how lower secondary school chemistry can be enacted with game-based learning. We have argued that traditional ways of teaching chemistry, based on information dissemination and the assertion of scientific truth claims, is weak because this mode of teaching fails to deliver performative learning outcomes on the part of students. In lieu of traditional pedagogy, we have argued, based on a general framework of human learning, that learning must address ontological, epistemological, and Page 289
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praxiological dimensions. Game-based learning, as we have constructed it, allows us to reconceive learning in a way that incorporates the processes of knowing, doing, and being, processes that we view as vital to an authentic approach to learning. We elaborated on the pedagogical and epistemic bases of our design-for-learning and explained how learning in the Alkhimia learning environment would proceed. As mentioned, game development is not yet complete at the time of writing. However, a pilot test based on Levels 1 and 2 of the game is scheduled for late October 2009. We also set out some of the known challenges to boundary crossing facing teachers contemplating the adoption of gamebased learning. The distillation of challenges arose from conversations that we have had with teachers collaborating with us on the Alkhimia research project. To conclude, we hope that this paper helps to inform teachers about the vision and opportunities for enhancing pedagogy through game-based learning. At the same time, we also hope to alert teachers to the challenges they may face in adopting this pedagogical innovation.
References Austin, J. L. (1975). How to do things with words (2nd ed.). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Bakhtin, M. M. (1981). The dialogic imagination: Four essays. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press. Berger, P., & Luckmann, T. (1966). The social construction of reality: A treatise in the sociology of knowledge. London: Penguin Books. Bourdieu, P. (1977). Outline of a theory of practice (R. Nice, Trans.). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. Bourdieu, P. (1998). Practical reason: On the theory of action. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. Page 290
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Bruner, J. S. (1990). Acts of meaning. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Chee, Y. S. (2007). Embodiment, embeddedness, and experience: Game-based learning and the construction of identity. Research and Practice in Technology Enhanced Learning, 2(1), 3–30. Chee, Y. S. (in preparation). Play, dialog, and performance: The PDP model of game-based learning. Clancey, W. J. (1997). Situated cognition: On human knowledge and computer representations. New York: Cambridge University Press. Clark, K., & Holquist, M. (1984). Mikhail Bakhtin. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Collen, A. (2003). Systemic change through praxis and inquiry. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishers. Dewey, J. (1916/1980). Democracy and education (Vol. 9, John Dewey: The Middle Works, 1899–1924). Carbondale, IL: Southern Illinois University Press. Dewey, J. (1938). Experience and education. NY: Macmillan. Ferré, F. (1996). Being and value: Toward a constructive postmodern metaphysics. NY: SUNY Press. Ferré, F. (1998). Knowing and value: Toward a constructive postmodern epistemology. NY: SUNY Press. Gergen, K. J. (1999). An invitation to social construction. London, UK: Sage. Heidegger, M. (1953/1996). Being and time: A translation of Sein und Zeit (J. Stambaugh, Trans.). New York: SUNY Press. Heyworth, R. M. (2002). Explore your world with science discovery 2. Singapore: Pearson. Knorr-Cetina. (1999). Epistemic cultures: How the sciences make knowledge. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Page 291
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Lederman, N.G., Abd-El-Khalick, F., Bell, R.L., & Schwartz, R.S. (2002). Views of nature of science questionnaire: Toward valid and meaningful assessment of learners‘ conceptions of nature of science. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 39(6), 497-521. Niaz, M. (2001). Understanding the nature of science as progressive transitions in heuristic principles. Science Education, 85(6), 684-690. Postman, N. (1995). The end of education: Redefing the value of school. New York: Vintage Books. Postman, N., & Weingartner, C. (1969). Teaching as a subversive activity. New York: Dell Publishing. Putnam, H. (2002). The collapse of the fact/value dichotomy. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Rogers, C. R. (1961). On becoming a person: A therapist's view of psychotherapy. New York: Houghton Mifflin. Rogers, C. R. (1980). A way of being. New York: Houghton Mifflin. Roth, W. M. (1995). Authentic School Science: Knowing and Learning in Open-Inquiry Science Laboratories. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers. Schwartz, R.S. & Lederman, N.G. (2002). ―It‘s the nature of the beast‖: The influence of knowledge and intentions on the learning and teaching of the nature of science. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 39(3), 205-236. Thomas, D., & Brown, J. S. (2007). The play of imagination: Extending the literary mind. Games and Culture, 2(2), 149–172.
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Integrating socio-scientific issues into science instruction: Taiwanese elementary science teachers’ views and teaching practices
Chao-Shen Cheng & Ying-Tien Wu
Department of Science Application and Dissemination, National Taichung University, Taiwan
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Abstract With open-ended questionnaire, this study explored 55 Taiwanese elementary science teachers' views on socio-scientific issues (SSI) and their SSI-based teaching practices. Moreover, the differences on the views and the teaching practices of the teachers with different backgrounds were also examined. Through qualitative analyses, this study revealed that the three features of socio-scientific issues that the teachers most frequently mentioned were personal relevance (65.5%), followed by the reasoning and problem-solving regarding these issues (25.5%), and controversial nature (23.6%), and most of the teachers (92.7%) had the experience of integrating SSI into their teaching practice. Moreover, the environmentrelated issues (85.5%) were the most popular issues for SSI-base instruction, and the role of the SSI issues mostly mentioned by the teachers were as a part of the teaching materials (34.5%) and as the issues for discussing (27.3%). In this study, most of the teachers believed that integrating SSI into science teaching can improve students’ science related ability (58.2%), followed by the promoting positive attitude and providing meaning learning contexts (36.4%). This study further revealed that the teachers with science-related background were more oriented to perceive the benefit of SSI-based instruction as improving learners’ ability. Besides, the female teachers in this study were more prone to view SSIbased instruction as a tool to promoting learners’ knowledge acquisition. Based on the finding of this study, the implications for teacher education and professional development were also discussed.
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Integrating socio-scientific issues into science instruction: Taiwanese elementary science teachers' views and teaching practices
Introduction With the rapid development of science and technology, students, as the citizens in democratic society, may have more and more opportunities to encounter a variety of socioscientific issues, and they and their parents may need to make some decisions or positions toward these issues. “Socio-scientific issues” (SSI) are social dilemmas with conceptual or technological associations with science. In these issues, science and society represent interdependent entities, and both the social and scientific factors play the central roles (Sadler, 2004). For science educators, achieving scientific literacy may become a well-recognized educational goal worldwide (Laugksch, 2000; Kolsto, 2001). Although the definition of scientific literacy is controversial, students’ ability to deal with socio-scientific issues thoughtfully has been recognized as one of the important components of scientific literacy (Sadler, 2004). Recently, SSI-based instruction has been highlighted by science educators. For example, Lewis and Leach (2006) have explored students’ science knowledge and the ability to engage in reasoned discussion of socio-scientific issues. Zohar and Nemet (2002) have reported the effectiveness of the integration of explicit teaching of reasoning patterns into the instruction of human genetics on genetics knowledge as well as on their argumentation quality. Undoubtedly, teachers are recognized to play a critical role in the current reforms in science education (AAAS, 1989; NRC, 1996). For the successful implementation of SSI-based instruction, teachers’ views or perspectives regarding SSI-based instruction must be crucial. Some previous studies have initially addressed the aforementioned issues. For example, Sadler et al. (2006) investigated middle and high teacher perspectives on the use of socioscientific issues and on dealing with ethics in the context of science instruction. Also, Lee and Witz (2009) have explored high school science teachers’ inspiration for teaching socioscientific issues. The two aforementioned studies have provided us some initial insights into teaches’ views or perspectives regarding socio-scientific issues. Lee and Witz (2009) have also advocated that reformers and researchers often point out science teachers’ lukewarm reactions to the reforms as a major barrier for educational changes but pay little attention to teachers’ deeper values and inspirations. It seems that more effects should be made in
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investigating teachers’ views or perspectives regarding socio-scientific issues and SSI-based instruction. In addition, still not many studies have addressed elementary science teachers’ views or perspectives regarding socio-scientific issues and SSI-based instruction. Therefore, further research is suggested to be conducted to exploring elementary science teachers’ views or perspectives regarding socio-scientific issues and SSI-based instruction. Teachers’ professional development is one of the influential factors for the successful implementation of current science education reforms (Driel et al., 2001). Loughran (2007) has advocated that science teachers should view themselves as learners and reflect on themselves in their continuing professional development. Undoubtedly, for the successful implementation of SSI-based instruction, teachers’ professional development regarding SSIbased instruction must be crucial. Therefore, the understanding of teachers’ pre-existing views of socio-scientific issues and SSI-based instruction as well as their teaching practice regarding SSI-based instruction before designing and implementing professional development programs should of much importance. In sum, this study aimed to investigate a group of elementary science teachers’ views of socio-scientific issues and SSI-based instruction. In addition, their teaching practices regarding SSI-based instruction were also explored.
Methodology Subjects The subjects of this study were 55 Taiwanese elementary science teachers (including 27 males and 28 females) coming from the middle area of Taiwan. Their teaching experiences were from1 year to 22 years. Seventeen teachers held the degree of Master, and the others held the degree of Bachelor. Thirty-five out of fifty-five teachers majored in science-related fields. Investigating elementary science teachers’ views and teaching practices regarding SSI This study was conducted to investigate a group of elementary science teachers’ views of socio-scientific issues and SSI-based instruction. In addition, their teaching practices regarding SSI-based instruction were also explored. To this end, an open-ended questionnaire was developed and implemented in this study. This questionnaire was presented in Chinese when conducting this study. To help the participants understanding the term “socio-scientific issue”, the definition and examples of socio-scientific issues were mentioned in the first part
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of the questionnaire. Then, all the teachers in this study were asked to write down their responses to the following questions: 1. From your perspective, what are the significant features of socio-scientific issues? (Assessing teachers’ views of socio-scientific issues) 2. Have you ever integrated socio-scientific issues into your teaching practices? If yes, what issues have you used? How did you integrate these issues into your teaching practices? (Assessing teachers’ views on SSI-based instruction) 3. In your opinions, what is the strength of SSI-based instruction? How can students benefit from SSI-based instruction? (Assessing teachers’ views of the strength of SSI-based instruction)
Results Teachers’ views of socio-scientific issues In this study, the elementary science teachers' views regarding socio-scientific issues were investigated. The teachers’ responses were further summarized into the following five categories: involving complex problem-solving process, controversy and not easy to make personal decisions, personal relevance, relating to inter-disciplinary knowledge, and moral sensitivity. The detailed descriptions regarding these categories were as below: 1. Involving complex problem-solving process: Some teachers mentioned that dealing with socio-scientific issues often involve the process of problem-solving, reasoning or argumentation. 2. Controversy and not easy to make personal decisions: Some teachers mentioned that people often have different positions toward a socio-scientific issue. However, no single position regarding a socio-scientific issue is absolutely right. 3. Personal relevance: Some participants proposed that socio-scientific issues are relevant to everyone’s daily life. 4. Relating to inter-disciplinary knowledge: Some teachers pointed out that a socio-scientific issue often involved inter-disciplinary knowledge. 5. Moral sensitivity: Some elementary teachers also mentioned the decision-making regarding a socio-scientific issue often involved moral considerations.
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Table1: Teachers' views of the features of SSI n (%) 1. Involving complex problem-solving process
14 (25.5%)
2. Controversy and not easy to make personal decisions
13 (23.6%)
3. Personal relevance
36 (65.5%)
4. Relating to inter-disciplinary knowledge
9 (16.4%)
5. Moral sensitivity
3 (5.5%)
* Non-relevant answers
2 (3.6%)
The teachers’ responses were further analyzed, as shown in Table 1. Table 1 showed that the view the participants revealed in their responses was “personal relevance” (65.5%), followed by “involving complex problem-solving process” (25.5%), “controversy and not easy to make personal decisions” (23.6%), “relating to inter-disciplinary knowledge” (16.4%), and “moral sensitivity” (3%). It indicated that most teachers acknowledged that socioscientific issues were relevant to everyone. However, not many teachers noticed that the decision-making regarding a socio-scientific issue often involved moral considerations. Gender difference on the teachers’ views of socio-scientific issues was further analyzed. The results in Table 2 revealed that no significant difference on views of socio-scientific issues was found was found between the male teachers and the female teachers in this study (p>0.05). Table 2: Gender comparisons on teachers’ responses regarding views of SSI male (n=27) 8
female (n=28) 6
0.49
2. Controversy and not easy to make personal decisions
8
5
1.06
3. Personal relevance
18
18
0.03
4. Relating to inter-disciplinary knowledge
5
4
0.18
5. Moral sensitivity
2
1
0.39
1. Involving complex problem-solving process
χ2
In this study, teachers’ views of SSI among different teaching experience groups were also compared. According to their teaching experiences, the teachers were divided into the
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following three groups: (1) 1-4 years; (2) 5-9 years; (3) more than 10 years. The results in Table 3 showed that these three groups of teachers did not reveal any significant difference on views of socio-scientific issues (p>0.05). Table 3: Teachers’ views of SSI among different teaching experience groups 1—4 5—9 years years (n=32) (n=17) 1. Involving complex problem-solving process 2. Controversy and not easy to make personal decisions 3. Personal relevance 4. Relating to inter-disciplinary knowledge 5. Moral sensitivity
4 4 13 3 2
10 9 23 6 1
more than 10 years (n=6) 0.05 0.00 1.32 0.03 1.90
χ2 0.23 2.73 0.33 0.18 0.39
Teachers’ views of SSI among different academic groups were also compared. Table 4 revealed that the teachers with different academic levels did not show significant difference on their views on socio-scientific issues (p>0.05). Table 4: Comparisons on teachers’ views of SSI among different academic level groups
1. Involving complex problem-solving process 2. Controversy and not easy to make personal decisions 3. Personal relevance 4. Relating to inter-disciplinary knowledge 5. Moral sensitivity
Master (n=17) 4 4 13 3 2
Bachelor (n=38) 10 9 23 6 1
χ2 0.05 0.00 1.32 0.03 1.90
Similarly, teachers’ views of SSI among different academic background groups were also compared. As shown in Table 5, the teachers with different academic background did not revealed significant difference on their views on socio-scientific issues (p>0.05).
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Table 5: Comparisons on teachers’ views of SSI among different academic background groups Science majors (n=35) 1. Involving complex problem-solving process
11
Nonsciencemajors (n=20) 3
2. Controversy and not easy to make personal decisions
7
6
0.71
3. Personal relevance
21
15
1.27
4. Involving inter-disciplinary knowledge
5
4
0.30
5. Moral sensitivity
2
1
0.01
χ2 1.18
Teachers’ teaching practices regarding SSI-based instructions This study also explored science teachers’ practice regarding SSI-based instruction. It was found that 51 teachers (92.7%) have integrated SSI into their teaching practices. It seems that most of the elementary teachers in this study may have the experiences of using socioscientific issues in their science teaching. The socio-scientific issues that teachers used in their science teaching were also analyzed. Table 6 shows that the issue that the teachers most frequently used was “environmental protection” (85.5%), followed by “energy” (27.3%), “medical science (biotechnology)” (25.5%), and “moral sensitivity” (3.6%). It may due to that, for the energy shortage problem, there is always a fierce debate on whether the fourth nuclear power should be built in the recent years in Taiwan. Therefore, the issue of nuclear power usage is most frequently used in teachers’ teaching practices.
Table 6: The socio-scientific issues used by the teachers n
%
A. energy
15
27.3%
B. environmental protection
47
85.5%
C. medical science (biotechnology)
14
25.5%
D. others
2
3.6%
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Moreover, the roles of socio-scientific issues in teachers’ teaching practices were also explored. Table 7 revealed teachers’ usage of SSI in their teaching practices. According to Table 7, socio-scientific issues were mostly used as “teaching materials” by the teachers in this study (34.5%), followed by “issues for discussing” (27.3%), “complementary materials” (10.9%), and “motivating students’ learning” (3.7%). Table 7: Teachers’ usage of SSI in their teaching practices n
%
1. motivating students’ learning
2
3.7%
2. issues for discussing
15
27.3%
3. teaching materials
19
34.5%
4. complementary materials
6
10.9%
Gender difference on the teachers’ usage of socio-scientific issues was further analyzed. The results in Table 2 revealed that no significant difference on their usage of socio-scientific issues was found was found between the male teachers and the female teachers in this study (p>0.05). Table 8: Gender comparisons on the teachers’ use of SSI in their teaching practices χ2
Male (n=27) 1
female (n=28) 1
0.00
2. issues for discussing
9
6
0.98
3. teaching materials
8
11
0.57
4. complementary materials
4
2
0.83
1. motivating students’ learning
In this study, the teachers’ usages of SSI among different teaching experience groups were also compared. The results in Table 9 showed that these three groups of teachers did not reveal any significant difference on their use of socio-scientific issues (p>0.05).
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Views on SSI and teaching practices
Table 9: Comparisons on the teachers’ use of SSI in their teaching practices among different teaching experience groups 5~9years
10years
(n=32)
(n=17)
(n=6)
1. motivating students’ learning
1
0
1
3.57
2. issues for discussing
7
7
1
2.47
3. teaching materials
11
8
0
4.34
4. complementary materials
5
0
1
3.02
1~4years
χ2
Moreover, the teachers’ usages of socio-scientific issue between different academic level groups were also compared. As shown in Table 10, the teachers with different academic level did not revealed significant difference on their use of socio-scientific issues in their science teaching practice (p>0.05). Table 10: Comparisons on the teachers’ use of SSI in their teaching practices among different academic level groups Master
Bachelor
(n=17)
(n=38)
1. motivating students’ learning
1
1
0.35
2. issues for discussing
5
10
0.06
3. teaching materials
5
14
0.29
4. complementary materials
2
4
0.02
χ2
Similarly, the teachers’ usages of socio-scientific issue between different academic background groups were also compared. As shown in Table 11, the teachers with different academic background did not revealed significant difference on their use of socio-scientific issues in their science teaching practice (p>0.05).
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Views on SSI and teaching practices
Table 11: Comparisons on the teachers’ use of SSI in their teaching practices among different academic background groups Science
Non- science-
majors
majors
(n=35)
(n=20)
1. motivating students’ learning
0
2
3.63
2. issues for discussing
11
4
0.84
3. teaching materials
12
7
0.00
4. complementary materials
4
2
0.03
χ2
Teachers’ views of the strength of SSI-based instruction This study also investigated how the teachers perspectives regarding the benefit of integrating SSI into science curriculum for students. Table 12 revealed that the teachers’ responses were categorized into seven perspectives. Most of the teachers (58.2%) believed that integrating SSI into science teaching can increase students’ science related ability; 36.4% of them believed that SSI-based instruction can promote students’ positive attitudes toward science; similarly, 36.4% of them also highlighted that SSI-based instruction could provide meaning learning contexts for students; 14.5% of them mentioned that SSI-based science instruction helped students acquire content knowledge; 9.1% mentioned that the SSI-based instruction could motive students; 7.3% of them mentioned that SSI-based science instruction could be used to improve students’ moral sensitivity; only a few teachers (3.6%) mentioned the strength of SSI-based instruction was to service as teaching materials. Table 12: Teachers’ views of the strength of SSI-based instruction n
%
1. improving students’ ability
32
58.2%
2. promoting positive attitude
20
36.4%
3. acquiring content knowledge
8
14.5%
4. promoting positive values and moral sensitivity
4
7.3%
5. providing meaning learning contexts
20
36.4%
6. motivating students’ learning
5
9.1%
7. servicing as teaching materials
2
3.6%
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Views on SSI and teaching practices
Gender difference on the teachers’ views of the strength of SSI-based instruction was further analyzed. The results in Table 13 revealed that significant difference was only found on “acquiring content knowledge”, indicating that the female teachers in this study were more oriented to perceive the strength of SSI-based instruction as helping students acquire scientific knowledge (p0.05). Table 14: Comparisons on the teachers’ views of the strength of SSI-based instruction among different academic level groups Master
Bachelor
(n=17)
(n=38)
1. improving students’ ability
10
22
0.00
2. promoting positive attitude
3
17
0.05
3. acquiring content knowledge
4
4
1.60
4. promoting positive values and moral sensitivity
1
3
0.07
5. providing meaning learning contexts
7
13
0.25
6. motivating students’ learning
2
3
0.21
7. servicing as teaching materials
0
2
0.93
χ2
Similarly, the teachers’ views of the strength of SSI-based instruction between different academic background groups were also compared. As shown in Table 15, significant difference was only found on “improving students’ ability”, indicating that the teachers with science major backgrounds were more oriented to perceive the strength of SSI-based instruction as improving their science-related abilities (p9>11
Non-governmental
2.64
2.77
2.84
41.869
.000**
.13
11>9>7
Internet
2.57
2.62
2.62
3.139
.043*
.03
11>7
Governmental
2.77
2.79
2.92
15.668
.000**
.08
11>9&7
TV news
2.55
2.66
2.64
9.528
.000**
.06
11&9>7
Scientist/professional
3.34
3.42
3.52
35.205
.000**
.11
11>9>7
Biology teacher
3.25
3.27
3.37
19.210
.000**
.08
11>9&7
Print media
2.60
2.80
3.10
237.530
.000**
.30
11>9>7
Non-biology teacher
2.02
2.16
2.33
85.528
.000**
.18
11>9>7
Advertisement
1.77
1.95
1.89
23.219
.000**
.10
9>11>7
Biotech company
2.87
2.96
2.73
40.647
.000**
.12
9>7>11
Peers
2.68
2.64
2.56
14.773
.000**
.08
9&7>11
Total mean
2.68
2.75
2.78
32.459
.000**
.11
11&9>7
Category
*p>Equation>Pan
Speech and gesture coded separately
Instruction that included a correct problem-solving strategy gestures was significantly more likely to produce that strategy in the children own gesture than children who are not exposed to it during the same period of instruction. These students are hence more likely to retain and generalized the knowledge than those who do not (not quite proven).
Tabulated the number of times each child produce an equalizer strategy (strategy taught by instructor) in speech or in gesture during the instruction period
Page 1178
In Speech with Pointing: Conceptual Links>Pan>Equation In Representational Gesture: Pan>Conceptual Links>Equation In Speech with writing: Conceptual Link>Equation>Pan
Gestures in teaching and learning Authors Kerfelt (2007)
Sample 17 preschool teachers from 17 different departments and 34 children.
Research Design And Instrumentation To investigate how gestures Coding was through the use of and utterances are used as (i) Verbal utterances for interresources in the interaction subjectivity using a 3 stage method: between children and Teacher utterance → Student teachers response → Teacher response Each teacher was to sit with (ii) Gestures 2 children, one at a time at a (iii) Visualisations on computer screen computer to create a story. For 2 areas, namely: Interaction was observed. (1) technical functions, (2) dialogues that involves around the content and structure of the story
Results Teacher instructions have different structures depending on whether they are directed towards technical functions of the computer, content and structure of the stories or a dialogue. When dealing with technical functions of the computer, verbal utterances and indexical gestures are used, but they do not extend beyond instructions. When dealing with creation of content and structure of a story with visual image and reciprocal dialogues, an adequate amount of verbal language with an adequate gesticulated language is needed for meaningful learning.
Cook, Mitchell and Goldin Meadow (2008)
84 3rd and 4th grade children selected based on failing pretest results.
To investigate whether gestures play a role in children learning a task.
Instructor taught equalizer strategy to all the children by solving 6 problems in speech and in gestures. Each time repeating 2x for each problem, altogether
All children improved with instruction; hence the pre-instructions behaviour did not affect children’s understanding of the experimenter’s instruction.
Each student to solve one problem, reproducing the pre-instruction behaviour they had mimicked before & after solving the problem. Post test Follow-Up test 4 wks later.
Children from Gesture + Speech group and Gesture group retained their knowledge longer than Speech Group as shown in the follow-Up test. This shows that gesturing promote learning in the one month later follow up study and not in the immediate post test.
Ping and GoldinMeadow (2008)
61 ethnically mixed kindergarten and firstgraders (35 5year-olds, 22 6-year-olds, and 4 7-yearolds) from Chicago public and private schools.
Children are randomly assigned to 3 conditions and are asked to mimic the preinstructions 3x. 1. Speech only condition Pre-instruction given verbally. 2. Gesture only condition Pre-instruction given gesturally. 3. Speech+Gesture condition Pre-instruction given verbally and gestures simultaneously. To investigate the possibility that gesture helps children learn even when it is produced “in the air.” Students are selected based on their failing Pre Test score and explanation of 8 conservation tasks. Children were randomly assigned to one of the four conditions for instructional delivery: 1. Objects present–gesture plus speech 2. Objects present–speech alone; 3. Objects absent–gesture plus speech; and 4. Objects absent–speech alone. Posttest comparable to the pretest without feedback.
Compare the results of post test and follow up test.
Coding of the equality judgment (same or different) and problem solving explanation that the child gave for each question during the pretest, instruction, and posttest was done • Speech without the gestures • Gesture without the speech children who produce gesture–speech mismatches on conservation task was excluded from the analyses.
Children in all four groups solved approximately the same number of problems correctly on the pretest. There are no significant differences between the gesture-plus-speech and speech-alone groups, and no significant differences between the objects-present and objects-absent groups. Children in all four groups also expressed approximately the same number of correct explanations in speech on the pretest. There are no significant differences between the gesture-plus-speech and speech-alone groups; and no significant differences between the objects-present and objects-absent groups. Hence adding gesture to instruction allowed children to go beyond what they had been taught, helping them develop additional ways to explain why but only when the task objects were absent during instruction.
Table 1: Summary of the major studies about the role of gestures in teaching and learning
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Gestures in teaching and learning
Science Speech Model in Singapore’s Pre-University Education Science Talk, first suggested by Crowder (1996) as shown in Figure 1, comprised of Sense Making and Knowledge Transmission where Sense Making is the mediation of collective explorations and experimentations involved in the cognitive construction of mental representations concerned with active discovery while Knowledge Transmission is simply the relaying of ideas and prior discoveries from one person to another with or without having to make sense out of these ideas.
Figure 1: A model of 2 types of Science Talk-sense making and Transmitting Knowledge, Crowder (1996)
The difference between these two languages in Science Talk is the stance each takes to learn Science. Sense making in Science Talk is one who publicly constructs understanding, communicates while in the process of understanding, revises and repairs one’s understanding and who gestures privately to help in one’s reasoning. This language activity termed as ‘Runner of a Model’, usually assist one in conceptualising a subject or topic. On the other hand, Knowledge Transmission in Science Talk is characterized as one who is teacherly, demonstrates an understanding which may or may not be correct, able to
Page 1180
Gestures in teaching and learning perform one’s understanding, communicates what one already understands and gestures more for the audience. Termed as ‘Describer of Model’, this language is usually used when one transmits preplanned knowledge. Describer of a Model 1. Gestures such as pause-filling beats 2. Eye gaze towards audience 3. Gestures less frequently 4. Gestures are with or follow speech 5. Gesturer remained outside the gesture space 6. Communicate fluently with less midphrase hesitations
Runner of a Model 1. Deictic and beat like gestures 2. Eye gaze directed at gestures 3. Gestural foreshadowing 4. Gestures are with or follow speech 5. Gestures are used to adjust components in an overt model 6. Communicate with numerous verbal and gestural hesitations
Table 2: Gestural characteristics of these two models in Science Talk, Crowder (1996).
The overlapping region between Knowledge Transmission and Sense Making, denoted by ‘↔’ is the area where students and teachers alike enter into a space between planning-in-the-moment to rote transmission of knowledge, where one is ‘able to maintain the explained model while retaining the option to revise and integrate newly synthesised knowledge to existing ones’. This is the area where many researches in the last decade has explored and shed much light in. As such, with reference to the extensive literature reviews in the area of the role of gestures in teaching and learning, I have extended Crowder’s Science Talk model to include these recent findings on how gesticulation accompaniment and the use of gesture and speech relationship can scaffold teaching pedagogies and at the same time illuminate the mental representations of students.
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Gestures in teaching and learning
Ways of knowing and Doing:
Language Activity:
Transmitting Knowledge Gesture-Speech match of wrong concepts Transmit Facts GestureMethods Speech Prior Knowledge mismatch Unanalyzed Gesture-Speech models match of right concepts
Describing
SenseMaking
Explaining to Others
Preplanned
Explore Experiment Build mental Representations
Explaining to Self Planning in the moment
Figure 2: A model of 2 types of Science Speech in Transmitting Knowledge and Sense Making
This extension of Science Talk is re-named as Science Speech (figure 2) because consciousness comes into existence with inner and external speech. The former is illuminated with the use of gesture while the latter is via vocalization (Vygotsky, 1934) and Science Speech is meant to represent mental cognition both in gesture and words. The inclusion of the gesture-speech relationship in the region of integration of transmitting knowledge and sense-making signifies the cognitive discordance the learner transits between (Alibali et al., 1993), from Gesture-Speech match of wrong concepts to Gesture-Speech match of right concepts. This cognitive dissonance can be elicited as learner attempts to explain his conceptual understanding to others. Here gesture-speech relationship reveals mental representation especially when concepts are abstract and where words fail to sufficiently explain. Thus Science Speech will be used to assess students’ understanding in the abstract concepts of Science especially in the difficult and concept-laden topic of Organisation and Control of Eukaryotic Genome in Molecular Biology, as further illustrated in this paper.
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Gestures in teaching and learning
Chapter 2: Methodology Finally, to address the question on the use of gesture in Science teaching in a mid range college in Singapore, and the analysis of the use of Science Speech model in assessing students’ learning of the abstract concepts in the topic of Organisation and Control of Eukaryotic genome among adolescents, a quasi-experimental design, randomized pretestposttest control group was used. Here 14 matched pairs (as shown in Annex E) were selected based on their failing Promotional Examination scores on the topic Organisation and Control of Eukaryotic genome, a H2 Biology topic laden with abstract concepts. These students were divided into 2 groups of similar demographics (social economic background and ‘O’ Level L1R5) to undergo 2 different kinds of instruction. The first group of 14 students attempted a Pre-Test 10 Multiple Choice Questions before they underwent an e-learning instructive discourse on this topic with PowerPoint slides and a talking head. The second group of 14 also attempted a Pre-Test 10 Multiple Choice Questions before they underwent this e-learning instructive discourse on this topic with the same PowerPoint slides and a waist up video recording of the lecturer with the inclusion of gestures.
Beat Gestures
Deictic Gestures
Before any data collection can occur, permissions were first sought from the Principal and the respective Head of Science overseeing the subject. Consequently, permissions were Metaphoric Gestures
Iconic Gestures
Page 1183
Gestures in teaching and learning also obtained from the students providing the data. This entailed having the participant sign a consent form which detailed the research procedures (as this involves video taping the student interviews) and guaranteeing the protection of the rights of the participants. In addition participants were also informed that they have the rights to withdraw from the study or to request that data collected from them to not be used (Annex C). The lecturer was selected based both on the level of subject and pedagogy mastery (indicative of having a Degree in the field of Molecular Biology, a major aligned to the topic investigated and had taught for 6 years in a Junior College), quantitative and qualitative evidence of good teaching (proxy using students’ test results and anecdotal feedback from students). Since gestures enhanced speech in the teacher’s instructive discourse, the latter should translate to better cognitive strategies in the learner’s mind hence resulting in better outcomes, indicated by a higher gain score in post test results. Each group of 14 students were further asked to solve and explain a set of 10 questions that was equivalent to the level of difficulty in the pre-test and a follow-up test 1 week later on another 10 questions of equivalence to assess their retention of knowledge. These questions were used because they underlined the learning outcomes of H2 Biology and whose content validity and reliability was well established since they were derived from past Cambridge ‘A’ Level Examinations. Analysis was done on each question to ensure that no questions were repeated and each question tested no more than two concepts. In addition care was taken to ensure that these questions range from simple to more difficult and they were a mixed of ‘knowledge with understanding’ and ‘application questions’ so as to provide a range of difficulty. The Multiple Choice Question framework is presented in the table below. Questions 10 Questions (Question 1-10)
1. 2. 3. 4.
Subject Matter Knowledge Mutation Steps involved in Gene expression Chromatin modification+ Transcriptional Control Chromatin modification
Page 1184
Gestures in teaching and learning 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.
Transcriptional Control Post Transcriptional Control Post translational Control Protein Synthesis Translational Control Differences between Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Control
Table 3: Framework of the ‘Multiple Choice Questions’ on the topic of Organisation and Control of Eukaryotic Genome.
Seven matched pairs (one from each group) were interviewed on their explanation and were given feedback on their explanations of each question while the remaining seven match pair received no feedback. Each explanation and feedback were videotaped and transcribed for their gestural and verbal explanations. To ensure internal validity, the same interviewer was used throughout the entire interviewing process and in analyzing the data collected. In addition, to address instrument decay, an interview schedule was planned where the interview process was spread out throughout the day to minimize fatigue of the interviewer and that the interview was conducted at the end of the students’ lessons so as to ensure that the interview survey was not rushed. A point was of concern was the potential biasness that might arise by the researcher as the data were collected concurrently and especially since it was collected from the same participants and as such, open discussion with the supervisor was necessary to minimize such bias. The quantitative results obtained from the Post Test were ascertained by calculating the mean test score for the control and experimental groups, followed by the use of Pearson’s correlation and Paired sample T-test to determine the relationship between the uses of gestural scaffolding in bringing about conceptual change. The qualitative data were coded for explanations in speech, in using gestures and in relationship between speech and gestures across four subcategories (Table 3). Here relationship between speech and gesture could be determined by examining the mental representations presented in speech and in gestures and in comparison of the two
Page 1185
Gestures in teaching and learning mental models. If the mental models converged, this will be termed as Gesture-Speech match and vice versa. Category 1 7 students who underwent e-learning with PowerPoint Slides and Talking Head Solved and explained 10 questions with no feedback.
Category 2 7 students who underwent e-learning with PowerPoint Slides and Talking Head Solved and explained 10 questions with feedback after each explanation.
Category 3 7 students who underwent e-learning with PowerPoint Slides and Video recording of lecturer. Solved and explained 10 questions with no feedback
Category 4 7 students who underwent elearning with PowerPoint Slides and Video recording of lecturer. Solved and explained 10 questions with feedback after each explanation.
Table 4: Four groups of students with four different training experiences
Consequently, if students in category 1 and category 3 regressed from a discordant stage of gesture-speech mismatch to the concordant stage of gesture-speech match of a wrong concept while students from category 2 and category 4 progressed from a discordant stage of gesture-speech mismatch to the concordant stage of gesture-speech match of a right concept, it will thus support the proposed Science Speech model where the relationship between Speech and Gesture can be used to evaluate students’ understanding in Scientific concepts in Science Speech-Sense-Making. Chapter 3: Findings Pre-Test Performance Even though care was taken to ensure that the experimental and control group were of the same demographics and were comparable in calibre, students in the control group generally still scored slightly better in pre-test than those in the experimental group but only by a small non-significant margin. (M=5.8, SE=0.33, vs M=6.2, SE=0.66).
Pre Test Score N Valid
Experimental Group 14
Control Group 14
0
0
5.79
6.21
0.33
0.66
Median
6.00
6.00
Mode
6.00
5.00
Missing Mean Std. Error of Mean
Page 1186
Gestures in teaching and learning Std. Deviation
1.25
2.46
Variance
1.57
6.03
Sum Percentiles
81.00
87.00
25
4.75
4.75
50
6.00
6.00
75
7.00
8.25
Table 5: Pre-Test Score of Experimental and Control Groups
Post-Test Performance In a post-test of 10 Multiple Choice Questions attempted by these 28 Junior College students, students who watched the video-cum-slides-only lesson obtained a higher score with a mean of 7.6 and a Gain Score of 1.4, SE=0.53 while students who watched the videocum-slides-plus-gesture lesson scored a mean of 6.2 and a Gain Score of 0.4, SE=0.36 with a Pearson’s correlation of 0.15 and a T-test of -2.42.
Post Test Score
Experimental Group
Mean Variance Observations Pearson Correlation df t Stat P(T .10
Behavioral Management:
t(43) = 1.479, p> .10
Constructivist Teaching:
t(43) = - 1.588, p > .10
Constructivist Management: t(43) = -.433 , p> .10 These results indicate that the preservice teachers’ experience with the instructional unit was not enough to change their fundamental pedagogical beliefs, causing only a subtle change in their means. In this situation, the instrument may not be sensitive enough to be able to measure such subtle changes.
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Teachers’ Beliefs
1.2. Capability Beliefs To measure the capability beliefs of preservice science teachers as they responded to the Instructional unit, the Capability Belief subscale of the BATT instrument was used. The instrument has fourteen categories or descriptors impacting on teachers’ beliefs about technology use. The means and standard deviations of preservice teachers’ responses before and after the instructional unit were determined . Examination of the data showed that before their exposure to the instructional unit, the highest means were found in descriptors A (Resources) and C(Access to computers), while the lowest mean was on descriptor L(smaller class size). After instruction, descriptor F (Support from school administration) gave the highest mean, while descriptor L still had the lowest mean. To evaluate the impact of the teaching approach on the capability beliefs of the preservice teachers, a paired sample t-test was conducted between the means of the pretest (M = 3.65, SD = .24) and the posttest(M = 3.69, SD = .33) of the capability beliefs of BATT . Results indicated that the changes in the means as a result of their participation in the instructional unit were not significant at the .05 level of significance. t(43) = - .948 , p > .05 1.3. Context beliefs. To measure the context beliefs of teachers as they relate to utilizing computers for science instruction, the Context (likelihood) Belief subscale of BATT was used. The context (likelihood) belief of BATT has fourteen factors or descriptors impacting on the likelihood that these factors will occur if one were to teach in a school. The means and standard deviations of preservice teachers’ responses to context belief items of BATT before (pretest) and after instruction (posttest) were computed.
Page 1330
Teachers’ Beliefs To evaluate whether changes in means were caused by their participation in the instructional unit, a paired sample t-test was conducted between the average means of the pretest (M = 3.49, SD = .39) and the posttest(M = 3.50, SD = .43) items. Results indicated that the changes in means were not significant. t(43) = .287 , p > .05.
2. Research Question (2) To what extent are the preservice teachers’ beliefs for teaching associated with their beliefs for utilizing microcomputers in science instruction? To examine the relationship of preservice teachers’ beliefs for teaching with their beliefs for utilizing microcomputers in science instruction, Pearson’s Product Correlation Coefficient was calculated. The Correlation coefficients between the four subscales of Teacher Beliefs System and the Capability beliefs and the Context beliefs subscales of BATT were determined (Table 3). Table 3 Correlation matrix between TBS and BATT Subscales (N = 44). Behaviorist Teaching
Behaviorist Management
Constructivist Teaching
Constructivist Management
Pretest Capability Belief
Context Belief
Pearson Correlation Sig.(2-tailed)
.125
.179
.212
.160
.419
.244
.167
.299
Pearson Correlation Sig.(2-tailed)
-.210
-.241
-.153
-.156
.172
.115
.320
.313
Pearson Correlation Sig.(2-tailed)
.130
.334*
.460**
.434**
.399
.027
.002
.003
-.148
-.144
-.052
-.096
.339
.351
.740
.535
Posttest Capability Beliefs
Context Beliefs
Pearson Correlation Sig.(2-tailed)
* Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed). ** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
Page 1331
Teachers’ Beliefs For the pretest values, the results of the Pearson Product Correlation revealed that no significant relationship existed between capability beliefs and context beliefs of BATT with any of the subscales of TBS. However, using the posttest values, a significant relationship existed between the capability beliefs and three of the subscales of TBS, namely behaviorist management, constructivist teaching and constructivist management. The data indicate that there is an increase in the relationship of the preservice teachers’ capability beliefs towards the constructivist teaching approach, as a result of their exposure to the instructional unit.
3. Research Question (3) What effect does the instructional unit have on preservice teachers’ beliefs and understanding of basic science concepts? Pertinent data for Research question 3 may be derived from the results of the General Science Questionnaire on Matter and Its Properties administered to the preservice teachers before (pretest) and after(posttest) their participation in the constructivist technology-assisted instructional unit. The mean scores of the participants’ responses in the pretest and the posttest are shown in Table 4. The initial mean showed that the participants already held an adequate level of scientific knowledge before their participation in the instructional unit. After their participation in the instructional unit, an increase in the mean score was seen. To evaluate whether this increase in the means was due to their participation in the instructional unit , a paired sample t-test was conducted . Results showed that the increase was highly significant, t (43) = 8.879, p3 ± 0
fountain
settling well Accepted range
.
Table 3. The results of composition in soft drink.
Soft drink
CO2
[H2CO3 ]
Phosphate
[H3PO4 ]
pH
(mg CO2/10
(M)
(ppm P) ±
(M)
(measured)
SD
mL ) ± SD -6
± SD
190 ± 10
1.93×10
-3
2.7 ± 0.6
Coke
7.0 ± 0
1.59×10
Pepsi
6.7 ± 0.3
1.54×10-6
190 ± 10
1.93×10-3
2.7 ± 0.6
Mirinda (orange)
6.8 ± 0.3
1.54×10-6
0±0
0
3.0 ± 0
Sprite
6.8 ± 0.3
1.54×10
-6
0±0
0
4.0 ± 0
Capico soda
2.7 ± 0.6
6.14×10-7
40 ± 30
4.08×10-4
4.0 ± 0
-6
0±0
0
3.0 ± 0
0±0
0
3.0 ± 0
Fanta (orange)
6.5 ± 0
1.47×10
Fanta
6.5 ± 0
1.47×10-6
(strawberry)
Page 1453
Experimental kits
Figure 1 Fish graph
Feedbacks from students and instructors through questionnaires showed that students appreciated the use of experimental kits through inquiry learning process (see table 4). The experimental kits are considered to be useful in inquiry learning in classroom. Although lesson plans and activities were previously designed completely in this project, instructors can modify them to fit their students and classroom. The most effectiveness of this experimental kits are that students are able to investigate, discuss, relate the data through their scientific knowledge and raise awareness of their own environmental context and relevant problems. Moreover they can use the idea the experimental kit to create their own activities and investigate on the related topics. For the awaerness of health, students received serious effect of soft drinks on people’s health is the correlation between soft drink consumption and the increased risk of bone Page 1454
Experimental kits
fractures, obesity, osteoporosis, nutritional deficiencies, and tooth decay through infromation sheets and detemination of the amount of CO2, Phosphate and pH on activities. Before teaching, a result of the frequency of consumption of soft drink showed that 8 % of students do not drink in a regular basis and 92 % of students drink 2 cans / week. After this class, it appeared that students decreased the frequency of consumption of soft drink about 20 %.
Table 4. Examples of results form questionnaires on using the experimental kits in classroom
results Descriptions X
SD
1. I enjoyed using the kit.
3.96
0.79
2. I feel confident using the kit.
3.75
0.70
3. I understand the measurements we took.
3.71
0.94
4. I can relate my knowledge of science to the experiment.
4.11
0.92
3.82
0.94
5. The experimental kit has increased my curiosity to learn more science.
Note: N = Number of students (116), X = Mean, SD = Standard deviation. The level can category score in 1.00-1.49 = least, 1.50- 2.49 = less, 2.50-3.49 = average, 3.50-4.49 = much and 4.50-5.00 = very much
Table 5. Descriptive statistics of percentage gain score Group
X
SD
Min
Max
1
0.654
0.101
0.077
0.857
The overall results from this study show that students can be prompted to improve their understanding of substance and its properties concepts and their scientific skills by the use of the experimental kits. The reasons are: firstly, the experimental kit can be used to prompt students to propose questions about substance and its properties concepts that they
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Experimental kits
can find the answered through scientific investigation in the sense of water quality problems in their school or community and health problems. Using test kits is adequate to allow students to gain clear pictures of reaction by color scale. Secondly, the experimental kits can be used to engage students to pay more attention to science. Thirdly, the experimental kit as a source of real experimental data can be used to promote students’ new understanding of chemistry concepts. Fourthly, the experimental kits directly promote investigation and communication in classroom because students have to discuss and communicate in small groups. Moreover, the use the experimental kits can save a period of setup time and allow for easy repeatability and provide a powerful way for students to learn chemistry concepts. Acknowledgements The authors would like to thank all teachers and students who have participated in this research,Mahidol University for support and feedback. Financial support has been provided by the Institute for the Promotion of Teaching Science and Technology, Thailand. References Bradley, J.D. (1999). Hands-on practical chemistry for all. Pure and Applied Chemistry, 71(5), 817-823. Bloom, Bs.(1956). Taxonomy of educational objective .Handbook I .cognitive domain. McKay Publishing, new york. Bricke,C.E. (1967). College Chemistry , A Laboratory Manual. Harcourt ,Brace and World. Inc, USA. Chen, C. D., Murgado, J. S., Patricia, B. (1996). 1996 Cost-Effective, Hands-on Chemistry Education Conference. Journal of Chemical Education, 73(10), A236. Boltz, D.F. (1958). Colorimetric Determination of Nonmetals. Interscience publishers. INC, USA.
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Experimental kits
Department of curriculum and instruction development , ministry of education. (2002). Basic Education Curriculum B.E. 2544 (A.D.2001). Bangkok. The Express Transportation Organization of Thailand (ETO). George I. Sackheim. (1968). Laboratory Chemistry for the Health Sciences. The McMillan Company , USA. Harper W. Frantz. (1966). Chemical Principles in the Laboratory. W.H.Freeman and Company, USA. Harper,W. F. (1968). Essentials of Chemistry in the Laboratory. 2nd Edition. W.H.Freeman and Company, USA. Howe, A.C., Cizmas L. and Bereman R., (1999), Eutrophication of lake wingra: a chemistrybased environmental science module, Journal of Chemical Education, 76, 924. Huber R.A and Moore C.J. (2001). A Model for Extending Hands-On Science to Be Inquiry Based. School Science and Mathermatics,101(1),32-41. Jack F.E., Heather P., Brenda H. and Lanet C., (2007), Mentos and the scientific method: A sweet combination, Journal of Chemical Education, 84, 1120-1123. Julie B.E., James L.E.Jr., (1995), Visualizing Chemistry , Investigations for Teachers, American Chemical Society, USA. Liz M., (2004), Soft drinks, childhood overweight, and the role of nutrition educators: let’s base our solutions on reality and sound science, Journal of Nutrition Education and Behavior, 36, 258-265. McMurry, J.& Fay B.C. (2004). Chemistry .4th Edition .Pearson Education ,Inc.USA. National science teachers association (NSTA), (2006), NSTA position statement: professional development in science instruction.
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Experimental kits
Schwartz R.S., Lederman N.G. and Crawrord B.A., (2004), Developing views of nature of science in an authentic context: an explicit approach to bridging the gap between nature of science and scientific inquiry, Science Education, 88, 610-645. The American Chemical Society, (1988), ChemCom:Chemistry in the Community. Kendall /Hunt publishing company, USA. Vanderwerf, C.A. (1961). Acid, Bases, and the chemistry of the covalent bond. Reinhold publishing corporation.USA;. Victor L. Heasley. (1978). Chemistry and life in the laboratory. Burgess Publishing Company, USA.
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Teachers’ Questioning Techniques and their Potential in Heightening Pupils’ Inquiry
Siti Omairah Omar, Rehanna Dawood, Anne Roman Punggol Primary School
Abstract Meaningful teaching and learning of Science stress the need for inquiry-based methods. Through effective teacher questioning techniques, these methods provide pupils with opportunities to arouse their curiosity, stimulate their imagination, and motivate them to seek out new knowledge. The Socratic method of questioning that encourages countering, analysis, and verification of information is indeed the central aspect of any classroom interaction, more so in inquiry-directed learning, as it serves so many functions. However, it is still an underresearched area in the Singaporean classroom context, encouraging the misconception among educators that echoes the conventional wisdom, “ask a higher level question at anytime, obtain a higher level answer”. This study, Project IBL Ignite, is a professional development effort in Punggol Primary School designed to assist teachers integrate inquiry-centred Science methods in their classrooms that focuses on teachers’ classroom questioning techniques (which include ample wait-time and matching pupils’ readiness) and pupil inquiry. It synthesizes research findings and implications for teachers who wish to make informed choices about improving classroom questioning behaviour in the teaching of Science at the primary level. Quantitative and qualitative evaluations of the project suggest that it was generally successful in promoting positive teacher perceptions, fostering learner-centred classroom approaches, and leading to implementation of inquiry-based science in many classrooms.
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Introduction The teaching and learning of Science has indeed evolved tremendously over the past few decades. It has taken to the direction from mainly deductive teaching to inquiry-based method (NSES, 1996), in which, it has the means to increase interest in Science. The National Science Education Standards defines scientific inquiry as "the activities through which students develop knowledge and understanding of scientific ideas, as well as an understanding of how scientists study the natural, in which pupils learn to ask questions and answer them”. This "learning by doing method", in which the teacher facilitates pupils in discovering Science, stimulates the child's observation skills, imagination and reasoning capacity (Brussels, 2007). In Singapore’s Primary Science Syllabus, the inculcation of spirit of Science inquiry is central to the latest curriculum framework (MOE, 2007), where effective questioning by teachers is the catalyst in inquiry-Science learning. Questioning has a long and venerable history as an educational strategy (Cotton, 2001) and always been identified as the fundamental to outstanding teaching (Klein, Peterson, & Simington, 1991; Frazee & Rudnitski,1995; Nunan & Lamb, 1996; Hussin, H., 2006). Questions can be effectively categorised at differing levels of Bloom’s Taxonomy of School Learning (knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis and evaluation) or simply classified as higher or lower cognitive questions. Lower cognitive questions, basically do include recalling of facts, whereas higher cognitive questions allow for pupils to mentally manipulate learnt information to create an answer (Cotton, 2001). Effective questioning by the teacher directs pupils into understanding lesson content, arouse their curiosity, stimulate their imagination, and motivate them to seek out new knowledge. If executed skilfully, questioning would elevate pupils' level of thinking (Muth & Alverman, 1992; Orlich, Harder, Callahan, Kauchak, & Gibson, 1994; Ornstein, 1995; Hussin, H., 2006). Page 1460
Correspondingly, this elevates pupils’ inquiry in the form of challenging assumptions and exposing contradictions that lead to acquisition of new knowledge. Within the global and local context however, effective questioning by teachers that promotes inquiry, does not always materialise in our Science classrooms, due to time constraints and structured curriculum of subject-bound time-tabling as opposed to the more flexible, modular based and seamless classrooms. More alarmingly, educational researchers who had done extensive research on classroom questioning in inquiry-based lessons revealed that many educators who do question extensively practice the myth that advocates increasing the use of higher cognitive questions to produce superior learning gains as compared to low cognitive questions. According to Bonwell & Eison (1991), techniques for more effective questioning include stating concise questions, considering a pupil’s cognitive abilities when determining the level of questioning, maintaining a logical and sequential order of the questions, encouraging extension to a response, allowing sufficient time for a pupil to answer a question and encouraging the pupil to ask questions as well. In the contrary, in the attempt of classroom questioning, teachers would also often disregard the two most crucial components of questioning - the consideration of pupils’ abilities and wait-time, totally shutting off pupils’ interests and inquisitiveness. This can be detrimental in the cognitive nurturing of our pupils as well as in their learning of Science, where inquiry takes the lead in preparing them for the highly unknown world of the twenty-first century. As Chaudron (1988) cautioned, poor-questioning practice can actually be counter-productive. Wait-time is equally important as the consideration of pupils’ abilities as it is a type of pause in teacher’s discourse where learners have more time to process the question and formulate a response (Chaudron, 1988; Moritoshi, P., 2001) and more learners attempt to respond (Richards and Lockhart, 1994).
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Through a series of videoed and obtrusive observations, survey and analysis of three inquirybased lessons, this paper attempts to identify the major classifications relating to teacher questions (pegged to Bloom’s Taxonomy of School Learning and Bonwell & Eison’s techniques in effective questioning), and how these questions affect pupils’ inquiry in the classroom. It also aims to confirm that if given ample wait-time and pupils’ readiness are met, a higher frequency of High Order Thinking Questions (HOT) posed by a Science teacher will be positively responded with higher levels of pupils’ scientific inquiry. Utilising these findings, this paper hopes to be able to enhance teachers’ competency in teaching Science through inquiry. The research question posed in this study is as follows: To what extent do teachers’ questioning techniques in P5 Science Lessons influence pupils’ levels of inquiry? Within the context of this study, teachers’ questioning techniques is defined as the nature of questions posed by the teachers in class, as to whether these questions are Higher Order Thinking Questions (HOT) that meet pupils’ readiness and scaffold pupils’ thinking processes or otherwise (LOT), and pupils’ inquiry as a set of specific behaviours suggested by the Standards-Based Science Indicators of Pupil Scientific Inquiry Behaviour. This set of behaviours includes exhibiting curiosity, pondering observations, and making connections to previously held ideas. Method Subjects Two Science teachers and two intact Primary Five classes (Mixed Ability) of Punggol Primary School participated in the study. The teachers were selected based on accessibility. Their academic qualifications and training were in English and their experience of teaching Science ranged from 3 to 9 years. The two teachers took part in observations conducted
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throughout the study. Their selection for observation was based on the fact that they were teaching the two classes observed (5A and 5B), they were teaching the subject observed (Science), they had been trained in Science Inquiry-Based Learning, and that they had substantial experience in teaching Science, of at least three years. The two equivalent Primary 5 classes formed the pupil participants of the study. They were selected based on the grounds of similar scientific inquiry scores attained through an observation session that was conducted prior to the study. These two classes were involved in the study through observation sessions, and a perception survey. Procedure The study made use of the post-test only equivalent groups design. The study was conducted over a period of 8 weeks, in Terms 3 and 4 of the academic year (Diagram 1). Both classes were furnished with similar Science lesson plans that consisted of a total of nine activities. These lesson plans were based on P5 topics of Electricity (5 lesson plans) and Water (4 lesson plans) with matching specific instructional objectives as those laid out by the Primary Science Curriculum. To provide a platform for teacher questioning and pupil inquiry, these lessons were developed incalculating features of the 5Es (Engagement, Exploration, Explanation, Elaboration and Evaluation) of Science Inquiry. The first lesson on the topic of Electricity spread over four weeks, while the remaining topic, Water, spread over the remaining four weeks. In addition, to allow for both the teachers who participated in the study to utilise the questioning platform provided by the lesson plans, they attended a comprehensive Science Inquiry-Based Workshop, followed by a series of handholding sessions in familiarizing themselves with the three lessons, which they attended prior to conducting the lessons.
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The teachers executed the lessons over the same period of time, between the first week of Term 3 and eighth week of Term 4 of the school academic year, where, teachers’ and pupils’ were observed through video recordings and obtrusive observations by a Senior Teacher. A perception survey (Annex A), relating to classroom questioning in teaching and learning, was conducted for all participating pupils after the third lesson. Modelling after lesson study, the two teachers also met up for feedback sessions after each of their lessons to share learning points in terms of their questioning techniques and how they could further value-add pupils’ inquiry through their questioning techniques in the following lesson.
teacher observation (cognitive level of questioning and fulfillment of Bonwell & Eison’s techniques in effective questioning)
handholding sessions Lesson 1
Lesson 2
Lesson 3
teacher feedback Perception Survey (pupils)
pupil observation (demonstration of inquisitiveness)
Reflection Log (pupils)
Diagram 1: An overview of the study’s project design
Measures Two research instruments, observations and surveys, were used in the study. Two lessons (consisting of seven activities) were observed by a Senior Teacher (ST) and video recorded with the purpose of capturing occurrences of the teachers’ use of Higher Order Thinking Questions and pupils’ inquisitive behaviour. In these observations, the Senior Teacher transcribed all the questions asked by the Science teachers, before categorising them as either High or Low Order Thinking Questions (HOT/LOT) (Annex B). To determine the nature of each of the teachers’ questions, the Senior Teacher referred to a checklist that provided
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descriptors of the differing levels of questioning in Bloom’s Taxonomy of School Learning and distinctive features of Bonwell & Eison’s techniques in effective questioning. A sample of the transcription is as follows: Teacher’s Transcript – Lesson One (Control Group) What are the three states? When in solid what is water called? Why does it feel good? What has it got to do with the feeling of the heat on your face? Now, can you think of other ways to produce heat? What is involved in burning? Higher Order Thinking Questions Lower Order Thinking Questions (HOT) (LOT) Why does it feel good? What are the three states? What has it got to do with the feeling of When in solid what is water called? the heat on your face? Now, can you think of other ways to What is involved in burning? produce heat? The scoring of pupils’ scientific inquiry were executed through pegging the evidences of pupils’ scientific inquiry captured by the video recordings to a checklist adapted from The Context for Continuous Assessment: Student Inquiry (2006). The checklist listed twenty-six descriptors (1 point per descriptor) of Standards-Based Science Indicators of Pupil Scientific Inquiry Behaviour and had a total score ceiling of 24 (Annex C). Some examples of the listed descriptors are as follows: Descriptors
Pupils express ideas in a variety of ways: through journals, reporting, drawing, graphing, charting, and so on. They use the language used by scientists to describe their approaches to explorations and investigations.
They describe their current thinking/theories about concepts and phenomena.
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Score
To further validate these evidences, a survey and pupils’ reflection log were used with the purpose of triangulation. All 74 pupils participated in the survey that was conducted to gather information on pupils’ perceptions of the questions that their teachers asked in their Science lessons (the effect on their individual learning processes and inquisitiveness). The survey consisted of nine Likert items and four open-ended questions. Each Likert item consisted of evaluative statement about the nature of the Science teachers’ questioning and a 5 response scale (Strongly Agree, Agree, Neutral, Disagree and Strongly Disagree). Questions posed in the pupil survey were based within the parameters of the research questions. Some examples of the Likert items used in the survey are as follows: Our Science teacher gives us enough time to think about the questions he/she asked before the answer… 1 2 3 4 5 Most of the questions that our Science teacher asks us require us to discuss further as the answers cannot be easily found in our textbooks. 1 2 3 4 5
Analysis For the purpose of analysis, all the questions posed by both teachers in the observations were transcribed, word for word, before being categorised as either High or Low Order Thinking Questions. The questions were matched against Bloom’s Taxonomy’s Level of Questioning, and those questions that had features similar to questions on the second level and above were categorised as High Order Thinking Questions. The evidences of pupils’ scientific inquiry captured by the video recordings were matched against a checklist adapted from The Context for Continuous Assessment: Student Inquiry (2006). Both the project and control groups can achieve a maximum score of 24 for each observation session. Two main statistical procedures, Cohen’s Standardized Mean Difference (SMD) and Pearson’s Correlation Coefficients (r), were used to analyse the findings obtained from the
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study. Cohen’s Standardized Mean Difference was employed to measure the magnitude of the Effect Size (ES) High Order Thinking Questions posed by the teacher has on pupils’ level of scientific inquiry, using the following statistical formula: Effect Size (ES) =
Mean (project) – Mean (control) Standard Deviation (control)
,
In addition to this, the study also made use of Pearson’s Correlation Coefficients (r) to calculate the correlation between the High Order Thinking Questions posed by the teacher and the pupils’ demonstrated scientific inquiry, followed by the use of Hopkins’ Values (2002) to determine the effect of the correlation. Results Table 1 and 2 below show the observations from the two-month study: Table 1. Frequency of Occurrence of Teachers’ HOT Questions and Pupils’ Scientific Inquiry
Frequency of Occurrences (%) Measure
Lesson 1
Lesson 2
Lesson 3
Mean
Teacher’s HOT Qns (Exp)
46.66
23
14.28
27.98
Teacher’s LOT Qns (Exp)
53.34
77
85.72
24.01
Pupils’ Inquiry (Exp)
50
29.17
12.5
30.56
Teacher’s HOT Qns (Ctrl)
12
19.05
10
13.68
Teacher’s LOT Qns (Ctrl)
88
80.95
70
79.65
Pupils’ Inquiry (Ctrl)
20.83
25.00
16.67
20.83
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Table 2. Frequency of Occurrence (Project Group Over Control Group) Frequency of Occurrences (%) Measure
Lesson 1
Lesson 2
Lesson 3
Mean
Teacher’s Hot Qns (Exp)
46.66
23
14.28
27.98
Teacher’s Hot Qns (Ctrl)
12
19.05
10
13.68
Exp vs Ctrl
+288.83
+20.73
+42.8
+117.45
Pupils’ Inquiry (Exp)
50
29.17
12.5
30.56
Pupils’ Inquiry (Ctrl)
20.83
25.00
16.67
20.83
Exp vs Ctrl
+40.04
+16.68
-25.01
+10.57
The teacher in the project group asked more High Order Thinking Questions (46.66%) as compared to her colleague in the control group (12%). Comparatively, in terms of the frequency of occurrences, the teacher in the project class asked a mean of 117.45% High Order Thinking Questions more frequently than her colleague in the control group. In terms of pupils’ levels of scientific inquiry, the pupils’ in the project group attained higher inquiry scores (50%, 29.17%, 12.5%) over the three lessons as compared to their counterparts in the control group (20.83%, 25.00%, 16.67%). The same group of pupils in the project group attained a mean inquiry score of 30.56%; 9.73% more than the score achieved by the control group. In addition to this, the pupils’ in the project group demonstrated inquisitive behaviour 10.57% more frequently than those pupils in the control group. The results of measurements using Cohen’s Standardized Mean Difference (SMD) to calculate the effect of teachers’ High Order Thinking Questions on pupils’ levels of inquiry in this study (Table 3) showed a medium effect size of 0.336645.
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Table 3. Measurements using Cohen’s Standardized Mean Difference (SMD) Measure (post-test)
Project group (N=37)
Control group (N=37)
Effect size
Remarks
Pupils’ Inquiry (Behavioural)
Mean = 30.56
Mean = 20.83
-
-
0.336645
Medium Effect
SD = 18.78842 SD = 4.165001
When plotted in a graphical form as shown below (Graphs 3 & 4), a positive correlation is evident between the amount of High Order Thinking Questions posed by the teachers and the pupils’ scores in terms of scientific inquiry, both in the project and control group. Although the result was expected for the project group, it was not so for the control group. Graph 3. Correlation Between Teacher’s HOT Questions and Pupils’ Inquiry (Project)
Frequency of Occurance (%)
Correlation Between Teacher’s HOT Questions and Pupils’ Inquiry (Project) 60 40 20 0 Teacher's HOT Qns Pupils' Inquiry
1
2
3
46.66
23
14.28
50
29.17
12.5
Lessons
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Graph 4. Correlation Between Teacher’s HOT Questions and Pupils’ Inquiry (Ctrl)
Frequency of Occurance (%)
Correlation Between Teacher’s HOT Questions and Pupils’ Inquiry (Control) 30 20 10 0 Teacher's HOT Qns Pupils' Inquiry
1
2
3
12
19.05
10
20.83
25
16.67
Lessons
When measured using Pearson’s Correlation Coefficients (r) to calculate the effect of teachers’ High Order Thinking Questions on pupils’ levels of inquiry in this study showed a very large correlation for control group (r = 0.95) and an almost perfect correlation for the project group ( r = 0.98). This meant that for both the project and control groups, the greater the number of High Order Thinking Questions posed by the teacher, the level of pupils’ scientific inquiry (in terms of scores) was also correspondingly elevated. Pertaining to the issue of wait-time as discussed in the introduction above, the study recorded the teacher in the project group to have allowed an average of 1.5 minutes of wait-time after each question posed to the pupils, as opposed to the teacher in the control group, who allowed for an average of