Principles of Language Learning and Teaching (5th Edition)

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H. DOUGLAS BROWN San Francisco State University

Principles of Language Learning and Teaching, Fifth Edition

Copyright © 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc.

All rights reserved.

No part of this publication may be reproduced,

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Pearson Education , 10 Bank Street, White Plains, NY 10606

Staff credits: The people who made up the Principles of Language L Fifth Edition team, representing editorial, production, design, and manuf Tracey Munz Cataldo, Dave Dickey, Laura Le Drean, and Melissa Ley Text design: Wendy Wolf Text composition: Laserwords Private Limited Text font: Garamond Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Brown , H . Douglas, 1941­

Principles of language learning and teaching / Douglas Brown.-5th p. cm.

Includes bibliographical references and index.

ISBN 0-13-199128-0 (student book : alk. paper)

1. Language and languages-Study and teaching . 2. Language acquisi P51.B775 2006 418.0071-dc22 ISBN: 0-13-199128-0 Printed in the United States of America 6 7 8 9 10-RRD-10 09 08

Preface to the Fifth Edition, xi

Chapter 1

Language, Learning, and Teaching

1

Questions about Second Language Acquisition, 1

Learner Characteristics, 2

Linguistic Factors, 2

Learning Processes, 2

Age and Acquisition, 2

Instructional Variables, 3

Context, 3

Purpose, 3

Rejoicing in Our Defeats, 3

Language, 5

Learning and Teaching, 7

Schools of Thought in Second Language Acquisition, 9

Structural Linguistics and Behavioral Psychology, 9

Generative Linguistics and Cognitive Psychology, 11

Constructivism: A MultidisciplinalY Approach, 12

Nineteen Centuries of Language Teaching, 15

Language Teaching in the Twentieth Century, 17

Topics and Questionsfor Study and Discussion, 19

Suggested Readings, 20

Language Learning Experience:Journal Entry 1 , 21

Guidelines for Entry 1, 22

PART I. AGE FACTORS Chapter 2

First Language Acquisition

24

Theories of First Language AcquiSition, 25

Behavioral Approaches, 26

Challenges to Behavioral Approaches, 27

iii

iv

Contents

The Nativist Approach, 28

Challenges to Nativist Approaches, 31

Functional Approaches, 33

Issues in First Language Acquisition, 35

Competence and Performance , 35

Comprehension and Production, 38

Nature or Nurture?, 39

Universals, 40

Systematicity and Variability, 42

Language and Thought, 42

Imitation, 43

Practice and Frequency, 45

Input, 46

Discourse, 47

First Language Acquisition Insights Applied to Language Teach Topics and Questions /01' Study and Discussion, 51

Suggested Readings, 52

Language Learning Experience: Journal Entry 2, 53

Chapter 3

Age and Acquisition

Dispelling Myths, 54

Types of Comparison and Contrast, 56

The Critical Period Hypothesis, 57

Ne urobiological Considerations, 58

Hemispheric Lateralization, 58

Biological Timetables, 59

Right-Hemispheric Participation, 60

Anthropological Evidence, 61

The Significance of Accent, 62

Cognitive Considerations, 65

Affective Considerations, 68

Linguistics Considerations, 71

Bilingualism, 72

Interference Between First and Second Languages, 72 Order of Acquisition, 73

Issues in First Language Acquisition Revisited, 75

Competence and Performance, 75

Comprehension and Production, 75

Nature or Nurture?, 76

Universals, 76

Systematicity and Variability, 76

Language and Thought, 77

Imitation, 77

PART ll. PSYCHOLOGICAL FACTORS Chapter 4

Human Learning

86

Learning and Training, 86

Pavlov's Classical Behaviorism, 87

Skinner's Operant Conditioning, 88

Ausubel 's Subsumption Theory, 91

Rote vs. Meaningful Learning, 91

Systematic Forgetting, 94

Rogers's Humanistic Psychology, 97

Types of Learning, 99

Transfer, Interference, and Overgeneralization, 102

Inductive and Deductive Reasoning, 104

Language Aptitude, 105

Intelligence and Language Learning, 107

Learning Theories in Action: Two Language Teaching Methods

in Contrast, 110

The Audiolingual Method, 111

Community Language Learning, 112

Topics and Questions for Study and Discussion, 114

Suggested Readings, 115

Language Learning Experience: journal Entry 4, 116

Chapter 5

Styles and Strategies

Process, Style, and Strategy, 118

Learning Styles, 119

Field Independence, 121

Left- and Right-Brain Dominance , 125

Ambiguity Tolerance, 126

Reflectivity and Impulsivity, 127

Visual, Auditory, and Kinesthetic Styles , 129

118

VI

Contents

Autonomy, Awareness, and Action, 130

Strategies, 132

Learning Strategies, 133

Communication Strategies, 137

Avoidance Strategies, 137

Compensatory Strategies, 139

Strategies-Based Instruction, 140

Identifying Learners' Styles and Strategies, 143

Incorporating SBI into the Language Classroom, 145

Stimulating Strategic Action Beyond the Classroom, 1 Topics and Questions for Study and Discussion, 148

Suggested Readings, 149

Language Learning Experience: Journal Entry 5, 150

Chapter 6

Personality Factors

The Affective Domain, 153

Affective Factors in Second Language Acquisition, 154

Self-Esteem, 154

Attribution Theory and Self-Efficacy, 156

Willingness to Communicate, 156

Inhibition, 157

Risk Taking, 160

Anxiety, 161

Empathy, 164

Extroversion, 166

Motivation, 168

Theories of Motivation, 168

Instrumental and Integrative Orientations, 170

Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation, 172

The Neurobiology of Affect, 175

Personality Types and Language Acquisition, 176

Measu ring Affective Factors, 179

Intrinsic Motivation in the Classroom, 180

Topics and Questions for Study and Discussion, 182

Suggested Readings, 184

Language Learning Experience: Journal Entry 6, 185

PART

m.

Chapter 7

SOCIOCULTURAL FACTORS Sociocultural Factors

Culture: Definitions and Theories, 188

Stereotypes or Generalizations?, 190

Language, Thought, and Culture, 208

Framing Our Conceptual Universe, 208

The Whorfian Hypothesis, 211

Culture in the Language Classroom, 213

TopicS and Questionsfor Study and Discussion, 214

Suggested Readings, 215

Language Learning Experience: Journal Entry 7, 217

Chapter 8

Communicative Competence

Defining Communicative Competence, 218

Language Functions, 223

Halliday's Seven Functions of Language, 223

Functional Approaches to Language Teaching, 225

Discourse Analysis, 226

Conversation Analysis, 228

Corpus Linguistics, 230

Contrastive Rhetoric, 231

Pragmatics, 232

Sociopragmatics and Pragmalinguistics, 233

Language and Gender, 234

Discourse Styles, 235

Nonverbal Communication, 237

Kinesics , 238

Eye Contact, 238

Proxemics, 239

Artifacts, 239

Kinesthetics, 239

Olfactory Dimensions, 240

CC in the Classroom: CLT and Task-Based Teaching, 241

Communicative Language Teaching, 241

Task-Based Instruction, 242

TopiCS and Questions for Study and Discussion, 243

Suggested Readings, 244

Language Learning Experience: Journal Entry 8, 246

218

VIII

Contents

PART IV. LINGUISTIC FACTORS Chapter 9

Cross-Linguistic Influence and Learne

The Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis, 248

From the CAH to CLl, 251

Markedness and Universal Grammar, 254

Learner Language, 255

Error Analysis, 257

Mistakes and Errors, 257

Errors in Error Analysis, 259

Identifying and Describing Errors, 260

Sources of Error, 263

Interlingual Transfer, 263

Intralingual Transfer, 264

Context of Learning, 266

Communication Strategies, 266

Stages of Learner Language Development, 266

Variation in Learner Language, 268

Fossilization or Stabilization?, 270

Errors in the Classroom: A Brief History, 273

Form-Focused Instruction , 276

Categories of Error Treatment, 277

Effectiveness of FFI, 278

Topics and Questions jor Study and Discussion , 281

Suggested Readings, 282

Language Learning Experience: Journal Ently 9, 283

Chapter 10

Toward a Theory of Second Languag

Building a TheolY of SLA, 287

Domains and Generalizations, 287

Hypotheses and Claims , 288

Criteria for a Viable Theoly, 290

Hot Topics in SLA Research, 291

Explicit and Implicit Learning, 291

Awareness, 292

Input and Output, 293

Frequency, 293

An Innatist Model: Krashen's Input Hypothesis, 294

Five Hypotheses, 294

Evaluations of the Five Hypotheses, 296

The Output Hypothesis, 297

Cognitive Models , 299

McLaughlin's Attention-Processing Model, 299

Suggested Readings, 315

Language Learning Experience. Finaljournal Entry, 316

Bibliography, 319

Glossaty, 376

Index, 393

Names, 393

Subjects, 400

WHEN THE first edition of Principles of Language Learning and Teaching appeared in 1980, the field of second language acquisition (SLA) was relatively manageable. We had a handful of professional journals devoted to SLA, a good collection of anthologies and conference proceedings, a small but respectable number of books on SLA and teaching, and a budding community of researchers devoted to the field . Today the field of SLA has a mind-boggling number of branches and sub­ fields and specializations-so many that it is virtually impossible for one person to "manage" them all. In the most recent issue of Language Teaching, an abstracting journal covering SLA and its pedagogical implications and applications, 162 peri­ odicals were listed as potential sources of research on SLA. In two recent Handbooks surveying research on second language acquisition (Doughty & Long, 2003; Hinkel, 2005), readers are treated to over 2000 pages and over 70 chapters of surveys of current research! All these publications, coupled with literally thousands of confer­ ence presentations annually on SLA worldwide and an impressive number of books, now cover dozens of major subject matter areas. From "A to Z"-Accent to the Zone of proximal development-SLA is a rich and diverse field of inquiry. Today we can see that the manageable stockpile of research of just a few decades ago has been replaced by a coordinated, systematic storehouse of infor­ mation. Subfields have been defined and explored. Researchers around the world are meeting, talking, exchanging findings, comparing data, and arriving at some mutually acceptable explanations. A remarkable number of respectable, refereed journals are printing the best and most interesting of this research. Our research miscarriages are fewer as we have collectively learned how to conceive the right questions. On the other hand, the mysteries and wonder of human language acquisi­ tion still perplex of the best of our sleuthing minds. It is a rare research report that does not end with some sort of caveat like, "more research is needed ." In the 888­ page compendium edited by Doughty and Long (2003), The Handbook of Second Language Acquisition, the penultimate author's closing sentence reads: "It is hardly surprising, though, that theoretical and methodological problems still abound; XI

XII

Preface

SLA is a newly merging scientific field, and problems (Gregg, 2003, p. 856).

PURPOSE AND AUDIENCE

Since its first publication in 1980, Principles of L Teaching, here in its fifth edition, has served a number o ences around the world. For graduates or advanced und teacher education programs, it is a textbook on the th language teaching, a survey of what research has rev beings acquire a second language. For a surprising n become a book that Master's degree candidates pore ov SLA section of their comprehensive examinations or thesis research. For experienced teachers, it has becom vides an overview of current issues in the field with an entries to aid in that overview. For the most part, you do not need to have prior t guistics or psychology in order to comprehend this book.A to build, from the beginning, on what an educated perso life, people, and communication. And the book can be u cating teachers of any foreign language, even though m here are in English since that is the language common to

CHANGES IN THE FIFfH EDITION

The first question people ask me when they hear that a appear is, "What changes will you make?" or from some s edition really different from the current one?" In antici about the fifth edition, I offer the following highlights:

1. New issues and topics. In a field growing as rapidl or seven years sees many advances. In a reflection of edition features a number of new topics, listed in cap sequenced in the order they appear in chapters.

• Vygotsky's and Bakhtin's theories; language teachin • Connectionism, emergentism, principles and param • Age-related evidence-new findings; order of acqu • Thorndike's law of effect, language aptitude-new gences- update • Kinesthetic style, autonomy, awareness, strategies-b research

been updated with new [mdings and new perspectives. Some of these updates are reflected in a reorganization of material within the chapters. And out of literally thousands of new articles, books, and chapters that have appeared since the last edition, I have added a selection of over 300 new bib­ liographic references that report the latest work in SLA. 3. Permutation of Chapters 8 and 9. With recent emphases on the blending of linguistic factors with related macro-theories of SLA, a better logical conti­ nuity is provided by (1) connecting sociocultural factors (Chapter 7) with questions about communicative competence, pragmatics, and conversation analysis (formerly Chapter 9, now Chapter 8); and (2) connecting learner lan­ guage, error analysis, and form-focused instruction (formerly Chapter 8, now Chapter 9) with overall theoretical perspectives (Chapter 10). 4. Amalgamation of pedagogical (methodological) implications. Users of the previous edition have suggested that the end-of-chapter vignettes on methodology be amalgamated into the text. I have followed this suggestion by incorporating methodological concerns and issues into appropriate chapters. So for example, Chapter 4, which covers learning theories, now has a new section on two learning theory-inspired methods that were in stark contrast: the Audiolingual Method, and Community Language Learning. 5. New "Classroom Connections." Another way to bridge what might still be too much of a gap between research findings and classroom praxis is now featured in periodic capsules called "Classroom Connections." Here, the reader is reminded of a research issue that is being discussed, and on the same page is referred to some thoughts about how such research may have implications or applications for language classroom pedagogy. 6. Glossary of technical terminology. Throughout the book, new termi­ nology that is central to the study of second language acquisition is boldfaced in its first appearance.To provide the reader with a convenient reference to all such terms, this Fifth Edition features a glossary of technical terminology at the end of the book. I suggest that such a lexicon become a tool for reminders and review rather than a method of long-term internalization of concepts. Retention is always better served by embedding terminology into concurrent reading and by association with one's experience, and not by the rote memorization of endless lists of jargon.

xiv

Preface

ADDITIONAL FEATURES

7. Classroom-oriented end-of-chapter exercises. In end-of-chapter exercises were designed for individua sibly for teachers to adapt to classroom discussion. I improved classroom-tested exercises are explicitly d work, pair work, whole-class discussion, and individu 8. Accessible suggestions for further reading. In th for further reading target an audience of students ju of SLA. Few esoteric, technical articles are listed, and to more reader-friendly material. 9. Journal guidelines for a language learning exp recommended that the information in a book like th the reader is concurrently taking a course in a foreig of each chapter in this edition is a new section that journal-writing guidelines for the reader either to re ence learning another language or to take a retrospe foreign language learning experience. In both cases, apply concepts and constructs and models to a pers a foreign language.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

This book has grown out of graduate courses in second I have taught at San Francisco State University, the Uni University of Michigan. My first debt of gratitude is ther their insights, enthusiasm, and support. They offered inv first four editions of the book, and I have attempted to into this fifth edition. I always learn so much from my stu I am also grateful to faculty colleagues both he University, at the American Language Institute, and arou verbal commentary, informal written opinion, and forma which were useful in fashioning this fifth edition. I als lisher's anonymous reviewers for constructive feedback a Finally, on a personal note, my wife, Mary, and become first-time grandparents-Carson William Brown, Brown in 2004. So readers can look forward to the sixth budding first language acquisition skills will be well doc want to say yet another huge thank you to Mary once a supportive of a cranky, driven author as I churned out th

LEARNING A second language is a long and complex undertaking. Your whole person is affected as you struggle to reach beyond the confines of your first lan­ guage and into a new language, a new culture, a new way of thinking, feeling, and acting. Total commitment, total involvement, a total physical, intellectual, and emo­ tional response are necessary to successfully send and receive messages in a second language. Many variables are involved in the acquisition process. Language learning is not a set of easy steps that can be prograrruned in a quick do-it-yourself kit. So much is at stake that courses in foreign languages are often inadequate training grounds, in and of themselves, for the successful learning of a second lan­ guage. Few if any people achieve fluency in a foreign language solely within the confines of the classroom. It may appear contradictory, then, that this book is about both learning and teaching. But some of the contradiction is removed if you look at the teaching process as the facilitation of learning, in which you can teach a foreign language suc­ cessfully if, among other things, you know something about that intricate web of variables that are spun together to affect how and why one learns or fails to learn a second language. Where does a teacher begin the quest for an understanding of the principles of language learning and teaching? By first conSidering some of the ques­ tions that you could ask.

QUESTIONS ABour SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION Virtually any complex set of skills brings with it a host of questions. While these questions can quickly turn into "issues," because there is no simple answer to the questions, nevertheless we usually begin the process with a set of focused questions to guide our study. Current issues in second language acquisition (SlA) may be ini­ tially approached as a multitude of questions that are being asked about this com­ plex process. Let's look at some of those questions, sorted here into some commonly used topical categories.

1

2

CHA PTER

1

Language, Learning, and Teaching

Learner Characteristics

Who are the learners that you are teaching? What is their gious heritage? What are their native languages, levels of edu characteristics? What life's experiences have they had learning? What are their intellectual capacities, abilities, nesses? How would you describe the personality of any other questions focus attention on some of the crucial learners ' successes in acquiring a foreign language and tea learners to achieve that acquisition.

Unguistic Factors

No simpler a question is one that probes the nature of What is it that the learner must learn? What is language? What does it mean when we say someone knows how to the best way to describe or systematize the target (second relevant differences (and conunonalities) between a lear guage? What properties of the target language might be master' These profound questions are of course centra guistics. The language teacher needs to understand the s the second language and the differences between the firs the learner. It is one thing for a teacher to speak and unde another matter to attain the technical knowledge req explain the system of that language-its phonemes, morp and discourse structures.

Learning Processes

How does learning take place? How can a person ens learning? What cognitive processes are utilized in se What kinds of strategies are available to a learner, and How important are factors like frequency of input, meaning, memory and storage processes, and recall? W relationship of cognitive , affective, and physical domain learning?

Age and Acquisition

When in the life of a learner does second language learnin key issues in second language research and teaching is a c differences between children and adults in learning a se observation tells us that children are "better" langua Research shows that to be an overgeneralization, if not

What are the effects of varying methodological approaches, textbooks, materials, teacher styles, and institutional factors? Consider the amount of time spent in class­ rooms learning a second language: is there an optimal length of time required for successful mastery? Should the learner be exposed to three or five or ten hours a week in the classroom? Or a five-to-seven-hour day in an intensive language pro­ gram? And how "active" should a learner be outside of the classroom?

Context Are the learners attempting to acquire the second language within the cultural and linguistic milieu of the second language, that is, in a "second" language situation in the technical sense of the term? Or are they focusing on a "foreign" language con­ text in which the second language is heard and spoken only in an artificial envi­ ronment, such as the modern language classroom in an American university or high school? How might the sociopolitical conditions of a particular country or its lan­ guage policy affect the outcome of a learner's mastery of the language? How do intercultural contrasts and similarities affect the learning process?

Purpose Finally, the most encompassing of all questions: Why are learners attempting to acquire the second language? What are their purposes? Are they motivated by the achievement of a successful career, or by passing a foreign language requirement, or by wishing to identify closely with the culture and people of the target language? Beyond these categories, what other, emotional, personal, or intellectual reasons do learners have for pursuing this gigantic task of learning another language?

REJOICING IN OUR DEFEATS The above questions have been posed, in very global terms, to give you an inkling of the diversity of issues involved in the quest for understanding the principles of language learning and teaching. By addressing such questions carefully and critically, you can begin to achieve a surprising number of answers as you move

4

CHAPTER 1

Language, Learning, and Teaching

through the chapters of this book. And you can hone finer, subtler questions, which in itself is an important to ask the right questions is more valuable than po knowledge. At the same time, you should not labor under the im isfactorily find fmal answers to all the questions. By som SlA is still in its infancy, with all the methodological and come with a developing discipline (see Gregg, 2003 , for e of these questions will receive somewhat tentative answe must begin with the phrase, "it depends." Answers mus in a context that can vary from one learner to another, from The wonderful intricacy of complex facets of human be with us for some time. Roger Brown's (1966, p. 326) decades ago still applies:

Psychologists find it exciting when a complex m something intelligent and slippery-seems abou mechanical model. We yearn to see the model s the last minute, the phenomenon proves too mu darts off on some uncapturable tangent, there is rejoices at the defeat.

We can rejoice in our defeats because we know tha of the phenomenon of SlA that makes the quest for answ of inquiry is no simple, unidimensional reality. It is "slipp The chapters of this book are designed to give you periness of SlA and the systematic storehouse of reliab available to us. As you consider the issues, chapter by quest for your own personal, integrated understanding o sometimes fail to learn-a second language. That quest i or hypothesis will provide a magic formula for all learner quest is cautious: you will be urged to be as critical as y merit of various models and theories and research finding chapter, however, you will no doubt surprise yourself on giant puzzle you can actually put together! Thomas Kuhn (1970) referred to "normal science solving in which part of the task of the scientist, in this cover the pieces and then to fit the pieces together. Som guage learning puzzle have been located and set in p discovered, and the careful defining of questions will lea We can then undertake the task of fitting the pieces toge interlocking design , a theory of second language acquisit

Teaching Implications: As you look at language classes you have taken (and perhaps taught), do you think there will be an "intellec­ tually violent" change (to paraphr.tse Kuhn) in which our pedagogy will be markedly transformed? If so, what do you suppose the next "revolution" in language teaching will look like?

That theory, like a jigsaw puzzle, needs to be coherent and unified. If only one point of view is taken-if you look at only one facet of second language learning and teaching-you will derive an incomplete, partial theory. The second language teacher,with eyes wide open to the total picture,needs to form an integrated under­ standing of the many aspects of the process of second language learning. In order to begin to ask further questions and to find answers to some of those questions, let's first address a fundamental concern in problem-posing: defining or delimiting the focus of our inquiry. Since this book is about language, learning, and teaching, let's see what happens when we try to "defllle" those three terms.

lANGUAGE A definition is a statement that captures the key features of a concept. Those fea­ tures may vary, depending on your own (or the lexicographer's) understanding of the construct. And, most important, that understanding is essentially a "theory" that explicates the construct. So a definition of a term may be thought of as a con­ densed version of a theory. Conversely, a theory is simply-or not so Simply-an extended definition. Defining, therefore, is serious business: it requires choices about which facets of something are worthy of being included. Suppose you were stopped by a reporter on the street, and in the course of an interview about your field of study, you were asked: "Well, since you're interested in second language acquisition, please defllle language in a sentence or two ." You would no doubt dig deep into your memory for a typical dictionary-type definition of language. Such definitions, if pursued seriously, could lead to a lexicographer's

6

CHAPTER 1

Language, Learning, and Teaching

wild-goose chase, but they also can reflect a reasonably rent understanding of just what it is that linguists are tryi If you had had a chance to consult the Merr Dictionary (2003, p. 699), you might have responded t relatively standard statement like "a systematic means o feelings by the use of conventionalized signs, sounds, g understood meanings." Or, if you had read Pinker's The L you might have come up with a sophisticated statement

Language is a complex, specialized skill, which spontaneously, without conscious effort or f deployed without awareness of its underlying the same in every individual, and is distinct fro ties to process information or behave intelligent

On the other hand, you might, with Ron Scollon (2004, that, first of all, language is not something that comes in " that it certainly is "a multiple, complex, and kaleidoscop depending on how fussy you wanted to get in your resp included some mention of (1) the creativity of language, (2 speech over writing, and (3) the universality of language am A consolidation of a number of possible definitions o lowing composite definition. 1. Language is systematic.

2. Language is a set of arbitrary symbols. 3. Those symbols are primarily vocal , but may also be v 4. The symbols have conventionalized meanings to wh 5. Language is used for communication. 6. Language operates in a speech community or culture 7. Language is essentially human, although possibly not 8. Language is acquired by all people in much the same guage learning both have universal characteristics.

These eight statements provide a reasonably concise "25language. But the simplicity of the eightfold defmition mask the sophistication of linguistic research underlying fields and subfields and yearlong university courses, are eight categories. Consider some of these possible areas:

1. Explicit and formal accounts of the system of langua

levels (e.g., phonological, syntactic, lexical, and sema 2. The symbolic nature of language; the relationship be reality; the philosophy of language; the history of lan

Serious and extensive thinking about these eight topics involves a complex journey through a labyrinth of linguistic science-a maze that continues to be nego­ tiated. Yet the language teacher needs to know something about this system of communication that we call language. Can foreign language teachers effectively teach a language if they do not know, even in general, something about the rela­ tionship between language and cognition, writing systems, nonverbal communica­ tion , sociolinguistics, and first language acquisition? And if the second language learner is being asked to be successful in acquiring a system of communication of such vast complexity, isn't it reasonable that the teacher have awareness of what the components of that system are? Your understanding of the components of language determines to a large extent how you teach a language. If, for example, you believe that nonverbal com­ munication is a key to successful second language learning, you will devote some attention in your curriculum to nonverbal systems and cues. If you perceive lan­ guage as a phenomenon that can be dismantled into thousands of discrete pieces and those pieces programmatically taught one by one, you will attend carefully to an understanding of the discrete forms of language. If you think language is essen­ tially cultural and interactive, your classroom methodology will be imbued with sociolinguistic strategies and communicative tasks. This book touches on some of the general aspects of language as defined above . More specific aspects will have to be understood in the context of an aca­ demic program in a particular language, in which specialized study of linguistics is obviously recommended along with a careful analysis of the foreign language itself.

LEARNING AND TEACHING We can also ask questions about constructs like learning and teaching. Consider again some traditional definitions. A search in contemporary dictionaries reveals that learning is "acquiring or getting of knowledge of a subject or a skill by study, experience, or instruction." Oddly, an educational psychologist would define learning even more succinctly as "a change in an individual caused by experi­ ence" (Slavin, 2003, p. 138). Similarly, teaching,which is implied in the first defmition

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CHAPTER

7

Language, Learning, and Teaching

of learning, may be defined as "showing or helping som something, giving instructions, guiding in the study of s knowledge, causing to know or understand." Isn't it curi cographers seem to have such difficulty in devising a defi versal as teaching? More than perhaps anything else, su difficulty of defining complex concepts. Breaking down the components of the defmition of l we did with language, domains of research and inquiry.

1. Learning is acquisition or "getting." 2. Learning is retention of information or skill. 3. Retention implies storage systems, memory, cognitive 4. Learning involves active, conscious focus on and acti or inside the organism. 5. Learning is relatively permanent but subject to forge 6. Learning involves some form of practice, perhaps rei 7. Learning is a change in behavior.

These concepts can also give way to a number of subfiel psychology: acquisition processes, perception, memory (s long-term memory, recall, motivation, conscious and sub and strategies, theories of forgetting, reinforcement, th quickly the concept of learning becomes every bit as com guage. Yet the second language learner brings all these play in the learning of a second language. Teaching cannot be defined apart from learning. Te itating learning, enabling the learner to learn, setting th Your understanding of how the learner learns will dete education, your teaching style, your approach, methods, a If, like B. F. Skinner, you look at learning as a process through a carefully paced program of reinforcement, you you view second language learning as a deductive rather you will probably choose to present copious rules and p rather than let them "discover" those rules inductively. An extended definition-or theory-of teaching principles for choosing certain methods and techniques harmony with your integrated understanding of the le matter to be learned, will point the way to successful p for given learners under the various constraints of t learning. In other words, your theory of teaching is your on its head."

researchers, some historical patterns emerge that highlight trends and fashions in the study of second language acquisition . These trends will be described here in the form of three different schools of thought-primarily in the fields of linguistics and psychology-that follow somewhat historically, even though components of each school overlap chronologically to some extent. Bear in mind that such a sketch may suggest dichotomies in philosophical positions, and such contrasts are rarely so simplistic in the study of issues in SLA.

Structural Linguistics and Behavioral Psychology In the 1940s and 1950s, the structural, or descriptive, school of linguistics, with its advocates-Leonard Bloomfield, Edward Sapir, Charles Hockett, Charles Fries, and others-prided itself in a rigorous application of scientific observations of human languages. Only "publicly observable responses" could be subject to investigation. The linguiSt's task, according to the structuralist, was to describe human languages and to identify the structural characteristics of those languages. An important axiom of structural linguistics was that languages can differ from each other without limit, and that no preconceptions could apply across languages. Freeman Twaddell (1935 , p. 57) stated this principle in perhaps its most extreme terms: Whatever our attitude toward mind, spirit, soul, etc., as realities, we must agree that the scientist proceeds as though there were no such things, as though all his information were acquired through processes of his physiological nervous system. Insofar as he occupies himself with psychical , nonmaterial forces , the scientist is not a scientist. The scientific method is quite simply the convention that mind does not exist ... Twaddell was underscoring the mandate for the structural linguist to examine only overtly observable data, and to ignore the "mind" insofar as the latter repre­ sented a mentalistic approach that gave credence to unobservable guesses, hunches, and intuition. Such attitudes prevailed in B. E Skinner's thought, particularly

10

CHAPTER

1

Language, Learning, and Teaching

in Verbal Behavior (1957), in which he said that any notio explanatory fiction, and that the speaker is merely the lo the cause. Charles Osgood (1957) reinstated meaning in v it as a "representational mediation process," but still did n nonmentalistic view of language. Of further importance to the structural or descripti that language could be dismantled into small pieces or could be described scientifically, contrasted, and added up From this principle emerged an unchecked rush of linguis to the far reaches of the earth to engage in the rigoro descriptions of "exotic" languages.

ClASSROOM CONNECTIONS

Research Findings: The prevailing paradigm in in the 1940s and 1950s viewed language as a linear, that described grammatical sequences in terms o nents that could comprise a sentence. These an Noam Chomsky later called "surface structure" re

Teaching Implications: No one may have b structural linguistics in the classroom than Cha "structural drills" and "pattern practices" were (1945) book, Teaching and Learning Englis Language, and in his (1952) book, Tbe Structur very popular Audiolingual Method (see Chapte insights from Fries's seminal work. What do y advantages and disadvantages of pattern drills classroom?

Among psychologists, a behavioral paradigm also fo able responses-those that can be objectively perceived The scientific method was rigorously adhered to, and t consciousness and intuition were regarded as mentalist inquiry. The unreliability of observation of states of con cept formation, or the acquisition of knowledge made examine in a behavioral framework. Typical behavioral operant conditioning, rote verbal learning, instrumenta learning, and other empirical approaches to studying hum familiar with the classical experiments with Pavlov's dog

guists. The generative linguist was interested not only in describing language (achieving the level of descriptive adequacy) but also in arriving at an explana­ tory level of adequacy in the study of language, that is, a "principled baSiS, inde­ pendent of any particular language, for the selection of the descriptively adequate grammar of each language" (Chomsky, 1964, p. 63). Early seeds of the generative-transformational revolution were planted near the beginning of the twentieth century. Ferdinand de Saussure (1916) claimed that there was a difference between parole (what Skinner "observes," and what Chomsky called performance), on the one hand, and langue (akin to the concept of competence, or our underlying and unobservable language ability). A few decades later, however, descriptive linguists chose largely to ignore langue and to study parole, as was noted above. The revolution brought about by generative lin­ guistics broke with the descriptivists' preoccupation with performance-the out­ ward manifestation of language-and capitalized on the important distinction between the overtly observable aspects of language and the hidden levels of mean­ ing and thought that give birth to and generate observable linguistic performance. Similarly, cognitive psychologists asserted that meaning, understanding, and knowing were Significant data for psychological study. Instead of focusing rather mechanistically on stimulus-response connections, cognitivists tried to discover psy­ chological prinCiples of organization and functioning. David Ausubel (1965, p. 4) noted: From the standpoint of cognitive theorists, the attempt to ignore conscious states or to reduce cognition to mediational processes reflective of impliCit behavior not only removes from the field of psy­ chology what is most worth studying but also dangerously oversim­ plifies highly complex psychological phenomena. Cognitive psychologists, like generative linguists, sought to discover underlying motivations and deeper structures of human behavior by using a rational approach. That is, they freed themselves from the strictly empirical study typical of behaviorists and employed the tools of logic, reason, extrapolation, and inference in order to derive explanations for human behavior. Going beyond merely descriptive adequacy to explanatory power took on utmost importance.

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Language, Learning, and Teaching

Both the structural linguist and the behavioral psyc description, in answering what questions about human surement of behavior in controlled circumstances. The g nitive psychologist were, to be sure, interested in the wh far more interested in a more ultimate question, why: innate, psychological, social, or environmental circumst behavior in a human being? If you were to observe someone walk into your hous it through your window, and then walk out, different k asked. One set of questions would relate to what happ tion of the person, the time of day, the size of the chair, t so forth. Another set of questions would ask why the p did : what were the person's motives and psychological s the cause of the behavior, and so on. The first set of que exacting: it allows no flaw, no mistake in measurement; b answers? The second set of questions is richer, but obv ask some difficult questions about the unobserved, we gain more profound insight about human behavior.

Constructivism: A Multidisciplinary Approach

Constructivism is hardly a new school of thought. Jea names often associated with constructivism, are not by a of language studies. Yet, in a variety of post-structur constructivism emerged as a prevailing paradigm only i tieth century, and is now almost an orthodoxy. A refres structivism is its integration of linguistic, psychological, a in contrast to the professional chasms that often divided vious century. Now, with its emphasis on social interac construction, of meaning, the three disciplines have muc What is constructivism, and how does it differ from described above? First, it will be helpful to think of two b cognitive and social. In the cognitive version of construc on the importance of learners constructing their own "Learners must individually discover and transform comp to make it their own, [suggesting) a more active role learning than is typical in many classrooms" (Slavin, claims are rooted in Piaget's (1954, 1955, 1970; Piaget work in the middle of the twentieth century, but have widely accepted views. For Piaget, "learning is a de involves change, self-generation, and construction, each experiences" (Kaufman, 2004, p. 304). Social constructivism emphasizes the importanc cooperative learning in constructing both cognitive and e

Research Findings: Constmctivism is a school of thought that emphasizes both the learner's role in constructing meaning out of available linguistic input and the importance of social interaction in creating a new linguistic system. Early constructivists like Vygotsky and Piaget actively emphasized their views many decades ago. What took the language teaching profession so long to apply such thinking to classroom practices? Teaching Implications: Perhaps prevailing views of behavioral psychology curbed an outburst of interactive language teaching. However, as early as the 1970s, some methods advocated the cen­ tral role of the learner's construction of language (the Silent Way and Community Language Learning) and the importance of mean­ ingful interaction (early forms of the Notional-Functional Syllabus, which started in the United Kingdom). What evidence of con­ structivism do you see in current foreign language classrooms?

One of the most popular concepts advanced by Vygotsky was the notion of a zone of proximal development (ZPD) in every learner: the distance between learners' existing developmental state and their potential development. Put another way, the ZPD describes tasks that a learner has not yet learned but is capable of learning with appropriate stimuli. The ZPD is an important facet of social con­ structivism because it describes tasks "that a child cannot yet do alone but could do with the assistance of more competent peers or adults" (Slavin, 2003, p. 44; see also Karpov & Haywood, 1998). A number of applications ofVygotsky's ZPD have been made to foreign language instruction (Lantolf, 2000; Nassaji & Cumming, 2000; Marchenkova, 2005) in both adult and child second language learning contexts. Vygotsky's concept of the ZPD contrasted rather sharply with Pia get's theory of learning in that the former saw a u nity of learning and development while the latter saw stages of development setting a precondition, or readiness, for learning (Dunn & Lantolf, 1998). Piaget stressed the importance of individual cognitive development as a relatively solitary act. Biological timetables and stages of devel­ opment were basic; social interaction was claimed only to trigger development at

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Language, Learning, and Teaching

the right moment in time. On the other hand,Vygotsky m action was foundational in cognitive development and r determined stages. Closely allied to a Vygotskian social constructivi Mikhail Bakhtin (1986, 1990), the Russian literary theori the attention of SLA researchers and practitioners (Hall, 2005). Bakhtin contended that language is "immersed in text, and its central function is to serve as a medium o spirit, the early years of the new millennium have see sociocultural dimensions of SLA, or what Watson-Gegeo guage socialization paradigm for SLA: a new synthesis th tion of mind, language, and epistemology, and a recognitio in social interaction and is shaped by cultural and sociopo Gegeo, 2004, p. 331). Researchers studying first and second language acqu constructivist perspectives through studies of conversa tural factors in learning, and interactionist theories. In ma spectives are a natural successor to cognitively based stu information processing, memory, artificial intelligence, a aticity. (Note: These terms will be defined and explained this book.) All three of the historical positions described in this ioral, generative/cognitive, and constructivist-must be se balanced descriptions of second language acquisition. C analogy of a very high mountain, viewed from a distance mountain may have a sharp peak, easily identified glaCier mations. From another direction, however, the same mou have two peaks (the second formerly hidden from view) a of its slopes. From still another direction, yet further char fore unobserved. The study of SLA is very much like the we need multiple tools and vantage points in order to asc Table 1.1 summarizes concepts and approaches desc tives above. The table may help to pinpoint certain broa with the respective positions.The patterns that are illustrat (1970) described as the structure of scientific revolutions followed by a period of anomaly (doubt, uncertainty, questio then crisis (the fall of the existing paradigm) with all the p comes therewith; and then finally a new paradigm, a novel t cycle is evident in both psychology and linguistics, althoug not always easily perceived-perhaps less easily perceived three paradigms currently operate somewhat simultaneou theories underscores the fact that no single theory or para is impossible to refute with finality one perspective with a found in virtually every critical approach to the study of re

19605, 19705, and 19805

Generative Linguistics and Cognitive Psychology

Generative Ii ngu istics Acquisition, innateness Interlanguage Systematicity Universal grammar Competence Deep structure

19805, 19905, and 20005

Constructivism

Interactive discourse Sociocultural variables Cooperative learning Discovery learning Construction of meaning Interlanguage variability

NINETEEN CENTURIES OF lANGUAGE TEACIDNG A survey of research and theoretical trends in SlA remains abstract and unfocused without its application to the practical concerns of pedagogy in the classroom. Besides, most readers of this book are ultimately interested in language pedagogy in one form or another, and so in an attempt to help to build bridges between theory and practice, I will offer occasional relevant historical commentaries on language teaching, and link those descriptions to topics and issues being treated. In so doing, I hope to acquaint you progressively with some of the major methodological trends and issues on the pedagogical side of the profeSSion. So far in this chapter, the focus has been on research over the past century or so of linguistics and psychology, and in the last section of this chapter, I will draw your attention to pedagogical trends and issues in the twentieth century. What do we know about language teaching in the two or three millennia prior? The answer is: not very much. Kelly's (1969) informative survey of language teaching over "twenty-five cen­ turies" revealed interesting anecdotal accounts of foreign language instruction but few if any research-based language teaching methods. In the Western world, "for­ eign" language learning in schools was synonymous with the learning of Latin or

16

CHAPTER 1

Language, Learning, and Teaching

Greek. Latin, thought to promote intellectuality through until relatively recently held to be indispensable to an a Latin was taught by means of what has been called the on grammatical rules, memorization of vocabulary and o conjugations, translation of texts, doing written exerc began to be taught in educational institutions in the e centuries, the Classical Method was adopted as the chi eign languages. Little thought was given at the time to guages; after all , languages were not being taught pri communication , but to learn for the sake of being "schol for gaining a reading proficiency in a foreign language any theoretical research on second language acquisit acquisition of reading proficiency, foreign languages wer was taught. So language teaching before the twentieth century dition" that, in various manifestations and adaptations, guage classrooms worldwide even up to the present tim century, the Classical Method came to be known as th Method. There was little to distinguish Grammar Transl on in foreign language classrooms for centuries, beyon rules as the basis for translating from the second to the Grammar Translation Method remarkably withstood atte twentieth century to "reform" language teaching metho remains a standard methodology for language teaching i Prator and Ce1ce-Murcia (1979, p . 3) listed the major ch Translation:

1. Classes taught in the mother tongue ; little use of the

2. Much vocabulary taught in the form of lists of isolat

3. Elaborate explanations of the intricacies of grammar

4. Reading of difficult classical texts begun early 5. Texts treated as exercises in grammatical analysis 6. Occasional drills and exercises in translating sentenc 7. Little or no attention to pronunciation

It is remarkable, in one sense, that this method ha many competing models. It does virtually nothing to en nicative ability in the language. It is "remembered with school learners, for whom foreign language learning mea memorizing endless lists of unusable grammar rules and to produce perfect translations of stilted or literary pro 2001 , p. 4). In another sense, however, one can understand why popular. It requires few specialized skills on the part of t

more fully the "theorylessness" of the GrammarTranslation Method.

lANGUAGE TEACHING IN TIlE TWENTIETII CENTURY Against the backdrop of the previous 19 centuries, a glance through the past cen­ tury or so of language teaching gives us, ironically, a rather refreshingly interesting picture of varied interpretations of the "best" way to teach a foreign language. Perhaps beginning with Fran c:

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Appeal to A Error Moni