Perspectives on Cross-Cultural, Ethnographic, Brand Image, Storytelling, Unconscious Needs, and Hospitality Guest Research (Advances in Culture, Tourism and Hospitality Research, Volume 3)

PERSPECTIVES ON CROSS-CULTURAL, ETHNOGRAPHIC, BRAND IMAGE, STORYTELLING, UNCONSCIOUS NEEDS, AND HOSPITALITY GUEST RESEARCH

ADVANCES IN CULTURE, TOURISM AND HOSPITALITY RESEARCH Series Editor: Arch G. Woodside Recent Volumes: Volumes 1–2:

Advances in Culture, Tourism and Hospitality Research – Edited by Arch G. Woodside

ADVANCES IN CULTURE, TOURISM AND HOSPITALITY RESEARCH VOLUME 3

PERSPECTIVES ON CROSS-CULTURAL, ETHNOGRAPHIC, BRAND IMAGE, STORYTELLING, UNCONSCIOUS NEEDS, AND HOSPITALITY GUEST RESEARCH EDITED BY

ARCH G. WOODSIDE Boston College, USA

CAROL M. MEGEHEE Coastal Carolina University, USA

ALFRED OGLE Edith Cowan University, Australia

United Kingdom – North America – Japan India – Malaysia – China

Emerald Group Publishing Limited Howard House, Wagon Lane, Bingley BD16 1WA, UK First edition 2009 Copyright r 2009 Emerald Group Publishing Limited Reprints and permission service Contact: [email protected] No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, transmitted in any form or by any means electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise without either the prior written permission of the publisher or a licence permitting restricted copying issued in the UK by The Copyright Licensing Agency and in the USA by The Copyright Clearance Center. No responsibility is accepted for the accuracy of information contained in the text, illustrations or advertisements. The opinions expressed in these chapters are not necessarily those of the Editor or the publisher. British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library ISBN: 978-1-84950-603-8 ISSN: 1871-3173 (Series)

Awarded in recognition of Emerald’s production department’s adherence to quality systems and processes when preparing scholarly journals for print

CONTENTS LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS

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EDITORIAL BOARD

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PREFACE

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CULTURAL PSYCHE AND CROSS-CULTURAL RESEARCH METHODS Patricia Berwick BRAND IMAGE, EQUITY, AND SPORTS SPONSORSHIP David N. Bibby USING AN ETHNOGRAPHIC APPROACH TO UNDERSTAND THE ADJUSTMENT JOURNEY OF INTERNATIONAL STUDENTS AT A UNIVERSITY IN ENGLAND Lorraine Brown HOW CONSUMPTION VALUES AFFECT DESTINATION IMAGE FORMATION Haywantee Ramkissoon, Robin Nunkoo and Dogan Gursoy MORPHOLOGY OF A HOTEL TRADITION: THE GUEST QUESTIONNAIRE Alfred Ogle v

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HOW UNCONSCIOUS NEEDS INFLUENCE TRAVELER’S INTERPRETATIONS AND PREFERENCES OF ALTERNATIVE TOURS AND HOTELS Xuan Van Tran and Arch G. Woodside

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LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS Patricia Berwick

Ras Al Khaimah Medical & Health Sciences University, Ras Al Khaimah, UAE

David N. Bibby

Advertising and Marketing, Business School, Auckland University of Technology, Auckland, New Zealand

Lorraine Brown

Services Management, Bournemouth University, Poole, UK

Dogan Gursoy

College of Business, School of Hospitality Business Management, Washington State University, Pullman, WA, USA

Robin Nunkoo

Department of Management, Faculty of Law and Management, University of Mauritius, Re´duit, Mauritius

Alfred Ogle

School of Marketing, Tourism and Leisure, Edith Cowan University, Joondalup, WA, Australia

Haywantee Ramkissoon School of Sustainable Development and Tourism, University of Technology, Mauritius, La Tour Koenig, Pointe-Aux-Sables, Mauritius Xuan Van Tran

University of West Florida, Pensacola, FL, USA

Arch G. Woodside

Boston College, Chestnut Hill, MA, USA

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EDITORIAL BOARD Nancy Albers-Miller Berry College Marketing Department, Mount Berry, GA, USA

Laurence Chalip Sport Management Program, University of Texas, Austin, TX, USA

Luisa Andreu Faculty of Economics, Department of Marketing, University of Valencia, Valencia, Spain

John Connell School of Geosciences, University of Sydney, NSW, Australia Sara Dolnicar University of Wollongong, Marketing Research Innovation Centre (MRIC), School of Management and Marketing, Wollongong, NSW, Australia

Pierre Benckendorff School of Business, James Cook University, Townsville, Qld., Australia Marianne C. Bickle College of Hospitality, Retail, and Sport Management, Department of Retailing, University of South Carolina, Columbia, SC, USA

Larry Dwyer University of New South Wales, NSW, Australia

Enrique Bigne´ Faculty of Economics, Department of Marketing, University of Valencia, Valencia, Spain

Paul Fallon Salford Business School, University of Salford, Salford, Greater Manchester, UK

Graham Brown Foundation Professor of Tourism Management, University of South Australia, Adelaide, SA, Australia

Peter Forsyth Department of Economics, Monash University, Clayton, Vic., Australia

Karin Carlisle Saint Mary’s College, Notre Dame, IN, USA

Daniel Fesenmaier School of Tourism and Hospitality Management, Temple University, Philadelphia, PA, USA

Jack Carlsen Curtin Business School, Curtin University, Perth, WA, Australia

Donald Getz Faculty of Management, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alta., Canada ix

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Juergen Gnoth School of Business, Department of Marketing, University of Otago, New Zealand Ulrike Gretzel Department of Recreation, Park and Tourism Sciences, College Station, TX, USA Wei Guo School of Hotel and Tourism Management, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hung Hom, Hong Kong Mark Havitz Recreation and Leisure Studies, University of Waterloo, Ont., Canada Cathy H. C. Hsu School of Hotel and Tourism Management, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hung Hom, Kowloon, Hong Kong Tzung-Cheng (T.C.) Huan Graduate Institute of Leisure Industry Management, National Chiayi University, Taiwan Songshan (Sam) Huang School of Management, University of South Australia, Adelaide, SA, Australia

EDITORIAL BOARD

Xiang (Robert) Li Department of Hotel, Restaurant, and Tourism Management, University of South Carolina, Columbia, SC, USA Richard S. Lytle Office of the Dean, College of Business Administration, Abilene Christian University, Abilene, TX, USA Drew Martin College of Business and Economics, University of Hawaii at Hilo, Hilo, HI, USA Jerome L. McElroy Department of Business Administration and Economics, Saint Mary’s College, Notre Dame, IN, USA Carol M. Megehee Department of Management, Marketing, and Law, Costal Carolina University, Conway, SC, USA Ady Milman Rosen College of Hospitality Management, University of Central Florida, Orlando, FL, USA Gianna Moscardo School of Business, James Cook University, Townsville, Qld., Australia

Colin Johnson Department of Hospitality Management, San Jose State University, San Jose´, CA, USA

Laurie Murphy School of Business, James Cook University, Townsville, Qld., Australia

Robert J. Johnston Department of Agricultural and Natural Resource Economics, University of Connecticut, Groton, CT

William C. Norman Department of Parks, Recreation and Tourism Management, Clemson University, Clemson, SC, USA

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Editorial Board

Danny O’Brien Griffith Business School, Department of Tourism, Leisure, Hotel and Sport Management, Griffith University, Gold Coast, Qld., Australia

Natan Uriely Department of Hotel and Tourism Management at Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Beer-Sheva, Israel

Philip Pearce School of Business, James Cook University, Townsville, Qld., Australia

Thiep Van Ho Department of Economics, Monash University, Clayton, Vict., Australia

Penelope J. Prenshaw Else School of Management, Millsaps College, Jackson, MS, USA Mark Rosenbaum College of Business Administration, Department of Marketing, Northern Illinois University, DeKalb, IL, USA Haiyan Song School of Hotel and Tourism Management, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hung Hom, Hong Kong Ray Spurr University of New South Wales, NSW, Australia Robert D. Straughan Williams School of Commerce, Economics, and Politics, Washington and Lee University, Lexington, VA, USA Peter Tarlow Tourism & More, Inc., College Station, TX, USA John E. Timmerman School of Business Administration, Charleston, SC, USA Timothy J. Tyrrell School of Community Resources and Development, Arizona State University, Phoenix, AZ, USA

Muarizio Vanetti Faculty of Economic and Social Sciences, Fribourg University, Fribourg, Switzerland Adam Weaver Victoria University of Wellington, Victoria Management School, Wellington, New Zealand Karl Wo¨ber Institut fu¨r Tourismus und Freizeit wirtschaft, Wirtschaftsuniversita¨t Wien, Vienna, Austria Ipkin Anthony Wong Faculty of Management and Administration, Macau University of Science and Technology, Macau, China Marian H. Wooten Department of Recreation Administration, Eastern Illinois University, Charleston, IL, USA Zheng Phil Xiang School of Merchandising and Hospitality Management, University of North Texas, Denton, TX, USA

PREFACE Volume 3 in the Advances in Culture, Tourism and Hospitality Research series provides useful answers to the following questions. In what ways should data collection about tourists’ activities and hospitality experiences vary within a variety of non-Western contexts (e.g., in Dubai (UAE), Peshawar (Pakistan), and Macau (China)? How do interactions between a professional sports team and its major sponsor affect brand image and brand equity for the sponsoring brand? What does ethnographic research report on long-term overseas country visits by international students? In what ways does visual narrative art inform consumer behavior theory of tourism behavior? How do consumption values affect destination image formation? What insights follow from historical research on the use of hotel guest survey methods? How does unconscious needs influence traveler’s interpretations and preferences of alternative tours and hotels? In Chapter 1, Patricia Berwick focuses on cross-cultural influences in tourism behavior and data collection. The first paper indicates that the main issue revolves around face in cross-cultural research in Macau – success occurs because one researcher knows the cultural process well enough to facilitate access to initial gatekeepers and to know the timing for a revisit that allows Gatekeeper 3 to maintain face when changing his position; in the Pakistani case study, the main issues revolve around relationships – success occurs because access of the assistance of the hotel owners/managers’ relations. In a case study in Dubai, the main issue revolves around privacy or security – success occurs because the process is viewed as noninvasive. In Chapter 2, David N. Bibby applied tribalism theory to explain expected results that negative performance by a professional sport team serves to build brand loyalty and brand equity for the major brand sponsoring the team. This paper provides a very useful integration of the brand equity and brand loyalty literature for service brands. In Chapter 3, Lorraine Brown shows that the international sojourn has the power to effect a growth in intercultural competence, as well as a shift in self-understanding, with long-term implications for personal and professional life. Transition offers the foundation for reevaluation, for freedom from cultural and familial expectations, and for self-discovery that routine xiii

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tends to prohibit. Such changes are common among long-stay tourists who are similarly displaced from both the origin culture and everyday routine. In Chapter 4, Haywantee Ramkissoon, Robin Nunkoo, and Dogan Gursoy examine the role of consumption values in influencing destination image and travel behavior by proposing a destination image formation model. Having as theoretical base, the means–end chain theory and the theory of consumption values, the model suggests that destination image is a function of five consumption values and that these in turn influence travel behavior. In Chapter 5, Alfred Ogle offers historical research on advances in guestassessment methods in evaluating their hotel experience. The paper describes how the ability to evaluate guests’ satisfaction effectively and managing that information allows an hotelier to have a potential competitive advantage in differentiating the hotel’s products, building a loyal guest profile, and attracting new clientele. Hospitality enterprises most commonly use the survey to seek guests’ evaluations, both in the form of the standard paper questionnaire and ad-hoc sample surveys. Both hoteliers and academic researchers have yet to find the most effective way to gather information from guests, which suggests the industry may be lacking crucial information. Ogle authors several insights on the next steps the industry might take to acquire this necessary information. In Chapter 6, Xuan Van Tran and Arch G. Woodside show that how unconscious motives affect decision-making and associated behaviors by tourists. The paper describes a study using thematic apperception tests (TATs) to measure how unconscious motives influence travelers’ interpretations and preferences toward alternative tours and hotels. Using the TAT, the study explores the relationships between three unconscious needs: (1) achievement, (2) affiliation, and (3) power and preferences for four package tours (adventure, culture, business, and escape tours) and for seven hotel identities (quality, familiarity, location, price, friendliness, food and beverage, and cleanliness and aesthetics). The study scores 2,438 stories according to the TAT manual to identify unconscious needs. The findings indicate that (1) people with a high need for affiliation prefer an experience based on cultural values and hotels that are conveniently located, (2) individuals with a high need for power indicate a preference for high prices and good value for their money, and (3) people with a high need for achievement prefer a travel experience with adventure as a motivation. This Advances in Culture, Tourism and Hospitality Research series encourages authors to submit unique and possibly controversial papers on topics related to increasing understanding and description of human

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behavior, conscious and unconscious meaning, and implicit/explicit decision processes applied to living and making major and everyday choices – from where to live, how culture affects thinking and actions; marriage, children; work choices and behavior; leisure pursuits; holiday destination; travel behavior; making tradeoffs among work, play, sleeping, and necessity behaviors; deciding, using, and evaluating short and long-term accommodations; decisions and behaviors regarding assisted living and death. The papers in Volume 3 and the first two volumes of Advances in Culture, Tourism and Hospitality Research are important contributions in helping to fulfill the objectives for this series: offering unique contributions to theory and practice relating to understanding individuals’ and household’s lived experiences and their cultural and personal antecedents and consequences of their behavior. Arch G. Woodside Carol M. Megehee Alfred Ogle Editors

CULTURAL PSYCHE AND CROSS-CULTURAL RESEARCH METHODS Patricia Berwick ABSTRACT Among the complexity of issues a researcher faces in a cross-cultural setting are the differing views of cultural psyche. This paper focuses on this issue because it may be central to understanding why some research is not as valuable as other research. The paper points to the very basis of the data gathering process, that is, what data is helpful to gather, what data is possible to gather, and what data has the potential for unpacking priceless gems, which can change a process, an outlook, or even an industry.

1. INTRODUCTION Data gathering is an inherently difficult activity in a changing world. Accuracy is even more so. No matter what method is used some famous researcher may come along and point out the inadequacies of the model or even worse; the research gathered may not produce useful information for the end user. The picture is even more depressing when considering data gathering within the global context. Perspectives on Cross-Cultural, Ethnographic, Brand Image, Storytelling, Unconscious Needs, and Hospitality Guest Research Advances in Culture, Tourism and Hospitality Research, Volume 3, 1–19 Copyright r 2009 by Emerald Group Publishing Limited All rights of reproduction in any form reserved ISSN: 1871-3173/doi:10.1108/S1871-3173(2009)0000003005

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Of course, quality of data all depends on where the data are gathered. Although this paper is based on research in Peshawar (Pakistan), Macau (China), and Dubai (UAE) in the hotel industry the findings have messages for all who are carrying out applied research anywhere. The findings are particularly of interest to researchers in the hotel industry in non-Western societies. The value of this paper is simple. Research is important for increasing market share and productivity in today’s world especially with the impact of the world economic downturn. Research is only of value if the researchers identify accurate information that aids the industry. Among the complexity of issues a researcher faces in a cross-cultural setting are the differing views of the cultural psyche. This paper focuses on this issue because differing views of the cultural psyche may be central to understanding why some research is not as valuable as other research. The issues are pointing to the very basis of data gathering processes, that is, what data should be gathered, what data can be gathered, and what data has the potential for unpacking priceless gems, which can change a process, an outlook, or even an industry.

2. CULTURAL PSYCHE Abraham (1999) describes the cultural or human psyche as a condition where all cultures and mythologies carry an allusion of basic or a primordial state where clear-cut structures emerge in the mind. In this view, the psyche appears to simplify all things to their smallest common denominator in order to make sense of the external world. For example, the wonders of the sea or continent are reduced to sea–continent; the beauty of the day or night is reduced to day–night; and the myriad of differences in the earth and sky are reduced simply to earth–sky. All nuances of difference are ignored and replaced by an outline or code of understanding. The basis of this common denominator or series of common denominators are believed to form the foundations of culture or cultural beliefs. Jung (1933) is perhaps the first to write about the cultural psyche. He views the psychological domain of society as a dynamic relationship between cultural and personal aspects of the human psyche often perceived through dream, art, mythology, religion, etc. He does not perceive the human psyche as in a five factor model of traits (Hofstede & McCrae, 2004), but rather as a complex multidimensional structure that is forever changing and reintegrating. The more complex processes of Jung are extended by

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Chrisomalis in a concrete way through his analyses of diachronic and synchronic studies. He suggests that a more careful integration of both methods may yield data that indicates more accurately the point of change although he appears more interested in the structure of the comparison than the underlying issues of cultural psyche (2006). The integration of the diachronic and synchronic is an anathema to many theorists because at the point where both collide or integrate the integration appears as a single moment in time. However, if an analysis is made of many such points the direction of change should emerge. A longitudinal study of perceptions or beliefs may yield fascinating data on cultural change relating to the cultural psyche and thus identify potential agents of change. This discussion is, however, more about applied research than theoretical issues. Some may view the focus on the cultural psyche as a reversion back to the culture and personality studies of early anthropology and not as a new innovation. Comparative cross-cultural studies are as old as anthropology and psychology alike. Comparative cross-cultural studies begin in modern cultural studies with the works of people like Tylor (1871), Morgan (1877), and continue in the studies of Murdock (1945 [1949]) to the point where he is able to develop the Human Relations Area Files. These files gather many of the world’s ethnographic studies into one compilation. The problem with these works is that they focus on evolution of culture rather than cultural change. The works lay the foundation for the idea that cultures have some underlying premises or structures that develop into some collective psyche. The collective psyche has transmitting agents that allow for change. However, the psychological domain is more akin to the concept of change rather than evolution. Evolution implies a single direction whereas change has no such connotation. Change may be in any direction, backwards, forwards, or even sideways. Change simply implies a different approach or process. Perhaps the most recent study on doing cross-cultural research is by Liamputtong (2008). This study asks similar questions as the present paper. The editor is interested in ethical, methodological, political understanding, and practical procedures and so asks: Who am I working with? What ethical and moral considerations do I need to observe? How should I conduct the research which is culturally appropriate to the needs of the people I am researching? How do I deal with language issues? How will I negotiate access? And what research methods should I apply to ensure a successful research process?

While all these questions are important the most important to the concept of cultural psyche is how will a researcher negotiate access? If access is negotiated with due consideration to the limits set within a specific society

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such access will meet most conditions relating to ethics, politics, and outcomes. If negotiating access does not take account of these phenomena then a study becomes yet another study that may compare a set of data with data from elsewhere but the resulting outcome will have little relevance for the society in question. The location of any research focus is within one cultural context. The hotel and tourism industries are certainly among the most complex research environments. They usually reflect cultural diversity themselves and are visited by people from diverse cultural backgrounds. Cultural diversity in the hotel industry is discussed in the works Gro¨schl and Doherty (1999) on diversity of management styles. Their work shows that the hotels in their study tend to act as plural rather multicultural organizations in that acknowledgment of diversity exists where laws and equal opportunity training create a need to do so. This finding indicate the hotel cultures, in the least the hotels in Stefan Gro¨schl and Liz Doherty study, are not proactive in the practice of diversity in management styles. This lack of validation of cultural diversity may be said to expand to the multinational or global hotel chains where development of instruments to investigate quality management emphasize an holistic or global approach (Burgess, Hampton, Price, & Roper, 1995; Tan, 2000; Doran, Haddad, & Chow, 2002; Jain, Jain, & Dhar, 2003). The specificities of culture are lost within the maintenance of brand and recognizable standards (Keller, 2000). And yet, the existence of specific culture is one of the ‘‘pull’’ characteristics for choosing particular destinations (Meethan, 2002). Hotels tend to hold a monocultural belief or in the least a belief about a globalizing hotel culture. This view appears to permeate research in the tourism industry as well. Perhaps hotels and the tourism industries are developing a culture of their own that reflects a combination of the cultures of company origin with a flavor of the culture where the hotel or specific tourist industry exists. However, the fact of hotels existing within innumerable cultural domains indicates the development of one globalizing hotel culture alone is slim. How all this diversity relates to the cultural psyche and access for researchers has still to be extensively explored. So far a definition of the cultural psyche seems to be those cultural attributes that arise from the psychological domain that are most evident when attempting to establish a new research process or study. This definition is a very broad definition, which may not be readily accessible. Before continuing on to find a definition relevant for exploring cultural psyche in greater depth a workable definition of the concept of culture itself needs exploration.

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3. DEFINING CULTURE What does culture really mean within the context of a multinational, multicultural, or plural hotel or tourism industry? If a cultural process or structure exists that is similar across both these industries, what is the affect of this process on the client base? If there is no answer to these questions then even basic research has flawed results. The foundations for defining hotel or tourism culture may be found in the works of such significant researchers as Tylor and Boas, both notable for their classic contributions to the field of anthropology. Of culture Tylor (1903, p. 1) states, ‘‘Culture, or civilization, taken in its wide ethnographic sense, is the complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art morals, law, custom, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society.’’ Boas (1948/1938, p. 159) reports, ‘‘Culture may be defined as the totality of the mental and physical reactions and activities that characterize the behaviour of the individuals composing a social group collectively and individually, in relation to their natural environment, to other groups, to members of the group itself and of each individual to him.’’ These definitions describe a distinction that is of significance. For Tylor culture is a human condition that is consistent with evolutionism where as for Boas culture is something that is significant for a particular group within political geographic locations and does not require an evolutionary referent. Neither describes culture from the view of particular actors. Culture is a collective in which all actors somehow participate, either knowingly or unknowingly. The development and expansion of this concept has continued to the point where culture is the subject matter and the constructs of the field of anthropology (So¨kefeld, 2003, p. 2). More recently, in the globalizing world, this bounded type of concept of culture appears to have become less effective. So¨kefeld (2003, p. 4) notes, as Werbner (1997) before him, that boundaries between cultures are appearing to become increasingly unclear. This merging of boundaries creates a barrier for the identification of discrete cultures. Cultures are hybridized because the prior spatial separation is disappearing. So¨kefeld (2003, p. 5) writes, ‘‘Culture, accordingly, is not the context in which action takes place but which itself is not touched by action. Instead, culture is constituted by social action. Consequently, the individual becomes a focal point of importance.’’ Thus, culture may be defined as an artefact of individual human social practice. If culture is an artefact of human social practice visual outcomes of these human social practices, no matter how hybridized must exist, and those visual outcomes should reflect the messages particular organizations

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within cultures send to individual participants. Such visual outcomes and messages may lay the foundations for a complex cultural psyche. Hotels and related tourism industries, then, may send visual messages to their guests, which reflect the intension of human social practice. Because the artefacts of individual human social practice derive from the messages individuals send out these visual messages become at least one component of the attributes of cultural psyche. Culture psyche is then the attributes of cultural psyche that a particular hotel, hotel chain, or coordinated tourism industry wishes to portray in the belief that these attributes will attract guests to their establishments in hotel and tourism industries in ever increasing numbers. Culture must become a two-way system because a message implies a sender and receiver. Thus the way the guests view these attributes is a component of the hotel or tourism industry’s cultural psyche. The level of success of the cultural attributes can be judged by the degree of agreement or gap between the view of the guests and the view of the hotel attribute creators or maintainers. Identifying visual attributes especially if those visual attributes are photographs of cultural phenomena offers an advantage. Photographs stabilize an event and location at one point in time and they can be held. At a later point in time analyses of these same photographs begin a diachronic dialogue, or several dialogues, which will enhance the emerging new knowledge. Thus, a dialogue exists between the message creator (or message maintainer) and the artefact (i.e., what s/he thinks the artefact implies); a dialogue of the receiver of the message with the artefact (i.e., what s/he thinks the artefact implies); and the dialogue of the selector of the artefact (i.e., why that artefact is considered to be representative of the culture). If the artefact is a photograph then the view of the viewfinder and the photographers’ dialog with the viewfinder is also significant. This process creates a reflexive or multidimensional dialogue, which may be diachronic or synchronic, thus enabling the opportunity for greater clarity of analyses. The requirement for clarity of analyses is part of the reflexivity debate in social science research. For example, Bruner (1986, p. 5) reports, ‘‘Social scientists have long given too much weight to verbalizations at the expense of visualizations, to language at the expense of images.’’ Banks and Morphy (1999, p. 13) state, ‘‘Part of the postmodern critique of anthropology has been that its methodology has been based on the double illusion of the neutral observer and the observable social phenomenon.’’ Social science method is essentially nonreflexive and yet the way the researcher and the researched view a message is critical to understanding that message. The cultural psyche is a combination of verbal, visual, and

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emotive creations and reactions to messages within a given social context. A photographic message can be verbal, visual, and emotive and so such understandings should aid applied research. This view of the cultural psyche agrees with Ratner’s view (1991) of the cultural psyche where he argues that psychological functions are quintessentially social in nature and that this social character must be comprehended if psychological knowledge and practice are to advance. Here this study goes one step further. Psychological functions do not take place in a vacuum. They occur within specific locations, specific places, with specific timings, social mores, and the like. Thus the physical environment is a critical factor in the development of the cultural psyche. The following case studies take a brief look at the issue of access in cross-cultural settings and how this process is related to understanding the cultural psyche.

4. THE CASE STUDIES 4.1. Case Study 1: Macau Macau is a special administrative region of China, which operates under the policy of one country, two systems. The Central People’s Government is responsible for the territory’s defense and foreign affairs, while Macau maintains its own legal system, police force, monetary system, customs policy, immigration policy, and delegates to international organizations and events. Geographically Macau is set on the edge of the China Sea within the estuary of the Pearl River. This water access aids its commercial development. The land area is made up of a peninsular and two islands connected by a system of bridges. The peninsular was originally an island but today sand buildup creates a bar that connects the peninsular to the mainland. Its climate is subtropical. Multiculturalism is not new to Macau. Macau was first colonized by the Portuguese in the 16th century, the first modern foreign territory within China. Because of its early entrepreneurial background Macau developed into a trading and manufacturing hub for specific products and tourism. Tourism today is one of its most important financial businesses. 4.1.1. The Case Study Carrying out research in Macau is both frustrating and rewarding. Gatekeepers loom where least expected, and yet the offering of a helping hand occurs when despair appears to drive the research project into the

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ground. No matter how careful the design, the realities of cultural difference affects the research project. So gatekeepers are both a block and a key to success for any research project in the South-East and East Asian context (Berwick, 2003; Berwick, Ogle & Wright, 2003; Berrell & Wright, 1999; Gummerson, 1991, 1996). The contextual issue is not new (Adair, 1995; Yin, 1989). A study of data collection at the Macau Grand Prix demonstrates with clarity that excellence in relationship building is essential for turning potential gatekeepers into strong supporters of aspects of a project (Berwick et al., 2003). In the Macau study, the principal researchers established relationships over a period of several months with both the research assistants who were going to gather the data and with key members of the community who were potential gatekeepers. One principal researcher had relationship connections that reached back several years. These connections were invaluable for enabling the data collection to proceed. Even so an incident occurred where one senior official declared that the research was a benefit to the Macau tourism industry and as such the research should proceed, however, when wearing a hat related to Grand Prix administration the research could not precede. So almost in one breath the researchers were both allowed and not allowed to carry out the research. Through a complex set of negotiations and careful attention to the concept of face the principal researchers enabled this man to support the project. The access process involved yet another potential gatekeeper with a high profile in the tourism industry who enabled a change in agenda foci and thus created the essential face saving situation required. Fig. 1 describes the major steps to the negotiations with the key gatekeepers. The initial request for assistance is made within the principal researchers’ organization. This request for assistance is not meet with great success. A request is then made to Gatekeeper 2 for help to reach Gatekeeper 3. Gatekeeper 3 is in charge of the Grand Prix from both the government’s and the Grand Prix’s perspectives. He is, therefore, an essential official. The help from Gatekeeper 2 facilitates a meeting with Gatekeeper 3. Gatekeeper 3 is the person who both agrees and disagrees with the research project. A revisit is made to Gatekeeper 1 at this point because one of the principal researchers knows that person has influence with Gatekeeper 3. Gatekeeper 1 had been unenthusiastic initially about the research. Help was given by Gatekeeper 1 because factors beyond the research process came into play at this point. The intervention of Gatekeeper 1 enables a second meeting with Gatekeeper 3. This meeting is successful.

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Month 1 Research

Month 2 Negotiators

Gate Keeper 1 Gate Keeper 1 (Unenthusiastic)

Gate Keeper 2

Gate Keeper 3 (Successful) Gate Keeper 3 (Yes & No)

Fig. 1.

Timeline for Negotiation.

The figure shows the complexity of the issues involved, at least some of which are unknown to two of the principal researchers. And yet, the outcome is an agreement. The reason for this successful outcome appears to be because the third principal researcher understands the cultural psyche of the Gatekeepers. He is able to negotiate in a manner that bypasses the barriers being thrown up that permits all to save face. This principal researcher knows that support from Gatekeeper 1 at this point in the research will increase Gatekeeper 1’s status. Just why Gatekeeper 1’s status increases through new negotiations is unknown. The source of the status increase may be because Gatekeeper 3 approves the research in his position as a high government official and not as a representative of the Grand Prix committee. In this decision process, there is a conflict of interest. This conflict of interest may leave him open for manipulation. No matter what the reason the process is successful. Through this negotiation and excellent relationship networking a most robust sample (N ¼ 649) can be gathered. The aim was for a nonrandom sample of 600. Thus, excellence of data collection is not only possible, excellence is a reality within the Macau context but such data collection requires knowledge of the social environment, careful planning, and highquality relationship networks.

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4.2. Case Study 2: Peshawar, Pakistan Peshawar is the capital of the North-West Frontier Province in Pakistan. Peshawar is a very old city, which harkens back to the origins of civilization and then onto the earliest vestiges of the fabled Silk Route. Many conquerors have tried to rule Peshawar and the Tribal Zone (i.e., its hinterland) from the Persians, to the Greeks, Turks, Mongols, Mughals, Sikhs, and British among many others but Peshawar has always returned to its ways dominated by Pashtuns and Hinko speaking peoples. Peshawar is today a Muslim city of note. In its ancient past Peshawar was a Buddhist holy place. Buddha himself rested under a tree on the outskirts of the city. Peshawar is a busy city with a cacophony of sounds, which delight the ear, smells that at once excite and sometimes appall the nose, and sights that are so complex that one can run the risk of an excess of visual stimulation. The traffic is alive with modern and ancient transport even on the main road. Donkey carts, camels, cars, trucks, buses all intermingle. Peshawar is a landlocked city adjacent to desert and surrounded by high mountains. Peshawar is close to the legendary Khyber Pass and Afghanistan. The temperature ranges from 4 to 401C and the rainfall averages approximately 400 mm (i.e., 16 in.). Peshawar is a commercial trading hub for traffic between east and west. Trade is the major business as trade has been for centuries. Despite its exciting past Peshawar is not yet a massive tourist hub. Such development is still in its future. Today Peshawar is suffering from the result of the war in Afghanistan with many refugees encamped around the city or participating in the developing economy. Peshawar is, however, a wonderful city to visit with welcoming people keen to show all that Peshawar has to offer. 4.2.1. The Case Study Researching Peshawar has quite a different flavor from Macau. In 1 week, it is possible to make a very brief environmental scan of the hotel industry in a relatively straightforward manner. The researcher also interviews an owner of a boutique hotel in Islamabad, the capital of Pakistan, during this same week. The simplicity of data gathering occurs because of assistance from local dignitaries who are relatives of the hotel owners; thus no barriers exist. The researcher has accidentally bought into a common local practice, that of family relationship connections. The outcome is a strong environmental scan. The focus of the environmental scan is guest questionnaires. The scan takes one conversation and a phone call to find out that the return rate of the most prestigious five star hotel is 30% per month, a statistically

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Table 1.

Comparison between the Hotels.

Five Star Hotel Guest Questionnaires Thirty-percent return Improvements were discussed at weekly briefings No apparent increase in occupancy

Boutique Hotel Complaints book Return rate unimportant Significant improvements enacted Improved occupancy

significant return rate. This activity leads on to questions from a boutique hotel owner about her hotel returns rates. The revelation is surprising (see Table 1). The owner states that this boutique hotel does not carry out guest questionnaires at all. The reason is that questionnaires seldom give workable information. If there is a dislike about something, an in-depth appraisal of why this dislike occurs is not available. The hotel takes more notice of criticism given directly to staff or comments in the complaints’ book in the reception area. This hotel acts on repeat verbal issues or comments in the complaints’ book. For example, the sheets were highly starched in the past but customer complaints resulted in the lowering of the amount of starch to soften the feel of the sheets. The quality and type of rice offered in the restaurant was changed and Internet access located for business customers. These responsedriven changes were made along with environmental changes like landscaping a garden area for El Fresco dining and a quiet coffee. The result is an improved bed occupancy rate. During the interview the owner’s responses are candid. The information flow is open, frank, and easy. There are no blocks to information here. The interest is on more and better publicity rather than on holding information for personal benefit on a later occasion. Thus, utilizing local practice is beneficial to the outcome of the research. In the first example, the results of the activity – the guest questionnaire – are easy to obtain but the only identifiable resulting activity is a weekly briefing on questionnaire results. The guest questionnaires are on tables in the guest rooms. There is no encouragement to complete the questionnaires through any other means. The relationship to occupancy rates and guest questionnaires is difficult to identify although the hotel management state the questionnaires are beneficial. The second example utilizes a different method of data gathering – the complaints’ book. Thus, the environment is set up in such a way that the complaints’ book is a visual item within the hotel. In this boutique hotel

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example, the owner acts on the complaints, whether frequent or not and the measurement of results is improved occupancy rates.

4.3. Case Study 3: Dubai, UAE Dubai is now known to all as the fastest urban development of its type in the world. Dubai is also known for its tallest skyscraper, unusual and creative architecture, magnificent malls with amazing designs, large aquariums, historical creations, even a large skating rink, and a ski slope. Dubai was not always this way. Dubai appears on maps in the 18th century and certainly predates the time when the area was part of the Trucial States. In 1971, Dubai became one of the seven Emirates to form the now famous confederation known to all as the United Arab Emirates. The location most visitors think of as Dubai is really Dubai Municipality; that is the built up region of the Emirate of Dubai. Dubai Municipality began nestled on the edge of the Dubai Creek but now the development extends out to the Arabian Gulf to the west and the desert to the east. The temperature ranges from 71C (the lowest temperature ever recorded) to more than 501C. The average humidity is 60%. The average rainfall is approximately 150 mm (6 in.) and so Dubai a hot, mainly dry region. The main business of this Emirate is not oil contrary to the thinking of many westerners. Dubai’s economy is driven by tourism, trade, real estate, and financial services. Dubai is an exciting place to visit with many airlines servicing three very busy airport terminals. Transport is becoming easier with the construction of new highways, reasonably priced taxis, the new bus system, and the Dubai metro. The downtown center is almost complete, the Palm developments and the World islands are also on target. Dubai is placing itself on the world map through this amazing vision of an ultra modern city rising out of an ancient desert. 4.3.1. The Case Study Six hotels in the Emirate of Dubai are selected to trial a visual data gathering process. The process has an underlying assumption that a relationship exists between the hotel cultural psyche of decorations and architecture and the impact of this visual material on the people who enter a specific environment. In this study, the specific environment is the hotel foyers. The visual data are transferable into photographs for PowerPoint focus group sessions to

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identify potential guests’ expectations of the hotels from the photographs of their foyers; thus, establishing a reflexive data gathering environment. The hotel industry in Dubai is not an easy industry to research from the outside. However, once the management of hotels understand the visual nature of the research, access is granted. The visual nature of the research appears to aid access. In the focus group sessions categories are made of comments written on a whiteboard. These categories create hotels profiles. A key word or group of words in each category is selected because the concept behind the word occurs more frequently than other comments or appears to reflect the tone the comment category. The total number of comments in each category enables the reader to see the comparative strength of each category (Table 2) below. Ranking of positive atmosphere is first for Hotels B, D, and E and second in Hotels A, C, and F. The only highly ranked negative comment is negative appointments for Hotel B. There is one quite different category for Hotel F, negative luxury. This term reflects its opposition to the category luxury. There is no frequency to each comment in Table 2 because the researcher believed that the descriptions of each hotel reflects the cultural psyche and so if a description occurs at least once that description has an impact on the overall beliefs about the hotel. Similarity of beliefs exits between Hotels’ A and B where tradition appears to reflect/mirror Arabic culture or Middle Eastern culture in a traditional sense and in Hotel C where tradition appears to reflect similar values but in an historical perspective, mirroring a rather negative or disadvantageous representation, that is, one that might mean dated/old. The respondents say that this categorization does not necessarily reflect a derogatory dimension or criticism. Such statements are a way of expressing a perception of a hotel in a state of stagnation. Similarities occur in the combinations of meaning for Hotels’ A, B, and C but the comments for Hotel D are quite different as are the more grandiose terms for Hotels E and F. Hotel D appears to be a holiday resort that is close to nature (i.e., mountains and sea) and Hotels E and F are seen as hotels of extraordinary structure. Words like seven star, I am King, unique, grand elegance, unbelievable, and futuristic are used. Hotel D is in fact a holiday resort and Hotels E and F are hotels of extraordinary structures. Thus indicating the perception gap between the hotel management and the focus group participants is narrow. Therefore, the quality of the results from this method is strong. The instrument does show positive and negative beliefs about the six hotels. In the United Arab Emirates, negative comments about anything of

6.

Luxury Expensive, posh

Discomfort, not good, design not calm

Negative appointments

Spacey, nice lighting Negative appointments

5.

Not comfortable to me, warmer lighting, warmer colors, add plants Luxury Luxury, palace, very expensive, excellent

Positive appointments

Positive appointments

4.

Negative atmosphere

Hotel D Tradition

Hotel E

Luxury Classy, luxurious, elegant

Luxury Luxury Expensive, amazing Very expensive, elegance, complete, one of the greatest, classy

Positive atmosphere Positive atmosphere Comfort, warm Inviting, summertime, it is great, the best, clean Negative atmosphere Negative atmosphere Negative atmosphere Not very warm; Positive Positive Positive appointments appointments appointments Stylish, palm Modern decorations Negative Negative Negative appointments appointments appointments Women’s Very white, some decorations uncomfortable chairs, old

Tradition Tradition Historical, it is a bit old, culture

Hotel C

Characteristics of the Six Hotels.

Positive atmosphere Positive atmosphere Warm, design, comfort, Welcoming, nice very simple, good, nice

Tradition Arabic, mix between Arabic and Indian, Indian, Asian culture

Negative atmosphere

Tradition Traditional, eastern heritage, bygone era, Moroccan, Arabic, classical, exotic, culture Positive atmosphere Warm; cozy, comfort, very nice, welcoming, hospitality, normal

Hotel B

3.

2.

1.

Hotel A

Table 2.

Luxury Expensive, gold, seven star, I am King

Colors Negative appointments

Positive appointments

Negative atmosphere

Positive atmosphere

Tradition Culture

Hotel F

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Nature

Mystical

Powerful

8.

9.

10.

Powerful

Mystical Mystical

Nature

Businesslike Business oriented

Source: Data from Focus Group Sessions.

11.

Businesslike

7.

Powerful

Mystical

Nature Natural

Businesslike Organized, efficiency

Powerful

Powerful One of the greatest, complete

Businesslike Businesslike Business oriented, Businesslike organized, efficiency Nature Nature Nature, mountains and sea, tourist location Mystical Mystical Mystical Unusually beautiful Grand elegance, unbelievable, futuristic design Powerful Great, wonderful, grandiose, big, unique, the bomb, glory, very good, very complete Negative luxury Overdone

Nature

Businesslike

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importance (i.e., prestigious processes, events, and organizations) are inappropriate hence the significance for the strength of the negative data. This visual process appears to allow the participants to respond with trust and from the heart. This research process is not an end in itself in this form but the process certainly provides a sound beginning to increase strength in research response.

5. CONCLUSION If data gathering is so completely different in these three locations, namely Dubai, Pakistan, and Macau, a need for caution exists in designing or reading the results of research from throughout Asia. The potential for misinterpretation of data is high. Researchers need to understand why clients, customers, and other participants are willing to participate in the data gathering. The data gathering must be designed to take account of why participation occurs and differs from culture to culture. Thus data gathering and interpretation of that data gathering in a cross-cultural, and now global environment, is critical for client satisfaction and industry growth. These three brief examples are of value to researchers and the hotel and tourism industries partly because many times researchers speak in broad terms of Asia and forget Asia’s vast complexity. The message is broader than that however. The three examples indicate that data gathering in the Middle East, East Asia, and other non-Western societies may have quite different needs. Standards and styles of data gathering set in Western countries do not necessarily result in quality information in different cultural environments throughout the whole world. In the Macau case study, the main issue revolves around face. Success occurs because one researcher knows the cultural process well enough to facilitate access to initial gatekeepers and to know the timing for a revisit, which allows Gate keeper 3 to maintain face when changing his position. In the Pakistani case study, the main issues revolve around relationships. Success occurs because access of the assistance of the hotel owners/managers’ relations. The Dubai case study’s main issue revolves around privacy or security. Success occurs because the process is viewed as noninvasive. These are all issues of culture and psychology, thus the cultural psyche. The first two studies follow conventional research processes in data collection and the last one uses a visual data gathering methodology. All yield

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interesting data but the visual method yields unexpected results, that is, results that go beyond the questions. In other words, this method begins to investigate the issues where the right question is unknown and, perhaps more importantly, whether an issue exists that requires questioning is unknown. Taking photos is a major issue within many cultures and this factor poses a problem. The third case study took place in a photophobic society and yet permission was granted for this rather unconventional project. However, no photos are taken of people. All photos focus on the cultural artifacts themselves, that is, the physical constructions of the foyers. Thus photos of cultural artifacts minimize the issues photographic images create and the process lessons the invasiveness found in conventional research processes. This visual process increases the reflexivity of the process. These factors all have a positive effect on subjects involved in the cross-cultural research. Account cannot be taken of all issues and complexities within a society no matter how well a specific society is understood. No amount of being culturally safe will reduce the affect on the collective or cultural psyche; nor will the imposition of an external methodology such as an industry standard produce strong data at all times. The best option is to choose a process that has a low invasive quality cross-culturally. This approach involving visual media appears to be a start in the right direction. In the end, these three case studies indicate caution is essential when designing or reading the results of cross-cultural research. The potential for misinterpretation of data is high. Researchers need to understand why clients, customers, and other participants are willing to participate in the gathering of the data. The design of the data gathering must take account of why participation occurs and differences in cultural context exist. Thus data gathering and interpretation of that data gathering in a cross-cultural and now global environment is critical for client satisfaction and industry growth. Strength is in reflexive research that integrates with the participants’ beliefs about their own cultural psyche.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT I thank Alfred Ogle for inviting me to submit a paper for consideration and for reading the paper in its various forms. Participating in this important project has been a great pleasure.

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REFERENCES Abraham, A. (1999). The coself, or primary syntheism. Group Analysis, 32(3), 293. Adair, J. G. (1995). The research environment in developing countries. International Journal of Psychology, 10(1), 643–662. Banks, M., & Morphy, H. (Eds). (1999). Rethinking visual anthropology. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. Berrell, M. M., & Wright, P. C. (1999). Toward a model of teaching through case studies in Vietnam. Academic Exchange Quarterly, 3(1), 32–39. Berwick, P. (2003). Researching Asia. Asian Hotel & Catering Times, 28(February), 26–27. Berwick, P., Ogle, A., & Wright, P. (2003). Realities of data collection within an Asian context. In: Riding the wave of tourism and hospitality research. Proceedings CD. Produced by Amlink Technologies, Australia. Boas, F. (1948). The mind of primitive man. New York: Macmillan. Bruner, J. (1986). Introduction: Experience and its expressions. In: V. W. Turner & E. M. Bruner (Eds), The anthropology of experience. Chicago: University of Illinois Press. Burgess, C., Hampton, A., Price, L., & Roper, A. (1995). International hotel groups: What makes them successful?. International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, 7(2/3), 74. Chrisomalis, S. (2006). Comparing cultures and comparing processes: Diachronic methods in cross-cultural anthropology. Cross-Cultural Research, 40(4), 377–404. Doran, M., Haddad, K., & Chow, C. (2002). Maximizing the success of balanced scorecard implementation in the hospitality industry. International Journal of Hospitality & Tourism Administration, 3(3), 33. Gro¨schl, S., & Doherty, L. (1999). Diversity management in practice. International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, 11(6), 262. Gummerson, E. (1991). Qualitative methods in management research. Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications. Gummerson, E. (1996). Vis-a-vis international business negotiations. In: P. Ghauri & J. C. Usunier (Eds), International Business Negotiations. London: Elsevier Science Ltd. Hofstede, G., & McCrae, R. (2004). Personality and culture revisited: Linking traits and dimensions of culture. Cross-Cultural Research, 38(1), 52–88. Jain, R., Jain, S., & Dhar, U. (2003). Measuring customer relationship management. Journal of Services Research, 2(2), 97–109, October–March. Jung, C. (1933). Modern man in search of a soul (Translated by Cary Baynes). Routledge & Kegan Paul. Keller, K. L. (2000). The brand report card. Harvard Business Review, 78(1), January/February. Liamputtong, P. (Ed.). (2008). Doing cross-cultural research: Ethical and methodological perspectives (Vol. 34). Series: Social Indicators Research Series. The Netherlands: Springer Verlag. Meethan, K. (2002). Tourism in global society: Place, culture, consumption. American Journal of Sociology, 107(6), 1609–1611. Morgan, L. (1877). Systems and consanguinity. And affinity of the human family. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institute. (Reprinted, 1997. University of Nebraska Press, Lincoln, NE.) Murdock, G. P. (1945 [1949]) The common denominator of cultures. Reprinted in R. Linton (Ed.), The science of man in the world crisis. Read Books, 2007. Social Structure. 1949. Reprinted by Free Press (March 1, 1965).

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Ratner, C. (1991). Vygotsky’s sociohistorical psychology and its contemporary applications. In: R. W. Rieber (Ed.), Cognition and language. A Series in Psycholinguistics. New York: Plenum Press. So¨kefeld, M. (2003). The concept of culture between politics and social anthropology: From difference to continuity. Available at: www.unimuenster.de/EthnologieHeute/eh3/culture. htim3/20/2003 Tan, K. C. (2000). Integrating Kano’s model in the planning matrix of quality function deployment. Total Quality Management, 11(8). Tylor, E. B. (1903 [1871]). Primitive culture (Vol. 1). London: Hon Murray. Werbner, P. (1997). Introduction: The dialectics of cultural hybridity. In: P. Werbner & T. Modood (Eds), Debating cultural hybridity: Multi-cultural identities and the politics of anti-racism (pp. 1–16). London: Zed Books. Yin, R. K. (1989). Case study research. Design and methods (2nd ed.). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.

BRAND IMAGE, EQUITY, AND SPORTS SPONSORSHIP David N. Bibby ABSTRACT This study explores the relationship between brand image and brand equity in the context of sports sponsorship. Keller’s (1993, 2003) customer-based brand equity models are the conceptual inspiration for the research, with Faircloth, Capella, and Alford’s (2001) conceptual model – adapted from the work of Aaker (1991) and Keller (1993) – the primary conceptual model. The study focuses on the sponsorship relationship between the New Zealand All Blacks and their major sponsor and co-branding partner, adidas. The sporting context for the study was the 2003 Rugby World Cup held in Australia. Data were collected from two independent samples of 200 respondents, utilizing simple random sampling procedures. A bivariate correlation analysis was undertaken to test whether there was any correlation between changes in adidas’ brand image and adidas’ brand equity as a result of the All Blacks’ performance in the 2003 Rugby World Cup. Results support the view that Keller (1993, 2003) proposes that brand image is antecedent to the brand equity construct. Results are also consistent with the findings of Faircloth et al. (2001) that brand image directly impacts brand equity.

Perspectives on Cross-Cultural, Ethnographic, Brand Image, Storytelling, Unconscious Needs, and Hospitality Guest Research Advances in Culture, Tourism and Hospitality Research, Volume 3, 21–99 Copyright r 2009 by Emerald Group Publishing Limited All rights of reproduction in any form reserved ISSN: 1871-3173/doi:10.1108/S1871-3173(2009)0000003006

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1. INTRODUCTION This study investigates the relationship between brand image and brand equity in the context of sports sponsorship. The sporting context for the study was the 2003 Rugby World Cup (RWC). The study examines how the New Zealand national rugby team, the All Blacks’, performance in the 2003 RWC impacted on the team’s brand image, and, in turn, the brand image and brand equity of its major sponsor and co-branding partner, adidas. A theoretical foundation for the investigation is provided by a review of the relevant academic literature examining the relationships between advertising, sponsorship, and consumer behavior. The literature review examines the literary tradition of ‘‘How does advertising work?’’ The study also investigates the increasing body of research relating to sponsorship and ‘‘How does sponsorship work?’’ The study also explores the development of contemporary brand theory and examines several ongoing debates concerning the way in which brands (and the process of branding) influence consumer attitudes and purchase behavior. In particular, the study discusses the theories of Keller (1993, 2003) and Ehrenberg (1974). The absence of the constructs of brand image and brand attitude from Ehrenberg’s ATR theory (1974) and their inclusion in Keller’s CBBE theory (1993, 2003) provides a basic point of difference between their two schools of thought. The study responds to the question: Does brand image (and its associated concept, brand attitude) have a persuasive role in influencing consumer purchase decisions – as Keller proposes – or, alternatively, if it plays a role at all, does it have a reinforcing role (encouraging repeat purchases after the original purchase has been made) – as Ehrenberg suggests? The debate concerning whether advertising is a strong or a weak force (Ehrenberg, 1974) gained momentum in the 1990s with papers by Ehrenberg and colleagues (Barnard & Ehrenberg, 1997; Ehrenberg, Barnard, & Scriven, 1998) suggesting advertising is a weak force, while Barry and Howard (1990), Jones (1990), Light (1997), and White (1999) argue a contrary view. Strong theories of how advertising works dominate advertising research, particularly in the United States, with the adoption of the AIDA model (Strong, 1925) in the early twentieth century. Commonly referred to as ‘‘persuasive’’ or ‘‘hierarchy-of-effects’’ models, this family of models expresses the theory that advertising works by changing consumer attitudes about brands. The AIDA model suggests that attention or awareness of a brand precedes interest in the brand, which precedes desire for the brand, which precedes action or purchase of the brand. A number of similar models assume this sequential processing of information involving thinking, feeling, and

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doing – cognitive, affective, and conative components of behavior (e.g., Colley, 1961; Vaughn, 1980). There is general agreement that attitude changes can be measured in terms of perceptions as well as behavior (Reis & Trout, 1994). The contemporary brand theories of Aaker (Aaker, 1991; Aaker & Biel, 1993; Aaker, 1996; Aaker & Joachimsthaler, 2000), Biel (1991, 1992), and Keller (1993, 2003) incorporate this sequential process. The antecedents of consumer-based brand equity (resonance), according to Aaker and Keller, include brand identity, brand awareness (salience), brand image, and brand attitude. Keller’s (2003) customer-based brand equity (CBBE) pyramid is a primary model that the present research uses. This model is a development of Keller’s earlier model (Keller, 1993) – which in turn informs the Faircloth, Capella, and Alford (2001) research – and Faircloth et al.’s research contains the conceptual model which is the basis for this research. The discussion includes a number of challenges concerning how advertising, sponsorship, or marketing communications work. First, the discussion describes a large number of relevant theories. Broadbent (1992) lists 456 views of how advertising works! Second, concepts often have different meanings and definitions depending upon a researcher’s predispositions. Hence key concepts such as brand awareness, brand salience, and brand equity can mean different things to different people (Ehrenberg, 1997; Light, 1997; Miller & Berry, 1998). In addition, similar concepts are measured using different scales. This is problematic in that how theorists believe advertising or sponsorship works influences how they measure their effects (White, 1999). Finally, a relative dearth of empirical, quantitative research relates to brand theory that is relevant to this study – that is, research that investigates the relationship between brand image and brand equity in the context of sports sponsorship (Brown, Pope, & Voges, 2003; Faircloth et al., 2001; Meenaghan, 2001; Walliser, 2003). The study discusses different effects that advertising and sponsorship elicit from consumers in the context of brand theory. Both advertising and sponsorship can provide cues that positively effect consumer prepurchase attitudes toward a brand (Dean, 1999). Advertising is more direct in its attempt to stimulate the maximum intensity of response, by respondents, to an original selling idea (Walford, 1992). Sponsorship is more indirect; providing a halo of goodwill for the sponsor (Meenaghan, 2001). Both advertising and sponsorship can enhance brand image (Biel, 1992; Brown et al., 2003; Coburn & Hawkins, 1997; Hansen, Rasmussen, & Halling 1999; Nicholls, Roslow, & Dublish, 1999). This research explores the relationship between changes to a sponsor’s brand image and the sponsor’s brand equity. The research tests the

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correlation between changes in adidas’ brand image and adidas’ brand equity as a result of the brand’s media exposure during the 2003 RWC. The research explains the expected correlations between changes in adidas’ brand image and brand equity by reference to Keller’s (1993, 2003) CBBE models and specifically to the Faircloth et al. (2001) conceptual model which postulates that images and attitudes influence brand equity.

1.1. Outline of the Study The report divides into six sections via the following organization. Section 1 contains an introduction and background to the research problem and presents a statement of the research problem. Section 1 provides a context for the research and an overview of the argument to be advanced. Section 2 involves a critical assessment and evaluation of the literature relating to the nature of sponsorship; how sponsorship, co-branding, and sports sponsorship works. Section 2 then undertakes a chronological review of the development of brand theory and an in-depth analysis of the brand image and brand equity constructs. Section 3 provides a conceptual framework for the research by presenting the research questions and hypotheses that the study tests. Section 4 describes the research design in detail including the sample frame and the questionnaire design. Section 4 includes reliability and validity test results. Section 5 includes an analysis and discussion of the results of the field research. The report includes a statistical analysis of the research results. The examination includes data relating to each hypothesis. Coverage includes confirmation or rejection of research questions and hypotheses. Section 6 includes conclusions that follow from the results. Theoretical and managerial implications are discussed and the main contributions to knowledge are detailed. The paper discusses limitations in the research and provides suggestions for future research.

2. LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1. Sponsorship as Context 2.1.1. Introduction Sponsorship of sports, arts, events, and causes is now a mainstream marketing communications tool (Cornwell, Weeks, & Roy, 2005). Sponsorship-linked

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marketing program expenditure has grown dramatically over the past two decades, particularly since the 1984 Los Angeles Olympics (Hoek & Gendall, 2002). The Chicago-based IEG Sponsorship Report (2003) anticipated worldwide sponsorship spending would hit US$ 28 billion in 2004, a rise of 8.1% from the estimated US$ 25.9 billion spent in 2003. According to IEG investment in sponsorship has grown at a higher rate for the past 20 years than both advertising and sales promotion. Although sponsorship expenditure represents only about 7% of aggregated marketing communications spending in a given year (well below an estimated 49% for advertising and 25% for direct marketing) sponsorship growth rates throughout the 1990s in the United States ranged between 9 and 15% per annum, exceeding the growth rates in that period for both advertising and sales promotion (McDonald, 2000a; Meenaghan, 2001; Sandler & Shani, 1999). Despite this remarkable growth in expenditure, it is only in recent years (Quester & Thompson, 2001; Walliser, 2003) that academic research on sponsorship reflects similar growth. Reviews of sponsorship research by Cornwell and Maignan (1998), Cornwell et al. (2005), and Walliser (2003) agree with the view of Harvey (2001, p. 59): ‘‘Marketers today remain unsure of how sponsorship works and how to properly measure its business value. Marketers see sponsorship as something different from advertising – but there has been no general clarification of how sponsorship differs from advertising and what this implies in terms of how to make sponsorship accountable.’’ 2.1.2. The Nature of Sponsorship Sponsorship in its earliest form dates back to ancient Greece (McDonald, 2000b). Athletes in the original Olympic Games required the patronage of wealthy citizens in order to live while training and competing. In return patrons gained attention for their generosity and public spiritedness; a helpful advantage if running for public office. The same motivation drives commercial sponsorship today: the desire to be thought well of. Lardinoit and Quester (2001) repeat a common view held by researchers (e.g., Cornwell, 1995) when they observe that there is some confusion in the literature over what is an acceptable definition of sponsorship. Lardinoit and Quester suggest that there is, however, some consensus relating to the definition proposed by Meenaghan (1991, p. 36): ‘‘Commercial sponsorship involves an investment in cash or kind in an activity, person or idea for the purpose of exploiting the potential associated with this activity.’’ Cornwell and Maignan (1998) argue that sponsorship is more than just an association between a sponsor and a sponsee and includes all marketing and

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communication efforts undertaken by sponsors to leverage their investment in the sponsored activity or event. They prefer to use the broader definition first proposed by Cornwell (1995, p. 93) who defines sponsorship-linked marketing as: ‘‘The orchestration and implementation of marketing activities for the purpose of building and communicating an association (link) to a sponsorship.’’ The marketing of the sponsorship relationship is deemed to be necessary if the sponsorship fee is to be a worthwhile investment. Sponsorship does not work unless consumers are told about it (McDonald, 2000a). Cliffe and Motion (2001, p. 7) sum up more recent brand-related perspectives when they conclude: ‘‘Sponsorship is an indirect persuader for improving perceptions of the brand performance by linking our beliefs about the brand to an event or organization that the target audience values highly.’’ Hence sponsorship is more than patronage; sponsorship involves the exchange of a fee for association rights between a sponsor and a sponsee, and includes the marketing of that association by the sponsor. Sponsorship can positively affect consumer attitudes toward a brand’s attributes (Brown et al., 2003). Sponsorship is distinctive from sports marketing, event marketing, and cause-related marketing; all of which may include sponsorship as an element in their marketing communication mix, but equally, may exclude sponsorship from that mix. Do not construe sponsorship as a form of advertising, although sponsorship of television and radio programs can build brand awareness and image for the sponsor (through media exposure) in a manner analogous to advertising. However, as Yeshin (1998, p. 273) notes: ‘‘Here the objective is to derive benefit from the association of the (brand) name and a program which has relevance to a desired target audience.’’ Whereas advertising seeks to persuade directly, sponsorship seeks to persuade indirectly, by association. Sponsorship, then, is an independent, legitimate constituent in today’s marketing communications industry (Meenaghan, 1998; Walliser, 2003). 2.1.3. How Does Sponsorship Work? Given that the focus of this research is the sponsored relationship between adidas and the All Blacks, is it valid to use communication models developed in the context of advertising in sponsorship research? Hoek (1999a) observes that marketing communications literature has been dominated by cognitive information processing models (such as AIDA) which assume that consumers move through a series of rational decision-making processes that lead to considered purchase behavior.

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Fundamental to these theories is the notion that promotional information increases awareness of a brand amongst consumers and can persuade consumers to purchase the brand. Hoek (1999a) notes that Lee, Sandler, and Shani (1997) modify the AIDA model in their study of sponsorship’s effects on consumers and find that attitudes toward sponsoring an event influence behavior and are at the core of sponsorship’s effects on consumers. Meenaghan (1991) finds that sponsorship can enhance corporate awareness and image. Javalgi, Traylor, Gross, and Lampman (1994) find that corporate sponsorship can enhance corporate image (but that such an outcome is not automatic). Hansen and Scotwin (1995) measure sponsorship effectiveness in terms of recall, recognition, and image changes. Their study finds that sponsorship messages create recall of a magnitude similar to that of advertising. Rajaretnam (1994) finds that sponsorship impacts corporate brand awareness, brand preference, and brand image, but product advertising has more impact on product image than does sponsorship. Hoek (1999a) challenges the assumption by marketing communication managers that cognitive models should be the basis for setting sponsorship objectives and measuring sponsorship effects. Citing Barnard and Ehrenberg (1997), Ehrenberg (1974, 1988), and Hoek, Gendall, Jeffcoat, and Orsman (1997), Hoek (1999a) notes that despite the prevailing widespread acceptance of cognitive models by academics and practitioners, significant criticism of these models emerge:  they include variables that are difficult to measure;  the relationship between these variables has yet to receive empirical support; and  the highly repetitive nature of purchase behavior has been neglected or ignored. Hoek et al. (1997) conclude from their research that neither advertising nor sponsorship stimuli persuade respondents to purchase Snickers. (Their study involves Snickers’ sponsorship of the 1994 Football World Cup.) Rather, their findings support Ehrenberg’s (1974) ATR model. Ehrenberg (1974) proposes the awareness-trial-reinforcement (ATR) model as an alternative to the AIDA model. Based on the behaviorist principles of operant conditioning, this theory proposes that the stimulation of repeat purchase behavior is the primary goal of advertising (and sponsorship). Advertising’s chief function, according to Ehrenberg (1974), is to positively reinforce purchase decisions that consumers have already made. Advertising and sponsorship reassure existing users that they have

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made the right purchase. Ideally, this increases the probability that the brand will be purchased again. Hoek et al. (1997) find that while sponsorship clearly creates awareness of the brand, there is no evidence that this awareness (and any subsequent attitudes toward the brand) prompts trial. There is no link between repeated exposures of the sponsor’s brand image and purchase behavior. They conclude that sponsorship is unlikely to turn nonusers into users of a brand. Sponsorship plays primarily a defensive role, maintaining the status quo, rather than increasing sales. Like advertising, sponsorship works as a form of operant conditioning, maintaining existing behavior patterns. These conclusions pose a clear challenge to the prevailing assumptions of marketing communications academics and practitioners alike, and they provide a precedent for this research to consider. Yet there seems to be few, if any, subsequent studies by other researchers that arrive at such clear-cut conclusions regarding how sponsorship works. In fact, Cornwell et al. (2005) ignore the study completely in their review of theoretical progress regarding how consumer-focused sponsorship works. In addition to the above conclusions, Hoek et al. (1997) find that managers use advertising and sponsorship to achieve similar goals: goals relating to building brand awareness and brand image. But they find several significant differences in the effects of sponsorship and brand advertising. They find that:  sponsorship is better able than advertising to generate brand awareness among nonusers; and  sponsorship generates a wider range of connotations than does advertising. Cornwell and Maignan’s (1998) meta-analysis examines five research streams in 80 articles published before 1996. The five streams are:     

nature of sponsorship; managerial aspects of sponsorship; measurement of sponsorship effects; strategic use of sponsorship; and legal and ethical considerations in sponsorship.

Walliser (2003) identifies this analysis as the most comprehensive review of sponsorship literature to that date. Of relevance to this research are Cornwell and Maignan’s conclusions regarding the measurement of sponsorship effects. Most of the empirical studies use tracking techniques to assess brand awareness, brand recall, brand attitude, and the brand image

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effects of sponsorship. They cite Pham (1991) when they conclude that, ‘‘The main difficulty in the evaluation of sponsorship is differentiation of its effects from those of advertising and other promotional techniques’’ (Cornwell & Maignan, 1998, p. 14). They find that studies of sponsorship effectiveness have yielded inconsistent findings. Empirical investigations show that sponsorship engenders small or ambiguous effects. They conclude that more rigorously designed experiments are necessary. Cornwell and Maignan (1998) also find a lack of underlying theory and conceptual definition necessary for scholarly inquiry. They, therefore, propose several conceptual frameworks from cognitive psychology that might be useful, suggesting that Keller’s (1993) CBBE model could provide an ideal framework for the analysis of brand-related sponsorship effects. Cornwell and Maignan (1998, p. 17) suggest that: ‘‘One of the outcomes of a successful sponsorship is a strengthening of brand equity.’’ A further recommendation from Cornwell and Maignan (1998), relevant to this research, is to include the evaluation of sponsorship effects in the context of integrated marketing communications (IMCs) theory. Sponsorship effects, they suggest, cannot be evaluated adequately if they are considered in isolation from other marketing communications. Cornwell and Maignan (1998) stand in the cognitive tradition of academics in the debate over how sponsorship works. Their recommendations are relevant and foundational to this research. They represent an antithetical view to that of Ehrenberg (1974) and Hoek et al. (1997). Their recommendations to consider the study of sponsorship effects in the context of Keller’s CBBE theory and IMC theory are influential in the design of this research. In 2003, Walliser published an international review of sponsorship research that extends and updates Cornwell and Maignan’s (1998) review. Walliser reviews studies not included by Cornwell and Maignan, published in Europe prior to 1996, and worldwide sponsorship research within the period 1996–2001 published in English, German, or French. Walliser (2003) analyzes 153 studies. Eighty-three of these studies relate to the measurement of sponsorship effects – the field of interest for this research. Walliser (2003, p. 3) makes the following summative statement concerning the differentiation of advertising and sponsorship: ‘‘Advertising and sponsorship are increasingly considered complementary elements of an integrated communication strategy (Cegarra, 1994). They partly share the same objectives (e.g., awareness and image), but deliver their messages in different ways. Advertising messages are generally more direct, explicit and can be more easily controlled. Sponsorship, on the other hand, can

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overcome certain communication barriers and has practically unlimited target selection possibilities (Erdogan & Kitchen, 1998). Sponsorship and advertising coincide when sponsors use billboard or similar supports.’’ The conclusion can, therefore, be made that sponsorship has at least some elements in common with advertising and is best used in conjunction with advertising and/or publicity, as part of an integrated communication strategy. According to Walliser (2003), the most important sponsorship objectives have traditionally been increasing a sponsor’s brand awareness and enhancing a sponsor’s brand image. Walliser (2003) reports that the large majority of studies measuring sponsorship effects focus on awareness as an independent variable. Evidence suggests that recall increases as a function of:    

length of exposure to the sponsor’s brand; previous awareness of the sponsor’s brand; spectator involvement with and interest in the sponsored activity; and the integration of sponsorship with other communication tools such as broadcast sponsoring or classical advertising.

Walliser (2003) notes that only a limited number of studies published in 2001 have focused primarily on image effects of sponsorship. A number of studies are cited to support the contention that sponsorship can contribute to the modification of at least some dimensions of image. Image transfer is found to be influenced positively by:  the attitude of spectators toward the association of the sponsor and the activity;  spectator involvement with the sponsorship process; and  sponsors having high visibility during the event. Walliser (2003) cites evidence to suggest that image effects are only temporary and depend on integration with other marketing communication tools. There is also evidence to suggest that perceived exploitation of a sponsored activity can negatively impact sponsorship benefits and goodwill. Theoretical discussions relating to image effects (including Hoek et al., 1997) have failed to produce a preferred theoretical model based on superior empirical research. Walliser (2003) finds that in relation to purchase intentions as a result of sponsorship exposure, respondents declare themselves more likely to buy sponsor products than competitors’ (nonsponsor) products, but when it comes to behavior, product purchase is not necessarily higher for sponsor products. Purchase effects can often be overestimated (Bennett, 1999).

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Walliser (2003) finds that sponsorship generally enhances a sponsor’s image, but to a much lesser extent increases the likelihood of consumers purchasing the sponsor’s products. Meanwhile (excluded from Walliser’s analysis) Gwinner and Eaton (1999) find that sponsorship can produce positive image transfer from a sporting event to the sponsor’s brand. Their research is based on the theoretical perspectives of Keller (1993) and Aaker (1997). Madrigal (2000) finds that favorable purchase intentions are more likely to occur as fans increase their identification with a sports team and with other fans of the team. This can have beneficial consequences for corporate sponsors of the team in terms of fans’ positive intentions to purchase the sponsor’s products. The February 2001 issue of Psychology and Marketing reviews the topic of sponsorship. Meenaghan and O’Sullivan (2001, p. 89) write: ‘‘By way of contrast with advertising, sponsorship remains under-researched and underconceptualized, and our understanding of consumer response to sponsorship is still grossly inadequate.’’ Meenaghan (2001, p. 101) develops this discussion further by suggesting three basic tenets that must predicate an understanding of how sponsorship works. Firstly, consider the goodwill phenomenon in sponsorship. This phenomenon is the consumer’s perception of the sponsor as providing benefit to the community. ‘‘Consumers appear to receive sponsorship communications in a halo of goodwill.’’ The degree of goodwill varies by category. For example, the sponsorship of social causes generates intense feelings of goodwill toward a sponsor, while the sponsorship of sports and the arts is also highly regarded. Meenaghan (2001, p. 101) suggests that as a result of this phenomenon there is a lowering of consumer defense mechanisms as they receive sponsorship communications. Sponsorship’s intent to persuade is disguised and subtle: ‘‘Advertising, by contrast, is seen as being selfish and in the interests of the advertiser, thus involving no obvious benefit to society. It is seen as forceful and coercive, leading to an alerted state in the consumer’s defense mechanisms.’’ According to Meenaghan (2001) the notion of goodwill is central to an understanding of sponsorship and is one of the prime factors distinguishing sponsorship from advertising. Secondly, image transfer. Meenaghan (2001, p. 104) asserts that image transfer is an important reason for most sponsors to commit to sponsorship; not only to increase brand awareness, but also to establish, strengthen, or change brand image. ‘‘An individual sponsored activity is y possessed of a

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personality and there is a rub-off or halo effect to corporate or product image from association.’’ Thirdly, consider the concept of fan involvement. Fan involvement is ‘‘the extent to which consumers identify with, and are motivated by, their engagement and affiliation with particular leisure activities’’ (Meenaghan, 2001, p. 106). Fans have a positive emotional reaction and orientation toward the sponsor who benefits a favored activity, team, or event. The sponsor reaps the rewards of goodwill and image enhancement as a result. Meenaghan (2001) asserts that timing of entry and exit to the sponsorship commitment can also affect the response of fans to the sponsor. Image and goodwill may be generated by the sponsor’s early commitment to the sponsored property, attracting warm appreciation, and gratitude, whereas late arrivals may be regarded as opportunistic, inviting hostility; being perceived as exploiting the association. Meenaghan’s insights are based on qualitative research (focus groups and in-depth interviews with industry experts). They are clearly in the cognitive tradition. Although sponsorship has the advantage of the goodwill phenomenon when compared to advertising as a marketing communications stimulus, Meenaghan (2001) suggests that consumers’ response to sponsorship is fundamentally similar to consumers’ response to advertising. However, the conferred halo of goodwill combined with a high level of a fan’s involvement in the sponsored activity, team or event, heightens the possibility of a favorable perception and disposition toward the sponsor’s brand. This in turn leads to positive image transfer, the enhancement of consumer preference for the sponsor’s brand, the increased likelihood of purchase, and in some instances actual purchase. Meenaghan (2001, p. 114) concludes by suggesting that sponsorship works differently on the consumer from other forms of marketing communication by stimulating the consumer emotions embodied in the sponsor–activity–fan relationship. Sponsorship ‘‘engages the consumer by bestowing benefit on an activity with which the consumer has an intensely emotional relationship.’’ Sponsorship works differently on the consumer than does other forms of marketing communications such as advertising and promotion. Cornwell et al. (2005) seek to summarize all papers exhibiting theoretically grounded research into sponsorship published to that date. Their paper offers a consumer-focused sponsorship-linked marketing communications model that seeks to integrate all previous research and guide future research. It is a structural model of mechanisms found in consumer-focused sponsorship. Cornwell et al. (2005, p. 37) write: ‘‘It is the

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first (model) to account for the theoretical progress to date, bringing together important variables such as individual (and group) factors, as well as market and management factors, with the aim of understanding their influence on sponsorship processing mechanics and related outcomes.’’ They liken the process to ‘‘opening the black box of sponsorship information processing’’ (p. 21). The relevance of the study to this research is the fact that these authors classify consumer-focused sponsorship outcomes (effects) as cognitive (awareness; image); affective (liking; preference), and behavioral (purchase intent; purchase commitment; purchase). This is in accord with Keller’s (1993) CBBE theory, which conceptualizes brand knowledge in terms of brand awareness and brand image. According to Keller (1993), CBBE is established by positive brand knowledge. Keller’s (1993) theory is developed further by Keller and Davey (2001) and Keller (2003) and is seminal to this research.

2.1.4. Co-Branding Sponsorship is a form of co-branding (Motion, Leitch, & Brodie, 2003, p. 1083). Motion et al. argue that: ‘‘The delineation between sponsorship and co-branding can be conceptualized as a continuum with sponsorship at one end and a joint partnership at the other. The opportunity to create a co-brand arises when sponsorship moves from being a one-off exchange to being a long-term relationship between two or more organizations.’’ The commercial sponsorship agreement between global sport company adidas and the New Zealand Rugby Football Union (including adidas’ sponsorship of the All Blacks) commenced on July 1, 1999. It was one of adidas’ largest sponsorship contracts, estimated at NZ$ 150 million over 5 years (NZ$ 30 million per annum). The association has been subsequently renewed, with another 5-year contract in place. In terms of the definition by Motion et al. (2003) above, the sponsorship relationship between adidas and the All Blacks can also be described as a co-branding relationship. The concept of co-branding is relatively new to the business vocabulary. According to Blackett and Boad (1999, p. 1): ‘‘It is used to encompass a wide range of marketing activity involving the use of two (and sometimes more) brands.’’ However, Leuthesser, Kohli and Suri (2003, p.36) report that: ‘‘There is no universally accepted definition of co-branding.’’ The term has been used interchangeably in marketing literature with similar concepts such as brand alliance, joint branding, co-marketing, brand bundling and composite branding (Abratt & Motlana, 2002; Keller, 2003, Leuthesser et al., 2003).

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Riezebos (1996, p. 96) defines co-branding as: ‘‘An alliance between brands that is made clear to consumers.’’ Blackett and Boad in their definitive work, ‘‘Co-branding: The Science of Alliance’’ (1999, p. 7), define co-branding as: ‘‘A form of co-operation between two or more brands with significant customer recognition, in which all the participants’ brand names are retained.’’ The public nature of the alliance is a necessary factor in the process (Motion et al., 2003). Riezebos (1996, p. 97) notes that in co-branding ‘‘both brands can transfer y associations to one another.’’ This is called image transfer and is identified by Meenaghan (2001), above, as an important reason for most sponsors to commit to sponsorships. The focus of co-branding is mutual brand enhancement; mutual advantage. Riezebos (1996, p. 74) asserts that in image transfer ‘‘the associations valuable to consumers are carried over from one brand to another.’’ Riezebos (1996) suggests that minimally two entities are necessary for the transfer of associations: a source and a target. The source (in sponsorship terms this is the sponsored property) must evoke positive associations in the consumer, which are transferred to the image of the target (in sponsorship terms this is the sponsor). Riezebos (1996, p. 74) asserts that: ‘‘The essence of image transfer is that there is a positive transfer from the source to the target and that there is only a positive (i.e. no negative) feedback from the target to the source.’’ Therefore, it is appropriate to refer to the adidas–All Blacks sponsorship relationship also as a co-branding relationship. The relationship is potentially a win–win relationship for both brands. Positive brand associations from each brand can be transferred to the other. In this regard, the 2003 RWC presented a challenge to that relationship. If the All Blacks were to win the RWC the implications for the brand images of both organizations could be expected to be quite significant. These implications became the focus of this research. 2.1.5. Sports Sponsorship 2.1.5.1. Introduction. Modern sports sponsorship can be traced back to the 1950s in the United Kingdom and the United States (Marshall & Cook, 1992). Sports sponsorship received a substantial boost when governments banned cigarette advertising on television in the 1960s (United Kingdom) and 1970s (United States). As a result of the bans, tobacco companies looked for alternative promotional channels to circumvent these restrictions. Sports sponsorship became the ultimate media winner. Sponsorship of auto racing and tennis enabled tobacco companies to keep their cigarette brand names in front of the public through broadcast coverage of sponsored events (Shannon, 1999).

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The 1984 Los Angeles Olympics provided another major boost for sports sponsorship and is generally credited as the location for the official arrival of sports sponsorship as big business (Schlossberg, 1991). Whereas previous Olympics had relied on public money and had experienced major financial losses, the Los Angeles Olympics depended entirely on private money, primarily major sponsorships, and generated US$ 230 million in profit (Shannon, 1999). Sports sponsorship experienced phenomenal growth in the 1980s. Marshall and Cook (1992) report that in 1980, in the United Kingdom, around d50 million was spent on sports sponsorships. By the end of 1989, the sports sponsorships expenditure had increased to an estimated d200 million. The Olympic Games are recognized as the greatest sporting event in the world in terms of attracting the largest television audiences worldwide. Giardina and Metz (2001) report that the 1996 Atlanta Olympics attracted a cumulative viewing audience of approximately 19.6 billion people spanning 214 countries. This was an increase of some 17 billion cumulative viewers worldwide over the 1984 games in Los Angeles. Correspondingly, over the same period of time, sponsorship fees escalated. Individual sponsorship rights for the Olympic Games grew from a minimum of US$ 4 million for the 1984 Los Angeles Olympics to a minimum of US$ 40 million for the 1996 Atlanta Olympics and the 2000 Sydney Olympics (Tripodi, 1999). By 2003 sports sponsorship amounted to 69% of all sponsorship expenditure in North America; an estimated investment of US$ 7.08 billion. Total expenditure on all types of sponsorship in North America in 2003 was estimated at US$ 10.2 billion (IEG, 2003). Other major sponsorship property types, according to International Event Group (IEG), included entertainment tours and attractions (8%), causes (9%), festivals, fairs, annual events (8%), and arts (6%). Worldwide sponsorship expenditure in 2003 was estimated at US$ 25.9 billion with North American (40%) and European (28%) companies outlaying the bulk of the sponsorship dollars, while Pacific Rim (18%) and Central/South American (10%) companies made up most of the balance (IEG, 2003). Sports sponsorship can involve sponsoring an event, a team, a competition, or an individual. Sports sponsorship includes the sponsorship of sports facilities, stadiums, arenas, youth training courses and training facilities, sports clinics, and award ceremonies. In one of the largest single sponsorship investments to date Coca Cola spent US$ 55 million to become the major sponsor of the 2000 Olympic Games. It is estimated that the company spent an additional US$ 500 million in a related

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IMCs campaign to promote the fact that they were an official sponsor (Shank, 2002). 2.1.5.2. Corporate Objectives in Sports Sponsorship. Corporations sponsor sports properties for a range of reasons. Abratt, Clayton, and Pitt (1987) observe that because sport appeals to all classes of people it has mass audience appeal and is therefore of particular interest to companies marketing consumer goods. Abratt et al. (1987) find that the most important reason for an organization to be involved in sports sponsorship is to promote and improve their corporate image. The potential television and other media coverage offered by the sports property is also rated as very important because it facilitates the projection of a favorable corporate image. Marshall and Cook (1992) and other studies confirm this view, stating that the overriding reason for corporations becoming involved in sponsorship is to gain media coverage and awareness for the sponsor’s company, product, or brand and to enhance company, product or brand image (Gilbert, 1988; Gwinner, 1997; Javalgi et al., 1994; Miyazaki & Morgan, 2001). 2.1.5.3. The Evaluation of Sports Sponsorships. The effectiveness of sports sponsorship can be measured by looking at sales (Jeannet & Hennessey, 1988) and/or communication effects, depending on the sponsor’s corporate objectives. Sponsors are increasingly taking a market-driven, strategicmanagement bottom-line approach to their investment, looking for tangible returns (Marshall & Cook, 1992; Mescon & Tilson, 1987). Abratt and Grobler (1989), citing Mihalik (1984), identify the following techniques for evaluating sports sponsorship effectiveness as a marketing tool:    

participating frequency counts per dollar spent; dollar equivalent of free advertising; pre- and post-surveys of attitudes toward the sponsor; and time-trend analyses of product awareness and image enhancements.

Increased brand awareness and enhanced brand and/or corporate image are consumer-based outcomes that a sponsor can measure (Roy & Cornwell, 2003). One of the primary objectives of sponsorship is to contribute to brand equity. That is, the effect that sponsorship has on consumers’ brand knowledge structures (Keller, 1998). Tracking surveys can explore the extent to which a sponsorship affects brand awareness, brand attitudes, and even sales. According to Keller (1998) sports sponsorships serve as

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brand-building tools because they are effective in leveraging secondary brand associations. These are the associations that link a brand with some other entity; a celebrity, a team, an event. This image transfer from the sponsored property to the sponsor is first suggested by Gwinner (1997). As a consequence, consumers generate positive perceptions and emotions toward the sponsoring brand and this translates into improved imagery or reputation for the brand in their minds. This is often termed as goodwill (Meenaghan, 2001). Does sports sponsorship affect consumer purchase intentions? Research results to date have been inconsistent. A review of the literature reveals conflicting evidence. As already noted there are a number of studies that confirm that consumers’ purchase intentions can be positively influenced by sports sponsorship activity (Madrigal, 2000; Mason, 2005; Miyazaki & Morgan, 2001; Rajaretnam, 1994; Sparks, 1999), but there are other studies that suggest that consumer purchase intentions are only marginally affected, if at all, by sports sponsorship (Hansen & Halling, 1999; Lee et al., 1997; Nicholls et al., 1999; Pope, 1998). Hoek et al. (1997) find that neither sponsorship nor advertising stimuli show any evidence of persuading users or nonusers of the sponsoring brand to purchase their brand. This finding is confirmed in a second study by Hoek (1999b). 2.1.5.4. Ambush Marketing. The phenomenal growth in event sponsorship in recent years has seen the parallel growth of sports sponsorship practice, coined ambush marketing. Essentially, ambush marketing involves a company seeking to associate with an event without payment to the event owner (Meenaghan, 1998). Often these pretender sponsors are competitors of the legitimate and paying sponsors. Thus ambush marketing is deemed to have a devaluating effect on the benefits that the legitimate sponsors might expect from their sponsorship. Successful ambush marketing allows the ambushing company to achieve awareness and image benefits without paying the costs of legitimate sponsorship. Ambush marketing is defined by Sandler and Shani (1999, p. 11) as: ‘‘A planned effort (campaign) by an organization to associate themselves indirectly with an event in order to gain at least some of the recognition and benefits that are associated with being an official sponsor.’’ Ambush marketing began with the 1984 Olympic Games. Nike ambushed Converse’s sponsorship of the 1984 Los Angeles games and in 1996 they ambushed Reebok’s sponsorship of the Atlanta Olympics. Kodak ambushed Fuji in 1984. By 1988 for each official Olympic sponsor, there was at least one ambush marketer (Sandler & Shani, 1999).

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Ambushing companies use a variety of methods of associating with the targeted event (Meenaghan, 1994). For example:  the sale of unauthorized or pirated goods or services coinciding with the event;  the sale of goods or services using marks or dates that is suggestive of a connection with the event;  the placement of billboards displaying the ambush marketer’s name near the venue(s) of the event;  giving away free tickets to the event as prizes in an advertising campaign in such a way as to suggest sponsorship;  aerial advertising over the venue before or during the event;  sponsorship of individual participants or teams in the competition and the purchase of media surrounding the event to promote the ambusher’s sponsorship of these individuals or teams;  giving away free merchandise bearing the advertiser’s logo to be displayed at the event and recorded by television coverage of the event; and  broadcast advertising coinciding event schedules with broadcast schedules. Ambush marketing has become a major issue for the sponsorship industry. If ambush marketing can achieve the benefits of sponsorship without paying the cost of entry to the event it will undermine the integrity of the event for official sponsors. Lower returns on substantial investments could deter genuine sponsors from investing in these events and even put the events themselves at risk. Hence major event owners such as the IOC, FIFA, ICC, and the IRB have taken steps to minimize the possibility of ambush marketing at their events. Even governments have become involved. Countries such as Australia, the United Kingdom, South Africa, and the West Indies have all passed legislation to protect the interests of sponsors of events such as the Olympics, the FIFA World Cup, and the Cricket World Cup. New Zealand is preparing to introduce legislation in regard to the 2011 RWC. Such legislation includes provisions for the control of venues; the control of certain aspects of security and the protection of intellectual property. For example:    

controls on street trading; controls on sale of tickets; controls of airspace and aerial advertising; and prohibition of advertising on buildings or structures.

Despite legal restrictions and increasingly tight controls, determined ambushers employ teams of lawyers themselves to determine how far they

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can legally go, to connect themselves with the target event, without paying the sponsorship fee and without breaking any laws (Farrelly, Quester, & Greyser, 2005; Meenaghan, 1994). 2.1.5.5. RWC 2003 as a Sports Sponsorship Property. The Australian Rugby Union (ARU) hosted RWC 2003 in conjunction with the International Rugby Board (IRB). Organizations involved in RWC 2003 included commercial partners, sponsors, broadcasters, hospitality agents, national and state governments, and stakeholders in the travel and tourism industry. The RWC has taken place every 4 years since 1987. It has grown to become the third largest sporting event in the world, behind the summer Olympics Games and the Soccer World Cup, in terms of size of cumulative television audience and total attendances. From 1987 to 1999, the RWC grew dramatically in terms of match attendance, world television audience, commercial income, and the net surpluses of each tournament returned to the IRB Development Trust. The RWC 2003 generated an estimated d81.8 million gross commercial income for the IRB. The largest revenue component was broadcast rights totaling d44 million in broadcast fees, followed by d19 million in sponsorship fees and d15.8 million in other commercial revenues (URS Report, 2004). In addition to sponsorships an estimated 30 licensees were involved worldwide and official suppliers to RWC 2003 included Gilbert, Reebok, Jacobs Creek, Super Odds, Allens, Arthur Robinson, Unisys, Sony, and Rugby logistics.com (URS Report, 2004). The ARU advised that over 1.8 million tickets were sold, valued at nearly A$ 200 million. This revenue was split 20/80% between the IRB and the ARU, respectively (URS Report, 2004). 2.1.5.6. Conclusion. Sports sponsorship is the context for this research. It is the major beneficiary of sponsorship investment. It has experienced phenomenal growth since 1984. The current cost of entry, and leveraging of sponsorship in the Olympics can be measured in the hundreds of millions of dollars. Protecting such investments has become a high priority for event owners in the face of increasingly sophisticated ambush marketing strategies by sponsors’ competitors. The reasons for sponsoring sports properties have not changed since the 1980s: to gain awareness for the sponsor’s brand and an enhancement of the sponsor’s brand image by association with the sponsored property. This process has been described as image transfer (Gwinner, 1997) and the result is a build up of goodwill toward the sponsor by fans and other consumers.

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The question of whether sports sponsorship can generate brand purchase intentions by consumers toward the sponsor’s product has some anecdotal support (Jeannet & Hennessey, 1988) but remains inconclusive in terms of relevant academic research. It is the intention of this research to test the relationship between brand image and brand equity in a sports sponsored context and thus contribute to this ongoing debate.

2.2. Brand Image 2.2.1. Introduction Biel (1993, p. 67) observes, ‘‘Ever since David Ogilvy focused attention on the concept of brand image in the 1950s, marketers have struggled to come to grips with the idea.’’ Biel (1993) notes that there is little consensus regarding what the concept means, whether it can be measured, how it might be formed, and its ultimate value. Nonetheless Biel (1993, p. 71) offers the following definition of brand image: ‘‘That cluster of attributes and associations that consumers connect to the brand name.’’ Bullmore (1984) defines the concept in similar terms, arguing that a brand’s image is what consumers think and feel about it. Keller (2003, p. 70) suggests that: ‘‘A positive brand image is created by marketing programs that link strong, favorable, and unique associations to the brand in memory.’’ White (2003a), agreeing with Biel (1993), confirms that language used about brands is often imprecise and used differently by different people. White (2003a, p. 13) defines brand image as: ‘‘The complete mental picture of a brand held by those consumers who are more or less aware of it.’’ Therefore, brand image according to White (2003a) is predicated on the concept of brand awareness; that is, by definition and logic we cannot have an image of a brand that we are unaware of. In spite of the above definitions, the concept of brand image continues to be hotly debated by theorists. Concepts that are sometimes considered synonyms include brand identity, brand personality, brand awareness, brand salience, brand attitude, brand reputation, and corporate image. There are some scholars who even question whether the concept of brand image as a separate construct exists at all (Ehrenberg, 1974; Rossiter & Percy, 1987; Upshaw, 1995). There is also a continuing discussion relating to the components or elements that make up brand image and there is a long-running debate concerning the effects of brand image and the role the concept plays in building brand equity. All of these discussions are grounded on

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presuppositions and assumptions as to how advertising, sponsorship, and marketing communications might work, and how they might be measured. Brand image is one of two variables that this research seeks to define and measure. The role of brand image as an antecedent to the brand equity construct is investigated in the context of sports sponsorship. 2.2.2. The Nature of Brand Imagery According to Feldwick (1996), the concept of brand image is first fully articulated by Gardner and Levy in their Harvard Business Review paper of 1955, ‘‘The Product and the Brand.’’ Although brand image was endorsed by the British Account Planning movement (Cowley, 1989; King, 1984; King & Bullmore, 1974), the concept was not fully embraced by practitioners or researchers until David A. Aaker published ‘‘Managing Brand Equity: Capitalizing on the Value of a Brand Name,’’ in 1991. Aaker (1991) describes brand equity as having five components or assets. Brand equity is a set of assets. The management of brand equity involves creating and enhancing these assets. They include:     

brand loyalty; brand name awareness; perceived quality; brand associations; and other brand assets.

Aaker (1991, p. 272) defines brand associations as: ‘‘Anything mentally linked to the brand.’’ These associations can be stronger or weaker depending on the number of experiences or exposures to a brand the consumer may have had. Aaker (1991, p. 110) defines a brand image as: ‘‘A set of associations, usually organized in some meaningful way.’’ Associations and images represent subjective perceptions of reality and may or may not reflect objective reality. They create value to a consumer by helping them to process or retrieve information about a brand, to differentiate and position a brand in their minds, and by giving them a reason to buy the brand. For the marketer, these associations can create positive attitudes and feelings toward the brand by consumers and provide a basis for brand extension. By discussing brand image in the context of a brand equity model, the concept gained a degree of respectability that had only recently been afforded to brand equity itself. Feldwick (1996) suggests that it is not until 1988, when the Marketing Science Institute held a major seminar on the subject of brand equity, that brand equity becomes a worthy field for researchers to investigate. (It was in the 1980s that brands first began to

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change hands for large sums of money.) Since 1988 brand equity has become one of the major topics in business. Franzen (1999, p. 98) states: ‘‘Nothing in the marketing world has been so much the focus of attention in recent years as the significance and value of strong brands for their owners.’’ Batra, Lehmann, and Singh (1993, p. 83) report that the terms brand image and brand personality are often used interchangeably. However, they argue: ‘‘Brand imagery is a more encompassing term, including within it not merely brand personality but also the attributes and benefits or consequences that the user associates with the brand.’’ Batra et al. (1993, p. 85) report (citing Belk, 1988; Sirgy, 1985) that: ‘‘Consumers seek brands with personalities that are congruent with either their own or their sought-after (aspirational or ideal) personalities y consumers use a brand’s personality to help define, both for themselves and for others, their sense of self.’’ Batra et al. (1993, p. 93) suggest that: ‘‘A brand’s personality is created, over time, by the entire marketing mix of the brand.’’ That includes price, imagery associated with store locations, product features and benefits, packaging, symbols used, sales promotions, and advertising. They suggest that coordinated, distinctive, consistent marketing communications build strong brand personalities. In 1993, Kevin Lane Keller published the first of two conceptual models (to date) regarding CBBE. Keller (1993, p. 1) defines CBBE as: ‘‘The differential effect of brand knowledge on consumer response to the marketing of the brand.’’ Keller (1993, p. 1) asserts that CBBE occurs, ‘‘When the consumer is familiar with the brand and holds some favorable, strong, and unique brand associations in memory.’’ Keller (1993) suggests that brand knowledge has two defining components: brand awareness and brand image. Acknowledging Rossiter and Percy (1987), Keller (1993) describes brand awareness as consisting of two components: brand recognition and brand recall. Keller (1993) suggests that brand awareness is a necessary (pre) condition for the creation of a brand image, clearly establishing himself in the hierarchy theoretical tradition. Keller (1993) observes that although brand image has long been acknowledged as an important concept in marketing, there has been little agreement on an appropriate definition. Keller (1993, p. 3) defines brand image as: ‘‘Perceptions about a brand as reflected by the brand associations held in consumer memory.’’ These brand associations provide meaning of the brand for consumers. Their favorability, strength, and uniqueness determine a consumer’s response to a brand, which in turn determines a

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brand’s equity. Keller (1993) also suggests that brand associations can be classified into three major categories:  Attributes: Product-related (performance and functional) and nonproduct-related (price, packaging, brand personality, and a consumer’s own experiences with the brand).  Benefits: What consumers believe the product or service can do for them.  Brand Attitudes: Consumers’ overall evaluations of a brand (Rossiter & Percy, 1987). According to Keller (1993), CBBE is the outcome, the result, or the effect of consumer response to the marketing of the brand. A brand may have negative CBBE (if consumers have negative reactions to the marketing of the brand) or positive CBBE (favorable responses by consumers). Brand knowledge is central to this outcome. Keller (1993, p. 8) predicts: ‘‘Fundamentally, high levels of brand awareness and a positive brand image should increase the probability of brand choice.’’ Keller’s 1993 CBBE model is significant in the context of reviewing the development of brand image as a construct for a number of reasons. Keller (1993) clearly differentiates as two separate concepts: brand awareness and brand image. This is not articulated by Ehrenberg (1974) when proposing his ATR theory. Ehrenberg focuses on brand awareness only, an outcome, it is suggested, that may occur without advertising. Rossiter and Percy (1987) distinguish between brand awareness and brand attitude, but do not use the concept of brand image. Keller (1993) builds on the Rossiter and Percy (1987) proposition that brand awareness is a universal communication objective and that brand awareness, whether it be brand recognition or brand recall, is a necessary precursor to brand attitude. Rossiter, Percy, and Donovan (1991, p. 12) suggest that: ‘‘The fundamental advertising communication objectives are to maximize brand attitude given brand awareness.’’ The concept of brand image is not used by Rossiter and Percy; they assume it to be present in the concepts of brand awareness and brand attitude. In their discussion of corporate image, Rossiter and Percy (1987, p. 411) write: ‘‘Corporations are sold just like brands. Corporate image is therefore the equivalent of brand attitude.’’ Clearly, Keller (1993) has a different understanding of the role of brand image in the communication process than Ehrenberg (1974, 1988) and Rossiter et al. (1991). For Keller, brand image is one of two defining components (along with brand awareness) in the creation of brand knowledge; the influencing factor in the creation of CBBE.

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Keller’s 1993 CBBE model differs from Aaker’s 1991 Brand Equity model by expanding the role of brand image to become a major antecedent of brand equity. In Aaker’s 1991 model brand image is a subset of one of five drivers of brand equity (brand associations), and is therefore given less prominence in the creation of brand equity than Keller posits. Aaker (1991) clearly identifies brand awareness and brand image as two separate constructs but gives greater weight to brand awareness as a driver of brand equity. Brand attitude is not a concept used by Aaker but is encompassed by his brand associations category. Aaker’s model has been criticized by McWilliam (1993) for lacking an underlying theory that relates the five components together. Feldwick (1996) gives qualified support to this assertion. Giving some credence to McWilliam’s criticism is Aaker’s 1996 study ‘‘Building Strong Brands.’’ In this study Aaker seeks to expand the concept of brand identity; a concept not discussed in his 1991 study. Aaker (1996, p. 25) writes: ‘‘Brand associations are driven by the brand identity – what the organization wants the brand to stand for in the customer’s mind. A key to building strong brands, then, is to develop and implement a brand identity.’’ Aaker (1996, p. 68) suggests that brand identity can serve to provide direction, purpose, and meaning for the brand: ‘‘Brand identity is a unique set of brand associations that the brand strategist aspires to create or maintain. These associations represent what the brand stands for and imply a promise to customers from the organization members.’’ Aaker (1996) proposes 12 dimensions of brand identity. The brand identity statement becomes the blue print for the brand; how the brand strategists want the brand to be perceived. The brand image is how the brand is perceived by consumers. According to Aaker (1996) brand image is passive and looks to the past; brand identity is active and looks to the future. Aaker’s (1996) concept of brand identity differs from Upshaw (1995). Upshaw (1995) prefers to use the term brand identity as an alternative to brand image because, it is suggested, the word image implies a fleeting fac- ade that does not represent reality. Upshaw (1995, p. 19) draws examples from the world of celebrities (e.g., Madonna) to support the argument that the term image: ‘‘Can suggest a shallow reflection of a brand rather than a brand’s more essential qualities.’’ Upshaw (1995) suggests that brand identity is a much more substantive term to use than brand image when seeking to justify marketing expenditure. Upshaw (1995, p. 18) defines brand identity as: ‘‘How a brand is viewed by its current and potential users.’’ This is an unhelpful semantic contribution made by Upshaw and detracts from an otherwise helpful study on branding. Aaker’s (1996) definition of

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brand identity is more useful and more appropriate (see also Aaker & Joachimsthaler, 2000). The concept of brand salience (Ehrenberg, Barnard, & Scriven, 1997; Miller & Berry, 1998) (defined differently by different authors), is offered as an alternative to brand image in discussions relating to advertising effectiveness. Miller and Berry (1998, p. 78) observe that: ‘‘While the majority of American researchers over the past few decades have held strongly to the belief that advertising works by changing brand imagery, there is a minority opinion. This minority opinion holds that in established categories, advertising works primarily because it improves or maintains brand salience.’’ Miller and Berry (1998) define brand salience as the order in which brands come to mind or top-of-mind awareness; that is, not what consumers think about brands but which ones they think about. The implication of this view is that advertising’s basic job is to register a brand name with the public. Advertising, therefore, should be intrusive and/or entertaining with strong branding. However, advertising is just one of many marketing communication tools able to get a brand name in front of the public and less costly tools may be a better way to maintain a brand’s presence. Miller and Berry’s 1998 study of the rent-a-car category finds that over 70% of the effect of advertising on market share is the generation of brand awareness. Only a small percentage (30%) of the effect is building brand image. They suggest that this could be because it is much harder to change brand image than brand awareness. Nevertheless, they conclude that their research findings support the brand salience theory of advertising effectiveness rather than the brand imagery theory. Ehrenberg et al. (1997) define brand salience differently to Miller and Berry (1998). They define salience as being broader than any single measure of brand performance. It is a correlation of all performance measures. Brand A has more salience than Brand B because more people are aware of it; more people buy it (have it in their active brand repertoires); more people might buy it (have it in their consideration sets); more people are familiar with the brand; more people have positive attribute beliefs about the brand; more people regard it as value for money; more people intend to purchase or use it in the future. Probably the single best conceptualization of salience according to Ehrenberg et al. (1997) is that it is in the consumer’s consideration set. The aim of advertising then should be simply to publicize the brand well; utilizing creative and effective publicity. Ehrenberg et al. (1997) reject the notion that advertising can change people’s attitudes or feelings in a significant or lasting manner. At best, they suggest, it can nudge choice behavior, but primarily its role is the defensive reinforcement of a

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brand. In spite of protestations to the contrary by Ehrenberg et al. (1997), Miller and Berry (1998) conclude that the Ehrenberg et al. concept of brand salience does have an attitudinal or image component. 2.2.3. Brand Attitude Classical theories concerning how advertising works assume a sequential processing of information that requires an attitude shift, prior to purchasing. Many variants of this theory have been proposed over the years from the AIDA model (Strong, 1925) to Rossiter et al. (1991). This section briefly reviews some of these models and examines them chronologically in order to determine how the knowledge of advertising effects has developed overtime. The original persuasion models were developed mainly in the 1960s. Since then they have grown in complexity, with an increasing number of influences identified and endeavored to be integrated into single models. Barry and Howard (1990) conduct a comprehensive review of advertising literature and find that the notion that consumers progress through a number of stages toward a sale is present in the early 1900s. This hierarchy of effects proposition is the theoretical basis for understanding and explaining most media advertising today. The AIDA model is attributed to Strong (1925) who employs the acronym (attention, interest, desire, action) to explain a series of steps that a salesman must take a customer through in the personal selling process. It was not until 1961, when two academic treatises were published, that the model received widespread dissemination in regard to advertising (Barry & Howard, 1990). Colley published his book Defining Advertising Goods for Measured Advertising Results (DAGMAR) in 1961. Colley (1961) suggests that the purpose of advertising is to create communication effects. These communication effects should be the goals against which advertising performance should be measured – rather than sales. Colley proposes that there should be four communication tasks, based on a hierarchical model of the communication process. The four stages, in ascending order are: Awareness ! Comprehension ! Conviction ! Action Advertising should first make consumers aware of the existence of a product or brand; then communicate information regarding features and benefits; next create a positive feeling toward the brand; and finally encourage the consumer to purchase the product. The model assumes that advertising can persuade a buyer to move through these stages.

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Lavidge and Steiner (1961, p. 59) propose a similar model. They suggest that: ‘‘Advertising may be thought of as a force, which must move people up a series of steps.’’ There are seven mental steps in this process: Unawareness ! Awareness ! Knowledge ! Liking ! Preference ! Conviction ! Purchase The steps may not be equidistant and consumers may leap from awareness to purchase in one step. Lavidge and Steiner (1961) suggest that the length of the journey time might vary depending on the level of psychological and/or economic involvement in the purchase of a particular product. Consequently, an impulse purchase could involve no previous awareness, knowledge, liking, preference, or conviction in regards to the product. Advertising research can determine which of these steps is most important, depending on the marketer’s objectives. Lavidge and Steiner (1961) propose that the steps indicate three major functions of advertising: the cognitive or thinking component (awareness and knowledge), the affective or feeling component (attitudes and preferences), and the conative or doing component (conviction and purchase). Lavidge and Steiner (1961) are amongst the earliest theorists to acknowledge the role of involvement in the decision-making process. Since 1961 most of the debate by researchers relating to the hierarchy models has not been regarding the importance of the three stages of the hierarchy (cognition–affect–conation) but rather their order of sequence. For example (Barry & Howard, 1990): Think ! Feel ! Do or Feel ! Do ! Think. However, such hierarchies of effects models are too simplistic in approach and that future models need to identify and incorporate other influences in the purchasing process. Vaughn (1980) adds the concept of involvement to a thinking/feeling matrix. The FCB grid was created by staff at the Foote, Cone, and Belding advertising agency to assist in advertising planning. The model uses two continuum scales: high and low involvement, and thinking and feeling. The resulting matrix has four quadrants representing four goals for advertising strategy with different hierarchy variations. For the high involvement, thinking product, for example, the basic strategy model is Learn ! Feel ! Do, where the cognitive factors predominate and therefore the advertising objectives should be to provide specific information and/or demonstration of the product in use.

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By acknowledging that the level of involvement and level of emotion existing in the decision-making process can affect the stages a person goes through, and the appropriateness of various advertising strategies, the grid has been accepted as a useful planning tool by practitioners. Petty and Cacioppo (1980) devised their elaboration likelihood model (ELM) to explain how advertising persuades by influencing attitudes. They suggest that involvement has an impact on the amount of cognitive processing being undertaken. The ELM states that changes in attitude depend on the amount and nature of elaboration, or processing, of relevant information that occurs as a result of receiving a persuasive message. If the product is of personal relevance at the point of receiving the advertising message, then high involvement or elaboration takes place. If there is little effort to analyze or evaluate the arguments contained in the advertising message, low elaboration occurs. The person is, therefore, not influenced by the message but by peripheral cues that are easy to process such as celebrities, music, visual imagery, etc. The implications for marketing communications are important in that the ELM suggests that if the involvement level of the target is low then peripheral cues may be more important than a detailed, strong message argument. In other words, levels of involvement are directly related to levels of cognitive processing. Rossiter et al. (1991) further develops the FCB grid by identifying a number of limitations in the FCB grid. First, they argue, the FCB grid concentrates on brand attitude and does not acknowledge brand awareness as a necessary and prerequisite communication objective prior to brand attitude. They therefore incorporate brand awareness as a first stage in their grid, splitting it into two types: brand recognition and brand recall. Rossiter et al. (1991, p. 12) suggest: ‘‘The fundamental advertising communication objectives are to maximize brand attitude given brand awareness (that is, to maximize brand attitude conditional on the prior establishment of brand awareness).’’ The involvement scales applicable to the FCB grid is the second limitation of the FCB grid (Rossiter et al., 1991). They suggest that a simplified scale is required and define involvement purely in terms of perceived risk. They argue that consumers see a purchase at a particular point in time as either a high- or a low-risk decision. Their grid utilizes this dichotomous approach. Thirdly, they argue that the FCB grid fails to distinguish product category choice from brand choices. They suggest that product category purchase motives are often different from brand-choice motives. The FCB grid’s think-feel dimension does not allow for these motivations. They therefore

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propose that the grid should consist of an informational and transformational dimension. Informational motivations are negatively originated motives for purchase (e.g., problem solution) while transformational motives are derived from positive motivations (e.g., sensory gratification). The brand attitude section of the grid is divided into four quadrants representing four different types of decision-making processes. The grid also indicates that the level of involvement of the target audience may change from highly involved, if they are new category users, to less involved as they become more familiar with the brand. The characteristics of both the product and the target audience, therefore, have an influence on the appropriate advertising strategy. The significance of the paper by Rossiter et al. (1991) is the transition it provides from previous models that focus primarily on advertising theory to a model that focuses on brand theory. Although this may seem a subtle distinction, it reflects the change in direction of marketing communications theory from the 1990s to the present day; a change signaled by Aaker (1991) and confirmed by the vast amount of brandrelated literature since Aaker. However, de Mooij (2005) provides a cautionary note by observing that because many of the theories of marketing and consumer behavior originate in the United States they reflect American values, thinking patterns and concepts. These concepts may not translate into other cultures, and may not be universally true, de Mooij (2005, p. 6) suggests. For example: ‘‘Metaphors such as brand identity and brand personality are used and exported to countries in which words like identity or personality do not even exist in the local language. Asking people about brand personality in Asia will result in irrelevant answers.’’ de Mooij (2005) claims that the assumption that the way marketing communication works may be related to culture is rarely considered by researchers. However, this contention that concepts such as identity and personality have no proper equivalents and are therefore untranslatable in, for example, the Japanese language (the concept of personality being separate from the social context is alien to the Japanese mind) needs to be tested. The issue of conceptual equivalence across cultures is an important area of study, but outside the scope of this study. 2.2.4. Converting Brand Image into Brand Equity The evolution of brand image into a separate standalone construct owes much to the writing of Keller (1993) and perhaps even more to Biel (1991, 1992, 1993). Prior to Biel and Keller, brand image had been theorized as

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part of a number of brand associations contributing to either brand awareness or salience (Ehrenberg, 1974) or brand attitude (Colley, 1961; Lavidge & Steiner, 1961; Petty & Cacioppo, 1980; Rossiter et al., 1991; Strong, 1925; Vaughn, 1980). For Keller (1993), brand image is one of the two defining components of brand knowledge (along with brand awareness) and therefore CBBE. Biel (1992, p. RC-7) is more forthright and suggests that: ‘‘The equity of a brand is driven by brand image.’’ The next section considers brand equity in detail in the next section, but Biel’s (1991, 1992, p. RC-7) definition of the concept is similar to both Aaker (1991) and Keller (1993): ‘‘Brand equity can be thought of as the additional cash-flow achieved by associating a brand with the underlying product or service y the premium a consumer would pay for a branded product or service compared to an identical unbranded version of the same product/ service.’’ Biel (1992) posits three components of image (or contributing sub-images): the image of the provider of the product/service (corporate image); the image of the user; and the image of the product/service itself. The relative contributions of each component vary according to product category and brand. Biel (1992) asserts that not only do consumers describe users of brands in personality terms but also the brand itself. According to Biel (1992) brands can evoke feelings (positive and negative), interact with consumers, and form relationships with consumers. As well, using well-chosen visual metaphors, desirable values can be associated with a brand. Biel (1991) distinguishes between hard and soft attributes of brands. Hard associations can be specific perceptions of tangible/functional attributes (e.g., speed, price, flights per day) while soft associations are more emotional attributes (e.g., excitement, trustworthiness, fun, dullness, masculinity, innovation). While functional differences between brands today are often marginal (in terms of product parity) the softer characteristics of a brand’s image, such as brand personality, are often far more differentiated, more enduring, and more meaningful to consumers. Biel (1991) suggests that in addition to direct and indirect personal experience with a brand, advertising plays an obvious and important role in creating consumer perceptions of a brand’s image. In fact, Biel (1991) suggests all forms of marketing communication can contribute to a brand’s image: packaging, corporate identity, public relations, sales promotion, direct response, and – particularly in service-oriented businesses – a firm’s employees.

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Biel (1992) suggests that the two key issues in branding research, from a practitioner’s point of view are:  How to quantity brand equity?  How to identify the elements of brand image likely to impact changes in consumer behavior and in turn lead to changes in brand equity? Biel (1993, p. 78) acknowledges the role of econometric modeling in addressing the first issue, and refers to the work of Morgan (1990), who uses a research model known as Pilot/Locator to address the second issue: ‘‘Pilot/ Locator is a micromodel of an individual’s brand image that relates that image to the person’s preference structure.’’ The model can predict the effects of shifts in brand image on brand preference. Through a series of simulations it can determine which image variables (e.g., more family-oriented; more dependable; more traditional; more gentle; more feminine), if improved, would be more likely to lead to an increase in overall brand choice. Biel (1997) asserts that understanding the personification of brands by consumers (that consumers characterize the personality of brands as if those brands were people) is vitally important to the development of a strong brand identity. Aaker’s development of a brand personality scale (Aaker, 1997) for the quantitative measurement of brand personality is helpful in this regard, Biel (1997) suggests. Biel (1997) concludes that investing in the softer side of branding; the emotional, personal, relational aspects of branding; are where the lasting economic advantages for marketers are likely to be found. Faircloth et al. (2001) empirically test a conceptual model adapted from the work of Aaker (1991) and Keller (1993) considering the effect of brand attitude and brand image on brand equity. Faircloth et al. (2001) find that brand image directly influences brand equity while brand attitude indirectly influences brand equity through the brand image construct. They conclude that the outcome is consistent with Keller’s (1993) theory, which conceptualizes brand attitude as part of brand image. Faircloth et al. (2001, p. 70) report that their study: ‘‘Demonstrated that brand image and brand attitude, direct and indirect antecedents to brand equity are subject to a marketer’s manipulation through the marketing mix.’’ The research of Faircloth et al. (2001) is important in that it provides further empirical support for the notion that investment in image-based marketing communications can enhance brand equity. Their brand equity model informs the conceptual framework for this research in conjunction

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with Keller’s (2003) CBBE pyramid. Faircloth et al.’s (2001) research also confirms the assertions of Biel (1992) that brand image are the primary drivers of brand equity. Their conceptualization of the brand image-brand equity relationship is very similar to Biel’s (1992) model.

2.2.5. Conclusion For the purpose of this research Biel’s (1993, p. RC-8) definition of brand image is favored: ‘‘That cluster of attributes and associations that consumers connect to the brand name.’’ Brand image is the combined effect of brand associations; the consumer’s perceptions of a brand’s tangible and intangible associations; the consumer’s synthesis of all the signals emitted by a brand; the cumulative effects of a firm’s marketing mix activities. Brand image results from the consumer decoding, extracting, and interpreting brand signals (Faircloth et al., 2001). Fig. 1 offers a conceptual framework that sums up the literature discussed to date. Brand identity (Aaker, 1996; Aaker & Joachimsthaler, 2000) is the blueprint for all of a brand’s (integrated) marketing communications (Belch & Belch, 2004; Duncan, 2005; Duncan & Caywood, 1996). Successful marketing communications produce, in turn, brand awareness (Rossiter et al., 1991) and a brand image (Biel, 1992; Faircloth et al., 2001; Keller, 1993), which is evaluated attitudinally by consumers (Lavidge & Steiner, 1961; Petty & Cacioppo, 1980; Rossiter et al., 1991; Vaughn, 1980) prior to purchase,

Brand

Integrated

Brand

Brand

Identity

Marketing

Awareness

Image

Brand Equity

Comms.

Fig. 1.

Brand

Brand

Attitude

Reinforcement

Brand Theory Conceptual Framework.

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creating positive or negative brand equity. (Aaker, 1991; Biel, 1992; Faircloth et al., 2001; Keller, 1993). Given Ehrenberg’s (1974, 1988) claim that most marketing communication is defensive, reinforcing existing brand preferences, brand reinforcement is afforded a graphically enlarged box in the model. Brand reinforcement refers to IMC that reinforces a consumer’s positive perception of a brand’s image and protects the equity in the brand. Brand equity will now be discussed.

2.3. Brand Equity 2.3.1. Introduction The second theoretical construct to be studied in this research is brand equity. Like the brand image construct there are a range of definitions and conceptualizations of the brand equity concept. This study assumes a consumer-based definition, following Faircloth et al. (2001, p. 61), in which brand equity represents: ‘‘The biased behavior a consumer has for a branded product versus an unbranded equivalent.’’ The term equity has its origins in the fields of philosophy and law. In ethics the concept relates to fairness; in law to principles of natural justice. More recently, it has been used in the financial industry to describe the value of a property in excess of debts to which it is liable. The concept of brand equity only emerged in the 1980s (as discussed, above). Advertising practitioners in the United States needed to convince client senior management of the long-term value of investing in brand advertising, and the need for financial measures of these investments. Thus the term brand equity was coined: a brand’s long-term customer franchise and the financial value of that franchise (Barwise, 1993). Brodie, Glynn, and Van Durme (2002, p. 6) comment that it became apparent that there is a: ‘‘Lack of a clear and consistent conceptual framework for brand equity.’’ Although there had been considerable attention given to understanding the nature of brand loyalty: ‘‘Little attention had been given to the financial consequences of activities designed to increase brand loyalty.’’ Brand loyalty itself is a complex and controversial subject with numerous definitions and operational measures (Stern, 1996). Aaker (1991) describes the brand loyalty of the customer base as the core of a brand’s equity. Brand loyalty, suggests Aaker (1991, p. 39): ‘‘Is a measure of the attachment that a customer has to a brand.’’ Aaker observes that there are levels of loyalty;

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from consumers who have no brand loyalty to those who are committed customers and for whom the brand is very important; either functionally or as an expression of who they are. As brand loyalty increases, customers become less vulnerable to competitor’s activities. Aaker (1991) argues that this level of brand loyalty directly translates into future sales and profits and as such is a demonstrable indicator of brand equity. White (2003b) posits two operationally alternative concepts of brand loyalty:  behavioral loyalty (a consumer buys the brand regularly); and  attitudinal loyalty (a consumer has an emotional bond with the brand). White (2003b) observes that attitudinal loyalty need not entail behavioral loyalty at all and behavioral loyalty may not lead to attitudinal loyalty. However, brand loyalty remains important because there is ample evidence to suggest that it is cheaper to keep selling to an existing customer than to acquire new customers; and also that if 80% of a brand’s sales come from 20% of its buyers (the Pareto principle) then building strong relationships with these core customers is the most cost-effective way of building a brand. There is some agreement amongst scholars (Brodie et al., 2002; Eagle & Kitchen, 2000; Feldwick, 1996; Keller & Lehmann, 2005) that there are at least two distinct perspectives when studying brand equity:  CBBE: When a consumer is familiar with a brand and holds some favorable, strong, and unique brand associations in memory (Keller, 1993). A consumer’s attraction to – or repulsion from – a particular product from a particular company generated by the nonobjective part of the product offering (Keller & Lehmann, 2005).  Financial-based brand equity: The total value of a brand as a separable asset – when it is sold, or included on a balance sheet (Feldwick, 1996). In the absence of a market transaction, it can be estimated (with great difficulty) from the cost needed to establish a brand with equivalent strength (Keller & Lehmann, 2005). Feldwick (1996) includes brand description (brand image) in his discussion of brand equity; Brodie et al. (2002) add relational brand equity, co-branding, brand alliances, and networks to their more general theory of marketplace equity. Keller and Lehmann (2005) include company-based brand equity in their review of the literature. In this study, the discussion focuses primarily on CBBE, leading to Keller’s 2003 CBBE model, a primary model for this research. There will also be a brief discussion of attempts to measure the overall financial value

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of brands, but application of these principles to the adidas brand is not attempted and is deemed to be outside the scope of this research. 2.3.2. Customer-Based Brand Equity The previous section discusses Keller’s (1993) CBBE brand knowledge in some detail. Keller (1993) hypothesizes that consumer-based brand equity arises from the consumer’s biased behavior toward brands based on brand awareness and perceptual beliefs about a brand’s attributes and benefits. It also includes the consumer’s overall evaluation of or attitude toward the brand. Favorable, strong, and unique brand associations result in a positive brand image in the consumer’s brand knowledge memory, which in turn lead to a favorable disposition toward a brand (i.e., consumer-based brand equity). Keller and Lehmann (2005) report that customer-level brand equity models such as those proposed by Aaker (1991) and Keller (1993), and other hierarchy-of-effects models throughout the years (after AIDA), have been researched at five levels:  awareness (ranging from recognition to recall);  association (encompassing tangible and intangible product or service considerations),  attitude (ranging from acceptability to attraction);  attachment (ranging from loyalty to addiction); and  activity (including purchase and consumption frequency as well as involvement with the marketing program, other consumers, or the company). References to these models generate substantial empirical research. The advertising agency Young and Rubicam’s brand asset valuator (BAV) is a well-known commercial version of CBBE theory. Considered the world’s largest database of consumer-derived information on brands (Keller, 2003), research began in 1993 and has been carried out since in 40 countries, interviewing over 300,000 consumers concerning their usage of and attitudes toward approximately 19,000 brands. The research is based on a detailed consumer questionnaire, which elicits responses across a set of 56 parameters. This allows for comparative measures of the equity value of brands across hundreds of different categories (Haigh, 1997). There are four key components, or measures, of a brand’s health:  Differentiation: The degree to which consumers perceive a brand as being different or distinctive from other brands.  Relevance: The overall breadth of a brand’s appeal and perceived relevance to consumers.

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 Esteem: The degree to which a brand is regarded, respected and liked.  Knowledge: A measure of how familiar and intimate consumers are with the brand (Young and Rubicam Brands r2004).

Young and Rubicam suggest that brands progress and develop sequentially along these four dimensions. After identifying where a brand sits on each continuum, strategies can be planned to enhance the brand’s development. Scores for differentiation and relevance are combined to determine brand strength – a measure of a brand’s future value. Scores for esteem and knowledge combine together to indicate brand stature – a measure of a brand’s past performance. From these measures Young and Rubicam have developed a Power Grid – a matrix that charts brand strength against brand stature. The grid can be used to identify new brands, niche brands, leader brands, and declining brands. Keller (2003, p. 517) suggests that the main advantage of the BAV model is that it provides rich descriptions and profiles of numerous brands, thus providing: ‘‘A brand landscape in which marketers can see where their brands are located relative to other prominent brands, or with respect to different markets.’’ The BAV is what Baker, Nancarrow, and Tinson (2005) call a share-ofmind concept. Researchers use various measures of brand strength to calculate knowledge about a brand. If a brand is liked, it may be included in a consumer’s brand-set and become a regular purchase. If not, it may be rejected from future purchase considerations. Baker et al. (2005) suggest that a brand’s share of mind should be compared with its share of behavior or market share. This will provide a measure of brand equity. The brand may possess an equity surplus, an equity deficit or parity. Baker et al. (2005) recommend that research be undertaken to identify key attributes of each brand and the key equity drivers relevant to those attributes. This diagnosis may prescribe repositioning the brand, improving aspects of the marketing mix or brand extension. Fundamental to the diagnosis is an examination of the brand’s image, what drives purchase, and consumers’ future intentions. Baker et al.’s relatively simplistic conceptualization of brand equity belies a relatively complex diagnostic process, but nonetheless has pragmatic appeal for practitioners. In 2001 Keller and Davey published a revised CBBE model they called the CBBE pyramid. The model is discussed in greater detail in Keller’s 2003 study, Strategic Brand Management: Building, Measuring and Managing Brand Equity (second edition), and is a primary model used in this research.

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The model follows a similar sequential logic to Keller’s 1993 model but updates core concepts to reflect the development of academic and industry thinking about branding that had occurred in the intervening years. Keller and Davey (2001) affirm that the basic premise of their model, consistent with Keller’s earlier 1993 model, is that the power of a brand is what resides in the minds of customers. The model proposes a sequential series of steps necessary for the creation of this brand knowledge. The challenge for marketers is to create positive brand knowledge in the minds of consumers. That is, what customers learn, feel, see, hear, and experience in their interaction with a brand need to create positive images, beliefs, perceptions, opinions, and attitudes that become linked to the brand in the consumer’s memory. Keller and Davey (2001) pose four fundamental questions that customers invariably ask about brands:    

Who are you? (Brand identity) What are you? (Brand meaning) What do I think or feel about you? (Brand responses) What about you and me? (Brand relationships).

They suggest that in order to build strong brand relationships marketers need to sequentially establish six brand-building blocks with customers:  Create brand salience; deep and broad brand awareness, with customers. The brand is easily recognized and recalled; readily evoked under a variety of situations and circumstances. The brand is at top of mind at the right time and place in possible usage situations.  Give the brand meaning to customers; firstly in terms of functional, performance-related considerations. The product or service must perform to the extent that it fully satisfies consumer needs and wants. This is at the heart of brand equity and is a prerequisite for creating brand loyalty and resonance. Consumer experiences with the product or service need to meet or exceed their expectations.  Give the brand meaning to customers; secondly in terms of brand imagery. This involves meeting customers’ more abstract psychological or social needs. Keller and Davey (2001) identify four categories of brand imagery that can each be profiled according to their strength, favorability, and uniqueness. – User profiles: A customer’s mental image of users or idealized users. – Purchase and usage situations: Associations relating to when or where the brand is used.

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– Brand personality and values. – History and experiences that customers have had with the brand.  Consumer responses to the brand can stem from the head or the heart. Brand judgments stem from the head. They include the consumer’s personal opinions about the brand regarding the brand’s quality, credibility, appropriateness, and superiority over other brands.  Brand feelings stem from heart. These include a customer’s emotional reactions to the brand. How they feel about how the brand is marketed and how the brand makes them feel about themselves and their relationship with others. These feelings may be mild, intense, positive, or negative.  The final step concerns focusing on the relationship and level of personal identification the customer has with the brand. Keller and Davey (2001, p. 6) call this brand resonance. They define it as being: ‘‘The depth of the psychological bond customers have with the brand as well as how much activity this loyalty engenders.’’ Keller and Davey (2001) observe that the strongest brands excel in all six of the brand-building blocks. They suggest that brand resonance reflects a completely harmonious relationship between customers and a brand. With the strongest brands consumers can become so attached that they become, in effect, evangelists for the brand. Section 4 on Methodology includes a discussion on how these building blocks, proposed by Keller and Davey (2001) and Keller (2003), are operationalized relative to the brand image and brand equity constructs under investigation. 2.3.3. Financial-Based Brand Equity Pappu, Quester, and Cooksey (2005) suggest that advantages brand equity brings to a firm include:  high levels of brand equity lead to higher levels of consumer preferences and purchase intentions;  firms with high brand equity have high stock returns; and  high brand equity suggests that a brand is highly differentiated from its competitors (a key competitive positioning strategy according to Porter 1990). The value of a brand as an asset on a balance sheet became a matter of contention and debate as a result of a number of corporate take-over-battles and brand acquisitions in the 1980s (Murphy, 1990). For example, Nestle´’s

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battle with Jacob’s Suchard for control of Rowntree saw Nestle´ pay some eight times the value of the tangible net assets of Rowntree. This made investors and analysts aware of the fact that companies with strong brands owned assets that were relatively unrecognized. As a consequence, a number of major companies decided to include brand values in their balance sheets – and controversy has raged ever since. Murphy (1990) suggests that the debate is not about brands per se, but the role of accounting and what accountants decide about the balance sheet. While this debate has continued, brand valuation has been quietly applied in a number different areas:    

in mergers and acquisitions; in brand licensing; in fund raising (brands used as collateral on loans); and for brand management purposes.

However, debate occurs concerning the possible ways to value brands. In 1988 Interbrand conducted the first whole portfolio valuation of the United Kingdom food group, Rank Hovis McDougall. This included not only brands that had been acquired but also brands that had been created by the company itself (Blackett, 1996). The method used by RHM and Interbrand to value a brand was to apply an earning multiple to the brand’s profitability. RHM used a 3-year weighted average post tax profit figure to compute brand profitability. The earning multiple was derived from an in-depth assessment of brand strength. Brand strength is a composite of seven weighted factors (Eagle & Kitchen, 2000; Morgan, 1993; Murphy, 1990). Haigh (1997) acknowledges that no simple measure of brand equity exists, and major companies are using a whole range of econometric models and measures of brand performance that can be tracked over time. Eagle and Kitchen (2000, p. 95) observe, citing Haigh (1997), that it is critical to disclose what assumptions underlie such brand valuations, in order to assess the margin of error. They also note that: ‘‘The complex and interrelated issues of relationships between individual brands and corporate brands and how marketing communications impacts on either are not robustly tackled.’’ Eagle and Kitchen (2000) suggest that more suitable measurement devices are required. Saunders (1990, p. 110) is more cynical and concludes: ‘‘At one level the valuation of brands could be seen as a harmless activity which, since it adds one more piece of fiction to already fictitious balance sheets, is of little consequence to anyone.’’

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Haigh (2003) is quite positive. Brand valuations based on creation cost estimates or recreation cost estimates are still just estimates. Haigh (2003, p. 25) observes: ‘‘Brands are valuable because they are unique. By their very nature they are not comparable or replicable.’’ There are few comparable market-transactions and the assumption that brands are identical is never the case. Haigh (2003) suggests that the economic use model of brand valuation is now the primary approach. This model considers the return the owner actually achieves by owning the brand – now and in the future. The process identifies market demand, and the competitive framework in which a brand operates. The economic value the brand adds to the business is estimated and forecast along with the security of future brand earnings. The fair valuation of brands is an important issue in today’s business environment and the complexities of brand valuation cannot be ignored. The cost of building a new brand can run to hundreds of millions of dollars, so buying an existing brand can sometimes make sound economic sense. In either regard the valuation of brand equity is now an essential part of establishing accountability for investments in brand building. Faircloth et al. (2001, p. 61) suggest that: ‘‘Although brand equity has been proposed as a financial instrument for capturing and measuring the value of brands, perhaps its most important contribution is as a metric for discovering the differential consumer behavior effect of the firm’s marketing mix activities.’’

2.3.4. Brand Metrics One of the shortcomings in the brand equity literature identified by Faircloth et al. (2001, p. 63) is the variety of theoretical and empirical bases for operationalizing the construct. They cite a study by Yoo, Donthu, and Lee (2000) reports a positive effect of brand associations (brand image) and brand awareness on brand equity, but observe that: Yoo et al.’s (2000) ‘‘Measurements are broader overall image and awareness indicators and not the individual brand associations experimentally manipulated here.’’ Yoo et al. (2000) make a similar observation themselves, after stating their intention to develop a multidimensional measure of consumer-based brand equity based on Aaker’s (1991, 1996) multidimensional concept. They investigate the relational link between marketing mix activities and brand equity through the mediating role of three brand equity dimensions; perceived quality, brand loyalty, and brand awareness/associations. In their conclusion, Yoo et al. (2000, p. 207) report that: ‘‘The variables of this study are too broad to provided tips for detailed marketing practices.’’

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Subsequently, Yoo and Donthu (2001) were the first to develop a multidimensional scale for consumer-based brand equity and test its psychometric properties. This scale is validated by Washburn and Plank (2002). It is based on a three-dimensional model of brand equity, following their 2000 research. Their ten-item scale comprises three brand loyalty items, two perceived quality items and five brand awareness/associations items. Pappu et al. (2005) suggest a number of shortcomings in the Yoo and Donthu (2001) scale:  Yoo and Donthu observe only three dimensions for consumer-based brand equity.  There is a need to refine the dimensionality of consumer-based brand equity that is the distinction between the dimensions of brand awareness and brand associations (Washburn and Plank, 2002).  The items in Yoo and Donthu’s (2001) scale do not include brand personality measures (a future research direction advocated by Yoo and Donthu, 2001).  The research of Yoo and Donthu (2001) and also Washburn and Plank (2002) are based on student-only samples; there is a need to include nonstudents in future research to validate the Yoo and Donthu (2001) scale. Pappu et al. (2005) endeavor to address these issues in their research. They examine four dimensions of consumer-based brand equity:    

brand awareness; brand associations (brand personality); perceived quality; and brand loyalty.

Their results confirm the contention that consumer-based brand equity is a four-dimensional construct (Aaker, 1991; Keller, 1993). They report that the inclusion of brand personality measures into the consumer-based brand equity scales enriches the process. Although Pappu et al.’s (2005) sample consists of actual (nonstudent) Australian consumers, it is a mall-intercept sample that limits their ability to fully generalize the findings to other studies. 2.3.5. Conclusion There is a measure of empirical evidence that supports the view that consumer-based brand equity is a multidimensional construct (Aaker, 1991; Keller, 1993). The few attempts to measure the concept by scale development all suffer some limitations in validity. Research suggests that

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there is, however, no independent study published to date, testing Keller’s (2003) CBBE pyramid.

3. CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK 3.1. Problem Definition This study examines the relationship between brand image and brand equity in a sports sponsorship context. The research will examine how the New Zealand All Blacks’ performance in the 2003 RWC impacted the team’s brand image and, in turn, the brand image and brand equity of its major sponsor and co-branding partner, adidas. First, the association (co-branding) of the sponsor’s brand (adidas) with the sponsored property’s brand (All Blacks) is examined to learn whether changes in the brand image of the sponsored property affected the brand image of the sponsor. Secondly, the research tests the correlation between changes in adidas’ brand image and adidas’ brand equity as a result of the All Blacks’ performance in the RWC. The preceding literature review identifies the reasons why corporations have sponsored sports properties since the 1980s; to gain awareness for the sponsor’s brand and to enhance the sponsor’s brand image by association with the sponsored property. The resulting image transfer is said to result in an increase of goodwill toward the sponsor by fans and other consumers. Whether these increases in goodwill toward the sponsor’s brand increases purchase intentions (brand equity) regarding the sponsor’s products is unclear. Research findings to date have been ambiguous and inconclusive. It is anticipated that results from this research will shed some light on this issue.

3.2. Conceptual Model From the preceding literature review, several conceptual models have emerged that are relevant to this study: Biel’s (1992) brand image/brand equity model; Keller’s (1993) CBBE brand knowledge model – that inspires Faircloth et al.’s (2001) brand equity model – and precedes Keller’s (2003) CBBE pyramid. In each of these models brand image is antecedent to brand equity. Brand image is the independent variable and brand equity is the dependent variable.

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An independent variable is one that influences the dependent variable in either a positive or a negative way (Sekaran, 1992). The research process manipulates the independent variable to establish whether or not there is a correlation between variances in the independent variable and variances in the dependent variable. Does one influence the other? In this research, the independent variable is, in the first instance, the All Blacks’ brand image. The dependent variable is, in the first instance, adidas’ brand image. (This is where adidas is the sponsor and the All Blacks are the sponsored property.) In the second instance, adidas’ brand image is the independent variable and adidas’ brand equity is the dependent variable. This research measures variations in the All Blacks’ brand image before and after the RWC and measures variations in adidas’ brand image and brand equity before and after the RWC. The research examines if any correlations exist. According to views that Aaker (1991), Biel (1992), Faircloth et al. (2001), Keller (1993), and Keller (2003) postulate, positive enhancements to brand image should result in positive enhancements to brand equity. Concepts in Keller’s 1993 and 2003 CBBE models inform the study. Keller’s 2003 CBBE pyramid is a helpful development of his 1993 CBBE brand knowledge model in that it expands concept definitions to accommodate developments in the understanding of branding in the intervening decade. The study uses Keller’s 2003 CBBE pyramid to operationalize brand image and brand equity constructs employed in this research (see Section 4). Faircloth et al.’s (2001, p. 70) research findings modify the understanding of the role played by brand attitude in the creation of enhanced brand equity. Their findings, that positive brand attitudes ‘‘have only an indirect effect on enhanced brand equity’’ and that ‘‘brand image is a better predictor of brand equity than brand attitude,’’ have led to the adoption of their brand image – brand equity model, presented again below, as the primary conceptual model for this research. 3.3. Research Questions The aim of this research is to gain an insight into how marketing communications; and specifically sponsorship, works. Specifically the research seeks to clarify the relationship between brand image and brand equity. To this end, the research seeks answers to the following questions: Question 1: Does the All Blacks’ brand image change as a result of their performance in the RWC?

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Question 2: Does adidas’ brand image change as a result of the All Blacks’ performance in the RWC? Question 3: Does adidas’ brand equity change as a result of the All Blacks’ performance in the RWC? Question 4: Is there any correlation between changes in adidas’ brand image and adidas’ brand equity as a result of the All Blacks’ performance in the RWC? 3.4. Research Hypotheses 3.4.1. Hypothesis 1 H1. The All Blacks’ brand image changes as a result of their performance in the RWC. This hypothesis addresses the research question: ‘‘Does the All Blacks’ brand image change as a result of their performance in the RWC?’’ The All Blacks’ brand image is the independent variable that likely influences the dependent variable, adidas’ brand image. The research anticipates that whether or not the team is successful in winning the RWC in 2003 will enhance or diminish the All Black’s brand image. The relevant survey question is B3. The question utilizes a categorical scale; therefore nonparametric statistical procedures are appropriate. 3.4.2. Hypothesis 2 H2. adidas’ brand image changes as a result of the All Blacks’ performance in the RWC. This hypothesis addresses the research question: ‘‘Does adidas’ brand image change as a result of the All Blacks’ performance in the RWC?’’ In this hypothesis adidas’ brand image is the dependent variable. Because of the co-branding relationship adidas has with the All Blacks it is likely that adidas’ brand image will be enhanced or diminished in tandem with the All Blacks’ brand image (Gwinner, 1997), which, in turn, will be influenced by the team’s success in the 2003 RWC tournament. The relevant survey questions are D1 and E1. The scales used are interval, Likert-type scales; the focus is on one variable so univariate data analysis is appropriate; parametric statistical procedures are used; the appropriate statistical test is an independent samples t-test. This evaluates any differences between the means for the variable before and after the RWC.

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3.4.3. Hypothesis 3 H3. adidas’ brand equity hanges as a result of the All Blacks’ performance in the RWC. This hypothesis addresses the research question: ‘‘Does adidas’ brand equity change as a result of the All Blacks’ performance in the RWC?’’ In this hypothesis adidas’ brand equity is the dependent variable. Aaker (1991), Biel (1992), Faircloth et al. (2001), and Keller (1993, 2003) postulate that brand image is a prime determinant of brand equity. Therefore, if the All Blacks’ performance enhances adidas’ brand image in the RWC then the All Black’s performance also enhances adidas’ brand equity. The contrary will also be the case. If adidas’ brand image diminishes so will its brand equity. The relevant survey question is F1. The scales used are interval, Likerttype scales; the focus is on one variable so univariate data analysis is appropriate; parametric statistical procedures are used. The appropriate statistical test is an independent samples t-test. This evaluates any differences between the means for the adidas brand equity variable before and after the RWC.

3.4.4. Hypothesis 4 H4. A correlation exists between changes in adidas’ brand image and adidas’ brand equity as a result of the All Blacks’ performance in the RWC. This hypothesis addresses the research question, ‘‘Is there any correlation between changes in adidas’ brand image and adidas’ brand equity as a result of the All Blacks’ performance in the RWC?’’ The theories of Aaker (1991), Biel (1992), Faircloth et al. (2001), and Keller (1993, 2003) suggest a correlation in any changes in the two variables after the RWC. This is because brand equity is postulated as the dependant variable and brand image as the independent variable. The relevant survey questions are D1, E1, and F1. The scales used are interval, Likert-type scales; there are two variables so bivariate data analysis is appropriate; parametric statistical procedures are used; the appropriate statistical test is a bivariate correlation analysis. This evaluates changes to the means of both variables after the RWC.

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4. METHOD 4.1. Research Design Data were collected for this correlation study from two telephone surveys. The first survey was conducted in September 2003, prior to the RWC, and the second survey was conducted in December 2003, immediately following the RWC. A quantitative correlation study was adopted for this research due to the high level of qualitative research and academic opinion already extant in the field. Telephone surveys were conducted due to the necessity to collect consistent attitude data within the shortest period of time. In essence, this was a longitudinal study; however, due to random sampling requirements ensuring that each person participating in the original survey also participated in the second survey was impossible. The following sections describe the method of the study.

4.2. Sample Design 4.2.1. Target Population Definition New Zealanders are passionate about their sports, and the sport that evokes their greatest passion is rugby. The national collective psyche is said to rise or fall on the basis of the success of the national team the All Blacks (Hope, 2002). The RWC is arguably the most important activity in the New Zealand calendar of events. Very few New Zealanders are unaware or disinterested in the outcome of this event. If involvement is a necessary antecedent for cognitive processing and growth in brand equity (Petty & Cacioppo, 1980; Vaughn, 1980) then New Zealanders are a most engaged population. The population of interest for this study includes all members of the New Zealand public over the age of 18 who have some interest in rugby. The age criteria is based on the arbitrary assumption that those aged over 18 have sufficient discretionary spending power to be prospective purchasers of adidas products. A sample of the population is drawn from Auckland, New Zealand’s largest metropolitan area (1.4 million people). Auckland represents approximately 33% of New Zealand’s population, is demographically similar to the rest of New Zealand, and is therefore representative of the New Zealand population at large.

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4.2.2. The Sampling Frame Random telephone numbers were selected from the Telecom Auckland Telephone Directory. A two-stage process is used. The first sample of 200 respondents was compiled in September 2003, prior to the commencement of the RWC, and a second independent sample was compiled in December 2003, after the completion of the RWC. In each case, respondents were screened to eliminate individuals who were under 18 years of age or who were unaware that the RWC competition was being held at that time. 4.2.3. Sampling Procedure Two independent samples of 200 respondents each were generated. These samples were probability samples based on simple random sampling procedures. Every sixth name in the White Pages was telephoned. There was, on average, a 1:12 response rate. Calls continued to be made until the quota of 200 respondents per sample was completed. Each person in the sampling frame had the same or equal probability of being chosen. According to Sekaran (1992) this sampling design has the least bias and offers the most generalizability. 4.2.4. Sample Size The size of each sample in this research was constrained by the costs and time involved in data collection. Nevertheless, as mentioned above independent samples of 200 respondents each were generated before and after the RWC. Were these samples sufficient in size to make reasonably precise generalizations with an acceptable level of confidence? Sekaran (1992) suggests that a 95% level of confidence is an acceptable level for most business research. This is most commonly expressed as 0.05 level of significance. Zikmund (1997) advises that a significance level below 0.05 is too low to warrant support of a null hypothesis. This research requires at least 0.05 level of significance. Sekaran (1992, p. 245) asserts that: ‘‘Precision refers to how close our estimate is to the true population characteristic.’’ The smaller the variations in the population, the smaller the sample size needed; the greater the precision required, the larger the sample size needed. Sekaran (1992, p. 253) cites Roscoe (1975) who proposes that as a rule of thumb for influencing sample size: ‘‘Sample sizes larger than 30 and less than 500 are appropriate for most research.’’ In summary, the samples in this research are considered to be sufficient in size to represent and generalize to the research population with an acceptable level of confidence.

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4.3. Questionnaire Design 4.3.1. Computer-Assisted Telephone Interviewing (CATI) The questionnaire was designed to be administered over the phone with interviewers seated at a computer terminal. Answers from respondents were entered directly into the computer and captured in an SPSS file for analysis. The questionnaire therefore became the script for the telephone interview. 4.3.2. Questions Included for Adidas and the NZRU The questionnaire included a number of questions relating to topics of special interest to adidas and the New Zealand Rugby Union (NZRU). These questions were designed to determine the respondent’s  rugby passion,  depth of understanding of adidas’ sponsorship of the All Blacks, and their attitude toward that sponsorship. A range of demographic questions were also included to enable the construction of respondent profiles. The tabulated responses to all questions were supplied to adidas. This action was in appreciation for the company’s significant financial support that enabled the completion of the fieldwork for this research. This paper discusses most of these questions. 4.3.3. Ethical Issues The research project was submitted for approval to both the RMIT University Human Research Ethics Committee and the Auckland University of Technology Ethics Committee prior to commencement of fieldwork. Both committees gave their approval for the research to proceed. The Statement by Researcher is included in the questionnaire to ensure that each respondent’s participation in the research is strictly voluntary and to assure respondents that all information supplied by them will remain confidential and that their privacy will be protected at all times. This statement meets the legal requirements of the New Zealand Privacy Act 1993. 4.3.4. Structure of the Questionnaire The questionnaire has eight sections. Following Sekaran (1992), the sequence of questions progresses from questions of a more general nature to those of a more specific nature, with sensitive demographic data such as age, education, occupation, and income at the end of the questionnaire. This

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funnel approach helps to smooth the progress of respondents through the questionnaire. The questions of significance to this research (apart from the initial screening questions) are B3, D1, E1, and F1. Question B3 is a measure of All Blacks’ brand image, questions D1 and E1 are measures of adidas brand image and question F1 is a measure of adidas brand equity. 4.3.5. Section Three: All Blacks’ Brand Image (B3) Question B3 asks respondents to rate the All Blacks on a categorical scale of perceived performance: 1. 2. 3. 4.

the best rugby team in the world; one of the top three rugby teams in the world; one of the best rugby teams in the world; and a very good rugby team.

This scale is considered a simple, straightforward measure of the All Blacks’ brand image, given the fact that the All Blacks’ brand image is built on the team’s impressive win rate; they have won 73% of their games over more than 100 years. Question B3, also offers Stage Two (post-RWC) respondents the option of an objective, realistic ranking of the All Blacks as a result of the team’s performance in the 2003 RWC. At the end of the competition, the team’s world ranking will be an objective fact; the best rugby team in the world if they win; something less if they do not win. Question B3, then, serves as a simple measure of the All Blacks’ brand image. Responses to the remaining questions in Section Three are not discussed in this study. 4.3.6. Section Four: adidas’ Brand Salience (C1–C2) Although this data is of interest to adidas it is not discussed in this study. 4.3.7. Section Five: adidas’ Brand Performance (D1) Question D1 is the second question (after B3) focused on in this research. The question seeks to operationalize Keller’s (2003) construct brand performance utilizing a five-item, five-point Likert-type scale. Statements relate to the functional performance of adidas products, and are drawn from Keller’s (2003) list of Possible Measures of Brand-Building Blocks. Brand performance is a fundamental measure of brand meaning according to Keller; along with brand imagery (Keller 2003). The construct

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relates to assessments of quality in the way the brand meets customers’ utilitarian, esthetic and economic needs and wants. For example, brand associations relating to reliability, durability, style, design, and price. The construct is effectively a subset of brand image. 4.3.8. Section Six: Adidas’ Brand Imagery (E1) Following section five, question E1 is a measure of adidas’ brand image, drawn from Keller’s (2003) list of Possible Measures of Brand-Building Blocks. Brand image is an eleven-item, five-point Likert-type scale. 4.3.9. Section Seven: Adidas Brand Resonance/Equity (F1) This question is a ten-item, five-point Likert-type scale based on Keller’s (2003) questions relating to brand resonance/equity. A number of statements go beyond purchase intention statements (a common measure of brand equity) and measure respondents’ willingness to pay a price premium as well as their attitudinal attachment to the brand. The last three statements are not in fact brand equity statements but are measures of brand disloyalty included in the survey as a counterweight to previous measures of brand resonance; in essence, testing the Null hypothesis. 4.3.10. Section Eight: Demographics (G1–G6) This paper does not discuss data from this section.

4.4. Pretesting of the Questionnaire Before the first survey took place the questionnaire was tested on a small number of prospective respondents to identify and eliminate potential problems. Respondents were drawn from the target population, marketing academics, and industry professionals. The questionnaire was tested for question content (the appropriate choice of words, the removal of ambiguous questions, loaded questions, or double-barrelled questions), the sequence of questions, the form and layout of questions, and for any difficulties in comprehension or understanding of questions. Finally, the questionnaire was pretested (by the Auckland-based telemarketing company, Startel Communications) to ensure that it could be answered in approximately 15 min. This was important for budgetary and ethical reasons.

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4.5. Scales and Measurements As has been mentioned, not all questions asked of respondents are used in the final data analysis of this study. Only questions B3, D1, E1, and F1 are used. Each of these questions is designed to measure a key variable in this research and to provide answers to the research questions. Question B3 seeks to measure the All Blacks’ brand image. This is a categorical scale based on perceived performance. Question D1 seeks to measure adidas’ brand performance (a subset of adidas’ brand image). The question is a five-item, five-point Likert-type scale; an equal interval scale. Question E1 seeks to measure adidas’ brand image. The question is an eleven-item, five-point Likert-type scale; an equal interval scale. (This scale is used in association with question D1). Question F1 seeks to measure adidas’ brand equity. It is a ten-item, five-point Likert-type scale; an equal interval scale. Variables need measurement in order to test hypotheses. This research postulates four hypotheses.

4.6. Reliability and Validity In order to establish the goodness of measures used in this research, reliability and validity tests are conducted (Sekaran, 1992). 4.6.1. Reliability Malhotra, Hall, Shaw, and Oppenheim, (2002, p. 309) define reliability as: ‘‘The extent to which a scale produces consistent results if repeated measures are made.’’ The reliability of the scales measuring adidas’ brand image and brand equity constructs are established by an internal consistency of measures, indicating the homogeneity of the measurement items. According to Malhotra et al. (2002, p. 310), a standard measure of interitem consistency reliability is the Cronbach’s coefficient a: ‘‘The average of all possible split-half coefficients.’’ Cronbach’s a for adidas’ brand performance (question D1) is 0.817; for adidas’ brand imagery (question E1) it is 0.767, and for adidas’ brand equity (question F1) it is 0.848. These results indicate that statements used to measure brand image/performance and brand equity have acceptable internal consistency and reliability.

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4.6.2. Validity Malhotra et al. (2002, p. 311) define the validity of a scale as: ‘‘The extent to which differences in observed scale scores reflect the differences among objects on the characteristic being measured, rather than systematic or random error.’’ According to Sekaran (1992) researchers can group validity tests under three broad headings: content validity, criterion-related validity, and construct validity. Content validity is a subjective evaluation by experts of how well a scale adequately represents the measurement of the construct under review. In this research common sense measures determined the construction of the All Blacks’ brand image categorical scale. The three relevant equal interval scales measuring adidas’ brand image and brand equity are Likert-type scales based on Keller’s (2003) set of Possible Measures of Brand-Building Blocks. These scales were created in consultation with Market Research and Sports Marketing professionals. A more formal evaluation is criterion-related validity defined by Sekaran, (1992, p. 172) as: ‘‘When the measure differentiates individuals on a criterion it is expected to predict.’’ This form of evaluation is not undertaken in regard to this research due to a lack of any appropriate measures being discovered in the literature review (Section 2). Malhotra et al. (2002, p. 312) suggest that construct validity: ‘‘Requires a sound theory of the nature of the construct being measured and how it relates to other constructs.’’ A thorough literature review (Section 2) seeks to review the development of the brand image and brand equity constructs. Major theorists are discussed and critiqued. Keller’s 2003 CBBE model is used as the basis for research scales and hypotheses. Five statements are used to measure adidas’ brand performance. As has been mentioned brand performance gives the brand meaning to customers in terms of functional performance and is a fundamental component of the brand image construct. If a brand does not perform to the extent that it fully satisfies customer needs and wants then it will fail. Brand performance is a prerequisite for brand loyalty and brand resonance or equity (Keller, 2003). All five statements in the questionnaire are based on questions from Keller’s Possible Measures of Brand-Building Blocks and relate to perceptions of adidas’ product attributes. Eleven statements are used to measure adidas’ brand imagery. Keller (2003) defines this construct in terms of a brand meeting customers’ more abstract psychological or social needs. It involves a brand’s personality and values; the history of experiences that customers have had with the brand,

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their perceptions of the users of the brand and when and where the brand might be used. These statements are constructed in part using Keller’s questions but with additional statements based on price, gender, and adidas’ New Zealand-based marketing communications strategy. Ten statements are used to measure adidas’ brand resonance/equity. Keller and Davey (2001) define this construct in terms of the relationships and level of personal identification the customer has with the brand. With the strongest brands there is a completely harmonious relationship between customers and the brand. Consumers become enthusiastic advocates for the brand. Seven of the ten statements are positive statements designed to elicit what degree of loyalty respondents have toward the adidas brand. These seven statements draw strongly on Keller’s Possible Measures of BrandBuilding Blocks. The last three statements are designed to draw agreement from respondents who have no brand loyalty to adidas, whose purchases are primarily price-driven rather than brand-driven.

5. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 5.1. Introduction This section analyzes and discusses the results of the field research undertaken as part of this study. This section provides answers to the four research questions posed (Section 3.3). The section includes evidence in regards to the four research hypotheses (Section 3.4). The section examines the relationship between brand image and brand equity in a sports sponsorship context.

5.2. Hypothesis 1 H1. The All Blacks’ brand image changes as a result of their performance in the RWC. 5.2.1. Introduction H1 concerns perceived changes to the All Blacks’ brand image as a consequence of their success or lack of success in the 2003 RWC Competition. If the All Blacks win the competition they earn the right to be called the ‘‘Best rugby team in the world.’’ The win entitles them to be

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called rugby World Champions for 4 years; until they defend their title at the next RWC. England defeated Australia 20-17 in the 2003 RWC final, with a last minute Jonny Wilkinson drop goal, in extra time. The All Blacks defeated France 40-13 in the play-off for third place – a very disappointing RWC for New Zealand. 5.2.2. Results Before the competition started 10.6% (19/179) of respondents rated the All Blacks as the ‘‘Best rugby team in the world.’’ Surprisingly, given the team’s third place in the competition, and after England had been crowned World Champions, 21% (37/176) of respondents rated the All Blacks as the ‘‘Best rugby team in the world’’ – a significant increase in respondents in this category. Table 1 and Fig. 2 also show that the number of respondents who rated the All Blacks as ‘‘One of the top three rugby teams in the world’’ declined from 79.3% (142/179) in the pre-RWC survey to 40.9% (72/176) in the Table 1.

All Blacks’ Brand Image: How Would you Rate the All Blacks?

Pre- or Post-game

Pre-RWC

Valid

Missing

Frequency

Percent

Best rugby team in the world One of the top three rugby teams in the world One of the best rugby teams in the world A very good rugby team Total Do not know System Total

19 142

10.1 75.5

10.6 79.3

10.6 89.9

16

8.5

8.9

98.9

2 179 8 1 9 188

1.1 95.2 4.3 .5 4.8 100.0

1.1 100.0

100.0

Best rugby team in the world One of the top three rugby teams in the world One of the best rugby teams in the world A very good rugby team Total Do not know

37 72

20.3 39.6

21.0 40.9

21.0 61.9

56

30.8

31.8

93.8

11 176 6 182

6.0 96.7 3.3 100.0

6.3 100.0

100.0

Total Post-RWC

Valid

Missing Total

Valid Cumulative Percent Percent

75

Brand Image, Equity, and Sports Sponsorship How would you rate the All Blacks? 90

79

80

Pre RWC

70

Post RWC

60

%

50

41

40

32

30 20 10

21 11

9 1

0 Best rugby team in the world

One of the top three rugby teams in the world

Fig. 2.

One of the best rugby teams in the world

6

A very good rugby team

All Blacks’ Brand Image.

post-RWC survey. This too is surprising, given the team’s third place in the competition. The objective reality of third place failed to register with significant numbers of respondents. Another significant change in perception amongst respondents, recorded in Table 1 and Fig. 2, is the change in the rating of the All Blacks as ‘‘One of the best rugby teams in the world.’’ This rating increased from 8.9% (16/179) in the pre-RWC survey, to 31.8% (56/176) in the post-RWC survey. Similarly, the number of respondents who rated the All Blacks as ‘‘A very good rugby team’’ increased from 1.1% (2/179) pre-RWC, to 6.3% (11/176) post-RWC. 5.2.3. Discussion Reaction to the failure by the All Blacks to win the RWC manifested itself in a number of unexpected responses in terms of the All Blacks’ brand image. Logic would suggest that by coming third in the competition the team could not then be considered the ‘‘Best rugby team in the world,’’ by definition. Logic would also suggest that the number of respondents rating the team as the ‘‘Best in the world’’ should have been less after the RWC than before the tournament began, because of the objective fact that the team did not win the competition – it gained third place. And yet the number of respondents who rated the All Blacks as the ‘‘Best rugby team in the world’’ increased in this category after the RWC. How can this be explained?

76

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The concept of tribalism in sport (Cova & Cova, 2002; Tapp, 2003) is a relatively new field of interest to academics. Cova and Cova (2002, p. 602) define a tribe as: ‘‘A network of heterogeneous persons – in terms of age, sex, income, etc. – who are linked by a shared passion or emotion.’’ One of the few studies in this field is by Parker and Stuart (1997), entitled The West Ham Syndrome. Parker and Stuart (1997) ask the question: ‘‘Why do football fans, many of whom are highly intelligent people who make rational decisions, stick with a team when they know it is under-performing?’’ They suggest several possible reasons. First, football is a strong bonding device that operates most powerfully between father and son. (The initial selection of a team to support may be made at an early age, with loyalty to the club lasting a lifetime.) This brand loyalty may also be the only unifying subject between workmates or colleagues. Brand loyalty increases, Parker and Stuart (1997) claim, by the uncertainty of the brand’s performance. No two games are the same and no result completely predictable. Manchester United supporters expect their team to win; Manchester City supporters expect their team to lose. Upsets and inconsistency, Parker and Stuart (1997) suggest, are somewhat perversely and paradoxically important factors in maintaining strong brand loyalty. The passionate support and loyalty that can be given to football clubs has been recognized by marketers (such as adidas) and has resulted in the growth of sports sponsorship. Parker and Stuart (1997) observe that sporting brands can command unswerving loyalty in spite of inconsistent performances. Parker and Stuart (1997) suggest that only religion comes close in attracting such loyalty. Certainly New Zealanders’ loyalty to the All Blacks brand displays this unswerving commitment at times, and this fact goes some way to explaining the responses to question B3 after the RWC. In conclusion, the data in Table 1 and Fig. 2 reject the null hypothesis, H1, and accept the alternate hypothesis that ‘‘The All Blacks’ brand image does change as a result of their performance in the RWC.’’ (The limitations of the categorical scale used in question B3 will be discussed later; refer to Section 6.3.3). These changes in perceptions regarding the All Blacks’ brand image after the RWC are unexpectedly positive in regard to the ‘‘Best rugby team in the world’’ category and the concept of tribalism is posited as an explanation for this behavior. 5.3. Hypothesis 2 H2. adidas’ brand image changes as a result of the All Blacks’ performance in the RWC.

Brand Image, Equity, and Sports Sponsorship

77

5.3.1. Introduction H2 addresses the research question: ‘‘Does adidas’ brand image change as a result of the All Blacks’ performance in the RWC?’’ The relevant survey questions are D1 and E1. The questions reflect the view that brand image, as a concept, has two major component parts (Keller, 2003; King & Bullmore, 1974).  Brand performance: The functional attributes of a product or brand. What the product/brand does and how well it is perceived to perform those functions. Hence in this research there are statements (part of a range of holistic perceptions relating to brand image) that relate to product design, product quality, product reliability, product style, and product fit. Ultimately these questions relate to perceptions of the adidas brand in terms of all round product performance.  Brand imagery: These 11 statements represent a range of nonproductrelated attributes that do not directly relate to product performance. They include attributes such as price; user imagery (the type of person who uses adidas products) product availability; brand personality; adidas’ brand advertising, and adidas’ co-branding investment in sponsorship. In the analysis below, brand performance (Tables 2 and 3) and brand imagery (Tables 4–6) are viewed as independent concepts and means within the brand image construct. Later (Tables 9 and 10) they are combined into a single summated scale. 5.3.2. Results The brand performance t-test tables demonstrate a statistically significant difference in mean values (between the pre-RWC and post-RWC sample means), for only one out of the five statements tested; that is the fifth statement: ‘‘adidas products feel good to wear.’’ In other words the null hypothesis (no change to adidas’ brand image) is supported in relation to the first four statements, but not the fifth statement; where the mean declined post-RWC. These results suggest that perceptions remain constant in regard to adidas’ brand performance, throughout the duration of the RWC. The negative change in perception regarding ‘‘adidas products feel good to wear,’’ although significant statistically, is not significant in regard to the overall perception of the adidas brand. The means for all five statements fall around the 4.0 mark, which indicate agreement with the positive brand statements made relevant to adidas brand performance, both before and

Adidas products feel good to wear

Adidas products are stylish

Adidas products are well reliable

Adidas products are well made

Adidas products are well designed

not

not

not

not

not

4.815

1.522

2.129

0.434

0.250

F

0.029

0.218

0.145

0.511

0.617

Sig.

Levene’s Test for Equality of Variances

2.581

2.582

1.169

1.168

1.707

1.707

1.629

1.629

0.374

0.374

t

331.952

335

363.986

364

356.821

359

361.206

363

362.277

366

df

0.010

0.010

0.243

0.244

0.089

0.089

0.104

0.104

0.709

0.709

Sig. (twotailed)

0.202

0.202

0.099

0.099

0.121

0.121

0.111

.111

0.028

0.028

Mean difference

0.078

0.078

0.084

0.084

0.071

0.071

0.068

0.068

0.075

0.075

SE difference

t-test for Equality of Means

0.048

0.048

0.067

0.067

0.018

0.018

0.023

0.023

0.175

0.175

0.356

0.356

0.264

0.265

0.261

0.261

0.246

0.246

0.119

0.119

Upper

95% confidence interval of the difference Lower

Adidas’ Brand Image: Brand Performance Independent Samples Test.

Equal variances assumed Equal variances assumed Equal variances assumed Equal variances assumed Equal variances assumed Equal variances assumed Equal variances assumed Equal variances assumed Equal variances assumed Equal variances assumed

Table 2.

78 DAVID N. BIBBY

79

Brand Image, Equity, and Sports Sponsorship

Adidas’ Brand Image: Brand Performance Descriptive Statistics.

Table 3.

Pre-RWC

Adidas Adidas Adidas Adidas Adidas

products products products products products

are well designed are well made are reliable are stylish feel good to wear

Valid N (listwise)

Post-RWC

N

Mean

SD

N

Mean

SD

188 188 188 186 176

4.01 4.03 4.13 4.04 4.23

0.70 0.65 0.68 0.82 0.72

180 177 173 180 161

4.03 3.92 4.01 3.94 4.03

0.74 0.66 0.67 0.80 0.72

175

154

after the RWC. This can be taken as an ongoing positive perception toward the adidas brand; and a positive outcome for the brand. In Table 4, eleven statements relating to adidas’ brand imagery are tested pre- and post-RWC. The table shows that significant changes occur in perceptions regarding eight of the eleven statements. There is no significant change in means relating to the following three statements:  adidas products are well advertised;  adidas is an important sponsor of rugby; and  adidas is the brand for winners. From Table 6, the means for these statements indicate a general agreement with the statements. Therefore, the lack of significant change in sentiment can be considered a positive outcome for the brand. Significant changes do occur in means relating to the following eight statements:        

adidas adidas adidas adidas adidas adidas adidas adidas

products are worn by people I admire and respect; products cost more; products are the best you can buy; has good products for females; has good products for males; products represent good value for money; products are worn by elite athletes; and products are available at a convenient location for me.

By referring to Table 5 the means for seven of these eight statement all increase post-RWC, reflecting a positive increase in sentiment toward the

Adidas products are worn by people I admire and respect Adidas products cost more Adidas products are the best you can buy Adidas has good products for females Adidas has good products for males Adidas products represent good value for money Adidas products are well advertised Adidas products are worn by elite athletes Adidas products are available at a convenient location for me Adidas is an important sponsor of rugby Adidas is the brand for winners

variances variances variances variances

Equal Equal Equal Equal

assumed not assumed assumed not assumed

assumed not assumed assumed not assumed assumed not assumed 0.071 0.000

3.270 62.338

0.029

variances variances variances variances variances variances

Equal Equal Equal Equal Equal Equal 4.806

0.338

0.922

0.025

0.000

27.937

5.036

0.632

0.230

0.838

0.000

14.966

0.042

0.905

0.014

assumed not assumed assumed not assumed assumed not assumed assumed not assumed assumed not assumed

variances variances variances variances variances variances variances variances variances variances

Equal Equal Equal Equal Equal Equal Equal Equal Equal Equal

270

Sig.

1.219

F

Levene’s Test for Equality of Variances

0.729 0.728 1.462 1.490

1.077 1.075 7.565 7.558 2.712 2.711

3.016 3.005 2.049 2.044 3.778 3.769 3.921 3.965 2.749 2.738

3.970 3.971

t

351 347.126 331 382.713

366 354.670 357 354.245 358 356.831

357 342.752 364 343.667 317 310.512 348 345.746 359 345.594

353 349.742

df

0.466 0.467 0.145 0.137

0.282 0.283 0.000 0.000 0.007 0.007

0.003 0.003 0.041 0.042 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.006 0.007

0.000 0.000

Sig. (twotailed)

0.063 0.063 0.156 0.156

0.081 0.081 0.601 0.601 0.206 0.206

0.252 0.252 0.192 0.192 0.311 0.311 0.276 0.276 0.236 0.236

0.448 0.448

Mean difference

0.086 0.086 0.107 0.105

0.076 0.076 0.079 0.080 0.076 0.076

0.084 0.084 0.094 0.094 0.082 0.082 0.071 0.070 0.086 0.086

0.113 0.113

SE difference

t-test for Equality of Means

Adidas’ Brand Image: Brand Performance Independent Samples Test.

Equal variances assumed Equal variances not assumed

Table 4.

0.107 0.107 0.366 0.362

0.067 0.068 0.757 0.757 0.057 0.057

0.416 0.417 0.376 0.376 0.473 0.473 0.415 0.414 0.404 0.405

0.669 0.669

0.233 0.233 0.054 0.050

0.230 0.230 0.445 0.445 0.356 0.356

0.088 0.087 0.008 0.007 0.149 0.149 0.138 0.139 0.067 0.066

0.226 0.226

95% confidence interval of the difference Lower Upper

80 DAVID N. BIBBY

81

Brand Image, Equity, and Sports Sponsorship

Table 5.

Adidas’ Brand Image: Brand Imagery Descriptive Statistics. Pre-RWC

Post-RWC

N

Mean

SD

N

Mean

SD

Adidas products are worn by people I admire and respect Adidas products cost more Adidas products are the best you can buy Adidas has good products for females Adidas has good products for males Adidas products represent good value for money Adidas products are worn by elite athletes Adidas products are available at a convenient location for me

178

3.24

1.12

177

3.68

1.01

184 185 163 185 186 184 185

3.57 2.92 3.50 3.68 3.48 3.46 4.29

0.73 0.79 0.70 0.72 0.76 0.74 0.72

175 181 156 165 175 175 175

3.82 3.12 3.81 3.96 3.71 4.06 4.08

0.85 0.99 0.77 0.59 0.87 0.77 0.72

Valid N (listwise)

151

Table 6.

132

Adidas’ Brand Image: Brand Imagery Descriptive Statistics. Pre-RWC

Post-RWC

N

Mean

SD

N

Mean

SD

Adidas products are well advertised Adidas is an important sponsor of the rugby Adidas is the brand for winners

187 174 160

4.04 4.05 3.23

0.67 0.84 0.69

181 179 173

3.96 3.99 3.39

0.78 0.78 1.17

Valid N (listwise)

146

171

adidas brand and increasing agreement with each statement over the period of the RWC. This finding is viewable as an increase in positive perceptions toward the adidas brand image as a result of adidas brand exposure during the RWC. The eighth statement recording a significant change in mean, (‘‘adidas products are available at a convenient location for me’’) is in fact a negative change (from 4.29 to 4.08), although still a favorable outcome, with respondents agreeing with the statement. A possible explanation for this negative change could be found in an increase in demand for adidas products during the RWC; out-of-stock situations, and the need for consumers to search further afield for the desired product(s).

82

DAVID N. BIBBY

5.3.3. Discussion Overall perceptions of the brand performance component of the brand image construct remain constant throughout the duration of the RWC. These perceptions are of a positive nature. Respondents continue to view adidas’ brand performance in a positive light. In a similar fashion respondents view adidas’ product advertising and sponsorship of New Zealand rugby in an ongoing positive manner and there is an unchanging perception that ‘‘adidas is the brand for winners.’’ This is positive news for adidas. However, the news gets more positive! The changes in the means for seven of the eight brand imagery statements become increasingly positive over the period of the RWC; a consequence of adidas’ brand exposure during that time. Between October 11 and November 15, 2003, the All Blacks played games against Italy, Canada, Tonga, Wales, South Africa, Australia, and France. All of these games received extensive media exposure in New Zealand. In addition, virtually everyday of the year the New Zealand media have stories relating to the All Blacks. Of the pre-RWC sample 99% had heard of the All Blacks and were aware of the brand, and of the post-RWC sample 99% had heard of the team. Unprompted awareness of adidas’ sponsorship of the All Blacks (Question B4), is 44.5% in the pre-RWC sample and 41.5% in the postRWC sample. Awareness of this co-branding relationship is reinforced every time the All Blacks appear in public. The adidas logo always appears in tandem with the All Blacks logo on team uniforms and in all promotion and publicity of the team. The saturation media coverage of the All Blacks during the RWC bought adidas incalculable media exposure in New Zealand and around the world. These results suggest that this increased exposure had a positive effect in terms of the perception of the adidas brand image by New Zealand respondents. This in spite of the disappointing RWC performance by the All Blacks.

5.4. Hypothesis 3 5.4.1. Introduction In the discussion in Section 2 concerning ‘‘How does sponsorship work?’’ the marketing communications literature investigating this question is dominated by cognitive information processing models in the AIDA tradition. These models suggest that consumers move through a series of

Brand Image, Equity, and Sports Sponsorship

83

rational decision-making processes that lead to considered purchase behavior. The efficacy of these cognitive models is challenged by Hoek (1999a) who proposes Ehrenberg’s behaviorist ATR model as an alternative. H3. adidas’ brand equity changes as a result of the All Blacks’ performance in the RWC. The preceding literature review finds that few scholars agree with Hoek (1999a). Walliser (2003) notes that the most important sponsorship objectives have traditionally been to increase a sponsor’s brand awareness and enhance their brand image. This has certainly been the outcome of adidas’ sponsorship of the All Blacks, discussed in Section 5.3, above. This research supports the theoretical perspectives of Aaker (1996), Biel (1992), Gwinner and Eaton (1999), Keller (1993), Keller (2003), and Meenaghan (2001) in that sponsorship can produce a positive image transfer from a sponsee to the sponsor’s brand. The task now is to look at the impact the All Blacks’ performance in the RWC has on adidas’ brand equity. H3 addresses the research question: ‘‘Does adidas’ brand equity change as a result of the All Blacks’ performance in the RWC?’’ The relevant survey question is F1. The relevant t-test Tables 7 and 8 below. 5.4.2. Results The null hypothesis is not supported in relation to any of the ten statements. Adidas’ brand equity does change as a result of the All Blacks’ performance in the RWC. Question F1 contains ten statements that seek to ascertain a respondent’s brand purchase intention in regard to their next purchase of sporting apparel, and their attitude toward purchasing adidas products as part of that buying process. The first seven statements are strong, positive statements regarding purchasing adidas brand products, that might be made by an adidas singlebrand loyal customer. The last three statements could be made by brand switchers, new category users or multibrand loyals (Rossiter & Percy, 1987). These consumers are price-driven rather than brand-driven; they are certainly not single-brand loyal to adidas. With the above discussion in mind, there is a need to examine the means and changes to the means for each statement (Table 8). The mean for the first statement, ‘‘I buy adidas whenever I can,’’ is 2.55 (disagree) pre-RWC, and 2.90 (disagree) post-RWC; that is the mean response both before and after the

I buy Adidas whenever I can My next sports apparel purchase will be Adidas Adidas is my preferred sports apparel brand Adidas is the only sports apparel brand I need Adidas is a brand used by people lime me I am always interested in learning more about Adidas I will pay more if I can buy Adidas When I buy sports apparel the brand is not important to me I would prefer to buy a little known brand of sports apparel if it saved me money I would prefer to wait for a sale before I bought my favorite brand of sports apparel 0.004

8.206

15.385

0.000

0.579

0.006

0.001

10.641

7.707

0.000

21.083

0.000

0.012

6.418

31.208

0.745

0.106

Equal variances assumed Equal variances not assumed

assumed not assumed assumed not assumed

0.000

Sig.

58.464

0.308

variances variances variances variances

Equal Equal Equal Equal

assumed not assumed assumed not assumed assumed not assumed assumed not assumed assumed not assumed assumed not assumed

F

Levene’s Test for Equality of Variances

3.436 3.447

6.305 6.308

7.065 6.980 2.429 2.427

2.907 2.844 4.087 4.120 4.057 4.045 4.537 4.507 4.077 4.069 2.986 2.980

t

367 360.078

367 366.962

360 313.398 366 362.926

355 282.102 329 328.998 363 343.031 363 328.615 351 332.745 356 343.811

df

0.001 0.001

0.000 0.007

0.000 0.000 0.016 0.016

0.004 0.005 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.003 0.003

0.351 0.351

0.633 0.633

0.815 0.815 0.265 0.265

0.352 0.352 0.437 0.437 0.422 0.422 0.448 0.448 0.426 0.426 0.339 0.339

0.102 0.102

0.100 0.100

0.115 0.117 0.109 0.109

0.121 0.124 0.107 0.106 0.104 0.1044 0.099 0.099 0.104 0.105 0.113 0.114

Sig. (twoMean SE tailed) difference difference

t-test for Equality of Means

Adidas’ Brand Equity Independent Samples Test.

Equal variances assumed Equal variances not assumed

variances variances variances variances variances variances variances variances variances variances variances variances

Equal Equal Equal Equal Equal Equal Equal Equal Equal Equal Equal Equal

Table 7.

0.552 0.551

0.831 0.830

1.042 1.045 0.480 0.480

0.589 0.595 0.647 0.646 0.626 0.627 0.642 0.644 0.631 0.632 0.562 0.562

Lower

0.150 0.151

0.436 0.436

0.588 0.585 0.050 0.050

0.114 0.108 0.227 0.228 0.217 0.217 0.254 0.253 0.220 0.220 0.116 0.115

Upper

95% onfidence interval of the difference

84 DAVID N. BIBBY

85

Brand Image, Equity, and Sports Sponsorship

Table 8.

Adidas’ Brand Equity DESCRIPTIVE Statistics.

I buy Adidas whenever I can My next sports apparel purchase will be Adidas Adidas is my preferred sports apparel brand Adidas is the only sports apparel brand I need Adidas is a brand used by people like me I am always interested in learning more about Adidas I will pay more if I can buy Adidas When I buy sports apparel the brand is not important to me I would prefer to buy a little known brand of sports apparel if it saved me money I would prefer to wait for a sale before I bought my favorite brand of sports apparel Valid N (listwise)

Pre-RWC

Post-RWC

N Mean SD

N Mean SD

188 155 185 187 178 181 188 187 188

2.55 2.43 2.58 2.09 2.84 2.49 1.91 3.00 3.09

0.89 0.91 0.88 0.81 0.87 0.98 0.92 1.02 0.98

169 176 180 178 175 177 174 181 181

2.90 2.87 3.01 2.53 3.27 2.83 2.73 3.27 3.72

1.37 1.03 1.10 1.07 1.08 1.20 1.26 1.08 0.95

188 3.51 1.06 181 3.86 0.89 144

156

RWC is to disagree with the statement. However, after the RWC the mean response moves in a positive direction (from adidas’ point of view) toward a less negative, more neutral position. Close to ‘‘Neither agree nor disagree.’’ The second statement, ‘‘My next sports apparel purchase will be adidas,’’ receives a mean score of 2.43 (disagree) pre-RWC and 2.87 (disagree) postRWC. Again, from adidas’ point of view, this can be seen as a softening of a negative response, becoming less negative, moving towards a neutral response. The same can be said about the third statement, ‘‘adidas is my preferred sports apparel brand.’’ A mean of 2.58 (disagree) pre-RWC, moving to 3.01 (neither agree nor disagree) post-RWC. A more positive response after the RWC. The fourth statement; ‘‘adidas is the only sports apparel brand I need,’’ receives a negative mean score of 2.09 (disagree) pre-RWC, but a somewhat less negative mean of 2.53 (disagree) post-RWC. The fifth statement, ‘‘adidas is a brand used by people like me,’’ receives a negative mean of 2.84 (disagree) pre-RWC but moves to a (neutral) 3.27 mean post-RWC. A positive change for adidas. The sixth statement, ‘‘I am always interested in learning more about adidas,’’ receives a pre-RWC mean score of 2.49 (disagree) and a post-RWC mean score of 2.83 (disagree). Again, a more positive mean after the RWC. Statement seven, ‘‘I will pay more if I can buy adidas,’’ moves from a strongly negative mean of 1.91 (strongly disagree) pre-RWC to a mean of

86

DAVID N. BIBBY

2.73 (disagree) post-RWC, which again follows the trend to less-negative responses post-RWC. In summary, then, the change in mean responses for all seven statements is a positive one in favor of adidas, from somewhat negative responses to less negative or neutral responses. The trend is positive in every case. The last three statements receive mean scores in the 3.0 range (neither agree nor disagree) both pre-RWC and post-RWC, although in each case the means increase. They continue to range in neutral territory throughout the RWC. 5.4.3. Discussion The consistent positive change in means across all ten-brand equity statements, as a result of adidas’ brand exposure during the RWC, reflects a response similar to the maintenance or enhancement of adidas’ brand image during the RWC, as discussed in Section 5.3. This result is consistent with Faircloth et al.’s (2001) conclusions and Fishbein’s Behavioral Intentions model (Fishbein and Ajzen, 1975), cited by Faircloth et al. (2001), where attitude toward advertising is used as an indication of buying intention. 5.5. Hypothesis 4 H4. A substantial correlation exists between changes in adidas’ brand image and adidas’ brand equity as a result of the All Blacks’ performance in the RWC. 5.5.1. Introduction According to Zikmund (1997, p. 627): ‘‘The most popular (statistical) technique that indicates the relationship of one variable to another is simple correlation analysis.’’ Correlation analysis can trace the mutual influence of variables on one another. The strength of a relationship is determined by the correlation coefficient. Correlation does not mean causation. A correlation coefficient indicates both the magnitude and direction of the linear relationship between two variables. In this study, the intention is to discover whether there is a relationship between adidas’ brand image and adidas’ brand equity, as Aaker (1991), Biel (1992), and Keller (1993, 2003) postulate, where adidas’ brand

87

Brand Image, Equity, and Sports Sponsorship

image is the independent variable and adidas’ brand equity is the dependent variable. The research question asks: ‘‘Is there any correlation between changes in adidas’ brand image and adidas’ brand equity as a result of the All Blacks’ performance in the RWC?’’ This study performs bivariate correlation analysis. The relevant survey questions are D1 and E1 (adidas’ brand image) and F1 (adidas’ brand equity). The relevant Tables 9 and 10, below: 5.5.2. Results Meansumimage ¼ mean value of all the items under image, including performance items. Meansumequity ¼ mean value of all the items under equity Pearson correlation coefficients are selected for correlation analysis. In Table 9, changes in the summated scale scores for brand image and brand equity pre-RWC and post-RWC show that the brand image variable is significantly and positively related to the brand equity variable. The strength of significance is 0.591 at the 0.01 (two-tailed level) – a moderately strong positive correlation. These results reject the null hypothesis and are theoretically significant. They suggest a significant relational link between brand image and brand equity. Table 9.

Correlation in Changes in adidas’ Brand Image and adidas’ Brand Equity (Combined Scale). Correlations Meansumimage

Meansumimage Pearson correlation Sig. (two-tailed) N

370

Meansumequity Pearson correlation Sig. (two-tailed) N

0.591 0.000 370

1

 Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (two-tailed).

Meansumequity 0.591 0.000 370 1 370

88

Table 10.

DAVID N. BIBBY

Correlation in Changes in adidas’ Brand Image and adidas’ Brand Equity (pre-RWC and post-RWC). Correlations

Pre- or Post-game Pre-RWC

Meansumimage

Meansumequity

Post-RWC

Meansumimage

Meansumequity

Meansumimage Pearson correlation Sig. (two-tailed) N Pearson correlation Sig. (two-tailed) N Pearson correlation Sig. (two-tailed) N Pearson correlation Sig. (two-tailed) N

1 188 0.430 0.000 188 1 182 0.671 0.000 182

Meansumequity 0.430 0.000 188 1 188 0.671 0.000 182 1 182

 Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (two-tailed).

Table 10 looks at correlations between the summated scales for the two variables, brand image and brand equity, before and after the RWC. The findings show a high correlation after the RWC. In each case correlations are significant at the 0.01 level (two-tailed test). Pre-RWC the correlation is weak but positively significant at 0.43 and post-RWC the positive correlation increases to a relatively strong 0.67. 5.5.3. Discussion These results are significant in that they are consistent with Keller’s (2003) CBBE model in finding a positive correlation between the research variables of brand image and brand equity. They are also consistent with the findings of Faircloth et al. (2001) who demonstrate that brand image is a direct antecedent to brand equity and therefore justifies a marketer’s manipulation of the brand image construct through the marketing mix to enhance brand equity. These results also call into question the decision to ignore the brand image construct by ATR theory advocates (Barnard & Ehrenberg, 1997; Ehrenberg, 1974, 1988; Hoek et al., 1997). This research provides empirical support for the cognitive school of theorists, in the AIDA and hierarchical effects tradition, who postulate that advertising, sponsorship, and other forms of marketing communications do, in fact, have a persuasive effect on consumer purchase behavior.

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6. CONCLUSIONS, LIMITATIONS, AND AREAS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH 6.1. Introduction This study investigates the relationship between two theoretical constructs; brand image and brand equity. The theoretical context for the research is a survey of the literary tradition relating to the question; ‘‘How does advertising work?’’ and the lesser body of research concerning ‘‘How does sponsorship work?’’. The literature review leads to an exploration of the development of contemporary brand theory. Keller (1993, 2003) builds on the brand theory of Aaker (1991), Aaker and Biel, 1993, 1996, 2000) and Biel (1991, 1992) and postulates that consumers respond to marketing communications in a rational, sequential manner that starts with the establishment of brand awareness and leads to the formation of a brand image and brand attitudes in the consumer’s mind. This brand knowledge ultimately affects the consumer’s brand purchase behavior. The relationship between brand image and brand equity (purchase behavior) is therefore of the utmost interest to analysts when seeking to predict consumer purchase behavior. Ehrenberg (1974), in contrast, stipulates that attitudes follow rather than precede purchase behavior. In other words, brand attitude and brand image are not antecedents of brand equity but reinforce repeat purchase behavior subsequent to the initial purchase decision. Although a significant theoretical debate exists between academics representing these opposing schools, there is little empirical research published in support of Keller’s CBBE theory. For that reason Faircloth et al.’s (2001) research, linking the constructs of brand attitude, brand image, and brand equity, is highly significant. This work is a singular piece of independent empirical research that endorses Keller’s theory. Faircloth et al.’s (2001) research remains the most relevant precedent for this research. However, Faircloth et al.’s (2001) research is based on a student-only sample. 6.2. Main Contributions to Knowledge 6.2.1. Empirical Support for Keller’s (2003) Theory The results of this study provide a partial confirmation of the brand equity theory by Keller (1993, 2003). Keller postulates that a positive brand image should enhance brand equity. This study provides empirical evidence

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supporting a positive correlation between changes in brand image and brand equity. This finding is the study’s most significant result. 6.2.2. Scales based on Keller’s (2003) Theory This study operationalizes brand image and brand equity by developing scales based on Keller’s Possible Measures of Brand-Building Blocks. Although these scales are developed independently of scales developed by other researchers of brand equity (Faircloth et al., 2001; Pappu et al., 2005; Yoo et al., 2000; Yoo & Donthu, 2001) they are of acceptable internal consistency and reliability when measured using Chronbach’s a. 6.2.3. Representative Samples Samples are probability samples based on simple random sampling procedures and are therefore representative of the New Zealand population at large. This means that the results can be generalized with a degree of confidence that is not possible if the study uses student-only samples. 6.2.4. An Original Integrated Brand Theory Model The literature review (Section 2) offers an original conceptual framework (Fig. 1) that integrates the competing AIDA and ATR schools of brand theory into a single coherent model. While acknowledging the persuasive power of advertising and sponsorship it also acknowledges the reinforcing and defensive role that marketing communications play in retaining customer brand loyalty, and recognizes the reality that most promotional spend fulfills this function. 6.2.5. Keller’s (2003) CBBE Model Appropriate for IMC Keller’s (2003) CBBE model is appropriate when applied to sponsorship, advertising, or in an IMCs context. The unique differences that distinguish sponsorship from advertising are identified in the literature review (indirect persuasion; the goodwill or halo effect; image transfer) but the review also notes that sponsorship and advertising deliver similar communication effects (brand awareness, brand image, and brand equity). This study confirms the fact that the sum total of adidas’ marketing communications exposure during the RWC 2003 results in enhanced brand image and brand equity for the brand. 6.2.6. Attention Drawn to Tribalism in Sport The study draws attention to a relatively new and undeveloped field of research that is called tribalism (Cova & Cova, 2002). The study posits

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tribalism as a possible explanation for unexpected results relating to changes in perceptions of the All Blacks’ brand image post-RWC. In one of the categories, rating the All Blacks as the ‘‘Best rugby team in the world,’’ answers by respondents defy logic after RWC. An increasing number of respondents hold this view, in spite of the fact that the All Blacks gained third place. Tribalism in sport, as in other fields of consumer behavior, is alive and well and is a worthwhile topic for future research. 6.2.7. The Need to Invest in Image-Based Marketing Communications Following Faircloth et al. (2001), this study provides empirical support for the notion that brand marketers can invest in the manipulation of a brand’s image and thereby enhance brand equity. Marketers should manage brand image, not brand equity. Brand equity increases as a result of enhancing brand image. Investment in image-based marketing is strategically imperative.

6.3. Limitations 6.3.1. Exclusively Focus on Brand Image and Brand Equity The focus of this study is on the exclusive relationship between the brand image and brand equity constructs Keller’s (2003) CBBE model postulates. The study dictates the omission of other important variables and dimensions that are antecedents to CBBE (Faircloth et al., 2001; Pappu et al., 2005; Yoo et al., 2000; Yoo & Donthu, 2001). This study even omits Keller’s (2003) brand feelings and brand judgments constructs from consideration. This omission is due primarily to time and financial constraints but also to the fact that Faircloth et al. (2001) include brand attitude as a focus of their research and that their findings confirm Keller’s (1993) model. Hence, the results of this study offer only partial confirmation of the brand equity theory presented by Keller (1993, 2003). 6.3.2. The Use of Original Scales The scales developed to measure adidas’ brand image and brand equity, although based on Keller’s Possible Measures of Brand Building, are developed independently of previous scales used to measure CBBE. (Faircloth et al., 2001; Yoo & Donthu, 2001). Obvious benefits follow from replicating existent scales, but this opportunity is missed. However, this limitation is characteristic of most research undertaken on brand image and brand equity as there are no universally accepted scales used in practical

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or academic research. As a consequence difficulties occur comparing studies because the constructs are evaluated using different items. 6.3.3. The Limitations of Categorical Scales The scale developed to measure the All Blacks’ brand image (Question B3) is a categorical scale and lacks the utility of an interval scale, particularly given the fact that the study seeks to ascertain variations in respondent attitudes. A Likert-type scale, testing a variety of relevant image statements, would be more helpful, allowing the testing of the correlation between changes in the All Blacks’ brand image and adidas’ brand image pre- and post-RWC. Because of the categorical nature of the All Blacks’ brand image scale this is not possible.

6.4. Directions for Further Research 6.4.1. Replication at Next RWC This research could be replicated (with a few minor modifications) in conjunction with the next RWC. Adidas will continue to be the major sponsor and co-branding partner of the NZRU and the All Blacks at that time. Replicability is a hallmark of scientific research. The extent to which results (of the tests of hypotheses) are repeated and supported again and again in similar circumstances adds confidence to the fact that they are scientific and not supported merely by chance. 6.4.2. Replication at Next RWC Using Keller and Davey’s (2001) Scales This research could be replicated at the next RWC; but on that occasion utilizing metrics that Keller and Davey (2001) develop that the present study does not consider. According to Keller and Davey (2001), a series of analyses provide methodological validation for their CBBE pyramid. They develop an optimal list of items that operationalize and measure the complete brand values pyramid including all six building blocks (resonance, judgments, feelings, performance, imagery, and salience). They develop, test, and refine the metric by conducting ten studies in seven categories for 36 brands with about 10,000 respondents. Their research confirms the CBBE pyramid as a valid structure. Replication of this research using Keller and Davey’s standardized series of metrics would further enhance the validity of the CBBE pyramid.

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6.4.3. The Integration of the ATR Model and the CBBE Model Keller’s (2003) CBBE model does not address the issue of brand reinforcement, identified by Ehrenberg (1974, 1988) as highly significant in the marketing communications process and incorporated as a key element in his ATR model. This reinforcement of consumers’ habitual brand-choice dispositions by repeated brand communication is an important role of most marketing communications. The concept has been afforded recognition in this study’s Conceptual Framework model (Fig. 1) and calls for further investigation. Both Keller and Ehrenberg have valid insights into the nature of marketing communications. The ultimate truth regarding ‘‘how marketing communications works’’ probably lies not with one model or the other, but in a combination of the two.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT The author expresses appreciation to Linda Brennan, Paul Gaskin, Helene Wilkinson, Anca Cretu, Annie Zhang, Russell Harray, and adidas New Zealand Ltd for support and insights in designing, implementing, and completing the work resulting in this paper.

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USING AN ETHNOGRAPHIC APPROACH TO UNDERSTAND THE ADJUSTMENT JOURNEY OF INTERNATIONAL STUDENTS AT A UNIVERSITY IN ENGLAND Lorraine Brown ABSTRACT This paper reports on findings from an ethnographic study of international student adjustment. The paper recommends the use of ethnography as a way to research the experiences of tourists and migrants to build up a body of knowledge on the outcome of cross-cultural contact for these two groups. The aim of my ethnographic study was to capture the adjustment journey of a group of international postgraduate students at a university in the South of England. The ethnographic approach involved regular indepth individual interviews with 13 students of different nationalities and overt participant observation of the entire postgraduate cohort of 150 students. Research began on the first day of induction in September 2003 and ended upon completion and submission of the Masters dissertation in October 2004. Students’ experience of adjustment to academic and sociocultural life was therefore captured from arrival in the new country to the Perspectives on Cross-Cultural, Ethnographic, Brand Image, Storytelling, Unconscious Needs, and Hospitality Guest Research Advances in Culture, Tourism and Hospitality Research, Volume 3, 101–141 Copyright r 2009 by Emerald Group Publishing Limited All rights of reproduction in any form reserved ISSN: 1871-3173/doi:10.1108/S1871-3173(2009)0000003007

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return home one full year later. This study finds that stress was at its height in the initial stage of the academic sojourn; the struggle to cope with the challenges of foreign language use and an unfamiliar academic and the socio-cultural environment at a time when students were beset with homesickness and loneliness are the causes of this stress. An association was made between the passage of time and a gradual decrease in acculturative stress; however, this was not a generalisable process; there was fluctuation not only in experience across the student body but also in the individual’s subjective sense of success across different aspects of life in the new country. This led to the conceptualisation of the adjustment journey as an unpredictable and dynamic process that is experienced differently among sojourners and fluctuates throughout the sojourn as a result of a host of individual, cultural and external factors. The relevance of this study to tourism scholars comes from drawing parallels between the long-stay tourist and the international student who represents an important segment of international travel. However, a gap in the literature exists on the impact of tourism on the tourist that this study helps to fill.

CONDUCTING AN ETHNOGRAPHIC STUDY Ethnography is an interdisciplinary research approach (Bohannan, 1969; Clifford, 1986) that has a strong presence in social and cultural anthropology, sociology and social psychology as well as in applied areas like health and education (Hammersley, 1992). Ethnography relates to anthropology (Spindler, 1982), a term which derives from the Greek and means the study of people (Bohannan, 1969). The goal of anthropology is to describe and explain social behaviour and the perspectives of cultural members, with the ingrained principle of studying behaviour in a natural setting (Brewer, 2000; Fielding, 1993; Spradley, 1979), necessitating close association with participants over a long period (Hammersley, 1992). Field research involves the use of the participant observation technique which is common to ethnography (Fetterman, 1998). Culture is the central organising concept of anthropology (Kroeber & Kluckhohn, 1952; Spradley, 1979). In fact, ethnography, which similarly derives from the Greek, means the writing of culture (Fetterman, 1998). The focus on cultural patterns drew me to the choice of ethnography, as I was interested in the sub-culture students would create during their sojourn, as well as the widely recognised influence of cultural origin on their behaviour

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(Brewer, 2000; Spindler, 1982; Spradley, 1979). I chose an ethnographic approach in order to make an in-depth study of the individual, subjective experience of the move to a new culture at the same time as identifying the common patterns among this cohort of students. The process of adjustment is a journey whose destination is unknown to sojourners at the outset. For this reason, the initial inductive approach of qualitative research was appropriate. Qualitative researchers usually enter the research process uncovering their assumptions and setting them aside; they do not begin with a theory, which they impose on informants, but with curiosity (Brewer, 2000). They may begin fieldwork with a foreshadowed problem in mind, but an essential part of the research task is discovering what is significant: Wilson (1977) describes this as the anthropological research tradition of suspending preconceptions. Similarly, an examination of the changes wrought in tourists by their trip and in migrants by their immersion in a new living and working world of a new culture would also benefit from the openness associated with ethnography. The product of ethnography is a mirror of a group under study, a detailed slice of life (Taylor, 2002). Ethnographers need to present data from the emic (the students’) perspective (Clifford, 1983; Fetterman, 1998; Spradley, 1979), following which they seek to explain behaviour, combining the view of the insider (the emic) with that of the outsider (the etic) to describe the social setting (Fetterman, 1998; Wilcox, 1982). Ethnography relates with a rejection of the principle that the researcher’s view is paramount and advocates that the insider’s view of society is equally if not more valuable than that of the outsider perspective of the researcher (Bourgeois, 2002). Hence, Fetterman (1998) informs researchers to make their ethnography phenomenological, that is, to include the perspective of the ‘‘experiencing person’’ (Becker, 1992). Indeed, the prioritisation of the emic viewpoint means that ethnography may answer the growing call for a research focus on the experiences of consumers of tourism and events. As successive studies by Morgan on a music festival (2006, 2009), a sports tour (2008) and restaurant interactions (Morgan, Watson, & Hemmington, 2008) reveal, destination managers and marketers now need to understand the consumers’ perspective on leisure experiences.

ANTHROPOLOGY AT HOME Relevant to this study is the distinction between anthropology, which entails research in alien cultures, and sociology, which involves studying at home,

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using anthropological approaches such as ethnography (Clifford, 1986). In the latter case, researchers do not need to master an alien tongue and the culture of interest is partially known at the outset of study (van Maanen, 1988). Both types of ethnography are adaptable by researchers into tourism and hospitality who may study international tourists in either the domestic or the receiving country. On the other hand, they may study the tourism impacts on the local population through immersion in the natural setting of the community. In this research, the context of study is the South of England, home to the researcher. Burgess (1984) states that field researchers working in their own culture share familiarity with the society under study. This familiarity is not necessarily an advantage, as a common problem of conducting anthropology at home is ‘making the familiar strange’ (Spindler, 1982). Striving to portray the setting from the perspective of international students was a challenge: as most anthropologists (e.g. Barley, 1983) note, describing the exotic than the familiar is much simpler.

CHOICE OF SETTING AND SAMPLE According to Brewer (2000) all ethnography involve case study research, which focuses on the particular but not necessarily at the expense of the general (Hammersley & Atkinson, 1995). The case in this study is a university setting in a town in the South of England (population 165,370), chosen for its capacity to portray the experience of international students in British higher education (HE): the increasing recruitment of international students into HE makes the results of this study relevant to all those HE institutions (HEI) affected by this growing student population. Hammersley and Atkinson (1995) and Daymon and Holloway (2002) describe a setting as a named context in which phenomena occur that might be studied from any number of angles. Any physical setting can become the basis for research as long as the setting contains people engaging in activity (Spradley, 1980). The research problem and the setting are closely bound together and researchers should not underestimate the role of pragmatic considerations (Hammersley & Atkinson, 1995). As the study’s aim was to explore international student adjustment, the setting for this research was my department’s Graduate School; the department offered direct access to and close involvement with a large group of international students. This context satisfies Spradley’s (1980) recommended criteria in choice of setting: simplicity, accessibility, unobtrusiveness and permissibleness.

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Being my place of work as well as of research increased the possibilities for data collection. I had far better access to data than an outsider would have. Qualitative research denotes an orientation that focuses the study of social life in real, naturally occurring settings (Brewer, 2000; Schatzman & Strauss, 1973; Wilson, 1977). This approach means that participants feel comfortable, and are natural and spontaneous in as far as possible when they are being interviewed or observed; as Derrida (1976) states, the mere presence of a spectator is a violation, and may colour the behaviour of those observed (Fielding, 1993). I was a participant observer, therefore my presence as a study support lecturer was not unsettling to students: I would be present whether engaging in observation or not. Examples of ethnographic research into natural tourism settings are Curtin’s (2006) research into wildlife tourism and Gouthro’s (2008) study of interactions at a heritage site. Ethnographers mostly use purposive sampling, selecting a specific location and informants (Daymon & Holloway, 2002; Williams, 2003). All masters students in the Graduate School were observed over one academic year in a variety of situations, and I had opportunity over the year to interact with most students. For the interviewing aspect of the research, the study aims to find 10 students who would be interviewed several times each over a 12-month period. The sample in qualitative research tends to be small as the focus is on deep exploration (Daymon & Holloway, 2002), although Hammersley (1992, p. 16) argues that doing research that identifies generic features is possible, ‘‘to find the general in the particular; a world in a grain of sand.’’ Given the importance of personality in the subjective experience of life events, including adjustment (Berry, 1994), it is acknowledged that a different sample of interviewees might have produced different findings. Whilst qualitative research does not intend to generalise its findings, this study nevertheless notes a repetition of patterns among participants that hints at some universality of experience.

RATIONALE FOR ETHNOGRAPHIC RESEARCH Williams (2003) argues that judgment is necessary of all research on the basis of its relevance to practical concerns, producing information that has general relevance beyond local circumstances. Indeed, according to Brewer (2000), relevance is the main criterion by which to judge research findings. For ethnographers, a clear rationale for research is necessary. The relevance of my study lies in the observation that the majority if not all British universities, and indeed HEI worldwide, are recruiting increasing numbers

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of international students. International education is a major export industry, with fierce competition among the key markets of the United Kingdom, Canada, New Zealand and Australia (Cushner & Karim, 2004; Ryan & Carroll, 2005). In the UK context, the number of international students soars, and their recruitment by British universities grows steadily (Leonard, Pelletier, & Morley, 2002): statistics (UKCISA, 2009a) show that 15% of the total student population is made up of international students. Income from international students plays an important role in the financial health of the HE sector, representing almost a third of the total fees income for universities and HE colleges in the United Kingdom. The advent of full-cost fees means that most British HEI are dependent on income from international students (Leonard et al., 2002). International students make an important economic contribution to the local community and carry similar impacts on the destination to leisure tourists (Llewellyn-Smith & McCabe, 2008; Ritchie, Cooper, & Carr, 2003). Indeed, the travel by international students is significant; however, Llewellyn-Smith and McCabe (2008) note that this is an under-researched topic. The experience of international students’ adjustment to academic and socio-cultural life in England is an important area of research, as international students are more likely to enjoy a positive experience if there is better understanding of the issues facing them, and if their unique needs arising from cultural dissonance are met (Ward, 2001). Ryan and Carroll (2005) argue that responsible recruitment demands that adequate welfare provision is available to cater for the special needs of international students. A positive experience will result in positive word of mouth, which Goldblatt (2007) describes as the most common factor in purchase decision. The market for international students is increasingly competitive and HEI need to provide an optimum service in order to safeguard their future recruitment (UKCISA, 2009b). An inside view of international students’ adjustment journey will identify those areas of concern for students that HEI need to address.

THE PLACE OF THE LITERATURE IN ETHNOGRAPHIC RESEARCH In ethnography, researchers undertake an initial review of the literature to identify relevant theory and to pinpoint any gaps in the literature: they collect further literature as analysis of primary data proceeds that relates to the themes that emerge (Holloway & Wheeler, 2009). At the outset of

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ethnographic research, the investigator has no clear idea of which literature to consult as the investigator has not collected or analysed data yet. Therefore this paper presents the bulk of the literature review with the main findings so that a dialogue with the literature can take place. The key theories underpinning this study on the adjustment process were: cultural dimensions, culture shock, and adjustment processes. Studies on international students were also relevant, as they identified topic and methodological gaps. The following sections identify the theoretical underpinning to this study, and identify the utility for tourism researchers.

DEFINING CULTURE Understanding culture was important to my study for two reasons: the aim of ethnography is the description of a group’s way of life, its product is the writing of culture (e.g. Fetterman, 1998), and culture is the tool that helps ethnographers to interpret behaviour (e.g. Spradley, 1979; Brewer, 2000). Furthermore, the researcher could not comprehend the international student experience without a grasp of cultural differences, which inform the experience of transition (Hofstede, 2001). More than 100 definitions of the concept of culture exist in the social science literature, with differing definitions adopted by different academic disciplines (Gudykunst, 1998; Jandt, 2001; Smith, 2000; Williams, 1981): it was not my aim to cover in detail all of these definitions but to indicate which definition best fits my research. Of significance for the study and for ethnographic methods is the adoption by anthropologists in the 19th century of the term ‘‘culture’’ to designate a distinctive way of life, with a new emphasis on lived experience, communication patterns and shared practices (Williams, 1981). This new understanding went on to influence the emphasis in the modern concept of culture on the collectivity, as reflected in Hofstede’s (1991, 2001) comprehensive body of work. The definition is also useful for the sociological study of settings on home terrain: Hofstede (2001) states that culture is a phenomenon collectively generated by people who share the same social environment and are mentally programmed in a way that distinguishes them from other social groups. Culture transmission occurs from generation to generation through the process of socialisation, a concept that proved useful in explaining students’ attachment to original cultural norms of behaviour, even when they declared a desire to change. Gudykunst (1998) describes socialisation as the conditioning and programming in the basic social processes of

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communication, providing children with an understanding of the world and culturally patterned ways of responding to it. There is recognition that culturally ingrained behaviour is slow to change, as shown in Hall’s (1980) reference to cultural deprogramming as ‘‘the greatest separation feat of all’’ (p. 240).

CULTURE SHOCK A study of international student adjustment necessarily involves consideration of the literature on culture shock. Several researchers claim that using theories of culture to explain and understand attitudes and behaviour will become less relevant in the globalised world (see Bradley, 2000; Featherstone, 1995; Martin & Harrell, 2004; Todres, 2002). Hofstede (2001, 2002), however, argues that despite evidence of some change in individual countries, cultural divergence will remain, and differences may in fact be increasing: a growth in individualism among countries that have become richer is pointed out; similarly, instead of diminishing power distance, the process of globalisation is acting to widen the power gap. Despite criticism that Hofstede’s rigid framework does not take into account global change (Cray & Mallory, 1998; Mcsweeney, 2000), its extensive use by theorists of and researchers into sojourner adjustment reflect the validity and relevance of Hofstede’s framework of cultural dimensions. Meanwhile, in the absence of research into the adjustment experiences of tourists, Hottola (2004) argues that tourism academics must engage with the sojourner adjustment literature until a body of empirical and theoretically sophisticated work on the tourist adjustment experience is available. A common premise in the current literature on transition is that most sojourners will experience some degree of stress following their immersion in a new culture; this is based on the notion of cultural difference between societies and on the move from a familiar to an alien environment (see, e.g. Kim, 2001; Ward, Bochner, & Furnham, 2001), and indicates a rebuttal of claims for cultural homogenisation and decreasing cultural distinction. This raises the questions: to what extent do researchers into adjustment take into account theories of globalisation, and are theories of cultural homogenisation supported by empirical evidence? These are questions pertinent to researchers into international movements of people in a variety of disciplines, and it is a debate into which tourism academics must enter. The early definitions of culture shock have retained their currency: culture shock is commonly defined as anxiety that results from losing the familiar

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signs and symbols of social intercourse, and their substitution by other cues that are strange (Hall, 1959; Oberg, 1960). There is a substantial body of work which reveals the initial stage of the sojourn to be a time of anxiety and communicative difficulty (Berry, 1994; Kim, 2001). The move to a new environment is a traumatic life event when sojourners must cope with substantial cultural change (Gudykunst, 1998; Hofstede, 2001; Kim, 2001; Zajonc, 1952). Among the many symptoms attributed to the generalised state of culture shock in the sojourner adjustment (including international students) literature are low self-esteem, low morale, social isolation, dissatisfaction with life, bitterness, homesickness, disorientation, anxiety, depression, role strain, identity confusion, stress, loneliness, self-doubt, hostility, distress, personality disintegration helplessness, irritability, fear and self-deprecation. These feelings have appeared over several years in many empirical studies of adjustment, which have identified several sources of strain, including weather and food differences, language prowess, accommodation and financial problems, loneliness, homesickness and academic difficulties. A critical overview of the literature shows much dispute over the inevitability of the sojourner’s encounter with culture shock. Advocates of the culture learning approach, such as Furnham and Bochner (1986), Ward et al. (2001) and Cushner and Karim (2004) argue that sojourners can manage stress and prepare for difficulties. Furthermore, many theorists of adjustment such as Martin and Harrell (2004) and Gao and Gudykunst (1990) question the generalisability of the experience of culture shock: they prefer to view transition as a unique and subjectively lived experience that cannot fit a prescriptive model of adjustment. As Madison (2006) observes, the sojourn is a uniquely subjective experience, influenced by a myriad of factors that a single model cannot capture. These include cultural distance (Redmond, 2000; Ward et al., 2001), personality (Detweiler, 1980; Gudykunst, 1998; Gudykunst & Nishida, 2001; Kim, 2001), preparedness for change (Kim, 2001; Stevenson, 1991; Taylor, 1994) and social support (Berry, 1994; Ward et al., 2001). The severity and duration of the experience of culture shock is a function of environmental, cultural and individual differences (Furnham, 1993; Kim, 2001; Searle & Ward, 1990; Ward & Chang, 1997; Ward et al., 2001). The relevance to long-stay tourists is clear; Hottola (2004) calls for dedicated research into the tourist’s encounter with new cultures, which is still deficient despite Furnham’s similar exhortation in the Annals of Tourism Research in 1984. Meanwhile calls are growing for a qualitative approach that is uniquely able to uncover the personal and cultural change associated with transition (Cushner & Mahon, 2002; Madison, 2006; Ward, 2001).

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THE PROCESS OF ADJUSTMENT The move to a new culture requires a process of resocialisation that Gudykunst (1998) describes as a process of unlearning old social patterns. Synonymous with adaptation, adjustment also refers to the goodness of fit between the characteristics of a person and the properties of their environment (French, Rodgers, & Cobb, 1974). However, as Biddle (1979) notes in his theoretical work on role change, adjustment carries other connotations than adaptation, including flexibility and an ability to cope with the demands exerted by the environment. It therefore refers not just to the process of change that the new culture demands, but also to the outcome of this process: it is for this reason that I decided to adopt the term adjustment to describe the process of culture learning and individual change that occur during transition. Researchers have elaborated and tested a variety of adjustment models, and quantitative research dominates the field of sojourner adjustment research. Madison (2006) argues that such models are one dimensional and do not recognise the multifaceted nature of a person’s life or personality differences. However, qualitative studies are slowly on the increase, capturing, according to Ward (2001), Cushner and Karim (2004) and Madison (2006), aspects of the experience of adjustment that quantitative studies have missed. In the same way that I use the metaphor ‘journey’, Madison (2006) evokes the noun ‘process’ to capture ‘the lived intricacies, novelty and vast diversity of human interaction’ which ‘therefore offers no universal predictions.’ (p. 6). Similarly, Martin and Harrell (2004) plausibly argue that there are multiple curves over time, each representing one aspect of the sojourner’s life: this is a non-linear and non-prescriptive view of the adjustment journey. Gao and Gudykunst (1990) and Gudykunst and Nishida (2001) relate such fluctuations in adjustment to varying levels in uncertainty and anxiety, which go up and down throughout the stay, influencing both well-being and adjustive approach.

THE OUTCOME OF ADJUSTMENT In discussions of adjustment, the final outcome of the move to a new culture is a subject worthy of investigation by both researchers into the tourist and the sojourner experience; this is also an area that is of growing importance to researchers into economic migration. Many theorists claim that transition is an initially stress-inducing but ultimately enriching experience

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(Giddens, 1991; Hall, 1976; Hofstede, 2001; Kim, 2001). The cited benefits of the sojourn include: the development of cultural complexity (Detweiler, 1980), self-awareness (Giddens, 1991), increased pliability and resilience (Kim, 2001; Ting-Toomey, 1999), intercultural competence (Koester & Lustig, 2003), independence (Martin & Harrell, 2004), and increased employability (Ledwith & Seymour, 2001). Such claims also apply to long-stay tourism, as a small but growing literature on the consequences of increased long-stay travel for both business and society shows. For example, studies of backpackers and of gap-year tourists (Noy, 2004; O’Reilly, 2006; Tucker, 2005) found an increase in independence, tolerance and cross-cultural skills. As Hottola (2004) notes, tourists constitute the majority of contemporary exposure to intercultural contact; an analysis of their experiences will provide an empirical evidence base and theoretical underpinning for the outcome of culture contact for tourists. Drawing conclusions solely from sojourner research, as among the many categories of sojourner, is insufficient, as high variance occurs in the purposes of travel and the types of infrastructure and superstructure. Personal and cultural change also features in a small but growing body of research into the adjustment experiences of economic migrants, particularly those from accession countries, whose labour is integral to the efficient running of many tourism and hospitality organisations (e.g. Janta & Ladkin, 2009). A parallel exists between these types of sojourners and the academic stay that is under-explored. The international sojourn refers to temporary between-society contact for a duration of 6 months to 5 years (Hottola, 2004; Jandt, 2001): indeed, in their treatise of culture shock and transition, Ward et al. (2001) include tourists alongside migrants, business people, refugees and international students in their typology of sojourners. The sojourn is similar to a therapeutic time for self-discovery; for example, Madison (2006) writes of the opportunity for self-actualisation, whilst Hayes (2007) uses the term ‘becoming oneself’ to refer to the living of an authentic life that distance from familial and professional pressures associated with the home culture. As international travel for differing purposes increases, the implications of change in sojourners (including students, migrants and tourists) for the origin culture is of increasing relevance.

STUDIES OF INTERNATIONAL EDUCATION Ethnographers commonly skim previous studies on their chosen topic, but take care not to conduct in-depth research that might colour their own data collection. In the current study, the researcher consulted studies on the

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international student experience. Indeed, accompanying the steady rise in the number of international students in global HE and the desire of HEI to attract more full fee-paying students, there has been a growth in such research, although there are shortcomings in the areas of methodology and theoretical sophistication, as Leonard et al. (2002) and Ward (2001) observe. Given the ease of access to international students as a research population, many researchers have used this group, that represents just one category of sojourner identified in the comprehensive treatise on culture shock produced by Ward et al. (2001), to test various models of adjustment and to further understanding of what constitutes the international sojourn. Many of the findings from research conducted on students have relevance for researchers into tourism and hospitality, as the paper will show. Of relevance to this study was the literature on academic needs and cultural differences: clearly, this body of work is not pertinent to those tourists whose purpose is not educational. An increasing recruitment of international students to western universities brings with it an increased focus on culturally different attitudes to learning. Cross-cultural differences in participation in class discussion have been studied by many researchers whose findings often point to a link between power distance and contribution to debate (see Cortazzi & Jin, 1997; De Vita, 2001; Gu, 2005; Okorocha, 1996a). Critical analysis is also a focus of much attention by researchers into international education, with South East Asian students in particular often described as uncomfortable with critical exchange and contradiction (Cortazzi & Jin, 1997; Durkin, 2004; Gu, 2005). Underpinning such studies is again Hofstede’s framework of cultural dimensions, with a high score on the dimension of power distance given as the explanation for the common clash between reproductive and problem-based learning. The relationship with academic authority, with tutors and supervisors, is also influenced by cross-cultural differences: Hofstede’s dimension of Power Distance is most often the explanatory factor (Ballard & Clanchy, 1997; Bradley, 2000; Channell, 1990; Dickinson, 1993; Rogers & Smith, 1992; Thorstensson, 2001). The literature on international education also cites the potential for curricular diversity (Altbach, 1989; de Wit & Callan, 1995; de Wit & Knight, 1995; UKCOSA, 2004; van der Wende, 1996; Zuniga, Nagada, & Sevig, 2002). According to Ackers (1997), international students are an important educational resource, bringing fresh perspectives to HE, and increasing the attractiveness of the curriculum for both international and domestic students who can learn about the globalised working environment even if they have not travelled extensively (van der Wende, 1996). This is of course particularly relevant to those students on programmes that aim to prepare them for an

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international industry, such as tourism and hospitality management. In addition, there is the premise that the internationalised campus has the opportunity to bring cultural understanding between different ethnic groups (Greenaway & Tuck, 1995; Knochenmus, 1986; Leask, 2005) and the opportunity for the professional development for academic staff who can learn about cultural diversity (Cortazzi & Jin, 1997; Louie, 2005). Similarly, tourists and industry practitioners can access through cross-cultural contact the opportunity for growth and development. However, thus far, empirical evidence does not sufficiently substantiate the potential for the development of intercultural competence (Cushner & Karim, 2004; De Vita, 2005; Louie, 2005; Seymour, 2002; Ward, 2001). Friendship is a major contributor to emotional well-being and sojourner adjustment (Hamburg & Adams, 1967; Kim, 2001; Ward et al., 2001): this explains the interaction patterns of international students. In their friendship typology, Bochner, McLeod, and Lin (1977) describe the bicultural bond as the most important of the three friendship bonds as contact between the host and sojourner facilitates cultural and linguistic competence. Many empirical studies of international students point to a desire for greater contact with host nationals who represent a route to developing greater communication competence (e.g. Kramsch, 1993; UKCOSA, 2004; Ward & Rana-Deuba, 1999); however, a lack of host contact persists. The very few studies on the host perspective have found indifference and apathy to lie behind a reluctance to initiate contact with international students (Bradley, 2000; Spencer-Rodgers, 2001; Ward et al., 2005). Indeed, the most common network noted on the international campus is the monocultural bond; many researchers observe a ghetto pattern, including the early and oft-cited survey of 2,500 students by Klineberg and Hull (1979), a smaller study of 36 students that is equally often referenced by Bochner et al. (1977) and subsequent studies by Dyal and Dyal (1981), Furnham and Bochner (1986), Esack (1993) and Bradley (2000). A third bond is the multicultural friendship network between students of different nationalities: Bochner et al. (1977) view this bond as the least important; furthermore, few researchers have investigated this network. Nevertheless, Gudykunst (1998) argues that multiculturalism is an important route to the acquisition of intercultural skills that will aid global understanding and increase employability among graduates (Cushner & Mahon, 2002). Equally, studies of hospitality migrant workers have commented on the comfort to be obtained from the multicultural workforce (see Janta & Ladkin, 2009), whilst among backpackers, a community of likeminded, international friends is often present (O’Reilly, 2005).

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Finally, researchers have long noted the difficulties experienced by international students in reaching sufficient linguistic competence as to master socio-cultural and academic demands. Of particular use are the studies that discuss the emotional component of foreign language use, as this emerged strongly in my study: Kramsch (1993) identifies feelings of shame and inadequacy that speaking in the host language can provoke; Garza-Guerrero (1974) refers to the sense of grief that separation from the native language occasions; Kim (1988) cites the anxiety and panic that speaking a foreign language evokes to explain why sojourners resort to the native tongue; Hofstede (1991) and Pellegrino Aveni (2005) discuss the sense of infantilism that making mistakes in spoken language provokes. The importance of good language skills is not only helpful in alleviating student distress but is also often linked by cross-cultural theorists with acceptance by the host community (Hofstede, 2001; Kim, 2001). This is clearly of relevance to the tourist and migrant experience whose access to the host culture increases in line with improvements in their grasp of the host language; for the mass tourist, English continues to be the lingua franca.

IDENTIFYING THE GAP IN THE LITERATURE For all researchers, it is important to find the gap in the literature. Despite extensive research on international students, some gaps are evident. Few studies have examined:  sex differences in adjustment despite the fact that women form a growing part of the international student population and often experience stress and conflict relating to the demands of their traditional role and their studies;  the impact of parenthood on the experience of the international academic sojourn;  the views of the domestic student population on the presence of international students;  the impact on receiving institutions of internationalisation strategies;  the role of food in the academic sojourn of international students;  the importance of religion to student identity and interaction and the link between faith and racial abuse among international students in the United Kingdom;  the incidence of racism experienced by the international student community;

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 the impact of global politics on the experience of international student adjustment. From a methodological perspective, there is a dearth of qualitative studies of adjustment; there are fewer ethnographic studies still. Most studies use questionnaires and/or interviews that look at students’ experience retrospectively, or they capture only a snapshot of the experience, rather than tracking changes over time. My inductive study could not hope to fill all of these gaps; however, it does document:      

the difficulties associated with being a single parent student; the link between faith and interaction and host receptivity; the impact of increasing international student recruitment on lecturers; the importance of food to identity and interaction; the impact of the macro on the micro setting; incidences of racism and the fear of aggression linked with alcohol abuse.

The parallels to be drawn between the living experiences of international students, migrant workers and long-stay tourists mean that my findings also fill some of the gaps in the tourism and hospitality literature.

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY Researchers confront a host of research approaches when starting their study, the choice of which is a reflection of the subjectivity, culture and preferences of the researcher (Brewer, 2000; Hofstede, 2001). I adopted an ethnographic approach to investigate the international student adjustment journey, as it enabled me to conduct four in-depth one-to-one interviews with 13 postgraduate international students over one academic year (52 interviews altogether), as well as overt observation of the entire postgraduate body of 150 students (2003–2004).

RESEARCH METHODS Ethnographers usually use more than one method, given the advantages of multidimensional data (Mason, 2002), including in this study participant observation, interviews and a diary of personal reflections, which all form part of the data. The use of triangulation within method is a source of

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ethnographic validity (Fetterman, 1998), as data of different kinds can be systematically compared, to test the quality of information and to put the situation into perspective (Denzin & Lincoln, 1998; Seale, 1999). According to Hammersley and Atkinson (1995), trustworthiness also improves if different kinds of data lead to the same conclusion. Furthermore, by using participant observation and extensive interviewing over one academic year, I was able to gain an unparalleled insight into students’ world that is typical of ethnography (Agar, 1986; Fielding, 1993; Gilbert, 1993; Hammersley, 1992; Spindler, 1982).

PARTICIPANT OBSERVATION Participant observation involves participating in the informants’ social world and reflecting on the products of that participation (Hammersley & Atkinson, 1995; Mason, 2002; O’Reilly, 2005). By studying the adjustment process in students’ natural setting, the university campus, it was possible to be spontaneous in terms of when I collected data outside the interview situation. This would be the case in ethnographic research into tourist behaviours if the researcher adopted the role of tourist or if the researcher lived immersed in the local community if the aim was to investigate the host reaction to incoming tourists. Participation ranges from spending some time in a group to full immersion (Spradley, 1980). In this study, participation was ‘complete’, a term that refers to the highest level of involvement when ethnographers study a situation they are already participating in (ibid.): I used my existing role to research a familiar setting, removing the problems of resocialisation, acceptance or misunderstanding (Brewer, 2000). This can be obtained through joining an organisation (Lugosi, 2006, 2008, e.g. took a job in a bar to observe consumer interaction patterns), or taking part in an activity (Curtin, 2006 joined two wildlife tours), as participant observers. Being fully immersed in the field enables researchers to move around in the location as they wish, without appearing unusual or intrusive, with access to opportunistic interviewing, as well as to spontaneous observation (Mason, 2002). Observation can be overt or covert, depending on the topic and the field (Spradley, 1979): as I was an overt participant observer; all those involved (staff and students) knew about the research, therefore I did not need to hide my research identity. Some researchers opt to be covert, however, depending on their topic and on the participants to be researched; for example Morgan (2009) was a covert participant observer of a music festival.

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Planning for fieldwork takes time, especially for longer periods of data collection (Daymon & Holloway, 2002), and the following questions were considered before my fieldwork commenced; these may be useful to researchers:  When and for how long would I observe participants? In order to allow myself time to experience the ambience of the scene and to permit observation of the repetition of patterns (Schatzman & Strauss, 1973), I decided that observation would be on a daily, 9–5 basis (during the week) from the start of induction week.  Where would I observe participants; and whom should I observe? I decided to observe all of my department’s international postgraduate students in various situations, taking advantage of naturally occurring groups and discussions (O’Reilly, 2005): in the classroom, my office, the administration office, the corridor, the library, the coffee bar (indoor and outdoor), the canteen.  Will I note everything, or only those peculiarities that strike me? What researchers record depends on the foreshadowing research problem (Hammersley & Atkinson, 1995), but in this inductive study, I made no prediction of the topics of relevance to students, and therefore I noted down everything. As time went on, and I had undertaken preliminary analysis, I adopted a more instinctive approach and noted whatever seemed relevant to me, practising selective sampling (Schatzman & Strauss, 1973; Spradley, 1980), which is shaped by the emergent themes (Potter, 1996). Therefore data collection became more focused and less time-consuming as the field research proceeded. As O’Reilly (2005) advises, when opportunistic conversations occur, the ethnographer should ask questions on the spur of the moment. Therefore the skill of conversational management (Peshkin, 1982) associated with interviewing was necessary in daily participant observation (which involved more than just watching), including, for example, listening carefully and asking sensitive follow-up questions.  How often should I record my observations? Throughout my study, every working day provided an opportunity for the collection of data; the problem became how to find time to note down my observations. There was a tension between facilitating and participating in discussions and finding time to remember and record conversations. Sometimes, it was possible to make a quick note of key words: even though

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I was an overt observer, I did not want to violate the scene too much by appearing too obtrusive. Usually, I hoped I would remember the event or conversation later on that day. I made certain to unload the observation experience as soon as possible to avoid the problems of memory recall (Hammersley & Atkinson, 1995). Though it was challenging to find time to write up a full, expanded account (Spradley, 1979) of what I had observed, on the occasions where I did not do so, I realised that I could not recall observations in their entirety. A discipline of daily writing (Hammersley & Atkinson, 1995) and systematic recording tactics are vital then (Spradley, 1979). Researchers therefore should not underestimate the nature of the ethnographic task, the burden on time and energy.

DOCUMENT ANALYSIS Documents that relate to the social world include photos, diaries and letters (Macdonald & Tipton, 1993). As soon as the research project began in September, I asked interviewees to keep a diary, so that I might access feelings that they might not want to express face to face (Measor & Woods, 1983). Unfortunately, all of the students told me that they would be too busy to keep a diary; indeed eliciting commitment to keeping a diary is a common problem as Dickinson and Robbins (2007) found in their research into travel choices. Instead they agreed that they would email me with their thoughts and observations on an ongoing, ad hoc basis. I also asked the rest of the cohort to email me in such a way, and indeed the majority emailed me regularly on a variety of topics: this was a further useful source of data corroboration. Though not as in-depth as a personal diary would have been, the rapport created and sustained through email contact meant that I was able to access data that I would not have otherwise been privy to, particularly from those students who were not among those selected for interview. The slowly increasing use of netnographic studies of migrant adaptation and consumer experiences of eating out reflect the role of internet technologies in everyday life (see Janta & Ladkin, 2009; Morgan & Watson 2009; Watson, Morgan, & Hemmington, 2008).

THE ETHNOGRAPHIC INTERVIEW Unstructured interviews are most common in ethnography (Mason, 2002; O’Reilly, 2005), allowing participants a greater voice and minimising the

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influence of the interviewer (Denzin & Lincoln, 1998; Hammersley & Atkinson, 1995). Close engagement through in-depth interviewing permits access to peoples’ feelings and perceptions (Brewer, 2000; Denzin & Lincoln, 1998), opening a window onto their emotional world that quantitative research is uniquely able to deliver. The depth and richness of qualitative data are a function of the ability to sensitively explore topics of importance with participants (Mason, 2002). The flexibility and spontaneity associated with the in-depth interview (Mason, 2002; Potter, 1996) means that researchers can explore any avenue; the interview could and often did lead me in unexpected directions, depending on the interests and preoccupations of the participant. Whilst participant observation was invaluable to this research, it was only the interview situation that yielded an in-depth exploration of sensitive topics. The ethnographic interview is responsive to situations and informants (O’Reilly, 2005; Potter, 1996), and for this reason, each interview with all 13 students was unique, although there was some similarity of topics. It is important in the unstructured, ethnographic interview to ask questions that are open-ended, to get interviewees talking about a broad topic area, whilst remembering that the participant guides the content (Hammersley & Atkinson, 1995; Spradley, 1979). Spradley (1979) recommends the use of grand tour or experience questions in the opening ethnographic interview, followed by focused mini tour or example questions, depending on the interviewee’s response. The interview approach becomes more directive, as the second interview follows up on topics from the first interview (Hammersley & Atkinson, 1995; Spradley, 1979). This is of relevance to ethnographic researchers conducting regular interviews and conversations over an extended period of time, but this will not apply to studies of sport tourism events of a fixed duration, such as the World Cup or the Olympic Games. In order to make informants feel comfortable, the most important thing to do in the interview situation is to get them talking (Spradley, 1979), using the interpersonal skills that are necessary in everyday social life (Brewer, 2000), such as maintaining eye contact, adopting relaxed body language, showing an interest and asking relevant follow-up questions (O’Reilly, 2005). Indeed, the need to strike a relaxed pose is one of the stressful aspects of qualitative research (Mason, 2002). As such, researchers should not underestimate the importance of self-preparation for the unfolding of emic data: the researcher has a central role in qualitative research, being the main ‘instrument’ (Brewer, 2000; Hammersley, 1983).

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THE RESEARCH DIARY Hammersley and Atkinson (1995) argue that ethnographers are part of the social world they study, the data they collect and interpret are a reflection of their own biases: this implies a need for a reflexive account of the research process (Seale, 1999; Davies, 1999). Keeping a research diary begins well before data collection and allows researchers to subject our research activities to rigorous analysis (Peshkin, 1982; Hammersley & Atkinson, 1995). Thus my diary started with topic and method selection. The diary allows ethnographers to refine their thinking, which is for Mason (2002) as important as reading and writing, and just as time-consuming. Besides, as I discovered, if researchers do not write memos to themselves (Glaser, 1978), they may lose their thought as they move on to new writing. Finally, reflection is an important part of the analytic process; the final written report of the research will use excerpts from the diary to illuminate and interact with field data.

THE INFORMANT–RESEARCHER RELATIONSHIP The use of key informants with whom ethnographers work to produce a cultural description is central to ethnography (Fetterman, 1998). In this research, the term informant refers to the 150 students I observed on a continual basis, and to those students I formally interviewed once every 3 months. In other contexts, it might refer to selected or to all members, depending on researcher access and aims. It is with the interviewees that I felt I had to establish rapport, defined by Spradley (1979) as a harmonious relationship between ethnographer and informant, as it is they who gave up their time and energy. As the research involved four interviews over 12 months, the rapport with interviewees had to be strong enough to ensure that they would be willing to engage in the research over and over again, representing, according to Spradley (1979), one of the challenges of ethnography. Trust develops over time (ibid.), which was possible in a year-long field research. Brewer (2000) argues that the importance of the personal relationship makes qualitative research especially demanding in terms of time and energy. This was pertinent for me as my aim was to gain access to students’ emotional world, which requires hard work on the part of the researcher to develop an atmosphere of security and confidentiality (Mason, 2002). Hence, the fieldwork phase of the research was an exhausting period, requiring personal investment into several long-term

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relationships. This may not be true of all settings, depending on the aim of research and the nature of emotional disclosure sought by the researcher. Spradley (1979) warns that the ethnographer–informant relationship can be problematic when there are power differentials between the two. Students may see me as an outsider in respect of national and cultural origin, with a member of the host community. This was particularly noticeable when students recounted incidents of discrimination; they appeared nervous in case they offended me, and only relaxed when I showed sympathy with them. Any cultural outsider will face the problem of a possible withholding of information, whereas researching one’s own culture or organisation can raise the dilemma of power imbalances.

DURATION OF THE ETHNOGRAPHIC STUDY Anthropologists (e.g. Spradley, 1980) and qualitative researchers (e.g. Potter, 1996) often advise spending a year with a group: time enables relationships to develop and permits the observation of detail and processes, rather than a static image captured at certain points (Brewer, 2000; French et al., 1974; O’Reilly, 2005; Potter, 1996). Furthermore, cultural patterns have an incubation period, which takes time to develop and to study. In my case, a study of adjustment which does not last for the duration of the sojourn cannot hope to capture the experience from the arrival stage to the final outcome, unless the aim is to study only one aspect of the sojourn. However, this depends on the research aim and the nature of the setting and the activity contained therein. For example, the finite nature of the event would determine and constrain an ethnographic study of a music festival. Indeed, many ethnographic studies have been shorter than a year, with the implicit reduction in time and energy on the part of both researcher and participant; for example Curtin’s study if wildlife tourists lasted only as long as the trips she joined.

ETHNOGRAPHIC ANALYSIS Analysis is the process of bringing order to data; organising undifferentiated comments and observations into patterns, categories and descriptive units; and looking for relationships between them (Brewer, 2000; Fetterman,

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1998). As ethnography produces enormous amounts of data, which increase in proportion to the data collection duration, analysis is therefore demanding (Fielding, 1993). In addition, in ethnography, analysis is not a distinct stage of research, but takes place throughout and after the fieldwork stage (Brewer, 2000; Hammersley & Atkinson, 1995). The process is interactive that from the start guides interviews and observation (Denzin, 1997; Schatzman & Strauss, 1973). Whereas many researchers collect and analyse data in distinct stages, this 12-month ethnography involved every aspect of research except for the literature review, which took place for the most part after the fieldwork was complete: it was only then that the researcher established relationships between the primary and the secondary data, as Hammersley (1992) advises. It is important to remember, however, that the duration varies and the amount of data the researcher collects and analyses varies; having said that, all ethnographers need to prepare for the exhausting nature of fieldwork. When analysing data creating an analytic code is necessary; this stops the researcher from getting lost in the data (Mason, 2002). There are many terms used in the methodology literature on ethnographic analysis, but for this research I adopted the terms used by Spradley (1979): the sub-code, code and category. A code represents a distinct phenomenon the researcher notices in the text; the code carries a low level of inference (it must be close to concrete description). Once they have identified codes, researchers need to look for the main theme, that is, the core category, a cluster of codes with similar traits, asking themselves questions such as: is it central, does it recur, is it meaningful, does it have implications for theory? Coding is a laborious task as it involves reading and rereading through notes and repeatedly listening to tapes and reading through transcripts until certain phrases occur repeatedly in the text and themes begin to emerge (Brewer, 2000). Nevertheless, as Potter (1996) observes, though time-consuming, ethnographic analysis is not demanding in terms of technology: I used a codebook, created during analysis of the first round of interview transcripts, which I updated as the data collection proceeded. Each round includes scrutinising transcript revisions, with the aid of different colour highlighter pens to identify recurring words. Codes and categories therefore emerge from the data, from the emic perspective, depending on how often they recur. At the end of the data collection period (September 2004), I began to analyse and organise interview and observational data into distinct sections, which reflect the major research categories (language, academic life, identity, food, interaction, changes in the self, culture shock). As O’Reilly (2005)

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points out, some codes can overlap different categories, for example, communal dining is a code that is relevant to interaction, identity and food.

WRITING ETHNOGRAPHY O’Reilly (2005) states that imposing a narrative helps to order the mass of ethnographic material, but the presentation of ethnography requires much care (Brewer, 2000), and ethnographers need to cultivate their skills of writing (Atkinson, 1990; Clifford, 1986; Hammersley & Atkinson, 1995; Marcus, 1986). Hammersley and Atkinson (1995) offer a choice between: natural history; chronology; thematic organisation; separation of narration and analysis. In terms of writing style, Hammersley (1990) tells us that the most common mode of writing ethnography is realistic or naturalistic whereby the readers feel that they are observing the scene. There is often an assumption of good faith that a similarly placed and well-trained participant observer would see and hear the same things as the researcher saw and heard (Van Maanen, 1988). However, there is radical scepticism in the qualitative research community about the claim of any author to faithfully reconstruct social reality (Brewer, 2000; Denzin, 1991; Jackson, 1989; Seale, 1999). My solution to this conflict of opinion was to adopt a reflexive approach to the writing of a realist account of my research findings. When writing ethnography, an important consideration is one of voice, which concerns the struggle to work out how to present both the author and the informant (Hertz, 1993). Academics traditionally practice silent authorship, keeping their voice out of what they write; however, ethnographers and qualitative researchers increasingly advocate audible authorship (e.g. Brewer, 2000; Charmaz & Mitchell, 1997; Seale, 1999). As this paper shows, I use the first person to point to my personal involvement in the field and consequent influence on the collection and analysis of data. As a 2009 editorial of the 4 Annals of Tourism Research showed, the first person is increasingly common in research accounts, if it befits the methodology adopted. Meanwhile to give informants their voice, researchers advocate polyvocality (Clifford, 1986; Denzin & Lincoln, 1998; Tyler, 1986; van Maanen, 1988), which writers achieve through the extensive use of quotations which are the stuff of ethnography (Hammersley, 1992), bringing a sense of immediacy and involvement in the field (Brewer, 2000). This also fulfils the author’s moral commitment to empower the silenced other (Hollway & Jefferson, 2000; Seale, 1999).

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DEMONSTRATING TRUSTWORTHINESS IN QUALITATIVE RESEARCH Reliability refers to the consistency, stability and repeatability of research findings, an invalid criterion in qualitative research as repeat questions will not yield identical responses and besides, social situations are not replicable (Brewer, 2000). In the current study, it would be impossible to generate the same findings if another researcher conducted the study in the same conditions, not only because they would have different biases (Brewer, 2000; O’Reilly, 2005), but also because they would be studying different participants with different circumstances and personalities. Furthermore, data interpretation is a subjective undertaking, and according to Hollway and Jefferson (2000), an alternative explanation of events is usually available: even if the current findings were replicable, it is likely that their analysis and interpretation would differ. This is of relevance to tourism research where the study of different tourists in the same setting could lead to different findings. Generalisability, or external validity, is also likely to be irrelevant to ethnographic research, which tends to focus on a single case or small sample (Fielding, 1993); there is a consequent reluctance to move to general classifications (Hammersley, 1992). Nevertheless, ethnographers often feel that similar settings are likely to produce similar data (Evans, 1983; Potter, 1996), and that theory-based generalisation is possible, involving the transfer of theoretical concepts found from one situation to other settings and conditions (Daymon & Holloway, 2002): thus the term transferability is preferable to generalisability. Hammersley (1992) describes this as theoretical inference, drawing conclusions from the features of local events by identifying generic features. The findings from this research are transferable to other similar settings, that is, HEI in the United Kingdom that recruit international postgraduate students, and also to similar actors, that is, international postgraduates on a 1-year intensive Masters programme. Hammersley (1992) and Fetterman (1998) claim that the term validity differs among qualitative and quantitative researchers: in qualitative research, validity refers to trustworthiness; this means that the researcher presents the real world of participants and those studied recognise the social reality they have depicted (Brewer, 2000; Bruyn, 1966; Fetterman, 1998). For this reason, member checks are valuable (Daymon & Holloway, 2002), whereby the researcher shows the data from interviews or the summary of the data to informants for their comment (Brewer, 2000; Cheater, 1987;

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Stanley, 1990). Researchers’ willingness to present deviance from cultural patterns also establishes trustworthiness (Seale, 1999).

ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS The need and moral duty of researchers to protect participants in the research process is clear (see Spradley, 1979; Williams, 2003). According to Mason (2002), qualitative research raises specific ethical issues which researchers should anticipate in advance, so that they can take into account how their actions may affect participants. Firstly, they should seek ethical approval to undertake the study (in this case, the University’s Research Ethics Committee, and thereafter the main gatekeeper, the Head of School gave permission). When a gatekeeper provides access, researchers should adhere to the principle of obtaining informed consent from the participants (Brewer, 2000; Spradley, 1979). Accordingly, researchers must assure participants of confidentiality issues, their right to withdraw from the study, and the anonymity of data. Covert observation violates the principle of informed consent; therefore researchers must put careful thought into the decision of disclosure of identity. Both Lugosi (2006, 2008) and Curtin (2009) comment on the continuum between overt and covert status, and recommend that researchers reveal research aim and identity at such a time when they have established some trust and rapport, to avoid ostracisation by participants. As Brewer (2000) states, covert methods are defensible when access is likely to be closed, but in my case, there was no problem in gaining access, thus there was no need to be covert. According to Williams (2003), being ethical is about achieving a balance between being an objective researcher and being a morally bound citizen: social research should not create harm or distress even if the outcome may be beneficial to society. The research experience may be a disturbing one, as participants may experience uncalled for self-knowledge or unnecessary anxiety: researchers must make attempts to minimise disturbance and take special care where participants are vulnerable (Brewer, 2000). Indeed Mason (2002) states that the interview can feel like a therapeutic encounter, as was the case in my research when participants discussed personal and sensitive topics such as loneliness, discrimination and identity confusion. The same could be true of research looking at tourism and transformation or migrant workers’ experiences of working and living in a new culture. Mason’s (2002) note of caution about discussing personal matters which may distress them was a real concern for me, and tearfulness during interviews was common.

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For this reason, follow-up was important; I tried to alleviate any sense of exposure by following up with email contact, and being solicitous whenever I saw interviewees on campus. The questions remain: does research into delicate topics necessarily lead to harm to participants, and if so, how should researchers respond?

THE RESEARCH FINDINGS Analysis generated the following categories of research: culture shock, language anxiety, study stress, food shock, interaction patterns, identity change and personal/cultural transformation. This paper prioritises the latter category for discussion, the outcome of transition, and presents the model that I created from my findings. This will help other researchers to understand the impact of travel on tourists (there is a research gap) and of cross-cultural contact on various sojourning groups including migrants: this is a relevant topic to the contemporary globalised business world and to the tourism and hospitality industry in particular. Again, there is a dearth of literature on the experiences of migrants in tourism and hospitality.

The End of the Journey This study offers much evidence for the important link that Berry (1994) observes between interaction and outcome, but it also somewhat paradoxically portrays evolution in personal and intercultural perspectives as a universal feature of the final stage of the academic sojourn regardless of interaction strategy. This study offers an important understanding: distance from the origin culture is more significant than the location of the sojourn and the types of networks enjoyed in terms of effecting change in sojourners. Firstly, students commented on a development of cultural awareness and tolerance, lending support to Gudykunst’s reference to the international sojourn as a major contributor to a reduction in world conflict. d’Amore (1988) repeats this claim for tourism, whilst O’Reilly’s study (2006) found an association between backpacking and the development of a sense of common humanity. Motivation to broaden their education is common among backpackers who usually betray a desire to distance themselves from the mass tourist: the hallmarks of the long-stay tourist are openness, flexibility and tolerance (Muzaini, 2006; O’Reilly, 2006). Indeed, according to Bochner (1986), international education and tourism are the most

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powerful positive influences on world relations. Furthermore, MINTEL (2008) suggests that the global gap-year market is set to increase significantly in the coming years, with a trend for more flexible working practices allowing professionals to take extended leave and sabbaticals to embark on Round The World/backpacking trips. However, Litvin (1998) argues for a less idealistic treatment of the link between tourism and peace by researchers, arguing that tourism (including educational tourism) is a beneficiary rather than a generator of peace. Secondly, prolonged absence from the home world led to changes in personal and cultural outlook. Adler (1975) states that the sojourn evolves from a confrontation with a new culture into an encounter with the self. In common with the sojourner adjustment literature, O’Reilly (2006) refers to the transformative potential of travel. Indeed, Vasiliki (2000), Tucker (2005) and Hottola (2004) state that tourism offers an opportunity not only for pleasure but also for self-exploration, as freedom from domestic constraints allows tourists to develop a stronger sense of self. Many researchers have claimed that sojourners undergo a journey of self-discovery as removal from the comfort of the familiar forces them to test and stretch their resourcefulness and to revise their self-understanding (Berry, 1994; Kim, 2001; Milstein, 2005). Hailed as a positive development, the changes in self that students witnessed were simultaneously an object of disquiet: the apprehension of returning students suggests that the adjustment journey is not over until they have negotiated re-entry, and the newly cultivated self survives exposure to the origin culture. Imminent re-entry provoked anxiety, and yet there is a tendency to overlook the consequences of change for the returnee: Madison (2006) and Hayes (2007), for example, describe the sojourn as a therapeutic period of life-enhancing self-exploration, but their studies focused on ‘voluntary migrants’ whose return home was not imminent. This is an important finding for researchers into the tourist and economic migrant experience: the changes in sojourners can pose problems on re-entry, leading to maladaptation in the origin culture.

A Model of Adjustment This research explores the adjustment process of a heterogeneous group of international postgraduate students at a university in the South of England. A holistic study of the entire adjustment journey from arrival to departure has allowed me to build a model of adjustment. The constitution of the

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initial stage of the adjustment process (excitement or emotional disturbance) is the subject of some dispute in the literature on transition: the study finds the initial stage of the sojourn to be a time of vulnerability and anxiety; stress was at its maximum intensity at the beginning of the stay. This process is the time when students experience the symptoms of culture shock: homesickness, sleeplessness, tearfulness, loneliness, fear, disorientation, depression and worry characterise the first stage of the adjustment journey. This experience suggests a link between the move to a new environment and emotional and physical disturbance that many researchers have observed, to name a few, Furnham (1993), Ward et al. (2001) and Kim (2001). Culture shock was not a universal phenomenon, however: the prevalence and intensity of emotional and socio-cultural difficulties varied among students as a function of a host of factors, including motivation, personality, previous experience, pre-arrival preparation, interaction strategy and cultural similarity. The adjustment journey was a dynamic and fluctuating interaction between individual, cultural and external forces; it was a complex and multifaceted phenomenon. The present study highlights the first stage as a time of upheaval, the response to which carried the power to influence the adjustment process, as the route to regaining a sense of equilibrium and to diminishing loneliness and thoughts of home was often at odds with the simultaneously consuming struggle to establish communicative competence in academic and everyday life. Interaction played a key, often conflicting, role: the alleviation of loneliness through segregated friendship groups was usually at the cost of linguistic and cultural learning. The privileged access to students’ emotional reactions to English language use that the qualitative approach permitted led me to substantiate the argument put forward by Gudykunst and Nishida (2001) that sojourner adjustment is a function of the capacity to withstand the anxiety inherent in transition, and that the sojourner’s reaction to stress in the early stage dictates the level of communicative competence reached during the sojourn. Indeed, by documenting the emotional highs and lows occasioned by cross-cultural communication, my study underlines the care that institutions need to show to international students from the outset, if integration between ethnic groups is their goal. The study includes observing an association between the passage of time and a gradual decrease in acculturative stress that finds support in most if not all studies of adjustment. However, this was not a generalisable process as more prescriptive models may suggest; there was fluctuation not only in experience across the student body but also in the individual’s subjective sense of success across different aspects of life in the new country. Research

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by Martin and Harrell (2004) and Madison (2006) support such variability in the adjustment process, which is a mutable and subjective process. The stress of academic life for example slowly decreased in line with the development of academic cultural competence; this suggests a correlation between emotional well-being and adjustment to the demands of the new surroundings that vindicate the culture learning approach to adjustment. However, feelings of homesickness and depression were more variable, indicating that psychological adjustment was less predictable, as noted by Ward and colleagues in their rationale for developing a model that incorporated variables affecting socio-cultural and psychological adjustment. I conclude that adjustment is a continuum: sojourners may not only vary in their adjustment experience and outcome, but there may also be variation in the amount of fitness reached in each facet of life. Adjustment is therefore not a generic term that applies to the whole sojourn experience. I heed Madison’s (2006, p. 9) comment that ‘‘adjustment experiences are more intricate than we could ever hope to capture in abstract models.’’ Capturing the idiosyncratic nature of the adjustment journey is hard, and I therefore refuse to offer a model that is applicable to all sojourners in all situations. I simply provide an articulation of adjustment as an initially painful and testing process, that sojourners experience varyingly depending on various factors, whose outcome is both positive and uncertain. Nevertheless, that study informs the following observations:  The move into a new socio-cultural environment causes stress that is greatest upon arrival: this observation builds on the work by Kim (1988, 2001) and Ward et al. (2001) which views the first stage as a time of stress.  The symptoms of culture shock are evident in the initial stage, but there is variance in their experience and duration.  Stress is caused by cultural distance, language problems, academic demands, loneliness, homesickness, identity confusion, personal difficulties and racial or religious discrimination: my study hereby builds upon previous work but offers new empirical evidence of bigotry as a source of stress.  The capacity for the tolerance of stress drives the formation of mononational friendship networks, which are an impediment to a growth in linguistic and intercultural progression: my findings thus support the works by Kim (2001) and Gudykunst and Nishida (2001), which place importance on the sojourner’s coping abilities.  Though there is generally a gradual lessening of stress, the unpredictability of life events can upset this calm: the qualitative approach offers a

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unique insight into just how debilitating such events can be, offering empirical support for Thomas and Harrell’s (1994) observation that maladjustment can succeed adjustment. Researchers should not underestimate the impact of the larger political, economic and social context of both the home and host countries on the adjustment journey: my study makes an important addition to the adjustment literature by voicing students’ anxiety over the link between their reception in England and their economic/national/religious status, and drawing parallels with the experience of migrants in larger society. The segregation approach is common, but this does not indicate a lack of respect or tolerance for other cultures: this represents a significant contribution to what we know about international student interaction outcomes, who universally acquire some intercultural competence, though it is greatest among those who adopt a multicultural approach to interaction. The adoption of adjustment strategies varies across different aspects of life in the new country, influencing both process and outcome, supporting Berry’s (1994) claim of a link between interaction and change, but the emphasis on variability supports claims that sojourners can be strategic in how they adjust (Blue 1993; Torbiorn 1994). The end-product of the international sojourn is a potentially lifeenhancing challenge to old ways of thinking and behaving: my study thus offers the empirical evidence for such positive outcomes that Ward (2001) says is scarce. Apprehension over re-entry is a common feature during the last few months of the sojourn: this signals a need to follow-up sojourners after reentry; only then can researchers sustain widespread claims for a positive sojourn outcome.

The following figure presents a graphic illustration of how I made sense of the adjustment process. There is a deliberate suppression of prescribed time patterns, underlining the mostly unpredictable nature of the adjustment journey. However, there are three central components to the diagram, which reflect universal experience. The first denotes arrival; the first stage of the sojourn sees students beset by the disturbing feelings associated with culture shock. What follows is a struggle to hold onto an inner sense of competence; this has an important influence on the interaction strategy adopted by sojourners, which in turn impacts on the adjustive outcome (the important relationship between friendship patterns and outcome occupies a special place in the model). The study shows that language ability plays a major role in adjustment, thereby justifying the attention in empirical and theoretical

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studies of transition to the importance of good language skills for psychological adjustment and socio-cultural competence (e.g. Brumfit, 1993; Hofstede, 2001; Kim, 2001; Kramsch, 1993; Scollon & Scollon, 1995; Ward et al., 2001). Despite the widespread elevation of emotional ease over socio-cultural fitness, removal from the origin culture is sufficient to stimulate selfexploration, as the second central component to the diagram shows, which depicts the final stage of the sojourn as a universally positive development. Though the segregation approach limits adjustment to the host language and restricted cultural learning, it did not bar a new self-understanding that distance from the familiar can bring. The study, therefore, supports the oftclaimed transformative potential of the sojourn (Gudykunst, 1998; Hayes, 2007; Milstein, 2005) and offers the empirical evidence for the development of intercultural competence that Ward (2001) and Leask (2007) call for. The tip of the diagram represents the third aspect of universal experience, which refers us to apprehension over re-entry. Fig. 1 emphasises the role of interaction strategy in maximising cultural learning; indeed it places interaction at the centre of the adjustment experience. Like Bochner et al. (1977) and Berry (1994), I place much emphasis on the implications of friendships among sojourners for the development of intercultural skills, vindicating the attribution of importance to companionship in the literature on transition. However, like many studies of international student friendships, I find that the segregation strategy, associated with positive outcomes for belonging and security and negative outcomes for language dexterity and intercultural competence, was the most common, followed by the multicultural strategy that offers the best route to optimising language and culture learning. The study reveals a connection between transition and cultural learning that students considered to be irrevocable and life-changing irrespective of interaction strategy. This offers support for Gilroy’s (2007) concept of conviviality, which suggests that ethnic groups can simultaneously retain their own language, customs and values and maintain a harmonious relationship with other groups; the segregation approach was not incompatible with intergroup acceptance and tolerance. A positive change in self-perception was also universal: its driver was the adoption of unfamiliar behavioural routines. However, my study also offers a portrait of the anxiety surrounding the durability of such life-affirming change: indeed, the new self might be a source of torment rather than pleasure, as conformity pressure might dictate a return to the pre-sojourn self. As Cushner and Karim (2004) point out, it is possible that returnees

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The shock of arrival: Coming to terms with speaking in English; Meeting the challenge of academic life; Fighting loneliness

Minimising stress; choosing segregation

Confronting stress; choosing multiculturalism

Belonging nowhere: being marginalised

Avoiding the host language

Acquiring competence

Avoiding the host language

Avoiding diversity

Meeting diversity

Avoiding diversity

Restricting culture learning

Maximising culture learning

Minimising culture learning

Maintaining cultural identity

Maintaining cultural identity

Undermining cultural identity

Becoming different; evolving a new self

Going home: unknown territory

Fig. 1.

A Model Showing the Adjustment Process.

might face the task of hiding their new self. Perhaps increased intercultural contact will increase the flexibility of the dominant culture (Brancato, 2006), but researchers have not yet established this through empirical evidence.

CONCLUSION In summary, this study shows that the international sojourn has the power to effect a growth in intercultural competence, as well as a shift in selfunderstanding, with long-term implications for personal and professional life. Transition offered the foundation for re-evaluation, for freedom from cultural and familial expectations and for self-discovery that routine tends

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to prohibit. It is logical to suggest that such change will also be common among long-stay tourists who are similarly displaced from both the origin culture and everyday routine. The parallels between the international student, the long-stay tourist and the economic migrant are clear: all three features in Ward et al.’s (2001) sojourner typology. The degree of change in the tourist is arguably a function of the purpose and duration of their trip: a shift in personal and cultural outlook is less likely in the mass and business tourist who often enjoys limited contact with and immersion into the local culture (Hottola, 2004; Muzaini, 2006). Ward et al. (2001) state that short-stay tourists are not usually committed to their new location, which Jandt (2001) explains by focusing on motivation: most tourists visit a country for a short period of time for such goals as relaxation and leisure; a sojourner on the other hand typically lives in a country for a longer period of time, with a specific and goal-oriented purpose, such as education or business, and is usually willing to adjust to some extent to local cultural norms (Gudykunst, 1998). The economic migrant falls into this category; the duration of the sojourn is often unknown at the outset. In all categories, the prolonged absence from the home environment and exposure to new cultural norms and ways of behaving and relating can result in profound changes in cultural and personal outlook that have implications for the future of both the tourist and society, if we are to accept that a growth in intercultural competence is beneficial to global relations. Ethnography is uniquely placed to investigate the experiences of tourists and migrant workers in tourism and hospitality: the inductive approach means that data collection is a product and reflection of participants’ concerns and this is important in a field in which the body of knowledge is nascent. As Morgan (2007) argues, managers of attractions and destinations now need to understand the viewpoint of the experiencing consumer: ethnography captures the emic view and its reliance on thick description ensures that a wealth of data is collected, enabling the researcher to address a range of research issues.

SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH This paper may encourage scholars to conduct research into the impact of long-stay tourism, especially as this represents a growing global phenomenon (MINTEL, 2008; O’Reilly, 2006). Researchers have long studied the impact of tourism on the destination and on residents; however they have paid much

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less attention to the process of change undergone by the tourist (Fletcher, 2005; Hottola, 2004). As Furnham (1984) and Hottola (2004) point out, the sojourner adjustment literature helps us to understand how tourism can act as a catalyst for change in the tourist’s outlook and in their behaviour following their time away from the origin culture, but an understanding of the adjustment journey specific to the tourist is now necessary. Until then, Hottola (2004) argues that tourism academics must engage with the sojourner adjustment literature in order to find sophisticated theoretical discussions of the change brought by cross-cultural contact. Given that the signs are for growth in both tourism and international education (O’Reilly, 2006; Ritchie et al., 2003; Ryan, 2005), the potential contribution made by travel to world relations is a subject worthy of more research; there is so far only limited evidence that tourism improves international understanding (e.g. Askjellerud, 2003; Hampton, 2007; Noy, 2004; O’Reilly, 2006), and the claim that this is a largely unsubstantiated inference remains (Hottola, 2004; Ward et al., 2001). Psychoanalytic and philosophical discussions of globalisation and selfhood reflect the currency of the focus on the link between displacement and change (see Hayes, 2007; Madison, 2006; Todres, 2002). These writers use the term ‘voluntary’ or ‘existential migration’ to refer to extended trips abroad and employ psychoanalytic theory to understand the process of change among sojourners. Further ethnographic studies of sojourners other than international students will contribute to refining our understanding of how transition for various purposes engenders personal and cultural change, and of the implications of such change for the individual and for global relations.

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UKCISA (2009a). Student statistics. Available from: http://www.ukcosa.org.uk/about/statistics_he. php#table3 UKCISA (2009b). International students and culture shock Available from: www.ukcisa.org.uk/ files/pdf/info_sheets/culture_shock.pdf UKCOSA (2004). Broadening our horizons. London, UK: UKCOSA. Van der Wende, M. (1996). Internationalising the curriculum in HE. OECD Internationalisation of HE. Paris: OECD. Van Maanen, J. (1988). Tales of the field: On writing ethnography. Chicago: UCP. Vasiliki, G. (2000). The self and the other traveler, ethnographer, tourist. Annals of Tourism Research, 27(1), 203–224. Ward, C. (2001). The impact of international students on domestic students and host institutions. New Zealand Ministry of Education. Available from: http://www.minedu.govt.nz/ index.cfm?layout ¼ index&indexID ¼ 2107&indexparentid ¼ 1000. Ward, C., Bochner, S., & Furnham, A. (2001). The psychology of culture shock. Hove, UK: Routledge. Ward, C., & Chang, W. (1997). ‘Cultural fit’: A new perspective on personality and sojourner adjustment. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 21(4), 525–533. Ward, C., Masgoret, A., Ho, E., Holmes, P., Cooper, J., Newton, J., & Crabbe, D. (2005). Interactions with International Students: Report prepared for Education New Zealand. Center for Applied Cross-cultural Research, Victoria University of Wellington. Available from: http://www.victoria.ac.nz/cacr/reports/docs/A6-final-report.pdf. Ward, C., & Rana-Deuba, A. (1999). Acculturation and adaptation revisited. Journal of Crosscultural Psychology, 30, 372–392. Watson, P., Morgan, M., & Hemmington, N. (2008). Online communities and the sharing of extraordinary restaurant experiences. Journal of Food Services, 19(6), 289. Wilcox, K. (1982). Ethnography as methodology and its application to the study of schooling: A review. In: G. Spindler (Ed.), Doing the ethnography of schooling. New York: CBS. Williams, R. (1981). Culture. Glasgow, UK: Fontana. Williams, M. (2003). Making sense of social research. London, UK: Sage. Wilson, S. (1977). The use of ethnographic techniques in educational research. Review of Educational Research, 47(1), 245–265. Zajonc, R. (1952). Aggressive attitudes of the stranger as a function of conformity pressures. Human Relations, 5(2), 205–216. Zuniga, X., Nagada, B., & Sevig, T. (2002). Intergroup dialogues: An educational model for cultivating engagement across differences. Equity & Excellence in Education, 35(1), 7–17.

HOW CONSUMPTION VALUES AFFECT DESTINATION IMAGE FORMATION Haywantee Ramkissoon, Robin Nunkoo and Dogan Gursoy ABSTRACT Scholars acknowledge the crucial role of values in influencing behavior and market choices. This paper examines the role of consumption values in influencing destination image and travel behavior by proposing a destination image formation model. Having as theoretical base the meansend chain theory and the theory of consumption values, the model suggests that destination image is a function of five consumption values and that these in turn influence travel behavior. The essay discusses some pertinent issues with respect to the measurement of such values. This involves conducting in-depth interviews based on the laddering technique, developing a structured questionnaire based on data from laddering, applying fuzzy logic to quantify the consumption values, and finally using k-means clustering to define segments of travelers holding similar images of the destination. The paper emphasizes that combined use of a qualitative data collection method such as laddering with a structured questionnaire is an effective way of researching consumption values and their influence on image and Perspectives on Cross-Cultural, Ethnographic, Brand Image, Storytelling, Unconscious Needs, and Hospitality Guest Research Advances in Culture, Tourism and Hospitality Research, Volume 3, 143–168 Copyright r 2009 by Emerald Group Publishing Limited All rights of reproduction in any form reserved ISSN: 1871-3173/doi:10.1108/S1871-3173(2009)0000003008

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travel behavior. The study also discusses a k-means clustering approach to define segments of travelers holding similar images of a destination and the degree of membership of travelers to each value. The paper concludes that segmenting travelers based on their consumption values enables destination marketers to better understand travelers’ behavior. Value research has particular application for market analysis, segmentation, destination product planning, and promotional strategies. This paper contributes to the very limited number of studies that analyze the influence of consumption values on destination image and travel behavior. The theoretical frameworks and methodological approaches that the paper proposes are also new contributions to destination image studies. However, the paper does not empirically test the theoretical frameworks and methodological steps. To contribute further to this field of study, scholars should attempt to empirically test the approaches that the study discusses.

INTRODUCTION Researchers provide a wealth of studies on destination image and related aspects (e.g., Bonn, Joseph, & Dai, 2005; Chen & Tsai, 2007; Hsu, Wolfe, & Kang, 2004; Pike & Ryan, 2004; Sirgy & Su, 2000; Stepchenkova & Morrison, 2006, 2008; Tasci, Gartner, & Cavusgil, 2007; Yuksel & Akgul, 2007). A review of existing literature on the topic reveals that most studies only attempt to analyze the overall image of a destination without an attempt to assess which component(s) of image may influence travel behavior and what factors may influence image formation, though it should be pointed that increasing research is now being devoted to this aspect. Social psychologists argue that such behaviors are value driven (Long & Schiffman, 2000) and as such, the importance of values for marketing research cannot be neglected (Vinson, Scott, & Lamont, 1977). Vinson et al. (1977, p. 45) also note that ‘‘the role of personal values as a standard or criterion for influencing evaluations or choices regarding persons, objects, and ideas suggest the relationship of values to behavior.’’ Researchers also consider values to be antecedents of the image of a product, as the marketing image concept postulates (Kotler & Barich, 1991). While a plethora of studies on values are available in the general marketing literature, their role in influencing destination image and travel behavior receives little attention. In an attempt to lessen the gap in the

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literature emerging from a dearth of studies analyzing the influence of values on image formation, this study proposes a destination image formation model based on the means-end chain theory (MEC) and theory of consumption values (TCV). MEC explains how consumers make links between products and self-relevant consequences and values while TCV delineates values into five categories: functional, emotional, social, epistemic, and conditional. Based on the above, potential travelers who are in the process of deciding on a destination form their images of the alternative destinations with respect to the consumption values they expect to derive from visiting the place. In turn, such images determine their travel behavior. The relationship between a destination’s image, its consumption values, and tourist choice informs the following model: I dX ¼ f fFVdX ; SVdX ; EMVdX ; EPVdX ; CVdX g ! TB where IdX is the image of destination X; FVdX the functional value of destination X; SVdX the social value of destination X; EMVdX the emotional value of destination X; EPVdX the epistemic value of destination X; CVdX the conditional value of destination X; TB the travel behavior.

DESTINATION IMAGE Destination image is an integral and influential component of the tourist’s decision-making process and travel behaviors (Baloglu & Brinberg, 1997; Gallarza, Saura, & Garcia, 2002). Travelers’ image of place is one of the most important and influential factors in consumers’ destination selection process. Researchers agree that destination image is a multidimensional, composite concept comprising of interrelated cognitive and affective evaluations woven into overall impressions (Assael, 1984; Gartner, 1993; MacKay & Fesenmaier, 1997). Destination images can include common functional and psychological traits or more distinguishing or unique features, events, feelings, and auras (Govers, Go, & Kumar, 2007a). These conceptualizations suggest that destination image is complex in nature, involving many aspects that eventually contribute to the formation of the total image in the mind of the travelers (Govers et al., 2007a). Scholars attempting to measure destination image have primarily utilized quantitative and structured techniques (Baloglu & Mangaloglu, 2001; Mackay & Couldwell, 2004; O’Leary & Deegan, 2005). Table 1 reports on the methodologies applied in 70 studies on destination image, published between 1990 and 2007 in the top three tourism journals, namely

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Sample of Studies on Destination Image Published between 1990 and 2007 in ATR, TM, and JTR.

Studies

Chen and Tsai (2007)a Tasci et al. (2007)b Yuksel and Akgul (2007)a Prebensen (2007)c Govers et al. (2007a)c Choi et al. (2007)b Castro et al. (2007)a Hunter and Suh (2007)b Govers et al. (2007b)c Lin, Morais, Kerstetter, and Hou (2007)b Hong et al. (2006)a Stepchenkova and Morrison (2006)b Molina and Esteban (2006)a Grosspietsch (2006)b Buzinde et al. (2006)d Pritchard and Havitz (2006)c Hughes and Allen (2005)c Kim and Morrison (2005)a Bandyopadhyay and Morais (2005)d Lee et al. (2005)a Ryan and Cave (2005)c O’Leary and Deegan (2005)b Espelt and Benito (2005)d Bonn et al. (2005)b Smith (2005)c Mercille (2005)c Beerli and Martin (2004a)a Hsu et al. (2004)b Pike and Ryan (2004)b Beerli and Martin (2004b)a Prentice (2004)b Mackay and Couldwell (2004)c Kim and Richardson (2003)a Sonmez and Sirakaya (2002)a Ateljevic and Doorne (2002)c Bigne et al. (2001)a Baloglu and Mangaloglu (2001)b Chen (2001)b Joppe, Martin, and Waalen (2001)b

Unstructured Methods

Structured Methods

Mixed Methods

Likert scale questions

Statistical analysis

No Yes (C) No Yes (C) Yes (C) Yes No Yes (C) Yes (C) Yes

Yes Yes Yes No No Yes Yes Yes No Yes

Yes Yes Yes No No Yes Yes Yes No Yes

No Yes No No No Yes No Yes No Yes

No Yes

Yes No

Yes Yes

No Yes

No Yes (C) Yes Yes (C) Yes (C) No Yes

Yes Yes No No No Yes No

Yes Yes No No No Yes No

No Yes No No No No No

No Yes (C) Yes (C) Yes Yes (C) Yes (C) Yes (C) No Yes (C) Yes (C) No Yes (C) Yes (C) No No Yes (C) No Yes (C) Yes (C) Yes (C)

Yes No Yes No Yes No No Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes No Yes Yes No Yes Yes Yes Yes

Yes No Yes No Yes No No Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes No Yes Yes No Yes Yes Yes Yes

No No Yes No Yes No No No Yes Yes No Yes No No No No No Yes Yes Yes

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Table 1. (Continued ) Studies

Sirakaya and Sonmez (2000)b Chaudhary (2000)b Coshall (2000)c Chen and Hsu (2000)a Tapachai and Waryszak (2000)c Murphy, Prichard, and Smith (2000)a Uysal, Chen, and Williams (2000)a Choi, Chan, and Wu (1999)b Schneider and Sonmez (1999)a Baloglu and McCleary (1999a)a Chen and Kerstetter (1999)a Baloglu and McCleary (1999b)a Botha, Crompton, and Kim (1999)b Kim (1998)a Van Limburg (1998)a Walmsley and Young (1998)b Anderson, Prentice, and Guerin (1997)b Mackay and Fesenmaier (1997)b Opperman (1996)a Alhemoud and Armstrong (1996)a Schroeder (1996)a Driscoll, Lawson, and Niven (1994)b Ross (1993)a Hu and Ritchie (1993)a Echtner and Ritchie (1993)b Gartner (1989)a Embacher and Buttle (1989)c Ahmed (1991)a Bojanic (1991)a Hon (1991)a Yau and Chan (1990)a

Unstructured Methods

Structured Methods

Mixed Methods

Likert scale questions

Statistical analysis

Yes Yes (C) Yes (C) No Yes (C) No

No Yes No Yes No Yes

Yes Yes No Yes No Yes

Yes Yes No No No No

No Yes (C) No No No No Yes(C)

No Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes

Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes

No Yes No No No No Yes

No No Yes (C) Yes (C)

Yes No Yes Yes

Yes Yes Yes Yes

No No Yes Yes

Yes (C) No No No Yes (C)

Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes

Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes

Yes No No No Yes

No No Yes (C) No Yes (C) No No No No

Yes Yes Yes Yes No Yes Yes Yes Yes

Yes Yes Yes Yes No Yes Yes Yes Yes

No No Yes No No No No No No

Note: (C) Indicates involvement of consumers in the qualitative/unstructured stage. a Indicates studies that rely solely on structured approaches (n ¼ 31). b Indicates studies that rely both on unstructured and structured methods (n ¼ 23). c Indicates studies that rely solely on unstructured methods involving consumers to understand destination image (n ¼ 13). d Indicates studies that rely solely on unstructured methods but not involving consumers (involving review of images, photographs, etc.) to understand image (n ¼ 3).

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Annals of Tourism Research, Journal of Travel Research, and Tourism Management (Ryan, 2005). The review indicates that researchers use different approaches to measure destination image, which may suggest a general lack of agreement about the conceptualization of destination image (Beerli & Martin, 2004a, 2004b; Espelt & Benito, 2005). The review also confirms that most researchers (e.g., Beerli & Martin, 2004a, 2004b; Bigne, Sanchez, & Sanchez, 2001; Castro, Armario, & Ruiz, 2007; Chen & Tsai, 2007; Hong, Kim, Jang, & Lee, 2006; Molina & Esteban, 2006; Yuksel & Akgul, 2007) utilize quantitative approaches in the measurement of destination image, and use a variety of statistical techniques and measurement procedures with a growing sophistication of methodology and conceptualization (n ¼ 31). Table 1 reveals that two groups of qualitative studies have emerged in the literature on destination image. The first group (e.g., Coshall, 2000; Hughes & Allen, 2005; Mercille, 2005; Prebensen, 2007; Ryan & Cave, 2005; Smith, 2005) relates to those research which involved consumers to understand destination image (n ¼ 13). The second group (e.g., Bandyopadhyay & Morais, 2005; Buzinde, Santos, & Smith, 2006; Espelt & Benito, 2005) relates to those studies that did not involve consumers at any stage, but relied on content analysis of promotional materials such as images and photographs to understand image (n ¼ 3). Other researchers (e.g., Choi, Lehto, & Morrison, 2007; Hunter & Suh, 2007; Mackay & Fesenmaier, 1997; Tasci et al., 2007) use a combination of multivariate and bivariate techniques to conceptualize the destination image construct, with a greater and lesser use of qualitative methods (n ¼ 23). Overall, Table 1 suggests that scholars give strong preferences to structured approaches, when in fact a combination of qualitative and quantitative methods is the best approach to measure destination image (Echtner & Ritchie, 1991, 1993).

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORKS Means-End Chain Theory The paper focuses on the relationship between values and image formation. Conceptualization of the term ‘‘value’’ reflects the interest of several disciplines. From a psychological standpoint, Rokeach (1968, p. 161) defines value ‘‘as a centrally held, enduring belief which guides actions and judgments across specific situations and beyond immediate goals to more ultimate end-states of existence.’’ The concept of value is enjoying increasing

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attention on the part of marketers (Marketing Science Institute, 2001) as a result of the importance given to the creation of value for different customer segments by present day companies (Sanchez, Callarisa, Rodriguez, & Moliner, 2006). Similarly, the creation and transmission of value to tourists are gaining paramount importance in the tourism industry where increasing global competition and the emergence of more demanding and sophisticated groups of travelers are evident (Flagestad & Hope, 2001; Ryan, 2002). Values are thus considered useful for market segmentation and positioning. As a result, several researchers recognize the potential role of such values in influencing consumer decision-making (Long & Schiffman, 2000), suggesting a relationship between values and behavior (Vinson et al., 1977). Past marketing research analyzes the value of a product using expectancy-value models, which focus on analyzing product attributes in relation to choice of products (Long & Schiffman, 2000). While such an approach is useful in predicting brand preferences, it does not attempt to explain why a particular consumer evaluates product attributes in different ways, and thus choosing one brand over the other (Vinson et al., 1977). However, MEC that has its root in cognitive psychology provides the necessary framework for understanding what motivates consumers to choose one option instead of another in a given choice situation and the role of values in product choice. Connecting the possession or consumption of products or services to the consumers’ values is a useful approach (Huber, Herrmann, & Morgan, 2001). Rooted in the work of Kelley (1955) and developed as a tool for consumer behavior research (Gutman, 1982, 1991; Reynolds & Gutman, 1988; Reynolds, Gutman, & Fielder, 1985), the central idea behind this approach is that goods, services, destinations, and ideas have meanings to consumers who evaluate these meanings when making purchase and consumption decisions (Gutman, 1982). MEC was originally developed in order to supply a theoretical structure capable of linking values to human behavior and attitudes (Veludo-de-Oliveira, Ikeda, & Campomar, 2006b). Fig. 1 shows the structure of the MEC. MEC represents three levels of cognitive structure or three basic levels of abstraction (Klenosky, Gengler, & Mulvey, 1993; McIntosh & Thyne, 2005) known as attributes (A), consequences (C), and values (V), forming an

Attributes

Consequences

Fig. 1.

Basic Structure of the MEC Model.

Values

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A–C–V sequence. Attributes, which represent the first level of cognitive structure, are the concrete product or service. The second level of cognitive structure, which is more abstract than the first level, refers to the consequences associated with experiencing and using the product or service. This means that individuals select products or services with attributes that produce desired consequences or benefits and minimize undesired consequences or costs. The most abstract of cognitive structures is the final level of meanings. This includes personal values that are centrally held and enduring beliefs about desired end-state existence. Researchers consider such values to influence attitudes and behavior (e.g., choice of destination) (Kahle, 1983; Rokeach, 1973; Verhoff, Douvan, & Kulka, 1981). This is in line with previous research that confirms the relationship between values and human behavior (e.g., Beatty, Kahle, Homer, & Mirsa, 1985; Klenosky, 2002; Madrigal & Khale, 1994; Rokeach, 1973; Rosenberg, 1956). The three elements fundamentally relate to each other, where attributes (means) are crucial for the benefits (consequences) they provide, both of them (means and consequences) being functions of the personal values (ends) they are associated with (Klenosky, Frauman, Norman, & Gengler, 1998), forming an A–C–V (attribute–consequence– value) sequence. From this perspective, destinations’ attributes serve as a means to some ends. A traveler may prefer a particular destination attribute for different reasons, as a particular attribute can provide different benefits to different consumers of the destination’s product. In addition, a particular benefit is important because it helps consumers to achieve other important benefits and goals (Kolar, 2007).

Theory of Consumption Value While prior studies segment customers based on the consumers’ most highly ranked value (e.g., Kahle, 1983; Kahle, Beatty, & Homer, 1986, Novak & MacEvoy, 1990), Kamakura and Novak (1992) argue that this approach is problematic for two reasons. Firstly, they note that an individual value can have multiple interpretations. Secondly, they argue that using the highest ranked value can lead to measurement errors. They recommend that segmenting customers by value systems rather than by a single value is more plausible as this would mean more reliability and greater interpretability. Sheth, Newman, and Gross (1991a, 1991b) also note that market choice is a function of multiple values, which make differential contributions to choice situations and argue that examining multiple values can offer richer

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interpretation of behavior. In this context, the TCV that Sheth et al. (1991a, 1991b) develop becomes useful and deserves an explanation. TCV postulates that consumers attach different values to product groups and that these in turn influence their motivations to purchase. They note that the marketing choice behavior is a multidimensional phenomenon comprising several values – functional, social, emotional, epistemic, and conditional – which influence consumer choice. For example, a consumer may purchase a mobile phone because of its style (social value), while another consumer may buy the product because of its functional values (e.g., long battery duration time). Sheth et al. (1991b) provide useful definitions of five consumption values:  Function: The perceived utility acquired by an alternative as the result of its ability to perform its functional, utilitarian, or physical purposes.  Social: The perceived utility acquired by an alternative as the result of its association with one or more specific social groups. Alternatives acquire social value through association with positively or negatively stereotyped demographic, socioeconomic and cultural-ethic groups.  Emotional: The perceived utility acquired by an alternative as the result of its ability to arouse feelings or affective states.  Epistemic: The perceived utility acquired by an alternative as the result of its ability to arouse curiosity, provide novelty, and/or satisfy a desire for knowledge.  Conditional: The perceived utility acquired by an alternative as the result of the specific situation or the context faced by the choice maker. The fundamental propositions underpinning the TCV are as follows:  the choices a consumer makes are a function of multiple consumption values;  the values make differential and incremental contributions to choice situations (such as between destination X, destination Y, or destination Z);  the consumption values are independent (Sheth et al., 1991b, p. 7).

VALUES, IMAGE FORMATION, AND TRAVEL BEHAVIOR Though, image of a destination influences the travel decision-making process (Baloglu & Brinberg, 1997; Baloglu & McCleary, 1999a; Gallarza

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et al., 2002), most of the studies investigate only the image of the destination, without an attempt to identify which categories of images influence destination choice (Chen & Hsu, 2000; Tapachai & Waryszak, 2000). This may be the result of the quantitative approaches that prior studies use (Tapachai & Waryszak, 2000); see Table 1. Among the few researchers who examine the influence of particular attributes of a destination’s image on decision-making, Crompton (1979) suggests that not all types of images influence the tourist’s travel behavior. He argues that ‘‘the descriptive image data without inclusion of the evaluative dimension is of limited value for it gives no indication of the relative importance that respondents attach to particular attributes of destination image when making a vacation decision’’ (p. 19). Walmsley and Lewis (1993) note that evaluative images are important because they tend to influence discretionary trip behavior, which makes it crucial to understand the evaluative dimensions of a destination’s image (Ashworth & Goodall, 1990; Tapachai & Waryszak, 2000). For marketing purposes, understanding the evaluative dimensions of a place’s image related to vacation decision is important (Tapachai & Waryszak, 2000). Kotler and Barich (1991) note that a company’s marketing image reflects the way consumers view the consumption or exchange value of the product offered by the organization. A company will have a strong marketing image ‘‘if customers believe that they get high value when they buy from that company’’ (Tapachai & Waryszak, 2000, p. 38). Kotler and Barich (1991) further argue that such image influences the buying behavior of consumers. This implies that the consumption values or benefits that a consumer expects to derive from consuming a product or service determine the image of the product or service (Moutinho, 1984; Tapachai & Waryszak, 2000). Researchers consider such values as essential results of marketing activities (Oh, 2003; Dumond, 2000) and as important predictors of opinion about products and issues (Worsley & Skrzypiec, 1998). Values are therefore antecedents of consumer choice (Bagozzi & Dholakia, 1999). In this context, understanding the consumption values that travelers derive from visiting a destination becomes important. Such values allow for the evaluative dimensions of image to be captured while at the same time they enable the identification of those dimensions of image that influence the travel decision-making process. The preceding discussion informs the following proposition. Proposition 1. Consumption values deriving from visiting a place indicate the evaluative dimensions of image and are likely to be important antecedents of travelers’ behavior.

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MEASUREMENT ISSUES Data from the MEC are collectable through a qualitative interview technique known as laddering (Reynolds & Gutman, 1984). Reynolds and Gutman (1988, p. 12) comprehensively define the laddering technique as ‘‘An in-depth, one-to-one interview technique used to develop an understanding of how consumers translate the attributes of products into meaningful associations with respect to self, following the Means-End Theory.’’ Laddering is a useful qualitative technique widely used in researching consumer behavior (Veludo-de-Oliveira, Ikeda, & Campomar, 2006a, 2006b). Studies seek to understand customer value according to the models of MEC (Botschen, Thelen, & Pieters, 1999; Dibley & Baker, 2001; Lin, 2002; Nunkoo & Ramkissoon, 2009). Marketing research utilizes laddering to explore consumers’ opinions, beliefs, and attitudes (Veludode-Oliveira et al., 2006a, 2006b). The technique allows for a deep understanding of consumers’ preferences and motivations concerning a given product class, in the context of in-depth interviews (Dibley & Baker, 2001; Reynolds & Gutman, 1988). Wansink (2000) notes that the laddering probe is similar to that of the work of a psychologist where the latter interviews a patient on a couch and uncovering insights into the life of the patient that are not apparent to even the patient. Scholars have successfully applied the laddering technique in the field of psychology, marketing, advertising, architecture, information technology, organizational management (Rugg et al., 2002) and tourism (Klenosky, 2002; Klenosky et al., 1998; Nunkoo & Ramkissoon, 2009; Thyne, 2001). So far, use of laddering to understand consumption value is limited in destination image research. Scholars have not yet investigated how the technique can uncover the consumption values likely to influence travel behavior. Laddering uses a series of progressive questions that allow an interviewer to understand how a product’s (destination’s) attributes, the consequences of using (visiting) it, and the values it satisfies are linked together (Wansink, 2003). In the beginning phase of the laddering probe, the interviewer asks the respondent about what kinds of features would be useful to describe or distinguish different products (destinations). The goal here is to encourage the respondent to mention the main attributes of the product (destination). Based on this initial answer that refers to the attributes of the product (destination), the value hierarchy begins to be built where the interviewer discusses the reasons of preferences mentioned by the respondent. From here, the interviewer tries to move the answer to an abstraction level

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corresponding to consequences and consumption values. Laddering thus guides the respondent up or down the ladder of abstraction, facilitating an inductive perspective on understanding the relationship between consumption values and travel behavior (Klenosky et al., 1993). Such consumption values can be considered to be antecedents of the image of the destination as well as determinants of travel choice. In researching destination image, the researcher can ask the respondent the following questions to reveal the relevant destination attributes that are important to the traveler visiting a particular destination: ‘‘What comes to your mind when you think about destination X?’’ or ‘‘Describe the image of destination X.’’ Following the respondent’s answers to these questions, the researcher can then push the interviewee up a ladder of abstraction by asking ‘‘Why are, or are not, particular attributes important to you?’’ At this stage, identifying negative image/attitudes toward the destination is important as this can strengthen information for describing that value category (Reynolds & Gutman, 1984) and thus facilitating the connection structures (Sun & Collins, 2007). Following the respondent’s answers to the previous question, the interviewer continues asking questions such as ‘‘Why is that important or not important to you?’’ This process continues and the researcher continues asking probing questions until the respondent reveals relevant consumption values. The researcher can categorize such values as function, social, emotional, epistemic, or conditional and can consider them to be the antecedents of image and travel behavior. The laddering process thus enables the researcher to deepen understanding of the image of the destination as well as those components of image (consumption values) influencing travel behavior. Laddering allows the researcher to move the responses to an abstraction level matching the consequences and consumption values. In this way, the interviewer is able to guide the respondent along a ladder of abstraction where the links between the relatively concrete attributes of the destination are uncovered, the more abstract positive or negative image those attributes provide and the consumption values important to the respondent are revealed, resulting in a better understanding of the image of the destination. Though laddering is a useful way of uncovering consumption values determining destination image, it is not without caveats. Douglas and Craig (1997) note that consumers are not always motivated by one type of consumption value, but by a combination of consumption values. The hierarchical value map that is built from the data gathered from the laddering interview limits its ability to deal with consumers holding multiple or mixed values (Sun & Collins, 2007). In fact, the model of the paper

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proposes that destination image is a function of multiple consumption values rather than of a single value. Travelers may hold multiple values (influencing destination image) and the level of belonging to each value may differ (Hofstede, Audenaart, Steenkamp, & Wedel, 1998; Malhotra, 1996; Rugg & McGeorge, 1995). Therefore, it seems useful to identify segments of travelers holding similar mixed values (Sun & Collins, 2007). Relying solely on the laddering technique to retrieve the consumption values influencing destination image and travel behavior might lead to research biases and produce limited findings. However, such a method becomes very useful if it is combined with other quantitative methods of data collection and analysis. The combination of qualitative and quantitative technique leads to more credible and dependable results (Decrop, 1999). Laddering can be combined with a survey method based on structured questionnaires. In fact, combination of qualitative and quantitative methods has been found to be the best approach to measure destination image (Echtner & Ritchie, 1991, 1993). Following the collection of data from laddering, connection structures for each consumption value are established. Positive and negative attributes of the destination associated with each of the five consumption values represent these connection structures. Such information is used to develop a structured questionnaire survey with the aim of studying the perceptions of travelers toward the destination’s attributes that are linked to various consumption values derived from laddering. Attributes that are found to have a relationship with consumption values are framed into different statements where respondents are asked to state their level of agreement or disagreement using a 1–5 Likert scale (e.g., where 1 ¼ strongly agree; 2 ¼ agree; 3 ¼ uncertain; 4 ¼ disagree; 5 ¼ strongly disagree). The combination of the laddering technique and the structured method is essential for several reasons. The use of Likert scale type questions designed from data collected during the laddering interview would mean that dimensions used to operationalize destination image are those which the respondents consider as important. This is a superior approach to other studies which rely solely on structured approaches (as noted in Table 1) where the survey instrument requires the respondent to respond to prescribed characteristics that do not necessarily comprise the image they have of the destination (Kunkel & Berry, 1968). A combined approach thus enables the holistic and subjective image of the place to be captured (Echtner & Ritchie, 1991, 1993; Grosspietsch, 2006). Sun and Collins (2007) also discuss the advantages of combining laddering with a structured survey in the context of consumption values.

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They argue that laddering technique is an effective tool for discovering the connection patterns for each consumption value which is beyond surveys using structured questionnaires where the respondent remains patient for no more than 3–5 min (Malhotra, 1996). They further note that questions about consumption values in the questionnaire are sometimes misunderstood by the interviewee since concepts of values are elusive and abstract for most people. Furthermore, the combination of these two methods makes it possible to evaluate consumers with multiple values with different emphasis (Sun & Collins, 2007). This enables an understanding of the influence of each value on destination image and travel behavior. They further argue that such a combination allows for a quantitative assessment of each consumption value where data from the qualitative phase is on a small scale whereas that collected from the quantitative one is very often on a large scale. The preceding discussion informs the following proposition. Proposition 2. A combination of qualitative and quantitative approaches is necessary to thoroughly assess travelers’ consumption values.

Fuzzy Logic Laddering technique is, however, unable to deal with issues of overlapping values (Sun & Collins, 2007). Thus, the paper proposes the use of fuzzy logic theory in combination with laddering to study the relative importance of each identified consumption value relevant to a particular destination. Fuzzy logic theory is an analytical approach which allows for multiple membership of sets and different levels of attachment to any one set with a basic assumption that no clear boundaries exist between members and nonmembers of a set (Sun & Collins, 2007). Fuzzy logic is very popular in marketing research such as fuzzy market structures and segments (Hruschka, 1986; Wedel & Steenkamp, 1989, 1991), consumer choice (Mela & Lehmann, 1995) and measures of product categorization (Loken & Ward, 1990; Ozanne, Brucks, & Grewal, 1992). Applied to this research, fuzzy logic allows for the computation of the degree of membership of each traveler to each connection structure. The latter in turn enables the calculation of the similarity of travelers’ perception patterns to the connection structure of each value generated from the laddering technique (Sun & Collins, 2007). Previous research (e.g., Sun & Collins, 2002, 2007) reveals that consumers’ consumption values are mixed with degrees of emphasis differing from group to group. Sheth et al. (1991a, 1991b) also

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note that choice of product is a function of multiple values rather than of a single one. Therefore, it is reasonable to propose that destination image and travel behavior are functions of multiple consumption values with diverse groups of travelers putting different emphasis on the different consumption values. Fuzzy logic allows for an understanding of how the different consumption values overlap and can help the researcher to understand those components of image that are most important to the respondent. By allowing the measurement of the degree of emphasis put on each value, it also allows for an understanding of the most influential variable (components of image) on travel behavior. As such, use of this method can be considered as a valuable contribution to destination image studies. Fuzzy Set Construction To provide a better illustration as to how fuzzy logic can be applied in researching destination image, the paper proposes a hypothetical fuzzy set construction using the five consumption values based on the methodology used by Sun and Collins (2007). The definition and notation of each of the five fuzzy value set are given as follows: Let mA (xi), mB (xi), mB (xi), mC (xi), mD (xi), mE (xi) designate the degree of membership of traveler xi in the fuzzy value sets A through E, respectively. xiCX, where X is the universal set or the total number of travelers interviewed. If the support sets of value sets A, B, C, D, and E in the universal set X are the crisp sets that contain all the elements in X that have nonzero membership in A, B, C, D, and E, then Supp

A ¼ fxi  XjmA ðxi Þ40g B ¼ fxi  XjmB ðxi Þ40g C ¼ fxi  XjmC ðxi Þ40g D ¼ fxi  XjmD ðxi Þ40g E ¼ fxi  XjmE ðxiÞ40g

where i ¼ 1 y n and n is the total number of travelers interviewed. Let xiCSupp A, B, C, D, and E, respectively, then A ¼ mA ðx1 Þ=x1 þ mA ðx2 Þ=x2 þ    þ mA ðxn Þ=xn B ¼ mB ðx1 Þ=x1 þ mB ðx2 Þ=x2 þ    þ mB ðxn Þ=xn

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C ¼ mC ðx1 Þ=x1 þ mC ðx2 Þ=x2 þ    þ mC ðxn Þ=xn D ¼ mD ðx1 Þ=x1 þ mD ðx2 Þ=x2 þ    þ mD ðxn Þ=xn E ¼ mE ðx1 Þ=x1 þ mE ðx2 Þ=x2 þ    þ mE ðxn Þ=xn where the ‘‘/’’symbol links the grade of membership mi with the element xi and the ‘‘þ’’sign shows that the various m/xi collectively comprise the sets.

Membership Function and Survey Data Transformation Fuzzy sets are sets whose elements have degrees of membership (Zadeh, 1965). The membership function of such sets defines how the grade of membership of x in A is determined, enabling to describe the vague characteristics of the set (Sun & Collins, 2007). The assignment of the membership function of a fuzzy set complies with the rule that the grade of membership is 1 in the middle of the set and that it goes down in an appropriate way through the fuzzy boundaries to the region outside the set where it takes the value to 0 (Sun & Collins, 2007). The membership function is used to describe any distribution of membership between sets and elements (Klir & Folger, 1988). Depending on the context, the graded membership function can be represented in various forms (Sun & Collins, 2007). For the purpose of this study, the membership function for each of the consumption values can be built based on the connection structures derived from laddering. This will ensure that the data collected from laddering is closely integrated into the member function resulting in an effective combination of the qualitative and quantitative approaches under use. The data that is collected using the structured questionnaire survey has to be transformed by the following proposed segment functions before entering the membership functions in order to process the fuzzy operations: If a consumption value is positive toward one of the destination’s attribute (kj), then 8 > :0

if agreement level ¼ 1 and 2 if agreement level ¼ 3

if agreement level ¼ 4 and 5 If a consumption value is negative toward the destination’s attribute (kj), then:

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8 > :1

159

if agreement level ¼ 1 and 2 if agreement level ¼ 3 if agreement level ¼ 4 and 5

kj represents the attributes, j ¼ 1, 2, 3, y, n.

K-Means Clustering of Travelers Douglas and Craig (1997) note that consumers can hold multiple values with varying levels of belonging to each value. In support of this, Hruschka (1986) also argues that traditionally consumers belong to crisp sets with different values which are clearly distinguishable from one another. As a result, the construction of membership functions discussed above is advantageous for many reasons. Firstly, the degree of membership of the travelers to each value can be calculated, even if the travelers hold multiple values. Secondly, such a method also allows for an analysis of the value overlap issue which researchers can address by clustering the travelers depending on their degree of membership to the five consumption values. Each clustered group of travelers will have its own cluster center composed by the average degrees of membership of this group to each of the five consumption values. The values in the average degrees are indications of how and to what degree consumption values overlap. The percentage of travelers in that group in turn indicates the extent to which destination image and travel behavior are influenced by mixed values.

POTENTIAL MARKETING IMPLICATIONS An understanding of consumption values that a destination provides and the influence of such values on travel behavior has potential impacts on all dimensions of a destination marketing program. Value research has particular application for market analysis, segmentation, destination product planning, and promotional strategies (Pitts & Woodside, 1986; Vinson et al., 1977). Reinforcing the importance of values to marketing, Sun and Collins (2007, p. 576) note that ‘‘to position a product successfully, marketers need to categorize information about that product’s attributes into the consumption values that the product can provide.’’ By focusing on the emphasis on the different values put by different travelers, the research

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indicates that destinations can be similar in some respects, but differ in others. This is particularly important since previous studies (e.g., Govers & Go, 1999, 2003) using the multiattribute system measurements have ‘‘failed to detect significant image differences among different groups of consumers that show unequal levels of preference’’ (Govers, Go, & Kumar, 2007b, p. 980). Therefore, segmenting travelers based on consumption values seems to be an obvious and effective marketing strategy for Destination Marketing Organizations. Each clustered group of travelers contains consumers with varying images of the destination, diverse needs, and expectations from the place. This means that different promotional and marketing strategies that address the desired benefits sought by each value segment are necessary to effectively target travelers in the various segments identified. Such an approach ensures a better understanding of motives and behavior of travelers and the different images of the destination that the consumers have. Thus, values can be used as an important consideration in market segmentation and as a tool to achieve higher precision and effectiveness (Vinson et al., 1977). Destination managers can also emphasize on the ways in which places satisfy important values in an attempt to attract new visitors while at the same time retaining existing ones (Pitts & Woodside, 1986). Destinations can also conduct longitudinal studies using the proposed methods in an attempt to identify changing values among international travelers in an attempt to identity new product opportunities and modify existing tourism products to satisfy consumers with changing value orientations. For example, changing importance of values such as pleasure, an exciting life, living a life of pleasure and being intellectual may suggest the importance of brand names to destinations. Vinson et al. (1977) also notes the relationship of values to media readership and viewing habits. They argue that through an understanding of the preferences for travel by large and diverse groups of travelers, destination marketers would be better able to select those media and communication strategies which will meet the diverse value orientations of travelers. This is particularly important since tourism is considered to be an informationintensive industry, which relies on communication with travelers to be successful (Ramkissoon & Nunkoo, 2008). Finally, MEC, with its categorization of attributes, consequences, and values allows destination marketers to identify and target travelers with central and peripheral needs. This would allow Destination Marketing Organizations to design their tourism products and engage in effective marketing strategies and advertising campaigns.

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CONCLUSION Do not ignore the importance of values to marketing research. This paper examines travelers’ consumption values derived from a destination and discusses their usefulness in destination image research. Destination image is a function of five consumption values: functional, social, emotional, epistemic, and conditional and these in turn influence travel behavior. Such values influence the image of a destination and travel behavior. The paper proposes an in-depth interview known as laddering, based on the MEC, together with a structured method as ideal approaches to measure the consumption values. These approaches also allow the researcher to adopt ‘‘value’’ segmentation while at the same time recognizing those values that have the biggest influence on travel behavior. The suggested methodologies also enable to quantitatively measure the influence of consumption values on tourist destination choice. The hope is that this paper will further debate on the measurement of destination image, more particularly on the role of values in determining image and travel behavior. Nevertheless, one of the limitations of this piece of research still remains. Empirically testing the proposed approaches is beyond the scope of this report. Scholars should empirically test them in an attempt to bring additional theoretical and methodological contributions to destination image research and to better understand the role of values in shaping image and behavior.

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MORPHOLOGY OF A HOTEL TRADITION: THE GUEST QUESTIONNAIRE Alfred Ogle ABSTRACT This paper reviews the literature on hotel guest questionnaires, also commonly known in the industry as comment cards. Considered a hotel tradition, the ubiquitous questionnaire remains the primary method employed by mainstream hotels to elicit and record guest feedback despite shortcomings in data reliability and response rates. Hence questionnaires play a key facilitation role in the collection of guest feedback (guest–hotel dyad in hotel communication). The paper traces the history of questionnaire utilization in the hotel industry, and examines evolutionary changes in terms of form and function. A typology of questionnaire genre is constructed. Used either independently or in combination with other methods, the traditional paper guest questionnaire has been complemented or even superseded by e-based variants. Obsolescence threatens the paper questionnaire as technology uptake permeates the hotel industry. This paper considers a ‘‘service innovation’’ by using the questionnaire as a communication tool along the hotel–guest dyad. A back-to-basics approach potentially yields a valuable and cost-efficient guest service encounter opportunity whilst mitigating questionnaire data deficiencies. Perspectives on Cross-Cultural, Ethnographic, Brand Image, Storytelling, Unconscious Needs, and Hospitality Guest Research Advances in Culture, Tourism and Hospitality Research, Volume 3, 169–214 Copyright r 2009 by Emerald Group Publishing Limited All rights of reproduction in any form reserved ISSN: 1871-3173/doi:10.1108/S1871-3173(2009)0000003009

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INTRODUCTION The guest questionnaire (which the industry also calls a ‘‘comment card’’) is a hotel tradition (Barsky & Nash, 2001). Various questionnaire variants are in use ranging from fully open-ended line of questioning to the completely closed-ended. The most favored variant is the one that combines closed multiple choice questions (MCQs) with some open-ended questions. Hence the combination format has become the de facto industry standard, being referred to as the ‘‘hybrid-type’’ questionnaire in this paper. Guest questionnaires, together with other printed collaterals, are placed in the guestroom (Lewis, 1983; Losekoot, Wezel, & Wood, 2001; Trice & Layman, 1984) for the guest to use on demand. This passive method of eliciting and recording guest feedback is the primary one that mainstream hotels use (Barsky & Huxley, 1992; Geller, 1984) and may be the sole formal feedback mechanism that they use. This prevailing popularity, despite other methods being available to hoteliers, is probably attributable to its ubiquity and familiarity to both guests and hoteliers. While some researchers criticize the questionnaire for deficiencies, namely reliability (Yesawich, 1978) and low response rate (Hagel & Rayport, 1997), a paucity in academic studies exists on how the guest perceives the paper questionnaire. Likewise, no studies specifically address the issue of efficacy and utility from a hotelier perspective, although data from hotel questionnaires is commonplace in contemporary research. Early landmark studies relating to hotel guest questionnaire design (Gilbert & Horsnell, 1998; Kraft & Martin, 1997; Lewis & Pizam, 1981; Trice & Dolan, 1985) grapple with fundamental operant issues. However, with those pioneering researchers not conducting subsequent studies (Gilbert, 2007, personal communication; Kraft, 2007, personal communication; Trice, 2004, personal communication), the impetus from those early studies appeared to dissipate, imparting negligible impact on practitioners as reflected in the undistinguished design of the average hotel guest questionnaire in current use. Subsequent research is infrequent and contextual in nature. For example, Su (2004) assesses guest questionnaire design in Taiwan, while Schall proposes best practice based on consultancy work with clients in the Americas and Europe. As a result of these fragmented approaches, questionnaire design and application has been, and remains, wanting of an overarching principle – a possible explanation for the absence of industry best practice. Evolution of the questionnaire includes the shifting from a paper format to an electronic format (e-format). Other service industries such as the

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airlines have influenced the shift to the e-format (Dandapani, 2006), and the proliferation of online e-comment card services’ suppliers targeting the hotel industry is evident, Yelkur and DaCosta (2001) finding hotels commonly to provide guest feedback links on their websites. The paper questionnaire, however, still remains the model for other industries such as hospitals (Desombre & Eccles, 1998) and group package tour agencies (Wang, Guo, Chou, & Lin, 2003). A distinction between the guest questionnaire and the guest satisfaction survey exists in the literature. According to Prasad (2003), the questionnaire and survey are not substitutes for one another and have different objectives. A questionnaire serves as a ‘‘tactical information tool for immediate problem solving and for monitoring service quality delivery,’’ while a sample survey is strategic and ‘‘provides many insights resulting from rigorous quantitative analysis of data, competitive benchmarking and trend analysis’’ (Prasad, 2003, [online]). The terms, however, appear to be used interchangeably, the guest questionnaire often being described as a guest satisfaction survey.

HOTEL–GUEST COMMUNICATION Communication between service providers and their customers in the service delivery process is crucial (Garrett & Meyers, 1996), especially in the hospitality industry (Berwick, 2003; Mount & Back, 1999). Traditionally, hoteliers interacted extensively with in-house guests, thereby deriving firsthand feedback. Pitta, Franzak, and Laric (2003) note that, for several industries, the traditional face-to-face interactions between service provider and customer have all but disappeared. As such interactions are commonplace in hotels, the hotel industry would therefore appear to be one of the exceptions. However, due to the larger scale of operations of contemporary hotels and greater back office administrative demands (Weinstein, 2001), such extensive personal interactions are often no longer feasible (Palmer, McMahon-Beattie, & Beggs, 2000). Hotel managers typically delegate the task of direct survey to line managers and frontline staff (Pfitscher, 1992), both of whom typically use technology imbedded formal structures and processes such as the property management system (PMS) guest history function and customer relationship management (CRM) software to streamline and consolidate the feedback process and the resultant knowledge management function (Abrahamson, 1991; Palmer et al., 2000).

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The use of electronic data collection formats is another application of technology in eliciting guest feedback that is recommended by Hendrie (2005) who exhorts hoteliers to embrace online guest evaluation, discounting the paper questionnaire as being outdated and irrelevant. While webbased questionnaires have become prevalent, their effectiveness is unknown at present due to a reluctance of hotels to disclose their online response rates and expose their limited study of this area (Lee & Hu, 2004; Sampson, 1998). E-mail or e-mail attachment questionnaires are similar to a paper questionnaire in that they must be collected or physically returned by the respondent (Gartner Group, 2001). Although a viable alternative to the paper questionnaire, the e-questionnaire engenders little differentiation in terms of data elicitation and response algorithm. As no information on efficacy is available, e-questionnaires, as a data collection methodology, may not prove to be effective at present, especially when all hotel guests may not necessarily have access to Internet. However, optimism for e-questionnaire growth potential is apparent (Johnston, 2006 Wolff in Walsh, 2003), despite the considerable inconsistencies in levels of e-mail customer service quality (Schegg, Murphy, & Leuenberger, 2003). In addition, a link may exist between Internet usage and complainers’ higher income level (Lee & Hu, 2004), thereby presenting a possible bias in data obtained from web-derived feedback. Heung (2003) demonstrates that both higher education levels and annual household income positively influence online purchases of travel products, thereby lending support to that assertion. A typical online guest questionnaire (e.g., see Hilton Hotels Corporation’s e-mail form at http://www1.hilton.com/en_US/hi/customersupport/feedback.do) mimics the layout of a paper questionnaire with the obvious difference being the use of the ‘‘pull down menu.’’ This function provides guests with a selection of standard responses and, in most cases, an opportunity to select an ‘‘other’’ option and to specify an answer in an open field. However, unlike paper questionnaires that are predictably placed in the guestroom thereby requiring minimal effort to locate, the hotel chain web-based guest questionnaire requires a certain amount of web navigation. However, two major international chains now use online questionnaires, effectively replacing the paper questionnaire entirely (Alexander, 2006). One chain’s decision to eliminate mail-out paper surveys also further demonstrates a confidence in this method. Another chain, while embracing the ‘‘electronic guest comment card system,’’ recognizes the danger of response dilution in terms of volume and quality from their guests being inundated with e-questionnaires, thus limiting requests to each guest at one per quarter (Brophy, 2005).

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An industry pundit remains unconvinced, stating the hotel industry ‘‘can never (and never will be) a virtual industry’’ and ‘‘cannot afford to take the impersonal approach that e-mails perforce entail’’ (Dandapani, 2006 [online]). Moore (2006b) identifies another factor undermining e-mail as a channel of communication: if an e-mail manages to pass firewalls, SPAM filters and blockers, and does eventually reach the intended recipient, there is no obligation on the part of the recipient to open the e-mail or the attachment, if any. Deleting an e-mail requires a single keystroke rendering the effectiveness of such a method of communicating with guests somewhat precarious. E-mail as a method therefore does not appear to offer an advantage over the paper questionnaire in terms of yielding higher responses. Regarding security, one chain places the following advisory on its website, ‘‘Information Regarding Internet Scams’’ (Hilton Hotels Corporation, 2006), which alerts customers to ‘‘phishing’’ activity targeting their frequent guest program members, advising vigilance. Finally, innovative products showcasing technology, such as the UniFocus’ GUESTScopet pod, which allow guests to record their opinions electronically at check-out. Similarly, Pertlink’s handheld HOTELINMYHANDt features an e-questionnaire. The concept of obtaining data in real time was introduced by Cadotte (1979) in the 1970s, but even with newly available technology, the uptake of such new products is low, possibly due to cost and guest acceptance issues. Guest satisfaction market surveys provide statistically sound data, being the backbone of mainstream market and customer satisfaction research. However, on-site research could antagonize customers (Swan, Trawick, & Carroll, 1981). According to the group Director of Rooms of a deluxe international hotel chain (Cheah, 2004, personal communication), in-house guests are rarely surveyed during their stay, hoteliers being reluctant to bringing inconvenience to those who may be time-constrained or wish to be undisturbed. Some hotel chains, however, invite a random sample of inhouse guests, according to set daily or weekly quotas, to complete a guest questionnaire for the corporate office, thereby bypassing the hotel General Manager (GM). While resembling a randomized survey in terms of administration, the survey instrument is basically a guestroom guest questionnaire in terms of appearance and content. Syndicated and proprietary third-party surveys by various market research companies such as J.D. Powers and Associates and UniFocus are invaluable to hoteliers (Worchester, 1999), commonly gathering data to steer management decision-making (Breiter, Tyink, &

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Cory-Tuckwell, 1995) and underscore industry benchmarking. However, given that in-house guests appear to resent this imposition on their time, the data would mostly be derived from surveys conducted post-stay, such as via e-mail, direct mail and telephone (Whitford, 2001). Even though these techniques appear to be only capturing retrospective viewpoints, which Swan et al. (1981, p. 356) refer to as ‘‘after-the-fact data on recall of intentions and expectations,’’ and are hence less accurate (Finkelstein, 1989), the data may be useful nonetheless, for example, for trend analysis. Such methods, however, cannot provide the hotelier with real-time feedback. Online feedback mechanisms, such as customer and complaint blogs, are in their infancy but appear to be growing in influence (Gelb & Sundaram, 2002; Gilbertson, 2006); however, online interventions are only pertinent to guests who have ready computer access and are willing to share their views in the virtual domain. Sites such as TripAdvisor.com, Activehotels.com, Travelblog.com, and Holidayuncovered.com are gaining in popularity because customers are becoming increasingly disillusioned with hotel and travel agency marketing. Moore (2006a, p. 11) reports that Sheraton Hotels and Resorts allows visitor uploading access to their website, making their portal ‘‘the first hotel industry website to embrace social media and feature user-generated content.’’ Sheraton’s visually rich, interactive and engaging website (http://www.starwoodhotels.com/sheraton/index.html) incorporates a guest blog which interestingly allows employee entries, which indicates ability to serve as a marketing tool. This adoption of blog functionality possibly signals a shift in how hotel chains use their Internet relationship with guests: from simply providing information (Luck & Lancaster, 2003) to extracting data online. Blogs, however, are not exempt from unscrupulous manipulation (Hudson, 2005) and biases or exaggeration (Stieghorst, 2004); therefore both potential guests and hoteliers alike must be wary of posted information. Other methods of gaining feedback from visitors, such as focus groups, are difficult to organize and conduct. The author has used this method at hotels in three countries, finding resistance from both hoteliers and in-house guests to participation in focus groups. Focus groups nonetheless can be very effective as an ad hoc means of gaining an insight into guests’ perspectives. Information gathered from the author’s research involving hotel guests in the three Australasian cities shows disparate attitudes toward guest-to-hotel communication, in general, and the guest questionnaire, in particular. Some participants shun the questionnaire, averring:

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 They should be aware of the business: they should know (how to run the hotel) already. (Peter, male, Perth).  This is supposed to be your business, I shouldn’t be the one telling you how to run your business, so no I wouldn’t (make a suggestion to the management). (Calvin, male, Perth). Others were more altruistic in behavior, welcoming the opportunity to provide feedback, stating:  I always enjoy giving my feedback. I think it’s valuable, if I go back there or just to help, that is just my nature but I enjoy the questionnaire, well I don’t enjoy them but I always fill them out. (Jenny, female, Perth).  If the service and things are good, we could compliment them for what they have done. Or if something is not good – it is not a ‘‘complaint’’y but (if it) will make a difference then I would make a ‘‘complaint’’ (Susie, female, Penang). The deficiencies inherent in these alternate methods of obtaining visitor feedback may suggest that the guestroom questionnaire, despite material shortcomings, is likely the only single stand-alone instrument to play a practical role in facilitating vital guest-to-company communication in hotels. The ability to evaluate guests’ satisfaction effectively and manage that information allows an hotelier to have a potential competitive advantage in differentiating the hotel’s products, building a loyal guest profile and attracting new clientele (Crompton & Love, 1995; Gundersen, Heide, & Olsson, 1996; Oh & Parks, 1997). Hospitality enterprises most commonly use the survey to seek guests’ evaluations, both in the form of the standard paper questionnaire and ad hoc sample surveys (Barsky & Nash, 2001; Prasad, 2003; Pullman, McGuire, & Cleveland, 2005). Berwick’s (2003) observation that both hoteliers and academic researchers have yet to find the most effective way to gather information from guests suggests the industry may be lacking crucial information. Hayes (1997 cited in Pizam & Ellis, 1999, p. 326) surmises the knowledge of customer expectations and requirements is ‘‘essential for two reasons – it provides understanding of how the customer defines quality of service and products, and facilitates the development of a (sic) customer satisfaction questionnaires.’’ While a U.S. survey on hotel executives in 1981 indicates a large majority of the respondents to have used guest surveys on a permanent or ad hoc basis (Beggs & Lewis, 1981, cited in Lewis & Pizam, 1981), a 1996 study by Arthur Andersen and New York University (cited in Rampey, 1998)

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concludes that hotels lag behind other industries in tracking customer satisfaction – an important factor in making a firm competitive (Buckley, 1996). Lewis and Morris (1987, p. 15) contend that hoteliers are reluctant to ‘‘conduct serious ongoing consumer research.’’ They should strive to monitor guest perceptions of the physical environment regularly and accurately in order to identify maintenance, renovation or relocation needs (Wakefield & Blodgett, 1999); this in turn would enable them to respond appropriately to retain guest loyalty and improve return on investment (ROI). Guilding, Kennedy, and McManus (2001, p. 187) assert, ‘‘It is to be expected that periodically conducting customer evaluation exercises will provide a counter to the potential of treating valuable customer relationships in a complacent manner.’’ According to Richard and Sundaram (1993), guest feedback provides hoteliers with an understanding of what attributes influence the way guests select hotels and the impact of those attributes on guest satisfaction; therefore imperative for hoteliers to obtain quality usable guest feedback is obvious. Communication, ranging from compliments to complaints, is especially critical in the hospitality industry (Berwick, 2003; Mount & Back, 1999), with complaints being recognized by service providers as an important gauge of operational performance from the consumer’s point of view (Susskind, 2002). The questionnaire appears to function more as a means of measuring how hotel operations are perceived to be running, rather than a measurement of guest satisfaction (Lewis & Pizam, 1981). Singh (1988) identifies three ways whereby a guest may communicate dissatisfaction: voice responses, private responses, and third-party responses. When the customer seeks redress directly from the vendor, a voice response occurs. In a hotel context, a voice response would denote a face-to-face communication between the guest and management in which the guest verbally voices dissatisfaction. The author posits the voice response to include written communication from the guest to the management, such as a paper questionnaire or letter of complaint contains. When the guest articulates dissatisfaction to someone other than the vendor, a private response occurs. However, when the guest engages a third party, for example a lawyer, newspaper or consumer protection agency to redress the dissatisfaction, the third party receives the response. Avoiding private and third-party responses and responding to dissatisfaction directly with the guest would be in the hoteliers’ interest. As people dislike complaining in person (Lewis & Morris, 1987), a face-to-face voice response, hoteliers should encourage written voice responses.

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Davidow (2000, p. 232) proposes that ‘‘facilitation,’’ which he defines as ‘‘the policies, procedures, and structure that a company has in place to support customers engaging in complaints and communications,’’ is a component of the organizational response dimension. He suggests that ‘‘facilitation is the one response dimension that can be anticipated and prepared before the complaint’’ (Davidow, 2003, p. 236). A guest feedback system would have two purposes: reactive in the handling of a complaint or suggestion and proactive by providing an interface facilitating feedback. The guestroom questionnaire could arguably be a part of this facilitation thereby decreasing the chances of negative word-of-mouth (WOM) activity (Blodgett, Granbois, & Walters, 1993; Blodgett, Wakefield, & Barnes, 1995; Bolfing, 1989) and serving as the interface for guests to express their feelings and views, thus leading to increased levels of satisfaction (Nyer, 2000). Kandampully (1998) suggests that ‘‘service loyalty,’’ which is a demonstration of an organization’s commitment to fulfilling its service promise, precedes customer loyalty. Service loyalty by a hotel thus engenders guests delight and encourages their ‘‘honest participation (customer voice)’’ (Kandampully, 1998, p. 439); therefore hoteliers should aim at providing a climate conducive to dialogue. Boroumand (2006, p. 29) notes, ‘‘willingness to complain,’’ as quantified by the percentage of customers willing to voice their complaints to the service provider, ‘‘can reveal how encouraged customers are to complain.’’ Apart from verbal solicitation, hoteliers should utilize signage in public areas and printed collateral conspicuously (Rust, Subramanian, & Wells, 1992). Heung and Lam (2003) conclude that professionally produced comment cards should be made available as a means of encouraging dissatisfied customers to provide some feedback. Thus, an attractive questionnaire, as an integral part of the hotel standard operating procedures (SOP), can play a key role in eliciting guests’ ‘‘honest participation’’ which is manifest in different ways, Lewis (1983) noting comment cards as serving to voice complaints, compliments, and routine comments. Interestingly, his study shows compliments to be voiced at a mean of 32% of the time compared to complaints and routine comments (29% and 22%, respectively). A study on the ‘‘fair process’’ effect in a hospitality service recovery context reveals that customers’ perceptions should ideally be observed during guest–service provider interaction in order that appropriate recovery can be initiated (Collie, Sparks, & Bradley, 2000). Singh (1990 as cited in Susskind, 2001, p. 151) articulates this concept simply inferring a voice response ‘‘is likely to yield a direct remedy to a service failure.’’ However,

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given that accurate observation may always be neither feasible nor achievable, a means of articulating perceptions of fairness and levels of satisfaction postconsumption must be made available to the guest. The critical-incident technique of Roos (2002) requires qualitative feedback in order to become a valuable management tool; however, the technique typically involves ad hoc guest sampling (e.g., see Chung & Hoffman, 1998). The questionnaire allows guests the opportunity to raise subjective issues with hoteliers hitherto hindered by the MCQ platform. Lewis and Morris (1987) conclude that hotel guests complain in different ways according to the nature of the complaint: complaints involving tangible factors are more likely to be personal and those of an intangible nature are written. Garrett, Meyers, and Carney (1991) surmise that most of the knowledge on complaints derives from the written format which the Schoefer (2002) research finds records only a small percentage of service complaints made by customers. According to Frone and Major (1988), communication, possibly the most central process in organizations, is a two-way interaction. This would certainly be pertinent to hotel management given the people-centric nature of the hotel business (Thompson & Abbott, 1990; Schneider & Bowen, 1993 cited in Cheng & Brown, 1998; Lewis & Chambers, 1989). However, research on communication between consumers and companies regarding complaints interaction focuses primarily on communication occurring in the company–customer direction (Garrett & Meyers, 1996) rather than the reverse in corporate accounting philosophy. In a business enterprise, from a positivist accounting perspective, turnover determines performance; but with the rise of the Japanese business model and post-Fordist business paradigm of the late 1970s and mid-1980s, business performance became a function of relationships and repatronage (Clegg, 1990), thereby resulting in a dual measurement of performance, and the acknowledgment of the customer–company dyad. This new development was innovative at that time, the wider business community apparently ignoring that, the bottom line, together with customer relations, had been utilized already by the hotel industry due to high reliance on repeat stays for business sustainability. However, notwithstanding the convincing case that innovative approaches to customer accounting could improve hotel management decision-making and control (Guilding et al., 2001), the conventional dimension persists of hotel accounting by function. Despite the importance of open two-way communication between guests and management, hotels’ policies and procedures typically emphasize back office communication. While the accounting and finance processes of the

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back office are well-established, there appears to be a discrepancy in the attention given to gauging the postconsumption behavior of guests (Thomas, 1997). The PMS guest history application, for example, does provide for a channel of communication from guest to hotel providing that hotels can fully utilize their PMS software. Not all PMS-equipped hotels use this guest history capability; many hotels still applying manual Front Office systems. Research is needed on both company communication, commonly referred to as internal communication, and consumer communication, known as external communication (Garrett & Meyers, 1996), in order that hoteliers may better adapt their SOPs to cater to their guests.

QUESTIONNAIRE EVOLUTION Early Questionnaire Adoption The contemporary paper-based guest questionnaire appears to supersede the hotel guestbook that, in the past, was placed at the front desk. A search of hotel industry archives fails to provide an example of early versions of the questionnaire. The author believes that, due to operational reasons, the questionnaire was first introduced by large independent hotels and chain hotels to replace the traditional hotel visitor/guestbook, which served the same purpose in a more rudimentary form (Hinds, 2006). Typically, the data collected in the guestbook were basic guest comments, details such as room number, dates of stay, and address for correspondence. The guestbook is still used in smaller properties and bed and breakfast (B&B) establishments, some of the latter operators place a dedicated guestbook in each room for guests to complete comments at their leisure in privacy, mimicking the convenience of the in-room questionnaire. As with the paper questionnaire, the guestbook has evolved into a virtual variant of that which features on hospitality websites. This virtual guestbook provides a communication channel and marketing opportunity to web-surfers (Lanz & Shapiro, 2003) of hotel websites via prominent signposts. However, unlike the e-guestbook, which can be monitored and edited by the web master, the traditional guestbook is a permanent record. A bound hotel guestbook while being more elegant than the electronic variant (e.g., see Hotel Torbra¨u’s guest review entry website at http://www.torbraeu.de/en/71heinta.php) is limited by portability. An interesting instruction in the Hotel Torbra¨u specimen is to send ‘‘critical comments’’ directly to the management via e-mail. While stating that such negative comments are ‘‘just as valuable’’ to the hotel as

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positive ones, the website does suggest that adverse feedback should not be discussed on the website. In this example, the e-guestbook is being used in lieu of an e-questionnaire and may imply that some hoteliers may have a preference for particular formats. The questionnaire originated in the first half of the 1900s, the reasons for this supposition being: (i) the growth in size of hotels and (ii) the founding of hotel chains. The likelihood of growth in the size of hotels, primarily guestroom inventory, was a necessary outcome as the lodging business attained recognition as an industry in its own right. The American Hotel Protective Association was founded in 1910 to be later renamed the American Hotel Association of the United States and Canada (American Hotel & Lodging Association, 2006). Secondly, the founding of hotel chains Sheraton, Westin, Best Western, Hilton occurred in the 1930s and 1940s, with Holiday Inn Hotels and Resorts following in 1952. Typically, hotel chains established chain standards including a formalized guest questionnaire, the early versions of which would have obtained subjective, qualitative data by means of simple, open-ended questions. This unpretentious guest questionnaire fulfilled the role of an alternate means of eliciting guest feedback for more than half a century until the format and size of the item became markedly altered.

A Shift in Questionnaire Paradigm Kraft and Martin (1997) affirm the questionnaire to gain widespread popularity among the service business in the early 1980s. The simple, guestbook-derived, qualitative questionnaire underwent a transformation in the 1980s. Essentially, the appearance changed, namely the presentation of questions – format, length, and purpose. Some of the possible reasons for this shift are: (a) The quality assurance movement was introduced to the hotel sector in the 1980s (Hall, 1990; Paraskevas, 2001). (b) The introduction of the Japanese business model and post-Fordist business paradigm of the late 1970s and mid-1980s meant business performance became a function of relationships and repatronage (Clegg, 1990); hence hotel loyalty programs became commonplace. (c) The widespread application of statistical analysis and benchmarking practices. (d) The availability of computing power and statistical analysis software.

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(e) The adoption of the market segmentation concept by Choice Hotels in 1984; and rapid advances in marketing research methods in the 1980s (Ding, Geschke, & Lewis, 1991). (f) The introduction of extended stay segments with the launch of Marriott’s Residence Inns and Holiday Corporation’s Homewood Suites in 1988. (g) The onset of global recession precipitating a ‘‘value for money’’ mentality amongst hotel guests. Generally, the accountant has the dual role of accounting and statistician, with bottom line performance and cost-cutting initiatives linked to statistics being embraced by key, executive decision-makers. The first notable change was the length of the enquiry, the quality assurance evaluation questionnaire used by Hilton International in the 1980s and 1990s, for example, being a lengthy 12-page document, more than half of which was descriptive extolling the chain’s standards of service in four areas: the condition and appearance of the hotel public areas; the front office operations; recreational facilities; and the food and beverage (F&B) function. The remainder of the questionnaire contained blank spaces for guest comments on the first three areas, and a rating table utilizing a threepoint scale for the meal experience. This exemplifies the expanded role of the questionnaire whereby a benchmarking mechanism for the chain is sought, while ‘‘educating’’ the customers on what they could expect regarding their hotel stays. One major factor, therefore, for the uptake of quantitative data collection was the marketing function, evident in the following anecdotal recollection of a veteran hotelier to a distinguished American hospitality academician (O’Halloran, 2006, personal communication): In the old Holiday Inn Innkeeper days I don’t remember having guest comment cards. It wasn’t until the marketing department asked ‘‘how are we doing’’ and the only answer was ‘‘fine’’, did we begin comment cards in the 80’s. That’s also when we started the ‘‘Inner Circle’’ program better known today as Priority Club to get to know more about our more frequent guests.

If the pervasive adoption of this new format is a paradigm shift, consider the following four questions: (a) what exactly would the questionnaires be measuring; (b) what kinds of questions should be posed in order to achieve this; (c) how are these questions to be structured; and (d) how would the data derived from the questionnaire be interpreted? Barsky and Nash (2001) opine that anecdotal feedback is not a sufficient basis for making decisions relating to employee bonuses and the assessment of capital improvements; these decisions require statistically valid data.

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The expanded format therefore incorporates quantitative questions to provide objective measurements. Statistics derived from hotel questionnaires (both the standard in-room collateral and ad hoc survey) are used by hotels, chains, and even governments to promote their products and services, suitable statistical data being provided for sophisticated analysis. For example, conjoint measurement can provide hotel marketers with the ability to rank the importance of each component of a multiattribute product while at the same time being able to determine the trade-offs guests must make in their booking decisions (Ding et al., 1991). Customer satisfaction scores can act as the customer-related scorecard indicator for the balanced-scorecard System that applies to hotels (Denton & White, 2000). Such data would be derived from quantitative guest questionnaires: Denton and White (2000, p. 101) claim such information to be part of ‘‘the vast amount of scorecard data that franchise companies track and process.’’ Statistical data, also potentially available from guest questionnaires, can be analyzed by hotel companies to improve their brands’ market efficiency using the data envelopment analysis (DEA) of Brown and Ragsdale (2002). Statistical data collected from guest questionnaires, being hospitality industry yardsticks on product and service quality, inform industry indices such as the Market Metric Hospitality Index (MMHI). According to an experienced hotel GM, quantitative data serve as a performance indicator platform used by hotel chains, such as Shangri-la’s ‘‘performance monitor,’’ an independent survey system which provides each property with an ‘‘overall stay experience’’ rating (Healy, 2005, personal communication); and Swissotel’s ‘‘guest comment card (GCC)’’ score which, together with an independently conducted telephone survey (customer service management) score and evaluation of a mystery shopper program (also conducted independently), determines individual employee and organizational performance (Loges, 2005, personal communication). From interviews with hotel GMs, inconsistencies occur in their views on linkage between guest feedback scores, and remuneration packages and bonuses. Such factors as hotel ownership, chain policies or even reluctance by some interviewees to discuss their personal financial matters may have contributed to this perception. However, hoteliers are rewarded typically based solely on hotel revenues; but guest complaints and willingness to return factors must be included in the equation, highlighting the influence of their opinion (Payne, 2005). The widespread usage of quantitative enquiry, despite the possibility of the method being reflective of the ‘‘statistical ritual’’ prevalent since the 1980s

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(Mainland, 1984, p. 841), caused the genre to become the industry de facto standard. Based on research of the early 1990s and industry practice, Barsky and Huxley (1992) derive a state-of-the-art specimen incorporating the disconfirmation paradigm and expectancy-value theory. In contrast, the contemporary hybrid is usually more extended and elaborate, resulting in a visually longer and more complex instrument.

A Proposed Questionnaire Genre Typology

Multiple Application

The hotel industry uses a number of different contemporary questionnaire design approaches, Fig. 1 being a typology of a questionnaire genre which

Quantitative

Single Application

E

Long

D B

C

A Short A: Short Fully Qualitative B: Short MCQ + small comment area C: Hybrid (MCQ + large comment spaces) D: Long MCQ + small comment spaces E: A + C (Multiple questionnaire approach)

Qualitative

Fig. 1. Guest Questionnaire Genre Typology based on Three Factors (Questionnaire Format, Questionnaire Length, and Single/Multiple Application). Explanatory Notes: The left–right diagonal axis represents the questionnaire length continuum (short to long); the top–bottom diagonal axis represents the questionnaire format continuum (qualitative to quantitative); the vertical axis indicates single and multiple applications.

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shows graphically the characteristics and relative relationships of the five different questionnaire types, a discussion of which follows. Short, Fully Qualitative: A Back-to-Basics Approach Some hoteliers are going full circle by adopting either simple questionnaires featuring a single entirely open-ended request to guests to share their stay experience in writing and to suggest ways the hotel could improve, or slightly longer multiquestion versions encouraging more focused feedback. While providing more detailed data to hoteliers, this qualitative approach simulates a naturally occurring enquiry if a manager were to encounter guests during their stay. In some questionnaires, the identifier information of the respondent is optional. This suggests that certain hoteliers consider anonymous feedback as legitimate. The disillusionment hoteliers have with the quality and amount of useable data derived from the standard hybrid format may underpin this trend. Other possible contributory factors are the respondents’ concerns about data security (Ivey, 2003), and customers being weary of encountering long enquiries (Adamson, 1994; Shreve, 2003). Calls are made for more exploratory and qualitative research in tourism and hospitality (Hobson, 2003), but whether or not this exhortation has had an influence on industry practitioners is unclear. However, a veteran hotelier with more than 30 years of international experience in Asia and Australasia, in response to a question by the author about his preferred questionnaire format when redesigning his hotel guest questionnaire, indicates a preference for a spacious, open-ended question format for guest comments (Teh, 2006, personal communication). Another possible reason for this format shift is the limitation ‘‘faceless’’ figures may hold for the average hotelier. Pullman et al. (2005, p. 323) underscore the importance of qualitative data which emphasizes the need to ‘‘analyze the content of the customer’s comments.’’ A bilingual questionnaire can be used as dictated by the geographic location of the property where the target market may be domestic tourists such as that in China (Cheah, 2006, personal communication). The addition of another language has the effect of making a questionnaire appear even more complex and lengthy in addition to requiring accurate translation requirements. Personality Hotels uses a quirky questionnaire with a qualitative bend called the Picasso Comment Card (http://www.personalityhotels.com/html/ picassos.html). Beyond providing guests ‘‘white space’’ for written comments, this format allows the guests to express their thoughts in

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creative ways thereby applying ‘‘picture completion’’ in a guest questionnaire. In lieu of the staid lined area or white space, a ‘‘canvas’’ for feedback in the form of words and drawing is provided. Kotler, Bowen, and Makens (2003) identify the variants of closed-ended questions as dichotomous, multiple choice, Likert scale, semantic differential, importance scale, rating scale, and intention-to-buy scale; while the open-ended questions are characterized as: completely unstructured, word association, sentence completion, story completion, picture completion and thematic apperception tests (TATs). Short MCQ-Based Questionnaires A possible contributory factor to the low questionnaire response rate is questionnaire length which guests may find tedious and time consuming to complete. Additionally, visual clutter may also cause confusion, convincing some industry practitioners to opt for shorter quantitative questionnaires. The Meritus Mandarin Singapore employs a three-part questionnaire that simply asks, ‘‘Did you enjoy your stay with us?’’ to which the guest has an option of answering Yes or No. This question precedes a request to rate the extent of the enjoyment on a 10-point Likert scale, with the third section being space for comments. Lawton (2002, p. 411) characterizes a three MCQ (four-point scaled) comment card, with a brief comment area, he received with his bill at a fine dining restaurant as having been obviously designed for ‘‘hurried folks like me.’’ This ‘‘handy,’’ empty-space variant would typically feature spaces inviting, but not demanding, written comment. The ‘‘Standard’’ Hybrid Many hoteliers choose to maintain the status quo, retaining multiple MCQdominant questionnaires for a number of reasons: the need for continuity in terms of data; adherence to a chain-mandated format; a perception that the hybrid-type is what a guest expects to find in the guestroom; or simply a subjective personal preference. Interestingly a veteran hotelier with extensive experience as GM with a major international hotel chain had adopted a fully qualitative questionnaire with the heading ‘‘Guest Comments’’ when he became the foundation GM of an independent hotel (Mathoi, 2006, personal interview). He discovered, however, that his guests prefer the hybrid-type questionnaire attributable to pointed questions acting as a stimulus, and the format with which the typical guest feels most at ease. Ironically, the guestbook placed at the front desk has proved to be popular with the guests.

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Pullman and Robson (2006) contend that even when guests fill out quantitative questionnaires, the basis for their comments is a subjective interpretation giving rise to the reason quantitative questions are supplemented by qualitative questions. In fact, a mix of qualitative and quantitative questions is recommendable (Desombre & Eccles, 1998; Kivela, Inbakaran, & Reece, 1999, 2000), on account that both quantitative and qualitative criterions inform service quality. While many hybrid-type questionnaires simply provide spaces for guest comments either as a section in itself or as a part of a segment, some feature open-ended questions. Such questioning allows for responses not limited by closed questions, providing the opportunity for the respondent to ‘‘express a concern or comment more precisely’’ (Wisner & Corney, 1999, p. 112). Open-ended comment areas can also generate aspects of feedback not addressed in the Likert-scale areas (Pullman et al., 2005), but despite the obvious utility, of guest comments, many questionnaires offer insufficient open-ended space for the purpose (Tordjman, 2004). The researcher surmises hotel chains generally to favor this format, which includes substantial opportunity for open-ended feedback, primarily for consistency across properties, and as part of a benchmark or indexing scheme. Extended MCQ Dominated Questionnaires Some hoteliers may employ the guestroom questionnaire as a primary, if not sole, market research tool; therefore they seek optimum data from numerous questions. In a volatile business environment, information is vital to attain and maintain competitive advantage; hence market-oriented hotel companies may update and augment their guest questionnaires, thereby yielding additional information enabling them to stay ahead of the competition. In a large organization, many different operational facets occur, and the management may wish to evaluate these in minute detail. This monitoring entails adding supplementary questions, resulting in the necessity of an extended questionnaire to obtain the substantial data pertinent to independent hoteliers. King (2004) confirms that independent hoteliers need to be very familiar with their target market, knowing what their guests need in order to cater to them well; the cost-effective way of obtaining such information being administration of an extended questionnaire. Those employing extended questionnaires must be aware of the audience being highly heterogeneous, generally the case with contemporary hotels commonly having diversified target markets. A common practice for hotels

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is to use the same questionnaire irrespective of the market segment being investigated or whether the guest was staying in the hotel or only patronizing the restaurant (Ogle & Gharavi, 2004). Hotel questionnaires also typically address multiple aspects of a hotel product such as accommodation and F&B, and managers may target a single overall score by averaging all guest responses (Schall, 2003). This, however, violates the unidimensionality of the questions, thereby undermining the survey, and suggesting the questionnaire should have a particular focus and not seek to address too many aspects of the hotel. Clearly, if much data are desired, each information category should undergo separate analysis; but the typical use of a generic questionnaire within hotel chains suggests the instrument is used to target guests notwithstanding different consumer and geographical markets. Multiple Questionnaire Approach Some companies may have the resources and scale of operations to administer more than one type of guestroom questionnaire. Some international and regional chains use both fully qualitative and hybrid types of questionnaire, presumably to cater to both the guests who prefer the freedom of an open-ended format and those who prefer the familiarity of the hybrid format, respectively. In some cases, one of the questionnaires is administered by an independent third party in order to ensure impartiality. No data are available on the relative response rates for the different types of questionnaire, but the manager of an Australian chain hotel has observed the response rate of the fully qualitative questionnaire to be higher than that of the hybrid-type questionnaire (Branch, 2004, personal communication). Pan Pacific Hotels and Resorts take a novel approach to multiple questionnaires, having three different variants, each for specific usage: one questionnaire is designed for the guest who has just checked-in for the first time; another is for a returnee guest; and yet a third for departing guests. By moving in this direction, the questionnaire size is reduced as the questions target different phases of the guests’ stay. This ‘‘customization’’ of questionnaire may mitigate guest avoidance due to length and criticism of question relevance. For example, a guest who has just checked-in would not encounter questions about the check-out which he or she would be unable to answer. Hoteliers may also be considering the move beyond the paper questionnaire to the e-questionnaire, which is becoming commonplace and often used in conjunction with a paper questionnaire. Pan Pacific Hotels and

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Resorts is launching a new online initiative – the Electronic Guest Comment Card (eGCC) which is a personalized e-mail to in-house guests, inviting them to participate in an online-based survey which the hotel management monitors in real time. Web-based booking agencies such as hotelclub.com send clients e-mail invitations to complete an online survey about the hotel at which they stayed, this ‘‘helps other users when selecting where to stay, especially when traveling somewhere for the first time’’ (Hotelclub.com, 2005). Here, in the event of unsatisfactory feedback, a voice response from the booking agency simulates a private response to the hotel. No indications are available that individual hotel managers are privy to this information; this suggests a failure to elicit negative voice responses so leading to a compounding, detrimental effect. The advent of traveler blogs and the growing popularity of online hotel reviews amongst both frequent travelers and holiday makers prompt hoteliers to monitor blog sites for identifying concerns not raised in their hotel questionnaires (Stieghorst, 2004). The real-time nature of the Internet allows operators to identify customer dissatisfaction in a timely fashion, and to implement damage control measures if necessary, the posting of adverse comments on the Internet having the potential for considerable negative impact. A multiple approach to data collection is not a new phenomenon in the hotel industry. Many progressive hoteliers apply a variety of survey methods to obtain a wider and more comprehensive perspective of their operations. Mystery shopping, for example, is a proven method of providing hoteliers with an accurate gauge of hotel performance. Nonetheless, inexpensive ongoing data are provided by the guestroom questionnaire, which appears to remain the mainstay of formal guest feedback capture, with design variety providing interest and color. On the one hand, the questionnaire’s design is cyclical; on the other, the design is transformational. This is evident in the TripAdvisor website (http://www.tripadvisor.com) which is an example of a traveler blog hosted on a commercial website. In it, hotels are rated using a five-point scale that is underpinned by qualitative guest evaluation.

QUESTIONNAIRE FORM AND FUNCTION The foregoing section suggests that there should be a divergence in hoteliers’ attitude toward the guestroom questionnaire. Views on form and function issues, such as when feedback is to be provided (in situ, postconsumption), questionnaire design (physical and philosophical), content (what should be

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asked) are the main objectives determining which variant is chosen. Despite being an industry tradition, the paper guestroom questionnaire faces the threat of being labeled a ‘‘white elephant’’ and forsaken. The hotel industry must scrutinize the whole raison d’etre of the questionnaire in order to evaluate the relevance and practicality of this tradition in today’s marketplace. To gain a deeper understanding of the feedback questionnaire, focus on the following is essential: (a) The relationship between questionnaire form and function. Form should ideally follow function. Therefore, this section should begin with a discussion on questionnaire function. However, in the real world, the two are interdependent and partly determined by peculiar circumstances underpinning questionnaire design. Nevertheless, for the purposes of this chapter, examination of questionnaire form will precede function. (b) What hoteliers are willing to do in order to get useful guest feedback. The latter covers issues such as enhancing response rates through incentive schemes and innovative approaches.

Function The guest questionnaire is multifunctional with possibilities for distinct divergence attributable to management mindset. This variance occurs in both chain and independent hotels, and within the same chain – even in the same hotel. Arguably, the academic and industry literature, and indeed industry practitioner opinion of the guest questionnaire, appear to give a reflective view of functionality. More recent literature reports the flaws of the ‘‘instrument,’’ thereby precipitating a retrospective evaluation of questionnaire function. The two main flaws are next discussed. The first flaw involves response rate. As with other methods of systematically recording customer compliments and complaints, the paper guest questionnaire frequently suffers from low response rates (Dillman, 2000; Gabbie & O’Neill, 1996; Gundersen et al., 1996; Lewis & Chambers, 1989). According to a study by Trice and Layman (1984), the response rate for questionnaires passively placed in the guestroom is less than 2%; but Sampson (1996) finds a response rate of 8.6%. Personal communication with industry practitioners supports the prevalence of low questionnaire response rates with rates ranging from below 1 to 10%. One hotelier from Macao explains that records are not kept because of minimal response rates

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(Sossna, 2004, personal communication). Moore (2005) offers further support of this phenomenon with data from his interviews with hoteliers in Hong Kong. This low questionnaire response rate could be attributable to the reluctance of guests in general to participate in surveys, to inconvenience and unavailability of time, to privacy issues (Pitta et al., 2003), and perhaps to a suspicion that the purpose of the questionnaire is more about obtaining marketing information than measuring satisfaction (Cochran, 2001; Dillman, 2000; Homans, 1961). A study by Lewis and Morris (1987) investigates guest complaint behavior at six hotels, reporting almost half the respondents would complain using the guest questionnaire. The finding suggests that, while there were guests willing to use the questionnaire their actions may not translate into actual usage given the low usage reported in the literature, and a general consensus about underuse amongst hoteliers. Questionnaires often yield information that is nonactionable feedback for managers (Barsky & Nash, 2001; Gundersen et al., 1996; Jones & Ioannou, 1993). Self-report instruments, such as hotel questionnaires and comment cards generally define either the outrageously dissatisfied or the exceptionally well-pleased guest (Barsky & Nash, 2001; Heymann & Schall, 2002; Lewis & Pizam, 1981; Meyer & Westerbarkey, 1996); they do very little to define the ‘‘gray area’’ of the average customer’s point-of-view concerning satisfaction/dissatisfaction. Harrison-Walker’s (2001) study of e-complaining shows dissatisfied customers to provide insights into service failures thereby countering the notion that negative feedback is not useful information. Apart from the extremes in satisfaction mentioned above, the questionnaire also captures the views of guests who are extremely bored or those who have made requests for extra guestroom amenities. Consequently, four broad functional categories have been identified which do, however, have a certain degree of overlap. Communication Interface On the surface, the questionnaire is typically a communication interface primarily between the guest and the hotelier. Extensive usage occurs in the questionnaire’s capacity (Lewis & Morris, 1987; Lewis & Pizam, 1981; Lipton, 2000) to obtain feedback from guests and to evaluate hotel’s performance (Geller, 1984; Moskowitz & Krieger, 2002; Trice & Layman, 1984). Questionnaires also can provide valuable qualitative data of guest expectations and behavior as demonstrated in Sherman’s (2002) study on guests’ perception of luxury hotels. Although typically representing the extremes in customer views, the questionnaire allows management to be aware of the range of their product and service provision quality and to

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initiate communication with each guest making comments, thereby assuring them the management values both positive and negative feedback (Ference, 2005). Furthermore, Sampson (1998, p. 71) points out that passive solicitation of feedback, which is the focus of the questionnaire, is ‘‘particularly useful in monitoring and controlling quality in the day-today operations of the business, and in identifying ideas for quality improvements.’’ Sampson further pronounces that, although data derived from passive solicitation would be inherently biased and thereby deficient in estimating general market consensus, such extreme-response bias would effectively identify quality issues. Less obvious is the role such data plays in communicating hotelier ethos and attitudes to guests. The design and presentation of the questionnaire reflects the attitude of management toward the guest. Window Dressing The ubiquitous nature of the questionnaire belies the unfavorable attitude that some hoteliers have toward the instrument as a guest–hotelier interface. Apart from low response rates and management utility, the ‘‘archaic and uninformative’’ questionnaire (Lewis & Morris, 1987, p. 15) is criticized as being unrepresentative (Hall, 1990; Paxson, 1995; Trice & Layman, 1984), unuser-friendly (Schall, 2003), and lacking reliability (Lewis & Pizam, 1981; Prasad, 2003). Despite being undermined as an effective feedback channel, the guest questionnaire is still widely used. The possible reasons for the questionnaire’s longevity in terms of continued usage are the following:  Guests expect to find this printed collateral in their guestrooms (Chipkin, 1999) although they may seldom use the questionnaire.  The questionnaire offers franchisers simplicity in terms of administration and adherence to chain corporate identity (CI). Franchisees are commonly required to utilize the chain-mandated questionnaire with minimal or no modifications to content.  Questionnaires offer convenience and low cost (Wisner & Corney, 1999), whereas alternative methods such as exit interviews, rap sessions, mystery shopping, focus groups, follow-up interviews, competition analysis (Lipton, 2000; Withiam, 1995), and newer technology-based data elicitation, are available to hoteliers but at much higher cost.  Hoteliers have an idiosyncratic liking for paper documents (Hendrie, 2005) and the questionnaire, being a guestroom printed collateral, may act as outward display of management empathy. This behavior links with the observation made by Rowe and Ogle (2007) that hoteliers have

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different propensities toward technology, for example, a paperless environment is mandated, based on personal factors such as age, length of tenure, level of entrepreneurship and background. Marketing Research The questionnaire provides an opportunity for marketing data to be collected from hotel guests. A preponderance of marketing-oriented questions may strongly suggest that the questionnaire may be considered as primarily a marketing research tool rather than a communication interface. A major flaw in this manner of usage, especially in the context of some large chain hotels, suggests that the instrument targets all guests notwithstanding different consumer and geographical markets. While some chains allow for customized questionnaires, Tordjman (2004) observes that hotel questionnaire themes typically cannot be differentiated according to the continent or country of origin, suggesting the voluntary homogenization of questionnaire enquiry by the hotel industry. As the geographic context in which data are collected (Berwick, Ogle, & Wright, 2003) and culturally filtered (Pizam, Pine, & Shin, 1997) may influence the responses of guests, the reliability of the data is put into question. While marketing data obtainable from guest questionnaires are proprietary and meant for internal use, the possibility exists of unethical outcomes, such as the sale of databases to third parties, thereby further undermining this industry tradition. Management Tool The literature contains numerous affirmations of the virtues of the guest questionnaire as a management tool. According to Pullman et al. (2005, p. 325), the questionnaire has ‘‘the advantages of small size, easy distribution, and simplicity’’ over the more extensive marketing survey. Lewis and Pizam (1981, p. 43) describe a well-designed hotel questionnaire as an instrument having the following virtues: ‘‘easily completed by guests, and responses are easily tabulated and analyzed by management.’’ The questionnaire provides real-time information from guests about the product and service provided, and their expectations while keeping managers better informed about unit operations (Desombre & Eccles, 1998). Questionnaires provide permanent records (Webster & Hung, 1994), functioning as part of a long-term management strategy as their utilization offers a hotel ‘‘longitudinal records that can be relatively easily analyzed’’ (Losekoot et al., 2001, p. 299). A prevailing confidence exists in the guest questionnaire

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as the literature shows managers to take the feedback from questionnaires seriously and utilize the data, at least as a simple first means to identify problems (Jones, 1999). However, there is a fear that the questionnaire may be used as a witch-hunting tool with the resultant phenomenon of ‘‘filtering’’ by line employees, thereby further diminishing the utility of the questionnaire to management. In the area of human resources strategy, Australian hoteliers place importance on the analysis of guest comment cards when determining training needs (Cheng & Brown, 1998). However, they warn against cultural differences in the importance placed on data derived from guest comment cards. Guest questionnaires act as a good barometer of hotel performance or service quality improvement initiatives. Enz and Siguaw’s (2000) reference to a hotel that empowers line staff through usage of guest comment cards reflects the positive outcome of taking the initiative of giving tangible feedback to management. Gabbie and O’Neill (1996) find in their study of two hotels in Northern Ireland that the management of one had based the renovation of their F&B facility specifically on feedback generated from guest questionnaires, thereby demonstrating the confidence placed by management on the validity of questionnaire feedback. The study also claims that the reliability of information presented on questionnaires can be questionable due to staff exploitation and deceitful manipulation of the instrument. Nevertheless, this can be effectively overcome with appropriate control measures and adequate supervision to ensure reliability. Guest questionnaire derivable ratings can, in many cases, determine managerial performance. Together with financial performance statistics, this data can establish industry benchmarks. Investigators wanting to conduct further research into hotel management also rely on data generated by guest questionnaires. Banker, Potter, and Srinivasan (2005) using such information as likelihood to return and level of complaints, as nonfinancial measures in a test of a management-incentive program of a hotel chain to show nonfinancial measures influence the financial performance. Operationalization issues of guest questionnaires are many. Hotel managers are cognizant of the need for timely feedback, using them for guest response while they are still physically on the property, thereby negating the time delay factor (Schall, 2003). Schall (2003) remarks, the longer the time lag between the actual consumption of the service or goods and the evaluation, the less accurate the measurement of some critical guest attitudes becomes. Therefore ‘‘it becomes critical that managers measure

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guest attitudes during or immediately after their stay’’ (p. 61). Pizam and Ellis (1999, p. 334) opine that the questionnaire should be administered to the guests only at the end of their experience, and that ‘‘under no circumstances should the questionnaire be left on the table before the meal was completed, or in the hotel guestroom before check-out.’’ Therefore, hotels commonly seek guest comments about their stay when they check-out (Lewis, 1983), but this may be perceived as a cursory gesture conducted by a line employee, thereby undermining efficacy as a method of obtaining accurate guest feedback. O’Neill and Palmer (2001) studied survey timing, questioning the credibility of the traditional exit survey approach in service quality assessment as the method only measures perceptions postconsumption. They acknowledge that guests ‘‘may become tiresome or distressed as a result of being asked to complete both surveys,’’ (p. 89) referring to preconsumption and postconsumption measurements. Despite being partially underpinned by the exit survey approach, the questionnaire has the potential to be highly representative of the hotel population being unlike other surveys distributed to a relatively smaller sample. Schall (2003) posits every guest to be a potential respondent, but Pitta et al. (2003) propose targeting the most attractive customers via the traditional one-to-one marketing approach for avoiding the problems being encountered with privacy issues. Such an approach would mean surveying a smaller population, thereby negating the need for a large sample size to prove reliability, and rendering the guest questionnaire a suitable research apparatus. Notwithstanding the divergence in opinion about questionnaire administration, guest questionnaires are accessible to all in-house guests at hotels employing them. However, the effects that ‘‘exposure’’ availed of by different methods of questionnaire administration, such as in-room placement, incentives and medium, have on the propensity of guest usage is unknown, warranting further research.

QUESTIONNAIRE FORM The questionnaire genre typology (see ) depicts the different types of questionnaire being utilized in the hotel industry. This construct is primarily underpinned by variables representing aspects of the physical form, which shape questionnaire appearance and presentation – typography and layout. These underpinning variables are: (a) length, which is the main determinant of questionnaire ‘‘size,’’ and (b) question format. This following section

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examines the salient characteristics of these two aspects, highlighting variations within each and examining the implications questionnaire formrelated considerations have for respondents.

Form-Related Questionnaire Aspects Size Questionnaire size is quantified in this chapter as the number of questions, and can be broadly categorized as ranging from ‘‘short’’ to ‘‘long.’’ While questionnaire size is diverse, the literature appears to suggest that a short questionnaire would be most appropriate for the hotel industry. A ‘‘shorter and straightforward’’ line of questioning, according to Yu¨ksel and Yu¨ksel (2001, p. 125), reduces ‘‘respondent fatigue’’ associated with long questionnaires, thereby supporting the view that the number of questions should be kept to the minimum (Lipton, 2000; Paxson, 1995). Similarly Trice and Layman (1984) are of the opinion that a 10-item questionnaire would be of an optimal size to attract respondents. This is further supported by O’Neill and Palmer (2001, p. 189) who confirm that ‘‘respondents are less likely to complete long surveys than they are to complete shorter ones,’’ which suggests that shorter questionnaires would be more attractive to guests. Schall (2003) implies that longer surveys might contain unnecessary questions, thereby resulting in decreased respondent response rates. A contributory factor for the attractiveness of a short questionnaire was identified by Webster and Hung (1994) who found that a 10-item questionnaire would take very little time to complete. Losekoot et al. (2001) hold two-page questionnaires to have a tendency to be incomplete, guests not noticing the second page and therefore inadvertently failing to complete the questionnaire; this possibly indicates that the single-paged version is preferable. The smaller size, in terms of the number of questions physical bulk could both impinge on the nature of the enquiry and influence question formatting. A short questionnaire might appear limited and simple in terms of data collected, but this impression would be erroneous as substantial and varied information can be garnered. Yu¨ksel and Yu¨ksel (2001) adapted for hotel application Kreck’s (1998) small-scaled respondent-centered hybridized questionnaire, and despite having a small footprint, the expanded questionnaire not only facilitated the identification of hotel attributes of most importance to guests, but also provided an environmental scan of both internal service quality assurance and external competitor strengths and

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weaknesses. This questionnaire characteristic, described as format simplicity, is expanded below. Format Simplicity Format simplicity is a determinant of size encompassing two aspects – the nature and type of enquiry. A ‘‘simple’’ enquiry would only target critical information which Nobles (1998) identifies as whether: (a) there were any problems during a guest stay; (b) the guest would return to stay; and (c) the guest would recommend the hotel to friends and business associates. A deduction from this early 1980s study by Lewis and Pizam (1981, p. 39) is that major U.S. hotel questionnaires did not contain the key question: ‘‘overall, is the guest satisfied or dissatisfied (and will the guest return)?’’ Over the ensuing two decades little has changed, business hotels typically do not address what Lawton (2002, p. 411) asserts as the ‘‘most important priority of every business traveler when staying overnight: getting a good night’s sleep’’ in their questionnaires. There may be possible linkage between this shortcoming and questionnaire development in the 1980s. A simple line of questioning makes for a shorter questionnaire, yielding the most reliable and valid measure of satisfaction (Yu¨ksel & Rimmington, 1998). The findings of Kivela and Chu (2001) that the critical-incidence technique gives restaurant managers a simple way of analyzing critical service encounters, suggests a few pointed qualitative questions would suffice to inform quality assurance, thereby permitting the questionnaire to be simply and compactly packaged. The use of appropriate and critical questions allows management to focus ‘‘on what is essential’’ (Schall, 2003, p. 55). Supportive evidence comes from Tordjman (2004) who reports many questions guests consider important are not found in the majority of guest questionnaires sampled in his study. This discrepancy suggests that some hoteliers are not attuned to their guests’ mindset, perhaps needing to revisit their motivation for and design of their questionnaire formats and purposes. Size Variations While a shorter questionnaire might have advocates, a large proportion of the industry is in favor of a longer questionnaire as evidenced by the widespread adoption of the industry de facto standard hybrid-type questionnaire. This may be driven by the desire to collect data required for such activities as marketing budgeting and managerial performance evaluation deemed essential in the highly competitive and fast evolving hotel industry. In order to keep abreast with trends, marketers need to ‘‘watch for the gaps in info’’ (Blythe in Withiam, 1995) in order to tailor questionnaires

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to fill those gaps. This suggests that new and additional data are necessary, so affecting questionnaire size. Communication with hotel practitioners leads to the surmise that many hoteliers feel overwhelmed by the volume of questionnaire-derived data, a view not dissimilar to that of Brown and McDonnell (1995). Thus, large aggregations of quantitative data may not be as relevant to the property-level managers who may wish to have a real-time barometer of their operation, as opposed to corporate-level managers who utilize the data for strategic planning and benchmarking exercises. With new industry trends, additional demographic data are desirable, for example, the mode of air transportation used by guests staying at hotels. In an article on the spin-off effects of low-cost carriers (LCC) in Singapore, Coloma (2006) submits speculation about hotel room revenue and occupancy increases from 2004 to 2005 could be attributed to the increase in visitor arrivals linked to the arrival of LCCs, but no statistics are available to support this assumption. She notes that since most hotels in Singapore do not ask guests their mode of arrival; hence a correlation between hotel occupancy and LCC passenger volume could not be made, such analysis requiring relevant data solicited during hotel registration procedures or guest questionnaires. Additional queries could further lengthen existing instruments, exacerbate questionnaire fatigue and annoy guests (Webster & Hung, 1994). Anecdotal data from the researcher’s communications with hotel guests reveals that the standard hybrid format to be the expectation of the typical guest. This familiarity, while able to influence the propensity of usage, may be foremost in informing hoteliers’ decision about the questionnaire use, with the standard hybrid-type being favored.

Question Format Question format refers to the presentation style of a question: qualitative (open-ended) or quantitative (closed-ended/MCQs). As the typology demonstrates, questionnaires can range from being fully qualitative to having varying combinations of qualitative and qualitative questions. Qualitative questionnaires feature ‘‘white spaces’’ for guests to provide comments; quantitative questions are pointed requiring the respondent to select an answer from a set of provided alternatives. Some MCQs may offer an ‘‘other’’ alternative spaces for written responses, thereby incorporating a ‘‘qualitative’’ characteristic. The main differentiation in the type of quantitative questions depends on the mode of answer: ordinal or nominal scaled answers.

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Quantitative Scales MCQs either utilize an ordinal Likert-type scale which allows the measurement of degrees of difference, but does not indicate the specific amount of difference or a nominal scale which assigns numbers for the purpose of categorizing events, attributes or characteristics. Schall (2003) maintains the optimum scale for hospitality industry questionnaires to be a seven-point scale. While such a scale would provide for a midpoint or neutral point in the scale, Frary (1996) discourages the seven-point scale due to the possibility of respondents simply fence-sitting. Casual observation indicates a wide variation in scale ranges, some hotels utilizing scales from as few as three to as many as 11. Despite the apparent flaws inherent in questionnaire scales, they appear to have wide utilization (Adamson, 1994; Schall, 2003). Scale order from positive to negative beginning from the left-hand side may have varying impacts on respondents (Babakus & Boller, 1992) because usually pages are scanned from left to right; however Danaher and Haddrell’s (1996) study does not indicate a noticeable difference in effect. Some questionnaires only offer positive scales – excellent, good, average, satisfactory (Lawton, 2002) – thereby rendering them biased as a respondent is not able to give ‘‘dissatisfied’’ as an answer. Cadotte, Woodruff, and Jenkins (1987) assert that semantic differential or Likert-type scales commonly use anchor words, such as good/bad, fast/slow, friendly/unfriendly, implying a standard having an evaluative connotation. The authors add that the measure of norms/ expectations, brand performance beliefs and disconfirmation are thereby confounded and recommend objective scales measuring true beliefs rather than evaluations as more appropriate. Some scales are balanced with equal points on either side of neutral, but most customer satisfaction incidence ratings have skewed distributions (Peterson & Wilson, 1992) favoring the positive. Additionally, the semantics of the terms applied have clear ramifications, for example, the use of such ambiguous words as ‘‘average’’ and ‘‘fair.’’ The use of symbols such as smiley or pouting faces have been adopted by some hotels as being compatible with academic research (Danaher & Haddrell, 1996). Irrespective of scaling, a questionnaire should not be difficult to score and interpret because ‘‘if the ‘collecting data’ and ‘analysis’ phases are timeconsuming and difficult, people will be reluctant to use the instrument’’ (Webster & Hung, 1994, p. 51); or should not have vague questions and ambiguous words that confuse respondents, resulting in erroneous responses (Zikmund, 1997).

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Gap Measurement The literature includes an extensive use of the gap measurement based on the Oliver’s (1980) expectancy-disconfirmation paradigm (EDP) for questionnaire scaling which confirms the observation by Yu¨ksel and Yu¨ksel (2001, p. 109) that researchers ‘‘have assumed that the EDP is a valid and reliable framework that can be confidently used to determine customer satisfaction with hospitality and tourism services.’’ This direct approach of confirmation/disconfirmation (Meyer & Westerbarkey, 1996) is based on the assumption that the average respondent has an adequate familiarity with the standards of hotel product and service provision; however that method may prove difficult to apply as ratings and accreditation standards in the industry are not uniform. Furthermore, guest expectation, dynamic and highly situational, can be falsely influenced by measurement-induced judgments made because of questions posed in other surveys (Dholakia & Morwitz, 2002). Therefore the premise of such an evaluation may prove to be questionable. Expectation is a personal concept and highly subjective; thus a quantitative questionnaire obtains data that may prove to be as equally subjective as the qualitative questionnaire. Perhaps a set of pointed open-ended questions could ‘‘steer’’ the respondent, thereby alleviating a drawback of the qualitative approach, a paucity of data points. Table 1 summarizes the characteristics of the differing approaches.

Table 1.

Table of Questionnaire Characteristics.

Qualitative-centric Approach Tactical application/implication Subjective Open-ended Records the extremesþbored guests and those with requests Spontaneous/unrestricted feedback Unstructured/semistructured query Comments need to be read Ease of use (preferred by some guest)

Quantitative-centric Approach Strategic application/implication Objective (‘‘scientific’’) Closed-ended Considered representative of the general population of hotel guests Scaled responses Structured query (‘‘the norm’’) Ease of administration/tabulation Ease of use (preferred by majority of guests)

Note: This represents the characteristics of fully qualitative or quantitative questionnaire. However, a fully quantitative questionnaire is rare, if not nonexistent, and quantitative dominant questionnaires would incorporate a qualitative component of varying proportion. Third-party administered or off-the-shelf questionnaires would typically be of the quantitativecentric genre.

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Increasing Response Rates A relevant aspect of questionnaire administration impinging on both form and function is the application of incentives to guests to boost completion rates. While the issue of incentives has been dealt with in the literature (James & Bolstein, 1990, 1992; Meyer & Westerbarkey, 1996; Nichols, 1988), hoteliers appear to hold disparate opinions on the influence of questionnaire participation incentive schemes. On the one hand, some hotels routinely offer a form of reward, for example, entry in a draw for prizes such as complementary room nights, or giveaways, the prime motivation being to boost response rates; on the other hand, others appear to shun the practice claiming artificial inflation of response rate and creation of false data. This difference of strategy suggests divergent outcomes experienced by hoteliers, perhaps because of the nature of the inducement (Schewe & Cournoyer, 1976), cultural factors of target markets, geographical location of the hotel, and owner/management mentality. Some hotels introduce guests to the questionnaire at check-in, inviting them to provide feedback. The guest is sometimes prompted with a courtesy call during a stay, or at check-out, to complete a questionnaire. Another means of enticing guests to engage with the questionnaire is high visibility in the guestroom by using visually appealing design and presentation and conspicuous placement for maximum impact. This seemingly trivial issue is quite contentious amongst hoteliers, some preferring to avoid clutter with guestroom printed collateral be inconspicuous, while others desire maximum impact. Another method used to facilitate guests completing questionnaires is to provide postage-paid return envelopes (Lewis, 1983), thereby allowing guests to complete the questionnaire at leisure to be posted when convenient. In addition, the guest can reflect on comments in a ‘‘nonthreatening’’ setting, without facing possible retaliatory behavior by hotel staff, and largely eliminating the phenomenon of socially desirable answers associated with in-house feedback collection (Dillman, 2000). This feature is a small detail but could potentially have a large impact on guest perception of management sincerity in soliciting feedback.

Form and Function Relationship Given the foregoing discussion of clear demarcation between form and function, the relationship between these two factors should be examined.

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On the one hand, form does follow function when the questionnaire is well conceptualized and operationalized, a case in point being when the questionnaire is designed and administered in order to fulfill a specific function, such as gathering particular data or to trigger service recovery. This observation applies to all the different questionnaire variants irrespective of their length and question format. When the objective of a questionnaire informs design, there could be an impact upon response quality. Losekoot et al. (2001) suggest that purposedesigned questionnaires could obtain more coherent data. However, even if a questionnaire is designed with the intention of eliciting a particular type of data, Ding et al. (1991, p. 2) assert that ‘‘abuse and misuse is easily practiced unwittingly’’ unless the practitioner is conversant with the principles and limitations of statistical methods. Barsky and Nash (2001) also note that hoteliers tend to pose questions related to their property strengths, thereby increasing the probability for favorable responses. Notwithstanding the chance of data corruption, the ‘‘form follows function’’ concept applies. On the other hand, when a hotel questionnaire is a legacy, generic or chainmandated printed collateral, form would dictate function. A nonuserdefined questionnaire could have a propensity to gather irrelevant information. The relationship between form and function is not linear. The famous American architect Frank Lloyd Wright asserts that ‘‘form follows function – that has been misunderstood. Form and function should be one, joined in a spiritual union.’’ This holds true in the context of hotel guest questionnaires for the following reasons: (a) There is no one-size-fits-all solution as hotel clientele are heterogeneous and the needs and requirements of hotels, even intrachain, could be diverse. (b) The questionnaire is utilized logically with a clear agenda and in order to fulfill that function, the type of enquiry and the manner in which the questions are posed (form) has to facilitate meeting that goal. Therefore the choice of a qualitative or quantitative approach, or a combination of both would be dependent on the function of the questionnaire. (c) When different forms (questionnaire variants) are used concurrently, the questionnaire format (form) would influence the data collected (function) and therefore the forms are synergistic in fulfilling both qualitative and quantitative data (function) effectively. Mixed mode application effectively solves the mismatch in function associated with the use of a single questionnaire at a property.

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SERVICE ENCOUNTER: MANAGEMENT TONE PROJECTED BY QUESTIONNAIRE PREAMBLE Social interaction is intrinsic to, and a defining feature of, the hospitality industry. Noe and Uysal (2003, p. 7) assert the ‘‘locus of satisfaction (in the hospitality and tourism industry) resides between the service provider and customer.’’ Traditionally, hoteliers had interacted extensively with in-house guests in order to establish a rapport with them; hotel GMs were typically highly visible and directly involved in customer relations, lending glamour and verve to the guest experience. While guests encounter line and supervisory staff at various points during their stay at contemporary mainstream hotels, a meeting with the GM may now be very occasional as these upper echelon people are now unable to allocate the same proportion of time to social interaction. While most GMs continue to allocate time to interact with guests, for example, during GM cocktails or as lobby lizards, the opportunity to interact with guests has greatly diminished, leaving the majority of social interaction to subordinates. Social interaction is arguably not restricted to face-to-face interface, and can be manifested in indirect communication. Noe and Uysal (2003) outline the relationship between hotel employee action and expected guest reaction. Indirect interactions between the hotel employee and guest and vice versa in the hotel context extend the face-to-face relationship. Hotelier–guest interaction can extend beyond the conventional paradigm of the face-to-face interface, encompassing verbal and nonverbal behaviors (Sundaram & Webster, 1998, 2000), and opening up new possibilities to hotel management. A hospitality industry blogger insists that hotel guests may be more inclined to respond to communication from a member of the staff with whom there has been direct contact previously (Chaffin, 2006), suggesting that while an initial face-to-face interaction might be critical in establishing a relationship, subsequent indirect contact could be used to build that relationship further. Ogle, Nosaka, and Pettigrew (2005) propose the questionnaire to be considered an opportunity for an alternative means of facilitating a service encounter with the top management of a hotel. In this context, a service encounter can be defined as ‘‘a period of time during which a consumer directly interacts with a service’’ (Shostack, 1985, p. 243). The case is strengthened by the opinion that service ‘‘encompasses all aspects of the service firm with which the consumer may interact – including its personnel, its physical facilities, and other tangible elements – during a given period of

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time’’ (Bitner, 1990, p. 70). The guestroom questionnaire, being one of the tangible elements in the hotel operation, can be interpreted as a service encounter in which the GM may engage, albeit passively, with every guest who is in house, positive questionnaire-engendered service encounters being advantageous to the hotel. Woodside and Moore’s (1987) studied the influence of WOM communication on consumers’ booking behavior of resort hotel accommodation, finding a positive association between WOM and (a) guest retention by resorts and (b) new guest materialization. If the service encounter prompted guests to evaluate their stay in a favorable yet objective manner for the first or subsequent time, the possibility existed for them to engage in positive WOM communication with family and friends (Woodside & Moore, 1987). The questionnaire functions as a conduit in the form of a printed guestroom collateral between top management and the room guest thereby engendering a service encounter. The implications of this additional service encounter, not only relate to the room guest, but also to the city guest as the latter could have interactions with room guests precipitating a favorable effect via WOM. Service encounters generate customer emotions (Liljander & Strandvik, 1997; Mattila & Enz, 2002; Price, Arnould, & Deibler, 1995), and such emotions influence customers’ perceptions of the services provided (Bitner, Booms, & Tetreault, 1990; Cronin, 2003; Oliver, 1997). Bagozzi, Gopinath, and Nyer (1999, p. 184) define emotion as ‘‘a mental state of readiness that arises from cognitive appraisals of events or thoughts.’’ In the service sector, positive customer emotion is likely to result in more positive service evaluations whereas negative emotion elicits negative customer perceptions (Edvardsson, 2005; Sweeney, Soutar, & Johnson, 1996). Management tone is an aspect of the guest questionnaire denoting how management is perceived by the guest in terms of posture and attitude toward management–guest communication through the language used in the questionnaire. This encompasses the preamble, wording and phrasing of the questions, nature of the query, and the identity of the spokesperson. The tone may conjure an impression which varies from a sincere invitation to engage with the guest to impersonal formality (Ogle & Gharavi, 2004), thereby having implications for management motivation in administering the questionnaire and establishing the relationship between management and guest. Attitudes of service providers influence customer evaluation of services (Holbrook & Gardner, 2000; Liljander & Mattsson, 2002; Mattila, 1999; Winsted, 2000). Price et al. (1995) demonstrate that favorable attitudes of

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service providers arouse customers’ positive emotions that consequently bring about customer satisfaction; hence management tone has far-reaching implications for hotel management. According to Dholakia and Morwitz (2002, p. 3), satisfaction surveys ‘‘appeal to customers’ desire to be coddled, reinforcing positive feelings they may already have about the surveying organization.’’ Their key finding is that a brief personal interaction in the form of a 10-min telephone customer satisfaction survey had a long-term positive effect on customer behavior. Interpersonal interaction, irrespective of method, is important, and may be generated through the guest questionnaire. In many cases hoteliers neglect the effects of management tone as the appearance of banal and disingenuous messages indicate, even though these are an important component of questionnaire quality (Ogle & Gharavi, 2004). Ogle et al. (2005) in an exploratory study demonstrate management tone to stimulate customers’ emotional responses, which indirectly influences the propensity for questionnaire usage. This response would correspond to the ‘‘expected guest reaction.’’ Guest feedback must precipitate a direct interaction in the form of a personal reply from the hotel GM or a senior representative. Unless the guest perceives the information given to be taken seriously, the process will most probably terminate and cause loss of goodwill. This outcome is particularly pertinent to complaints as guests have a preference to convey complaints in writing to the top management (Lewis & Morris, 1987). Anecdotal research conducted on perceptions of both hoteliers and guests toward questionnaire usage makes apparent a divergence between the two groups regarding management response to submitted guest questionnaires. While the majority of GMs interviewed claim to read and respond to each and every questionnaire received, all of the guests do not recall having received any response to the questionnaires they had completed and submitted.

CONCLUSION Intrinsically guest questionnaires are to obtain feedback from guests. If the questionnaire is completed and returned to management, valuable data that enable hoteliers to serve their guests better are provided. The traditional guest questionnaire, however, has been derided for being outdated and ineffective, even being written off by major players in the hotel industry. The rapid adoption of technology in guest feedback may be applauded by certain hoteliers and their guests; however, in the hospitality industry, a real

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danger of degradation exists; and missing the ‘‘high touch’’ aspect of guest feedback solicitation which is a hallmark of hotel-keeping. Perhaps hoteliers who discount the utility of the paper questionnaire should reassess its role as a key component of a holistic data collection strategy. While the nature and quantity of data requirements for sophisticated statistical analysis may necessitate tweaking of the paper questionnaire, hoteliers should be aware that extended questionnaires risk further aggravating survey fatigue, which in turn will diminish response rates, thereby making the effort counterproductive. Perhaps deconstructing the questionnaire to rediscover the service encounter opportunities is a feasible consideration. A personally addressed invitation to provide feedback in the form of comments, irrespective of their being positive, neutral or negative, might be the appropriate modus operandi of paper questionnaires. The reassessment of the questionnaire may be summed up in the acronym SEER: Simplify/shorten the questionnaire as an integral part of a larger guest feedback program. Elicit guest feedback via a personal invitation. Evaluate qualitative data from a guest’s point of view using. Respond promptly to each and every incidence of feedback. A simplistic strategy can transform the questionnaire into a service encounter opportunity. Perhaps such a transformation could be facilitated by dissociation from the predictable questionnaire by introducing a novel presentation or adopting a highly personalized approach, for example, a personal enquiry letter from the GM. Given the widespread usage of the paper questionnaire, guest familiarity with this universal printed guestroom collateral, and the relative larger expenditure in instituting a replacement feedback mechanism, warrants further study on efficacy and potential usefulness. Data on the response rates, the nature and relevance of the information collected, and the perceived usefulness of the information obtained by management from different variant/format applications would inform refinement or encourage such modification of design as appearance and content, and the modus operandi like multiple questionnaire strategy. Cross-cultural and multisegment comparative studies of the different variants in terms of stakeholder perceptions would serve to identify preferences and idiosyncratic attributes. Studies on the effects on questionnaire-engendered service recovery and the implications of questionnaire preamble would be beneficial to hotel management.

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HOW UNCONSCIOUS NEEDS INFLUENCE TRAVELER’S INTERPRETATIONS AND PREFERENCES OF ALTERNATIVE TOURS AND HOTELS Xuan Van Tran and Arch G. Woodside ABSTRACT People have unconscious motives which affects their decision-making and associated behavior. The paper describes a study using thematic apperception test (TAT) to measure how unconscious motives influence travelers’ interpretations and preferences toward alternative tours and hotels. Using the TAT, the present study explores the relationships between three unconscious needs: (1) achievement, (2) affiliation, and (3) power and preferences for four package tours (adventure, culture, business, and escape tours) and for seven hotel identities (quality, familiarity, location, price, friendliness, food and beverage, and cleanliness and aesthetics). The present study conducts canonical correlation analyses to examine the relationships between unconscious needs and preferences for package tours and hotel identities using data from 467 university students. The study scores 2,438 stories according to the TAT Perspectives on Cross-Cultural, Ethnographic, Brand Image, Storytelling, Unconscious Needs, and Hospitality Guest Research Advances in Culture, Tourism and Hospitality Research, Volume 3, 215–308 Copyright r 2009 by Emerald Group Publishing Limited All rights of reproduction in any form reserved ISSN: 1871-3173/doi:10.1108/S1871-3173(2009)0000003010

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manual to identify unconscious needs. The findings indicate that (1) people with a high need for affiliation prefer an experience based on cultural values and hotels that are conveniently located, (2) individuals with a high need for power indicate a preference for high prices and good value for their money, and (3) people with a high need for achievement prefer a travel experience with adventure as a motivation. The study findings are consistent with previous research of McClelland (1990), Wilson (2002), and Woodside et al. (2008) in exploring impacts of the unconscious levels of human need.

INTRODUCTION Failure to craft the identities of package tours and hotels for the different personalities of consumers can be a critical issue for the success of travel businesses. According to the YP&B/Yankelovich Partners National Business Travel Monitor (2006), today’s American travelers are no longer interested in advertisements of travel packages or hotels in the country. Moreover, according to the World Tourism Organization (WTO), the number of outbound Americans traveling abroad decreased 14% in the period 2001–2002 (WTO, 2003). The number of inbound American tourists also decreased 3% in the spring season (2001–2002, US Department of Commerce, 2003). US tourists are important for tourism because they represent world’s top spenders. For example, in 2002 all international arrivals to Asia increased annual growth by 8%, except American tourists, which decreased by 10 and 4% in 2001 and 2002, respectively (WTO, 2003). The questions regarding US travelers’ preferences of tour package and hotel choice are thus a critical problem for the world tourism. Existing approaches to travel marketing have emphasized the importance of understanding travel motivations. When marketers understand consumers’ motives, they can design environments that meet travelers’ related needs. Researchers have thus been devised several models of tourists’ motivation. Among these are Goodall’s model of holiday choice (1988), Oppermann’s destination choice (2000), McGuiggan’s personality model (2000), and YP&B/Yankelovich Partners National Business Travel Monitor (2006). Goodall (1988) suggests three key predictors of holiday travel choice: desires, motivation, and image. In that model, motivation directly influences preference. Oppermann (2000) finds a relationship between destination choice and motivation to revisit the destination. Opperman’s results indicate

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that motivation, travel experience, and destination image are three key factors to affect consumers’ choice. McGuiggan (2000) proposes that personality and motivation exert an influence indirectly through establishing leisure preferences, rather than personality influencing choice directly. According to YP&B/Yankelovich Partners National Business Travel Monitor (2006), travelers have needs for creative activities, affiliation, and determination while they are selecting tours and hotels. Most contemporary studies measure motivation by approaches that assess conscious motives only even though unconscious needs plays important roles in the long term. Maslow (1943) posited, ‘‘Unconscious motivations would on the whole be rather more important than the conscious motivations’’ (p. 373). The stimulation of unconscious needs may affect guests’ experiences to hotel identities. According to Dube, Bel, and Sears (2003), a stimulation of sensory pleasure may create relaxation; Banyan Tree Hotels combines textures and colors in its guest rooms to help reduce guests’ stress. When a person contacts other people to have a fun atmosphere, this interaction may create a social pleasure. Club Med designs spa retreats to produce joy and happiness. Emotional pleasure from feelings, ideas, and mental images may create strong emotional reactions and memories; Club Med arranges honeymoon destinations to focus on magic memories. The complexity of the subtleties creates an intellectual pleasure that may coexist with pride. The wonder and excitement of the rides at Walt Disney World may present guests with self-accomplishment. Although physical properties, nature, or social environments are characteristics that consumers at a destination mostly remember, it appears that unconscious needs often affect consumers’ behavior in rating objects (McClelland & Franz, 1992). One well-established approach to assessment of unconscious needs is the thematic apperception test (TAT) (McClelland & Franz, 1992; Murray, 1943; Weinberger & McClelland, 1990). The TAT is a projective technique in which participants contrive stories that might explain circumstances in sets of photographs or images. Raters score unconscious motives of participants based on the contents of the provided stories. Using a variation of the TAT, Dubois (2002) identifies four clusters of people based on conscious and unconscious motives for achievement, power, and affiliation. The first cluster includes high conscious need for achievement (N-Ach) and power whereas the second cluster is only high conscious need for affiliation (N-Aff). The third cluster includes high unconscious need for power (N-Pow) and affiliation whereas the fourth type reflected high levels of unconscious N-Ach.

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Limited research addresses unconscious motives of tourists but promising results have emanated from that work. Tran and Ralston (2006), for example, draws upon McClelland’s (1985) notion of N-Ach and N-Aff. Tran and Ralston (2006) find that individuals with a high N-Ach are interested in adventure whereas people with a high N-Aff tend to seek forms of travel that are not adventurous. Unfortunately, few researchers undertake similar lines of inquiry. McClelland’s theory of human needs seems to provide unique opportunity to help us to more successfully predict vital facets of travel preference, such as mode of travel preference, destination preferences, lodging preference, tour services, and preferred companions. Such work might prove to be particularly useful in understanding travel markets. Extension of Dubois’ (2002) research to the challenge of tourism marketing presents some potentially useful solutions. In marketing to members of the group with high conscious N-Ach and power, for example, a destination might attempt to attract an internationally known leader to that area in order to associate that area with the image of achievement. That destination might also offer services that allow visitors to develop skills and to document levels of performance in select leisure activities that are appropriate to that site. Surfing, diving, and sailing competitions and standards of performance for those activities might thus become promotional devices as facets of experience of visitors. These services could appeal to the visitors’ strong achievement motive. Other strategies could, of course, become marketing tools for individuals with other motive profiles. Tourism literature and research have not, however, evaluated unconscious motives to predict preferences.

Research Aim and Objectives This study examines the relationships between psychological motive profiles of unconscious needs for achievement, power, and affiliation, and preferences for select types of travel experiences. The study’s objectives include:  Explaining why people are interested in a certain type of tour over the others.  Explore why people are different in their choice of prices or locations of a hotel.  Offer the best strategies to market consumers in travel and lodging.

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 Develop different selling techniques for travel agents and hotels in different target markets.

REVIEW OF LITERATURE The review of literature consists of four main sections regarding previous research findings relevant to the key interests in this study. The first section contains a brief history of human motivation, with the research primarily focusing on unconscious motives. The second section reviews research pertaining to the unconscious needs for achievement, power, and affiliation. The third section discusses how to classify travel preferences in order to compare them with the unconscious needs. The fourth section reviews studies of the relationships between needs and travel preferences. Finally, the present study addresses research hypotheses.

Conscious and Unconscious Motives The word motivation comes from the Latin movere, which means ‘‘to move.’’ Theories of human motivation explain the patterns of movement and personal preference in people, that is, patterns of starting, directing, and maintaining human behavior. Gerrig and Zimbardo (2002) define motivation as the general term for all the processes involved in starting, directing, and maintaining physical and psychological activities. The present study uses this concept to explore relationships. First motivation explains how to initiate the human behavior being studied in this case, traveling. In other words, why do people need to travel? Second, motivation explains how to direct the traveling. Why do people like to visit a certain destination? Motivation involves an emotion toward a goal. Finally, it explains how to maintain the traveling: Why do people expect to revisit a certain destination? Motivation involves an affective state of anticipation. Is motivation different from motive? According to McClelland (1985) motivation is often the term used by experimentalists, but personality theorists or clinicians typically think in terms of motives. Motives are thus stable dispositions that organize or explain much of what a person says and does. Motives exist in both the conscious and unconscious levels. The unconscious level of motives is what an individual unconsciously feels like doing, whereas the conscious level of

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motives refers to what an individual consciously believes he should do in a particular situation (Langens & McClelland, 1997). Motives in the unconscious level are the motives in fantasy and they are more primitive than the elaborate system of explicit goals, desires, and commitments that are characteristics of the motives at the conscious level (McClelland & Franz, 1992). According to Langens and McClelland (1997) and Weinberger and McClelland (1990), people are, for the most part, unaware of their unconscious level of motives and are unable to report on them. However, people are aware of their conscious level of motives and they can accurately report them. People are aware of their conscious level of motives temporarily since it exists in a short term of human life. In contrast, the unconscious level of motives tends to exist in a long term of human life (Langens & McClelland, 1997). Maslow (1943, p. 373) posits, ‘‘It would by now be expected, on a priori grounds alone, that unconscious motivations would on the whole be rather more important than the conscious motivations.’’ Based on the achievements of McClelland and Franz (1992) and Dubois (2002) provide another in-depth study in identifying four factors of human motives affecting human well-being. Dubois (2002) conducts a principal component analysis on the correlations of the six motives: conscious achievement, conscious affiliation, conscious power, unconscious achievement, unconscious affiliation, and unconscious power motives. There are four key factors extracted with eigenvalues of more than one. The first factor reflects conscious power and conscious achievement. The second factor represents unconscious power and unconscious affiliation. The third factor reflects conscious affiliation. The fourth factor represents unconscious achievement (Dubois, 2002). The four varimax factors account for 26, 36, 42, 6, and 6% of the total variance, respectively (see Table 1). As a result of studying unconscious level of motives, Dubois (2002) finds that people achieve well-being when their power and achievement motives in the conscious level are congregated appropriately. In addition, when power and affiliation motives are collaborated in the unconscious level, people would feel happy. In order to better understand the importance of unconscious motives in explaining and predicting travel preferences, the present study addresses a brief review of the theoretical development of unconscious motives in human personality from Freud (1915) through to Jung (1936), Murray (1943), Rogers (1951), Maslow (1954), Hull (1952), and McClelland (1953, 1992). The study then discusses comparisons of these ‘‘unconscious’’ theories and the ‘‘conscious’’ theories such as social cognitive learning

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Table 1.

Factor Loadings and Percent Variance Explained for Four Factor Solution.

Variable

Implicita power Self-attributeda power Implicit achievement Self-attributed achievement Implicit affiliation Self-attributed affiliation Percent of variance

Factor 1

2

3

4

Self-attributed Agency

Implicit Nurturance

Self-attributed Affiliation

Implicit Achievement

0.04 0.90 0.10 0.79

0.85 0.02 0.06 0.05

0.04 0.18 0.05 0.36

0.07 0.02 0.99 0.14

0.06 0.03

0.81 0.10

0.17 0.95

0.07 0.06

24.26

23.36

18.42

16.76

Source: Adapted from Dubois (2002, p. 97). a Implicit and self-attributed implies unconscious and conscious, respectively.

theory, reversal theory, and trait theory in terms of strengths and weaknesses in order to better explain the selection of McClelland’s theory of motivation for this study. Freud (1915) recognizes that many unconscious psychological processes direct behaviors and the strongest behavior tendency is not necessarily the one that a person consciously thinks is best for him or her. According to Freud, an unconscious motive is an underlying drive for behavior and people cannot see or measure it. Furthermore, a configuration of different motives can cause the same behavior. Freud develops the idea that much of human behavior stems from a fundamental conflict between a person’s desire to gratify his or her physical needs and the necessity to function as a responsible member of society. This struggle occurs in the mind among three systems: the id, superego, and ego. The id orients toward maximizing pleasure and avoiding pain. It directs a person’s psychic energy toward pleasurable acts without regard for the consequences. The superego is the counterweight to the id. It is a person’s conscience that internalizes rules of family and society to prevent the id from seeking selfish gratification. Finally, the ego is the system that mediates between the id and the superego. The ego finds ways to gratify the id that will be acceptable to the outside world. The conflicts occur on an unconscious level, so the person is not necessarily aware of the underlying reasons for his behavior. Based on these

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three systems, Freud assumes that three primary human needs exist obtaining relationship satisfaction, expressing aggression, and reducing anxiety and suffering. Relationship satisfaction (or sexual motivation) is the most basic need of human beings. People unconsciously strive to gratify their three major needs to gain pleasure and avoid the pain. After Freud, Jung (1936) modifies Freud’s systems. He disagrees with Freud about sexual need being the most basic need of human beings. According to Jung, the human psyche is divided into three parts: the ego, personal unconscious, and collective unconscious. As in Freud’s concept, the ego is the conscious mind. The personal unconscious includes both memories that are easily brought to mind and those that have been suppressed for some reason. It differs from the id since it does not include human instincts. The collective unconscious is the reservoir of our experiences and emotions. Based on Freud’s three-system theory and Jung’s concept of collective unconscious, Murray (1943) creates the system of conscious and unconscious needs. The conscious needs include the superego and the selfrealization whereas the unconscious need is the id. A conscious need is a need people can identify and report. Conversely, an unconscious need is a need of which people are not aware (Murray, 1938). According to Murray, unconscious needs can express themselves in dreams, visions, emotional outbursts, and unpremeditated acts, absent-minded gestures, laughter, numberless disguised forms fused with conscious needs, compulsions, rationalized sentiments, projections, and all other symptoms, particularly hysterical conversion symptoms (Murray, 1943). None of these include any form of conscious thought. The presence of unconscious needs suggests that people do not know what they ‘‘really’’ need for their own well-being or satisfaction. This means simply asking an individual what he or she wants would not lead to greater understanding, such as in the case of purchase decisions. Although the consumer needs undoubtedly are utilitarian and fairly straightforward, some researchers feel that many purchases do not result from deliberate, logical decision-making. On the contrary, people may act to satisfy motives of which they are not even aware. In order to explain how people can do such an activity without knowing, Murray uses the TAT to measure the unconscious needs. The TAT aims to uncover underlying drives, emotions, and conflicts within a personality. Whether aroused by a stimulus from the environment or from within the individual, needs serve to organize perception, apperception or unconscious perception, intellection, conation, and action in a way that facilitates a transformation of the stimulus situation. When an individual is in a state of need, potentially

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satisfying end situations come to mind, and the individual experiences a sense of desire or wishing. Freud, Jung, and Murray set up a basic foundation for studying human motivation based on Freudian or psychoanalytic theory. This theory focuses on the idea that motivation often operates all behaviors at an unconscious level. Based on Murray’s system of needs, Freud’s unconscious motives, and Jung’s concept of self-realization, Carl Rogers (1951) comes up with the motive he calls self-actualization. Self-actualization refers to the need to actualize, maintain, and enhance the experiencing organism (Rogers, 1951). Rogers also finds two other needs of people as they grow into adults: the need for love and the need for positive regard from others. However, the system of self-actualization is not complete until the contributions of Abraham Maslow (1954). The great contribution of Maslow (1954) to motivation theory is his hierarchy of human needs, running from lower needs such as physiological needs, safety needs, need for belonging and love, esteem needs, to highest level, self-actualization needs. This classification is illustrated in Table 2. Lower needs, which develop in childhood, push the organism to become active and seek substances and experiences that will bring the organism back into homeostatic balance. Higher needs, which develop in adulthood, pull rather than push the person toward positive goals. The higher needs can be developed only after satisfying the lower needs. Lower needs affect behavior only when they are unsatisfied. When they are satisfied, the person can pursue higher needs. As Maslow (1943) posits,  The physiological needs: The needs that are usually taken as the starting point for motivation theory are the so-called physiological drives y.  The safety needs: If the physiological needs are relatively well gratified, there then emerges a new set of needs, which we may categorize roughly as the safety needs y.

Table 2.

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs.

Types of Needs 5. 4. 3. 2. 1.

Self-actualization needs Esteem needs Need for belongingness and love Safety needs Physiological needs

Example Need Need Need Need Need

Source: Adapted from McClelland (1990, p. 41).

for for for for for

self-fulfillment, for realizing potential achievement, respect and approval love and togetherness security, protection from pain food, water, and sex (homeostatic)

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 The need for self-actualization: Even if all these needs are satisfied, we may still often (if not always) expect that a new discontent and restlessness will soon develop, unless the individual is doing what he is fitted for. A musician must make music, an artist must paint, a poet must write, if he is to be ultimately happy. What a man can be, he must be. This need we may call self-actualization. (p. 370)

Maslow’s hierarchy gained wide acceptance in the mid 20th century because it fit with the liberal view that poor and oppressed people spend most their time attempting to satisfy physiological needs, leaving them no time to develop their own potential. Maslow contributes to human motivation through the concept of self-actualization. This theory is considered the basis for humanistic theory since it focuses on the growth potential of the individual. Compared with the prior research from psychoanalytic theory, humanistic theory details the function of unconscious needs over time, from innate needs for eating, drinking, and sleeping of human beings, to their learned needs for security, belongingness and love, esteem, and self-actualization. Instead of considering the potential growth within a person, Hull (1943, 1952) focuses on the stimulus-response mechanism of a person. Hull uses deductive principles while studying motivation in an attempt to make psychology become a more objective science. He is one of the most frequently mentioned behaviorists in American psychological magazines and manuals. In Hull’s view, drives are internal states that arise in response to human physiological needs. Human organisms seek to maintain a state of equilibrium, or homeostasis. Drives are aroused when deprivation creates disequilibrium or tension. These drives activate to reduce the tension. When the drives are satisfied or reduced, homeostasis is restored and the organism ceases to act. For example, a tourist seeks to visit friends or relatives for a length of time. After the demand is satisfied, his homeostasis is restored and the need for the visit no longer exists. The tourist returns home. Drive reduction automatically reinforces the connections between the stimuli and responses so that the next time the cue of the connection appears, the response occurs more promptly and efficiently. Whenever the tourist again feels worried about friends or relatives or the need to socialize with them, he or she will want to visit them immediately. In this case, the stimulus associates with the goal response automatically without invoking the purpose. Hull contributes to the behaviorism and sets up the learning theory through the new concept of homeostasis. This theory focuses on a stimulusresponse system for a particular behavior. McClelland (1955) combines the three theories of motivation: psychoanalytic (or psychodynamic), humanistic, and learning theory to build an

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‘‘affective arousal model’’ as illustrated in Fig. 1. This model is ‘‘affective’’ because it includes a change of an affection state in imagery from starting, maintaining to directing a behavior. The affection state includes a need for an act, a positive or negative emotion toward a certain goal (goal state), and a positive or negative affection after accomplishing the act (goal anticipation state). In addition, the affection state also includes an emotion toward a certain obstacle or block. McClelland’s theory of motivation is a paradigm in which behavior is goal-oriented and aroused by pleasure and pain (McClelland, 1955, p. 228). The present study uses this theory to predict travel patterns. Fig. 1 illustrates key concepts in the study. Natural incentive is an innate connection between a sign stimulus or a cue and an affective response in the midbrain. This then releases an impulse to act in a certain way if certain other conditions occur (McClelland, 1990). Emotions such as satisfaction or pain serve as examples of natural incentives. McClelland uses the objective approach of the stimulus-response paradigm to explain the concept of the natural incentives including pleasure, interest–surprise, anger–excitement, sexual excitement, sadness–distress, fear, and disgust. Behavior is explained by cues, affection change and motives. McClelland (1990, p. 169) posits, ‘‘The motives built on natural incentives also continue to influence behavior.’’ Needs and motives are both internal. A need refers to an internal state that is less than satisfactory or lacking in some way (Murray, 1938). Needs are consciousness and unconsciousness. People can recall and report conscious needs. Conversely, people are unaware of unconscious needs. An unconscious need influences an unconscious motive, which then moves individuals toward an actual behavior. A motive is an internal state drives individuals to meet needs and reduce dissatisfaction. McClelland (1953, p. 28) defines the concept of motive as ‘‘the reintegration by a cue of a

Sign Stimulus (Cue)

Natural Incentives (Emotion)

Behavior

Experience

Fig. 1.

Motive: reintegrated change in affective state (need, positive and negative goal state, positive and negative state of goal anticipation)

Relations among Natural Incentives, Associated Emotions, and Motives. Source: Adapted from McClelland (1990, p. 137).

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change in an affective situation.’’ The word reintegration implies previous learning so people can learn to create a motive. A motive is, consequently, an affect or emotion occurred when a stimulus arouses a person. Therefore, the strength of a motive includes the strength of a need, an affective state, a change in affect (anticipation state) and the related acts such as a reaction from a goal, an obstacle, or an outside assistance. Three Learned Motives McClelland (1955) and his colleagues design experiments to learn what themes distinguish the two groups of stories by comparing these stories under two conditions, a motive arousal condition and a neutral testing condition. As a result, they find three basic themes: achievement, affiliation, and power. Achievement refers to a recurrent concern over performing well in relation to some standard of excellence. A tourist with a high N-Ach might prefer a tour that enables him or her to exercise his or her skills and initiation in problem solving. Heyns and his colleagues (1958/1992, p. 205) define affiliation as ‘‘a concern over establishing, maintaining, or restoring a positive affective relationship with another person or group of persons.’’ A tourist with a high N-Aff is often concerned with establishing or maintaining a positive affective relationship. A tourist low in affiliation tends to be a loner who is uncomfortable socializing with others except for a few close friends or family. Power concerns controlling the means of influence; that is, a need for impact or social influence. A tourist with a high N-Pow is often drawn to activities where he or she can influence others, defeat an opponent or competitor, win an argument, or attain a position of greater authority. Human needs affect these three learned motives (see Table 3). In addition to McClelland’s theory of motivation, a variety of motivation theories such as cognitive social-learning theory, reversal theory, and trait theory have emerged and most travel tourism research has been based on trait theory. These following theories, however, tend to only involve motivations at the conscious level. Bandura’s cognitive social-learning theory (1986) indicates that person, behavior, and environment are the three important factors to predict a particular behavior. Based on Bandura’s theory, Deci and Ryan (1985) classify motivation into two categories: intrinsic and extrinsic. They posit, It is possible to distinguish between two broad classes of motivation to perform an activity; intrinsic motivation and extrinsic motivation. A person is intrinsically motivated if he or she performs an activity for no apparent rewards expect the activity

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Table 3. Sign Stimulus

Classification of the Three Learned Motives, Emotions, Stimulus and Behavior. Experience

Emotion

Behavior

Motive

Small variations

Mild Interest–surprise Exploratory behavior Achievement variety Threats, interference Having Anger–excitement Asserting, banging, andPower with having impact impact so on Touching, hearing, or Contact, Sexual excitement, Seeking and Affiliation seeing another rubbing feeling loved, loving, exchanging contact person joy with others Source: Adapted from McClelland (1990, p. 137).

itself. Extrinsic motivation, on the other hand, refers to the performance of an activity because it leads to external rewards. (Deci & Ryan, 1985, p. 109)

Intrinsic motivation, deriving from within the person or from the activity itself, positively affects behavior, performance, and well-being. Extrinsic motivation, deriving from external rewards, is also a powerful determinant of behavior. According to Deci and Ryan (1985), the impact of extrinsic rewards on intrinsic motivation depends on the receiver’s interpretation of the reward. They measure the two concepts of intrinsic and extrinsic motivations by self-reports at the conscious level to explain the influence of extrinsic rewards and intrinsic competence on human behavior. However, the self-report nature of this research has limited the prediction ability of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation (Sheldon & Elliot, 1999; Sheldon & Kasser, 1995). Apter (1982, 1989) and his colleagues develop a new theory, reversal theory, which rejects Hull’s (1943) proposal that motivation is a tension reducer. The existence of reversal theory is based on the proposition that motivation is not a state of tension reduction toward homeostasis and seeks to explain human motivation in terms of reversals from one state to an opposing state. When a person receives a stimulus, motivation in one state changes to an opposite state through changing behavior. There are four pairs of two opposite states. The names of four pairs of metamotivational status are telic-paratelic, conformist-negativistic, mastery-sympathy, and autic-alloic. People are always in either of two opposite states such as serious or playful, anxiety-avoiding or excitement-seeking, compliant or rebellious, mastery or sympathy, primary concern with self or others (see Table 4).

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Table 4.

Principal Characteristics of the Four Pairs of Metamotivational States.

Telic

Paratelic

Serious Goal-oriented Anxiety-avoiding

Playful Activity-oriented Excitement-seeking

Conformist Compliant Wants to keep to rules Agreeable

Negativistic Rebellious Wants to break rules Angry

Mastery Power-oriented Sees life as struggle Concerned with control

Sympathy Care-oriented Sees life as cooperative Concerned with kindness

Autic Primary concern with self Self-centered Focus on own feelings

Alloic Primary concern with others Identifying with others Focus on others’ feelings

Source: Adapted from Gerrig and Zimbardo (2002, p. 366).

This theory is mostly descriptive at the conscious level of motivation. Another theory of motivation using attempting to explain travel preferences is trait theory. Allport (1937) views traits as the building blocks of personality and motivation. According to Allport (1937), traits produce coherence in behavior because they connect and unify a person’s reaction to a variety of stimuli at the conscious level of motivation. The most recent model of trait theory is the five-factor model from McCrae and Costa (1999) (see Table 5). In this model, different types of travel motivation come from the application of five factors: (1) extraversion, (2) agreeableness, (3) conscientiousness, (4) neuroticism or emotional stability, and (5) openness or culture. The problem with the approaches that classify according to personality traits, however, is that they ignore the continuous process in which both individual and situational forces interact. Trait theories assume that people behave similarly across situations and times since personality traits are composed of broad and stable characteristics that operate regularly in a wide variety of situations (Pervin, 1994). The trait theory and the five-factor model are largely descriptive. The factors emerge from statistical analyses of clusters of trait terms, rather than

Traveler’s Interpretations and Preferences of Alternative Tours and Hotels

Table 5. Factor Extraversion Agreeableness Conscientiousness Neuroticism Openness

229

The Five-Factor Model. Bipolar Definitions

Talkative, energetic, and assertive vs. quiet, reversed and shy. Sympathetic, kind, and affectionate vs. cold, quarrelsome, and cruel. Organized, responsible, and cautious versus careless, frivolous, and irresponsible. Stable, calm, and contented versus simple, shallow, and unintelligent. Willing to make adjustments in activities in accordance with new ideas or situations.

Source: Adapted from Gerrig and Zimbardo (2002, p. 436).

from a theory. However, most research has addressed travel motivation based on the trait theories and the five-factor model. For example, research has demonstrated relationships between travel preferences and the needs of optimal arousal and novelty-seeking (Bello & Etzel, 1985), cognition and dogmatism (Crotts, 1993), extraversion and neuroticism (Hoxter, Lester, Kulak, & Moll, 1987), neuroticism and locus of control (Plog, 1987), and novelty, locus of control and extraversion (Nickerson & Ellis, 1991). Different theories build from different assumptions. Five different assumptions to create these theories are as follows: heredity versus environment, learning processes versus innate laws of behavior, conscious versus unconscious, emphasis on past, present or future, and inner disposition versus outer situation (Gerrig & Zimbardo, 2002). The following summary indicates differences among the theories of motivation based on their assumptions: (1) Freudian theory depends heavily on heredity, whereas Maslow’s, Hull’s, McClelland’s, and Deci and Ryan’s theories emphasize either the environment or interactions with the environment as a source of personality development and differences. (2) Freudian theory has favored innate instincts, whereas Maslow’s, Hull’s, McClelland’s, and Deci and Ryan’s theories support the idea that behavior and personality are changed through learning processes. Trait theory has been divided into both heredity versus the environment, and learning process versus the innate laws of behavior. (3) Trait theory and Freudian theory stress past events in early childhood, whereas Maslow’s, Hull’s and Deci and Ryan’s theories emphasize present reality or future goals. McClelland’s theory focuses on past, present, and future.

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(4) Freudian theory focuses on unconsciousness, whereas Maslow’s, Deci and Ryan’s, Hull’s theories place emphasis on consciousness. McClelland’s theory stresses both unconsciousness and consciousness. Trait theory pays little attention to this distinction. (5) Deci and Ryan’s, Maslow’s and Hull’s theories emphasize outer situation, whereas trait theory, Freudian theory and McClelland’s theories stress inner disposition. In sum, there are four assumptions for McClelland’s theory: (1) environment and learning processes, (2) consciousness and unconsciousness, (3) emphasis on past, present or future, and (4) inner disposition as sources of personality development and differences. The present study selects McClelland’s theory for the several reasons. First, the present study uses the TAT and McClelland is a pioneer in this measurement (McAdams, 1980). Second, tourists’ preferences for tour packages and hotel identities imply dimensional views of people. Contemporary trait theorists utilize statistical methods to cluster human external dimensions of human personality, whereas McClelland studies enduring and underlying dimensions of the personality that remain stable at the unconscious level during the human life (Langens & McClelland, 1997). Third, McClelland (1990) confirms the validity of his approach as follows: Just because people write imaginative stories that contain more references to socially undesirable motives than their autobiographies do, does that mean people actually are influenced more often by such motives? How can you tell that the motive a person attributes to someone in a story also characterize the person writing the story? (McClelland, 1990, p. 29)

Finally, according to McClelland (1985), four motives connect with behavior: hunger, power, affiliation, and achievement. These behaviors are applicable to travelers’ demands: eating, safety, love, and self-esteem, respectively. The three unconscious needs for achievement, affiliation, and power affect three motives of achievement, affiliation, and power. The following are the three in-depth dimensions of these unconscious needs and their measurements. Need for Achievement The N-Ach is a concern over starting, maintaining, and directing evaluated performance of human activities. In the N-Ach, people strive for mastery and proficiency in their activities. This motive thus affects the success and performance of human behavior. In 1938, Henry Murray postulates that the need to achieve varies in strength in people and influenced their tendency to

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approach success and evaluate their own performances. David McClelland (1965) devises a way to measure the strength of the N-Ach through Murray’s TAT. McClelland measures his participants’ fantasies and then looks for relationships between strength of achievement motivation in different societies, conditions that fostered the motivation, and its results in the work world. Several other researchers have studied N-Ach. Atkinson, Horner, Moulton, Karabenick, Raynor, and Veroff have conducted the major portion of this research. Atkinson (1957) illustrates the relationship between the motive of achievement and behavior intention as follows: A ¼ f ðM  EÞ where A is a action tendency (behavior intention), M a motive, and E the expectancy that action A will lead to a goal. According to Atkinson (1957), the motive of achievement is the key factor that affects action tendency and behavior intention is a function of motivation and expectation. The more people are motivated and expect, the more they intend to act. Veroff, Depner, Kulka, and Douvan (1980) use Murray’s TAT to assess motivation in a nationwide interview study (N ¼ 597 males, and 774 females). They find that achievement motivation scores are higher among men in high-status occupations than among men in low-status occupations. Further, their findings shows that the percentage of college-educated students, whether men or women, with high N-Ach, is substantially higher than the percentage of students who have only a grade school education. Finally, they find that motivation scores reflect differences in early life experiences (broken home background) and later life experiences (death of a spouse) (Veroff et al., 1980). Moulton (1967) finds that the probability of success in academic degrees tends to be positively correlated with measures of the motive to achieve success, and to be negatively correlated with measures of the motive to avoid failure (Moulton, 1967). He concludes that any meaningful application of the theory of achievement motivation depends on an accurate control or assessment of subjective probability of success. Moulton (1967) posits, Evidence showing that achievement-related motives are related to subjective probability of success. That is, given most kinds of information about levels of difficulty. (Moulton, 1967, p. 78)

As a result of a review of earlier studies and their own research, Karabenick and Yousself (1974) find that performance on a task is a

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function of achievement motive level and perceived difficulty. They divide a paper and pencil task into three levels of difficulty (low, intermediate, and high) and administer the task to 76 male introductory students after an assessment of achievement motive levels using Murray’s TAT. They find that persons for whom the motivation to achieve success is greater than the motivation to avoid failure perform better than the group who have a greater motivation to avoid failure than a motivation to achieve success on tasks of intermediate difficulty. Further, the findings indicate that the performance of these two groups do not differ based on whether the tasks are easy or difficult. Raynor (1970) offers an elaboration of the theory of achievement based on his own work. He examines the relationships among achievement-related motives, future orientation, and academic performance. He assesses the achievement motives in a standard assessment of levels of test anxiety. Sixtynine male and fifty-nine female introductory psychology students were asked how important getting a good grade in this class was to their future goals. He compares the grade obtained for the class, with the perceived instrumentality (how important a good grade is to future goals) for high achievement-low anxiety, and low achievement-high anxiety. The students with high achievement-related motivation and low-test anxiety receive higher grades, when they rate the course important to their future goals, than did those who rate the course less important. He concludes: These results suggest that the predictive efficiency of achievement-related motive scores depends upon the moderator-variable effect of an individual’s future career orientation. (Raynor, 1970, p. 178)

Those possessing a high N-Ach are thought to demonstrate an ongoing concern to perform well in relation to some standard of excellence. Guests with a high N-Ach might seek a hotel that enables them to exercise their skills and initiative in problem solving. These individuals desire frequent and specific feedback regarding performance so they may chart their progress toward objectives. According to Barbuto (1998), the N-Ach is similar to the need for esteem of Maslow (1954). McClelland (1985) also discovers another need of human beings regarding their need for association with other people in a society: the affiliation motive. Need for Affiliation The affiliation motive is ‘‘a concern over establishing, maintaining, or restoring a positive affective relationship with another person or group of persons.’’ (Heyns, Veroff, & Atkinson, 1958/1992, p. 205). Atkinson (1957)

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presents to students some slides of objects so blurred they could not be recognized. Images are assigned in each of four quadrants on the slide. The images are either of faces or plates about the size of a face. Students with high N-Aff scores see the quadrant in which the faces appear most clear even though they could not recognize the stimuli. French (1956) find that people are very important to individuals high in N-Aff. When given feedback about how a group is working, the individuals with high N-Aff scores prefer feedback on how well the group is getting along together rather than on how well they are performing on the task itself. Another researcher, Entin (1974), finds that affiliative tendencies are independent of achievement-related tendencies in his study, effect of achievement-oriented and affiliative motives on public and private performance. In a study of the relationships between affiliation motivation and achievement motivation, Sorrentino (1974) separates male undergraduate students into four groups of equal size. He divides the groups by their levels of achievement-related motivation and affiliation-related motivation including high–low, high–high, low–high, and low–low. Then he further divides the subjects into contingent or future orientation and noncontingent or nonfuture orientation groups. Each group plays three games of a matrix variety, and he measures the success of each group. The results show that students with a low N-Aff, a high N-Ach, and contingent future orientation produce a performance increment. He also find that the combination of both high affiliation need and contingent future orientation may have resulted in too much positive motivation for optimal performance efficiency and thus produce a performance decrement. Veroff and his colleagues (1980) examine the effects of N-Aff in two separate groups: one is a fraternity group and the other is not. The results of TAT methods for the two groups are contrasted. The stories written by the nonfraternity group refer to rejection, loneliness, separation, and seeking forgiveness. People possessing a high N-Aff are concerned with maintaining close social relationships or the need to make friends. Guests with a high NAff are often concerned with establishing or maintaining positive affective relationships, while those with a low N-Aff may be uncomfortable socializing with others except for a few close friends or family. Barbuto (1998) reported that this need is similar to Maslow’s (1954) needs for love, affection, and belonging. McClelland (1985) examines the relationship between the N-Aff and social behavior. He discovers people with high N-Aff scores tend to pick more positive adjectives in judging welfare clients than do people low in

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N-Aff. Another different human relationship in which one person wants to control or influence others is referred as the N-Pow. Need for Power The N-Pow is some statement of affect surrounding the maintenance or attainment of the control or the means of influencing a person (Veroff, 1957). The N-Pow is thus the need to have an impact on other people. The N-Pow increases when a person’s fantasies include concerns about having impact; through direct actions that influence or persuade someone, through actions that cause emotional responses, or through a concern about reputation. Researchers frequently use the TAT to score the unconscious N-Pow. Browning (1960), using the TAT research strategy analyzes the protocols of a sample of businessmen and politicians. Results show that the scores of candidates for political office are higher for N-Pow than businessmen. McClelland (1985) discovers that students at Harvard with significantly higher than average N-Pow scores choose teaching as an occupation (N ¼ 246). Students who become clergymen and psychologists have the next highest average N-Pow scores. Other research includes a study conducted by Kolb and Boyatsis (1970). They study helping relationships in a series of different groups. They find that members who are high in N-Pow and low in N-Aff tend to be dictatorial and ineffective as helpers in the group. Power relates to substance use. McClelland, Davis, Kalin, and Wanner (1972) examine the relationship between the N-Pow and drinking behavior. They find that drinking liquor increases power fantasies. Winter (1973) also reports that the N-Pow motive is correlated with owning prestige possessions such as cars, wineglasses, college banners, etc., among Harvard students and among middle-class adults. Winter asks a small sample (n ¼ 19) of middle-class executives about what kind of car they would like to own. He finds that the executives high in N-Pow prefer cars that are maneuverable and foreign-made. Horsepower and weight are negatively related to the N-Pow motive. The earlier achievement model by Atkinson (1957) is a model of behavior in which an action tendency A is equal to the product of a motive M and an expectancy E that action A will lead to a goal. Motive and expectancy are the key factors to cause an action: A ¼ f ðM  EÞ ðModel of an achievement motiveÞ There is a similar model of the power motive. A person who reflects a strong N-Pow and a high expectancy of engaging in a certain act will have

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an increased influence of the activity on other people when there is an external incentive. The person with high N-Pow scores will tend to perform the behavior because of greater incentive. There is thus an additional incentive value of the goal in the formula: A ¼ f ðM  E  IÞ

ðModel of a power motiveÞ

where A is a action tendency (behavior intention), M the motive (power motive), E the expectancy that action A will lead to a goal, and I the incentive. According to the above model, behavior intention is a function of a motive, an expectation, and an incentive. A person is willing to better act due to his or her high N-Pow scores when he or she receives an external factor such as incentive reward to stimulate a behavior. According McClelland (1973), society contains two faces of power. One face of power is an individualized N-Pow. An individual with high individual N-Pow scores will survive by destroying his or her adversaries. The other face of power is more socialized. An individual with high-socialized high N-Pow will survive with his or her adversaries in the win–win situation. Power becomes the benefits of others by the strongest person. Winter (1973) provides an objective and reliable method for measuring the N-Pow. The behavioral expression of the N-Pow motive is a function of separate approach and avoidance tendencies and the expectancy that poweroriented behavior will result in increased social power. In his study, Winter (1973) finds that students who are resident advisors are higher in the N-Pow than students who are not advisors. In another study, Winter (1973) finds that students high in N-Pow report that they would like to become teachers, psychologists, and clergymen, in that order, whereas students who choose law and medicine rank low in N-Pow. In all cases, differences are statistically and interpretatively significant. Winter hypothesizes that these results support the belief that people high in N-Pow would more often seek and hold positions of social power. McClelland and Burnham (1976) examine the characteristics of a good manager. Their research includes the examination of the power motive scores for 50 managers in both high and low morale situations in sections of the same large company. They find that over 70% of the managers are high in power motivation compared with men in general. This finding confirms the fact that power motivation is important for management. Individuals with a high N-Pow are concerned with controlling the means of influence; that is, a need for impact or social influence. Guests with a high N-Pow might seek a value in a hotel where they can influence others or attain a

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position of greater authority. The N-Pow is similar to the need for safety of Maslow (1954) according to Barbuto (1998). In sum, the needs for achievement, affiliation, and power influence the basic motives of achievement, affiliation, and power in the processes of starting, directing, and maintaining the behaviors of human beings. A preference takes a motive a step further to actual behavior in the process of selecting. Ashworth and Goodall (1990) posit, Although motivations provide a definite inclination to undertake a certain course of action, a number of action may correct the socio-psychological imbalances. Which course is selected and which rejected, depends on the individual’s preferences. (Ashworth & Goodall, 1990, p. 45)

Applying this concept to selling a tour, Kent (1990) stated, ‘‘The preference for a tour package is defined as the following step of travel motivation to select which tour package is chosen and which one is rejected.’’ (p. 50). In order to compare the difference between motivation and preference in travel tourism research, following is a detailed examination of travel preference based on trait theory.

Travel Preference This section contains two subsections. The first subsection consists of a short review of travel preference based on trait theory to connect a person’s travel to a variety of stimuli. The second subsection presents a suggestion for a classification of travel preferences based on the contemporary marketing literature of hospitality and tourism. Travel Preference and Trait Theory Preference or choice is an act of choosing; the voluntary act of selecting or separating from two or more things that is preferred; the determination of the mind in preferring one thing to another; or an election (Brainydictionary, 2005). Harvey and his colleagues (1973) define the relationship between choice and attractiveness. Results from their studies indicate that perceived choice is greater when there is a small difference in the attractiveness of the outcomes available to the person and when the person is uncertain about the attractiveness of each outcome (Harvey & Johnston, 1973; Jellison & Harvey, 1973). Bandura (1977) asserts that choice is the number of options available to a person. The more options from which to select, the more choices a person

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has. When the variety of tour packages is small, it might be easy for tourists to select their tour package. Steiner (1979) categorizes choice in three ways: evaluative (individuals select an alternative they greatly desire), discriminative (individuals select from available options with confidence), and autonomous (individuals process and evaluate information that enables them to identify the alternative that best suits their needs). In his study, Steiner finds that people do not experience any kind of choice when one option is vastly superior to the others. Tourists might not consider a selection of a tour package when the tour package is most superior to the other packages. Perlmuter, Scharff, Karsh, and Monty (1980) and Chan, Karbowski, Monty, and Perlmuter (1986) indicate that research participants who have choice options not only perform better on a learning task but also have consistently faster reaction responses than participants who are not given choice options. Perlmuter and Monty (1982) also find that participants with choice options score higher on an unexpected recognition test (individuals with choice options learn significantly more background words than participants who are forced), suggesting a heightened state of arousal. In conclusion, tourists who have richer experiences in travel might understand and select their tour package more precisely than others. Travel preference is a selection of travel types based on the above definition of Ashworth and Goodall (1990). Researchers have paid more attention to travel preference due to the growth of air travel and its supporting structure of local communications and hotel accommodation, and an increasing number of people worldwide visiting new destinations. Oppermann (2000, p. 20) assesses the importance of a destination choice by as the central core of the interface between geography and psychology in tourism. The reason for this, according to Oppermannn, is that psychologists are interested in why and how tourists make their certain selections, whereas geographers focus on the outcome of the choice. According to Oppermann (2000), a destination choice or travel type includes an accommodation type, a trip itinerary, and a form of companion. For example, between 1988 and 1998 tourist arrivals selected new destinations in Pacific Asia countries resulting in an increase of annual growth from 105 to 162 million (WTO, 1999). They come in search of different pleasures – exotic Asia, sea and sand, an unspoiled and attractive physical environment, animal life, and history as well as human culture. Researchers have attempted to explain why some people prefer to explore new destinations and experience exotic adventures whereas other people prefer to visit relatives or friends and return to previously visited

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destinations. Unfortunately, there has been limited data-based research on this topic. Gray (1970) attempts to categorize travel preferences into sunlust and wanderlusts by identifying one travel motivation continuum: nature lovers versus people lovers. If tourists prefer nature and nature-based destinations, Gray would classify them as sunlust tourists. If the travelers prefer to discover human culture, they are wanderlust tourists. The sunlust tourist prefers to enjoy warm climates and beaches in a destination that does not differ significantly in culture from their home environment. The typical sunlust travel package would be one of relaxation, either restful or active, and probably to a domestic destination. On contrary, the wanderlust tourists prefer to experience different cultures, different foods, or different educational opportunities in an exotic country. Cohen (1972) has attempted to offer a travel preference model consisting of four categories: the organized mass tourist, the individual mass tourist, the explorer, and the drifter. The categories are based on the two dimensions: familiarity and planning. Travelers that favor familiarity and planned tours are organized mass tourists, whereas travelers who prefer the familiar and unscheduled itinerary are individual mass tourists. The third type of tourists who prefer strange or unique destinations within a planned package are the explorers. Lastly, drifters are individuals who enjoyed unique and strange destinations with little or no preplanned travel arrangements. According to Cohen (1972), all tourists are strangers in the host society. The degree and the manner in which tourists influence the host society depend largely on the extent and variety of social contacts between the four groups during the visit. The organized mass tourist has the greatest influence on a host society since they prefer to visit a destination somewhat familiar with their home. The host society may encourage the development of a familiar type of accommodations to attract tourists. This approach typically involves the invitation of franchise hotels and restaurants from the tourist’s home country in order to establish name recognition and acceptance by organized mass tourists. As a result, this approach has the greatest tendency to change the lifestyle of the host community. Unlike the organized mass tourists, individual mass tourists are less structured even though they prefer the familiar. Their typical goal of visiting friends and families may lessen the impact on the host society as these travelers may stay with their families or friends rather than stay in a franchise hotel. The explorers prefer to get off the beaten path while still maintaining familiar accommodations and reliable

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transportation. Explorers are satisfied with staying in local, host-owned accommodations and eating the food prepared by the local restaurants and, therefore, may place significantly less demands or stress on the host society. The drifter plans the trip alone, avoids tourist attractions, and prefers to live with different local people in the destination. They tend to share food, shelter, and habits of the local people. Therefore, the drifter has the least amount of forced influence on the host society (Cohen, 1972). Dann (1977) classifies tourists’ preferences into anomie tourists and egoenhancement tourists based on the avoidance or seeking of pleasure factors. Anomie tourists prefer to escape to an isolated destination with little exposure to other people. An anomie type package tour would have included an undiscovered destination or a remote area distant from populated society. The ego-enhancement tourists seek unique human communities and different cultures. Using a more theoretical approach, Hollender (1977) examines the motivational dimensions of the camping experience based on the stimulusavoidance theory from Hull (1943, 1952). Hollender (1977) obtains data from 99 campers through interviewing and conducts factor analysis to examine camper responses. As a result, there are seven travel preference factors as follows: (a) primitive, (b) escape from routine responsibilities, (c) security of the campground, (d) entertainment, (e) aesthetic outdoor experience, (f) escape from urban stress, and (g) escape from the familiar. Tinsley and Kass (1978) find that there are ten factors that affiliates popular leisure activities based on the responses of 417 university students. The ten factors are as follows: intellectual aestheticism, social service, security, compensation, power, companionship, and self-expression. Tinsley and Kass also find that gender was not significantly related to the scores on any of the 45 need-satisfier dimensions. According to Tinsley and Kass (1978), the eight leisure benefit preferences are perceived psychological benefits as follows: (1) Self-expression (or Self-actualization): A complex benefit reflecting, in order of prominence: Satisfaction of the individual’s need to express oneself successfully through creative use of one’s talent, to undertake novel activities, often of benefit to others, and to enjoy recognition and power for these efforts. (2) Companionship: Satisfies the person’s need to engage in playful but supportive relationships with others in which feelings are valued, selfexpression is accepted, and one’s feelings about self are enhanced.

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(3) Power: Satisfies the individual’s needs to be in control of the social situation and enjoy the center of attention, often at the expense of others. (4) Compensation: Satisfies the person’s needs to experience something new, fresh, or unusual; to satisfy needs not satisfied but their job or daily routine. (5) Security: Satisfies the individual’s need to be able to make a safe and secure, long-term commitment free of bothersome change, in which they will be rewarded for their efforts and receive a measure of recognition. (6) Service: Satisfies the person’s need to be of assistance to others. (7) Intellectual Aestheticism: Satisfies the need of the individual for intellectual stimulation and aesthetic experiences. (8) Solitude (or Autonomy): Satisfies the person’s need to do things alone without feeling threatened (Tinsley & Kass, 1978, p. 191) Crompton (1979) incorporates achievements from Tinsley’s eight basic psychological leisure benefits to classify travel preferences into nine motive types for tourist behaviors. The first seven types are socio-psychological or ‘‘push’’ motive types and include (1) escape from a perceived mundane environment, (2) exploration and evaluation of self, (3) relaxation, (4) prestige, (5) regression, (6) enhancement of kinship relationships, and (7) facilitation of social interaction. The remaining two motive types are pull motive types and include (8) novelty and (9) education or culture. Crompton’s model has contributed to the development of travel typologies based on human psychology. In his later work, Cohen (1972) proposes that tourists can also be among five different types according to their travel experiences, specifically whether they are in pursuit of mere pleasure or in quest of meaning and authenticity. The five types are: (1) Recreational tourists are not concerned with learning and experiencing other societies or cultures although they find their travel experience interesting, (2) Diversionary tourists are alienated from their own society but do not seek meaning or authentic experiences elsewhere. For them, travel is a mere escape from boredom or a meaningless pleasure, (3) Experiential tourists are modern, alienated individuals who seek authentic experiences elsewhere, (4) Experimental tourists view authentic experiences as essential but do not become fully immersed in other cultures, and (5) existential tourists, who are the opposites of the recreational tourists, are deeply immersed in other cultures or societies. Snepenger (1987) examines Cohen’s model by collecting data on tourists visiting Alaska. His research does not support the Cohen’s

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model, revealing inconsistencies regarding demographic characteristics, as well as the type and extent of tourists’ information search, their mode of travel and accommodation, and their spending patterns. Cohen’s travel preference model has greater detail than Gray’s model but its dependence on social norms with disregard of human psychology or human motivation generated debate and the inability of subsequent research to support the model. Smith (1990a, 1990b) classifies tourists into seven types based on social norms as follows: (1) explorers, (2) elite tourists, (3) offbeat tourists, (4) unusual tourists, (5) incipient mass tourists, (6) mass tourists, and (7) charter tourists. Smith’s model identifies tourists according to their ability to adapt to the local norms of the host society. The first dimension of Smith’s model is lifestyle. When tourists prefer to experience or absorb the local lifestyle and to discover and learn new experiences during their travel, they are explorers. They prefer to live with local people in the tradition of the host culture and eat local foods. Contrary to the explorers, the elite tourists are looking for a special guided tour that allowed them to be different or more elite than the local people. Another dimension from Smith’s model is familiarity. When tourists prefer to get away from populated communities they are offbeat tourists. When tourists prefer to visit local people on an organized tour and are interested in the local culture but are happier with a safe box lunch and bottled soda rather than native food, they are unusual tourists. The third dimension of Smith’s model is convenience. When tourists stay in accommodations featuring amenities similar to their homes, they are incipient mass tourists. Additionally when tourists expect to stay in hotels owned by franchise companies (i.e., from their home country) with trained, multilingual hotel staff to meet their daily demands, they are mass tourists. The last dimension of Smith’s model is similarity. When tourists arrive in mass, wear name tags or highly visible group identification, and traveled as a well-organized group, they are charter tourists. Yiannakis and Gibson (1992) suggest that three bipolar dimensions and two types of arousal exist underlying tourists’ roles. The bipolar dimensions of travel preference are stimulation-tranquillity, strangeness-familiarity, and structure-independence, whereas the arousal levels were thrill seeking and escapist. The pleasure traveler took on a role in the environment or destination that provides him or her with the optimal balance of these three dimensions. By examining these factors, Yiannakis and Gibson identifies the following 14 leisure-based tourist roles: (1) sun lover, (2) action seeker, (3) anthropologist, (4) archaeologist, (5) organized mass tourist, (6) thrill

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seeker, (7) explorer, (8) jetsetter, (9) seeker, (10) independent mass tourist, (11) high class tourist, (12) drifter, (13) escapist, and (14) sport lover. Crotts (1993), taking the position that people are simultaneously channeled between the need for psychological security and the desire for novelty, investigates personality constructs to explain novelty-seeking behavior. His contention is that variations in the optimal level of arousal are understood by variations in a person’s need for cognition and his or her degree of dogmatism. Crotts determines that the incongruity of noveltyseeking is more likely preferred by nondogmatic people who are more open minded, more tolerant, and less rigid in their beliefs, as they find novel situations interesting. Additionally, people high in the need for cognition prefer the cognitive effort associated with novel vacation experiences. Ross (1994) has outlined eight travel motive types identified by Krippendorf: (1) recuperation and regeneration, (2) compensation and social integration, (3) escape, (4) communication, (5) freedom and selfdetermination, (6) self-realization, (7) happiness, and (8) broadening the mind (Ross, 1994, p. 23). Krippendorf’s descriptions are similar to those of Crompton. Gray, Cohen, Dann, Crompton, Smith, Snepenger, Yiannakis, Crotts, and Ross have typologies or classifications of tourists that are less related with human social psychology; that is, why people travel and select certain destinations over others. Each of these typologies focuses on the classification of behaviors rather than the understanding of the basic foundation for travel and human motivation. Following are the studies of travel preferences that strongly related to social psychology. Iso-Ahola (1982) acknowledges the relationship between both psychological and sociological dynamics and initiated the first attempt to examine travel preferences (or motive type) from this perspective. Motivation is primarily a psychological concept that arouses, integrates, and directs a person’s behavior, but its relationship to the social norms cannot be ignored. Iso-Ahola pointed out: Motives are aroused when individuals think of certain activities they could, should, or might do in the future, activities like playing blackjack in Las Vegas or lying on the beach in the Bahamas tare potentially satisfaction-producing. (Iso-Ahola, 1982, p. 258)

According to Iso-Ahola, the two motivational forces of seeking and escaping are significantly related to tourists’ satisfaction. The concept of seeking provided intrinsic rewards whereas the concept of escaping facilitated the reduction of the stress from a routine environment. Some tourists are more interested in seeking whereas others like to escape from

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populated places. Comparing motivation with satisfaction, Iso-Ahola (1982) posits a continuum as follows: The psychological foundation of intrinsically motivated play resides in the child’s need to be a competent human being y . An individual need for situations that offer optimal incongruity lead to the challenge of increasing or reducing the incongruity. The result of seeking and conquering optimal challenges is an ongoing process. The end product of which is satisfaction resulting from feelings of competence and self-determination. (Iso-Ahola, 1982, p. 260)

The assumptions of Iso-Ahola (1982) are that (1) people constantly change due to social influences and (2) human beings strive for an optimum amount and type of social interaction. Based on the assumptions, people in a society always process the two ideas of dialectical-seeking development and dialectical-conquering optimal challenges. While developing personal motives through learning, people always orient their goal to their optimal choice. Iso-Ahola has contributed significantly to an expansion of the travel literature with an attempt to examine the issue from the human and social psychology perspective. Based on Maslow’s hierarchy, Pearce (1982) has developed a travel needs hierarchy that illustrates a variety of travel experience. The less experienced travelers would be more concerned with lower level needs than those who were well traveled and who focused more on self-esteem and selfactualization. The typologies of travel motives include risk taking, sensation-seeking, independence, flexibility, tolerance for ambiguity, spontaneity, and self-confidence (Iso-Ahola, 1982; Mannell, 1989; Pearce, 1982). Influenced by the psychological theory of optimal experience (Csikszentmihalyi, 1980) and homeostasis (Hull, 1952), Bello and Etzel (1985) have explored the behavioral and demographic differences of travelers who experience different levels of novelty. They create an experiment using two groups of novel and commonplace trips to measure the difference of travel motivation based on novelty. The results show that novelty-experiencers play an important role in pleasure vacations and exotic trips. High noveltyexperiencers are more predisposed to take another similar type of vacation, but not to the same destination. Bello and Etzel also find that novelty experiencing was not only for any particular societal group but for all people. Bello and Etzel’s model has endorsed the dimension of familiarity in travel but is limited in practical application due to its one dimension of novelty. McIntosh and Goeldner (1986) have examined the relationship between travelers’ preference and activities based on the need-satisfaction theory

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originated by Hull (1943). Travelers who love to stay with people in different cultures are classified into three groups: ethnic tourists, cultural tourists, and historical tourists. Ethnic tourists are interested in ethnic differences but cultural tourists concentrate on enjoying varied lifestyles and arts. Historical tourists prefer to visit museums, battlefields, and sites of important historical events in the world. Travelers who prefer to relax in nature and pace destination are categorized as environmental tourists. Travelers who prefer to participate in sports, spas, sun bathing, and social contact in a relaxed environment are classified as recreational tourists. Finally, travelers whose travel tours are characterized by conventions, meetings, seminars are classified as business tourists, as shown in Fig. 2. The most popular theory of travel preference in 1990s is Plog’s model. This model has been used to study the relationship between travel choices and personality types (McIntosh, Goeldner, & Rithchie, 1995; Murphy, 1985; Plog, 1987, 1991, 1995; Ritchie & Goeldner, 1994). Based on Apter’s (1982) reversal theory of telic and paratelic (anxiety-avoiding vs. excitementseeking), Plog’s model presents tourists along a continuum from psychocentric to allocentric. Psychocentrics focuses on life’s small problems and prefers familiar and commonplace travel, whereas allocentrics focuses on varied activities and prefers unfamiliar, novel trips (Plog, 1987). Plog describes psychocentric types as traveling throughout life, having generalized anxieties, and maintaining a sense of powerlessness pertaining to what happened to them. Conversely, the allocentric traveler who likes to travel, especially to exotic or unusual places, tends to be self-confident, and does not suffer from unfocused anxieties (Plog, 1991). The model connects the traveler’s personality to their destination of choice because it places the population on a normal curve ranging from psychocentric to allocentric with the majority of the population at the midcentric. According to Plog, destinations changing in evolution attract a. Ethnic Tourism

Traveling to observe various cultural differences such as local color and picturesque settings.

b. Cultural Tourism

Traveling to experience a vanishing life-style that lies within human memory.

c. Historical Tourism

Traveling to participate in the tours of museums, battlefields, cathedrals and other important events.

d. Recreational Tourism

Traveling to participate in sports, sun bathing, and social contacts in a relaxed environment.

e. Business Tourism

Traveling to attend conventions, meetings, and seminars.

f. Environmental Tourism

Traveling to enjoy natural and environmental attractions.

Fig. 2. Classification of Travelers’ Preferences for Tourism. Source: Adapted from McIntosh and Goeldner (1990, p. 140).

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different types of visitors at different stages in the process. In the beginning, small numbers of adventure travelers visit a new destination area (allocentrics). When the area becomes more accessible and well known, the less adventuresome traveler (the midcentrics) came. Finally, as the area becomes older and less different from the visitor’s area of origin, the psychocentrics, who seek less variation and novelty, visit the location (Godbey and Graefe, 1991). By this time, the allocentrics have moved on to other more exotic locations. Plog’s psychocentrism/allocentrism model has been accepted primarily based on its simple theme and clear-cut approach. Plog (1987), in his examination of nonflyers (psychocentrics), finds a common pattern that included: (1) territory boundness-conservative, cautious, and not very venturesome behavior; (2) generalized anxieties – a strong feeling of insecurity in their daily life, their jobs, and their relationships with others; and (3) a sense of powerlessness – a feeling that they have very little control over the fortunes and misfortunes that strike them over their lifetimes (Plog, 1987, p. 208). Based on psychological reversal theory, Plog (1995) divides active and mellow travelers in the three following choices of tours: (1) Choice of adventure tour: Travelers like to take risks, choose places off the beaten track, and explore without a tour guide. These travelers are unpredictable and trust their own research rather than believe in advertising. (2) Choice of dependable tour: Travelers choose places that are better known and have their own experiences about the values of services and facilities. The travelers like escorted tours to enjoy daily routine and regimen. (3) Choice of centric tour: Travelers are willing to visit a variety of destinations using different modes of transportation. Plog (1987) adds a dimension of preferred activity level, allowing for highenergy travelers who prefer high activity levels and low-energy travelers who prefer fewer activities. Another study partially supports Plog (1987) and expands the model. Nickerson and Ellis (1991) examine this activity dimension along with the allocentric/psychocentric factors. They classify allocentric travelers as having an exotic preference, unstructured vacations instead of package tours, and involvement with the local culture. Psychocentric travelers prefer familiar destinations and package tours. Madrigal (1995) examines the ability to predict travel style using the list of values (LOV) and Plog’s allocentric/psychocentric scale. He finds that values and value systems are predictors of human behavior. Madrigal (1995) posits,

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Values and value systems are less numerous, more centrally-held, and more closely related to motivations than more traditional demographic and psychographic measures. (Madrigal, 1995, p. 126)

Madrigal finds a significant positive correlation between self-fulfillment and accomplishment and the allocentric traveler personality. Additionally, he finds a negative relationship between the value of security and allocentrism. Madrigal suggests that Plog’s scale might develop another conclusion in which the allocentric tourists fit well with self-fulfillment, selfrespect, and accomplishment whereas more psychocentric individuals might focus on belonging, being well respected, and security. Madrigal recommends that further research use multiple measures to operationalize traveler personality type and leisure travel style. To test external validity, the researchers also gather information about actual travel behavior by asking students to describe things such as when and where to vacations, the type of activities participated in, and whether students travel independently or on tours. The above conclusions partially support the overall allocentric/psychocentric model of travel behavior in the 1990s. However, since then more and more recent researchers such as Hoxter and Lester, Smith, Griffith and Albaneˆse, Nickerson and Ellis, and Ralston either fail to support or modify Plog’s model. Hoxter and Lester (1987) examine the personality correlates of psychocentric/allocentric variables in the choice of destinations and found no significant association between destination choice and personality characteristics. Hoxter and Lexter’s test fails to support Plog’s personality types and destination preferences. Smith (1990a, 1990b) test the allocentric/ psychocentric concept from a national probability sample from seven different nations and find a strong consistency of the top five preferred destinations across all three personality categories of allocentric, psychocentric, and midcentric. This is contrary to the model in which allocentric and psychocentric tourists prefer opposite favorite destinations. Smith’s test fails to support the hypothesized association between Plog’s personality types and destination preferences. Griffith and Albaneˆse (1996) examine the allocentric/psychocentric concept within a student population. They test the 10-item instrument that measured personality characteristics. The result of their test indicates that locus of control might not correlate with their preference of destination, which is opposite to the Plog’s model, which suggests some destinations can pull either allocentric or psychocentric tourists. Therefore, Griffith and Albaneˆse’s test does not support Plog’s model.

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Nickerson and Ellis (1991) use a theory of personality development to measure Plog’s travel model with the factor of energy dispositions in addition to allocentric and psychocentric. They question whether these dispositions are situational or relatively stable personality characteristics. The core of theory of activation is that humans attempt to maintain a level of activation to which they are accustomed. In psychological terms, this could be in expressions of excitement or tension. The level of activation is the impact of stimulation measured by the degree of intensity, meaningfulness, and variety of stimulation from both internal and external sources (Maddi, 1980). Important concepts in the Nickerson and Ellis study are variety (interpreted as novelty), passivity (likened to locus of control), and internality (identified as similar to introversion/extraversion) through which approach and avoidance access can be manipulated. As a result, Niekerson and Ellis’ research does not support Plog’s model. Instead, they find that allocentrics would be high energy (or activation) and that psychocentrics would be low energy (or activation). Nickerson and Ellis provide more types of travelers based on subcategories of high and low activation, including introversion and extraversion and internal and external locus of control. These are further broken down into destination preferences, travel companions, interaction with local cultures, and the degree of activity. Ralston (1993a, 1993b) tests Plog’s model in examining the relationship between the expressed N-Aff and travel motivations to establish a traveler type profile. Ten personality-based questions aim at identifying (1) the psychocentric traveler who is generally nonadventuresome and avoids new and unknown situations such as meeting people and (2) the allocentric traveler who likes to explore new things and go to different places. The research data fail to support Plog’s model describing the psychocentric travelers as being typically nonadventuresome and the allocentric traveler as being adventuresome. The data illustrate that whereas the majority of senior citizens are psychocentric according to Plog’s scale, their travel motivations was associated with adventuresome travel. Additionally, Plog’s model states that allocentric travelers are older and wealthier than psychocentric travelers. The research data note that whereas all but one of the college student respondents are allocentric, they are just as likely to prefer adventuresome travel activities. The researchers observe that a significant relationship exists between those respondents with a high N-Aff possess travel motivations related to meeting and observing other people, meeting and observing people known to them, and nostalgia. In contrast, people

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with a low N-Aff display travel motivations relate to escape, adventure, and discovery. Ralston (1993b) recommends further research pertaining to age and traveler type in addition to further research to better understand the role of needs other than that for affiliation. Existing research findings have provided limited support for travel preference approaches such as Plog’s allocentric-psychocentric model (Plog, 1987), ‘‘push vs. pull’’ models (Crompton, 1979), and sunlust and wanderlust (Gray, 1970). Recognizing the importance of the relationships between both psychological and sociological dynamics, this study would suggest a classification of travel preferences based on the contemporary literature in order to apply the McClelland’s theory of motivation to the area of travel tourism. Travel Preference and McClelland’s Theory The three motives or three needs of McClelland’s theory are set up based on the affection model, that is, a motive is defined as a reintegrated change of affection or emotion (McClelland, 1990). In order to examine the preference based on the ‘‘affective arousal model’’ of McClelland’s motivation theory, the present study explores the affective characteristics of a travel behavior choice. YP&B/Yankelovich Partners National Business Travel Monitor (2006) reports that tourists’ choices are based on three critical values: (a) self-invention, (b) personal authenticity, and (c) advantage: intangibles. Angelo and Vladimir (2007) add these three values to their textbook for students in the hospitality industry. Self-invention is the need for creative activities by the guests who are not satisfied with what is made available to them by hotel managers. These individuals are seeking something new and exciting in hotels. Personal authenticity is the N-Aff of the guests with the hotel. They are pursuing what makes sense for them; like seeking conveniently located hotels for their relatives and friends. Advantage: Intangibles is the need for determining the value of money spent at the hotel beyond the usual hotel features. These guests are interested in the value beyond hotel costs, such as artists who are capturing the artistic creativity of a hotel (Tribe, 2008). In other words, the present study classifies travel preferences into affective characteristics of a tour or a hotel. According to Abbey (2004) and Dube et al. (1999), there are four affective characteristics of a tour – adventurous, cultural, business-related, and escaping as illustrated in Table 6 – and seven affective characteristics of a hotel – service quality, familiarity, location, cleanliness and aesthetics, price, friendliness, and food and beverage quality as illustrated in Table 7.

Traveler’s Interpretations and Preferences of Alternative Tours and Hotels

Table 6. Type of Travel

Four Destination Choices.

Accommodation

Adventurous Rustic accommodations (i.e., tents or local homes) Kimpton Group in San Francisco Ponzu restaurant with unusual activities Cultural Basic amenities Hyatt, Marriott, and Days Inns Local transportation Businessrelated

Escaping

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Trip Itinerary

Companion

Exploring the natural Self environment with risk (house boating, white-water rafting)

Make many new friends. Dine with local people

Family, friends, local people

Weekend packages for families including cultural activities. (1) Quiet, free breakfast, Controlling expenses VIPs Scheduling of activities and local phone La Quinta, Hampton Inns, Working on the Internet while Holiday Inn having a drink and watching (2) Full-service, clubrooms television with no charge Marriott, Meeting professionals Hilton (3) Best amenities and costly service Ritz Carlton and Hyatt Avoid noisy urban areas Relaxing with someone Friends, family Healthy and natural foods listening Staying, dining early, and Private car vacationing at a leisurely pace

Source: Adapted from Abbey (2004).

According to Abbey’s (2004), tour preferences are classified into business, culture, escape, and adventure. The preference for hotels in a business tour might be: (1) a quiet property that does not have facilities such as swimming pools, saunas, tennis courts, large bars, or organized social activities. For example, La Quinta, Red Roof Inns, Hampton Inns, and Holiday Inn Express are built to meet this market’s demand by offering free breakfast, free local telephone, and data ports in the room; (2) another preference is a full-service property that offers clubrooms with no charge. For example, Marriott, Hilton, Holiday Inn, and Ramada offer clubrooms including a cafe´; a mini-office for travelers who must get work done on the road; an

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Table 7.

Seven Hotel Identites.

Hotel Identities Quality Familiarity Location Cleanliness and aesthetic Price Friendliness Food and Beverage

Characteristics Check-in and check-out Brand name Urban, suburban, airport, interstate, resort, and small town External and internal property Value of money Service attentiveness Variety and quality of outlets

Source: Adapted from Dube et al. (1999).

activity table for those who want to work on the Internet while having a drink and watching television; and a small meeting room that seats up to six people; and (3) business travelers who are not concerned with saving money prefer the best amenities and services. For example, Four Seasons, Ritz Carlton, and Hyatt offer extra services and amenities to meet the market demand such as recreation facilities, live entertainment, restaurants with the finest de´cor and cuisine. The preference for hotels in a culture tour might be an economical property that emphasizes more weekend packages for families, including sports and cultural activities. For example, Hyatt, Marriott, and Days Inns of America offer advance-purchase discounts, including airline reservation in advance to save money or all-inclusive pricing package offering accommodations, meals, the use of recreational facilities, and other options all for a set price. The preference for hotels in an escape tour might be a natural property that is located in a remote nature environment. Employees who pay attention to guests and listen to their ideas are the ideal destinations. In those hotels guests can stay, dine early, and vacation at a leisurely pace. Others may feel rushed or distracted by the quick, efficient service that business people have come to expect. Restaurants offer to this market healthy and natural foods. The preference for an adventure tour might be a destination with diverse activities such as house boating, white-water rafting, and vacationing at archaeological places. The guests look for unusual activities and sites where few tourists go. The Kimpton Group in San Francisco have developed a restaurant named Ponzu that features a lounge-like atmosphere and offers a feng shui hour, a popular attraction for this age group who wants something different (Abbey, 2004).

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The choice of the four types of tour packages based on Abbey’s classification selected is the best set to use in the study because of the following reasons. First, the update information from Abbey (2003, 2004) is used as an official teaching textbook in the American Hotel Lodging Association (AHLA) classes of tourism and hospitality. Second, the four characteristics of tours are used to illustrate a tour as adventurous, cultural, business-related, and escaping. Finally, with the exception of a businessrelated tour, the characteristics of the three types of tours are used to illustrate the characteristics of tourism as adventure tourism, cultural tourism, and sustainable tourism used by the WTO. According to Dube et al. (1999), hotel identities include the following: (1) overall service quality, (2) familiarity, (3) convenient location, (4) cleanliness and aesthetics of the property (general and room), (5) price and value of money, (6) friendliness of service staff, and (7) quality of food and beverage. Overall service quality is important to the hotel identity because it sets a reputation. For example, the Hilton might have better service than a local small motel. This explains why some hotels are have ‘‘brand names’’ and others do not. Preferences for hotel quality are related to experiences of the guests who are interested in self-exploration to search for excellence. Familiarity is a key aspect for hotel identity because a humans’ nature revolves around what they already know. Hotels must strive to make their hotels like the guests’ home, not a temporary place to reside. Preferences for familiarity are thus not related to experiences of guests who are always looking for new and unfamiliar environments that appeal their curiosity and self-exploration. A convenient location is also an essential part of hotels to develop friendliness and relationships. This is why some guests pick one hotel over another. Preferences for location are related to experiences of the guests who always search for the best places to meet their relatives, colleagues, and friends to maintain friendships. Cleanliness and aesthetics of the room and lobby is the first thing guests see. Since the first impression is crucial, hotels must have a clean hotel. Preferences for cleanliness and aesthetics are related to experiences of the guests who pay attention to the best offers for their friends and relatives in a hotel. All guests care about the price of the hotel room. They want a good room at a good price. Preferences for high price and high value are related to experiences of the guests who always need to influence other people.

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The friendliness of staff makes the guest feel at home, which supports the idea of familiarity of hotels. Preferences for friendliness of staff in a hotel are related to experiences of the guests who respect the human relationship and friendship. Most importantly, guests have basic needs, like food and water. If the quality of the food is poor, guest will not come back to the hotel. Preferences for food and beverage in a hotel are related to experiences of the guests who love to associate with other people. The choice of Dube et al. (1999) is the best set to use for hotels in the study because of the following reasons. (1)This research is more objective since its sample includes 13,400 managers in the United States from functional areas such as chief of officer, marketing, human resources, design/architecture, etc., (2) the authors interview a national sample of 194 travel agents, 123 meeting planners, and 536 frequent-stay customers, and (3) the authors of this research are from the most prestigious institutions including Cornell University, American Hotel Foundation, and American Express. In sum, the above sections have mentioned three concepts of unconscious needs for achievement, affiliation, and power, four preferences for adventurous, cultural, business-related, and escaping types of tours, and seven preferences for hotel identities: quality, familiarity, cleanliness and aesthetics, location, price, friendliness, and food and beverage. Most previous research assumes that motivation has a direct influence on leisure tour activity choice. However, research to date has provided little support for this assertion (McGuiggan, 2000). The present study addresses the following issues. Can motivation influence choice directly or does it exert its effect indirectly? If motivation influences behavior indirectly, what will be the indirect factor? What is the function of travel preference in this case? In order to answer these questions, following is a brief review of travel literature regarding the relationships between motivations and travel preferences.

Relationships between Motives and Preferences for Tours and Hotels This section examines the findings of the relationship between motivation and preference of two types of tourists. The first type is the tourists who prefer tours. The second type is the guests who are interested in hotels. Through the researches of Goodall (1990), Oppermann (2000), and McGuiggan (2000), there is a significant association between motivation and preference of the first type of tourists. YP&B/Yankelovich Partners National Business Travel Monitor (2006), Abbey (2004), and Dube et al.

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(1999) have found that there is a relationship between motivation and preference of the second type of tourists. Goodall (1990) examines the relationship between motivation and preference of tourist. According to Goodall (1990), motivation affects travel preference. Motivation can provide a goal or a direction, but not a measurable objective. Preference can provide that objective or option to select in order to match the objective with the goal and satisfaction. Goodall (1990) posits that, Holiday preferences are important because, although motivations provide a definite inclination to undertake a certain course of action, a number of actions may correct the socio-psychological imbalances. Which course is selected and which rejected, depends on the individual’s preferences. This in turn suggests that holidaymakers generate a number of holiday goals – explicit targets for achievement. (Goodall, 1990, p. 45)

Goodall (1988) also summarizes the factors identifying the relationships among needs, motivations, preferences, and goals in individual holiday choice in Fig. 3. Oppermann (2000) also finds the relationship between destination choice and motivation to revisit the destination. According to Oppermann, destination loyalty (motivation), destination image, and travel experience affect destination choice. Further, destination choice contributes to travel experience as illustrated in Fig. 4. Destination choice includes destination type (type of tour), accommodation type, trip itinerary, and travel mode (companion form) (Oppermann, 2000). There are different types of tours: adventure tours, business tours, sight-seeing or eco tours, and culture tours. In adventure tours, there are challenges for tourists to overcome, such as climbing, tracking, surfing, sliding, and skiing. In business tours, companies or individual businessmen travel for their conventions or conference. A sight-seeing or eco tour is a tour in which there are many different natural destinations for tourists to enjoy such as beaches, forests, and islands. Tourists also visit culture relics such as World Heritage Sites in culture tours. In terms of accommodations, there are different types of lodgings and restaurants. Oppermann (2000) divides them into four types: luxurious, midsize, budget, and local arrangements. Luxurious accommodations are the hotels and restaurants qualified with four or five stars. Midsize accommodations are the hotels and restaurants with two or three stars. The rest of one or two star hotels and restaurants belong to the budget type. Local arrangements are the places where local people will arrange for tourists to stay and eat. Trip itinerary is short-haul (2 or 3 days) or long-haul (longer than 3 days) trips. In terms of

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NEEDS and DESIRES

MOTIVATIONS to take a holiday PERCEPTIONS

PREFERENCES IMAGES EXPECTATIONS

EVALUATION of alternative holidays

SATISFACTION

Fig. 3.

The Tourist’s Decision. Source: Adapted from Goodall (1988, p. 4).

Choice Destination Type (type of tour)

Motivation to Revisit (loyalty)

Accommodation Type Trip Itinerary Travel Mode (companion form)

Destination Image Importance and Performance

Fig. 4.

Travel Experience

Interactions between Choice and Motivation. Source: Adapted from Oppermann (2000, p. 20).

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companions, tourists can travel alone or with their friends, their family, or their business colleagues. McGuiggan (2000) uses Myers–Briggs type indicators (MBTI) to examine a convenience sample of undergraduate business students in the first year at the University of Technology in Sydney (UTS), Australia. The findings suggest that personality exerts its influence indirectly through establishing leisure preferences, rather than personality influencing choice directly as shown in Fig. 5. According to McGuiggan (2000), choices are made but within the constraints that order our lives. These constraints may be external to the individual, such as culture, regulations, availability/accessibility of appropriate facilities and internal, such physical ability, health, and competing obligations, such as family or work. The result from the Guiggan study indicates that almost 50% of respondents are unable to select their choice due to the constraints. Goodall (1988), Oppermann (2000), and McGuiggan (2000) support the relationship between motivations and destination preferences in which needs affect preference construction in helping tourists to select a hotel brand. Opperman’s results indicate that motivation, destination image, and travel experience affect destination choice. McGuiggan (2000) proposes that personality and motivation would exert an influence of image indirectly through establishing leisure preferences. In addition, Woodside and MacDonald (1994) report that motivation has influenced brand loyalty. Indeed, Woodside and MacDonald (1994) posit, Intentions toward returning to a destination visited previously affect traveler destination-choices. (Woodside & MacDonald, 1994, p. 34)

However, the relationships between motivation and image construction have frequently been based on self-reported questionnaires that reflect short-term beliefs and intentions (Langens & McClelland, 1997). In order to find the more stable and consistent relationships between motives and image Leisure Activity Preference

Personality

Constraints

Fig. 5.

Leisure Choice

Constraints

Relationship between Preference and Leisure Choice. Source: Adapted from McGuiggan (2000, p. 249).

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construction of hotel identities, the motives should be based on unconscious motives. Research Hypotheses Previous studies do not address questions of the relationships among the three human motives of achievement, power, and affiliation and preferences for tours and hotels. According to the above analysis, some correlations might exist between the travelers’ activities and the preferences of tour packages and hotel identities. These relationships are set up in the present study based on two classifications of the World Tourism Organization (1999) and Dube et al. (1999). In general, tourists with high achievement motive might tend to expose themselves to novelty when climbing undiscovered mountains and staying and eating in unfamiliar hotels and restaurants. Those people who enjoy outdoor activities such as hiking, backpacking, camping, and boating are referred to as active outdoor-oriented tourists. Tourists with high affiliation might tend to arrive in strong ethnic areas, stay and eat at the most convenient location with local people, and travel with a group. They might enjoy engaging in activities focusing on history or natural beauty in a regional, ethnic, country, or nature-related theme. It is hypothesized that tourists with a high N-Pow are more likely to visit a restaurant over any other people. This is the result of McClelland’s (1972) experiments with the consumption of alcohol and its effects on human N-Pow. In addition, tourists with a high power motive might tend to visit a famous destination such as World Heritage Sites, stay in a valued hotel, and make some important contributions to tourist environments. They might prefer to be involved in recreational activities such as shopping, attending a professional sports event, visiting a recreational theme park, or going dancing or to a nightclub. In addition, the tourists with a high power motive might prefer to relax in a luxurious environment to impact other people. The research questions (RQ) in this study are as follows: RQ1. Does a travel preference for an adventure tour significantly relate to a N-Ach? RQ2. Does a travel preference for a cultural tour significantly relate to a N-Aff? RQ3. Does a travel preference for an escape tour significantly relate to a N-Pow?

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RQ4. Does a travel preference for a business tour significantly relate to a N-Pow? RQ5. Does a hotel preference for familiarity significantly relate to a N-Ach? RQ6. Does a hotel preference for service quality significantly relate to a N-Ach? RQ7. Does a hotel preference for hotel location significantly relate to a N-Aff? RQ8. Does a hotel preference for cleanliness and aesthetics significantly relate to a N-Aff? RQ9. Does a hotel preference for friendliness significantly relate to a N-Aff? RQ10. Does a hotel preference for price and value of money significantly relate to a N-Pow? RQ11. Does a hotel preference for food and beverage significantly relate to a N-Pow? Based on these research questions, this study tested the following 11 hypotheses: H1. N-Ach affects the preference for an adventure tour. H2. N-Aff affects the preference for a cultural tour. H3. N-Pow affects the preference for an escape tour. H4. N-Pow affects the preference for a business tour. H5. N-Ach affects familiarity. H6. N-Ach affects overall service quality (efficiency and speed). H7. N-Aff affects hotel location.

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H8. N-Aff affects cleanliness and aesthetic of a physical property. H9. N-Aff affects friendliness of service staff. H10. N-Pow affects prices (value of money). H11. N-Pow affects quality of food and beverage. Tables 8 and 9 illustrate these hypotheses.

METHOD This part describes the methods to answer the research questions addressed. The first section explains the sampling procedure. The second section Table 8.

1. 2. 3. 4.

1

2

3

Achievement motive

Affiliation motive

Power motive

R0 (1,1) ¼ 0

Adventure Cultural Business Escape

Table 9.

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

Null Hypotheses of the Relationships between Travel Motives and Tour Preferences.

R0 (2,2) ¼ 0 R0 (3,3) ¼ 0 R0 (4,3) ¼ 0

Null Hypotheses of the Relationships between Travel Motives and Hotel Identity Preferences.

Familiarity Quality Location Cleanliness Friendliness Price Food and beverage

1

2

3

Achievement motive

Affiliation motive

Power motive

R0 (1,1) ¼ 0 R0 (2,1) ¼ 0 R0 (3,2) ¼ 0 R0 (4,2) ¼ 0 R0 (5,2) ¼ 0 R0 (6,3) ¼ 0 R0 (7,3) ¼ 0

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reviews the measurement procedures undertaken during the study. The third section describes the methods utilized. The last section indicates the results of three sample tests in the present study including one pilot test and the other two official tests.

Sampling Procedure The adequacy of the sample is a crucial factor in the validity of the inferences drawn as a result of the analyses. The sampling procedure in the present study includes participants, design, and study procedures. Participant Selection Criteria The present study has randomly selected participants for three samples: one for pilot test and the other two samples for study tests. The participants in the pilot test are potential and actual travelers whereas the participants in the two study tests are from the University of Utah and the University of West Florida. There are no other criteria for participants in the selection of students from the University of Utah, but at the University of West Florida respondents are only students who have stayed in three hotel chains InterContinental, Accor, and Marriott. The participants from the University of Utah took the survey online, whereas the respondents from the University of West Florida took the survey in class. Design The randomization method used in the design of this study provides three samples with two sets of variables for each sample. One is the set of three motives and the other is the set of preferences for package tours or hotel identities. These are all continuous variables. The research questions are first summarized into the question, ‘‘Is there a significant relationship between the two sets of variables?’’ If there is a relationship, the next question pertains to which of the motive variables (achievement, affiliation, or power) is most associated with one or more of the preferences for package tours (adventure, culture, business, or escape) or hotel identities (quality, familiarity, location, cleanliness and aesthetics, price, friendliness, food and beverage, value). Study Procedures In the pilot test, the present study collected data online from the undergraduate and graduate students at the University of Utah. In the

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first part of the survey, students wrote imaginative stories in response to seven picture cues based on the TAT pictures. During the second part of the measurement, students answered four questions designed to determine their preference for the four travel tours. The four types of tour packages are from the classification of the World Tourism Organization (1999). The scale in the preference measurement is from 1 (very weak preference) to 11 (very strong preference). In the study survey at the University of Utah, the present study collected data online from the undergraduate and graduate students. The procedure is similar to the one in the pilot test. However, in the second part of the survey this time, there are eight questions designed for the four travel tours (two tour descriptions per tour type) in order to test the k reliability between the raters of TAT stories. Participants submitted their responses directly via a web-based questionnaire. The web page prompted participants for missed questions or errors submitted, such as multiple responses for the same item. The resulting data automatically went to a spreadsheet data file to assist in the classification of stories. In the study survey at the University of West Florida, the present study collected data from students at the University of West Florida at the beginning of the four classes: psychology, tourism, education, and biology. Only students who had stayed in three hotel chains (InterContinental, Accor, and Marriott) attended the survey. There are two parts in the survey: TAT pictures and 14 questions for 7 hotel identities: familiarity, price, location, quality, friendliness, cleanliness and aesthetics, and food and beverage. Information in the hotel identities based on Dube et al. (2003) uses a scale of 1 (very weak preference) to 7 (very strong preference). Students received ‘‘bonus points’’ for taking the survey; resulting in a 99% response rate. Four trained raters scored 2,438 stories based on McClelland’s protocols of measurement for the TAT to measure the three motives of participants (achievement, power, and affiliation). Then they collected all data and tested k reliabilities utilizing Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS).

Measurement Instruments The present study uses the TAT to measure unconscious needs and the selfreport questionnaires to measure preferences for tours and hotel identities.

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Thematic Apperception Test The TAT (Murray, 1943) is an exercise in which participants create brief imaginative stories in response to pictures. The TAT is a test designed to measure the human needs or motivations that people are either unwilling or unable to verbalize because of a lack of conscious awareness (Murray, 1943). The test has frequently created measures of implicit motivation based on the assumption that spontaneous fantasy as opposed to conscious statements of goals or motives is the best measurement (Koestner, Weinberger, & McClelland, 1991; McClelland, Koestner, & Weinberger, 1989; Weinberger & McClelland, 1990). The TAT consists of 31 black and white cards with ambiguous pictures on them (Groth-Marnath, 1984). The codes of the cards are a number or letter located on the back of each card. The letters indicate the populations to which the particular card is targeted. The four possible target populations are based on age and gender and thus are divided into males, females, boys, and girls in such a way that each group can be administered a total of 20 cards. The letters used to indicate the target populations are M, F, B, and G, with M indicating the cards meant for adult males, F indicating cards meant for adult females, B designating cards meant for boys, and G indicating cards meant for girls. Certain cards can be administered solely on the basis of gender. For example, the codes are BM or GF. The original coding of the cards does not constrain the use of the cards today. Males are often administered cards originally designed for females and vice versa. The present study selects 7 of the 31 pictures. A description of each of the pictures follows. Picture 9BM illustrates four men lying next to each other in an open field. Picture 12F is a portrait of a young woman in the foreground with an older woman holding her chin in the background. Picture 12M shows an adult male with his hand raised standing above a boy lying on a bed with his eyes closed. Picture 17BM is a portrait of a naked man climbing a rope. Picture 17GF is a female standing on a bridge over water. Above the bridge is a tall building and behind the building the sun is shining from behind clouds. Picture 18GF shows a woman puts her hands around the throat of another woman. In the background is a flight of stairs. Picture 20 is a hazy, nighttime picture of a man leaning against a lamppost. The present study selects seven pictures to test the TAT online at the University of Utah and four pictures to test the TAT in class at the University of West Florida. At the University of Utah, seven pictures selected from TAT cards are 9BM, 12F, 12M, 17BM, 17GF, 18GF, and 20 (see Appendix A). At the University of West Florida, four pictures selected are 9BM, 17BM, 18GF, and 12M. The reasons to select these pictures are as

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follows: (1) the pictures representing common situations could strongly arouse the unconscious level of the three single motives (picture 17BM for achievement, picture 18GF for affiliation, and picture 12M for power) and the combination of motives (9BM, 12F, 17GF, and 20), (2) the pictures with few subjects are low ambiguous enough for a respondent to effectively produce a particular type of motive that is separated from other motives (Smith, Feld, & Franz, 1992), and (3) the pictures include males and females who are older than the subjects to avoid those eliciting recollections of past events rather than thoughts that reflect current concerns (McClelland, Atkinson, Clark, & Lowell, 1953/1976). Regarding self-training, Smith (1992) suggests that trainees have to read the coding manual and receive clarification regarding meaning of code categories. Trainees then score practice materials, compare their scoring with each other, and discuss differences between their scoring and that of an expert’s scoring sample (Smith et al., 1992, p. 632) in order to further clarify their understanding of the coding categories. In the present study, the two raters for the two samples at the University of Utah are graduate students. One is a graduate student in psychology with 12-year experience in social psychology and the other is a graduate student in tourism with 15-year experience. The two raters selected at the University of West Florida are the author of the study and a graduate student in tourism. The four raters have to follow the procedure for training a scorer adapted from Smith et al. (1992) as follows: (1) (2) (3) (4) (5)

Read the scoring manual several times. Take the self-test for the manual. Make a summary sheet of key points. Look at the verbal cue used to elicit the story before scoring. Keep in mind the four questions with the pictures used to guide the writing of the stories. (6) Consult the manual when there are difficulties. (7) Be able to point to specific phrases that meet the criteria for a particular scoring category. The scoring manuals used by the two scorers for two samples are based on the behavioral sequence as illustrated in Fig. 6. The present study measures the strength of the motives using TAT pictures to elicit the unconscious motives. Respondents create imagery stories and scorers measure the strength of the motives from the stories using the scoring manuals of McClelland et al. (1992), Heyns et al. (1958/1992), Veroff (1958/ 1992), and Horner and Fleming (1992). The descriptions of the manuals

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Traveler’s Interpretations and Preferences of Alternative Tours and Hotels The Person

Need (N)

Obstacle in the Environment (Bw) or in the Person (Bp) The Goal (Th)

Positive Anticipations (Ga+) Negative Anticipations (Ga-) Positive Goal States (G+)

Actions [Doubtful Instrument (I?), or Positive Instrument (I+), or Negative Instrument (I-)]

Negative Goal States (G-) Help [Nurturance (Nu)]

Fig. 6.

Position of the Scoring Categories in the Adjustive Behavioral Sequence. Source: Adapted from McClelland (1990, p. 193).

for scoring the needs for achievement, affiliation, and power from the stories adapted are illustrated in Appendix B.

Self-Report Questionnaire The present study measures travel preferences for package tours and hotel identities using a self-report questionnaire. The questionnaire for package tours includes eight questions in which the participants rank their preference from 1 representing very weak preference to 11 representing a very strong preference for a tour description. The questionnaire for hotel identities includes 14 questions in which the participants rank their preference from 1 representing very weak preference to 7 representing a very strong preference for a hotel identity description. For the preferences for package tours, questions one and two describe a tour that represents an adventuretype trip. Questions three and four describe a business type tour package. Questions five and six depict culture-based activities and experiences in the tour package. Questions seven and eight describe a tour package with escape type activities and experiences. For the preferences for hotel identities, question 1 and 2 describe familiarity with the hotel brand name, question 3 and 4 describe the hotel overall service quality, question 5 and 6 indicate cleanliness and aesthetics, question 7 and 8 describe convenient location, question 9 and 10 indicate friendliness of service staff, question 11 and 12 describe low and good prices and value of money, question 13 and

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14 describe quality of food and beverage. The self-report questionnaires are illustrated in Appendix C.

Statistical Method This section includes: Canonical variate analysis, interpretation, and reliability. Canonical Variate Analysis The two sets of variables (motives and preferences) are continuous in the design. In order to examine the relationship of the two sets of continuous variables, there are three optional statistical approaches to be selected for this study: bivariate correlation analysis for each variable, multiple regression analysis for each criterion variable (preference), and canonical variate analysis for two sets of variables. The first approach, using a simple bivariate correlation between each motive variable and each preference variable, has a problem of calculating an unwieldy number of 12 (4 tour preferences  3 motives) bivariate correlations with the package tours and 21 (7 hotel identity preferences  3 motives) bivariate correlations with the hotel identity. The problem lies in how to interpret everything as a whole without affecting type I error of the statistical method. It was, therefore, determined that this approach was not appropriate for this study. The second approach, using multiple regressions, refers to computing a separate multiple regression equation for each preference variable. Although this is more efficient than the first method, there are still some problems of calculating separate equations, which may be redundant. Finally, the best approach is using canonical variate analysis to relate the three motive variables to the four tour preference variables or seven hotel identity preference variables simultaneously. The term canonical indicates that the technique is extracting from a square matrix. Canonical variate analysis simultaneously calculates a linear composite of all motive variables and a linear composite of all preference variables. Unlike other multivariate techniques, these weighted composites are derived in pairs. Each linear combination is called a canonical variate and takes the general linear form. Interpretation Canonical variate is a form of correlation relating two sets of variables (motives and preferences). It is a form of latent variables. If the canonical correlation function is significant, it represents an orthogonally separate

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pattern of relationships between the two latent variables (motives and preferences). There were three canonical variates in this study. Wilks’ Lamda (L) is used to test the significance of the canonical variates. If one canonical variate is significant with po0.05, it indicates how well the groups of motive factors could predict each of the four sets of travel tours. L is an index that varies from 0 to 1. A L of 1 indicates that the means of all the groups in the canonical correlation function have the same value and so do not differ. A L close to zero signifies that the means of the group in the canonical correlation function differ. Canonical correlation (structured coefficients) (Rc) is an index used to assess the extent to which one set of variables can be predicted or explained by the other set. The canonical correlation (Rc) indicates the highest possible correlation between any linear combination of the motive variables and any linear combination of the preference variables. Eigenvalue is used to indicate strength of relationship statistics for each canonical pair. Canonical coefficients (standard coefficients) refer to an index used to indicate the weight that is attached to three motives that takes into account their relationships with the preference variables in the analysis. In order to determine the relative importance of each original variable to the canonical variates, three interpretative approaches are available: (a) canonical weights (standard coefficients), (b) canonical loading (the variable loads on its own variate), and (c) canonical cross-loading (the variable loads on the opposite variate). The present study utilizes the last two approaches. Reliability In addition to using Cronbach’s a to test the reliability of the variables, k was used to check the interrater agreement scoring of the TAT from the scores of the two raters. This statistic was used to assess interrater agreement when observing or coding qualitative/categorical variables. k is considered to be an improvement over using percent agreement to evaluate this type of reliability. k has a range from 0 to 1.00, with larger values indicating better reliability. Generally, a k W0.70 is considered satisfactory.

Results There are three results described in this section: One comes from a pilot test and the other two official tests are based on a sample of 140 students of the

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University of Utah and a sample of 277 students of the University of West Florida. Results of the Pilot Test This section describes the methods in a pilot test to determine the correct procedures and to evaluate the preference questions. The study was established online from May 15, 2004 to June 1, 2004 with the web address: http://www.health.utah.edu/prt/ip/TAT.htm. Fifty students participated in this pilot study. The sample was potential and actual travelers. Each student completed an online questionnaire containing the TAT pictures and travel preference questions. All participants received an explanation of the study and of potential benefits and risks, as required by the University of Utah’s Institutional Review Board (IRB) Approval No. 12530. An invitation letter specified that participation was voluntary, participants’ identities would remain confidential, and that, by completing the instruments, participants signified their informed consent to participate in the study. Analysis of the data generated for the pilot study determines if there are any significant procedural problems to evaluate the travel preference questions. The implementation of the study has no significant problems. The analysis of the TAT stories provides an opportunity to evaluate the interrater agreement. The k statistic for acceptable interreliability is 0.70. The k statistic achieved in the pilot study was 0.80. The analysis of the TAT results compared with the travel preference results was completed utilizing canonical correlation. Only one of the squared canonical correlations for three pairs of canonical variates is significant (Wilk’s L ¼ 0.37, F ¼ 1.87, po0.05). The first pair of variates reveals a very strong relationship between two of the motive variables (N-Aff [0.75] and N-Pow [0.65]) and the choice of culture and adventure (0.67 and 0.60, respectively). Essentially, the first pair of variates suggests that individuals who select the culture tour for their preference will seek affiliation-related experiences. Additionally, people who select their preference for adventure tour possess low N-Pow. Due to the small sample size (n ¼ 50) and the wording of four travel preferences, the study reevaluated conflicting descriptors in consistent adjectives used to describe the activities in each package. Additionally, the study survey should prepare a pair of descriptions for each tour package in the full study to utilize a more structured versus a less structured orientation to the descriptions. Each pair of descriptions would utilize slightly different modes of travel and lodging with similar activities to isolate any influence that these factors might have in the outcome. Furthermore, the study would remove direct inferences to international destinations, attempting to make

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Table 10. Wilk’s L 0.37

Results of the Pilot Study.

Eigenvalue

Rc

df

Error df

F

Sig.

0.875

0.68

24

113.71

1.87

o0.05

Standardized Coefficients

Structure Coefficients

Motives N-Aff N-Ach N-Pow

0.60 0.54 0.63

0.75 .065 0.29

Tour type Culture tour 1 Culture tour 2 Adventure tour 1 Adventure tour 2 Escape tour 1 Escape tour 2 Business tour 1 Business tour 2

0.32 0.34 0.63 0.88 0.35 0.20 0.60 0.57

0.67 .039 0.44 0.60 0.33 0.32 0.57 0.46

Abbreviations: N-Aff, need for affiliation; N-Ach, need for achievement; N-Pow, need for power.

all tour packages more general in focus. Finally, the study should add some demographic variables so that these variables might prove helpful to the travel industry when comparing to their target markets and to previously published research outcomes. All the outcomes of the pilot test are illustrated in Table 10. Results of the Two Studies This subsection presents a summary of the results of the data analysis completed during the two studies. The summary includes two profiles of the descriptive results (one for package tours and the other for hotel identities), two reliability tests, along with results of two analyses of the TAT, and two preferences for tours and hotel identities. The subsection concludes with two analyses of the hypothesis tests. Two Descriptive Results. If one wants to interpret the most significant canonical root only, Stevens (1986) recommends that there should be at least 20 times as many cases as variables in the analysis to arrive at reliable interpretations of the canonical factor loadings. For example, there are at least 140 participants for tours [20  (3 motivesþ4 tours)] or at least 200

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participants for hotels [20  (3 motives þ 7 hotel identities)]. In the two studies, two sample sizes for package tours and for hotel identities are n ¼ 140 and n ¼ 277, respectively. As a result, the present study has met the standard of sample size. Data were collected from January 3, 2005 to January 16, 2005. Based on the University of Utah’s IRB Approval No. 12530 (revised), the present study sent an email of invitation to participate to 200 student email addresses randomly selected by the University of Utah Administration. After 2 weeks of data collection, the study received a total of 140 responses, resulting in a 70% response rate. In addition to the central questions including creating stories and selecting travel preference, respondents reported general information such as gender, age, marital status, and the number of children living with them. These data are summarized in Table 11. The distribution of male (52%) and female (48%) indicates that the ratio of gender in the sample was similar to the population of students at the University of Utah including male (56%) and female (44%). Furthermore, the respondents to the study ranged in age from 19 to 40, with only 4% over the age of 40. The average age of the respondents was 27.5 with a standard deviation of 6.1 years. The youngest age was 19 years and the oldest age was 49 years. The average age of the respondents was almost the same with the university average age of enrolled students (27). Finally, the marital status and the number of children in a family displayed in Table 11 shows that majority of respondents are single (49%) and married with no children (21%).

Table 11. Continuous Variables Age

Characteristics of Package Tours (n ¼ 140). Mean

SD

Skewness

Kurtosis

27.5

6.1

1.05

0.83

Categorical Variables

N

%

Gender Male Female Single Married with no children living in your home Married with children living at home Divorced or separated with no children Divorced or separated with children living in your home

73 67 69 30 34 6 1

52 48 49 21 25 4 1

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On October 26, 2006, the University of West Florida’s IRB approved the second survey of this study. In this time, the study randomly selected 277 University of West Florida students from four introductory courses in psychology, tourism, education, and biology to examine the relationship between unconscious motives and preferences for hotel identities. The sample includes a variety of students from four classes: psychology, tourism, education, and biology courses in order that it represents a cross-section of students at the university. Students received ‘‘bonus points’’ for taking the TAT; resulting in a 99% response rate. Only students who stayed in three hotel chains InterContinental, Accor, and Marriott were included in the present study. Participant ages range from 20 to 52 years; 40.1% is male and 59.9% is female. The majority of participants are single (92.8%); only 4.3% are married and the rest are divorced. The demographic data of the sample for hotel identity are illustrated in Table 12. Two Reliability Tests. Prior to analysis, the study tests the raw scores for each measure to determine if they meet the assumptions required in order to use parametric statistics. Parametric assumptions for a test of difference (t-test or ANOVA) between sets of scores require that each data set must have an approximately normal distribution, the data sets must have similar variances, and the scores must be at least interval in form (Sprinthall, 1997). Parametric assumptions for a test of relationship (Pearson product–moment correlation) require the distribution of each set of scores to be approximately normal but if it departs from normality it should at least achieve interval data level, and the association between the two sets of scores

Table 12. Continuous Variables Age

Characteristics of Hotel Identities (n ¼ 277). Mean

SD

Skewness

Kurtosis

21.5

9.8

1.3

1.8

Categorical Variables Gender Male Female Single Married with no children living in your home Married with children living at home Divorced or separated

N

%

111 166 267 12 7 1

40.1 59.9 92.8 4.3 2.5 0.4

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Table 13.

Test of Normality for Package Tours.

Kolmogorov–Smirnov(a)

Adventure 1 Cultural 1 Business 1 Escape 1 Adventure 2 Cultural 2 Business 2 Escape 2 N-Ach N-Aff N-Pow

Shapiro–Wilk

Statistic

df

Sig.

Statistic

df

Sig.

0.12 0.11 0.18 0.13 0.19 0.18 0.10 0.13 0.18 0.16 0.19

140 140 140 140 140 140 140 140 140 140 140

o0.001 o0.001 o0.001 o0.001 o0.001 o0.001 o0.001 o0.001 o0.001 o0.001 o0.001

0.92 0.94 0.88 0.94 0.87 0.86 0.94 0.94 0.78 0.87 0.81

140 140 140 140 140 140 140 140 140 140 140

o0.001 o0.001 o0.001 o0.001 o0.001 o0.001 o0.001 o0.001 o0.001 o0.001 o0.001

Abbreviations: N-Ach, need for achievement; N-Aff, need for affiliation; N-Pow, need for power.

being compared must be linear (Sprinthall, 1997). All variables in ANOVA and Pearson product–moment correlation for Canonical Correlation analysis meet the assumption of normal distribution as illustrated in Table 13 for package tours and Table 14 for hotel identities. Of major importance to the study is the validity and reliability of inferences for the TAT. The present study scores the stories aroused by ambiguous TAT pictures based on McClelland’s scoring manual. The study tests the scores between two trained raters by k coefficients. Additionally, internal consistency of all variables is met using Cronbach’s coefficient a. a reliability is the average of all possible split-half reliability coefficients for the indicators of a variable, taking into account the number of indicators in those split halves. The split-half reliability coefficient is simply the correlation between the aggregated scores of half the indicators with the aggregated scores of the remaining half of the indicators (Cramer, 2003). For the preferences for package tours, two questions were thus designed for each of the four preferences for package tours in this study. As a result, the a reliabilities of the four variables of tour preferences were 0.73 for adventure, 0.71 for culture, 0.71 for business, and 0.61 for escape tour. Similarly, based on the two raters’ scores for each of the three motives in the study, the a reliabilities for the needs for achievement, affiliation, and power were 0.93, 0.93, and 0.92, respectively. In addition, the interrater k reliabilities for the three needs were for achievement, affiliation and power were 0.88, 0.89, and

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Table 14.

Test of Normality for Hotel Identities. Kolmogorov–Smirnov(a)

Cleanliness 1 Friendliness 1 Familiarity 1 Food and beverage 1 Location Food and beverage 2 Cleanliness 2 Price Friendliness 2 Price 2 Quality 1 Quality 2 Location 2 Familiarity 2 N-Ach N-Aff N-Pow

Shapiro–Wilk

Statistic

df

Sig.

Statistic

df

Sig.

0.17 0.23 0.29 0.25 0.19 0.23 0.18 0.23 0.24 0.16 0.24 0.26 0.17 0.36 0.15 0.14 0.19

277 277 277 277 277 277 277 277 277 277 277 277 277 277 277 277 277

o0.001 o0.001 o0.001 o0.001 o0.001 o0.001 o0.001 o0.001 o0.001 o0.001 o0.001 o0.001 o0.001 o0.001 o0.001 o0.001 o0.001

0.89 0.84 0.64 0.83 0.85 0.80 0.90 0.87 0.84 0.89 0.80 0.82 0.90 0.70 0.89 0.90 0.82

277 277 277 277 277 277 277 277 277 277 277 277 277 277 277 277 277

o0.001 o0.001 o0.001 o0.001 o0.001 o0.001 o0.001 o0.001 o0.001 o0.001 o0.001 o0.001 o0.001 o0.001 o0.001 o0.001 o0.001

Abbreviations: N-Ach, need for achievement; N-Aff, need for affiliation; N-Pow, need for power.

0.90, respectively. The results are summarized in Table 15 indicate that the variables in the study achieved an acceptable level of reliability. For hotel identities, two questions were designed for each of the seven variables of hotel identities (familiarity, location, price, quality, friendliness, food and beverage, cleanliness and aesthetic). Overall, the Cronbach’s a for the different variables achieved the criterion of 0.60 or higher and the k reliability for the TAT analysis achieved the criterion of 0.80 or higher. The results are illustrated in Table 16. Therefore, all variables were utilized in subsequent analysis to examine the hypothesis. Two Analyses of Thematic Apperception Test. Each picture among the seven TAT pictures elicits different levels of needs for respondents. Based on McClelland’s manual of scoring motives (McClelland, 1992), two raters scores stories for package tours and two raters scores stories for hotel identities. Each respondent creates seven stories for package tours and four stories for hotel identities. As a result, there are total 980 stories for package tours (7 stories  140 participants) and 1,108 stories for hotel identities

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Table 15.

Cronbach’s a and k Reliability for Package Tours.

Variables Preference Preference Preference Preference N-Ach N-Aff N-Pow

for for for for

adventure cultural business escape

Cronbach’s a

Significant

k

Significant

0.73 0.71 0.71 0.61 0.93 0.92 0.92

po0.001 po0.001 po0.001 po0.001 po0.001 po0.001 po0.001

0.88 0.89 0.90

po0.001 po0.001 po0.001

Abbreviations: N-Ach, need for achievement; N-Aff, need for affiliation; N-Pow, need for power.

Table 16.

Cronbach’s a and k Reliability for Hotel Identities.

Variables Preference Preference Preference Preference Preference Preference Preference N-Ach N-Aff N-Pow

for for for for for for for

familiarity cleanliness friendliness location price quality standard food–beverage

Cronbach’s a

Significant

k

Significant

0.90 0.70 0.95 0.86 0.60 0.70 0.83 0.90 0.93 0.92

po0.001 po0.001 po0.001 po0.001 po0.001 po0.001 po0.001 po0.001 po0.001 po0.001

0.91 0.87 0.95

po0.001 po0.001 po0.001

Abbreviations: N-Ach, need for achievement; N-Aff, need for affiliation; N-Pow, need for power.

(4 stories  277 participants). Including 350 stories from the pilot test (7 stories  50 participants), total stories scored are 2,438 stories in the present study. The study then sums all individual story scores to obtain a subject’s score for each motive (Smith et al., 1992; Winter, 1996). Total scores of three summed needs for achievement, affiliation, and power are independent variables in canonical correlation analysis. The study tests the characteristics of normality and outliers of these scores to see whether they meet the assumptions for canonical correlation analysis. Tables 17 and 18 indicate that the three needs for package tours and three needs for hotel identities are normally distributed without outliers so that the variables met the assumptions of canonical correlation analysis.

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Motive Variable Characteristics for Package Tours.

Table 17. Motive

Mean

SD

Min. Score

Max. Score

Total Range

Skewness

Kurtosis

N-Ach N-Aff N-Pow

7.60 7.26 6.30

8.15 6.23 7.19

0 0 0

42 33 42

42 33 42

2.00 1.48 1.83

4.41 2.55 4.89

Kolmogorov–Smirnov(a)

Shapiro–Wilk

Statistic

df

Sig.

Statistic

df

Sig.

0.18 0.16 0.19

140 140 140

o0.001 o0.001 o0.001

0.78 0.87 0.81

140 140 140

o0.001 o0.001 o0.001

N-Ach N-Aff N-Pow

Abbreviations: N-Ach, need for achievement; N-Aff, need for affiliation; N-Pow, need for power.

Motive Variable Characteristics for Hotel Identities.

Table 18. Motive

Mean

SD

Min. Score

Max. Score

Total Range

Skewness

Kurtosis

N-Ach N-Aff N-Pow

3.14 3.53 2.97

2.91 3.17 3.38

0 0 0

16 12 16

16 12 16

0.76 0.60 1.4

0.14 0.48 2.4

Kolmogorov–Smirnov(a)

N-Ach N-Aff N-Pow

Shapiro–Wilk

Statistic

df

Sig.

Statistic

df

Sig.

0.15 0.14 0.19

277 277 277

o0.001 o0.001 o0.001

0.89 0.90 0.82

277 277 277

o0.001 o0.001 o0.001

Abbreviations: N-Ach, need for achievement; N-Aff, need for affiliation; N-Pow, need for power.

Preferences for Package Tours and Hotel Identities. Travel preference includes preferences for package tours and hotel identities. Four package tour preferences (adventure, culture, business, and escape) and seven hotel identity preferences (familiarity, location, price, friendliness, quality, cleanliness and aesthetic, food and beverage) are dependent variables in canonical correlation analysis. The present study then tests the characteristics of normality and outliers of the dependent variables. Tables 19 and 20 show that the four package tour preferences and seven hotel identity preferences

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Travel Preference Variable Characteristics.

Table 19. Motive Adventure Cultural Business Escape

Mean

SD

Min. Score

Max. Score

Total Range

Skewness

Kurtosis

7.02 7.40 5.24 7.63

2.79 2.37 2.65 2.28

1.00 1.50 1.00 1.00

11.00 11.00 11.00 11.00

10.00 9.50 10.00 10.00

0.45 0.52 0.14 0.78

0.84 0.47 0.88 0.36

Kolmogorov–Smirnov(a)

Shapiro–Wilk

Statistic

df

Sig.

Statistic

df

Sig.

0.13 0.11 0.10 0.13

140 140 140 140

o0.001 o0.001 o0.001 o0.001

0.94 0.95 0.96 0.94

140 140 140 140

o0.001 o0.001 o0.002 o0.001

Adventure Culture Business Escape

Table 20. Motive Familiarity Location Price Friendliness Quality Cleanliness Food and Beverage

Hotel Identity Variable Characteristics.

Mean SD Min. Score Max. Score Total Range Skewness Kurtosis 6.21 5.49 5.65 5.60 5.92 4.80 5.25

0.76 0.08 0.23 0.08 0.07 0.10 0.08

1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00

7.00 7.00 7.00 7.00 7.00 7.00 7.00

7.00 7.00 7.00 7.00 7.00 7.00 7.00

Kolmogorov–Smirnov(a)

Familiarity Location Price Friendliness Quality Cleanliness Food and Beverage

2.36 1.10 0.80 1.18 1.45 0.59 0.74

5.97 1.51 0.71 1.10 2.57 0.55 0.28

Shapiro–Wilk

Statistic

df

Sig.

Statistic

df

Sig.

0.29 0.24 0.19 0.24 0.24 0.18 0.16

277 277 277 277 277 277 277

o0.001 o0.001 o0.001 o0.001 o0.001 o0.001 o0.001

0.64 0.80 0.89 0.84 0.89 0.90 0.89

277 277 277 277 277 277 277

o0.001 o0.001 o0.001 o0.001 o0.001 o0.001 o0.001

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275

are normally distributed without outliers. The dependent variables thus meet the assumptions of canonical correlation analysis. Results of Hypothesis Testing for Package Tours and Hotel Identities. For package tours, the first canonical correlation function relating two sets of variables (motives and preferences) explains 17.1% of the variance in the preference variables. Wilks’ L is significant for the combined function (L ¼ 0.73, po0.01). The first canonical correlation indicates how well the groups of motive factors could predict each of the four sets of travel tours. Canonical correlation (structured coefficients) (Rc ¼ 0.38) is the highest possible correlation between any linear combination of the motive variables and any linear combination of the preference variables. In sum, there is one pair of significant canonical variate (po0.05). Canonical correlations and canonical loadings exceed 0.3 for the variate. The pair of variates revealed a very strong relationship between two of the motive variables (N-Ach [0.708] and N-Aff [0.639]) and two of the travel experience preference variables (adventure tour [0.650] and culture tour [0.586]). Essentially, the variate suggests that (1) individuals with a high N-Ach will prefer an adventure tour and (2) individuals possessing a low N-Aff will be not interested in a culture tour. In order to achieve a stable outcome, the canonical correlations and structure coefficient correlations must exceed 0.3 (Monash University, 2005). As can be seen from a review of data in Table 21, one pair of canonical variates shares significant variation. The structure matrix reveals that high N-Ach and low N-Aff are predictive of adventure tour preferences and lack of preference for one of the cultural tours. As a result, there are four conclusions for the test of the four null hypotheses as follows. 1. The N-Ach is correlated positively with the preference for an adventure tour and an escape tour. The null hypothesis H1 is rejected. People who possess a high N-Ach tend to prefer tours that are challenging and involve nature settings, such as adventure or escape tours. In addition, the N-Ach is correlated negatively with culture tour, that is, people who possess high N-Ach do not prefer to attend any cultural activities or tours, such as social community festivals. 2. The N-Aff is correlated positively with the preference for a culture tour. The null hypothesis H2 is rejected. People who possess low N-Aff tend to lack of the tours that are associated with people, cultural history, and festivals.

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Table 21. Wilk’s L

Results of the Hypothesis Test for Package Tours.

Eigenvalue

Rc

df

Error df

F

Sig.

0.17

0.38

24

363.14

1.75

o0.01

0.73

Standardized Coefficients

Structure Coefficients

Motive N-Aff N-Ach N-Pow

0.68 0.77 0.15

0.63 0.70 0.10

Tour type Culture tour 1 Culture tour 2 Adventure tour 1 Adventure tour 2 Escape tour 1 Escape tour 2 Business tour 1 Business tour 2

0.52 0.28 0.65 0.35 0.16 0.06 0.18 0.20

0.32 0.58 0.65 0.54 0.16 0.02 0.02 0.03

Abbreviations: N-Aff, need for affiliation; N-Ach, need for achievement; N-Pow, need for power.

3. The N-Pow is not correlated with an escape tour. The null hypothesis H3 is not rejected. There was no relationship between the N-Pow and the preference for an escape tour. 4. The N-Pow is not correlated with a business tour. The null hypothesis H4 failed to be rejected. The results of this study are unable to detect a relationship between the N-Pow and the preference for a business tour. For hotel identities, the first canonical correlation function relating two sets of variables (motives and hotel identities) explained 13% of the variance in the preference variables. Wilks’ L is significant for the combined function (L ¼ 0.79, po0.05). The first canonical correlation indicates how well the groups of motive factors predicted each of the three sets of hotel identities. Canonical correlation (structured coefficients) (Rc ¼ 0.34) is the highest possible correlation between any linear combination of the motive variables and any linear combination of the hotel identity variables. There is one pair of significant canonical variate (po0.05). The pair of variates reveals a very strong relationship between two of the motive variables (N-Pow [0.78] and N-Aff [(0.70]) and two of the hotel identity variables (price [0.60] and

Traveler’s Interpretations and Preferences of Alternative Tours and Hotels

Table 22. Wilk’s L 0.79

277

Results of the Hypothesis Test for Hotel Identities.

Eigenvalue

Rc

df

Error df

F

Sig.

0.13

0.34

42

772.05

1.49

o0.05

Standardized Coefficients

Structure Coefficients

Motive N-Ach N-Aff N-Pow

0.07 0.60 0.71

0.15 0.70 0.78

Hotel identity Familiarity Location Price Cleanliness Friendliness Food and Beverage Quality standard Familiarity 2 Location 2 Price 2 Cleanliness 2 Friendliness 2 Food and beverage 2 Quality standard 2

0.22 0.20 0.90 0.78 0.03 0.52 0.01 0.29 0.04 0.82 0.51 0.06 0.04 0.01

0.09 0.04 0.09 0.17 0.21 0.49 0.37 0.18 0.51 0.60 0.04 0.16 0.49 0.29

Abbreviations: N-Ach, need for achievement; N-Aff, need for affiliation; N-Pow, need for power.

location [0.51]). Since the canonical correlation of the N-Ach is low (0.15o0.30), its relationship with hotel identities is not significant. Essentially, the variate suggests that, (1) individuals with a high N-Pow will judge a hotel by its price, and (2) individuals with a high N-Aff will evaluate a hotel by its location. Table 22 shows one pair of canonical variates shares significant variation. The structure matrix reveals that high N-Aff and high N-Pow are predictive of good location and negotiable price, respectively (structure coefficient ¼ 0.70 and 0.78, respectively). As a result, there are seven conclusions for the test of the seven null hypotheses as follows. 1. The N-Ach is not significant correlated with the preference for familiarity at a hotel. The null hypothesis H1 is not rejected.

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2. The N-Ach is not significantly correlated with the preference for quality standard at a hotel. The null hypothesis H2 failed to be rejected. 3. The N-Aff is positively correlated with location. The null hypothesis H3 is rejected. The N-Aff is significantly correlated with hotel location. Consistent with H3, those with a high N-Aff valued hotels that are in convenient locations. 4. The N-Aff is not significantly correlated with friendliness. The null hypothesis H4 failed to be rejected. 5. The N-Aff is not significantly correlated with cleanliness and aesthetics of a hotel. The null hypothesis H5 is not rejected. 6. The N-Pow is significantly correlated with price or value of a hotel. The null hypothesis H6 is rejected. Specifically, individuals with a low N-Pow value low prices in evaluating hotels. 7. Finally, high N-Pow is not significantly correlated with quality of food and beverage. H7 is not rejected. The relationship between the N-Pow and the quality of food and beverage was not found in the present study. In sum, two results of package tours and hotel identities are consistent with McClelland’s (1985) theory. People with a high N-Ach value adventure tours whereas individuals with a high N-Aff are most interested in cultural tours and hotel location. Individuals with a high N-Pow value high prices and values in evaluating hotels. In McClelland’s theory, the achievement motive has to do with overcoming challenges and the affiliation motive is related to making friends with people. The power motive is related to the means to control people such as price. Bivariate regressions are conducted to find the Pearson’s correlation coefficients between high N-Ach and adventure tours, between high N-Pow and hotel value, and between high N-Aff and cultural tours as well as hotel location. These results are illustrated in Tables 23 and 24

DISCUSSION Since McClelland (1985) found the three needs of unconscious system in human behavior, little has been focused on unconscious research. Recently, Wilson (2002) uses the TAT to analyze the importance of unconscious system to human behavior. Woodside, Sood, and Miller (2008) explores that customers use brand names to express their unconscious in their descriptions. Fig. 7 illustrates the relationships among brand names, unconscious needs, and customers. The arrows represent the effects of

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Table 23. Result of the Relationships between Travel Motives and Travel Preferences.

1. 2. 3. 4.

Adventure Culture Business Escape

1

2

3

Achievement

Affiliation

Power

Rc (1,1) ¼ 0.30

R c (2,2) ¼ 0.27

 po.001.

Table 24. Result of the Relationships between Travel Motives and Hotel Identity Preferences. Achievement Familiarity Location Price Cleanliness Friendliness Food and beverage Quality standard

Affiliation Rc (2,2) ¼ 0.12

Power

R c (3,3) ¼ 0.16

 po0.05.  po0.01.

unconscious and brand names on consumer behavior. Consistent with these researches, the findings of this study finds customers use identities of tours or hotels to describe their unconscious needs. Location and price are two concepts people often question when they describe their hotels they stay. Also, adventure and culture are two characteristics of tours people usually experience from their travel. All these identities of tours and hotels relate to the unconscious needs of human beings. Among important leisure and business US travelers who find a hotel identity that satisfies them, 45% say they would consider switching hotel brands (Dube et al., 1999), suggesting that hotel identity is one of the critical issues today. For most people, hotel location and price are significant, but the present study shows that these people are travelers with a high N-Aff and power. For example, business managers are often people with a high NPow, whereas movie stars or actors usually individuals with high N-Aff. As

Fig. 7.

5

4

6

Consumer T1 Ecological development stage unconscious desire to enact archetype

Key: 8A, B, and C = indicators of a specific archetype enactmen

Story Enactment (T2), Reporting and Interpreted (T3) Archetype story performed by consumer via brand use. Emic sense making by consumer and marketer; etic sense making by researcher. Which archetype is enacted? How was enactment accomplished? What complementary archetypes also are enacted in the realized story?

3

2

1 7

8A

8B

Consumer T4 Proper pleasure (Aristotle, 294 BC)

8C

Brand Enabling Archetype Enactment by Consumer. Source: Adapted from Woodside et al. (2008, p. 15).

Brand Marketer unconscious/ conscious story portrayal

Archetype Core archetype myth affecting consumer and brand enactment, mostly unconsciously

280 XUAN VAN TRAN AND ARCH G. WOODSIDE

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281

a result, managers value the hotels with high price whereas singers or movie stars stay at a hotel that is conveniently located. In addition to hotel choice, people who travel for leisure or business often learn the differences of adventurous or cultural experience from their trip. Travelers who are high in unconscious N-Ach prefer adventure tours to any other tours. Conversely, people who are high in unconscious N-Aff are interested in culture tours. The US travel market is very critical to the economic development of the world’s tourism industry. Understanding American tourists’ motives at an unconscious level for each market segment can predict the American choices of behavior and their selection in tours and hotels. Since guests of hotels and tours are also consumers of other business in tourism and hospitality industry, the findings of the present study are applicable to airlines, car rentals, etc. Price of the service is always the first priority for managers whereas location is the most important factor for movie stars and singers. In addition to motivation, other external factors such as finance, education, sex, and time can affect consumers. These factors are assumed to be constant in the study. Change of a respondent’s finances, differences in education and gender could all affect motives and preferences for tours and hotels, but is beyond the scope of this study. Especially, time is the constraint that might influence motives and travel preferences since behavior in the same situation may vary during a period of time (Smith et al., 1992, p. 15). It is necessary to use the TAT to measure unconscious needs because the TAT measured participants’ motives at an unconscious level as these are more stable and consistent than motives at a conscious level (Langens & McClelland, 1997). It would also be useful to identify customers with homogeneous unconscious motive profiles (e.g., Dubois, 2002) and relate those profiles to travel preferences. Another discussion point in the present study is a random sample of university students. It must be noted that university students may not represent the entire traveling public. For example, a student with a high N-Aff might choose a culture tour on campus, whereas an experienced tourist with a strong affiliation motive might choose a different tourist site. Motives might further affect the ways in which these preferences are manifested (Smith et al., 1992). Assuming the unconscious motives are the same, an experienced tourist might still have different preferences than a student, a tourist beginner, because of previous experiences that have affected his or her preference. The discussion still includes arguments about the TAT subjective assessments and the sample of university students in the present study although the study findings contribute to a greater understanding of the

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relationship between unconscious motivation and travel preferences. Therefore, further research is necessary in this area. TAT method is a content analysis that requires meticulous labor. However, the result of the method is ‘‘an X-ray picture of the inner self’’ (Murray, 1943, p. 1). With this method, associative thought tends to be more spontaneous and less selfcritical than in self-report. It is evident that the insights gleaned from this research when replicating the study using a random sample of travelers to a particular destination will provide a variety of potential activities. There are still, however, arguments in contemporary literature about the subjective judgments in the TAT, and external factors controlled by the test in this study. In order to minimize the subjective assessments of the TAT in the study, k indexes for each of the three motives must be over 0.85. The interpretations of the stories students give for the less ambiguous pictures permitted the expression of achievement, power, or affiliation motives. In this case, it would be best to select a picture low in ambiguity in order to identity each motive. In order to make TAT become more objective measurement, researchers must increase the number of raters resulting in an increasing cost. In contemporary psychological literature, alternative methods such as Minnesota Multiphase Personality Inventory (MMPI) and Rorschach Inkblot test are more cost-saving to be used to measure unconscious needs. An analysis of the unconscious motives and the planned activities within a given tour package or hotel identity would be better able to predict the travel preferences of the general population to this destination.

APPLICATIONS Individuals scoring high in the N-Ach motive likely prefer adventure tour whereas people with a high N-Pow value price when looking for a hotel. On contrary , individuals who score high on the affiliative motive are likely to demonstrate a preference for a culture tour or hotel location. These results suggest that the unconscious motive model of McClelland (1992) and McClelland and Franz (1992) may prove useful in marketing travel services. Each of these relationships has possible applications in marketing. The first relationship implies that individuals who seek achievement are attracted to challenging activities such as climbing, diving, and surfing. Standards of performance for those activities might thus be included in promotional materials targeting potential visitors high in this need. The second finding indicates that cultural tourism destinations may attract visitors with a high

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N-Aff by providing opportunities to meet and/or observe local people and visitors or offering hotels right at the local community. These individuals might also respond positively to the opportunity to meet an internationally known humanity leader or celebrity. The perceived value of tours and hotels will increase due to the appeal of the activities to the visitor’s unconscious motives. This type of information is important to marketers and managers in order to develop promotion and marketing strategies that satisfy their customers and contribute to the development of tourism. The third finding suggests that hotel investors should build hotels at the most convenient location to appeal the target market of visiting friends and relatives (VFR), cultural tourists, and people who involve in social activities such as religion, movie stars, actors, etc. These people often possess a high N-Aff. The last finding of the present study is related to the price and the value of the service. This important finding of the relationship between people with a high N-Pow and their select price will challenge the hotels where VIPs, political leaders, managers have ever visited or stayed. They should take appropriate strategic action to make their hotel rates matching with the values they offer. Tourists who prefer active and adventurous tours are called active leisure travelers (Abbey, 2002). This market, including over 98 million Americans, is growing. Active travel involves everything from a soft level of physical activity involving such things as golfing, hiking, or horseback riding, to a strenuous level of physical activity, involving activities such as white-water rafting or mountain climbing. Based on the relationship between an adventure tour and the N-Ach in the study, the products and services may include the activities in exotic locations, such as a trip down the Amazon or a safari in Africa. Tourists who prefer cultural travel and conveniently located hotels would be those people with a high N-Aff, according to the findings of the study. The WTO has recently set up special programs and promotion campaigns for the recovery of tourism after the tsunami disaster. Such cultural campaigns have likely been supported by people with a high N-Aff in the world. An understanding of the relationship between N-Aff and the hotel location described in the present study may assist hotel investors to build hotels at the most convenient location to appeal advertisers, movie stars, singers, actors, and other social activity leaders. The marketing strategy based on this finding will optimize these customers’ benefits and strengthen the hotel uniqueness. Tourists who are interested in price and value of services would be those people with a high N-Pow, according to the findings of the present study.

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The WTO often mentions the role of tourism in generating income to alleviate the poverty experienced in many developing countries. Since the US travel market is particularly lucrative, a developing country whose target is on American tourists with a high N-Pow must consider the price and value of its services. Once the country or destination has analyzed its potential resources, it will use their strengths to reduce cost in order to appeal the VIP American travelers who possess a high N-Pow. Theory and research regarding achievement, affiliation, and power motives were found to be related to tours of adventure and culture as well as rates and locations of a hotel. These findings will provide helpful information for marketers and managers in developing promotional materials for hospitality and tourism industry that will attempt to attract tourists from three important market segments: achievers, socially minded people, and ‘‘power’’ men. In addition, the application of the TAT in selecting low ambiguity photos and figures for the target markets would effectively arouse the needs for achievement, affiliation, and power when used in promotional materials. Based on the needs for achievement, affiliation, and power, marketers and managers could provide necessary information to satisfy the demands of the target markets. This study demonstrates that unconscious motives have an influence in respondents’ preferences for specific activities, transportation choices, and lodging options. Since most destinations have the potential to modify activities, transportation, and lodging choices within a tour package or a hotel choice, this study presents a potentially significant application for vacation destinations. Further research will be needed to isolate the influence of unconscious motives in selecting one among similar destinations. The study’s findings regarding the relationship between preference for price/value and power motive are consistent with McClelland’s theory. In order to apply these findings of the study to management, it is important to analyze the relationship between managers and employees. A manager is often thought to be a person who prefers to control or influence others. This insinuates that his or her motive is often a high N-Pow. A manager evaluates the contributions of his or her employees using incentive money to control others. In other words, the relationship between power motive and price found in the present study is important not only in marketing more guests as managers to stay in the hotel, but also in managing employees in the hotel. The study finding will influence on the sustainability of hospitality industry when forecasting and meeting the demand of hotel guests and employees based on their psychological needs. In general, the research

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shows a clear route to explain the success and failure of the hotel business in increasing competition of their brand names in the hotel market.

CONCLUSIONS This study features three contributions not been previously examined in the tourism literature. It demonstrates the potential application of one type of measurement of unconscious needs and travel preferences for package tours and hotel identities. There are numerous other measures of unconscious needs that merit testing to determine if a less time consuming yet equally effective means of examining the relationship exists. This study also contributes to a further understanding of the relationships between the theory of motivation, pioneered by McClelland’s research within human psychology, and travel motivation/preference, explored by a limited number of researchers in travel literature (Tran and Ralston, 2006). Thanks to the achievements of psychology, the success of this line of research will stimulate future researchers to deepen the knowledge concerning the practical application of psychology to the travel literature. Finally, the study detects four strong relationships: (1) the relationship between the N-Aff and culture tourism, (2) the relationship between the N-Aff and convenient location of hotels, (3) the relationship between the N-Pow and prices, and (4) the relationship between the N-Ach and adventure tourism. Consistent with prior research (Tran & Ralston, 2006; Dubois, 2002; Langens & McClelland, 1997; McClelland et al., 1989), the results of this study support the premise that unconscious (or implicit) motives of achievement, power, and affiliation influence the behaviors of respondents toward engaging in challenging, controlling, or social activities. Despite the complexities related to projective techniques and possible contextual effects, the results suggest that awareness of the needs structure can help researchers and marketers to accomplish their goals and satisfy tourists’ travel preferences. In conclusion, the type of package tours American travelers prefer depends on their type of motives. In the United States, achievement motivation plays an important role in economic development (McClelland et al., 1965). Applying the methods of the behavioral sciences, McClelland (1965) concludes that the high N-Ach of Americans has accounted for increases in the rates of technological innovation resulting in the economic growth. In this study, the findings of the positive relationship between achievement motivation and preference for

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an adventurous type of travel would provide helpful information for managers, marketers, or anyone who would like to attract American travelers to their destinations. In the promotional materials for American travelers, it is recommended to include activities such as exploring nature, sailing from island to island, and white-water canoeing or more challenging activities such as climbing to the top of a mountain, and snorkeling or scuba diving to a coral reef. Tourist brochures for Americans must imply some sense of challenge for travelers to push the boundaries of their skills and abilities. If achievement motivation plays an important role in constructing economic development, affiliation motivation plays a key role to stimulate the economy. In fact, individuals with a high N-Aff always spend more money to affiliate their friends and relatives staying in a hotel that is conveniently located or involving in culture tourism. Finally, power motivation plays a benchmarking role to regulate the economy. Individuals with a high N-Pow are interested in value and price, one of key controls to other people. The US market is very critical to the development of worldwide tourism. Despite the fact that important limitations to the current study exist, findings contribute to knowledge about how unconscious motivation may be useful in marketing travel destination products and services. There are many constraints around the causal relations of travel preferences such as factors of finance, education, sex, time, etc. but most of all, motives are the key element to influence travel preference.

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APPENDICES APPENDIX A. THEMATIC APPERCEPTION TEST Picture 1 1. What is the situation in the picture? 2. What led up to the situation in the picture? 3. What are the characters in the story thinking and feeling? 4. What is the outcome of the situation?

Picture 2 1. What is the situation in the picture? 2. What led up to the situation in the picture? 3. What are the characters in the story thinking and feeling? 4. What is the outcome of the situation?

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Picture 3 1. What is the situation in the picture? 2. What led up to the situation in the picture? 3. What are the characters in the story thinking and feeling? 4. What is the outcome of the situation?

Picture 4 1. What is the situation in the picture? 2. What led up to the situation in the picture? 3. What are the characters in the story thinking and feeling? 4. What is the outcome of the situation?

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Picture 5 1. What is the situation in the picture? 2. What led up to the situation in the picture? 3. What are the characters in the story thinking and feeling? 4. What is the outcome of the situation?

Picture 6 1. What is the situation in the picture? 2. What led up to the situation in the picture? 3. What are the characters in the story thinking and feeling? 4. What is the outcome of the situation?

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Picture 7 1. What is the situation in the picture? 2. What led up to the situation in the picture? 3. What are the characters in the story thinking and feeling? 4. What is the outcome of the situation?

APPENDIX B. SCORING MANUALS Scoring for the Need for Achievement The achievement motive is the need for success in competition with some standard of excellence involving long-term achievement, competing to a performance standard, or doing something unique. Based on the behavioral sequence model in Fig. 6, McClelland et al. (1992), using the TAT, suggests the following method to measure the achievement motive.

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Goal The score of goal or achievement imaginary (AI) is þ1, 0, or 1 when the following situations are evidenced in the story: – Competition with a standard of excellence: AI ¼ þ1 (e.g., he wants to win an essay contest). – Unique accomplishment: AI ¼ þ1 (e.g., Tom and his assistant are working on the publication of his famous booklet advocating freedom for America). – Long-term involvement: AI ¼ þ1 (e.g., he is going to be a doctor). – Doubtful achievement imagery (TI): TI ¼ 0 (e.g., they are making the bolt). – Unrelated imagery (UI): UI ¼ 1 (e.g., he appears to be thinking of something). It should be noted that if a respondent’s story receives TI ¼ 0 or UI ¼ 1, then there is no achievement imagery. The analysis of the story is concluded. The score of the remaining 10 subcategories is 0. Need The score of stated need (N) for achievement is þ1 when the story evidenced a desire to reach an achievement goal (e.g., he wants to finish the painting). Instrumental Activity The score of instrumental activity is þ1 when the story describes a successful outcome (I ¼ þ1) (e.g., he will try his best and hopes to become the best doctor in the country) or in progress (I? ¼ þ1) or unsuccessful (I ¼ þ1) (e.g., they have worked diligently night and day in the past with repeated trials yielding only failures). Anticipatory Goal States The score of anticipatory goal state (Ga) either positive (Gaþ) or negative (Ga) is þ1 when someone is thinking about the outcomes the characters would achieve (e.g., they will attempt to sell their new discovery with the confidence of becoming rich or the boy thinks he just cannot make it through college). Obstacles or Blocks The score of blocks is þ1 within control (Bp) or outside control (Bw) when some thing hinders the progress of goal-directed activity (e.g., the son has been faced with some trying situation or problem).

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Nurturant Press The score of nurturant press (Nu) is þ1 when the character receives assistance from a third party in the story (e.g., the experienced machinist is trying to straighten things out for the apprentice and is encouraging him). Affective States The score of affective state is þ1 when the story evidences a positive feeling or emotion (Gþ) or describes a negative feeling or emotion (G) associated with active mastery (e.g., he enjoys painting). Achievement Thema The score of achievement thema (Th) is þ1 when the achievement imagery is elaborated in such a manner that it becomes the central plot of the story (e.g., he is determined to go to South Africa to make her fortune). The score of a response is þ1, 0, or 1. Give þ1 for achievement imagery (AI), or 0 for doubtful or task imagery (TI), or 1 for UI. Raters score subcategories only after they score AI. If TI ¼ 0 or UI ¼ 1, then the analysis of the story is complete. Each subcategory scores a maximum of þ1. Since raters score each category only once, the maximal score possible for a single story would be þ11 (AI, N, I, Gaþ, Ga, Bp, Bw, Nup, Gþ, G, and Th) as illustrated in Table 25.

Scoring for the Need for Affiliation The affiliation motive is the need for establishing, maintaining, or restoring a positive affective relationship with another person. Affiliation Imagery The score of the affiliation imagery (AfI) is þ1 when the relationship between a person and another person is most adequately described by the word Table 25. Subject No. 129

Summary Table for Scoring for the Achievement Motive.

Story UI TI AI N No. 03

Iþ, ?, Gaþ Ga Gþ G Nup Bp Bw AchTh –

1 0 þ1 þ1

þ1

þ1

1

1

1

þ1

þ1 þ1 1

1

þ1 þ1 þ1 0

Note: For description of abbreviations, please refer to the text.

0

0

NAch

þ1

þ11

0

0

Score

þ5

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friendship (e.g., they are very close friends in college). If there is no evidence of relationship or friendship in the story, the score is UI ¼ 0. It should be noted that if a respondent’s story is UI ¼ 0, then there is no AfI and raters could not score the remaining 10 subcategories. Need for Affiliation The score of the N-Aff (N) is þ1 when someone in the story desires to affiliate with some other person or a group of persons (e.g., he wants to marry his girlfriend). Instrumental Activity The score of the instrumental activity (I) is þ1 in the story when characters associate with people successfully (Iþ); association is evidence but the degree of success is unknown (I?), or the association is unsuccessful (I). For example, characters in the story are giving advice or helping another with the feelings of being helpful (e.g., he asked for forgiveness after 3 long years he decided to return to his wife). Anticipatory Goal States Anticipatory goal state (Ga) is either positive (Gaþ) or negative (Ga). The score of this category is þ1 when the story indicates a character is thinking of the happiness accompanying an affiliative relationship or friendship (e.g., he is thinking of how nice it would be to be with his friends). Obstacles or Blocks The score of stories is þ1 when characters encounter blocks within their control (Bp) or outside their control (Bw). Raters score the category þ1 when feelings block goal-directed activity in some way (e.g., he is alone and wants companionship). Affective States The score of affective state is þ1 when a story evidences a positive (Gþ) or negative (G) emotion or feeling. The score of the category is þ1 when the emotion associated with positive or negative affiliative relationships (e.g., he is happy or unhappy about being accepted into the club). Nurturant Press Nurturant press (Nu) has a score of þ1 when a third party assisted the character in the story.

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Table 26. Subject No. 34

Summary Table for Scoring the Affiliation Motive.

Story TI AfI No. 04

0

N

Iþ, ?, 

Gaþ Ga Gþ G Nup Bp Bw AffTh

þ1 þ1

þ1

þ1

1

1

1

þ1

þ1

þ1

þ1

0

1

0

þ1 þ1 0

0

N- Score Aff

þ1

þ11

0

0

þ4

Note: For description of abbreviations, please refer to the text.

Affilation Thema The score of affiliation thema (Th) is þ1 when behavioral sequence in question is the central plot of the imaginative story (e.g., he is satisfied) as shown in Table 25. The score of a response is either þ1 for AfI or 0 for UI. The score of all responses on UI and AfI is either receiving a þ1 or a 0. Raters score subcategories only after they score AfI. Each subcategory score has a maximum of þ1. Since raters score each category only once, the maximal score possible for a single story would be þ11 (AfI, N, I, Gaþ, Ga, Bp, Bw, Nup, Gþ, G, and Th) as illustrated in Table 26.

Scoring for the Need for Power The power motive is the need for maintaining or attaining the control of the means of influencing a person. Goal The goal or the power imagery (PI) has a score of þ1 when there is a definite statement about someone doing something about maintaining or attaining the control of the means of influencing another person (e.g., the two men will start a new opposition party). If there is no evidence of a statement of influencing or controlling another person, then the score of UI is 0. Need The score of the N-Pow (N) is þ1 when there is an explicit statement of someone wanting to attain or maintain control of the means of influence (e.g., he wants money). Instrumental Activity The score of the category among successful (Iþ), in progress (I?), or unsuccessful (I) is þ1 for a story if there is a statement in the story about

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someone actually doing something to control the means of influence (e.g., Jim is arguing with Bill over a point of view). Goal Anticipation The score of goal anticipation (Ga) is þ1 if within the story there are statements of characters thinking about the goal controlling, the means of influence or thinking about whether they would (Gaþ) or would not be successful (Ga) in reaching the goal (e.g., he thinks that their plan will be disastrous to his plan). Blocks The score of the story is þ1 for interference from within their control (Bw) or from without their control (Bp). In the story, disruptions existed toward attaining or maintaining control of the means of influence (e.g., he is not very tactful about it, which the secretary resents). Affective State The score of affective state is þ1 when the emotions become evidence in the story. Therefore, if a story indicates a positive (Gþ) or negative (G) emotion or feeling associated with attaining or failing to attain a power or influence situation then the story is scored þ1 (e.g., he is glad to have won the argument). Nurturant Press The score of nurturant press (Nu) is þ1 when another person assists the character in the story in some manner. Thema The score of thema is þ1 when all other subcategories become evidence in a story, and the dominant theme is indeed power. This would give greater weight to the intensity of the power motivation apparent in a given story (e.g., the older man cannot convince the younger man to run, which makes the older man unhappy). In order to compute the N-Pow score, raters score a response either þ1 for PI or 0 for UI. All responses on UI and PI are either receiving a þ1 or a 0. Raters should score subcategories after they score PI. Each subcategory scores a maximum of þ1. Since raters score each category only once, the maximal score possible for a single story would be þ11 (PI, N, I, Gaþ, Ga, Bp, Bw, Nup, Gþ, G, and Th).

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Table 27. Subject No.

Story TI PI No.

08

05

0

Summary Table for Scoring the Power Motive. N

Iþ, ?, 

Gaþ Ga Gþ G Nup Bp Bw PwTh

þ1 þ1

þ1

þ1

þ1

1

1

1

0

þ1

þ1

þ1

0

0

þ1 þ1 0

0

N- Score Pow

þ1

þ11

0

0

þ3

Note: For description of abbreviations, please refer to the text.

If there is no PI, PI is scored 0. The scoring of the story has concluded and the subcategories would not be required to measure, as illustrated in Table 27.

APPENDIX C. SELF-REPORT QUESTIONNAIRE Tour-Related Questionnaire Q1. Please indicate the strength of your preference for the following tour package, regardless of the cost of the proposed trip. Use the scale of 1–11 for your response. During this trip you will be very active each day exploring the natural environment, such as, hiking wilderness trails, mountain biking, sailing from island to island, and white-water canoeing or similar. Whereas, the activities require some skills the risk of injury is dependent on your level of intensity. You will stay in rustic accommodations (i.e., tents or local homes), prepare your own meals with foods grown locally, and experience the local transportation (via bus or train). Very weak preference ................................ Very strong preference

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

Q2. Please indicate the strength of your preference for the following tour package, regardless of the cost of the proposed trip. Use the scale of 1–11 for your response. During this trip you will explore the natural environment on your own, such as climbing to the top of a mountain, snorkeling, or scuba diving a coral reef, exploring a cave, and/or paragliding (or similar activities of your choice). Your active involvement will demonstrate a willingness to challenge

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yourself to push the boundaries of your skills and abilities. You will stay in an accommodation with minimal services. Very weak preference ................................ Very strong preference

1

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3

4

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8

9

10

11

Q3. Please indicate the strength of your preference for the following tour package, regardless of the cost of the proposed trip. Use the scale of 1–11 for your response. During this trip you will enjoy learning about the local people at their living history exhibits, participate in ethnic cooking classes, tour the gardens of a local winery, shop for local handmade crafts and artwork, or similar. You will stay in local accommodations with basic amenities; dine with local people, and experiencing local transportation, such as bus and train. Very weak preference ................................ Very strong preference

1

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3

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9

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11

Q4. Please indicate the strength of your preference for the following tour package, regardless of the cost of the proposed trip. Use the scale of 1–11 for your response. During this trip you will attend cultural activities where you meet many different people to learn about their community and lifestyle, make many new friends. You will visit local art and history museums, attend performances of cultural music and dances, and dine at ethnic restaurants. You will stay in a bed and breakfast and enjoy a wide variety of social activities. Very weak preference ................................ Very strong preference

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

Q5. Please indicate the strength of your preference for the following tour package, regardless of the cost of the proposed trip. Use the scale of 1–11 for your response.

Traveler’s Interpretations and Preferences of Alternative Tours and Hotels

303

During this trip you will lead a group of family or friends on a tour to a destination of your choice. You are in control of the expenses, schedule of activities, and transportation. You enjoy the responsibility of ensuring that everyone is having a great experience by answering their questions and making suggestions for their activities. Very weak preference ................................ Very strong preference

1

2

3

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5

6

7

8

9

10

11

Q6. Please indicate the strength of your preference for the following tour package, regardless of the cost of the proposed trip. Use the scale of 1–11 for your response. During this trip you will have the opportunity of meeting professionals in your career interest including VIP’s from local businesses on both formal and informal occasions. You will stay and dine in a full-service hotel located near the central business district or convention center with Internet access provided in each room. Transportation will be provided in comfortable cars or motor coaches. Very weak preference ................................ Very strong preference

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

Q7. Please indicate the strength of your preference for the following tour package, regardless of the cost of the proposed trip. Use the scale of 1–11 for your response. During this trip you will avoid noisy urban areas and crowds of people. Your activities will include relaxing with a good book or music, quiet setting with few interruptions, featuring casual activities, such as swimming or hiking in a remote area. The pace of activities is open for your involvement or you may elect to seek solitude in a quiet garden or remote area away from the hustle and bustle of your daily routine. Very weak preference ................................ Very strong preference

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

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Q8. Please indicate the strength of your preference for the following tour package, regardless of the cost of the proposed trip. Use the scale of 1–11 for your response. During this trip you will stay in a remote lodge featuring a quiet atmosphere surrounded by a beautiful and peaceful landscape. The lodge has a limited number of guests, which you can easily avoid or seek out as per you choose. Your activities may include a daily boat ride or a quiet walk; wildlife viewing, photography, or just relaxing and forgetting all your cares and worries. Very weak preference ................................ Very strong preference

1

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3

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7

8

9

10

11

Hotel Identity Related Questionnaire Q1. Please indicate the strength of your preference for the following hotel identity. Use the scale of 1–7 for your response. During your stay in the hotel, you remember most of your childhood experience or remind you some memorable stories with your friends or family members. Very weak preference ................................ Very strong preference

1

2

3

4

5

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7

Q2. Please indicate the strength of your preference for the following hotel identity. Use the scale of 1–7 for your response. During your stay in the hotel, the atmosphere in the hotel lobby reminds you somewhere you liked most and the amenities in the guestroom are familiar with you since they are similar to yours at home. Very weak preference ................................ Very strong preference

1

2

3

4

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Traveler’s Interpretations and Preferences of Alternative Tours and Hotels

305

Q3. Please indicate the strength of your preference for the following hotel identity. Use the scale of 1–7 for your response. During your stay in the hotel, you are surprised at the convenience of the functional amenities in the guestroom and the modern technology makes the hotel serve you more efficiently. Very weak preference ................................ Very strong preference

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

Q4. Please indicate the strength of your preference for the following hotel identity. Use the scale of 1–7 for your response. During your stay in the hotel, the fast services using technology at the hotel surprise you and modern facilities make you feel satisfied with the hotel. Very weak preference ................................ Very strong preference

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

Q5. Please indicate the strength of your preference for the following hotel identity. Use the scale of 1–7 for your response. During your stay in the hotel, you are most interested in the cleanliness and fresh air in the lobby as well as in your guestroom. You also appreciate the aesthetics in the architecture of the hotel. Very weak preference ................................ Very strong preference

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

Q6. Please indicate the strength of your preference for the following hotel identity. Use the scale of 1–7 for your response. During your stay in the hotel, you like the artistic characteristics and sanitation of the hotel. You are also impressed at the new facilities and preservation of classical works in the hotel.

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Very weak preference ................................ Very strong preference

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

Q7. Please indicate the strength of your preference for the following hotel identity. Use the scale of 1–7 for your response. During your stay in the hotel, you love where you stay because it is the best location you can meet your friends and relatives or have a meeting for your business. The location of the hotel is the best characteristic of this hotel. Very weak preference ................................ Very strong preference

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

Q8. Please indicate the strength of your preference for the following hotel identity. Use the scale of 1–7 for your response. During your stay in the hotel, the location of the hotel saves you a lot of time and money to attain your objective in business. The hotel is most convenient for your family relatives or friends to visit you. Very weak preference

1

2

3

Very strong preference

4

5

6

7

Q9. Please indicate the strength of your preference for the following hotel identity. Use the scale of 1–7 for your response. During your stay in the hotel, you appreciate the staff at the hotel for their friendliness and their willing to do more for your satisfaction. They are also honest and faithful to you. Very weak preference ................................ Very strong preference

1

2

3

4

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Traveler’s Interpretations and Preferences of Alternative Tours and Hotels

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Q10. Please indicate the strength of your preference for the following hotel identity. Use the scale of 1–7 for your response. During your stay in the hotel, the housekeepers and front desk staff are always more than happy to help you without thinking of tips or credits. They love their jobs and they are happy when you are happy. Very weak preference ................................ Very strong preference

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

Q11. Please indicate the strength of your preference for the following hotel identity. Use the scale of 1–7 for your response. During your stay in the hotel, you always consider the cost of each service in the hotel. You are happy to have a big deal when negotiating with the hotel about the service and the charge. Very weak preference ................................ Very strong preference

1

2

3

4

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6

7

Q12. Please indicate the strength of your preference for the following hotel identity. Use the scale of 1–7 for your response. During your stay in the hotel, you love the value of the service at the price you paid. You are most interested in the benefits from staying at the hotel and the tips you leave for the service. Very weak preference ................................ Very strong preference

1

2

3

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7

Q13. Please indicate the strength of your preference for the following hotel identity. Use the scale of 1–7 for your response. During your stay in the hotel, you remember the environment at the hotel restaurant and love the foods and drinks at this restaurant. You consider the restaurant is the best characteristic of the hotel.

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Very weak preference ................................ Very strong preference

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

Q14. Please indicate the strength of your preference for the following hotel identity. Use the scale of 1–7 for your response. During your stay in the hotel, the atmosphere in the hotel restaurant helps you and your friends better understand each other. The restaurant in the hotel is the best place you accomplish the goals in your business. Very weak preference ................................ Very strong preference

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7