Open Questions: An Introduction to Philosophy

THIRD EDITION

OPEN QUESTIONS An Introduction to Philosophy

EMMETT BARCALOW Western New England College

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Printed in Canada 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 04 03 02 01 For permission to use material from this text, contact us by Web: http://www.thomsonrights.com Fax: 1-800-730-2215 Phone: 1-800-730-2214 library of Congress Cataloging-ln-Publicatlon Data Barcalow, Emmett. Open questions: an introduction to philosophy / Emmett Barcalow.—3rd ed. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 0-534-51907-5 1. Philosphy—Introductions. I. Title. BD21 .B28 2000 100—dc21 00-043256

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CONTENTS

PREFACE

xi

PHILOSOPHY Objectives Introduction

1

1 1

Subfields of Philosophy

3

Open and Closed Questions

5

What It's Most Reasonable to Believe Evaluating Arguments Facts and Theories

6

7 20

Two Principal Philosophical Questions Questions for Discussion and Review Suggestions for Further Reading

22 24

G O D AND PHILOSOPHY Objectives Introduction

25

25 25

The Concept of God

27

Arguments for God's Existence

22

27

An Argument Against God's Existence: The Argument from Evil 43 Faith

46

Experiencing God's Presence CHARLES DARWLN/Religious

48

Belief

50

BENJAMIN FRANKLIN/Franklin's Religious Principles from His Autobiography 52 MOHANDAS

Principles

K. GANDHI/Gahndi's Political 53

Questions for Discussion and Review Suggestions for Further Reading

BODY AND MIND Objectives Life

53 54

56

56

56

Soul as the Explanation of Life Physical Explanations of Life

57 62

Mind as the Explanation of Consciousness Minds

69

Descartes' Argument for Dualism Problems for Descartes Physicalism

PLATO/Phaedo

73

77

Identity Theories Conclusions

70

87

99 103

Questions for Discussion and Review Suggestions for Further Reading

108 109

66

Conte

yfr JT

PERSONAL EMMORTALTTY AND PERSONAL IDENTITY 110 Objectives

110

Introduction

110

Death and Other Happenings

112

What Role Do Our Bodies Play in Personal Identity? 114 Same Psychological Essence

121

How the Self Depends on the Body

126

Identifying and Reidentifying People

128

Dualism, Personal Identity, and Existence After Death 129 WALPOLA RAHVIA/The Doctrine of No-Soul:

Anatta

130

Questions for Discussion and Review Suggestions for Further Reading

g"

132 133

FREEDOM AND DETERMINISM Objectives

135

135

Introduction

135

Causality and Personal Identity Causality and Determinism Determinism

135 136

139

Determinism and Human Freedom Soft Determinism/Compatibilism Reasons and Causes

153

Probalistic Causality?

154

146 149

What Difference Does It Make Whether We Are Free? 155 Fatalism

160

Borderline Cases

162

JOHN LOCKEA4« Essay

Concerning 163

Understanding ROBERT

Human

BLATCHFORD/7??e Delusion of Free Will

JEAN PAUL SARTRE/Existentialism

168

Questions for Discussion and Review Suggestions for Further Reading

KNOWLEDGE, TRUTH, AND JUSTIFICATION Objectives

173

175

177

177

Introduction

178

It's Only a Belief

178

Belief and Truth

179

Three Requirements for Knowledge Justification Reasons

165

188

189 197

Self-Knowledge: Beliefs About Our Own Mental States

200

V

Alternatives to Perception Basic Justifiers

212

222

BERTRAND RUSSELL/ On

the Value of Scepticism

Questions for Discussion and Review Suggestions for Further Reading

232

234

KNOWLEDGE AND SKEPTICISM Objectives Introduction

236

227

236

c,

236

Evaluating the Skeptic's Argument

244

A Strong and Weak Sense of Know

248

Perception, Observation, and Induction

250

Observation and Causal Generalizations

254

Confer,

The Virtue of Skepticism

260

RENE DESCARTES/'Meditations

Philosophy

on the First

260

HVME/An Enquiry Concerning Understanding 264

Human

Questions for Discussion and Review

266

DAVID

Suggestions for Further Reading

O

MORALITY Objectives

269

271 271

Introduction

271

Moral Objectivism

271

Moral Nonobjectivism

274

The Divine Command Theory of Morality Nonobjectivist Moral Theories Moral Egoism SAINT

Traits

278

289

AUGUSTiNE/7fre Confessions

MOSES

292

UAMONWEs/Laws Concerning Character 292

BUDDHA/ The

Buddha

Teachings of the Compassionate 295

HIS HOLINESS THE DALAI LAMA/ The

Compassion

Virtue of

297

PLATO/Republic

297

Questions for Discussion and Review Suggestions for Further Reading

f\

275

MORAL JUSTIFICATION Objectives Introduction

302 302

Moral Justification

307

300 301

302

Evaluating Nonmoral Reasons (Premises) Evaluating Moral Principles Reflective Equilibrium

309

310

322

Moral Belief and Action

327

Why Be Moral? The Challenge of Amoralism G. j . WARNOCK/77?e Object of Morality

330

Questions for Discussion and Review

336

Suggestions for Further Reading

10

328

337

Two THEORIES OF RIGHT AND WRONG 337 Objectives Introduction

337 337

Consequentialism Utilitarianism

337 338

Kantian Moral Theory

351

JOHN STUART MILL/ Utilitarianism

361

IMMANUEL KANT/'Foundations of the Metaphysics of Morals 369 Questions for Discussion and Review Suggestions for Further Reading

11

377

JUSTICE AND RIGHTS Objectives Introduction

3 75

378

378 378

Aristotle's Conception of Justice: Treating Equals Equally 379 Justice and Relevant Differences THOMAS HOBBES/'Leviathan

383

404

KARL MARX AND FRIEDRICH ENGELS/Manifesto of the

Communist Party

413

OKm/Justice, Gender, and the 423

SUSAN MOLLER

Family

Questions for Discussion and Review Suggestions for Further Reading

432 434

LIBERTY AND DEMOCRACY Objectives

436

Introduction Liberty

436

436

438

Is Democracy the Best Form of Government?

449

BENJAMIN CONSTANT/7#