Monarch Notes on Cooper's Last of the Mohicans

James Fenimore Cooper’s

The Deerslayer by Lawrence H. Klibbe, Ph.D.

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Editor: Gary Carey, M.A., University of Colorado Consulting Editor: James L. Roberts, Ph.D., Department of English, University of Nebraska CliffsNotes™ The Deerslayer Published by: Hungry Minds, Inc. 909 Third Avenue New York, NY 10022 www.hungryminds.com (Hungry Minds Web site) www.cliffsnotes.com (CliffsNotes Web site) Copyright© 1970 Hungry Minds, Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this book, including interior design, cover design, and icons, may be reproduced or transmitted in any form, by any means (electronic, photocopying, recording, or otherwise) without the prior written permission of the publisher. ISBN: 0-8220-0387-2 Printed in the United States of America 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Distributed in the United States by Hungry Minds, Inc. Distributed by CDG Books Canada Inc. for Canada; by Transworld Publishers Limited in the United Kingdom; by IDG Norge Books for Norway; by IDG Sweden Books for Sweden; by IDG Books Australia Publishing Corporation Pty. Ltd. for Australia and New Zealand; by TransQuest Publishers Pte Ltd. for Singapore, Malaysia, Thailand, Indonesia, and Hong Kong; by Gotop Information Inc. for Taiwan; by ICG Muse, Inc. for Japan; by Norma Comunicaciones S.A. for Columbia; by Intersoft for South Africa; by Eyrolles for France; by International Thomson Publishing for Germany, Austria and Switzerland; by Distribuidora Cuspide for Argentina; by LR International for Brazil; by Galileo Libros for Chile; by Ediciones ZETA S.C.R. Ltda. for Peru; by WS Computer Publishing Corporation, Inc., for the Philippines; by Contemporanea de Ediciones for Venezuela; by Express Computer Distributors for the Caribbean and West Indies; by Micronesia Media Distributor, Inc. for Micronesia; by Grupo Editorial Norma S.A. for Guatemala; by Chips Computadoras S.A. de C.V. for Mexico; by Editorial Norma de Panama S.A. for Panama; by American Bookshops for Finland. Authorized Sales Agent: Anthony Rudkin Associates for the Middle East and North Africa. For general information on Hungry Minds’ products and services please contact our Customer Care department; within the U.S. at 800-762-2974, outside the U.S. at 317-572-3993 or fax 317-572-4002. For sales inquiries and resellers information, including discounts, premium and bulk quantity sales and foreign language translations please contact our Customer Care department at 800-434-3422, fax 317-572-4002 or write to Hungry Minds, Inc., Attn: Customer Care department, 10475 Crosspoint Boulevard, Indianapolis, IN 46256. For information on licensing foreign or domestic rights, please contact our Sub-Rights Customer Care department at 650-653-7098. For information on using Hungry Minds’ products and services in the classroom or for ordering examination copies, please contact our Educational Sales department at 800-434-2086 or fax 317-572-4005. Please contact our Public Relations department at 212-884-5163 for press review copies or 212-884-5000 for author interviews and other publicity information or fax 212-884-5400. For authorization to photocopy items for corporate, personal, or educational use, please contact Copyright Clearance Center, 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, or fax 978-750-4470. LIMIT OF LIABILITY/DISCLAIMER OF WARRANTY: THE PUBLISHER AND AUTHOR HAVE USED THEIR BEST EFFORTS IN PREPARING THIS BOOK. THE PUBLISHER AND AUTHOR MAKE NO REPRESENTATIONS OR WARRANTIES WITH RESPECT TO THE ACCURACY OR COMPLETENESS OF THE CONTENTS OF THIS BOOK AND SPECIFICALLY DISCLAIM ANY IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE. THERE ARE NO WARRANTIES WHICH EXTEND BEYOND THE DESCRIPTIONS CONTAINED IN THIS PARAGRAPH. NO WARRANTY MAY BE CREATED OR EXTENDED BY SALES REPRESENTATIVES OR WRITTEN SALES MATERIALS. THE ACCURACY AND COMPLETENESS OF THE INFORMATION PROVIDED HEREIN AND THE OPINIONS STATED HEREIN ARE NOT GUARANTEED OR WARRANTED TO PRODUCE ANY PARTICULAR RESULTS, AND THE ADVICE AND STRATEGIES CONTAINED HEREIN MAY NOT BE SUITABLE FOR EVERY INDIVIDUAL. NEITHER THE PUBLISHER NOR AUTHOR SHALL BE LIABLE FOR ANY LOSS OF PROFIT OR ANY OTHER COMMERCIAL DAMAGES, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO SPECIAL, INCIDENTAL, CONSEQUENTIAL, OR OTHER DAMAGES. FULFILLMENT OF EACH COUPON OFFER IS THE RESPONSIBILITY OF THE OFFEROR. Trademarks: Cliffs, CliffsNotes, the CliffsNotes logo, CliffsAP, CliffsComplete, CliffsTestPrep, CliffsQuickReview, CliffsNote-a-Day and all related logos and trade dress are registered trademarks or trademarks of Hungry Minds, Inc., in the United States and other countries. All other trademarks are property of their respective owners. Hungry Minds, Inc., is not associated with any product or vendor mentioned in this book.

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CONTENTS Life of Cooper Critical Introduction A Brief Synopsis List of Characters Summaries and Critical Commentaries Character Analyses Deerslayer Chingachgook Tom Hutter Hurry Harry Judith Hutter Hetty Hutter Hist Captain Warley Rivenoak Le Loup Cervier, Le Sumac, Briarthorn, Catamount, and The Panther Critical Essays The World of The Deerslayer Plot and Setting The Epic Hero and the Code The Frontier Myth Cooper’s Indians Cooper’s Style and Literary Techniques The American Experience Review Questions and Essay Topics Selected Bibliography

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LIFE OF COOPER James Fenimore Cooper was born in Burlington, New Jersey, on September 15, 1789. In 1790, his father, William Cooper, moved the family to Cooperstown, New York, where James spent his youth and received his early education. Cooper’s father was the most prominent citizen of the town; the site was founded by him and the name of Cooperstown was adopted in his honor. Although he shared the life of a wealthy landowner and was introduced into the most influential social circles, James was critical of the training he received. For example, he criticized the teachers and schools (private and expensive) that he remembered from his youth. His bold and independent nature caused him trouble in college. He entered Yale College at the age of 13 but was expelled in 1805, supposedly for exploding gunpowder and arranging for a donkey to occupy a professor’s chair in the classroom. The young Cooper, perhaps under parental duress, went to sea. He spent the years from 1806 until 1808 as a common seaman on the Stirling and saw a great deal of the Mediterranean Sea. In 1808 he was commissioned a midshipman in the United States Navy, but by 1811 Cooper had decided that life at sea was not meant for him. Two events occurred which fortunately directed Cooper toward a career on land. In 1809 his father was killed by a political opponent and left a considerable estate. Taking a furlough from naval service, James resigned a year later, and some critics see in this hasty resignation proof that his period at sea may have been the parents’ decision to discipline the son. However, a more important factor in young Cooper’s abandonment of a naval career probably was his marriage in 1811 to Susan De Lancey, the daughter of a very rich and influential family from Westchester County. He was accepted into the highest social circles of New York City and began to lead the comfortable existence of a country squire, commuting often between Westchester and Cooperstown. A large family increased his expenses; his brothers spent most of their share of the estate and then borrowed considerable sums from him; and his own business ventures did not turn out successfully. Cooper decided to become a writer, but the explanations for this decision are still not clear. Prior to the age of 30, Cooper had never composed a serious work of literature; according to some sources, he regarded even the writing of letters as an onerous task. The Deerslayer 4

One reason for his decision may, of course, be his financial position, although a lack of money and the attendant need to earn it do not give one the ability to write. However, one reason for his decision is often mentioned: Cooper, reading a mediocre English romance, said casually to his wife that he could write a better book, and she challenged him to do so. In 1820, Cooper published Precaution, a romance in imitation of the popular books of Jane Austen, with a background of English drawing room conversations and gossip. But Precaution won Cooper little praise from critics or the public. Despite his failure to produce a worthwhile novel, Cooper was not discouraged; and he found a genuine pleasure in writing. He turned to the sources he knew intimately: the sea, and his own country. In 1821 Cooper published The Spy, critically acclaimed as the first important historical novel in American literature. Cooper described the adventures of a romantic hero, Harvey Birch, during the American Revolution around Westchester County. The successful utilization in this book of romantic and American elements established Cooper as a promising writer, and he exploited his winning formula by writing two more books in 1823. The Pilot is the first American novel worthy of the classification of sea fiction, and Cooper made excellent use of his nautical training and experiences. He allegedly intended to improve upon Sir Walter Scott’s popular success, The Pirate, and he succeeded. Cooper even became accepted in literary circles as “the American Scott.” In that same year, he wrote The Pioneers, the first of the five published “Leatherstocking Tales,” which use the character of Natty Bumppo as the central figure. These successes encouraged Cooper to mine the rich vein he had initially exploited. He quickly published Lionel Lincoln (1825), which deals with the Battle of Bunker Hill and the beginnings of the American Revolution, and The Last of the Mohicans (1826), which returns to the adventures of Natty Bumppo during the French and Indian Wars. Cooper decided to leave America and live in Europe at this time. His motives for the European residence were several: the education of his children; a change of scenery for relaxation and perhaps for new ideas; and the financial need to secure firm agreements with European publishers about copyrights, royalties, and other matters. He settled in Paris in 1826 and remained in Europe for almost eight years. Cooper’s impact upon European literature was very great, and he was welcomed warmly, receiving The Deerslayer 5

invitations from all quarters. Again, the social life did not interfere with his literary career because Cooper published in one year, 1827, two novels: The Prairie, the third of the “Leatherstocking Tales,” and The Red Rover, a sea story. In addition, he published The Wept of Wish-ton-Wish (1829) about New England in the seventeenth century, and The Water-Witch, a nautical novel. Cooper also utilized his foreign travels and readings by composing three works with European backgrounds: The Bravo (1831), The Heidenmauer (1832), and The Headsman (1833). However, Cooper’s writings in Europe, particularly his books with strongly romantic and foreign elements, did not add appreciably to his literary reputation; and these works are only considered as minor productions by critics. In his less imaginative writings, Cooper antagonized his fellow Americans and his French hosts. He criticized his countrymen too harshly—in their opinion—in Notions of the Americans, although his primary purpose was a defense of the American character. He also mingled unfortunately in French domestic politics in A Letter to General Lafayette, which further disillusioned his compatriots in the United States. Cooper’s return to America in 1833 proved an unhappy event. The growing wave of dissatisfaction among many Americans with a respected and important writer (the first to win fame abroad) caused him to become bitter and hostile. He tried to defend himself in 1834 with A Letter to his Countrymen, which only aroused more controversy, but a further defense in 1838 with The American Democrat helped him little. In brief, Cooper found himself trapped between two worlds: in Europe he could not live without expressing his love and hope for American ideas; in the United States he could not accept without protest the vulgarity and ultra-nationalism, so alien to his aristocratic and cosmopolitan tendencies. He saw a decline of the true pioneer spirit in the onrush of expansion toward the West; and he deplored the failure of Christians to practice Christianity in an increasingly materialistic century. It is not difficult to understand why sensitive, proud, and patriotic readers turned against Cooper and thought that he had betrayed his nation by too lengthy a residence in Europe. Cooper’s last years were marked by constant battles to explain his views and to expound his philosophy about his homeland. He engaged in numerous lengthy embroilments with the press and with his neighbors in Cooperstown with suits for slander, libel, The Deerslayer 6

and property rights. Two more contributions to the saga of Natty Bumppo were published: The Pathfinder in 1840 and The Deerslayer in 1841. His study in two volumes, The History of the Navy of the United States Of America, completed in 1839, was recognized as a sound, scholarly reference work. Cooper’s last major literary achievement was a trilogy in which he took the side of the landlords in the Anti-Rent War—a position which further lessened his standing in the community and in outside circles. “The Littlepage Manuscripts,” as the trilogy is sometimes designated, comprise the three novels, Satanstoe (1845), The Chainbearer (1845), and The Redskins (1846), in which Cooper traces the rise and fall of a family on the frontier from about 1740 until 1840. He returned in several other novels to the theme of the sea and continued to apply his views about contemporary manners and social issues to literary works, such as Wyandotte (1843) and The Crater (1848). After returning to the United States he did not again achieve the critical, popular, and financial rewards won prior to his European residence. However, Cooper was recognized and respected as an eminent representative of American literature because of his 32 novels and other writings. The American public, despite Cooper’s quarrels with the press, neighbors, and general opinion, remembered his gifts and achievements during his lifetime. He died on September 14, 1851, at Cooperstown, near his beloved Otsego Lake, the Glimmerglass of The Deerslayer.

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CRITICAL INTRODUCTION The “Leatherstocking Tales,” although they are only a small part of Cooper’s literary output, are his main claim to recognition as a major American writer. The five books, however, were not written and published according to the chronological age of the hero, Natty Bumppo. In terms of the hero’s age, the romances are as follows: The Deerslayer (1841), The Last of the Mohicans (1826), The Pathfinder (1840), The Pioneers (1823), and The Prairie (1827). Arranged in that manner, the “Leatherstocking Tales” are also easier to remember because they are in alphabetical order. The nicknames of Natty Bumppo are respectively: Deerslayer, Hawkeye, Pathfinder, Leatherstocking, and simply “The Trapper” or “The Old Man.” The period covered ranges from about 1740 to 1804, and Natty Bumppo is seen in stages from his 20s to his 80s. The settings change from Otsego Lake, Lake George, Lake Ontario, and Cooperstown to the territories of Iowa and Missouri. If the “Leatherstocking Tales” are read in the light of Natty Bumppo’s chronology, the five stories present a unified and logical progression of the hero’s development. However, the reader who is interested in Cooper’s conception of his hero should read the five titles in the order of publication because almost 20 years intervene between the writing of the first and last books. For example, The Deerslayer, chronologically the first introduction of Natty Bumppo, is actually the last “Leatherstocking Tale” published by Cooper. The student sees therefore in The Deerslayer the ideas of the author developed at a late period of his life. Cooper realized this problem about The Deerslayer when he wrote in a “Preface to the Leatherstocking Tales”: “Whether these progressive years have had a tendency to lessen the value of the last-named book, by lessening the native fire of its author, or of adding somewhat in the way of improved taste and a more matured judgment, is for others to decide.” Others have decided favorably that Cooper, in a “Preface” for The Deerslayer as well as in the “Preface to the Leatherstocking Tales,” succeeded in his aims. Cooper expressed his intentions principally as the creation of the “beau ideal’’ or highest possible embodiment of his characters, especially Natty Bumppo. Cooper’s desire to present this 11 poetical view of the subject” is, however, tempered by his hope “to preserve the vrai-semblable.” In short, he idealizes Natty Bumppo, but he balances this idealization with The Deerslayer 8

“traits derived from the prejudices, tastes, and even the weaknesses of his youth.” If, as Cooper implies, the depiction of Natty Bumppo only emphasized the good side of his character, the reader would have perhaps rejected the hero as unrealistic, false, and unbelievable. Cooper’s portrayal of characters has always been a point of controversy in any analysis of his art. For example, Honore de Balzac, the French novelist of La Comedie Humaine (The Human Comedy) and one of Cooper’s friends in Paris, commented: “If Cooper had succeeded in the painting of character to the same extent that he did in the painting of the phenomena of nature, he would have uttered the last word of our art.” Cooper is not, however, classified as a realistic author (such as Balzac), but as a romantic writer. The realistic novelist tries to reproduce life exactly, and the romantic author lends forcefully his own interpretations and impressions to characters. Cooper did not base his creation of Natty Bumppo on a single person known to him; he apparently drew upon various individuals recalled from his youth. Cooper then contributed his theory of “a moral sense” or “a moral point of view” to delineate his hero of the New World. Cooper’s insistence upon morality is of course a reflection of the Puritan tradition—and his own forceful ideas. However, his originality lies in the creation of Natty Bumppo as an American epic hero. The epic hero is familiar in early European literature, and Cooper was undoubtedly aware of the English Beowulf, the French Roland, and the Spanish Cid. Romanticism called attention to the medieval heritage, largely scorned and ignored by the eighteenth century. Cooper, then, merged his romantic interests and contemporary readings with his American background. He could not copy and imitate the European models fully, but he could—and consequently did—merge the foreign and the native influences. Therefore, Natty Bumppo resembles medieval knights and is dubbed by his creator “a knight of the woods.” Natty Bumppo’s code, explained repeatedly and in detail throughout The Deerslayer, shows many points in common with the chivalric ideals. This transposition of the European epic hero to American soil is one of the accepted explanations for Cooper’s popularity, impact, and influence in Europe during the nineteenth century. Natty Bumppo, however, shows his originality by possessing indigenous traits; and these characteristics, peculiar to the New World at this stage of its development, mark Cooper’s The Deerslayer 9

contribution to American literature. Natty Bumppo is, in certain ways, the child of Rousseau, the French philosopher of the 18th century who preached that civilization is a corrupting element in the growth of man and that nature is good. According to Rousseau, the natural man develops efficaciously in a simple, natural environment. “The idea of delineating a character that possessed little of civilization but its highest principles as they are exhibited in the uneducated,” writes Cooper about his characterization of the hero, “and all of savage life that is not incompatible with these great rules of conduct, is perhaps natural to the situation in which Natty was placed.” Although he has been raised in the situation of the Indians, Natty Bumppo has in his soul the highest qualities of civilization and Christianity. He has received these qualities intuitively and lives by these virtues because he knows instinctively that this conduct, or code, is right. Natty Bumppo also distinguishes between the positive and negative aspects of the Indians, whom he basically respects. For instance, Natty is firmly opposed to scalping as a horrible act for a white man, but he defends the Indians who use this technique as an honorable method of warfare. In his reliance upon feelings, intuition, and instinct, Cooper’s hero is the romantic ideal who rejects the neo-classical guidelines of reason and rationalism. Natty Bumppo is a compromise between the two worlds in conflict on the North American continent: the expanding dynamism of the white, European, civilized, Christian race and the primitive Indian races inhabiting vast tracts of land. Cooper constantly refers to the differences between the two races, and his anxiety to achieve some reconciliation between the two peoples is very evident. Natty Bumppo, living and accepting many Indian ways, represents the American hero who endeavors to express his native background to the white men with whom he also feels the bond of blood ties. Cooper defines his purpose in these words: “It appeared to the writer that his hero was a fit subject to represent the better qualities of both conditions, without pushing either to extremes.” The Deerslayer was Cooper’s favorite of the five romances he shaped around the figure of Natty Bumppo, perhaps because the tale is the last of the “Leatherstocking Tales” and his final, attentive effort to create an American hero. Critics usually have been kind to The Deerslayer since its publication in 1841. It is true that The Last of the Mohicans always has been the most The Deerslayer 10

popular of the “Leatherstocking Tales” because it is at heart a boy’s book. Although Cooper’s ideas are already in evidence in The Last of the Mohicans and the tale is justifiably acclaimed as a dynamic, suspenseful story, The Deerslayer offers a structurally more sound and logical plot. There is a strong use of the three unities in The Deerslayer, as all the action, concentrated in a few days around Natty Bumppo’s “first warpath,” takes place in the vicinity of Otsego Lake. Cooperstown and Otsego Lake are, of course, associated closely with James Fenimore Cooper; and he popularized the lake in The Deerslayer more than in any other of his novels. In fact, Otsego Lake not only plays a more important role in this tale than in any of the five “Leatherstocking Tales,” but the lake received its nickname of “Glimmerglass” thanks to Cooper’s extensive descriptions in The Deerslayer. Cooper’s utilization of Glimmerglass is certainly a good example of Balzac’s definition of the American novelist’s achievement as “idealizing the magnificent scenery of America.” In addition, Cooper made use of the Glimmerglass as a structural and thematic element in The Deerslayer, besides the beautiful descriptions of the lake he knew so well throughout his life. Contemporary criticism, then, has accorded more weight to The Deerslayer because this tale belongs also to Cooper’s last period when his social, political, and personal philosophies were most decided. Indeed, the novels written after his return to America in 1833 have been receiving more critical attention in recent years. Robert E. Spiller, for instance, has stated that Cooper at some future time may be best remembered “for his pioneering in the realistic novel of social purpose.” Spiller, an important critic of Cooper, insists upon the noteworthy role of The Deerslayer: “For Natty as Deerslayer has now become a symbol of the human values toward which Cooper had been reaching, and his story the most ‘poetic’ of the Leather-Stocking Tales, in which romance and moral import combine to create what many critics hold to be Cooper at his best.” The Deerslayer, then, cannot be read as solely an adventure story but as a contribution toward the understanding of America by the first American novelist accorded recognition in Europe. It is of course the reader’s responsibility—and pleasure—to observe how Cooper fashioned his storytelling powers and his philosophy into a unified novel. The Deerslayer 11

SYNOPSIS Natty Bumppo and Hurry Harry, about the year 1740, journey toward Otsego Lake in upstate New York. Although they are not always in agreement, the two men realize the need of each other’s protection in case of attack from the Indians (Mingos). Natty, or Deerslayer, is on his “first warpath,” as the novel is subtitled, because he has not yet been in combat with another man nor been forced to kill a human being; in this novel, he will be forced to kill. The two travelers, finding Muskrat Castle deserted, seek Tom Hotter and his two daughters, Judith and Hetty, in the trapper’s other home, the ark. Hurry Harry, hoping to marry Judith, is treated coldly by her when the two men locate the ark, but Deerslayer is greeted warmly. Hetty is equally friendly to Deerslayer and to Hurry Harry. Suspicious at first of Deerslayer, Tom Hutter, or Floating Tom, realizes that the newcomer will be a valuable ally in case of Indian attack. As the ark is maneuvered away from shore to the open lake, some Mingos try to board the vessel; but Deerslayer proves his worth by repulsing the invasion. The three men decide to reclaim the canoes hidden by Tom Hutter along the shores of Glimmerglass. Having succeeded in this mission for their protection and defense, Tom Hutter and Hurry Harry scheme to land in the dark, attack the sleeping Mingo women and children, and get scalps for the bounties. Although Deerslayer refuses to join this expedition, he waits offshore in a canoe for the return of Hurry Harry and Floating Tom. The Mingos are not so easily deceived, and the two white men are captured. Unable to help the prisoners, Deerslayer determines to secure the canoes first and to return to the ark where the girls are waiting. One canoe drifts to the shore, and Deerslayer, trying to recover the boat, is met by a Mingo who also claims the canoe. Thinking that he has persuaded the Indian of the true ownership of the boat, Deerslayer turns away. In time, Deerslayer sees the Mingo preparing to shoot, and he fatally wounds the attacking Indian. Deerslayer, having experienced his “first warpath,” treats his dying opponent honorably by not taking his scalp and by arranging him comfortably. The Mingos, recognizing in Natty Bumppo a great warrior, call him by a new nickname—Hawkeye. At the ark, Deerslayer prepares to meet his friend Chingachgook, a chief of the Delaware nation. The rendezvous is perilous because the Mingos are pursuing Chingachgook. He The Deerslayer 12

jumps aboard the ark and barely escapes. While the friends rejoice in their reunion, Hetty surprises everyone by her decision to leave alone in a canoe, go to the Indians and try to convince the savages to release the two prisoners. Although Deerslayer tries to block her path with another canoe, Hetty eludes him and refuses to listen to his warnings. Hetty, stumbling through the woods, meets Hist, who has been abducted by a renegade Delaware and brought to the Mingo camp. Hist is in love with Chingachgook and explains to Hetty that the Delaware chief and Deerslayer have met at Glimmerglass to rescue her. Although the Mingos refuse to listen to Hetty’s pleas to release Tom Hutter and Hurry Harry, they do not harm the girl because they respect as blessed by divine protection a person of limited intelligence and simple-mindedness, such as Hetty. Deerslayer and Judith open Tom Hutter’s chest to find any items they can use as ransom for the two white men. The three exiles on the ark, intent on their investigation of the chest, are startled by the appearance of a Mingo who serves as a guide for the returning Hetty. Deerslayer shows some ivory chess pieces to the Indian who eagerly goes back to the Mingo camp with this news of a possible exchange of the pawns for the prisoners. After hard bargaining, Rivenoak, the Mingo chief who has approached the ark, accepts the ivory rooks, and Tom Hutter and Hurry Harry are set free. Learning nothing from their close call with death, the two men plot another raid for scalps on the Indian camp. They discover, however, that the Indians have moved camp, spoiling their plans. Setting out to rescue Hist, Deerslayer and Chingachgook are dismayed to find that the new Mingo camp is at the place where the Indian girl told Hetty she would be waiting. Despite the increased danger, Deerslayer and Chingachgook plot to save Hist. In the ensuing action, Deerslayer is able to shove the canoe with Chingachgook and Hist beyond range of the Mingos, but he is pursued by the Indians and captured. Hetty is sent by Judith to the Mingos, but they refuse to bargain for such an important prisoner. Judith and Hetty, after the latter’s return from her unsuccessful mission to ransom Deerslayer, travel in their canoe around Glimmerglass in search of the ark. A shot fired by Hurry Harry from the ark accidentally kills an Indian maiden who was meeting her lover on the shore. On the ark, the four refugees (Tom Hutter, Hurry Harry, The Deerslayer 13

Chingachgook, and Hist) go to Muskrat Castle where the white men, ignoring the warnings of their two Indian companions about a possible ambush, enter fearlessly. The Mingos, hiding in the castle, attack, subdue, and tie up Tom Hutter and Hurry Harry. Chingachgook and Hist, helpless onlookers on the ark, maneuver the boat out of range; and Hurry Harry quickly rolls off the castle’s platform into the lake where he is pulled to safety. The Mingos at first pursue the ark in a canoe, but they see a better target: Judith and Hetty in another canoe. After a chase which the Mingos almost win, one of the Indians breaks a paddle and they give up the pursuit. When the two girls go to Muskrat Castle, they find that Tom Hutter, scalped by the Mingos, is close to death. After confessing that he is not Judith and Hetty’s father, Tom Hutter dies and is buried in Glimmerglass, close to the watery grave of his wife, the girls’ mother. Deerslayer, released temporarily by the Mingos, appears and announces the terms of surrender from the Indians: Chingachgook is to leave in safety, the three girls are to live with the tribe. The offers are quickly rejected to Deerslayer’s joy. Hurry Harry, rejected for the last time by Judith, is taken ashore by Deerslayer with the plea that he should try to reach the garrison of soldiers nearby. Deerslayer and Judith open Tom Hutter’s chest on the ark, and letters confirm that he was a pirate. After endeavoring to win Deerslayer’s love with her frank admission of love for him, Judith realizes that he will not sacrifice his code and his honor and that he will return to the Indian camp for torture and death. Deerslayer bids farewell on the following morning to his friends (Chingachgook, Hist, Judith, and Hetty) and gives them his final counsel. Chingachgook and he engage in a shooting match with Killdeer, Tom Hutter’s rifle given by Judith to Deerslayer, and, after Deerslayer’s (expected) death, to Chingachgook. The Mingos are surprised by his honorable return to his sentence of condemnation. Rivenoak, the chief, asks Deerslayer to join the tribe, but is refused. Deerslayer also refuses to marry the widow of the Mingo he killed on his “first warpath.” The trial begins with the throwing of knives and tomahawks to unnerve Deerslayer; but he succeeds in seizing one tomahawk, hurling it back at his assailant, and making his escape. Recaptured by the Mingos because the current brought his canoe back to shore, Deerslayer is now tortured by rifle shots fired close to him at the stake and by a fire built at his feet. The Deerslayer 14

Judith appears elegantly dressed, claims she is an important lady with soldiers, and demands Deerslayer’s release. Hetty, confused by the events, tells Rivenoak Judith’s true identity. Chingachgook and Hist appear individually to challenge the Mingos, but they likewise fail. With all their enemies in hand, the Mingos are triumphant until soldiers from the garrison, guided by Hurry Harry and the shots fired by Deerslayer and Chingachgook on the ark, surprise the Indians and kill most of them. Hetty has been mortally wounded, and her death saddens all the survivors. After a last plea to Deerslayer to marry her, Judith goes back to the garrison with the soldiers. Deerslayer, Chingachgook, and Hist return to the Delaware territory. Fifteen years later, Deerslayer and Chingachgook return to Glimmerglass with the latter’s son, Uncas, and contemplate the great adventure.

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LIST OF CHARACTERS Natty Bumppo Deerslayer (later called Hawkeye) who, on his “first warpath” with Chingachgook, kills an Indian during the defense of the ark and the castle at Glimmerglass. Chingachgook The Mohican (Delaware) chief, Deerslayer’s friend, who comes to rescue Hist, captured by the Mingos. He is in love with the Delaware maiden. Hurry Harry Henry March, in love with Judith, accompanies Deerslayer on the trip to Glimmerglass but is soon opposed to Deerslayer because of Judith’s attraction to Deerslayer. Tom Hutter Floating Tom, or Thomas Hovey, controls Glimmerglass because of his construction of the ark and the castle where he lives with his two daughters, Judith and Hetty, who are, in fact, later proved not to be his daughters. Judith Hutter Hetty’s sister who falls in love with Deerslayer and rejects Hurry Harry’s offer of marriage, but who fails to win Deerslayer in marriage. Hetty Hutter Judith’s sister, simple-minded and credulous, who trusts in the Bible and Christian teachings to convert the Indians and who dies after being accidentally wounded in the battle between the Mingos and the soldiers. Hist The Indian girl (also called Wah-ta!-Wah or Hist-oh!-Hist) who is the beloved of Chingachgook and is rescued by him and Deerslayer. Rivenoak Chief of the Mingos who negotiates with Deerslayer for the ransom of Hurry Harry and Tom Hutter and later tries to persuade Deerslayer to join the tribe. Le Loup Cervier A Mingo whom Deerslayer kills in selfdefense as the test of his “first warpath” and from whom the hero receives the name of Hawkeye.

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Le Sumac Le Loup Cervier’s widow who wants Deerslayer to marry her because he has killed her husband. Briarthorn (Yocommon) A Delaware Indian, in love with Hist, who has betrayed his tribe, joined the Mingos, and abducted Hist. Catamount A Mingo brave who challenges Briarthorn for Hist. The Panther Le Sumac’s brother and a chief of the Mingos. Captain Warley The officer in charge of the troops who rescue Deerslayer and the others; he has been in love previously with Judith, and she presumably leaves with him for England. Uncas Chingachgook and Hist’s son who, 15 years after the events in The Deerslayer, accompanies his father and Deerslayer to Glimmerglass. Uncas is the hero of Cooper’s Last of the Mohicans.

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SUMMARIES AND COMMENTARIES Chapters 1–2 Summary On a beautiful June day in the early 1740s, two travelers arrive at Otsego Lake in upstate New York. One is Henry March, or Hurry Harry, about 28 years old; and the other is Nathaniel, or Natty, Bumppo—Deerslayer—who is several years younger than his companion. Both men proceed very cautiously because the Iroquois, or Mingos, are on the warpath. Deerslayer, raised by the Delaware (Mohican) nation, has more respect for the qualities of the Indians than his reckless comrade, who despises the natives. Hurry Harry taunts Deerslayer about the latter’s reluctance to take any life, animal or human, without good cause; and he finally obtains from Natty the admission that the young man has never killed another person. Hurry Harry relates some of the background and gossip about Tom Hutter who claims the lake as his property toward which they are now approaching. Floating Tom Hutter has lived on this lake for 15 years and has buried his wife there. He has two daughters, Judith and Hetty, who are discussed in some detail by Hurry Harry. Judith is attractive and vivacious; Hurry characterizes her as a “light-minded jilting jade”; Hetty is plain and somewhat mentally retarded. Hurry Harry wants to marry Judith, although she has already rejected his offer of marriage. Angry at the memory of this rejection, Harry threatens to kill any man Judith may have married during his absence. Deerslayer calmly replies that he would be morally obligated to inform the authorities about such a crime. Seizing Deerslayer by the throat, Harry is on the verge of injuring his companion until he realizes that Deerslayer is not to be bullied. Hurry then releases his grip, saying that he will tell no more secrets to his young companion. After they have eaten, the two men continue their trek to Otsego Lake. Deerslayer proves that he has keen eyesight by spotting a certain tree that Harry has described. Inside the fallen, rotting tree is a hidden canoe. As the travelers start to paddle the canoe on the lake, Deerslayer is visibly moved and impressed by the lake, commonly called Glimmerglass. They reach Muskrat Castle, the permanent home and fortification of Tom Hutter on the lake, but the castle is deserted. Hurry Harry explains that the ark, The Deerslayer 18

the second lodging of Floating Tom, is probably at the other end of Glimmerglass. Deerslayer mentions that he is to meet Chingachgook, his friend and the son of the chief of the fallen nation of the Mohicans, at a rock near the lake outlet, where Floating Tom’s ark is located. Commentary Cooper, proceeding leisurely in building up conflict, first devotes considerable time to the physical setting of his story and the description of characters. Stylistically, this procedure allows Cooper to indulge in a rich, flowing language, characterized also by poetic prose in the reactions of Deerslayer to nature, and to Glimmerglass in particular. There is an additional sound purpose behind the slow, lengthy descriptive passages of the novelist. All the action will take place on and around the lake, and some exciting episodes will occur in Muskrat Castle. Then Cooper will be able to plunge quickly into the narrative when this conflict develops without the need for any interruptions to describe the physical background. A favorite romantic device, used abundantly by Cooper, is the pairing of opposites. Hurry Harry and Deerslayer are compared and contrasted repeatedly, and there are many differences indicated between the two men. Hurry Harry is immediately and sharply depicted as the antithesis of Deerslayer. The two characters become hero and villain, respectively, as the plot unfolds. They are at odds early in the novel, although they journey together and require each other’s help against any attack by roving bands of Indians. The two daughters of Tom Hutter have not appeared as yet, but Judith and Hetty have been described in such a way by Hurry Harry that they emerge as very different—and opposite—types, psychologically and physically. An air of mystery already surrounds the figure of Floating Tom when Hurry Harry repeats the rumor that Hutter was a pirate, perhaps a member of Captain Kidd’s crew. Also, the description of Muskrat Castle resembles that of a medieval castle. The chest in the castle, for example, is “dark” and “massive,” indicating its later importance. The skill of Floating Tom in constructing a permanent castle and a moving ark shows that a forceful character will be presented. Hurry Harry, anxious to rejoin Hutter, provides another clue that this alliance is between forces opposed to Deerslayer’s ideals. Natty Bumppo stands out from the first chapter as the major The Deerslayer 19

character, and several important facts are explained. The most important piece of information is that Deerslayer has never killed any human being. He is, as Hurry Harry understands, anxious about this first inevitable test of moral and physical courage. One should of course remember that the full title of Cooper’s romance is The Deerslayer, or The First Warpath. The main theme is then emphasized by Natty’s own introspective nature. One should note the repetition throughout the story of this aspect of Deerslayer’s character, especially when he must make a decision or answer a difficult question—”he stood leaning on his rifle.” Three other traits are mentioned in the first chapter about the hero: “guileless truth,” “an earnestness of purpose,” and “a sincerity of feeling.” Otsego Lake, or Glimmerglass, is the center of the action, and another view of “the reign of nature.” Deerslayer’s reactions in the second chapter are preceded by two paragraphs about the lake, “its solemn solitude and sweet repose.” The large lake, nearly nine miles long and a mile wide, provides Natty with glimpses of the Divine immensity, and of the smallness of man. Cooper’s—and Deerslayer’s—philosophy is particularly revealed in the many descriptive passages about Glimmerglass in various chapters.

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Chapters 3–4 Summary Hurry Harry and Deerslayer travel in the canoe to the other end of Glimmerglass in search of Tom Hutter and the ark. On the way they discuss frankly and heatedly their respective impressions of the Indians. Hurry also teases Deerslayer about the latter’s plain features and about Judith’s possibly outspoken comments upon seeing the young man. When they reach Rat’s Cove, Natty starts in pursuit of the animal or human which has made a sound heard by the two travelers. Unable to restrain himself, Hurry shoots at and misses a deer and is scolded by Deerslayer; enemies could be signaled by the shot. Continuing their journey, they find the outlet of Glimmerglass, and the rock which indicates where the ark should be. Hurry spots Tom Hutter in the distance where the latter is working on his traps, and he makes some unflattering remarks about Judith. Both men are embarrassed by her sudden appearance in the bushes near them. They have been exploring next to the ark, but the boat is so well concealed that the two travelers did not notice it. Judith, displeased by Hurry’s comments, is pleased by Natty’s spontaneous defense of her virtues as a woman. Going aboard the ark, Hurry and Deerslayer talk with Judith and Hetty, respectively. Hurry converses earnestly with Judith to soothe her pride and re-establish himself as a suitor; Natty appreciates Hetty’s simple, honest manner, despite the lack of her sister’s sophistication and intelligence. Tom Hutter appears and is half-annoyed: Hurry is a week late, the Mingos are on the warpath, and a stranger—Deerslayer is on the ark. Although Hurry explains that he fortunately met Natty on the trail and that the two formed a team against any Indian attack, it is Deerslayer, however, who satisfies Floating Tom about his honest intentions after he explains his intended rendezvous with Chingachgook. Hutter realizes that the young man may prove a needed ally in any future battle with the Mingos, so he tells about some signs of enemies in the vicinity. Judith, for example, shows a moccasin, which Deerslayer identifies as the type that Indians from Canada would wear. Certain that hostile Indians are now around the lake, Tom Hutter reproaches Hurry Harry because of the shot fired at the deer—a signal to the Mingos that more white men are at Glimmerglass. The three men start to remove the ark from its The Deerslayer 21

refuge in order to allow it to float on the lake where they can see any Indians approaching. Helped by the sunset, they almost succeed in leading the ark in the coming darkness beyond the reach of the trees on the shore. Deerslayer, catching sight of six Indians crouching on a tree that arches across the stream, shouts to Hurry Harry to give the ark a push. Five of the redskins fall into the water as they miss landing in the boat; the sixth Indian falls unconscious on the deck, and Judith shoves him into the lake. Natty pushes her into the cabin, out of range of bullets being fired by other Mingos on the shore. The ark safely reaches the open water of Glimmerglass. Commentary Three more characters join the story: the Hutter family. The five characters now introduced are all the “white” characters who dominate the action, and the introduction of the “red,” or Indian, figures is foreshadowed by the discussion between Deerslayer and Hurry Harry about the different races. Hurry proclaims the superiority of the white race over the black and red races, but Deerslayer replies simply that “God made all three alike.” However, Natty begins to explain a key concept, the idea that God “gave each race its gifts.” For example, Natty mentions that a white man, whose “gifts are Christianized,” cannot scalp a fallen foe; but scalping to an Indian is “a signal vartue” because he lives by the code of the wilderness. The illustration by Deerslayer is important in the plot because Floating Tom and Hurry Harry will later attempt to violate a white man’s “gifts” by seeking scalps. Two examples of the chase, or the theme of the pursuer and the pursued, occur in these two chapters: the hunt for the deer and Hurry’s hasty shot at the animal, and the attack of the Mingos on the ark as the boat seeks to move from shore. There will be other instances of this technical device throughout the chapters. Cooper is probably at his best in writing excitingly and suspensefully about dramatic episodes, such as the chase. He never betrays beforehand the outcome of these dangerous encounters. Deerslayer also answers Hurry’s taunts about his possible reactions to killing an Indian for the first time by stating that he will not slay willingly and with pleasure. If and when the necessity to defend himself comes, he hopes to maintain his honor by acting bravely and nobly. Nevertheless, Deerslayer insists that the death of a deer or other animal is a small matter compared to firing a gun at a fellow human being. An Indian is “quite as human as we are ourselves,” and Natty praises the missionaries The Deerslayer 22

for instilling this feeling in him. Religion, explains Natty, teaches that all men have souls and that each man will have to answer for his actions. Although Natty spends his initial time on the ark talking with Hetty, he is impressed by Judith’s beauty. Hurry Harry, however, has already prejudiced Natty against Judith by his gossip about her popularity with the officers of the nearby garrison. Natty admires Hetty’s simplicity of manner and sympathizes with her feeble intelligence. He also realizes that Hetty is secretly in love with Hurry Harry. Tom Hutter is a shrewd, forceful, and mysterious character. He is wary of Natty’s presence but likewise grasps almost immediately the usefulness of the youth. Most important, the conflict has been started between the five refugees on the ark and the Mingos occupying the shores of Glimmerglass. There are several romantic elements, particularly Gothic devices, about this first episode on the ark: the twilight shadows lending an air of mystery and fear to the setting; the boat drifting slowly and silently into the mainstream; and the Indians, appearing suddenly like supernatural spirits.

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Chapters 5–6 Summary Tom Hutter correctly analyzes the favorable situation of the ark: The Mingos cannot attack without boats, and he knows the location of the three canoes, hidden along the shore. Also, the Indians, even if they obtain boats, would be observed as they approached the ark. However, Hurry Harry and Floating Tom make plans to raid the Indian encampment. Their motive is greed because they cunningly believe that women and children will provide easy scalps which they can sell to the authorities for the bounties. Deerslayer and Hutter’s two daughters argue on moral grounds against any such raiding party, but their pleas are to no avail. Although Natty refuses to take part in the expedition, he offers to remain on the ark to defend the girls. Hetty learns to her dismay that her father has promised Judith as Hurry’s wife in return for the help he can give in this raid. Tom is momentarily disturbed by the sad realization that Hetty loves Hurry. Judith and Natty, after conversing together, respect each other’s views more; and Judith is evidently falling in love with Deerslayer. After arriving at the castle, the men discuss the proper line of defense against the Indians. Deerslayer’s view is accepted that the Mingos should not be underestimated, and they decide to recover the canoes hidden along the shores. In the darkness of night, the three men set out in one canoe and find the other canoes without any trouble. The sight of a campfire inspires Hurry Harry and Tom Hutter to attack the Indians because they realize that warriors would not be so careless. Only women and children, then, are in the camp: easy scalps for the two marauders. Deerslayer, of course, refuses to accompany his two companions and warns them of the possible dangers they face. Greed overcomes their sense of caution, and they take one of the canoes back to the shore. Deerslayer waits in another canoe offshore until the call of a loon alerts him to trouble. Then he hears another cry—this time a shriek of agony. The Mingos have ambushed the two white men, who are desperately attempting to retreat to the safety of the lake. Deerslayer struggles with this dilemma: Should he risk capture and leave the girls unguarded to save his comrades, or should he remain in his secure position? Events solve the problem for him because the two white men are soon overpowered by the Mingos. In fact, they shout at him to return immediately to the security of the castle. After paddling in the direction of Muskrat Castle, The Deerslayer 24

Deerslayer goes to sleep because the canoe is being carried by the current to the castle. Commentary Although there is no action in Chapter 5, the groundwork is prepared for a battle between the white men and the Mingos. Once more Deerslayer strongly opposes the cruelty and rapaciousness not only of Hurry Harry and Floating Tom but of the white men who, in general, have exploited the Indians. Against the opinions of the other two men, he stresses that scalping is no crime, no moral offense, among the Indians because it is part of their code, or “gifts.” Christianity and humanitarianism, attributes of white civilization, forbid such conduct and therefore do not condone scalping. Hetty’s pleas, simple and innocent, add to Deerslayer’s arguments; and Judith’s more biting remarks about the planned expedition result in an alliance of Natty and the two daughters. Although both girls argue against scalping, their speeches contrast sharply because of the intellectual levels they represent. The contrast is also between good and evil, with Deerslayer, Judith, and Hetty symbolizing the Christian morality, and Hurry Harry and Tom Hutter expressing the materialistic brutality of the frontier. A new element around the theme of love has been introduced by the revelation that Hetty loves Hurry Harry. He, of course, has no knowledge of this devotion but continues to pursue Judith—his price for accompanying Floating Tom. Hurry is, however, aware that Judith is now interested in Deerslayer. Judith, although she wins Deerslayer’s friendship and allegiance, is saddened by his knowledge of what Hurry has said about her. Glimmerglass is never absent as an integral part of Cooper’s romance, and these two Chapters offer an interesting and different use of the lake. In Chapter 5, Cooper contrasts the beautiful, placid features of Glimmerglass with the strife and lack of harmony in the affairs of men, exemplified in Floating Tom and Hurry Harry. In Chapter 6, the lake ceases to be a motive for the author’s moralizing and philosophical reflections and becomes instead the center of the action. This chapter is, in fact, one of the exciting and dynamic chapters in The Deerslayer; and there are few introspective passages as in the previous chapter. The entire setting and atmosphere lend suspense, fear, and terror to the villainous and unsuccessful raid of the two white men. The effects of night on the silent lake are the principal ingredients of Cooper’s descriptive technique. He utilizes the “pursuit and pursuer” theme The Deerslayer 25

again, but in this chapter the escape of the pair is a failure. Indeed, for Deerslayer events have taken a completely different and disastrous turn. He, alone, faces the Mingos; the two men are prisoners; and the girls are defenseless. But Cooper is still the moralist. The capture of Hurry Harry and Floating Tom is the result of their lawlessness. Their violation of the moral and ethical code of the Christian religion, as well as the spirit of the white race, has not gone unpunished. Deerslayer and the two girls warned of such punishment if the attempted murder of women and children were undertaken. Cooper so skillfully develops this aspect of the plot that one cannot sympathize much with the two raiders. Their predicament is hard but just, and the reader’s concern is directed toward the hero and Hutter’s daughters. Cooper does, however, indicate by some clues the trend of future developments: the mention of Killdeer, Hutter’s gun; Hurry Harry’s suspicions about Floating Tom’s nautical knowledge; and the various references to the chest in Muskrat Castle. Irony is likewise noted in Deerslayer’s decision to sleep as the canoe drifts peacefully toward the castle, a surprising action after the excitement of the night on Glimmerglass.

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Chapters 7–8 Summary Deerslayer awakens to discover that his calculations about the current of Glimmerglass and the effect of the wind have been very inaccurate: One canoe has drifted toward the shore and is soon grounded on a small sunken rock a few yards from land. Although he feels that the Mingos cannot be far away, Deerslayer must take a chance and get the canoe. He is almost ashore when an Indian shoots, and Deerslayer narrowly escapes being hit. The advantage is now his, but Natty cannot shoot an enemy unless both have a fair and equal chance to defend or to attack. Reaching the beached canoe, Deerslayer challenges his opponent to an honorable confrontation. Startled and bewildered by this unusual action, the Mingo argues with the white man about the possession of the canoe. Natty states directly that the canoe belongs to Hutter, and the Indian apparently accepts this explanation. Deerslayer, happening to glance backward as he prepares to depart, sees the Indian preparing to shoot him. Natty fires quickly, and two shots are heard simultaneously. Rushing at Deerslayer, the Mingo hurls his tomahawk which the former adroitly catches; and the savage, wounded fatally by the bullet, falls at Natty’s feet. Deerslayer brings the dying Indian to the lake for water which the Indian has requested. He also arranges the savage in a comfortable position and does not scalp his fallen foe. Sighting another Indian and hearing shouts of others compel Deerslayer to flee from the scene of his “first warpath.” In the canoe, he notices that one of the other boats is behaving very strangely by not following the direction of the current and the wind and is heading toward land. Suddenly realizing that another Mingo must be hidden in the wayward canoe and rowing silently, Deerslayer directs his own canoe toward the errant boat and gives the Indian a chance to leap into the lake. Natty cannot honorably shoot the savage because he has deduced that the Indian must be unarmed. As the sunrise begins to flood the whole expanse of Glimmerglass, Deerslayer returns to the castle where Judith and Hetty are waiting anxiously for him after the terrible disaster of the night. For the first time, Deerslayer is moved by the radiant beauty of Judith. Deerslayer tells the two girl s what has happened to their father and Hurry Harry. He cautions them to be patient until Chingachgook arrives this evening because there will then be one The Deerslayer 27

more defender of the ark and castle. Although reluctant to discuss his mission with Chingachgook, Natty later explains to the girls his reason for being at the lake. Chingachgook (Big Sarpent) is in love with Wah-ta!-Wah (Hist-oh!-Hist), who has been kidnapped by the Mingos, aided by the traitorous Delaware, Briarthorn (Yocommon). The time for the rendezvous nears and Deerslayer, Judith, and Hetty take the ark on a zigzag course along the lake in order to confuse and tire the Indians who are undoubtedly trying to follow their movements. Luck is with them, and they arrive at the rock close to the agreed time. Commentary The seventh chapter provides Deerslayer with the critical test of his courage, and he comes rightly into his own as the hero of Cooper’s romance. Natty Bumppo, for the first time, kills an Indian—a fellow human being. “Such was the commencement of a career in forest exploits,” writes Cooper, “that afterward rendered this man, in his way, and under the limits of his habits and opportunities, as renowned as many a hero whose name has adorned the pages of works more celebrated than legends simple as ours can ever become.” Natty has, until now, proved his worth in the councils of war and discussions with the Hutters and Hurry Harry, but he must reply to the latter’s doubts about his ability to resort to violence when necessary. Two characteristics emerge in Natty’s trial: the chivalric or medieval ideal, set in the American forest, and the Christian training he has received during his youth. Natty truly stands out as an epic hero of the American tradition, comparable to such legendary figures as Roland during the Middle Ages. Natty is like a knight who, since he has taken the oath of service and devotion, conducts himself generously. The Mingo, for example, cannot fathom such behavior, especially in a white man. Hurry and Tom would certainly not have been so chivalrous; Deerslayer is a sharp contrast to his comrades on this “first warpath.” This knightly code is, however, implied rather than directly stated in the chapter; it is the critical interpretation of Cooper’s romanticism. Natty’s Christianity, however, is clearly indicated by the whole attitude of the hero before and after the death of the Mingo. These beliefs, centering principally in the defense of “gifts,” have of course entered into previous discussions. just as Hawkeye (the dying savage prefers this title to “Deerslayer”) has theoretically The Deerslayer 28

defended his behavior in battle and now meets the test directly, the Christian ideals must be put into practice. Ironically, the Mingo is unable to understand these values of his conqueror. Cooper, thus, introduces a theme he will develop in later chapters: how can the lessons of Christianity be of any use in the primitive land of America and among the Mingos or other savages? The mortally wounded Indian is nevertheless a knight of the woods, and in the same fashion as Deerslayer adheres to his code of chivalry. When Natty hails him, the Indian makes “a gesture of lofty courtesy,” and, when he is dying he assumes “the high innate courtesy that so often distinguishes the Indian warrior.” Cooper’s popularity abroad was due in great part to this flattering, idealized portrait of the Indians as noble savages and knights of the forest. Cooper likewise mentions another preoccupation about this confrontation between two civilizations: Each is chivalric according to its “gifts,” but corruption comes from contact with circumstances and financial opportunities. Another explanation of Natty’s “gifts” is the fact that he represents the white race not as superior to the Indians but as adhering to different standards. “White I was born,” says Deerslayer to himself, “and white will I die, clinging to color to the last.” The plot slows noticeably in Chapter 8 as Deerslayer prepares for the meeting with Chingachgook. However, the explanation and discussions highlight various aspects of the plot: Deerslayer’s mission, the arrival of an additional fighter against the besieging Mingos, the mystery of the chest, and the determination of the refugees on the lake to resist the Indians. Also, clues are provided about coming events. For example, an indication about Deerslayer’s future fate in the romance is seen in Judith’s remark that “men taken in open strife are seldom injured—not, at least, until the time of torture comes.” Judith likewise begins to express more openly her feelings of love for Deerslayer. When she asks the young man where his sweetheart is, Natty answers that “she’s in the forest, Judith . . . and in all the other glorious gifts that come from God’s Providence.” This immediate response of Deerslayer is another clue to an important decision he will make in the last chapter. Deerslayer introduces another important concept when he starts to warn of “sarcumventions” as characteristic of a dishonorable opponent. These circumventions will be a partial explanation of the Indians’ behavior—and likewise of some of the white men—against which Deerslayer will oppose his own The Deerslayer 29

chivalric and Christian code. “When you have to deal with an Injin, you must calculate and manage,” Deerslayer concludes, “for a red natur’ dearly likes sarcumvention.” Deerslayer’s language reflects increasingly the pioneer speech of his environment and his lack of a formal education.

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Chapters 9–10 Summary Deerslayer heads the ark toward the rock skillfully, but the rescue of Chingachgook, while successful, is perilous. Chingachgook’s leap to the safety of the ark is closely followed by the outcry of twenty pursuing Mingos. Judith saves the mission by her directions to Deerslayer as he moves the boat again to the open lake. Chingachgook is welcomed by the three exiles, and his news that Tom Hutter and Hurry Harry, though prisoners, are still unharmed calms the two girls. The Mohican chief has also heard the laughter of Hist (Wah-ta!-Wah) and knows that she, too, though a prisoner, is safe. As the ark moves away from range of any Mingo attack, the four defenders attempt to settle upon a plan for the escape of Tom, Hurry, and Hist. Judith is willing to sacrifice her dresses to the Indians as ransom; and if worst comes to worst, the chest can be opened. The sound of a paddle in the water interrupts the conversation, and Deerslayer is on the point of firing at the canoe when Hetty Hutter identifies herself. She is on her way, alone, to the Indian encampment. Judith realizes that her sister, unaware of the danger she is risking, believes she can persuade the Indians to release the two men she loves. Deerslayer tries to divert her in the ark, but she outwits him and reaches land. Hetty, after landing, pushes the canoe away from the shore; Deerslayer recovers it, but he is still unable to persuade Hetty to return to the ark. As Deerslayer and Judith argue with Hetty, she tells them her plan: She intends to go directly and honestly to the Indians and tell the chief that God’s commandment is to return good for evil. If the Indians do not release Hutter and Hurry Harry, God’s punishment will be everlasting. This said, Hetty flees into the forest to avoid capture by Deerslayer, then at last falls asleep. She is suddenly awakened after several hours by a bear and her cubs. She watches them for awhile, then goes to a brook where she washes. The bears follow, then stop, and Hetty is coaxing them forward when an Indian girl places her hand upon Hetty’s shoulder. After a few frightening moments, the two begin to talk in a friendly manner. Hist introduces herself, and the two exchange information. Hetty is overjoyed to know that she is near the two prisoners, and Hist happily learns that Chingachgook is with Deerslayer. Won over by Hetty’s simple faith, Hist also The Deerslayer 31

understands that the white girl may not be in such peril because of the Indians’ respect for those who appear simple-minded or abnormal. But Hist warns Hetty not to mention Chingachgook’s name as the two girls approach the camp of the Mingos. Commentary Two main characters, Chingachgook and Hist, enter the story in these chapters; and Cooper immediately contrasts the Indians with Deerslayer and Hetty, respectively. Chingachgook and Deerslayer, although they have opposing traits because of their respective “gifts,” resemble each other a great deal. The two warriors on the “first warpath” complement each other more than any other pair of characters in the romance. They are blood brothers with the same basic education, and their ideals are very similar, except for loyalty to the separate Indian and Christian codes. Chingachgook is especially pleased because Deerslayer has killed his first enemy in battle, but Natty modestly replies that “he fou’t like a man of red gifts, and I fou’t like a man with gifts of my own color.” The meeting of Hetty and Hist enables Cooper to contrast the girls also. Although they resemble each other in their simplicity and honesty, important differences are noticeable. Hist is obviously more intelligent, more poised, and more experienced than Hetty. Each girl, of course, defends the “gifts” of her race: Hist praises the Indian practice of taking scalps, and Hetty condemns this practice. Hetty, in contrast to Deerslayer, considers that scalping is a crime for all races. Romantic irony is used effectively by Cooper in the continuing discussion between the girls, although he resorts to coincidence as a device. Hist upbraids Hetty for the latter’s failure, in view of her strong feelings about scalping, to have prevented Tom Hutter’s raid on the Mingo camp. Hetty’s father had tried to scalp Hist; in fact it was Hist’s cry of agony which Deerslayer heard as he waited in the canoe for the two marauders. Hetty’s security from injury by the Indians is an important development in terms of theme and plot. Cooper is again illustrating his view that the Indian is indeed a noble savage, worthy of the knights of old. The Indians have their own code, one aspect being respect for those who are mentally retarded. Hetty’s action, however, has increased the possibility of an Indian attack because she has reduced the number of defenders of the ark. This incident is likewise indicative of future reactions on Hetty’s part. She behaves intuitively and innocently, trusts in The Deerslayer 32

Christian beliefs completely as a guide, and becomes confused if the arguments become complicated. Two more examples of the pursuit and escape technique are in these chapters: Chingachgook’s flight from the Mingos to the safety of the ark, and Hetty’s successful avoidance of the ark as she headed toward the Indian camp in the canoe. Cooper starts Chapter 9 very slowly. He contemplates the grandeur and vastness which the American continent holds, particularly musing about the rock, site of Chingachgook’s reunion with Deerslayer, which still stands at his beloved Glimmerglass. These ideas, although they impede the action of the story, are indicative of Cooper’s nationalism and romanticism. He wants Americans to remember and to respect their past—the past which, in Cooper’s opinion is really not so far distant in the history of this young nation. Nevertheless, the American hinterland has had another unknown, silent and impressive past before its discovery by the white men.

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Chapters 11–12 Summary Hetty’s appearance in the Mingo camp surprises the Indians, but they refrain from showing their feelings too openly. Tom Hutter and Hurry Harry, still prisoners, have also adopted this Indian custom of concealing emotions; and the two white men do not betray their deep concern for Hetty’s apparent plight. Hetty begins to address the Indians, and Hist serves as the interpreter. Admitting the crime of the two men in attacking the Indians for scalps, Hetty thereby makes a favorable impression upon her listeners. Rivenoak, the Mingo chief, treats her respectfully and gently. However, he questions her sharply about the white man’s hypocritical practice of the so-called Christian virtues which Hetty has started to explain. Hetty is so perplexed about Christian theory and reality that she bursts into tears. Hist at last is sympathetic to Hetty’s efforts; earlier she could not refrain from making some comments herself about the white man’s hypocritical behavior toward the Indians. The Indians now bring Tom Hutter and Hurry Harry to the meeting. Knowing that the Indians respect a courageous and bold self defense, they readily admit their guilt. The Indians withdraw to argue the matter among themselves, and the two captives try to persuade Hist to help them escape. When Hetty speaks to her father about Judith’s wish to open the chest as a source of valuables for ransom of the pair, Tom Hutter frowns in dissatisfaction. On the ark the mood is one of gloom and reflection about the group’s dangerous situation and the unknown fate of the three white captives besides Hist as Chingachgook’s special worry. Deerslayer makes his Indian companion disguise himself in the clothes of a white man so that the Mingos, probably watching along the shores of the lake, might be deceived about the chief’s identity. This disguise disgusts Chingachgook, but Deerslayer is careful not to joke about the costume because of the chief’s dignity and because of the serious problems at hand. Having agreed on an effort to ransom the prisoners, the three also agree to Judith’s suggestion to open her father’s sea-chest. But Judith, painfully aware that her father has trusted Hetty more than he has her, is unable to determine any location for the key. A search throughout the ark leads them to the girls’ quarters where the differences in their tastes and personalities is very noticeable. The Deerslayer 34

Judith’s clothes and personal articles are much more beautiful than those of her sister. Chingachgook concludes from all this that Tom Hutter might have hidden the key where Judith would never have concerned herself—among Hetty’s everyday, humble clothes. The hunch is correct, and Chingachgook finds the key in a homespun cloth bag belonging to Hetty. Although Deerslayer suggests that he and Chingachgook should leave the room while Judith opens the family chest, the girl insists that all remain. Some elegant clothes for a man and a woman are in the top part, and Judith eagerly goes out to put on a dress of brocade. She is even momentarily saddened to think that this beautiful gown would be wasted on the Indians in any proposed exchange for the captives. Deerslayer’s gentle and shrewd admonitions about her natural beauty outshining any artificial adornments restore Judith to her sense of duty, and her love for Deerslayer grows as a result of his flattering words. The three continue their search of the contents of the chest and find two expensive pistols. Commentary The scene in Chapter 11 shifts from Deerslayer and the besieged occupants of the ark as the central figures to the land surrounding Glimmerglass. Cooper introduces the Mingos who, until now, have existed only in the shadows and have not emerged as individuals, except for the Indian slain by Deerslayer. While his descriptions of the physical surroundings and the Indians are marked by the usual realistic and accurate details, Cooper romanticizes the portrait of the natives. These “noble savages,” as noted previously, live and judge others by a chivalric code worthy of medieval knights; and they can philosophize very effectively despite their elementary knowledge of English. The problem unfolded by Cooper, although it detracts from the progress of the action, is one of his preoccupations throughout his works. Also, these digressions add a wealth of meaning and historical importance to The Deerslayer. Cooper questions the moral and ethical aspects of the conquest of the American land and particularly the treatment of the natives by the white men. Cooper’s Indians, criticized as too noble by many critics, offer compelling arguments and complaints about their condition. Hetty defends the Christian message and the special place of white civilization because it has received the news of Christianity. The Deerslayer 35

Although these words of Hetty can be excused because of her limited mental capacities, the answers she supplies represent the thinking—and rationalization—of many pioneers and settlers. Hist, however, though at first friendly to the white girl, finally turns against Hetty. She poignantly expresses the Indian credo that the white men argue rationally only in their own aggressions; they never apply the New Testament teachings to the Indian side of any quarrel; thus they are hypocritical, lying, and greedy. Finally, Hetty, unprepared for such objections to her simple faith, breaks down under the strain and weeps piteously. The entire episode is a rational defense and attack upon the abuses of the white men and the cruel exploitation of America. It is possible that Cooper meant Hetty to symbolize the preachers and missionaries who, although they strove to convert the Indians to the Christian faith, failed in their efforts because of the conduct of their fellow colonizers. The chest, mentioned by Hetty to her father at the end of Chapter 11, is the focal point of interest in the following chapter. Upon returning the action to the ark, Cooper picks up the symbol, represented by this mysterious object, and devotes Chapter 12 to the contribution the chest can make to the plot. The value is both structural and psychological: The chest serves for basic curiosity, the means whereby the prisoners may be recovered, and an additional way in which Judith and Deerslayer can react to each other’s presence. The brocade dress, so admired by Judith, is of importance in Chapter 30, and the clue to this coming development is hinted at by Deerslayer when he comments upon the impression Judith, dressed so elegantly, would make on the Mingos. Cooper also makes use of disguise among his techniques as in the scene with the brocade dress and in Chingachgook’s refashioned appearance in the outfit of a white man. The search for the key is a variation on the familiar “pursuit and pursuer” theme. This incident is also reminiscent of Edgar Allen Poe’s procedure in his short stories and is like the puzzling problems in spy and detective fiction. By allowing Chingachgook to unravel the mystery of the key’s location, Cooper calls attention to the Indian’s intuitive sense, classified by Deerslayer as a “gift” of the natives. Deerslayer refers similarly to his friend’s apt name of “Sarpent” because of the shrewd intelligence proved now. Cooper emphasizes the virtues of plain dealing and frankness as qualities to be cultivated. These attributes, in fact, will frequently redeem The Deerslayer 36

an apparently hopeless situation and should be carefully noted as preached and practiced by the characters. For example, the Mingos accepted Hetty more willingly because she admitted the attempted crime by her father and Hurry Harry.

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Chapters 13–14 Summary Because the pistols are old and have not been primed or cleaned for a long time, Deerslayer suggests that he and Chingachgook practice firing them. Deerslayer proves his superior marksmanship, but his pistol explodes accidentally—exactly what he had feared because of Hutter’s long neglect of the loaded weapons. No one is hurt, but Judith is very frightened by the incident. They continue their search of the chest where they find a sextant, another proof that the uneducated Tom Hutter was not the original owner of many of the items, and finally some carved ivory chess pieces. These figures, for the first time, evoke a surprised response from the usually stoical Chingachgook, and Judith joins the Indian in admiration of the delicately wrought pieces. Deerslayer, however, is singularly unimpressed, and becomes very serious and concerned. He finally states his cause for anxiety: He believes that the figures are idols which Tom Hutter has worshipped. Indeed, the apparent evidence of paganism almost repels Deerslayer from attempting to rescue the captive. Judith, explaining that she has seen officers at the fort playing a game with the figures, convinces Deerslayer of his wrong interpretation when she finds the chess board. The group agree that some of the chess pieces (rooks in the form of elephants) can be used to bargain with the Mingos for the prisoners’ release. The sound of steps surprises the group, and Hetty’s appearance with an Indian stuns the three people. Deerslayer quickly makes Chingachgook hide. Hetty, telling about her adventures among the Mingos, believes that the Indians are willing to attend church services aboard the ark. Judith and Deerslayer are skeptical. Noticing the poorly constructed raft in which Hetty and the Mingo guide arrived, Deerslayer realizes that the Indians are in no position to attack the ark. He shows one ivory chess piece, a rook (castle) carved like an elephant, to the Mingo, who is elated by it. Deerslayer explains that two of these figures will be given in exchange for the prisoners. The Mingo departs happily with the message, and Deerslayer ponders about possible arguments in the coming negotiations. Hetty’s news about Hist makes Chingachgook optimistic about rescuing the Indian girl: Hist will be waiting at the place where Hetty landed on the previous night, and Chingachgook should come for her about an hour after dark. Chingachgook takes off his white man’s clothes and stands The Deerslayer 38

proudly on the deck in his rightful image as an Indian. Anxious to see Hist, Chingachgook proposes to go in person to the Mingo camp as an emissary, an offer which Deerslayer immediately rejects as being motivated by emotion rather than by reason. Despite their hopes that the Mingos will negotiate for the prisoners’ release, the defenders of the ark take no chances and prepare defenses. But the raft appears with two Mingos. Rivenoak, the chief, and Deerslayer discuss terms, and the Indian is visibly moved by the latter’s directness and honesty. Deerslayer, for instance, tosses one of the ivory pieces to Rivenoak for inspection although Hawkeye, as he now identifies himself to the Mingo leader, warns that he will shoot if the piece is not returned. The negotiations drag on, the Indians haggle for more than two chess pieces, and Deerslayer insists that his first offer is a fair bargain. The discussions are close to failure, and Judith warns Deerslayer that one of the Mingos is reaching for a rifle hidden in the bottom of the raft. Deerslayer, however, is on his guard, and Rivenoak continues talking about an agreement. Deerslayer quickly takes advantage of this critical moment: He proposes that, if the Indians bring the prisoners, they can keep the ivory token already in their possession, with two more chess pieces added for the bargain and an extra one for speed in returning the captives. The Indians, overjoyed by this generosity, leave hastily, and return before sunset with Tom Hutter and Hurry Harry. Deerslayer, of course, keeps his promise about the bargain; but Hurry Harry is no sooner on board the ark than be seizes Deerslayer’s rifle to shoot the Indians. Fearing this reaction from the impetuous Hurry, Deerslayer had asked Judith to hide all the other firearms; Natty wrenches his own gun from Hurry’s grasp. A shot is fired into the air without any harm done. After the Mingos return to the shore, the exiles on the ark sit down to eat, exchange information, and discuss their situation. Commentary Some humorous scenes and dialogue interrupt the serious problems of the captives and the investigation of the chest’s contents. The friendly shooting contest between Deerslayer and Chingachgook, while confirming the former’s prowess, proves amusing as Chingachgook’s bullet lands harmlessly in the water. But the next joke is on Deerslayer as he mistakenly considers the chess pieces as pagan idols. His long soliloquy about the degradation of such worship and the higher nature of Christian The Deerslayer 39

belief in one God is an explanation of Natty’s faith and religious training. However, the effect is also a parody of the smug and righteous attitudes of Christians who can be very incorrect in their interpretations and conclusions. Cooper, concerned about Christianity facing an alien culture, is clearly on the side of charitable, liberal readings of the Bible and dogmas. He likewise condemns hypocrisy and ignorance and Natty’s vehement outbursts—not in harmony with his usual character—are farcical in their erroneous analysis of the ivory chess pieces. Ironically, Judith scores one of her few victories over Deerslayer’s ideas in this episode of the chess set. But some of the sad facts about Judith’s mother also begin to come to light. Unfortunate and mysterious experiences are evidently involved in the life of this woman whom Tom Hutter, it was previously learned, buried in the lake. A bond of sympathy and understanding has been formed between Hetty and Hist, and the former’s admonitions to Chingachgook about his future behavior toward his betrothed show Hetty’s gentle nature and, at times, wise reactions. The plot has taken an important turn for the better: The ransom for the captives has been found in the chest; and the Indians, after suspenseful and uncertain negotiations, consent to the exchange of prisoners for the elephant-shaped chess pieces. There are now six defenders of the ark, their position is secure, and the Mingos have still not found the means to attack these defenses from their positions on the shores of Glimmerglass. But another visit to the shore—to the exact place where Hetty landed—is indicated by Hist’s words to Hetty, related in turn by the latter to Chingachgook. Thus Cooper, in solving one plot complication, prepares his readers for another adventure. The bargaining between the Indians and Deerslayer is a model of shrewdness and give-and-take on both sides. Cooper makes the point very definitely that the Indians’ first astonishment and increasing trust in Deerslayer’s fairness has not been the normal procedure in relations between the natives and the white men. In fact, Cooper, by emphasizing the exemplary character of the negotiations, is strongly criticizing historical fact and is indicating his theories about the proper conduct of his own race. Although the Mingos are not above treachery as a device to be employed whenever it might gain the victory, Cooper defends this procedure as part of the Indian code. The use of “sarcumventions” is The Deerslayer 40

permitted to the natives as an element of their “gifts,” which, despite objections from their foes, are lawful. The vengeful code of Hurry Harry—and Tom Hutter if he had been physically able to act—is no better than that of the untrustworthy savages. However, Cooper insists that the white men, because of different “gifts” (among which is Christianity), cannot resort to such acts of barbarism. The white men must adhere to nobler principles; otherwise they bring shame, disgrace, and disaster upon themselves when they indulge in atrocities, such as scalping and attempting to shoot the Indians in the back. Cooper, then, uses contrast to reinforce his philosophical and social ideas: Deerslayer’s honorable and Hurry Harry’s reprehensible dealings with the Indians; Deerslayer’s and Judith’s interpretations of paganism and Christian beliefs by means of the chess figures; and Deerslayer’s and Chingachgook’s claims to white or native superiority—though in jest—in the use of guns. Hetty, relying upon intuition rather than reason, is again offered in contrast to her sister and to Chingachgook to whom she must relate news from Hist. The six—although mutually dependent on one another—are, nevertheless, opposed in various ways. Obviously, Deerslayer and Chingachgook, although of different “gifts,” form a team (representing the good and noble) against the pair of Tom Hutter and Hurry Harry (symbolizing greed and corruption).

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Chapters 15–16 Summary Deerslayer explains privately to Tom Hutter what has been done with the chest; and the latter calmly accepts the explanation about the discovery of the key, the searching of the chest’s contents, and the use of the chess pieces for ransom. Hutter is rather relieved that the whole chest was not searched. When they rejoin the others, Hurry asks Deerslayer about the prospects for peace. As an answer, Deerslayer throws toward Hurry a bundle of sticks, the ends of which have been dipped in blood: the “gauntlet” signifying a declaration of war. He says that an Indian tossed it on deck only minutes ago. Hurry Harry impetuously tries to seize a canoe to chase and shoot the Mingo, but Deerslayer and Chingachgook stop him. Tension runs high; only the innocent intervention of Hetty, admonishing Hurry Harry, prevents a serious quarrel among the men. However, Tom Hutter, Hurry Harry, and Chingachgook decide to attack the Indians. Hutter and Hurry want to get scalps for bounties, and Chingachgook wants some for trophies. Although Deerslayer obviously wants no part in this expedition and criticizes the two white men for their aggression, he gives his Indian friend approval, but tells Chingachgook to fight mercifully and honorably. The trip to the shore is useless because the Mingos have abandoned the site of their previous encampment. When the three white men return to the ark, Chingachgook and Deerslayer make plans for the rescue of Hist. Deerslayer, convincing Judith of the necessity of this new mission, leaves in a canoe with Chingachgook, toward the Mingos’ new camp, at the place where Hist was supposed to be waiting for them. After approaching the shore cautiously, Deerslayer and Chingachgook bring the canoe to land, then separate to carefully study the terrain near the Mingo camp. They also try to see how closely Hist is guarded and conclude that, although the Indians have increased the guards because of Chingachgook’s suspected presence on the ark, the rescue is not impossible to attempt. The warriors rest during the night, and the women, watching Hist, are not as alert as their male counterparts. Deerslayer and Chingachgook, after talking together, crawl toward Hist’s hut. Chingachgook imitates the chirping of a squirrel which Hist recognizes. Soon afterward, Hist’s old guard is told to bring water and she and Hist head toward a spring, located a short distance The Deerslayer 42

from the camp. Chingachgook wants to tomahawk the Mingo squaw, but Deerslayer is afraid of an outcry from the intended victim. Deerslayer seizes the Mingo woman by the throat to prevent her from screaming as Chingachgook and Hist flee toward the canoe. But the old woman, pretending to be passive, suddenly screams so that three or four warriors come to her rescue. Deerslayer, releasing the squaw, runs in the direction of the canoe. Commentary The challenge of the Mingos is related and interpreted as part and parcel of the chivalric code of the American Indian. This episode of the sticks dipped in blood is an example of Cooper’s adaptation of the medieval background from Scott’s novels and the Gothic romances, “nationalized” by him to the American scene. Deerslayer elaborates on the differences between the moral world of the Indian and that of the white man in his fraternal advice to Chingachgook before the latter’s departure for the shore. The Christian lesson is the line of division between the two worlds, and Deerslayer again stresses his belief in the ethical values of religion. Although he defends Christian principles, Deerslayer is not fully in favor of organized churches. He makes the point, for example, that church buildings are not necessary because the earth and nature are appropriate temples of worship to arrive at understanding and respect for God. Judith’s love for Deerslayer, which is now becoming very evident to Hurry Harry, is intensifying the rivalry between the two white men. For example, Deerslayer and Hurry Harry, in their confrontation on the deck, are contrasted sharply once more. Deerslayer, of course, proves his moral superiority and mental worth in this scene. Hurry Harry and Tom Hutter, although they have recently escaped from certain torture and agonizing death, have learned nothing from their captivity. They are still determined to resort to violence to satisfy their greed for money in exchange for scalps, and they are now spurred to another attack by the desire for revenge in payment for their humiliation as prisoners of the Mingos. The characterization of Deerslayer is important in these chapters on the psychological level at first and on the physical level later. He has become friends with Judith, and they speak warmly and frankly. She, however, knows that he has been prejudiced against her virtues by the gossip of Hurry Harry—accusations never denied by Deerslayer for their influence upon his opinion of Judith. Deerslayer’s discussion with Judith The Deerslayer 43

during the raiding party’s absence is also a major contribution toward the understanding of his code. He is against living in society and prefers the solitary, untamed forests. Civilization is “contradiction” and nature is “concord” in Deerslayer’s terminology. Deerslayer is characterized in these two Chapters as “a man of strong, native, poetical feeling.” As a result of his constant love and enjoyment of the natural beauties of the American hinterland, he has a moral sense which makes him angry at “universal decay.” This term is defined as the decline brought about by waste and violence rather than by the inevitable natural changes. All these traits give Deerslayer an outstanding physical superiority in addition to his moral and ethical stature. He is consequently steadfast in danger and afraid of no crisis. These comments by Cooper are put to the test in the thrilling pages concerning the attempt to rescue Hist. Deerslayer’s motive is one of friendship for Chingachgook, and the salvation of Hist was the primary purpose of his trip to Glimmerglass. Chapter 16 brings the romance to a climactic moment: the prelude to the capture of Deerslayer. So thorough is Cooper in his planning and execution that he can continue the excitement and suspense into the next chapter with the audience’s attention at a high pitch. The technique is the familiar one of escape and pursuit, and later capture. The quality of verisimilitude, however, is upheld, and the entire lengthy description of the expedition is realistic and detailed.

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Chapters 17–18 Summary Deerslayer eludes his pursuers so that Chingachgook and Hist can get into the canoe. By giving the canoe a quick and powerful shove into the lake, Deerslayer provides his friends with their chance to reach safety. His own escape is endangered by a Mingo who seizes him, and Deerslayer loses any advantage in the fight by devoting his attention to his friend’s plight. More savages reach the shore, and the uneven struggle results in Deerslayer’s capture. The Indians are elated by the sight of such an important enemy as their prisoner. Rivenoak, the chief, is especially pleased by Deerslayer’s capture. Deerslayer’s honor, valor, and shrewd tactics have won the respect of the Mingos; and Rivenoak proposes that Natty join the Indians by returning to the ark and then betraying his comrades for part of the expected booty. Although Deerslayer admits that Tom Hutter and Hurry Harry are no true friends of his because of their unscrupulous actions, he refuses to play the part of a traitor. Rivenoak is also impressed by Deerslayer’s explanation that he came into the Mingo camp on a mission of rescue for a friend and not to take scalps. However, Catamount, who hoped to have Hist as his squaw, tries to antagonize Deerslayer; but the latter fends off the Indian’s insults. Everyone, including Deerslayer, is surprised by the appearance of Hetty Hutter, but the Indians, because of their previous respect for a person favored by the gods, do not take her prisoner. Hetty explains to Deerslayer, who also enjoys some freedom of movement because of the Indians’ admiration. of his prowess, that Judith has sent her on this errand. Judith will meet Hetty offshore in a canoe. Hetty is to try to ransom Deerslayer as Tom Hutter and Hurry Harry were previously ransomed. Deerslayer, however, warns Hetty that the Mingos are undoubtedly plotting to seize the two girls—and the canoe so valuable for a raid on the ark. The Mingos, believing that their sentry will watch Hetty, allow her to wander away from the camp, so Hetty is able to make her escape to rejoin Judith in the canoe. The Mingo sentry was waiting for an Indian maiden to join him in an apparently prearranged tryst and failed to observe the white girl carefully. When the two sisters meet again in the canoe, Hetty is very blunt about Deerslayer’s chances for rescue, and Judith betrays the increasingly tragic aspect of her love for Deerslayer by promising The Deerslayer 45

to do anything to save him. A shot sounds in the silence of the night, and the Mingo girl who was to meet the sentry is mortally wounded. Judith realizes that the shot must have come from another canoe or from the ark. She also understands from a swift glance at the Indian camp that the Mingos are infuriated at this unjustified atrocity and that Deerslayer is now in more mortal danger than previously. The girls paddle quickly to safety in the center of Glimmerglass. Commentary Deerslayer’s successful effort to save his friends at his own expense is interpreted by Cooper as the generosity that would have made a Roman famous for all time. Deerslayer, then, is as noble as the characters in classical antiquity, and America can produce epic heroes in the tradition of European models. Deerslayer is likewise “the innate gentleman,” as Cooper defines his American hero, and this proud, honorable behavior by Natty Bumppo merits a correspondingly chivalric treatment from his savage captors. The two white men, Tom Hutter and Hurry Harry, are mutually scorned and despised by Deerslayer and the Indians because they adhere to no code of honor. The confrontation between Deerslayer and the Mingos is characterized by lofty ideals and elevated speech; they resemble medieval knights who face each other knowing they owe allegiance to the bond of knighthood. In the scene with the Mingos, Deerslayer again uses his term, “sarcumventions,” to distinguish between the conduct of an honorable white man and an honorable Indian. A Mingo, as Deerslayer explained previously, can use—and should employ—circumventions to achieve his purpose. Deerslayer, however, must reject such tactics. For example, Deerslayer’s rejection of Rivenoak’s offer of an alliance and membership in the tribe (in exchange for betrayal of the ark) wins the white man added respect from the chief. Such a maneuver is a justifiable and honorable part of a Mingo’s code, but a white man cannot resort to such “sarcumventions.” In short, Deerslayer’s code is put to a crucial test because his life hangs in the balance. His code, based on the gospel, does not permit a Christian white man to do what is acceptable among the Indians. Two clues to future action—a regular feature of Cooper’s literary technique—are provided: Deerslayer’s explanation to Hetty of his sentence of torture and death at the stake gives an The Deerslayer 46

expectation of suspense and excitement to coming chapters, and Deerslayer’s telling Hetty that troops from the nearest garrison may soon hear of the Mingo war party and arrive at Glimmerglass in a day’s march indicates the author’s solution to his hero’s predicament. In Chapter 18, Cooper utilizes three devices common among the romantics: escape and pursuit, the meeting and pairing of opposites, and the Gothic atmosphere of terror, night, and mystery. The first and third devices stress physical action and movement while the second is a lull in motion because of the dialogue between the two sisters. The violent return to the main plot problem—Deerslayer’s captivity—brings the hero’s fortunes (and those of the innocent girls) to a more dangerous low point. There is the renewed portrayal of contrasts between Judith and Hetty when the two sisters are reunited in the canoe. This scene is also one of the few occasions when the girls talk alone in The Deerslayer. Romantic irony is very evident in the meeting: Judith, more intelligent and experienced, appeals to Hetty for her advice and judgment; and Hetty’s answers are innocently—and correctly—stated. Cooper is the moralist in depicting Judith’s change and reform. Judith knows that Hetty’s list of Deerslayer’s defects (he is very plain and cannot read) would have eliminated him as her suitor in the past when she was attracted to the officers in the nearby fort. Judith now accepts her position as one of inferiority to Deerslayer’s moral stance, and she even wonders about the possibility of attaining that higher level. Deerslayer, as Cooper remarks, is obtuse in matters of love and is still unaware of Judith’s growing devotion. Judith’s hopes and desire for improvement are ironically, and later tragically, doomed by Deerslayer’s failure to recognize her love. In her honest, ingenuous way Hetty is the voice of morality (and Cooper) to indicate to Judith the stern commands of a simple, pure life which the latter has not followed.

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Chapters 19–20 Summary On the ark Hurry Harry and Tom Hutter have been awakened by the returning Chingachgook and the rescued Hist with the news that Deerslayer is a prisoner of the Mingos. Neither one of the two white men greatly regrets Deerslayer’s misfortune: Hurry Harry is jealous of Judith’s attentions to his rival, and Tom Hutter resents the young man’s honesty and idealism. It is now that we learn the circumstances of the rifle shot and the cry of agony. It was Hurry Harry who impetuously fired the shot in the dark because he had heard the exclamation of the Mingo sentry seeing the ark close to shore; it was his bullet which caused the accidental death of the Indian maiden. Hurry Harry, initially disturbed by Hist’s furious criticisms, is as little disturbed finally by her promised wrath of Manitou, the Indian deity, as he is of possible punishment by the Christian God. Tom Hutter, nevertheless, criticizes his companion in crime for making their situation worse. There is an increasing mood of dislike and distrust between the two Indians and the two white men, but they are necessary allies in a perilous position and must co-operate. Determined to make a strong stand at Muskrat Castle, Tom Hutter guides the ark in that direction as Judith and Hetty approach them in the canoe. A spyglass gives the white men an advantage in concluding that the castle has not been occupied by the Mingos. However, Chingachgook and Hist see a moccasin floating near one of the foundations of Muskrat Castle, and Chingachgook goes alone in a canoe to recover the moccasin before the ark docks at the castle. The white men are still skeptical about any Mingo threat: The identification of the moccasin as Mingo only emboldens Tom and Hurry Harry to land. The white men ignore Chingachgook and Hist’s conclusion that an ambush awaits them, and they even leave their guns on the ark upon entering the castle. At first, no indication of Mingo intruders is evident; but the two white men are suddenly and ferociously attacked by Indians as they penetrate the castle. Hutter is quickly tied up by the Mingos, but Hurry Harry battles desperately to save himself. Rivenoak had disarmed his warriors because he wanted the white men taken alive, and the fight is consequently one of brute strength. Hurry Harry is finally subdued by the Mingos, and they tie him up beyond any apparent hope of escape. Chingachgook and Hist, dismayed by their inability to help the two captives, try to The Deerslayer 48

maneuver the ark to the open lake in order to elude capture and to warn the two sisters who are approaching in a canoe. However, the wind and the current are against the ark so that the ship is slowly drawing closer to the castle. On the platform of Muskrat Castle, Hurry Harry sees a chance for escape. He shouts to Chingachgook and Hist on the ark, and they prepare to save him as he rolls toward the ship. Hurry, however, lands in the water and is dragged along with a rope in his teeth and hands as the ark now escapes from Muskrat Castle. Hurry is dragged aboard the ark as it skims the surface of Glimmerglass. Three Mingos pursue the ark in a bark canoe, but they soon realize the impossibility of overtaking the ship and the unfavorable odds in case of a fight with its defenders. The Indians see a better target for their attack: the canoe with Judith and Hetty. A chase takes place across Glimmerglass. Each side has advantages: the girls are lighter in weight, but the Mingos have two paddles and three paddlers so that a fresh pair of hands is always in motion. The Mingos are also stronger than their feminine opponents, and they gradually reduce the distance between the canoes. Then one of their paddles breaks, forcing them to abandon the chase. Returning to Muskrat Castle, the Mingos leave after a time and the hungry girls go there. Judith sends Hetty into the castle first because she knows that the Mingos will not harm Hetty because of her mental condition. Hetty’s strange report that their father is apparently sleeping leads to Judith’s investigation of the premises and her discovery that Tom Hutter has been stabbed and scalped and is dying. Commentary Cooper is at his best in these two chapters of dynamic and exciting episodes as the Mingos and their enemies come to open warfare on land and on Glimmerglass. There are no long, digressive moments of describing either the beauty of the lake, the surrounding woods, the sunset, or the sunrise. All the previous descriptions have provided abundant details of the physical setting, and the novelist can proceed at a rapid pace in telling his story. Significantly, perhaps, Deerslayer vanishes completely (his name is seldom mentioned) from the action, and his fate seems settled. Deerslayer’s absence likewise appears to be a sign that the fortunes of the besieged group are declining: Judith and Hetty are in danger as they attempt to reach the relative security of the ark; Hurry Harry is exhausted after his harrowing experience at Muskrat Castle; and Tom Hutter is close to death. Only the two The Deerslayer 49

Indian allies, Chingachgook and Hist, have, ironically, eluded any serious encounter with the Mingos. The fault for the disastrous turn of events is correctly placed upon Hurry Harry. He is clearly the villain of the novel because his heartless (though technically innocent) murder of the Mingo girl has accentuated the downward trend of fortune for Deerslayer and the others. Hurry Harry’s bragging and bravado also unfortunately influence the more cautious Tom Hutter. The primary cause of Hurry Harry’s villainy or evil nature is the omission of a “moral sense,” in Cooper’s repeated phraseology. For example, Hurry Harry at the beginning of Chapter 19 callously blames Deerslayer for allowing himself to prowl about the Mingo camp and be captured. Ironically, Hurry Harry did exactly the same thing, and was rescued from captivity by Deerslayer, whom he now renounces. Hurry Harry is impetuous in his disregard of the signs and warnings about a Mingo ambush in Muskrat Castle, and he is thus responsible for Tom Hutter’s scalping and death. Hutter, of course, has been guilty of crimes and has been a willing accomplice of Hurry Harry, but in these chapters Hurry Harry has revealed himself to be the moving force behind the actions leading to disaster and tragedy. Cooper refers to Hurry Harry as “the handsome barbarian,” and the romantic device of the ugly versus the beautiful is observed in the contrast between the plain but honest Deerslayer and the handsome but wicked Hurry Harry. By eliminating Natty Bumppo and placing all the decisions (and mistakes, thereby) in Hurry Harry’s hands, Cooper has inverted his usual procedure of bringing his epic hero to the forefront of the story. The villain dominates and destroys the efforts of the outnumbered defenders. Although the ambush at Muskrat Castle effectively uses the elements of suspense, mystery, and excitement, the escape of Hurry Harry has been rightly criticized for its violation of verisimilitude. Cooper, though he thrills his readers, has not rendered this episode plausible: It is difficult to accept Hurry Harry’s agility to tumble from the castle platform, hold a rope between his teeth and tied hands, and be dragged to safety aboard the ark. On the other hand, the chase of the girls’ canoe by the Mingo canoe is very acceptable, and the fortunate breaking of the Mingo paddle, though very convenient, is at least believable.

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Chapters 21–22 Summary Tom Hutter, close to death, confesses to the two sisters that he is not their real father. This confession pleases Judith who has always resented Tom Hutter’s conduct, but Hetty is saddened by the tragic end of the man who protected her for so many years. Tom Hutter tells Judith and Hetty that they will find proof in the chest of what he says. Hurry Harry, moved by the death of his accomplice in crime, is deeply disturbed by the consequences of their misbehavior. He is also aware of his own close brush with death because of his impetuosity. After Tom Hutter’s death, preparations are made for his burial in the lake close to the grave of the girls’ mother. The simple, impressive ceremony is held at sunset. Later, Hurry Harry asks Judith to marry him, but she refuses because she can never love him. Judith, however, now considers Hurry Harry as a friend rather than an enemy. Angered but determined, he makes plans to land and head for the garrison to bring help to the besieged ark. The only request by Judith is that the rescue party should not be under the command of an officer named Warley whom she evidently loved in the past. Judith takes Hetty to the canoe where they paddle a short distance from the others in order to talk privately. Judith insists that their present circumstances are perilous, that they must open the chest to see what they can discover about the past life of Tom Hutter, and that they must salvage what they can for themselves. Although Judith remains bitter about Tom Hutter and refuses to call or consider him a father, Hetty defends the memory of the man who took care of them and loved them. Hetty, confident of her eventual conversion of the Mingos, prefers to remain at the lake, and wants to enjoy the solitude and beauty of Glimmerglass. Hetty is not as eager as Judith for an attempt to struggle toward a new (and possibly less moral) life in the settlements and towns. Hetty wishes Judith could have married Harry; and Judith comes closest to admitting her love for Deerslayer. Deerslayer suddenly appears in a canoe, and he mysteriously explains that the Mingos have granted him a “furlough” until tomorrow noon. For the present, he is reluctant to give further details of his mission. He returns with the two sisters to the ark.

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Commentary Cooper, the Christian philosopher and the stern moralist, combines these views with his romantic ideals in the death and burial scene of Tom Hutter. Hetty, symbolically, expresses the concept of divine retribution with her judgment: “Father went for scalps himself, and now where is his own?” The atmosphere is of course gloomy, and the gathering sunset is a very fitting backdrop for the events on Glimmerglass. The religious overtones are present in practical applications: the Bible readings, the recognition of death’s inevitability, the solemn funeral rites, and the psychological alterations in all the participants. Hurry Harry, portrayed previously as the villain of the novel, is visibly affected by the course of recent events. He is so changed that Judith, although she denies him her hand, states that, if he had behaved formerly as he does now, matters might have been different for the two of them. Judith and Hetty are once more contrasted very dramatically after Tom Hutter reveals that he is not their father. Judith does not want him buried too close to their mother, but Hetty defends her dead guardian. Hetty is the true Christian, motivated by charity and forgiveness, who disregards past sins because of the common bond of death; Judith’s arrogance and pride must lead to a fall, according to Cooper’s morality. Judith, embittered and unrepentant, represents a dogmatic attitude which insists upon punishment for the sinner. How, then, should Deerslayer forgive Judith for her past sins? She has already pleaded with him to ignore what Hurry told him about her liaisons at the fort. Judith and Hetty, in this time of suffering and crisis, come close to an argument because their ideas show them to be very different personalities. Hetty, secure in her intuitions, is nevertheless impractical about plans for the future. She even criticizes Deerslayer as unworthy of Judith because of his plain features; Hetty, in love with Hurry Harry, wants her sister to marry him. Hetty, very often correct in her views, errs when the arguments become complex and when she cannot apply the lessons from her Bible to the immediate situation. Despite her haughtiness, Judith takes command of the situation, and she stands out in this melodramatic episode as a strong, capable woman. The death and burial of Tom Hutter is one of the emotional high points of The Deerslayer because all the characters have been affected by the tragedy, and the action must consequently take a new direction. The Deerslayer 52

This change in direction is indicated also by the arrival of Deerslayer who, instead of relieving the anxiety of the group on the ark by his return, provides a new mystery: why have the Mingos allowed their captive his liberty for a short time? The Indians and Deerslayer illustrate their loyalty to the code of honor by this action: the former show their trust in Deerslayer’s promise to submit anew to captivity; the latter is resigned to the acceptance of the furlough as a temporary reprieve from a painful death.

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Chapters 23–24 Summary The mood is very glum when Deerslayer rejoins the group on the ark, and he delays explaining his mission until the end of the meal. Deerslayer receives a gift from Judith: Tom Hutter’s gun, Killdeer. He explains the terms which the Mingos offer: Chingachgook can pass safely through the blockade to return to his tribe’s territory; Hist must remain to accept a Mingo as her husband; and the two girls, though retaining their personal possessions, will live with the Mingos. Tom Hutter’s valuables will go to the Mingos. The conditions are rejected by all the besieged refugees, as Deerslayer had hoped and expected. He has, however, performed his duty by delivering the message without attempting to prejudice anyone’s individual decision. Angry and resentful because of his rejection by Judith, Hurry Harry feels no necessity to risk his own life in defense of the girls. He has offered to take Judith with him to safety, but she has refused to accompany him. Deerslayer rows in a canoe with Hurry Harry to the shore in the darkness, and the apparently final conversation between the two rivals shows again the wide divergence in their concept of life and duty. Deerslayer persuades Hurry Harry to go first to a nearby garrison so that the girls may be rescued before any Mingo assault on the ark. Deerslayer, sure that his own doom is sealed, rows back alone to the ark, sad and pensive. Judith has been waiting for Deerslayer to return because she wants to examine all the contents of the chest while the others (Chingachgook, Hist, and Hetty) are asleep. Although Deerslayer is reluctant to open the chest, he finally consents to help Judith. She finds in the chest almost a hundred letters and reads them for more than an hour. Some of Judith’s questions about Tom Hutter’s and her own past are revealed by the letters. Judith’s mother had married Floating Tom after being rejected by her lover—the girls’ father—and her life had been one of continual misfortune and sadness. Tom Hutter’s real name was Thomas Hovey, and a copy of the proclamation for his arrest proves that he was a pirate. The names of Judith’s mother and father remain a mystery. After the investigation of the chest, Deerslayer and Judith converse about their respective futures. Judith, for all practical The Deerslayer 54

purposes, proposes to Deerslayer. His first refusal is based on his code: She could never truly love and respect a man who showed his dishonesty by violating the terms of the furlough. When this argument fails to dissuade Judith, Deerslayer refers to their different stations in life: He is unable to read, and she is educated above the usual level of pioneer women; he dislikes the civilized settlements, and she enjoys the social activities of populated places; he is plain, and she is very beautiful. Parrying his responses, Judith insists that the reasons given by Deerslayer are exactly the qualities that attract her and would attract any reasonable girl. Deerslayer, as Judith concludes, would be a faithful and loving husband, the ideal of any girl. The “imagination” and the “reason,” as Deerslayer characterizes his dilemma, struggle in his mind, and he momentarily weakens, thinking of the happy life he might have with Judith as his wife. But he poses one telling question: If a possible rival, elegantly dressed and very cultured, stood next to him, would not Judith, because of her inclinations, training, and experience, select the newcomer as her mate? Defeated by Deerslayer’s obvious reference to her past attachments with officers of the nearby garrison, Judith abandons the discussion. She has not surrendered, however, and she remains awake thinking of a bold, new plan to win Deerslayer. Commentary The revelation of the Mingos’ demands is made in the theatrical tradition of melodrama: Deerslayer calmly states the terms of surrender, and the person addressed replies quickly and vehemently in the negative. The dialogue is very romantic and idealistic on the part of all the participants. All the traits of the chivalric code—honor, loyalty, duty are repeated in the speeches. Only Hurry Harry, reverting to his villainous role after a brief flirtation with repentance because of Tom Hutter’s death and burial, is realistically drawn as he makes his decision to flee. His reasons are practical and self-centered: what has he to gain by staying with these people who dislike him?—especially Judith. Although the others disapprove of his flight, Hurry Harry’s escape will ironically be the means by which they survive and by which Cooper can solve his plot complications happily. Anyway, Cooper provides his readers with advance notice of Deerslayer’s salvation when he remarks after Judith’s gift of Killdeer to the hero: “Killdeer . . . which subsequently became so celebrated in the hands of the individual who was now making a The Deerslayer 55

survey of its merits.” These ubiquitous clues of Cooper about the coming actions and problems should be very carefully noted. Cooper insists upon the sensitive, ill-defined nature of Hetty’s feelings for Hurry Harry which, because of her limited intelligence, are not love and passion. Hetty had observed, before any one else, Hurry Harry’s attraction to Judith, an ironic and tragic reflection of her own tenderness. Cooper’s use of Hetty’s sensitivities is another romantic idea because the emotions (pity, sorrow, and sympathy) are uppermost in any study of Hetty. Deerslayer, however, returns to the center of the stage and slowly dominates the action through his defense of the code of the American epic hero. He explains three elements of his code to Judith: “nat’ral gifts,” “a white man’s duties,” and “conscience.” He has two opponents in these chapters: Hurry Harry whom he shows to disadvantage easily; and Judith who, because of her superior intelligence, puts Deerslayer to a psychological trial, the emotional and mental equivalent to his promised ordeal at the hands of the Mingos. The confrontation between Deerslayer and Judith is a conflict between love and duty, feelings and reason. Here, for the first time, Deerslayer noticeably weakens; he is tempted and almost falls. The hero shows his anxiety, fears, and tension about his moral obligations shortly after he leaves Hurry Harry at the end of Chapter 23. He reflects upon the contrast between the bright sunlight shining on Glimmerglass when he first viewed the lake so enthusiastically a few days previously, and the present aspect of the lake, darkened by the shadowy night, so acute a reflection of his own melancholy mood. Thus Deerslayer, alone and “sighing heavily,” betrays very human and understandable feelings in addition to the repeated expositions of his code. What finally saves Deerslayer from conquest by Judith is Cooper’s insistence throughout the romance that his hero is a “simple, untaught but highly moral being.” Judith’s brilliance and polished speech (almost triumphant over the lesser abilities of Deerslayer) finally lose out to the simplicity, honesty, and innate goodness of the primitive man, living close to God in nature. In the name of a higher devotion, Deerslayer consequently avoids a commitment to marriage and rejects Judith. It seems clear after this point that Deerslayer will never succumb to Judith and that Cooper has definitively set his hero on the path of epic heroism, physical in terms of his defiance of Indian torture, and moral in his sacrifice of normal human relationships with the opposite sex. The Deerslayer 56

Chapters 25–26 Summary The sorrowful group gathers in the morning for what seems to be a final meeting. Chingachgook and Hist are happy in their love for each other, but they are obviously depressed about their friend’s departure, and his fate. Deerslayer and Judith still try to convince each other (without much hope) of their respective viewpoints. Deerslayer and Chingachgook, however, have formulated some plans. Deerslayer, although he accepts his companion’s offer of help, prefers that Chingachgook flee with Hist to the Delaware territory. After giving everyone some advice for the future, Deerslayer asks Judith’s permission to give Tom Hutter’s gun, Killdeer to Chingachgook in case he (Deerslayer) is unable to use it; she says it is his to do with as he pleases. The two men decide to test the rifle and enjoy a last contest of shooting skills. Deerslayer again shows his quicker eye and superior marksmanship. After the first moments of pleasure at the results of the bird shooting match, Deerslayer regrets the unnecessary taking of life. He muses about the fearsome use of power and the dangerous use of firearms by those who have not learned moderation, respect, and humility. Deerslayer’s fraternal comments to Judith, Hist, and Chingachgook impress them with his wisdom. Hetty, however, is unable to follow closely the lessons he teaches the others about their behavior. Deerslayer allows Hetty to accompany him to the Indian camp despite his doubts about the wisdom of her presence during the coming agony, and in the canoe, lie endeavors to counsel her. He especially warns Hetty about her growing love for Hurry Harry which, in Deerslayer’s view, is an impossible sentiment between two individuals so very different. Hetty does not grasp Deerslayer’s meaning, and he ceases trying to convince her of moral dangers. They approach the place of assignation without incident. Commentary There is very little action in these chapters as Deerslayer continues to control the dialogue and mood by further explanations of his philosophy and code. The tone is completely didactic, and all the participants are submissive to Deerslayer’s moral superiority. For example, the hero elaborates on the differences between “natur’ “ and “gifts”: The former is the basic human personality, composed of individual feelings and ideas, The Deerslayer 57

which is never greatly altered; and the latter refers to the influence of “sarcumstances” upon the person. Deerslayer also strives to define his religious beliefs: Indians and white men, compatible and friendly on earth though separated by such barriers as marriage, may possibly hope for reunion after death in the Christian heaven; people cannot judge the fate of others, such as Tom Hutter, and rewards or punishments are meted out justly by God. Deerslayer, nevertheless, cannot always explain and justify the Christian teachings, especially to Chingachgook. When his Indian friends press him too hard on any issue, Deerslayer resorts to the romantic idea that these problems must be “felt” rather than “reasoned about.” On several occasions, Chingachgook’s telling arguments represent a more liberal and more modern approach—that of Cooper—to the dogmatic ideas of the preachers and missionaries. Chingachgook, though untrained in rhetoric and theology, conducts himself as skillfully as would an educated representative of the Christian civilization so questioned by Cooper. Also, Chingachgook, as noted in other Chapters, has all the dignity of a Roman senator, wrapping himself in his toga (or blanket) upon Deerslayer’s departure. Besides Chingachgook’s questions which often demolish Deerslayer’s answers and liberalize his friend’s didacticism, the conclusions of the hero are not always valid in terms of the plot. For example, Deerslayer’s guilt and tirade about the shooting scene are ironic because this episode will later emerge as an element in his salvation, as Cooper indicates at the beginning of Chapter 26. Cooper also seeks to rationalize his overt clue to the plot’s solution by referring to “the inscrutable Providence” which guides the destinies of all creatures. The argument is likewise a combination of Cooper’s faith in the essence of Christianity and his literary acceptance of the romantic belief in a controlling fate. Cooper’s philosophical outlook is, however, optimistic; he does not rely on the common feature of the romantics that depict Providence as causing the downfall of the hero. Deerslayer’s incorrect, though logical, analysis of the evil he has done in firing Killdeer at the birds is matched by a second ironic situation: the futility of his moralizing and preaching to Hetty. She replies so innocently that her ideas frustrate Deerslayer in his attempts to impose his views. But Hetty is also correct in her analysis on occasion. In short, neither person is absolutely all right or all wrong. The Deerslayer 58

Irony characterizes Deerslayer’s advice to Chingachgook and Hist about the need for a harmonious marriage, as well as his warnings to Judith that her beauty and emotions may lead her astray. Deerslayer, so astute and practical in matters of love when addressed to other people, is awkward in his own encounters with Judith and perhaps is unaware of her deep sentiments on his behalf. Cooper, didactic and moralizing, offers in The Deerslayer a battleground for conflicting ideas and provides two sides to the coin of his literary and philosophical problems.

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Chapters 27–28 Summary The Mingos are both surprised and admiring that Deerslayer has returned at the exact time he promised. But there is also a division on strategy among the Indians. Some of the Mingos had insisted that he would never honor his pledge to come back, and this quarrel had divided the tribe into factions. When Deerslayer appears, the chiefs are so impressed by his courage and honor that they want him to become a member of the Mingo nation. Rivenoak offers Deerslayer the chance to right a past wrong: He can marry Le Sumac, widow of the warrior whom Deerslayer killed on his “first warpath.” The Panther, Le Sumac’s brother, is against any such compromise, and he demands torture and death for Deerslayer. Deerslayer, however, solves the problem: He refuses to marry Le Sumac because such a union would violate his code as a white man and also betray his Christian beliefs. The Panther, infuriated at this additional insult, hurls his tomahawk at Deerslayer; but the latter stretches forth his arm and seizes the weapon. His eye kindles and he hurls the weapon back. The Panther is fatally struck between the eyes. Deerslayer then runs away and gains a fast start because the Mingos are stunned by the sudden actions of their prisoner and by the Panther’s death. If he is to avoid encirclement by typical Mingo tactics, Deerslayer knows that he must follow a straight path to the lake. Hiding under a fallen tree until the pursuing warriors have run past him, Deerslayer then heads directly for the lake and the canoe. Luck turns against him because some Mingos see him. Deerslayer reaches the canoe, but he discovers that the paddles have been removed by the savages. Nevertheless, he jumps into the canoe after giving it a vigorous push. He trusts to the wind and the current to take him out of range because the Mingos, firing at him, compel Deerslayer to remain under cover. Unable to see because of his concealment, Deerslayer thinks that the canoe is moving away from land. Having remained in the canoe about 20 minutes, Deerslayer is alarmed to see leaves above his head. He jumps up and finds himself facing Rivenoak. The canoe, trapped by the mysterious currents of Glimmerglass, has drifted back to shore. Once more a prisoner, Deerslayer is now resigned to his fate. Rivenoak, however, again tries to persuade Deerslayer to join the Mingos as The Deerslayer 60

an honorable member of the tribe. After Deerslayer’s refusal, the Indians tie him to a tree in preparation for the torture prior to death. Hetty, appearing with her Bible, innocently speaks to Deerslayer about the evil of killing the Panther and advocates that he should perhaps marry Le Sumac. But Deerslayer refuses to abide by Hetty’s solution. Le Sumac, persuaded by some of the Mingos to appeal to the captive’s sense of justice, comes and begs Deerslayer to help assume the responsibilities of raising her children. Deerslayer’s rejection of this proposal infuriates Le Sumac, and she angrily wrenches out two or three handfuls of his hair. Having no choice, Rivenoak orders that the torture of Deerslayer should begin immediately. Commentary Cooper’s basic technique in these two chapters is again the escape-pursuit-capture formula. Deerslayer, although he is stoical after returning to captivity, is nevertheless committed psychologically not to death but to life. He has also heroically concealed his wish to live from his companions on the ark in order to lift their spirits and to prevent them from uselessly endeavoring to save him. But “the instinct of life triumphed,” in Cooper’s words, and Deerslayer is eager to avoid torture and death. Indeed, this effort, according to the Indian code, is considered as a sign of manliness, bravery, and the mark of a great warrior, after Deerslayer’s redemption of his pledge to return. Here, then, are two simultaneous examples of the code for the Indians and the white men, and recognition on each side of the other’s views is indicated by the author. Deerslayer and the Mingos, because of this mutual respect, could live in peace. Rivenoak, though frustrated in his desire for Deerslayer’s admission to the tribe, is a symbol of this possibility for the peaceful coexistence of both races on the American continent. Deerslayer’s adventures are equally balanced by fortunate and unfortunate occurrences so that the quality of verisimilitude is basically preserved. It is true that he is extraordinarily skilled and lucky in seizing the Panther’s tomahawk and hurling it back so accurately. But, of course, Deerslayer is an epic hero, capable of outstanding deeds. Balance is, however, maintained about Deerslayer’s fortunes: he escapes but many Indians chase him; he avoids them initially but they eventually catch a glimpse of him; he arrives at the canoe but the paddles are missing; he shoves the canoe from the shore but the boat is forced back to land. All these The Deerslayer 61

balancing features add to the suspense, and they contribute importantly to the dynamic quality of these chapters. Deerslayer has killed a second Indian; and the action, while in self-defense as in the previous episode, has caused no pensive, introspective reactions on the hero’s part this time. Cooper could have mentioned Deerslayer’s thoughts about the Panther’s death by means of a soliloquy (a favorite method of the author in revealing the hero’s moods) during the period he was hiding from the Mingos. Deerslayer has now passed his trial by fire; he has killed in battle and he has accepted violence (and death) as facts of frontier life. For example, he defends without hesitation his attack on the Panther when Hetty objects on the grounds that the Bible says, “Thou shalt not kill.” Deerslayer, secure in his Christian faith, can nevertheless argue forcefully that a literal interpretation of this commandment would lead to “an onsartain life.” This uncertain life would be the consequence of going against nature: the desire to live and to defend oneself as Deerslayer demonstrated in his recent escape attempt. The mixture of idealism, nobility, and honor with a strong sense of realism and practicality is likewise noted in Deerslayer’s opinions about the relations between the Indian and white races. If, as Deerslayer and Rivenoak especially symbolize, a modus vivendi might be established between the opposing factions by reason of each one’s acceptance of different codes, the differences, irreconcilable and beyond compromise, must be accepted by both parties. There exists a natural barrier which prevents certain crossings of lines. For example, Deerslayer states his proposition to Hetty and Rivenoak as explanatory of his refusal to marry Le Sumac. Abandonment of one tradition for acceptance of another is impossible. Cooper chooses the specific issue of intermarriage to illustrate this thesis. It should be remembered that Cooper’s ideas were tolerant and liberal for an age when the white men were poised for the conquest of the West and the almost total annihilation of the Indians. Cooper seeks fundamentally a compromise between hatred of the races leading to conflict and extermination, and the illusory quest for perfect harmony. He is, then, a realist and yet an idealist in his anguish about the development of the American frontier.

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Chapters 29–30 Summary Tied securely to a tree, Deerslayer is put to the tests of the tomahawk and the rifle. The Mingos aim at him with these respective weapons only to frighten Deerslayer or to graze him slightly. Their real purpose is a test of their own individual skills as warriors, and they also hope to break the prisoner’s will by making him flinch. However, Deerslayer’s courage and taunting remarks unnerve the Indians. Hetty interrupts the trial with two pleas: Deerslayer is really the Indians’ friend because he refused to accompany Tom Hutter and Hurry Harry on their scalping expeditions and should be therefore released from captivity; or he should be given the chance to engage in a shooting match with the Mingos in a fair contest of skills. Rivenoak gently replies to Hetty that two of his braves are dead because of Deerslayer’s “friendship” for the Mingos and that Deerslayer can show how clever he is with bullets by his stance at the stake. In order to hasten the tortures, Rivenoak orders Deerslayer’s bonds cut free so that he can betray any movements from fear as weapons are thrown or fired at him. The squaws are allowed to taunt Deerslayer for the purpose of antagonizing him and thus making him nervous. This plan is likewise a failure in reducing Deerslayer to a cowardly state. A lookout alerts the tribe to an unexpected arrival before any further torments can be practiced. Judith, dressed elegantly in the beautiful clothes and ornaments from Tom Hutter’s chest, enters the Indian camp. She pretends to be a very important woman who has troops at her command, and the Mingos are impressed at first by her masquerade. She offers to ransom Deerslayer for the trinkets which previously won the freedom of Tom Hutter and Hurry Harry. Although the Indians are tempted to accept her offer, Rivenoak is not so easily deceived. He calls for Hetty who, in her innocence and simple-mindedness, tells the chief the truth: Judith is her sister and the daughter of Tom Hutter. Deerslayer thanks Judith for her courageous effort but he concludes that “sarcumventions” do not dupe such astute savages. In fact, Judith is now in mortal danger of being scalped or abducted to live with the Mingos. Rivenoak, impatient to leave the vicinity of Glimmerglass, again orders the torture of Deerslayer to be hastened. A fire is prepared to make Deerslayer show The Deerslayer 63

cowardice. Hetty’s pleas are to no avail. Hist suddenly appears and accuses one man, Briarthorn, of being a coward and a traitor for having kidnapped her and for leaving the Delawares and joining the Mingos. Hist tries to free Deerslayer by slipping a knife to Hetty, but the latter openly shows the blade as she starts to cut the thongs that bind the prisoner. Chingachgook leaps into the midst of the Mingo camp, and his impressive appearance as a chief startles the Mingos. He dashes to Deerslayer and cuts him free. Briarthorn lunges at the newcomer with a knife, but Hist deflects the blow, and Chingachgook mortally stabs the treacherous Delaware. Confusion reigns among the Mingos because of these various unexpected events, and the sudden tramping of boots is heard. The soldiers from the garrison, led to the lake by Hurry Harry, take the Mingos by surprise and slaughter the Indians in the ensuing battle. Commentary Suspense and melodrama characterize these Chapters in which Deerslayer, after the delay of a furlough and an escape attempt, is confronted with torture and death. Cooper has taken advantage of every character, in addition to the two episodes, to create a more suspenseful and thrilling mood. There is also the reliance upon the psychology of the opponents: how will Deerslayer react as the Mingos devise ways, not to kill him immediately, but to wear down his resistance and to show himself unworthy of their present high respect? Although Cooper has alerted his readers by prior clues that Deerslayer will escape from this ordeal, the question becomes increasingly interesting: how will the author rescue his hero? Cooper, in “the denouement of our story,” as he writes at the end of Chapter 29, uses melodramatic devices, typical of the romantic theater. The exiles on the ark (Judith, Hist, and Chingachgook) make sudden, impressive appearances: Each makes a valiant endeavor to save Deerslayer, is frustrated by the Mingos, and is then superseded by another companion. Ironically, Hurry Harry provides the help by which all the main characters are finally saved. The arrival of the soldiers, though timed at the right psychological moment, is not fortuitous: Hints have been supplied in the familiar Cooper manner at various points in the story about their presence near Glimmerglass, and Hurry Harry was implored to go to the nearby garrison if he eluded the Mingos. In fact, if the soldiers had not arrived on the scene, all the principal actors in the drama—not just Deerslayer—would have The Deerslayer 64

been victims of the Indians. Hetty is the most ineffective of the group in this crisis, and she unwittingly betrays her sister. Hetty’s reliance upon her Bible has proved useless in calming the Indians’ desire for vengeance, Only their continued belief in the divine protection granted those weak in mind saves Hetty. The only victory achieved by Deerslayer’s comrades occurs in the denunciation and death of Briarthorn, the renegade who started the action by bringing Hist against her will to the Mingos. The defeat of the Indians, though required for the happy solution of the plot, is not looked upon by Cooper as an event to be praised. The Mingos, despite their use of torture and circumventions, have demonstrated that they are also the representatives of a code of honor and loyalty. They lived, fought, and died true to their “gifts,” even if many of these traits were repugnant to the white men and to Christianity. However, many of the Indian ideals were equal to the noblest aspects of knightly aspirations. Cooper, therefore, sees in the massacre of the Indians the tragedy, repeated on a large scale, of the conquest and colonization of the New World. He does not exult in the rescue of his protagonists without regretting that he has had to make use of a technical device which is perhaps the most unfavorable side to the history of America concerning the relations between the two races. In this episode, Cooper shows himself more than a storyteller; he reveals himself to have a profound sense of history as he ponders about the impact and consequences of national events. Deerslayer and Rivenoak are contrasted very sharply in the confrontation as each man—”an oncommon man”—strives to achieve moral superiority over the other. Deerslayer (and Cooper) show great respect for Rivenoak, and the Mingo chief emerges with dignity and honor. Rivenoak represents the most honorable symbol of the Indians just as Deerslayer symbolizes the highest or epical qualities of his race.

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Chapters 31–32 Summary On the following day, Glimmerglass and its shore show no visible traces of the past battle because Captain Warley, in charge of the soldiers, has ordered all the bodies to be buried. Rivenoak has been taken a prisoner, but he behaves in defeat like a true warrior and proud chief. Hetty has been accidentally wounded during the battle, and the surgeon accompanying the troops announces that she is dying. Judith is humble as she begins to realize her sister’s good influence and counsel. Hetty, surrounded by her friends, talks finally to Hurry Harry and wishes that he would imitate Deerslayer. She dies peacefully after impressing everyone, including Deerslayer, with her kindness and sincerity. Meanwhile, Captain Warley explains the circumstances which brought him to Glimmerglass. A friendly runner first brought the report of a Mingo war party to the garrison; and the troops, meeting Hurry Harry on the trail, were directed by him to the lake. The soldiers heard the shots fired by Deerslayer and Chingachgook, which helped the rescue expedition arrive in time. At sunset, Hetty is buried near the place in Glimmerglass where her mother and Tom Hutter were laid to rest. Judith makes one last effort to win Deerslayer’s love, but he confesses that he does not want to settle down, which marriage would demand. She even tempts him with descriptions of a serene, isolated life at Glimmerglass where they would not be in contact with the settlements he abhors. Finally, Judith asks Deerslayer if the gossip he heard from Hurry Harry had initially prejudiced him against her. Deerslayer’s face betrays him; Judith’s fears are confirmed. Judith accompanies Captain Warley and the soldiers as they head back to the settlement; Deerslayer, Chingachgook, and Hist set out in the direction of the Delaware territory. Fifteen years pass before Deerslayer and Chingachgook see Glimmerglass again. Hist has died, but her son, Uncas, joins his father and Deerslayer on the trail to the garrison on the Mohawk. Deerslayer, better known as Hawkeye because of the fame he has won in the intervening years, is overcome by the memories of those few, exciting days on the lake. He and Chingachgook are also overwhelmed with melancholy by the changes of time. The castle and the ark are in a state of decay. Other mementoes of the The Deerslayer 66

first warpath, such as the canoes and the Mingo battleground, likewise bear the signs of neglect. The graves in the lake have been disturbed by storms, currents, and other natural phenomena so that all traces of the burial sites have disappeared. Glimmerglass, nevertheless, is the same mirror of beauty; and the area, happily for Hawkeye and Chingachgook, shows no evidence of any settlers or visitors during their absence of 15 years. When Hawkeye reaches the garrison, he learns that Captain Warley now lives in England and that a beautiful lady, not his wife, resides on his estate. Hawkeye’s rejection of Judith’s love has evidently led her back to the path of sin and perdition, as Hetty had feared. Commentary Hetty’s death occupies almost an entire chapter, and the long, sentimental scene resembles the description of Tom Hutter’s dying hours with the emphasis upon the emotions. The romantics favored these melodramatic effects, and the death of an important character was often the motive for an obvious appeal to the feelings. Tears, for example, flow copiously. The contrast between the deathbed moments of Hetty and Tom Hutter is very noticeable: The former represents the triumph and coming reward of virtue and innocence, and the latter symbolizes the agony and punishment for a life badly spent in the service of crime. Thus, Hetty dies happily and Tom Hotter dies sorrowfully. Judith’s reactions to the deaths of these two persons, so close to her, are an index to Cooper’s morality. Judith loses none of her antipathy for Tom Hutter after his demise, but she suffers spiritually because of Hetty’s death. Cooper’s use of two members of the same family (despite Tom Hutter’s confession that he is not the girls’ father) is also indicative of his intention to compare and contrast the deaths. Hetty, as Cooper states openly, is really a representational character who forms a link between the highest spiritual aspirations of man and the common lot of errant mankind. She is, for the author, one of the links binding the material and immaterial world. in short, Hetty becomes the symbol of innocence, purity, and literal belief in and acceptance of the Bible; she is an example and a guide to the other characters. Cooper, however, is a realist who seeks a practical and possible mode of conduct in a rapidly evolving world. Hetty’s complete innocence cannot cope with the great and small crises of life, and it is therefore significant that she does not survive those few crucial days at the lake. The Deerslayer 67

Although Hetty is the conscience and the vision of a better moral life, the enduring quality of nature is man’s hope. Glimmerglass bears no scars and no memories of the bloodshed 15 years before. The thrilling comings and goings of the actors on this stage for a few days have not disturbed in any significant way this impressive symbol of the American continent. Everything touched by man has crumbled because of time, and human relationships are fragile. The mood is one of melancholy and nostalgia for the past and puzzlement about the meaning of time and circumstances. This mood, pervading the last chapter, applies to Deerslayer, whose new sobriquet of Hawkeye (“for so we ought now to call him”), is perhaps another symbol of the vicissitudes of time. Although Cooper states that Judith had never won Hawkeye’s heart, the girl remains a nostalgic memory for the hero. For example, he finds, after 15 years, a ribbon from Judith’s elegant clothes, and Hawkeye ties the ribbon to Killdeer, the gift of Judith. Hawkeye again imitates the actions of a medieval knight who attaches some token of a lady to his lance or armor. The action is also symbolic of the nostalgic spirit of Hawkeye upon recalling his “first warpath” at Glimmerglass. Hawkeye’s reasons for not marrying Judith are twofold: He is basically repelled by the thought of marriage and the loss of his freedom, and he has been influenced morally and psychologically by tales of Judith’s affairs with other men. Cooper is probably expressing in the reactions of Hawkeye two ideas: his own stern morality, based fundamentally in the Puritan tradition; and the necessity to adhere to the code of the epic hero, serving only a beautiful and chaste maiden. Cooper’s world, however, is not characterized solely by virtue and purity: He states in the last sentence of The Deerslayer that “we live in a world of transgressions and selfishness. . . .” Man, steeped in sin by his natural inclinations, creates a bleak environment, relieved only by the appearances of a Hetty.

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CHARACTER ANALYSES Deerslayer Although the entire action takes place in a very short period of time, the few days spent by Natty Bumppo bring important changes in his life and personality. He passes from adolescence to manhood despite the fact that he is already about 23 years old. He is still a boy rather than a man because the real crisis of maturity on the frontier has not been encountered: the necessity to resort to violence or to kill another man in combat. This test is indicated by Cooper as a major theme of his romance as well as one of his primary concerns about his hero in the book’s subtitle; The Deerslayer, or The First Warpath. Also, Cooper in the “Preface” writes immediately and frankly that “the hero is represented as just arriving at manhood. . . .” The first few chapters deal with Deerslayer’s impressions of Glimmerglass—the largest body of water he has as yet seen—and his introduction to the other leading characters of the story. The problem, however, is mentioned in the first chapter when Hurry Harry taunts Deerslayer about the latter’s lack of any experience in battle. There are other indications, before Deerslayer’s encounter and fatal shooting of the Indian in Chapter 7, that the hero has doubts about his reactions under fire. Of course, Deerslayer is confident that he will prove himself valiant and honorable when the confrontation with another human being requires that he shoot with the intention to kill. There are various clues that Deerslayer, prior to this test of firearms, will emerge as an epic hero: his cool command of the situation aboard the ark as the boat is maneuvered to the center of the lake; his poise with Tom Hutter; the respect felt for him by Judith and Hetty; his skill in parrying Hurry Harry’s jealousy; and his honorable rejection of the scheme to scalp Indian women and children. Cooper devotes several pages to the important trial of the “first warpath,” and he analyzes carefully the reactions of Deerslayer during and after the fatal confrontation with the Mingo. The symbol of Deerslayer’s emergence into manhood or a new stage of his career is the dying Indian’s complimentary naming of his victor, Hawkeye. After the Indian dies, Deerslayer is visibly affected by what he has done. He knows that he fired in justification; he realizes also that be has been initiated into the problem of the frontier and that he will have to kill again. The Deerslayer 69

His success in conducting himself nobly and honorably helps Deerslayer to face the other two problems in the book: the ordeal at the stake and the love of Judith Hutter. The first problem is of course concerned with Deerslayer’s physical survival, and the several long efforts of Cooper to lend suspense and excitement (for example, the furlough, the escape, recapture, and torture by tomahawk) make The Deerslayer a thrilling adventure story. The effect of Deerslayer’s honorable treatment of his dying foe, Le Loup Cervier, is two-fold in this trial: Deerslayer is accorded recognition and even the offer of acceptance into the tribe by the Mingos; and he gains an inner strength to help him sustain the promised agonies at the stake. He shows heroism increasingly as all the participants (including his friends on the ark) admire his stance and listen to his comments about his apparently hopeless situation. The other trial for Deerslayer is psychological because he must cope with the beautiful Judith Hutter who represents another form of temptation: love, sex, and marriage. If, as contemporary critics seemingly agree, Cooper’s hero has one outstanding flaw, the defect is observed in the inability to deal successfully with women. Judith, beautiful and intelligent, has great strength of character although, of course, she is proud and haughty at times. Deerslayer, despite his adherence to Christian teachings and frequent references to charity, has been prejudiced against Judith by the gossip of Hurry Harry, whose motivations should have been suspect because of his wish to marry Judith. Deerslayer’s greatest test extends throughout the book, from the third to the last chapter. Cooper seeks to balance the struggle between the heroic and the placid lives, represented respectively by Deerslayer and Judith, by depicting Deerslayer in doubt about his decision, especially in the conversation with Judith the evening before his return from “furlough.” Criticism has been leveled against Deerslayer’s attitude toward Judith, but Cooper had no other choice in his portrayal of this American epic hero. Deerslayer could not have yielded to Judith’s entreaties; otherwise, he would have vanished into the great mass of average pioneers and woodsmen, clearing land, building homes, and raising families. The book also would have had the familiar “happy ending” of boy meets girl, and so on. The conflict and contrast between Deerslayer and Judith is effectively presented: He must rely on his innate feelings of duty and his intuitions about honor; she shows keen mental prowess and The Deerslayer 70

shrewdness in their conversations. Cooper’s technique in rejecting marriage with Judith for his hero is likewise a romantic pattern because the last chapter, when Deerslayer revisits Glimmerglass, is characterized by melancholy and nostalgia about the past, so evident a trait of romanticism. Thus, Deerslayer, passing swiftly through three trials in a few days, is a very changed person in the last chapter. He is sure of himself, and confident of his coming tests, but his personality has been tempered by experiences and issues he has not met previously in his rather protected and isolated existence among the Delawares and missionaries. Deerslayer has encountered violence and death, love of a woman about whom he must make a major decision, the application of his Christian teachings and beliefs to practical situations, the sad realization that his life of fame and glory is also a lonely road, and the necessity to explain his code to enemies (and friends) who do not always understand and appreciate his way of life. Cooper’s vision, then, is tinged realistically and yet with the romantic example about Natty Bumppo, the American epic hero.

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Chingachgook Chingachgook, although he does not appear until Chapter 9, plays an important part in The Deerslayer for two reasons: He represents the Indian counterpart of Natty Bumppo because the basic ideals and codes of the two friends are essentially the same; and he symbolizes the highest qualities of the Indian race, proving thereby the innate worth of the natives of the North American continent. Unlike Rivenoak, however, who is also a “noble savage,” Chingachgook accepts friendship with the white men and attempts to live in peace with them. Nevertheless, Chingachgook disagrees often with the beliefs of his white allies, especially Tom Hutter and Hurry Harry. Deerslayer’s friend is no subservient ally of the new masters and exploiters of the lands his people have ruled for centuries. Nor is Chingachgook persuaded of the merit and efficacy of the Christian teachings advocated by Deerslayer. He has, as Deerslayer recognizes, his own “gifts,” and Chingachgook must live accordingly by the characteristics of this code, For example, Chingachgook con join the scalping expedition of Tom Hutter and Hurry Harry without receiving the rebuke administered to the white men by Deerslayer. Deerslayer and Chingachgook, then, are very close friends because they adhere to the same code interpreted according to the respective “gifts” of the white and Indian races. Honor and loyalty, for instance, are respected by both men. Chingachgook, speaking little, is always reliable in any crisis; he astutely unravels the secret hiding place for the key to Tom Hutter’s chest. He is proud of his Indian heritage and disdains the use of disguise forced upon him by Deerslayer to deceive the Mingos about his presence on the ark. Chingachgook is likewise a true friend and expresses his opposing opinions frankly, directly, and honestly, even to Deerslayer when the latter defends the Christian concept of heaven. There is one very obvious difference between the two companions: their attitude toward women and the prospect of a settled life. Chingachgook is in love with Hist and looks forward to a return to the Delaware territory with his beloved. Indeed, the reason for the action occurring around Glimmerglass is Hist’s abduction by the renegade Briarthorn with Deerslayer and Chingachgook agreeing to meet at the lake for the rescue of the Indian maiden. Cooper compares Chingachgook on several occasions to a Roman senator, symbol of the transfer to American The Deerslayer 72

soil of the classical ideal. Although Deerslayer lectures Chingachgook on the duties of a kind and thoughtful husband, the Mohican chief always shows himself concerned and solicitous about Hist’s happiness and welfare. Although Chingachgook is a chief and a noble representative of the Indian race, he is of course subordinated to Deerslayer’s superiority as a great warrior. The shooting match, for example, demonstrates Deerslayer’s more skillful marksmanship. Cooper, in his creation of the epic hero, gives first place to Deerslayer; but he establishes Chingachgook in a very close and honorable second position.

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Tom Hutter He is the most mysterious character in the book, and his death is a sobering and instructive experience for all the other actors in the drama on Glimmerglass. Tom Hutter, in addition to his nickname of Floating Tom, is identified late in the text as Thomas Hovey, a former pirate. The gradual revelation of his past also explains his cruel conduct toward the Indians and his lack of any moral principles. Tom Hutter, however, pays the ultimate price for his crimes and attempted atrocity of seeking scalps from Indian women and children by being scalped himself by the Mingos. His punishment, harsh and painful, may be justified by his own actions; nevertheless, there is a more favorable side to the generally disagreeable portrait by Cooper. Tom Hutter has taken good care of Judith and Hetty by treating them as his own daughters. Although Judith has unhappy memories of Floating Tom and expresses little regret at his death, Hetty appreciates the kindness of the man she knew as her father. Tom Hutter’s behavior toward the girls’ mother seems to have been ambiguous: he does not offer the picture of a loving and protective husband, but neither does he show proof of having mistreated his wife. The marriage was one of mutual protection for both parties, enabling them to flee to isolated country where they could try to forget their sad experiences and mistakes. Tom Hutter’s ally is Hurry Harry with whom he feels the closest bond of sympathy because they are interested only in acquiring wealth, no matter what the cost. It is difficult to determine the greater culprit: Hurry Harry is impetuous and foolhardy but Tom Hutter is always eager to attack the Mingos. Tom Hutter represents the worst elements among the white men who, despite the risks, wreak harm and damage wherever they go. At the same time, Tom Hotter can be a builder and has established his control over Glimmerglass through the construction of the ark and the castle.

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Hurry Harry Henry March is the antithesis of Deerslayer from the first chapter to the last farewell after the battle. Hurry Harry is the character who would best fulfill the classification of a villain for the book. He has, in fact, few redeeming traits although he leads the soldiers to the site of the Mingo camp. However, it is not entirely certain if Hurry Harry, angry at Judith and jealous of Deerslayer, would have gone directly to the garrison. The soldiers, hearing of the Mingo war party, met Hurry Harry on the trail, where he could not refuse to serve as a guide to Glimmerglass. Hurry Harry is subdued only twice (and temporarily) in The Deerslayer: His partner in crime, Tom Hutter, shows him in his dying moments the futility of a wicked life; and Hetty, dying serenely and confidently, admonishes him to “try and be more like Deerslayer.” In certain ways, Deerslayer and Hurry Harry are alike: They are about the same age, are skillful woodsmen, and possess great physical strength. However, Cooper stresses that Hurry Harry is much more handsome than Deerslayer; in fact, Natty Bumppo is very plain (an aspect noted by Hetty in particular). Hurry Harry’s physical advantages are, however, a false reflection of the man because in reality he has no virtues to match the outward appearances. Deerslayer, contrasted thereby, shows that his lack of Hurry Harry’s dashing personality and charming features is no guide to his true character. In short, Hurry Harry shows the dangers of trusting to appearances rather than looking to the reality of a person. Although Hurry Harry escapes punishment for his evil attempt to scalp the sleeping Indians, he is frustrated in his wish to marry Judith. He leaves the ark and its besieged inhabitants because of his anger at the rebuff and also departs in the last chapter indignant at Judith’s repeated rejection. Significantly, Hurry Harry is alone at the novel’s conclusion. He no longer has even Deerslayer for a companion as he did in the first chapter. There is also a lesson about Hurry Harry’s impact on the environment and its dwellers. Whereas Tom Hutter, accustomed to pillage from his pirate days, exploited the countryside, Hurry Harry (the nickname is clearly symbolic) is thoughtless in his actions. For example, Hurry Harry resorts to violence without thinking of the consequences: his possible betrayal of the arrival at the lake by shooting a deer; the shot fired in the dark which The Deerslayer 75

accidentally kills the Indian girl; the scalping forays; the attempt to shoot the Mingos who have just released him and Tom Hutter; and the angry lunge at Deerslayer in the first chapter. Hurry Harry, because he appears so frequently in the book and survives, is perhaps the more dangerous and more evil figure than Tom Hutter who, after all, is killed for his villainy.

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Judith Hutter Judith is perhaps the most tragic character in the story because of her return to a life of sin, as Cooper emphasizes at the end. In fact, the author calls attention to Judith’s weaknesses: her love of luxury, her interest in fine clothes, and her attraction to the officers at the garrison. She is contrasted obviously and repeatedly with her sister, Hetty, who is Judith’s superior in moral qualities. Nevertheless, Judith is depicted so realistically that she is one of Cooper’s greatest successes in characterization throughout all his works. Judith’s faults are certainly the cause for Deerslayer’s rejection of her love and for his warnings to her about the need for reform. Judith is intelligent, proud, and independent; and these traits make her both appealing and unattractive. Her most unpleasant behavior occurs after Tom Hutter’s death when Judith, pleased to learn that he is not her father, condemns him orally and tries to prevent his burial near her mother’s grave. Deerslayer’s and Hetty’s objections to Judith’s conduct express very effectively Cooper’s attitude toward the uncharitable actions of Judith. The situation is ironic for Judith because she pleads for charity from Deerslayer in the form of forgiveness for her affairs. Judith, nevertheless, proves her courage on several occasions: the escape of the ark from the attacking Indians in the beginning Chapters; the determination to escape in the canoe when the Mingos are in pursuit after the ambush at the castle; and the bold appearance among the Indians in an effort to save Deerslayer at the stake. Judith is almost always poised and in command of the situation, no matter how serious the crisis appears. Her independence serves Judith in good stead when Hurry Harry keeps trying to convince her to marry him, and Judith can reject her persistent suitor even at the end when she remains alone. Judith’s redeeming features are also seen in her kind treatment of Hetty. Judith is always prepared to help Hetty and to sacrifice her own interests for her sister’s welfare. Although they must obviously disagree because of their different philosophies, Judith is never disdainful of Hetty’s lesser mental qualities. Illustrating Cooper’s use of irony and his moral code by her rather pathetic courtship of Deerslayer, Judith is nevertheless portrayed as a woman in love who humbles herself to win the only man she has truly loved. She uses her superior intelligence (admitted by Deerslayer) to endeavor to win him by logic and argument; she The Deerslayer 77

appeals to his emotions by showing a future happy life together; and she makes use of all her charms to break down his resistance. It seems possible that Cooper, without the aim of creating an epic hero, could have made Judith into a happy heroine who wins the man she loves. Judith, however, would not have secured the higher place as a tragic figure that she now occupies in the novel. Likewise, Judith is closer to the romantic concept of the heroine who is doomed to suffer defeat in her efforts to achieve love and happiness. The romantic heroine, in fact, is often condemned to suicide or death in early 19th-century works, and Cooper, adhering to the tradition of romanticism, has provided typical literary portraits in Judith and Hetty Hutter.

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Hetty Hutter Hetty’s death is a melodramatic moment at the book’s end, lending more poignancy and tragedy to Judith’s sister who has already suffered a great deal in life. Hetty, who is in love shyly and really unknowingly with Hurry Harry, realizes that she does not possess normal, human intellectual powers. However, Hetty is not an idiot, nor is she mentally retarded to the point of being useless. Hetty is limited in her ability to follow detailed and complicated arguments, but she can and does prove to be diligent and efficient in many tasks. She is very sharply depicted as the antithesis of her sister, Judith, and the contrasts between the two girls are evident, from Deerslayer’s meeting with them early in the book to the death scene of Hetty after the battle. Cooper illustrates his moral, religious, and philosophical ideas very clearly in the picture he draws of Hetty. She relies completely on the Bible for her conduct and ideas. Hetty’s inability to engage in any complex discussion makes her a very literal believer in Biblical teachings. She reads and interprets the Gospel without question, and she asks of the white men and the Indians that they equally accept her own strong, unwavering faith. Cooper, through the character of Hetty, poses some of his most serious questions about the American experience: Can the teachings of Christianity be applied to the relations between the pioneers and the Indians? How is the exploitation of the natives justified in view of Christian morality? Hetty, representing simplicity, honesty, and innocence, is always the voice of morality who speaks out against violence and bloodshed. She criticizes not only the Indians but also her white companions on the ark for their reliance upon power rather than the words of the Bible. Deerslayer is not exempted from Hetty’s accusations, and he tries on several occasions to explain to her the need for practicality in the perilous frontier encounters. Hetty, depending upon the truth of the Gospel, is saved from death by the respect of the Indians for her mental limitations rather than any influence of Christianity upon them. Hetty’s accidental death shows that her innocence and credulity fail in a world devoted to action and violent confrontations, although she stands out as a symbol of goodness and exemplary conduct for all who have known her.

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Hist Hist appears rather late in the novel, and she never dominates the action and thought of Cooper’s work as the other characters do. Nevertheless, Hist is often important as the spokesperson of the Indian viewpoint; her questions to Hetty during their appearance together among the Mingos are cogently stated. Hist also confronts Tom Hutter and Hurry Harry in bold and frank opposition to their cruel and thoughtless behavior. She accepts friendship and an alliance with white men, but Hist is never prepared to accept their ideas at the expense of her own people, the exploited Indians, as she emphasizes. Hist also symbolizes true love in her devotion to Chingachgook, and the Indian girl shows thereby that the natives are as capable of the same emotions and feelings as their white counterparts. She represents the finest qualities of Indian womanhood, and Deerslayer, recognizing her gentle nature and tenderness, advises Chingachgook to behave toward her as an equal and not as a dominating husband. In the last chapter, Hist happily leaves with Chingachgook, and together with her Indian lover, she appears to be the character destined for the brightest future. However, Cooper’s description of the return to the lake by Deerslayer tells that Hist has died in the meantime.

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Captain Warley This officer appears like a deus ex machina, suddenly and swiftly rescuing all the main characters from catastrophe. Captain Warley has nevertheless played a certain shadowy role throughout the book. He is the nemesis of Judith Hotter because Deerslayer has been prejudiced against her early in the story as a result of her involvement with Captain Warley. During Judith’s several pleas, including her last appeal to Deerslayer, this British officer—often mentioned obliquely—has prevented a happy ending to the girl’s dreams. It is ironic that Captain Warley commands the group of soldiers that arrives to save Judith. Captain Warley also represents the force of civilization, gradually taking over the country and eliminating the Indians from the scene. He is a typical representative (somewhat like Hurry Harry) of a type who has no regard for the beauty of the landscape and for the traditions of the natives.

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Rivenoak The Indian chief is the noblest of the Mingos and, in his confrontations with Deerslayer, is compared favorably with the hero. Rivenoak is a born leader who dominates the other chiefs and braves of the tribe through his intelligence, cunning, and superior strategy. Thus he sees the advantages in persuading Deerslayer to join forces with the Mingos, and he tries to avoid the revenge demanded by his warriors so that he can create a more powerful nation. Although Rivenoak resorts to all the circumventions natural to his gifts, Deerslayer admires the Mingo leader all the more for being so loyal to the qualities of the Indians. Indeed, Rivenoak is the foil to Deerslayer, but the chief is also an Indian representative who is similar to Chingachgook in the depiction of brave, intelligent, and shrewd natives of the American continent.

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Le Loup Cervier, Le Sumac, Briarthorn, Catamount, and The Panther These five Indians—all enemies of Deerslayer—resemble each other in their treacherous, cruel behavior and their lack of loyalty to the code of the Indians. Nevertheless, these Indians are part and parcel of Cooper’s world of the American frontier; and, in fact, the depiction of these bloodthirsty and villainous inhabitants of the New World helps to explain in part the author’s reception abroad. The Europeans saw in portraits, such as these five Mingos, a new and very different side to the American experience. The code of these five Indians, unlike that of Rivenoak, has no favorable side; or, at least, these Mingos have no interest in chivalric manners.

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CRITICAL COMMENTARY The World of

The Deerslayer

The Deerslayer, first of the “Leatherstocking Tales” chronologically but last in the order of publication, is succinctly analyzed by one critic, James Grossman, as “the simplest in plot and most equivocal in meaning.” In The Deerslayer, Cooper showed himself at the height of his creative powers during this period of 1840–1841 when he could continue to combine a moving story and an impressive character with a deepened social and moral awareness after a prolonged European sojourn.

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Plot and Setting The structural unity in The Deerslayer, already mentioned briefly in the critical introduction, gives to the romance the verisimilitude that is sometimes lacking in works of his earlier period. It is easy to accept the premise that these few adventurous days on the lake could have happened. The characters are few and resemble possible frontier types. The problem of a small group being surrounded by hostile Indians was a common occurrence at this time; the various episodes are reflections of other events occurring throughout the territories, such as scalping, ambushes, pursuit, escape, capture, and trial at the stake; and the descriptions of the natural surroundings refer so specifically to the one locale of Otsego Lake that the other traits of the romance are rendered even more credible. The plot is of course compounded of thrilling and narrow brushes with death because The Deerslayer is a romance, a tale of high adventure and excitement. Cooper, in the “Preface” to The Deerslayer, admits readily that imagination and invention characterize the plot but that the descriptions of scenery are accurate. His intention, as he finally concludes, is “to secure the semblance of reality.” Cooper, writing intimately of Otsego Lake about which he knew all the details from early childhood, refers early and often to Glimmerglass in The Deerslayer. There are no more beautiful, impressive passages about the lake than Natty Bumppo’s thoughts in the early Chapters. But the close relationship between Cooper’s hero and the lake is a constant factor of enjoyment, thought, and verisimilitude in the romance. Cooper, in short, has not only immortalized Glimmerglass but he has likewise given the air of truthful association to his aim of creating an authentic American folk hero. Indeed, the union of plot and setting, for the purpose of artistic strength, came closest to perfection in this last of the “Leatherstocking Tales.”

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The Epic Hero and the Code Natty Bumppo, presented at the start of his illustrious career in The Deerslayer, has been described already in the critical introduction as Cooper’s adaptation of the European tradition of the epic hero. Although many of Natty Bumppo’s habits resemble those of the medieval knights, so popular in the early nineteenth century from the stories of Sir Walter Scott, the code of the American epic hero is peculiar to the time and circumstances. Deerslayer, for example, is not introduced as an intellectual, erudite, or even educated character. Surprisingly, in terms of a character to be imitated and followed, Natty Bumppo has certain defects: he is unable to read; he mistakes chess pieces for pagan idols; and his language is unpolished. Natty, for instance, will frequently use humorous malapropisms: he is unfamiliar, for instance, with Judith’s use of the term “buccaneers,” and interprets the word according to his own forest vocabulary as “buck-and-near.” Cooper, however, never holds his hero up to ridicule; he makes Natty Bumppo, if anything, a little more human and fallible. Also, Cooper does not always accept Natty’s simplistic explanations; and he even allows Hetty on occasion to pose some embarrassing questions to the hero about the necessity of killing and about his views on marriage and love. Natty Bumppo has had such a rudimentary education that his views, at times like those of Hetty, are recitations of his lessons from the missionaries. When he must answer with these set replies, Natty can err because he has not relied upon his feelings or emotions and his experiences in the forest. Even though he is very young in The Deerslayer, Natty has already embarked upon a path of individualism and independence. He has, in short, found a code by which he will live and by which he will communicate his intuitions about life to others. Natty Bumppo’s code, then, is not rooted in the European past (despite the hero’s resemblance to the medieval knights in his conduct) nor is it organized logically and systematically around schoolroom lessons. The originality resides in the simple, direct, trusting approach that Natty gives to each of his beliefs. He believes in God and trusts in divine providence, although Natty cannot fathom it at times, nor justify events. God, for Natty Bumppo, is not different for the white and Indian races but is “our common Maker and Master.” The best proof of God’s existence The Deerslayer 86

and benevolence is the beauty of nature. It is true that nature, as Natty freely admits, has unfavorable aspects, such as winter and storms, but the cycles of the seasons bring relief and appreciation. Natty’s wonderment (a recurring pattern in his reactions) at Glimmerglass is explained by his feeling and intuition that God has created here a perfect example of natural beauty. It is typical of the romantic writers and painters of the nineteenth century to select an awesome scene of nature and also to choose the dawn or the sunset to further heighten the emotional reactions of the audience. Even at night, though, Glimmerglass provides an uplifting atmosphere for Cooper’s hero, and there seems little doubt that Natty’s emergence into manhood on this “first warpath” is due in large measure to the surrounding trees, shores, and water of the lake, reflections of the divine presence. However, the code, supported by the love and joy of nature in harmony with God, is challenged by mankind. Men can either live harmoniously and appreciatively with nature (as Natty does), or they can exploit and ravage the landscape (as Tom Hutter and Hurry Harry do). The Indians, including the Mingos, have more regard for their natural surroundings because they have lived on the land for generations. White men generally come only for profit and gain. Therefore the code faces its severest tests for Natty when he must oppose the greed of his fellow white men. Despite Natty’s repeated and insistent reliance upon the differences between the races in his code, there is nothing racist in his approach. He believes that white men and Indians can live closer in peace with each other and nature if they recognize and accept differences in their respective races. For example, Natty and Chingachgook are closer friends and better allies than Natty and Hurry Harry, who are immediately and consistently antipathetic to one another. The code, then, is based soundly on recognition and mutual acceptance of differences between the races on the continent, and Natty never makes the boast that the white man is superior to the natives because no clear standards of distinction exist. And, in fact, many of the tenets of Natty’s code could be transferred to the Indian code. Many aspects, likewise, are uniquely fitted to Natty’s definition of the code. The white men, most at fault because of their hypocrisy and cupidity, are condemned severely because they should set better examples based on their religion, education, and traditions. Nature, for example, can “get to be deformed by The Deerslayer 87

mankind,” in Natty’s words, and the hero’s nostalgia, after his return to Glimmerglass 15 years later, reflects the changes that can be caused by the incursions of the settlers. The code is compounded of several idealistic and moral elements. One of the principal contributions is Natty’s belief in the sacredness of human life, arid be criticizes all those who needlessly kill. Only in warfare or in self-defense is he justified in killing a fellow human being; even then, he should take no pride in this necessity by boasting or exulting. Natty, encountering his first trial in The Deerslayer, kills and fights on several occasions; but he behaves humbly and defends his conduct with humility. He thus behaves with honor, for this characteristic is what distinguishes him greatly from his two companions, Tom Hutter and Hurry Harry. He redeems his pledge to return from the furlough, he faces death at the stake stoically, and lie never takes unfair advantage of friend or foe, all because of the unwritten law of honor. In addition to the abhorrence of violence and killing and the dedication to honor, Natty possesses other qualities: he defends women in need, sacrificing his own safety, for example, to remain with Judith and Hetty on the ark; he comes to the aid of his friends, the cause of his capture by the Mingos being the result of his promoting the escape of Hist and Chingachgook; he always speaks the truth, although hurting Judith by his frank admissions; he is courageous and uncompromising, refusing to join the white men’s scheme to scalp women and children; and he states his opinions frankly and at length. Morality, demanding that lessons be applied to each situation and to the persons involved, permeates Natty’s speeches. His soliloquies are the most extensive and detailed analyses of the code, and the farewell of Natty on the ark to his friends is the longest exposition of his didacticism. Although Natty knows that he is a “loner,” he does not retreat from the defense of his position and from the conviction that lie can uplift others by his example. On the contrary, his characteristic pose throughout the romance of leaning silently and thoughtfully on his rifle is often the starting point for his speeches to the others. Natty is optimistic and perhaps imbued unknowingly with the missionary spirit from his early days among the preachers. He, like Hetty, strives to improve mankind by talking openly and constantly about his code. The Deerslayer 88

The Frontier Myth One of the most devastating and humorous criticisms of the world of The Deerslayer and the other “Leatherstocking Tales” was written by Mark Twain. His satirical attack upon the “literary offenses” of Cooper was based upon the unreal world of the American frontier depicted in the “Leatherstocking Tales.” Mark Twain, for example, was annoyed by all the dry twigs being snapped as the characters in Cooper’s romances stalk their Mingo foes or are stalked by their equally stealthy opponents; and he suggested that the “Leatherstocking Tales” should be renamed “The Broken Twig Series.” It is true that Cooper uses this descriptive effort very often in The Deerslayer, but Mark Twain, in selecting this single mannerism, was endeavoring to criticize Cooper’s whole concept of the American experience at this time. Although Twain listed eighteen “offenses” of Cooper, the American humorist was most critical of the character of Natty Bumppo as being unrealistic and contradictory. For example, Mark Twain could not reconcile the usually incorrect grammar and vocabulary of Natty Bumppo with the hero’s poetic outpourings at the sights of Glimmerglass and the natural surroundings of the lake. Two schools of literary interpretation and expression are involved in this controversy: Mark Twain belongs to the realist era toward the end of the 19th century, and Cooper is a romantic at the beginning of the same century. Two writers, approaching the same setting, will portray that environment according to their respective philosophies of art and life. Cooper intends to idealize, to mythologize, and to elevate the subject of his romance. The fact that The Deerslayer is a romance indicates this intention of the author, and Cooper defends this position in the prefaces. In short, Cooper does not aim to reproduce exactly nor completely realistically the events he has selected. It is enough that the lake and its environs are accurate. Even here, however, the writer is justified in choosing the better parts of the physical environment and giving these elements the benefit of his romantic vision. If Cooper had only depicted the routine and daily actions of the settlers and pioneers in their battle against the Indians and nature, he would not have won such fame abroad. Cooper interpreted the American experience and raised it to the level of an epic. He thereby created a myth which used only the raw material of actual happenings as the foundation for his The Deerslayer 89

philosophical quest for the meaning of the frontier. Therefore, the rather prosaic and normal lives of men and women on the frontier are transformed into the idea that two worlds are in sharp collision. Two very different traditions are locked in conflict over the possession of the land, one primitive and the other civilized. Few of the actual participants pondered or even realized this argument because they were too busy and uninformed. In fact, Cooper has been criticized for raising the level of the characters too high in the romance. Critics have suggested that the poetic and philosophical speech and arguments (especially of Natty Bumppo) do not reflect the real atmosphere and true problems. Likewise, the characters on the frontier were usually strong, rough types who had no interest in any issue not bordering directly on the practical side of life. Hurry Harry and Tom Hutter, who represent this brutal aspect of the frontier, engage in philosophical debate with Natty. Even these two characters, then, who suggest on Cooper’s part the intention to portray the unfavorable, dangerous, and destructive forces on the frontier are idealized by their ability to sustain complex arguments. Cooper, for the sake of emphasizing contrasts, has skillfully juxtaposed his characters symbolizing the best and worst aspects of the white man’s contribution to the New World. If he has not painted realistically but romantically, Cooper has contributed a philosophical and ideological rendition to the history of the American continent. Cooper caught, in the words of the historian Allan Nevins, “the grandeur of the frontier.” Cooper saw in the changes occurring, especially around the known area of Glimmerglass, profound meanings and serious problems. He is American in his defense and confrontation with the issues of his day: one can recall his constant explanations about his nationalism and patriotism to his countrymen after the return from Europe in 1833. A great transformation of the world was taking place, and Cooper sought to fathom the ramifications of these events. If possible, he also endeavored to enlighten those at home and abroad who were not aware of the spirit of the frontier. And, if possible, he wanted to improve the tone of the development of the frontier and alter some of the characteristics of the pioneer era to which he attributed a decline of the true American image. It is accurate to conclude that Cooper, not only in The Deerslayer but in all the five “Leatherstocking Tales,” has created The Deerslayer 90

the frontier myth, but he has sacrificed realism, and perhaps naturalism, for the sake of his interpretation of American history. Indeed, Cooper’s constant quarrels with his neighbors, the press, and critics in 1833 were due in some part to his frank criticism of the evil aspects of the American dream. At the same time, Cooper always tried to write in an interesting manner so that the readers would find pleasure and entertainment in the romances. His influence and continued popularity may have perhaps changed the attitude of Americans somewhat as they, like the aged Natty Bumppo in the last of the series, The Prairie, pushed westward to the Pacific Ocean. This desire to explain the frontier is also a partial reason for Cooper’s writing of The Deerslayer (18 years after The Pioneers, the first volume of the tales), in which he goes back to the middle of the eighteenth century and to the beginning of Natty Bumppo’s career, for another and earlier search of the frontier myth.

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Cooper’s Indians Cooper was very sensitive to the criticism about his portrayal of the Indians of North America, and he used a paragraph in the “Preface” to The Deerslayer to confirm and defend the charge that his Indians were not of the school of nature. James Russell Lowell, the American poet and critic (and a contemporary of Cooper), even went beyond such criticism when he wrote humorously (and seriously) in A Fable for Critics that: “His Indians, with proper respect be it said,/ Are just Natty Bumppo, daubed with red.” Cooper, then, creates an image of the Indians just as he has formed an epic and mythic hero in Natty Bumppo. Although he did not reply to Lowell’s charge, Cooper did acknowledge his reliance on the reports of the Moravian missionary, J. G. E. Heckewelder, about the characteristics of the North American natives. It is also interesting to recall that Cooper explains in The Deerslayer that Natty Bumppo has been raised and educated by Moravian missionaries. Cooper, however, never probes historically nor deeply into the history, customs, and background of the Indians in The Deerslayer or in the other “Leatherstocking Tales.” In his readings, he was attracted to the theories of Heckewelder about the noble qualities of the Indians, and these ideas from the Moravian missionary coincided with the romantic ideal of the “noble savage” exploited by civilization. Indeed, Cooper is more interested in individual Indians than in tribes or nations; and he conveniently divides them into “good” Indians, and Mingos or “bad” Indians. His simplistic (and superficial) treatment may be justified on the grounds of the romance, where contrasts and opposites form a basic part of Cooper’s literary technique. In addition, there are really few good Indians in Cooper’s world of The Deerslayer and the other “Leatherstocking Tales.” Most of the inhabitants of the forests are Mingos, who provide the literary representation of the forces of evil, terror, and fear in the Gothic tradition. At times, the savages are like denizens of a realm beyond human beings; and they are frequently described as devilish and diabolical in their appearance and actions. Nevertheless, Cooper sees a sad, pathetic, and tragic side to the Indians because they are the victims of the encroaching white civilization. Even Cooper’s Mingos, receiving their due punishment for circumventions, scalping, and treachery, are victimized after their defeat by superior forces. Rivenoak, the The Deerslayer 92

leader of the Mingos in The Deerslayer, holds himself proudly even when he is the prisoner of Captain Warley and the rescue party. He was, in Cooper’s view, defending the ancient traditions of his people by going on the warpath and striving valiantly to annihilate the invaders of the American hinterland. However, the majority of the “bad” Indians (the Mingos) are cruel, bloodthirsty warriors who serve to make the romances thrilling, exciting, and dangerous adventures. Their “gifts” are restricted to the primitive code of savagery. The “good” Indians, although they are limited in number throughout the “Leatherstocking Tales,” are as dignified and noble as the best of the white men portrayed in the series. Cooper’s relatively few good Indians do not indicate any prejudice on his part because he makes clear that the majority of the natives are violently opposed to the pioneers, settlers, and soldiers extending the frontier into their territories. While he obviously sees the futility in the Indians’ attempts to oppose the invasion of their lands, Cooper finds a heroic and tragic quality in their stance. He thus cannot condemn outrightly their resort to all manner of tricks and stratagems—the “sarcumventions” of which Natty speaks often. Cooper’s good Indians still retain admiration and a bond of comradeship with the Mingos, who are nevertheless their hated foes. Hist, for example, agrees with Rivenoak in his queries to Hetty about the white man’s morality, and Chingachgook is respectful of the superior Mingo strategy when the ark approaches the castle for the ambush of Tom Hutter and Hurry Harry. Although the good Indians are considered traitors by the Mingos and are condemned to the same (and perhaps worse) tortures as white captives, the Indians who accept the forces of conquest and colonization are really accepting the inevitable. The tribes undoubtedly had individuals who saw that compromise, in the guise of acceptance, was the only way they could avoid annihilation. Cooper idealizes his Indians who, though they may have had some noble ideals and a sense of honor, could hardly have expressed their code so elegantly unless they had benefited from the white man’s education. The author admits that his readings in Heckewelder, and the missionary’s own observations in certain favorable circumstances such as the negotiation of treaties, have limited his vision to “a fair picture of Indian life.” Nevertheless, Cooper has succeeded in bringing to American literature a new dimension to the struggle with the Indians for control of the The Deerslayer 93

continent. His romanticism, while not supported totally by history and scientific investigation, has given a more human tone to the problem of the natives.

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Cooper’s Style and Literary Techniques In The Deerslayer, Cooper has succeeded admirably in achieving a unity of plot and setting; and this achievement, indicated previously as one of the superiorities of the romance, has contributed greatly to the lasting importance of this last tale about Natty Bumppo’s exploits. Stylistically, Cooper is at his strongest as a writer in two ways: the descriptions and the physical background, especially of Glimmerglass; and the scenes of action. The many, extensive passages about nature and the geography of the story are poetic and beautiful examples of Cooper’s artistic strength. His descriptions, however, are not inserted only for artistic beauty; they are also the means by which he expresses his romantic love of nature, his philosophy about the natural settings, and his belief that man’s fate is entwined intimately with all facets of the environment. While the story is admittedly slowed and at times halted by the lyrical renditions of Cooper about nature, The Deerslayer , without these parts, would be only a tale of excitement and adventure. Cooper’s main appeal to young people in his romances about Natty Bumppo, as well as such sea fiction as The Pilot, has been his skill in holding reader interest. He, in short, knows how to spin a story; he is a born storyteller, if such is possible. He uses suspense, close brushes with disaster, accidents, good and bad luck for his characters, mistakes, surprise, and coincidence to promote his cause. All the romantic ideas are here in addition to literary devices long in use. When Cooper is embarked on a scene of action, the reader is so engaged in tracking the course of the characters that the literary scaffolding employed is not usually noticed, and is forgiven if it is sometimes excessively visible. These two positive features of Cooper’s art were also the qualities first recognized, accepted, and appreciated by his readers. He won popular fame and critical applause by his skillful artistry in writing the first American novels worthy of the name. However, Cooper is at his weakest in dialogue because he yields to the then current romantic exaggerations of emotional, sentimental, unrealistic speech; he also utilizes the conversations between characters for a confrontation of his ideas on social, religious, moral, and even political issues. The two lengthiest examples of this weakness in The Deerslayer are the several discussions between Natty and Judith on the ark and the farewells The Deerslayer 95

of Natty to his friends when he must return to Mingo captivity. Although characterization is involved in these long and complicated arguments, the action suffers a great deal; at times the plot is almost forgotten, ignored, and lost in the opposing viewpoints. It is doubtful that Cooper, though he shows his profound concern about the American experience and broader problems, has lifted the level of his art by dialogue. It is equally doubtful if he has made his characters more acceptable to the readers by their speeches in time of crisis and danger; more likely he has weakened acceptance of the characters. Without the extended conversation, however, Cooper would not have survived and would not have been increasingly recognized as a major American thinker. It is therefore impossible to omit, summarize, or ignore the dialogues (as is done in some anthologies and condensations) without sacrificing the total portrait of the man and writer. Another value in Cooper’s use of language is his effort to reproduce dialect and peculiar forms of American speech, particularly in the character of Natty Bumppo, emphasizing thereby the indigenous hero of the New World. Other literary techniques used by Cooper are the chase, escape, and pursuit, disguises; contrasts of characters; the night to heighten the effect of fear and terror; the sunset to stress the beauties of nature; mystery in the guise of a stranger or a character with a mysterious past; and clues to coming events and the outcome of critical situations.

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The American Experience In The Deerslayer, Cooper sought to give final expression in the “Leatherstocking Tales” to his reactions and fears about America, especially after his long stay in Europe. Cooper is also preoccupied with the role of Christianity and Christian teachings in the American experience. Although he is a moralist and a defender of the Christian ideas, Cooper is not necessarily optimistic about the acceptance of the religious message by his compatriots. He particularly expresses the dilemma between the lofty ideals of ethical and moral teachings and the present practices on the frontier. The treatment of the Indians is his first fear about the lack of a humane policy, and the realization that the natural surroundings are being changed quickly and extensively by settlements is his second nightmare. Cooper does not argue against progress and change, but he wants morality and beauty preserved as men advance into the territories. The return of Natty Bumppo 15 years after the events of the romance takes only a few pages; but the melancholy nostalgia at the ruins of time is Cooper’s source of anguish and concern. Hetty symbolizes the role of religion and morality, but Cooper does not depict Hetty’s ideas as victorious against the Mingos and against her own race. She inspires those who know her, and her death will be a constant reminder of the presence of a nobler set of values. But Hetty has not put a halt to the violence and atrocities of the frontier by her example. Instead of answers to his questions, Cooper tries to define the problems, to examine possible courses of conduct, and to persuade the other characters, through Natty Bumppo in particular, to accept idealism and nobility of action. However, the advance of white civilization is inexorable and the Indian nations are in decline. Never a racist, Cooper strives to call attention to the terrible conflict between the white man and the Indian. He wants a brotherhood based on the recognition and acceptance of distinct gifts to each race, but once again Cooper is not optimistic about the implementation of such hopes. He knows that the white men, superior in modern techniques, will triumph; he also knows that the baggage they bring with them contains conflict, vulgarity, and destruction of the natives and of nature. This tension between the love for his homeland and the disenchantment with the present development of the nation is tempered only by the hope that Natty Bumppo may be a model for The Deerslayer 97

the pioneers and settlers. The “Leatherstocking Tales,” then, are Cooper’s contribution to an interpretation of the American dream and experience. The books are, in the words of the English novelist, D. H. Lawrence, “a sort of American Odyssey, with Natty Bumppo for Odysseus.” The tales are, accepting this definition, the epic and the myth of America.

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REVIEW QUESTIONS AND ESSAY TOPICS 1. Compare and contrast the two sisters, Judith and Hetty Hutter, in terms of their personalities, beliefs, and roles in the book. 2. Discuss the opinion in the Cambridge History of American Literature that Natty Bumppo is “the most memorable character American fiction has given to the world.” What makes Natty Bumppo a “memorable character” in The Deerslayer? 3. One of Cooper’s favorite technical devices is the chase. Give three examples of the use of a chase in the plot of The Deerslayer. 4. What is the importance of Glimmerglass in The Deerslayer? 5. How does Cooper portray Indians in the romance? What are the differences between Mingos and other Indians? 6. Cooper has been criticized by many critics, including Mark Twain and James Russell Lowell, for his characterization of women in the “ Leatherstocking Tales.” Analyze Cooper’s portrayal of the feminine characters (Judith, Hetty, and Hist) in The Deerslayer. 7. What are Cooper’s views on race? How does he portray differences between the white race and the Indians? 8. Cooper is greatly concerned about the role of Christianity and Christian teachings in the struggle for the frontier. Discuss his religious attitudes and his understanding of Christian ideals. 9. Tom Hutter and Hurry Harry represent evil aspects of white civilization. Make a comparison and contrast of their characters and ideas. 10. How does Cooper use nature in The Deerslayer as a thematic, descriptive, and structural technique? 11. Natty Bumppo and Chingachgook are the two characters who most resemble each other in the romance. Discuss their similarities and also any differences between the two men. 12. Compare and contrast the death of Tom Hutter in Chapter 21 and that of Hetty Hutter in Chapter 31. 13. The Deerslayer can be considered a tragedy from several points of view. What are some of the tragic elements in the light of characters, themes, and actions? The Deerslayer 99

14. How does Cooper use the soliloquy to develop his ideas and the character of Natty Bumppo? Is the dramatic monologue an effective device in The Deerslayer? 15. In what ways has Cooper created the epic and the myth of the American experience? 16. To what extent is the love of Judith for Natty Bumppo an important feature of The Deerslayer? 17. In your opinion what are the five outstanding characteristics of Natty Bumppo in the book? 18. What are the main components of Cooper’s use of language? For example, how does he use language in description, dialogue, and characterization? 19. Cooper stated in the “Preface” that he wanted to secure “the semblance of reality” to his romance. State any violations or exaggerations of this aim of Cooper’s in The Deerslayer. Is he successful in this purpose? 20. What is the role of violence in The Deerslayer ? What are Cooper’s views on violence, bloodshed, and killing?

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SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY BRADY, CHARLES A. “Myth-Maker and Christian Romancer” in American Classics Reconsidered. New York, 1958. Cooper considered as the advocate of Christianity in his aim to compose the American epic. CUNNINGHAM, MARY E. (ed.). James Fenimore Cooper: A Reappraisal. Cooperstown, N.Y., 1954. Twelve essays by leading American critics in which the position of Cooper on various topics is analyzed. FIEDLER, LESLIE. Love and Death in the American Novel. New York, 1958. Cooper’s Natty Bumppo studied from a psychoanalytical standpoint. FREDERICK, JOHN T. “Cooper’s Eloquent Indians.” PMLA (Publications of the Modern Language Association of America), LXXXI (1956), 1004–1017. A scholarly study of the speeches of Cooper’s Indians with the conclusion that they present the author’s ideas rather than a realistic portrait of Indians. GROSSMAN, JAMES. James Fenimore Cooper. New York, 1949. A concise survey of Cooper’s works which give an overall glance at his literary ideas. LAWRENCE, D. H. “Fenimore Cooper’s Leatherstocking Novels” in Studies in Classic American Literature. New York, 1953. An incisive, frank and provocative view of Cooper’s epic hero by an influential English novelist. PARRINGTON, VERNON L. “James Fenimore Cooper: Critic” in Main Currents in American Thought, Vol. 11. New York, 1930. One of the first important endeavors to relate Cooper to contemporary problems through his social, political and economic references in the works. PEARCE, Roy HARVEY. “The Leatberstocking Tales ReExamined.” South Atlantic Quarterly, XLVI (1947), 524–536. Cooper’s five romances deserve more recognition for their The Deerslayer 101

esthetic and national importance as the author’s most noteworthy achievement to American literature. RINGE, DONALD A. James Fenimore Cooper. New York, 1962. All of Cooper’s works merit more attention, and the “Leatherstocking Tales” can be better explained in the light of knowledge of minor novels and romances. SHULENBERGER, ARVID. Cooper’s Theory of Fiction Lawrence, Kansas, 1955. The prefaces of Cooper’s works are analyzed in an effort to organize his scattered ideas into a unified theory of the romance. SPILLER, ROBEBT E. Fenimore Cooper, Critic of his Times. New York, 1931. Cooper became increasingly interested in and concerned about the contemporary problems and issues of his times, and these preoccupations begin to predominate in his writings. WALKER, WARREN S. James Fenimore Cooper: An Introduction and Interpretation. New York, 1962. A popular study in which Cooper’s works are organized and criticized under categories; well written and a valuable introduction to any serious study of Cooper as man and artist. WINTERS, YVORS. “Fenimore Cooper, or The Ruins of Time” in Maule’s Curse. Norfolk, 1938. Cooper is primarily disturbed by the effects of change and the direction of American society.

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