Migration and Livelihood in Southeast Nigeria

Preface This volume presents studies and papers by academics and policy makers in various institutions in Nigeria. lt is on contemporary challenges of local and intemational migration in Southeast Nigeria. Different aspects have been examined. These include the environmental, social and economic factors and consequences of migration in that region as well as the consequences for livelihood. The following publications are available: Agricultural Projects and Sustainable Development of Rural Areas in Benin by Afouda Jacob Yabi (Vol. 55), Perspectives on Food Security in Eastem Nigeria by C. Nwajiuba (Vol. 46), Role of off-farrn income and gender in technology Adoption by C. Honagbode (Vol. 37), and exchange rate adjustment, food security and welfare of small-scale farmers by E. Abiassi (Vol. 39). Prof Dr. Werner Doppler, University of I-Iohenheim, Germany Acknowledgement Once again I have benefited from the tremendous kindness of the German nation, her people and her institutions. My Doktorvater Professor Dr. Wemer Doppler has continued to be very kind to me and has hosted me the second time as a visiting scholar. I have had wonderftrl access to facilities necessary for my work, and from which colleagues working in less wholesome conditions in our part of the world have brought to the attention of the intemational community their perspectives on the subject of migration. We are all jointly appreciative of this. The Deutscher Akademischer Austauschdienst (DAAD), once again offered me the hospitality and kindness of the German nation to have sponsored my visit to Germany. Colleagues and fiiends at the Department of Agricultural economics in the tropics and sub-tropics, University of Hohenheim, have maintained the usual kindness and hospitality ever ready and willing to assist. To Dr. H.P. Wolff] Mrs Gudrun Grozinger, and the rest of the department, a big appreciation. To the authorities of my home Institution, the Imo State University, Owerri, Nigeria, who have been gracious to allow me this visit, a big thank you. Chinedum Nwajiuba (Editor) Hohenheim — Stuttgart, July, 2005.

TABLE or comuwrs i TABLE OF CONTENTS Table of Contents ................................................................................................ i Chapter I: Migration and Livelihood: Conceptual and Policy Issues ............ I C. Nwajiuba Chapter 2: Migration, Urbanization and Spatial Housing Disequilibria ...... l I J. Diogu Chapter 3: Appropriate Construction Technique for Migrant Communities ............................................................................ 23 P. Okereke and I. Onyegiri Chapter 4: Planted F allow: Improving Shifting Cultivation to Minimize Migration .................................................................................. 3l L. Nwaigbo Chapter 5: Forest Consequences of Migration Pressure .............................. 39 M Onuh, C. Nwosu and I. Christo Chapter 6: Consequences of Migration on Livestock Production ............... 45 B. Ekenyem Chapter 7: Migrant Nomads and Collateral Damage to Livelihoods .......... 5l A. Ejiogu and A. Anyaehie Chapter 8: Consequences of Poverty for Youth Migration ......................... 59 A. Onweagba and A. Chukwu Chapter 9: Street Food Vending, Income Eaming and Nutritional Status of Migrant Women ......................................................... 63 C. Asinobi Chapter 10: Effect of Women Economic Activities on RuralUrban Migration ....................................................................... 75 E. Onyenechere Chapter I l: Intemal Migration and Development: A Case Study ................. 85 C. Ngozi

Chapter 12: Nutrition and Health Issues among Urban Migrants .................. 91 O. Afam-Anene and C. A. Nwajiuba Chapter 13: Public Health Implications of Migration .................................. 103 B. Nwoke, E. Nwoke, I. Dozie, J. Anosike, F Iwuagwu, and C. Ukaga Chapter 14: Socioeconomic Determinants of Labour Mobility ................... 111 L. Tanko and C. M0/cuoma Chapter 15: Labour Market Mobility and Social capital in Nigeria ............. 127 U. Nwogwugwu Chapter 16: Some Issues in Migration and Livelihood in Southeast Nigeria ................................................................ 141 O. Nwankwo, B. Nnadozie and G. Onubuogu Chapter 17: Some Micro-Level Issues in Migration and Livelihood ............................................................................... 147 I. Uwazie, C. Eze and C. Nwajiuba Chapter 18: Mediating Rural-Urban Migration Through Information echnologies ............................................................................. 1 57 A.EIOchukwu

Mroiuriow AND uvsuuooo. cowcnms AND issues r CHAPTER ONE MIGRATION AND LIVELIHOOD: CONCEPTUAL AND POLICY ISSUES C. Nwajiuba Department of Agricultural Economics, 1m0 State University, Owerri, Nigeria INTRODUCTION Migration, whether intemal or intemational, has become increasingly important in development studies. Contemporary debate on the issue has a dual perspective conceming benefits in form of remittances on the one hand, and loss of` human resources on the other. While short-term benefits such as remittances by migrants may have a potential to contribute to livelihoods, the long-term impact due to tmabated loss of human resources may be a serious cause of concem. However most migration studies, especially in less developed countries are limited by being anectodonal. Lack of quantitative data on migration especially in less developed countries is well known. There is hardly any data on the numbers, trends and characteristics of migrants abroad (DHARAM, 2004). Statistics of flows of investments, remittances, support of charitable work, voluntary humanitarian and development agencies are often lacking. While it is generally agreed that there are high levels of internal and intemational migrations, the extent of this, the benefits accruing to the regions from which migrants leave and benefits to the benefiting countries are rarely documented. Despite these limitations, this work is an attempt at various dimensions, causes, trends, direction and consequences of migration focusing on southeast Nigeria. This chapter tries to develop a framework of some contemporary migration issues. Conceptualising Migration There are two principal factors fuelling intemal and intemational migration in southeast Nigeria. These are rural population growth and adverse economic and political conditions. In a nutshell rural population growth contributes to unemployment, environmental degradation, food insecurity and poverty. Adverse

c. NWAJIUBA 1 . . - · ‘ loyment ’ d olitical conditions, also contribute to unemp _ ccoiwnnxengil degl-iadarion food insecurity. and poverty. These jointly lead [O Euiiicmassive rura1—urban migration (Fig. 1). Rapid and massive rural-urban in tion creates social crises, through urban unemployment, poor environment, Iirbfgng slums and crimes. This leads to the imeserization of poverty. Urban poverty leads to poor nutrition, poor health, low life expectancy and livelihood crises (Fig. I). Rural po ulation growth 1* Adverse economic and political conditions Unemployment environmental degradation—> Food insecurity \· Poverty / Migrition —> 8 Social crises 4% unemployment poor environment, housin - crimes etc. I — slums poverty / ‘/1H]CS€IIZati0n '\ poor nutrition oor health \. tow ure 4/ expectancy and livelihood crises FIB- l¥A fflmework of inter-linkages of causes and effects of rapid migration ;?;;:;f;°g0 igoythf N-ig¢fi8`S population has been growing at a fast fatear · 1991 (NATIE NMZESEIK increased from 55,770,056 in 1963, 88.99 million in as about 128 minion (CIA EION COMMISSION, 1991) and estimated in 2005 · 005)- The estimated rate of growth in Nig€I'I3’S

Miomriow ANI) uveuuooo. cowcuvrs AND issues 1 population is variously put at between 2.37% (CIA, 2005) and 3.8% (ECA, 1990). Generally, poor developing countries have higher population growth rates than rich developed nations (Table 1). Nigeria is also the most populous in Africa and ranks high among developing countries. This is worsened by inadequate food supply and employment opportunities not matching increasing demand of a rising population. Consequences of this include low productivity, unemployment and high crime rate, food insecurity, and poverty. These are contemporary development challenges in Nigeria. Table 1: Income Per Head and Population Growth Rates of Selected Countries (2004) Countries Income/Head (US$) Population Growth Rate (%) USA 40,100 0.92 Canada 40,100 0.92 Switzerland 33,800 0.49 Canada 40,100 0.92 Germany 28,700 0.0 South Africa 11,100 (0.31) India 3,100 1.4 Ghana 2,300 1.25 Kenya 1,100 2.56 Nigeria 1,000 2.37 The high rate of population growth subsequently led to rapid urbanization in most developing countries of Africa including Nigeria. Rapid population growth adversely affects access to sanitation and other facilities. In Nigeria, about 27% of the population lived in urban areas in 1980 (Table 2). This increased to 42% in 1998. The high rate of urbanization has increased the demand for food and other services in urban areas, which are already in, short supply. This is a factor in the increased demand for imported food items. Eastem Nigeria had a population of about 25,652,036 in 1991 and a land area of approximately 7,861,200 ha. This implies that the east represents 21.8% of the Nigeria population but occupies 8.5% of the total land area. This translates to an average of 0.3lha/person (OKORIE, 2002). This means this area is among the most densely populated in Africa. Rapid rural population in a hitherto

4 ` leads to a low level poverty· ‘ { d_ low technology, agfanan area _ _ pf$d;>m":?;;:‘l£";;ricul[uIal Sector consequently holds no attraction, especially mc en 1 . _ _ for the youths. Massive rural-urban migration results from this. Table 2: Urbanization and population in selected African countries Urban Population Urban population as % (million) oftotal population Cameroon 2.7 6.8 31 47 Ghana 3.5 6.9 31 37 Kenya 2.7 9.2 16 31 Nigeria 19.1 51.0 27 42 Senegal 2.0 4.2 36 46 Source: The World Bank (2000) Adverse economic and political conditions: Up till the early 1970s, Nigeria was a predominantly agriculture-dependent economy. However the rapid increase in petroleum export eamings since the early 1970s transfomied the structure of the Nigeria economy. The pattem of allocation of petroleum eamings favoured urban and non-agricultural sectors. This created the phenomenon equated to the Dutch disease as t.he economy became dependent on a sole sector — petroleum export eaming. Low labour eamings in the agricultural sector and consumer preference for imported food and other commodities contributed to massive rural-urban migration. The fall. in petroleum earnings in the early 1980s, in addition to the debt crises bedevilling Nigeria led to the introduction of structural adjustment programmes (SAP)-in 198.6. l3efore then not many Nigerians were interested in intemational migration. Nigerians who lei} the country did so principally for education or §(;$`|.l:l€l’(;l3l interests and usually retumed, But with the introduction of SAP, mcliluingion of theddomestrc currency (the Naira), the withdrawal of subsidies, - P .Ym€H l BH. job losses, Ntgenans commenced a season of massive intemational migration.

Mt0tAMAoi; S. CHAPTER SEVEN MIGRANT NOMADS AND COLLATERAL DAMAGE TO LIVELIHOODS A. Ejiogul and A. Anyaehiez Agriculture Department, Ministry 0fA griculture and Natural Resources, Owerri, Nigeria 2 Department 0fA nimal Science, [m0 State University, Owerri, Nigeria INTRODUCTION Man has migrated for three main reasons. Firstly, because of exhausted or devastated natural resources, secondly because he seeks to upgrade or alter some aspects of his way of life and thirdly because of wars, conquests or invasions. These three reasons may be related to population pressure. Peaceful intemal migrations may be engendered either by economic or non-economic tendencies. Non-economic tendencies include cultural, for educational and religious purposes. The non-economic tendencies were less important within the sub-region now know as Nigeria (UDO, 1973; MABOGUNJE, 1973). The Nigerian economy like most of the developing countries is basically agricultural. This sector employs more than two-thirds of labour force, produces food for the population, raw materials for the industry and export to eamed foreign exchange (MABOGUNJE, 1970). Animals were the first natural resources systematically used by man (UNDP, 1971). We still depend on animal life to provide protein for human diets, and industrial raw materials. Cattle population in Nigeria is estimated at 14 million (RIM, 1992). Large concentration of cattle is located in northem (FMANR, 1997). This concentration is due to the prevalence of favourable agro-ecological conditions. Nomadic cattle herders seasonally migrate to different parts of Nigeria for both market and grazing pastures. This version of transhumance, involves movement of nomads and their cattle by lorry and or on foot to different places in Nigeria including lmo State.

In 1992 alone, a total of 9632 herds of cattle entered lmo State (1MSPEDC_ 1996). ln 1993 it was 10,806; in 1994 this increased to .44,34-3, and has been increasing over the years, as have those of the nomads entering with them. Nomads and their flock criss-cross the length and breadth of lmo State in search of pasture. Cattle not only eat grasses but also crops in the field such as leaf vegetables, maize, and cassava. Nomads often attack and kill protesting farmers whose crops have been devastated (ONYEKA-BEN, 1998). This problem has attracted the attention of the Imo State government. On 28 October 2004, the govemment inaugurated a thirteen-member body known as Committee on Cattle Menace. One of the functions of the committee is to reduce cattle menace in lmo State. Nomads and their flock leave a trail of destruction, devastation and menace of people and their livelihoods. This study investigates the movement of nomads into and within Imo State and the concomitant collateral damage to lives and livelihoods. Specifically, the study seeks to describe the migration pattem in the State, highlight the collateral damage to lives and livelihoods and make recommendations based on the findings. It is envisaged that this study will be of invaluable interest to researchers involved in development economics. METHODOLOGY The study area is lmo State, one of the thirty—six states in Nigeria. It is situated ;T;so;sthe Rivi¢s ll'l€ ETSI position among the various COl’lU'lbUll0l`l$ of I-uml mt-0"nal economic activities in the area, that ls 8 labour uslmngcn as well as other rural women informal economic 8€iWI¤€$» because they hell) to reduce unemployment problems. They S€l'V€ 85 the smglc

E. ONYENECHERE rnost important sources of employment in tht? study Hftfft. This fact agrees with el 0/ recognize C3p3ClY)' lnfonnul S€C[0l· to Create jObs_ Even Qndingg of a study ofthe C0¤i€m¥t0Y6¥jY nature of the rural economy in some parts of Nigeria indicated that farming employs a large proportion of the rural people follo-wed by trading (OKAFOR and OMOKERHORAYE, 1986). Again, famring, food fish processing and other informal economic activities by rural women in the study area have activated the mobilization and utilization of rural resources for economic gains. This contribution occupies the second position. While, capacity to educate the children of rural women at both primary and secondary school levels is enhanced occupies the last position and ranks least amongst other contributions. Peasant famring is the greatest employer of labour for rural women and others in Nkwerre. Mgbidi and Otulu communities. Food/fish processing activity is the greatest employer of labour for rural women and others in Okulcu, Oguta and Orsu Obodo communities. Artisans/handicrafts by rural women create employment opportunities in only few communities such as Umuna and Owerre Nkwoji communities. This is because raw materials for handicrafts such as clay and straw are not readily available in many communities. The contribution of rural women infomial economic activities as means of livelihood cannot be over-emphasized. Rural women informal economic activities aids income generation and revenue formation, this is because field observations - “ _ revealed that rural women pay the authorities of the local govemment for open . spaces and rented stalls at rural markets. Rural women informal economic activities in the study area improve income, since increased sales of prgdtice/products to middlemen from the towns show this. This possibly explains xh; c;‘;al'(;;lt;/ifglén COntl’tbute to community self-help development project afld g ucate children of rural women at both primary and secondary I school levels is enhanced for just the few who can afford the cost, and this is P€ThaP$·WhY·¥li€Y M0 the least of the contributions of rural women informal economic activities in the study area. The hypothesis: H0: Rural women informal economic activities do not contribute ;lg:;TTc;::Yi;; Etrban migration among rural dWell€l`$ in . i. ural women informal economic activities

contribute significantly to reduction in rural — urban migration among tural dwellers in lmo State, was tested. In one sample test of a proportion for this hypothesis, an analysis of four individual rural women informal economic activities (farming, food/lish processing, petty trading and artisan/handicrafts) as it related to rural - urban migration with a yes/no response was used. Z - calculated is -7.59, which is less than the Z tabulated value of 1.645 (Table 2). Thus, test is not significant at 5% level. We accept the null hypothesis (HG) and reject the altemative (H1). That is, rural women famting activities do not contribute significantly to reduction in rural — urban migration among rural women in Imo State. Table 2: Z - Test of statistical analysis of the effect of farming on reduction rural - urban migration Impact of farming on Proportion Z-Statistic Pr>Z Zreduction of rural- Tabulated urban migration Yes 0.0726 -7.59 1.0000 1.645 The Z - calculated is 2.40, which is greater than the Z tabulated value of 1.645 (Table 3). Thus, test is significant at 5% level. We reject the null hypothesis (H0) and accept the altemative (H,). That is, rt1.ral women petty trading activities contribute significantly to reduction in rural — urban migration among rural dwellers in Imo State. Table 3: Z - Test statistical analysis of the effect of petty trading on reduction of ruralurban migration Impact of petty trading Proportion Z-Statistic Pr>Z Zon reduction of rural- Tabulated urban migration Yes 0.3718 2.40 0.0083 1.645 The Z - calculated is - 2.17, which is less than the Z tabulated value of 1.645 (Table 4). Thus, test is not significant at 5% level. We accept the null hypothesis (H.,) and reject the altemative (H,). Thus, rural women food and fish processing

activities do not contribute significantly to reduction in rural — urban migration among rural dwellers in Imo State. Table 4: Z - Test statistical analysis of the effect of food/fish processing on reduction of rural-urban migration Impact of food/fish Proportion Z-Statistic Pr>Z Ztrading on reduction of Tabulated rural-urban migration Yes 0.2350 -2.17 0.9849 1.645 The Z calculated is -8.59. which is less than the Z tabulated value of 1.645 (Table 5). The test is not significant at 5% level. We accept the null hypothesis (1-1.,) and reject the altemative (Hi). Thus, rural women artisanfhandicrafi activities do not contribute significantly to reduction in rural — urban migration among rural dwellers in Imo State. Table 5: Z - Test statistical analysis of the effect of Artisan and handicrafts on reduction of rural-urban migration Impact of Artisan and Proportion Z-Statistic Pr>Z Zhandicrafts on Tabulated reduction of ruralurban migration Yes 0.0427 -8.59 1.000 1.645 Results from the statistical analysis summary tables will help us to conclude. We then conclude thus by stating that, "it is only petty trading that contributes significantly to the reduction in rural — urban migration among rural dwellers in Imo State, Southeast Nigeria. While farming, food/fish processing and artisanfhandicrafts do not". On a general note, since most of the rural women informal economic activities do not contribute significantly to reduction in ruralurban migration among rural dwellers in Imo State, Southeast Nigeria, we accept the null hypothesis (H.,) and reject the altemative (H,). CONCLUSION The study reveals that the greatest contribution/impact of rural women informal economic activities in the study area is the reduction of perennial and seasonal

unemployment in the rural areas. This was closely followed by the mobilization and utilization of rural resources. The z - test-analysis went further to reveal that it is only petty trading that contributes significantly to the reduction in rural — urban migration among rural dwellers in- [mo State, Southeast Nigeria, famiing, food/fish processing, artisan/handicraft do not. This study does not, however, regard its findings as final, despite the facts that were duly exposed. Further work is being recommended amongst other recommendations. Generally, the contribution of informal economic activities to GDP is very important, but often difficult to measure. Between 1970 and 1989, the informal sector in Nigeria contributed an average of 18.0 percent of GDP armually, because it produces goods and services, which are in conformity with the need of the people. Informal sector also aids the development indigenous enterprises, as well as trains and retrains its unskilled workers highly. All the aforementioned benefits infer that informal economic activities play important roles in the development of the economy. This fact is corroborated by MABOGUNJE (1980) and EBOH and OCHEOCHA (2002). But this study could not measure quantitatively the contribution of informal economic activities in the previous activities. And again LGAs do not keep the records of paid taxes. Because of these problems we have limited the study to the answers supplied in Table 1. The following are recommended: i) The govemment should design a comprehensive strategy that will stimulate demand for goods and services through programmes that include construction of more market places and organization of promotional fairs/prospecting for export markets. For enhanced rural women petty trading activities would act as huge magnets that will attract the people and stem rural - urban migration. il) Rufal infrastructure base need be strengthened. The goverrunent and the people should improve rural transportation and communication and provide cheap and reliable social utilities to help raise the overall productivity of projects and living standards generally. This way a reduction in nual — urban migration will be maintained.

REFERENCES EBOH, E. C. and K. N. OCHEOHA (2002). "Determinants of Rural Non- Farm Sector Potential in Reducing Income-Poverty; Evidence from Enugu State, Nigeria". Proceedings 36"` Annual Conference of Agnc. Society of Nigeria, Federal University ofTechnology, Owerri , October 20-24, 2002, Pp. 160-l64_ GEODES, R.(l997). Cities in our future. Island Press, New York. HUNTINGTON, S. P (1996). The Clash of Civilizations and the Remarking of World Order, Simian and Schuster, Mass. MABOGUNTE, A. L. (1980). The Development Process: A Spatial Perspective, Hutchison and Co. publishers Ltd., London. NDUMA, I.; P. KRISTJANSON and J. MC PEAK.(2000). Diversity in Income Generating Activities for Sedentarized Pastoral Women in Nonhem Kenya, Submitted to Human Organization, Nov. 2000. OBADAN, M. I.; A. P. Odusola and W. O. AKERELE (1996). Strategies for Revitalizing the Nigerian Economy: The Role of Informal Sector. A Paper presented on Revitalizing the Nigerian Economy, Nigeria Institute for Social and Economic Research, Ibadan, Nigeria. OKAFOR, F. C. and A. G. ONOKERHORAYE (1986). Rural Systems and Planning._The Geography and Planning Series of Study Notes, Eguavoen Printers, Benin City. OLOWU, D. O., O. Okotoni and O. OLUDIMU (1995). The Informal Sector in Nigena: Some Analytical and Development Issues. A Paper Presented at the Techmcal Workshop on Conceptual and Methodological Issues in the Informal Financial Research Sector Organized by the Central Bank of Nigeria and Nigeria Institute for Social and Economic Research, Ibadan, Nigeria. August 30 -31. POPULATION REFERENCE BUREAU (1996). "Intemational Migration: A Global Challenge , Population Bulletin, Vol.5 l, No.1. NATIONS ECONOMIC COMMISSION FOR AFRICA (UNECA) Or a ' t' (1992). Mobilizing the Informal Sector and Non- Govemmcni ang laza ions (NGOs) for African Economg: Recovery and Development: Policy Abuja anagement Issues. Report of the 12 AAPAM Round Table ConferenC€

INTIERNAL MltiRAT|0N {-/"{‘*___-___ ` CHAPTER ELEVEN INTERNAL MIGRATION AND DEVELOPMENT: A CASE STUDY C. Ngazi Department 0f Geography and Environmental Srudies Alvari Ikoku College of Education, Owerri, Nigeria INTRODUCTION Migration involves permanent or semi-perrnanent change of residence (UDO 1978). It is considered rational because it is an economic man’s reaction to economic differential between different areas. However, other non-economic factors are implicated in migration studies. Migration could be intemational, that is when a person moves and settles in another country, or intemal, that is, when individuals move from one area of a country and settles in another area of the same country. This type of migration is the focus of this chapter. Migration involves immigration and emigration. Indigenes move from their communities and settle in another area, while others move and settle in more distant places. The distance, the migrants cover and the reason behind their migration constitutes theoretical issues in migration studies. The goals of this research are to identify various issues that motivate migration in South-eastem Nigeria and to examine the impact of migration on socio-economic development ofthe people and the area. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY The research is a survey of Mbanassa clan in Ideato-North local Govemment Area of Imo State in Southeast Nigeria. A questiomraire was designed and admimstered to randomly selected migrants from the seven communities that make up the clan. In each of the seven communities, 100 questionnaire were administered to migrants, giving a total of 700 respondents. The questionnaire solicited mfomration on socio-economic characteristics such as gender, age, occupation, education, and etcetera.

cuoozl RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS l. Characteristics of migrants l Gender: Over 75% of the migrants in the area are males while 25% are females T ble 1) The preponderance of males over females as migrants rs hinged on ( iiure arid tradition that permits males more freedom to move out than females. u.. The female migrants include wives of male migrants and tmmamed ladies, whe are self-employed or are apprentice in training. Age: The age of new migrants lie between 15 years and 55 years while older migrants are aged 56 years and above (Table 1. About 95% of those between l5— 55 years engage in various income-eaming activities such as farming, trading, artesian, restaurant operators, motorcyclist operators etc. Five percent or those aged 56 and above ovim petrol stations, supermarkets, commercial schools, and medicine shop and oil mills. Table 1: Age, gender, and literacy levels of migrants, 2005 Male 525 75% Female 175 25% Total 700 100 Age No Percent 15-55 665 95 56 and above 35 5% rmi 700 Q Literacy Level No Percent Literate 140 20 Semi literate 245 35 515 45 Wi 000 Source: Field data, 2005 m iiltéfgy level: About 20% ofthe migrants have academic qualification CI8S$m€d tca;>;>mp¤¤;¤;y &n Trading: About 50% of the migrants engage in various trading activities including foodstuff, beverages, bread, canned and packaged articles including water; clothing materials; and various goods and articles. > Farming: About 32% of the migrants engage in farming. This includes crop production, and livestock such as poultry, and Snailry. > Welding and Construction: 5% of the migrants engage in welding and metal works. > Carpentry and Woodwork: 2% percent of the migrants engage in carpentry and woodworks, producing wooden doors and windows, caskets, etc. > Driving: About 4% of the migrants aged between 20 years and 45 years engage in operating motor vehicles and motorcycles. > Mechanical repairs: 4% percent of the migrants engage in repairing broken down vehicles, bicycles, motorcycle, vulcanisation and car washing. > Masonry: About 3% engage in bricklaying, block moulding, and painting. > Other activities: Less than 1% of respondents are proprietors of commercial schools; petroleum and related products merchants, oil mill operators, drugstores, restaurants, day-jobbers, teachers and pastors Table 2: Occupation of respondents Occupation No % Trading 350 50 Famring 224 32 Metal works 35 5 Woodworks 14 2 Driving 28 4 Mech. Repairers 21 3 Masonry 21 3 others 7 l rmt 700 100% Source: Fleld data, 2005

2. Source Areas of Migrants Though migrants come from most major ethnic nations in Nigeria, the majority are from eastem Nigeria. The migrants come from Anambra State, Abia State_ Ebonyi State, Enugu State, Cross River, Akwa lbom, Rivers and Bayelsa States. Others come from Midwest States, Westem States and Northem States (Table 3). There also those from others areas of Imo State outside Mbanasaa clan. Some of the population exporting areas has some historical and cultural links with some of the communities in Mbanasaa. For example, Achina have ancestral link with Urualla, Akokwa with ltrunbuzu; Umualaoma, and Uzii with Osina, Aguata has historical and cultural links with Mbanasaa clan as a whole. About 4l.42% of migrants claim that historical and cultural linkage attracted them to the area. Table 3: State of origin of migrants w N° P¢t¤¢¤¢ Anambra 130 1g_57 Abia *285 Ebo 115 16.43 Ewa *428 Cross RlV€l` Al“"“‘“’°m 65 9.29 gz; ¤-43 Midwest States 2. 14 2.86 Westem States 2.57 Northern States 8.57 *00-99 Source: Field data, 2005 The atial a ‘ · . mm;;rbm,Pur;;:\tgf\1T;;:2;:>: glutflogp into Mbanasaa is therefore rural-rufal, urban to urban of indigenes of Mbanasairatlim which can be rural to wml and since Mbanasaa Clan is not urban immi {lv 9 njlgfated elsewhere. Essentially urban to rural. Semi-urban areas lcl gm mn ls m the fom] Of mm to rural and Akokwa . °s° *0 Mbanassa such as U rr O · d ¤¤r¤¤r more mrgram Rcmm . . . me "· s‘“° a" migration involved migrants from

so Mbanasaa who. retired from service or business and are at home doing business or producing services needed by the people. 3. Motivation for migration and impact on development The driving force for migration are economic differential, availability of infrastructures, dwindling infrastructure facilities in source area, job opportunities and freedom to practice crati and trade, dwindling agricultural possibilities in source area, and historical and cultural link of source area and Mbanasaa. With available economic infrastructure in Mbanasaa, migrants with business interests invest in properties and other enterprises. Migrants are noted for the increase in farming activities, production of wine and palm fruits (cf CBN 2000). Migrant labour has played leading roles in large-scale production of cassava, yam, fruits, cocoa yams and vegetables. Notable farmers in food crop production are migrants from Abakaliki, (Ebonyi State) and Nkalu (Enugu State) who are noted for farming prowess. The increasing number of migrants has resulted in the increase of population of Mbanasaa Clan. Increase in population by migrants especially taxable adult results in increase in income tax collected per capita of taxable adults. The IdeatoNorth Local Govemment Council announced that over the year’s tax collected from taxable adults are the main financial engines for most of her development projects. Migrants contribute to this. Some social and economic facilities such as filling station, abattoir, medicine store, commercial schools, welding and mechanic shops are owned by migrants. These facilities help in filling the gap provided by absence of such facilities owned by indigenes. In areas of social and recreation, migrants provided hotels, restaurants, entertainment shops and hall where video films are shot from time to time. Restaurants and catering houses presents an altemative recreation and eating houses for indigenes and travellers. These recreation centres provides assorted menu and drinks. Migrants provided vehicles and motorcycles to enhance transportation and communication. These vehicles operate all over the clan at minimal cost. To enhance coordination the town unions and the Local Govemment provides garages for these operators. Each day a vehicle operator pays permit tax before he commences his business. Some migrants have invested

,0 c.Nooz1 in properties and thus helping in reducing accommodation problem in Mbanasaa for sustainable development. Migrant youths provide telephone facilities in most remote areas of the clan. With cell phones and antennas they run telephony business in areas where cell phone access is impossible. With the emergence of the telephony business in remote rural areas parents can communicate with their children any where in the world. CONCLUSION Migration has been an engine for social and economic development. Migrants provide wide range of services through which they make their living and at the same time help in socio-economic transformation of the clan. Migrants are attracted to the area because of historical and cultural linkage and facilities such as natural, economic, social and prospects for employment and generation of income. The income generated by migrants contributes to the public treasury and hence public investments. Migration generates development through contribution, which they make in their areas of residence. The income, which accrue from economic activities help in enhancing livelihood. Food security is addressed through the efforts of migrant famiers. Food crops produced are sold to eam income and at the same time contribute to household food security. Migration has not only provided migrants and natives with sustainable livelihood but also at the same time lunched them into expanding their economic activities for socio economic sustainability. REFERENCES CBN 2000. The Changing structure of Nigerian economy and Implications for Development Realm. Communications Ltd, Lagos ; Nigeria. ;Jfl;?é€l:;(n ;)9(g`7?J:It;;¤\ial Migration and development" in Geographical Rcgi0¤$ INBO; J.S et al Heinemann Publishers, Ibadan, Nigeria.

CHAPTER TWELVE NUTRITION AND HEALTH ISSUES AMONG URBAN MIGRANTS 0. Afam-Anenel and C A. Nwajiubaz [Department 0f Nutrition and Dietetics Imo State Universily, Owerri, Nigeria E-mail: afamanene3l @yah00.c0m 2Alvan Ikoku College of Education, Owerri, Nigeria E-mail: [email protected] INTRODUCTION Common forms of intemal migration in southeast Nigeria are rural-urban and urban-rural areas. However rural — urban migration in search of better livelihood is more prevalent. A prime reason for this is that rural areas do not provide adequate means of living. Consequently, labour, especially youths, a vital ingredient for rural/subsistence agriculture is scarce. Agricultural activities are then let} with the aged whose productive capacities are limited. This perpetuates food insecurity, which negatively affects nutrition and health (NWAJIUBA, 2002). By 2030, three fifths of the world population will live in urban areas (STEPHENS, 2000; BROCKERHOFF, 2000). It has been observed that between 1977 and 1981, Owerri urban population (the capital city of Imo state) has grown significantly due mostly to immigration and then natural increase factors (PATMBANO, 2004). Consequences of this include environmental degradation, food i¤S€Curity, poverty, Health problems, unemployment and crimes, housing problems (Fig. 1). This chapter focuses on examining these consequences of rural-urban migration, especially on nutrition and health Statuses of migrants. URBAN IZATION AND POPULATION GROWTH The problem of migration from rural to urban areas have often been linked to urbanization process resulting from rapid population growth (PAT-MBANO,

2003). This creates new challenges in the urban centres with regard to infrasn-ucture, access to safe water, sanitation, employment, and provisronof social and health services. Pressure on already existing facilities result to massive enviromnental problems resulting from increased demand tor water and sanitary services, transport and energy consumption services, and pushing the city limits tiirther into the marginal land settlements. Rural- urban Migration v Urban population Growth + A/Urbanization\> Crime p0Verfy Fiod \` environmental unemployment Housing. . .insecurity degradation Fig I: Consequences of rural-urban migration There are pollution and solid waste management problems. These result in dirty and unsanitary environment. In the urban centres in south- east Nigeria there is improper / inadequate disposal of refuse, which pollutes the environment, which in tum perpetuates infection and diseases. Consequently affecting the nutrition and health status of the people. Exposure to contaminated water and air can result in several types of illnesses (HENRICKSON et al, 2001). Examples are gastroenteritis (GI), acute respiratory diseases (ARD), and eye, ear, skin infections. Fig. 2 presents the problems of rapid population growth due to migration from rural to urban areas. The rising increase in urban population is a concem to many demographers and they wam that cities will be unable to accommodate large population, increases (BROCKERSHOFF, 2000). There exist high birth rate in developing countries like Nigeria. ln southeast Nigeria, effective birth control measures have not been widely adopted. Consequently, the number of children per couple is on the increase. World population must be managed by reducing unwanted fertility in urban areas of developing Cotmtries and among potential migrants living in rural zielqs (\};§OCKERl·lOFF, 2000). Reducing fertility is necessary because migr3ii0¤ e an areas is mostly within the peak reproductive ages (between 15 and 40

_ ti»\l.TH •>¤ years). Most migrants move to the cities between the ages of I9 and 79 (BROCKEPHOFF, 2000). Improving access to modem methods of contraception can most directly reduce unwanted fertility. Population growth + A/Jrbanization Climatic change Envirciumental degradation • inadequate refuse and sewerage • disposal High environmental Air pollution temperature water contamination - water lofged areas 111 ess ./ - gastroenteritis, acute respiratory diseases - eye, ear, skin infections - malaria, typhoid F ig.2: Outcomes of Urbanization URBANIZATION AND POVERTY Most of the people that migrate to urban areas are usually tmskilled for any job. This leads to unemployment, poverty and crime (Fig. 3). As a result accessibility to good housing, adequate water supply, good food, education, and health services becomes difficult (STEPHENS, 2000). This results to urban poverty, which consequently increases the rate of under nutrition and infectious diseases. Food insecurity manifests as lack of access to enough food at all times in the right quantity and quality by all persons. Household food security means ability to acquire quantitatively and qualitatively enough food. It requires adequate production of food and or adequate economic and physical access to food (GILLESPIE and MASON, 1991). Economic access comes from an adequate purchasing power while physical access refers to the proximity to supply. Urbanization increases food insecurity, by hampering adequate food production. lt limits purchasing power due to urban poverty, and liirther constrains ability to buy food. This may arise due to urban unemployment.

Urbinization -—-*7* P0V€Fl)’ neriployment Poor housing Malnutrition Poor Water supply Food insecurity Poor health __,...-> Infections and diseases I - diarrhoea, measles, tuberculosis Infant and adult mortality Fig. 3: Consequences of urban poverty due to unemployment URBANIZATION AND POVERTY Urban expansion has impact on food security thereby affecting the nutrition of the urban populace. Food security is access by all people at all times to enough food for an active and healthy life (WORLD BANK, 1986). Urban expansion is associated with increased cost of supplies, distribution and access to food and increased number of urban households that are food insecure (ARGENTI, 2003). Competition between demands for land needed for housing, industry and infrastructure and agricultural production within and around cities erode most of the agricultural productive lands thereby affecting food production and access to enough food by urban migrants. This results to nutritional deticiencies, which contribute major health problems especially in developing countries (EL — HODHOD er al, 2005). Malnutrition increases the risk of infectious diseases, chronic diseases, under weight and stunted growth among children. There have been changes in feeding habits among urban migrants. There has been an increase rn the demand for convenience and processed meals. This raises the issue of food quality and safety. The increasing number of fast food restaurants in the urban areas make more people go for refined and "junk" foods high i¤ carbohydrates and fats, preservatives, sweeteners instead of natural foods high in

Nuriuriow AND uiaxiru ,5 libre, minerals and vitamins. Differences in pattems of consumption of specific nutrients have been found to contribute to observed differences in the prevalence of cardiovascular diseases (CVD) between mral and urban population (NESTEL er al, 2005). lt is believed that 50% of arterial diseases and hypertension can be attributed to dietary intake (TAM er al, 2005). ln the developing world, urbanization has brought a remarkable shift towards a high incidence of obesity, diabetes, coronary heart diseases, and hypertension (POPKIN, 2000). This eventually leads to low life expectancy among urban migrants (Fig. 4). Urban@on Food insecurity Low life expectancy Fig. 4: Negative impact of urbanization on nutritional status of migrants URBANIZATION AND HEALTH The epidemiological and health transition associated with urbanization has detrimental effects on health with an increase in infectious and chronic diseasesiof lifestyle (KRUGER er al, 2005). In south — east Nigeria, a lot of social activities take place and because most people are jobless, they engage in such activities

96 0. AFAM-ANENE AND c. A. NwAJruBA which most times are not good for their health In such social gatherings people, youths in particular engage in smoking, alcoholism, sexual acts, crimes etc. This has lead to an increase in diseases such as cancer, kidney. diseases, respiratory problems, sexually transmitted diseases (HIV /AIDS), family break-ups, mental and emotional problems, and teenage pregnancy. They also engage in physical activities, which seem precarious to their health. Such include hazardous work, aggressive trading etc since majority are unskilled for good jobs. As a result, they are predisposed to stress related ailments (Fig. 5). Urbanization Change in keg change u1ge in Feeding style life ftyle physical fctivity Nutritional related Negative health -stress hypertension Diseases habits -obesity - infectious disease - prostitution - orthopaedic disorders - - chronic or - alcoholism — fast aging - coronary heart problems — smoking -+ o — family crises o —teenage pregnancy o — STDs (HIV/AIDS) o Diseases V Low life expectancy Fig. 5: Effects of urbanization on health status of migrants Urbanization leads to rapid spread of diseases. The UNAIDS 2004 has the view Shar human mobility has been a major driving force in epidemics of infectious l;cas°S‘ Thc lmks Pctwlicn m0b1Uty and HIV/AIDS are related to the conditions ;¤ER;¤\';1;t5re of migration process. According to NGWIRA et al; (2001) alld HIV/AIDS ); (27002) food insecurity is a "fuelling factor" in the spread of dcstm tl , y increasing transactional sex activity, and labour migration. Thi? c ive power of HIV/AIDS is now well known (BARNETT and WHITESIDE, 2003). It affects assets inst'tut` · · , 1 ions, and nutritional status and

finally leads to premature death after causing family break-up and further infection. The AIDS pandemic threatens to halt and reverse development achievements (UN, 2001). Nutrition and food security play a critical role in the main strategies for combating HIV/AIDS prevention, care. treatment and mitigation (SCN, 2004). CONTROL STRATEGIES There are some strategies to overcome the negative impact of migration on human nutrition and health. To develop the strategies, the connection between rural — urban migration and urban poverty has to be understood and migration needs to be managed for the benefit of the cities, societies and individuals migrants. Policy makers need to identify and direct policies that will reduce the influx of people from rural to urban areas especially for those migrants who can stay in rural areas and make a decent living. This can be achieved by providing social amenities that could help improve the lives of rural dwellers. This calls for an understanding of rural - urban linkages. Urban poverty should be addressed by strengthening rural development to lower migration pressures and reduce income disparities between urban and rural areas. Local govemrnents can address local needs and priorities, which must be supported at the state and national levels. This support includes managing natural resources while resisting local economics by providing physical and social (health and education) infrastructure. Urban population growth could be managed through effective urban governance by engaging communities, civic groups, private contractors in meeting basic needs, decentralizing decision- making authority and control of municipal resources to local indigenous groups and making govemments more responsive to local needs, more accountable for actions and more transparent with respect to financing. Rapid population growth of the urban centres makes it difficult for urban health services and sanitary infrastructure to keep up with the demand generated by immigration. This then makes it necessary for govemments to increase budgetary allocations to the health sector, direct public health resources towards centres in

accordance with the exceedingly rapid growth rates and maintain adequate urban water and sewage systems. Food and nutrition policies should be directed towards finding solutions common to both under nutrition and over nutrition and promoting them through education and more direct interventions. For instance promulgation nutrient-dense fruit and vegetables, which contain photochemical, vitamins, minerals and fibre (TAM et al, 2005). That would reduce caloric intake and improve mrcronutrrent status. Govemrnent must continue their efforts and develop programs and policies for agricultural production, nutrition, food marketing and education that will help to successfully confront the nutrition problems and achieve sustainable food and nutrition security. CONCLUSION The consequences of migration on the nutrition and health of the urban populace are numerous. Common among these are urban poverty, food insecurity, lowered nutritional status, over crowding, dirty and unsanitary enviromnent and frequent episodes of infections and disease. Efforts should be geared towards managing the rate of migration and improving the health and nutrition of the migrants through appropriate policies and programmes. Policies, programmes and processes to improve nutritional outcomes have a role to play in global development. A nutrition perspective can strengthen key development mechanism such as poverty reduction strategies, health sector reform, improved govemance and human rights. Integrating nutrition can accelerate improvements in non-nutrition development objects. Better nutrition reduces poverty by boosting productivity ::;l;5l';¤1 Pclllllgc Zroiblimh By this young women, mainly from Africa. are 0 cre on I y F ln { cn forced to sell sex under conditions laid down by their recruiters. or instance, 90% of the Wvindow prostitutes in Amsterdam are l1’I11TllgI`&1’ltS,.&1'ld in Spain, France and Italy, women from sub-Saharan African countries constituted the main street prostitutes (IOM, 1994)The consequence these reproductive health phenomena are increased risk to sexually transmitted diseases (STDs), including HIV/AIDS. Among the migrants, DAVIDSON (1995) noted that the STDs are spread through heterosexual relationship in which rape and prostitution are the key factors. For instance, about 12% of pregnant female refugees in Mozambique were infected by syphilis; and the fact that the prevalence of HIV was only 3% (in l993)" suggests that HIV may have been recently introduced into the population as a result of the sexual violence which women were exposed to in the war" (CARBALLO et al, 1996). STDs (including HIV/AIDS) infection as a result of sexual violence against women migrants in other African countries has been reported by SEIDEL (1993). SOCIO-PUBLIC HEALTH PROBLEMS Migration, whether planned, voluntary or forced, means breaking with family, friends and traditional values and systems. Migrants have to adapt to new social and psychological environment; and this involves some degree of stress. Voluntary rural-to-urban migration places additional burden on health and social infrastructures, aggravate, unemployment and underemployment. RAHIM and CEDERBLAND (1984) observed that in Sudan rapid urbanization caused problems of psychological adjustment for the older children. Migration results in social isolation and loneliness, especially when people move alone; and barriers of good communication of migrants compound the feeling of isolation and being ‘imwanted". Under this condition migrants find relief in temporary friendship and supportive social enviromnent such as ethnic bars that CARBALLO and NERUKAR (2001) noted to heighten migrants dependency on alcohol and other dangerous substances-with the attendant public health problems. sotvgrlilgmtion transforms the houschoid structure in a way that en with the sole responsibility for dependant children and

i»um.1c utextru 1Mi=i.ic,mONS Fund for Pnnnganon Activtil€·S 'faP0Fl€ 0) Prob (Stab') = Prob (Ii* 5 O) - _ (5)

Ahmed and Sirageldin (I993) observed two problems with a straightforward estimation of the structural form decision rule (cqu, 4)_ Fin;t_ it contains observable latent variable l.*, instead, they observed that; I, = l if l,* > 0 Ii = 0 if l."‘ < O -——- (6) Second, the cross sectional nature of the data as used in this paper suggests that eamings of migrants and non-migrants are conditional on the values taken by l,, i.e Yi = Ymi if I = I Yi = Yni if I, = 0 - — (7) Where potential earnings are not influenced by observable personal characteristics only but that cost-related factors also influence them. Incorporating these determinants, the resulting reduced form migration decision rule becomes: It* = Xt 6 + Et --—- (8) Where Xi = [Zi, Wi] and Ei includes the random disturbance terms associated with the cost and eaming function. From equation 6 — 8, we can derive the probability function as: Prob (I, = 1) = Prob (Ei > - Xi9 = 1-r(-x.0) - - - (9) Where F (.) is the cumultive distribution function of E,. The likelihood function becomes: L = l'IF(-Xt6) Il[1—F(—Xt9)] - - (I0) Ii :0 lg = l Since the probit model assumes E, ~ N (O,`§2), therefore the cumulative timctton takes the following fomi:

- _ = j.xr07; 1 F ( xm) ~» (2]] )0.5 exp (-E) ( 2 )dt (11) Operational Model Different economic and community level variables which are either direct measures of gains and costs or near approximations are examined and their relationship with migration was observed using the Pearson’s product Moment Correlation Coefficient (r) which describes the degree of association between pairs of variables. This is expressed as: r,, = n§|X;Y,-)- {ZX;)-2 (ZY;) 2, [¤ZXa2 · (ZX02] [ZYr - (ZYJ] Where Xi and Yi = Variables affecting migration decisions including the migration index. The general model specified under the theoretical framework was used as a guiding paradigm as it enable one write a model which lends itself to a meaningful maximum likelihood probit estimation. Following AHMED and SIRAGELDIN (1993), the operational model for estimation to determine the effect of some variables on migration decisions has been formulated in implicit form as: MIS = t` (AGH, ESH, EDH, EDW, HHS, COH, CHS, FPE, OCH, EPW, URD, LND, HST, ABD) Where, MIS = Migration Status (Dummy, l for migrants and zero otherwise) AGH = Age of husband in years ESH = Employment status of husband (dummy variable I if husband is selfemployed and zero otherwise). `

.»-€— *~*¤¤¤¤.¤tv -__.--..______LlZ' = Ed ‘ i ~ EDH ucation of husband (No. of years of schooling) EDW = Education of wife (N0. of years of schooling) HHS = Household size (No.) COH = Cost of housing in place of migration (rent) (N) OCH = Occupation of husband (Dummy variable; 1 if husband belongs to one of the occupational categories, and zero otherwise): Professional clerical Business, Agriculfllré, Skilled, Others (unskilled, military, ele) i ` HST = Housing status (Dummy variable, l if house is owned, and zero if rented) CHS = Number of children between ages tive and nine going to school FPE = Family type (Dummy, l if the migrant belongs to a nuclear family, and zero otherwise). EPW = Employment status of wife (dummy, l if wife is in labour force and zero otherwise) LND = Land ownership (Dummy, 1 if land is possessed, and zero otherwise) URD = Dummy variable taking value of l if the respondent lived in an urban area, and zero otherwise. ABD = Dummy variable taking a value of 1 if the respondent lived in Abia State and zero otherwise. iv A priori Expectation Age: Age indicates number of working years. Since young workers have a longer working time horizon, they have greater flexibility to move. Age is also indicative of the higher opportunity cost of moving as older people are relatively more established and have better social status as compared to yotmger people. A negative relationship is therefore expected between age and migration decision.

us L. TANK0 AND c. Nrokuom Education: Education acts as a signalling device, which increases the likelihood of securing employment at the destination. Education of both the husband and the wife is a determinant of income. It is expected that these variables will have positive effect on migration decision. Employment Status: Readjustment of self-employed workers is costly; a negative relationship is therefore expected between employment status and migration. Those who are self-employed either in agriculture or in business, are less likely to migrate as compared to the unemployed. Family Type: It is argued that those who live in a nuclear family have a weaker incentive to migrate as compared to those who live in extended families. This is because the migrating households usually leave their families with their close kin, at least for the mean time, which reduces the immediate cost of relocation. Schooling of Children: The greater the number of children going to school, the greater will be the cost of relocation, thus suggesting an inverse relationship between this variable and migration decision. Land and House Ownership: These two variables allow for a permanent income and wealth concept in the model. The decision to migrate is also influenced by the availability and cost of housing in the place of destination, thus an inverse relationship is therefore expected between these variables and the decision of a household to migrate. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The results show that an average household had six family members, the typical h. ousehold head was male, 40 years old and had attained up to secondary level e ucation. Labour mobility was observed among 57% of the respondents

#···———— @_____________ in comprising of 48% males and 9% females. The typical family was extended in i nature accounting for 58% of the respondents while the remaining 42% were of ` nuclear type. Labour mobility was more pronounced among respondents in the 31 — 40 years age bracket and among respondents with fomial education. The maximum likelihood probit estimation technique was used to derive empirical results for the reduced fonn migration decision rule. The results are presented in Table 1. The results in Table 1 indicated that the only variables that significantly affected the probability of migration decision of respondents were; age of husband (at 1% level), education (5%), husband’s employment status (1%), occupation of husband (1%), number of children in school (1%), area of residence (1%), state of domicile (10%), and household size at 1% levels respectively. As indicated, the relationship between the age of husband and the probability of migration were negatively related. Due to a longer expected span of working life, the incentive to migrate is higher for younger people. Also, given that older people are generally norm-averse, the older the age the more hesitant the individual would be to accept the norms of a new place. Quite a number of studies (LEE, 1985; KRIEG, 1990 and AHMED and SIRAGELDTN, 1993) have shown that the migration decision is strongly influenced by educational attainment. This variable was disaggregated into four discemible components. Results in Table 1 show that, this variable is significant at higher levels of schooling on the one hand whereas educational attaimnent of wife was not found to be an important determinant of migration decision on the other. The results of the present analysis refute AHMED and S1RAGELDIN’s claim that a negative relationship is expected between employment status and the decision to relocate. This is shown by the magnitude of the coeflicient (2.632) and statistically significant. Those who are self-employed either in agriculture or in

business will remain only if their current eamings are higher than altemative employment in new location; otherwise, the probability to migrate to vocations where the annual eamings differential is higher than the present employment is likely. Level of eamings to a great extent varies with occupation. A positive relationship was observed between occupation and the probability of migration with a coefficient of great magnitude (2.22) (Table l). Though not disaggregated, strong evidence abound to show that professional and skilled workers are relatively more inclined towards migration as compared to those not included in the professional categories (professional, clerical, business, skilled, agriculture and others (unskilled and military service etc). The results presented in Table 1 also indicated that the higher the number of children in schools in a given family, the higher the cost of migration by way of relocation. The negative sign associated with the coefficient of this variable, which was confirmed, to be statistically significant, evidenced this. Similarly, the household size had an inverse relationship with migration decision, which implies that it imposes restriction to mobility. Results for the residence dummy variables shows that a negative and significant relationship is observed between the migration decision and the residence dummies (Table l). This is supported by earlier findings of AHMED and SIRAGELDIN. The residential dummy is used to measure the level of accessibility to various modem amenities/infrastructure generally available in the urban areas. The negative coetiicient hereby supports the contention that urban dwellers have fewer propensities to migrate as opposed to individuals residing in rural areas.

m Table 1; :\:•Ka;r;u§;iall;te;:}1:,o‘0d Problt Estlmatcs or ine Mrgmiqn Decision rulg Coeflicients Age of Husband -0.028 —3.530•·•• ` Education of Husband: Primary ( 1 — 6) 0.174 -0.707 Secondary ( 6 — 12) 0.254 -0964 Tertiary > 12 0.102 1.587** Education of Wife -0.010 -1.091 Husband’s Employment status 0.387 2.632*** Occupation of Husband 0.103 2.22*** Wife’s employment status -0.108 -0.761 Ownership of House 0.1 17 0.784 Ownership of Land -0.110 -0.774 Children in School -0.093 -5.556*** Family Type 0.005 -0.106 Residence dummy -0.171 -3.183*** State of Domicile Dummy 0.201 4.28* Household Size -0.057 -1.372** Cost of housing in place of migration 0.001 -0.087 Note: ***, ** and * represent signiticance at 1%, 5% and 10% levels respectively. Summary Statistics Sample Size = 120 Goodness-of-fit chi-squared (20) = 1 1 1.952 Log Likelihood Ratio = -1302.710 Available literature provides conflicting evidence as to the role possession of assets such as houses and land play in migration decision. On the one hand. studies by DAVANZO (1981), SIRAGELDIN el al (1984), A'1·lMED and

SIRAGELDIN (1993) and LEE (1989) observed a strong negative relationship between the owmership of a house and/or land and migration decrsron DAVANZO (1981) further buttressed his claim by saying that land is a locatronjspecitic asset that deters individuals from moving due to raised costs of migration. However BILSBORROW (1981) contended that those who own large tracts of land are relatively high-income eamers who can afford the migration cost and thus have a greater incentive to migrate on the other. The results of this analysis tends to pitch with the latter. Correlation analysis describes the degree of association between pair of variables. This study assumes that two variables will be strongly correlated if the correlation coefficient (r) is greater than 0.4. A strong correlation is observed between household size and age of wife, munber of children in school and age of wife, number of children in school and household size. This is also the case between number of children in school and residence dummy. Altogether, the matrix reveals a high positive correlation between seven pairs of variables. A relatively moderate correlation was observed between household size and education of wife, cost of housing in new location and migration status, education of wife and her employment status and between housing status and ownership of land. It was also observed that correlation is weak for about twenty—two pairs of variables. CONCLUSION This study shows that additional years of schooling increased the probability of migration. The incidence of migration was highest among those who had acquired up to tertiary education. Provision of increased incentives and better remuneration, conditions of service and job security could breed efficiency and reduce the incidence of migration. Respondent’s age was found to be a crucial variable in the migration model. Thus, older and experienced workers have a weaker tendency to migrate than do the younger workers. Public and private sector institutions should therefore take into account this peculiarity at the policy front.

Lnrsoun Mouruw m The Stud), also revealcd that thc PYCSPPCC of $€h00l·g0l¤g children in a hguschold estricted mobility due to the opportunity cost associated with relocation to a new place. The incentive to migrate was also relatively lower among residents in urban a1’€BS· REFERENCES AHMED, A. M. and I. SIRAGELDIN (1993). "Socio-economic Determinants of Labouf Mobility in Pakistan", The Pakistan Development Review, 32; 2; pp B9 _ 157. ALIMBA, J. O. and C. J. AKUBUILO (2000). "Assessing the Consequences of Technological Change on Farm Enterprises in south-eastern Nigeria by Use of Factor Analysis", Elsevier Journal of Agricultural System ASY 74, pp 257 - 270_ ALIMBA J. K. EZIKE and E. ONYEABOR (2004). Determinants of Su 1 of , i PP Y Urban Casual and Rural Agricultural Labour in Ebonyi State, Nigeria. Joumal of Sustainable Tropical Agricultural Research, 10: 3, pp 42 — 46. BHADURI, A. (1999). Alternative Development Strategies and the Rural Sector Economics of Tropical Farming Systems. Cambridge Press, England, p. 16. BILSBORROW, R. E. (1981). Surveys of Intemal Migration in Low Income Countries: The Need for and Content of Community Level Variables. Geneva: lntemational Labour Office. CAMPBELL, R. and S. L: BRUE (1992). Contemporary Labour Economics. Third Edition, Mc Graw — Hill Inc. New York. DAVANZO, J. (1981). Techniques for Analysis of Migration History Data from the ESCAP National Migration Surveys. Paper Prepared for ESCAP Technical working Group on Migration and Urbanization, Bangkok.

EMEROLE, C. O. (2002). Determinants of Householdlncome and Consumption Expenditures of Smallholder fanners in Abia State, Nrgena.· Urlzpiubllrslied Ph.D Dissertation Presented to the Department of Agric. Economics, rc ae Okpara University of Agriculture, Umudike. FEI, J. C. H. and G. RANIS (1961). A Theory of Economic Development. American Economic Review. September. LEE, S. L. (1989). Migration, Income and Fertility in Malaysia: A Simultaneous Equation Model with Limited Dependent Variables, Applied Economics, 1589 — 1610. LEWIS, W. A. (1984) Economic development with Unlimited Supplies of Labour. The Manchester School of Economics and Social Studies May: 139 — 191. MINCER, J. (1999). Labour Mobility and Wages: A Review, Columbia University Press, New York. MUELLER, C. F. (1989). The Economics of Labour Migration, American Economic Review. OKOYE, C. U. (1989). “Migration and Agricultural Labour Supply in Abakaliki Area of South Eastem Nigeria, Unpublished M.Sc. Thesis, University of Nigeria, Nsuldca, Nigeria. SIRAGELDIN, I; N. SHERBINY and M. I. SERAGELDIN (1984) Saudis in Transition: The Challenges of a Changing Labour Market, Oxford: Oxford University Press. SJAASTAD, L. A. (1962). The Costs and Retums of Human Mi tion. Journal Bm of Political Economy. 70: 80 — 93. SOFER, (1993). Uneven Regional Development and Intemal Lab0\1F Migration rn Fiji, World Development Report, 21 (2): 301 — 310.

Lxnouu MARKET AND Socmr. cxmrxr m CHAPTER FIFTEEN LABOUR MARKET MOBILITY AND SOCIAL CAPITAL IN NIGERIA U. Nwagwugwu conomrcs §;lZi1ri’li]iili11i(C£i;lege 0f Education, Owerri Nigeria INTRODUCTION The trend of highly mobile labour markets and globalisation has played tremendous role in the erosion of social capital - an important developmental variable. Participation in formal civic groups and organizations is one aspect of social capital. Others include social trust and norms of cooperative behaviour. Evidence shows that these aspects of social capital have also declined in most parts of the world (KNACK and KEEFER, 1997; COLEMAN, 1998). A number of studies have shown that social capital affects social and economic well-being. PUTMAN (1993) for instance describes studies showing that more civically active communities — those with high levels of social capital — are more successful in reducing poverty, unemployment, crime and social vices, and also more successful in areas of education and health. A decline in social capital is likely to have serious economic and social consequences on the development matrix, including on violent crimes. Why the decline or low level of social capital in Nigeria and elsewhere? Some hypotheses often proposed are labour mobility and the recent trend of economic liberalization. Due to the enormous degree of mobility over a very extended geographical area, and across nations people tend to live farther away from their family (parents, siblings, cousins, and others), childhood friends, and original €0nununity, and they tend to rely less on these support group. For the decline over time, PUTMAN (1993) lists increase labour mobility as one of the major causes of the erosion of social capital. l-Ie argues that residential stability is associated with greater civic engagement, while mobility uproots people and reduces civic participation. HAGAN et al. (1996) tinds a longitudinal study of adolescents in Toronto that multiple family moves have a deleterious

rza u. Nwoowuowu effect on children's emotional adjustments and educational achievement. They link this to the fact that leaving a community destroys established bonds, and deprives family and children of a major source of social capital. THE MODEL The model used in the paper examines the impact of an increase in generalized labour mobility across region with similar incomes, and not unidirectional mobility from poorer to richer areas in South-North or rural-Urban migration. Here labour moves not because of regional differences but because the supply of human skills is unevenly distributed over space. This seems reasonable for a country like the US where many industries are concentrated spatially, and labour movements are typically associated with local or regional demand for specific skills. Asstune two "islands" i = 1,2, which are identical except for the endowment of skills. Two—way migration is obtained by assuming different endowments of industry-specific skills in each island, low moving costs for labour and prohibitive moving costs for goods, say due to trade barriers. Assume that he initial population on both islands is n = 1. Denote by n,j the proportion of natives of Island I living on Island j (I, j = 1,2). Before migration takes place, nll = nl; = 1, and the proportion that migrates m = nl; = nz. = 0. Each native of Island 1 (2) produces the same quantity of a single good H (h). Each individual from Island I living on Island j, 1,,, consumes HU and h,j units Of H and h, with given utility given by Mi = Hip + hue lk! (I) Output of H and h depends on a specific factor as well as on local public goods and services whose provisions, based on the evidence provided in PUTMAM (II993), rs posrtrvely related to the level of social capital. Altematively, assume that output depends on the specific. factor and on aspects of social capital such as Kgéxéena of trust and cooperation among individuals which, KNACK and ( 997) and NARAYAN and PRITCHET (1997) have shown, lower

_. ns costs and improvc economic P€TfO¥'m3¤C€. Thus, H(h) is produogd mnsawo ,, Capiiai or skills K(k) and social capital. Only natives or {stand i (2) will humacd with Skills Oftypg K(k). The production functions for H and h are HU are crfog,) and Z Spcciticallys = and = fpjofigeilerality, assume K =k = 1, Then HU : Sljr : 'lj : l’2'6 Assume that the social capital Sii of individual lii increases with the proportion nii of natives in the total population of island i, or equivalently, that rt declines with the proportion m = i-nii of migrants in the total population. In other words, and as the evidence has shown, the lower the degree of mobility (m) of the population, the higher the level of social capital because the proportion of those who have interacted for a long period of time and have established cooperative relations and trust is higher. This is supported by DURKIN (1998) who argues that positive spillovers from a group-specific public good rise with the share of that group in the population. Specifically, assume that the level o social capital available to each native Iii is equal to the number of potential interactions with other natives, i.e., Sii = nii. An individual lij moving from Island i to Island j does not benefit from the same amount of social capital as his/her original island because creating a network of social relations and building trust takes time, and some relations and experiences (eg., those with family and childhood friends) cannot be recreated. For instance, natives in Island may speak a different language than those inn Island j. hence, migrations gain partial access to the social capital available in their island of destination. Specifically, the social capital Sij available to a migrant from island i to lSl8Ild (i. 96 is a proportion o 5 I ofthe social capital of natives of islandj, i.e., Sij = u.njj. For instance, if the language spoken on island i differs from that ;;'u;Sl;*;l;€;·j, fl measures the degree of similarity between the two languages. We Si a a/·*‘fa,,, 0S¢ :5; Oilgm settlement and had to move to other cities er rvrng conditions. There also intemational migrants. Before Nigeria’s independence in 1960 they have travelled to United Kingdom, USA, France, etc to obtain higher education. They quickly came back to Nigeria at the end of their courses because it was easier to actualise their life’s’ dreams at home than rn the overseas countries. But some years after independence, particularly during the military. regimes, most migrants for higher education rarely come home at the end of their studies. They perceive better economic opportunities there more than in Nigeria. The less educated youths are not left out in the overseas migration. They get into such countries legally or illegally. The illegal migrants do all sorts of menial jobs secretly. The legal migrants negotiate and get better-paid jobs. BAMOUL and BLINDER (1998) observed that the role of immigrants in US has become a major political issue. Foreign workers, many of whom illegal immigrants do much of the relatively unskilled work. However both legal and illegal migrants cam wages, which are much higher than what they could have eamed in Nigeria. The illegal migrants stay until they regularize their stay, otherwise they may relocate to a country where resident permits are easier to obtain, or they await deportation. KOMOLAFE (2002) has shown the extent of Nigerian migrants of various ethnic groups in Ireland. This however shows that the Hausa, which is one of the major ethnic groups in Nigeria not represented. This is probably because they had no need to migrate. The southeast was the main theatre of war between 1967 and 1970. This caused some migration to Tanzania, Gabon, Haiti, France, and other places as asylum seekers. There was a lot of destruction and since then things have not been the same in infrastructure, socially and economically. Southeast Nigeria is behind other parts of Nigeria in infrastructure development. The situation creates a plpndrtron of poverty the zone, hence the mass movement out of the zone and e country at the slightest opportunity. GODDARD (1974) contimted that poverty. and its attendant socio-economic constraints are major causes of ;°;’;;;;°?0"g;;;j;;€:l;$-I Sgnge women married to fairly rich [bo husbands iT3V€1 such a country and his°F;rc;t;€E$nAHy of such babres has 3 crtrgenshtp Status 0; Overseas migration have been b I mlgmle there to make better lrvmg. C€h3¤C€$ 0 Hghtened for some lucky Ibos by the visa lottery

policy of some countries. Some lucky lbos have won thc visa lottery thickets to USA, Canada, etc and have migrated to settle in such countries. Table 2: Ethnic composition of Nigerian migrants in Ireland, I996 - 2000) group pop vomba a 602 @ 1105 1934 962 Igbo NIL 5 154 154 523 167 Edo 2 ¤ 33 43 M 3' Unwbo NIL 4 ¤ 40 52 zi Source: KOMOLAFE, 2002 SOME EFFECTS OF MIGRATION Migrants contribute to the economic development of their host communities. They are employed and eam more income than what they could have in their homes. Nigerians form associations or unions holding them together where they migrated (KOMOLAF E, 2002). This benefits migrants and their home communities or countries. There are such organizations as Nigeria Association of American Residents. Such associations aid economic development of their areas to ameliorate the sufferings of their kith and kin at home. The associations encourage their members to contribute to development. They also encourage family and community members to join them, improve their fortunes and assist in developing their homes. CONCLUSION Migration is not the first choice for economic survival, but whenever it provides a better option, it is embarked upon. The incessant migration of people from southeast Nigeria is of necessity. If all were well, most migrants would remain at home. Govemment provide necessary facilities to aid economic development in the region. lf achieved the mass migration of the people to other regions and other countries could be limited and the people will settle down to develop their homes.

REFERENCES BAUMOL, W. J. and A. S. BLINDER (1995). "Recent Developments in the U.S. Labour Market". Economics: Principles and Policy. The Dryden Press, New York pp 398 — 399. F.O.S. (Federal Office of Statistics) (1996). "Migration: Persons Arriving and Departing Nigeria by Nationalities". Annual Abstract of Statistics 1996, F.O.S., Lagos pp 46 — 47. F.R.N (Federal Republic of Nigeria) (1997). “Population: 1991 Population Density". Nigeria Statistical Year Book 1996. p 52. GODDARD, A. (1974). "Popu1ation movements and land shortages in the Sokoto Close-settled Zone, Nigeria" in KOMOLAF E, J. (2002). "Searching for fortune: The Geographical Process of Nigerian Migration to Dublin, Ire1and" Irinkerindo: A Journal of African Migration. Issue 1, September htm://www.africamigration. com/archieve 01/j komolafe searchinghtm KOMOLAFE, J. (2002). "Searching for fortune: The Geographical Process of Nigerian Migration to Dublin, Lre1and" Irinkerindo: A Journal of African lmgration. Issue 1, September http://wwwafricamigration. com! archieve 01/ j komolafe searchinghtm MEIER, G. M. (1995) "Migration and Urbanization." Leading issues in Economic Development. Oxford University Press, New York p. 140 SUMMERS, D., A. GADSBY and M. RUNDELL (1995). Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English. Longman Group Ltd. England p. 901. WELLEP., K. (no date). "Nigerian Demography: Pattems and processes ofNrger1an migration http://www.uni.edu/gaifNigeria/Background/ Standard9.htrr1l.

,_,.r¢T;-Y_$£l££E@H°i**"M`T ________ ,,,7 CHAPTER SEVENTEEN SOME MICRO-LEVEL ISSUES IN MIGRATION AND LIVELIHOOD I. Uwuzieh C. Eze] and C. Nwajiubaj [Department ofEconomics, A Ivan [koku College of Education, Owerri, Nigeria; 2Department of Agricultural Economics, Federal University of Technology, Owerri, Nigeria; 3 Department of A gricultural Economics, Imo State University, Owerri, Nigeria INTRODUCTION There is demographic transformation due to increasing rural out-migration in most of sub-Saharan Africa. It is projected that ninety percent of the worlds' increased population will be located in urban areas, posing fomiidable social challenges (SERAGELDIN, 1993). More persons will reside in urban areas rather than rural areas in most of sub-Saharan Africa, including Nigeria. This has consequences for livelihood. The nexus between migration and livelihood is therefore a contemporary research and policy challenge. Migration could be intemal or extemal. Intemal migration is the movement within a particular country. This type of migration, within the scope of this paper can be viewed as the usual rural-urban migration that exists within a country. For instance, it is known that significant migration exists from southeast Nigeria to Lagos, Abuja, Kano, Kaduna, Portharcourt, and other cities in Nigeria. This kind of migration according to TODARO (1981) is population mobility from rural areas to urban areas. The growth of urban centres can be attributed to rural —urban migration. Migration could be rural-rural, rural—urban, urban-rural or urban-urban. Intemational migration involves movement from one country to another. This is expected to further be the case in the coming decades (HANSON, 1997). A number of factors influence these, and also have consequences for livelihood. It is hypothesised that there is an interrelationship between migration and livelihood for the migrant, the places migrated to and the place of origin. This would serve

the purpose of synthesizing the state of knowledge on these matters and make input into effective development policies. The central issues rs, lwhat are the impact and consequences of migration on the source and the destination areas? While considerable attention has been given to assessing the pros and cons of migration, there is wide difference of opinion on the various points raised. We will therefore attempt to assess the favourable and unfavourable aspects of local and intemational migration as they affect the source areas, the destination areas, the migrant and his family. BASIC CONCEPTS Rural-rural migration: This involves movement from one rural area to another. This is common with the agriculttual sector especially in the less developed parts of the world where shiiiing cultivation and pastoral farming systems are prevalent. The driving force here is usually resource-related like land scarcity, soil infertility and demand for grazing land. Rural—urban migration: This is the movement of people from rural areas to urban settlements. The dominant economic activity of rural areas is usually agricultural, while for urban areas are non-agricultural. Disparities in wages and eamings in urban, non-agricultural sectors are stimulus for rural-urban migration. Average eaming in the agricultural sector is less than eamings in the nonagricultural and non-rural sectors. It is also usually lower than the average national income per capita. Urban-rural migration: This may be commonly referred to as retum migration or counter migration. This is prevalent among retired workers retuming from urban non—farm sectors. Urban-urban migration: This occurs due to labour mobility within an economy. lt could also be induced by geographical unemployment among other factors. A typical example of urban to urban migration is the movement of people from cities such as Lagos in the south—westem part of Nigeria to Portharcourt in the ;puth—s0uth. The reason for this is the discovery of crude oil in Portharcourt area. ence, many people are migrating from some urban areas in search of employment in the petroleum.

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