FICEDIAEVAL JliSTORY EUROPE FROM THE S ECOND TO THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY FO U RT H
EDITI O N
BY CARL STEPHENSON LATE PRO...
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FICEDIAEVAL JliSTORY EUROPE FROM THE S ECOND TO THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY FO U RT H
EDITI O N
BY CARL STEPHENSON LATE PROFESSOR OF HISTORY CORNELL UNIVERSITY
EDITED AND REVISED BY BRYCE LYON PROFESSOR OF HISTORY UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA AT BERKELEY
HARPER·& ·Row PUBLISHERS, NEW YORK, EVANSTON, AND LONDON
OCT. 231973
MEDIAEVAL HISTORY: EUROPE FROM THE SECOND TO THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY, FOURTH EDITION
Copyright 1 9 3 5 , 1943, 1 9 5 1 by Harper & Row, Publishers, Incorporated Copyright © 1962 by Bryce Lyon
Printed in the United States of America All rights reserved. No part of chis book may be used or reproduced in any manner whatsoever without written permission except in the case of brief quotations embodied in critical articles and reviews. For informacion address Harper & Row, Publishers, Incorporated, 49 East 3 3rd Street, New York 16, N.Y. Library of Congress catalog card number : 62-8892
.,
G-O
TO THE MEMORY OF A REVERED MASTER CHARLES HoMER HASKINS
Contents
PREFACE TO THE FOURTH EDITION
INTRODUCTION: PRELIMINARY DEFINITIONS I. THE ROMAN WORLD 1 . Government and Law 2. Graeco-Roman Culture 3. Material Conditions of Life II. THE DECLINE OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE 1. From Principate to Absolute Monarchy 2. Social Deterioration 3. The New Religions
xxi 1
6
28
III. THE BARBARIZATION OF THE WEST 1 . The Barbarians Before the Invasions 2. The Imperial Collapse 3. The Germans in the Empire
48
IV. THE CHURCH AFTER CONSTANTINE 1 . Ecclesiastical Government 2. Monasticism 3. Education and Learning
66
vii
vut
CONTENTS V. THE 1. 2. 3.
EMPIRE IN THE SIXTH CENTIJRY Justinian and the Roman World The Empire Under Justinian's Successors Byzantine Culture
VI. THE RISE OF ISLAM 1. Arabia and the Arabs 2. Mohammed and Mohammedanism 3. The Caliphate and the Arab Empire VII. THE PAPACY AND THE BARBARIAN WEST 1. Gregory the Great 2. The Dark Age of Latin Learning 3. The Revival of the Frankish Monarchy VIII. THE CAROLINGIAN EMPIRE 1. Charlemagne and His Government 2. Society and Culture 3. The Disintegration of the Carolingian Empire IX. THE GREEK AND MOSLEM WORLDS 1. The Byzantine Empire and Its Cultural Influence 2. The Literature and Learning of Islam 3. Material Civilization in the East
85
109
130
150
178
X. THE DEVELOPMENT OF FEUDALISM 1. Beginnings of Political Reconstruction 2. Feudal Institutions 3 . The Spread of Feudal Custom
199
XI. AGRARIAN AND MILITARY SOCIETY 1. The Manorial System 2. Life in Castle and Village 3. The Feudal Epic
220
XII. THE EMPIRE, THE PAPACY, AND THE CRUSADE 1. The Holy Roman Empire 2. The Restoration of the Papal Authority 3. The First Crusade
242
XIII. THE GROWTH OF THE TOWNS 1. The Revival of Commerce 2. Elementary Bourgeois Liberties 3. The Communes
266
XIV. THE DEVELOPMENT OF UNIVERSITY EDUCATION 1. From Gerbert to Abelard
292
CONTENTS
ix
2. Scholasticism and the New Learning 3. The Beginnings of the Universities XV. DEVELOPMENTS IN LITERATURE 1 . Mediaeval Latin 2. The Vernacular Lyric and Mediaeval Music 3 . The Romance and Other Literary Forms XVI. DEVELOPMENTS IN STRUCTURAL AND DECORATIVE ARTS 1 . Romanesque Art 2. Gothic Art 3. Industrial Am and Crafts
313
333
XVII. THE LATIN WORLD AFTER THE FIRST CRUSADE 1. France and the British Isles 2. Germany, Scandinavia, and Eastern Europe 3. Spain, Italy, and Syria
374
XVIII. THE TRIUMPH OF THE PAPACY 1. Europe in the Later Twelfth Century 2. Innocent III 3. The Third and Fourth Crusades
396
XIX. HERESY, THE FRIARS, AND THE UNIVERSITIES 1 . The Problem of Ecclesiastical Reform 2. The Mendicant Orders and the Inquisition 3. The Progress of Scholasticism XX. CHURCH AND STATE AFTER INNOCENT III 1. Frederick II 2. France and Western Europe 3. Germany and Eastern Europe XXI. THE GROWTH OF OPPOSITION TO THE PAPACY 1 . The Emergence of Constitutional Monarchy 2. Boniface VIII and the Avignon Papacy 3. Popular Literature and Anticlerical Agitation
4 17
438
460
.
XXII. FRANCE AND ENGLAND DURING THE HUNDRED YEARS' WAR 1. The Beginning of the War and Charles V 2. The Decline and Revival of England 3. Jeanne d'Arc and the End of the War XXIII. THE DECLINE OF THE CHURCH 1. The Great Schism and the Spread of Heresy
484
506
CONTENTS
X
2. The Councils of Constance and Basel
3. Eastern Europe and the New Moslem Offensive XXIV. SOCIETY AND COMMERCE IN THE LATER MIDDLE AGES 1 . The Bourgeoisie and the Growth of Capitalism 2. The Decay of the Manorial System and of Feudalism 3. The Mediterranean, the Baltic, and the New Routes XXV. THE ADVANCE OF SECULAR CULTURE 1. Vernacular Literature 2. The New Styles in Architecture and the Related Arts 3. Scholasticism, Science, and Humanism XXVI. EUROPE IN THE LATER FIFTEENTH CENTURY 1. The New Despots 2. The Church and the Witchcraft Delusion 3. Material Conditions of Life
525
5 49
578
CONCLUSION: THE SIGNIFICANCE OF THE MIDDLE AGES
5 99
CHRONOLOGICAL CHARTS
603
INDEX
617
ILLUSTRATIONS
The Bayeux Tapestry Royal Palace of Theodoric The Emperor Justinian The Empress Theodora Basilica of Porta Maggiore at Rome Santa Sophia at Constantinople Plan of Santa Sophia Church of San Vitale at Ravenna Plan of the Abbey of St. Gall Carolingian Minuscule Writing Charlemagne's Basilica at Aix-la-Chapelle Mosque at Cordova Berkhampstead Castle in Hertfordshire East Newton in England Seal of Guy de Dampierre, Count of Flanders Caernarvon Castle Aerial View of Carcassonne Seal of the Flemish Town of Damme Market Hall of St. Pierre-sur-Dives ( Calvados ) in Normandy xi
Cover 59 88 88 103 106 106 107 136 1 67 1 68 1 94 209 223 229 230 231 272 274
xu
ILLUSTRATIONS
Aerial Photograph of Friedeberg in Brandenburg Mediaeval Town House Hotel de Vauluisant Doge of Venice Town Hall of Siena Seal of the Town of Ypres Seal of the Town of Antwerp Seal of the Town of Tournai Armillary Sphere Church of St. Mark at Venice Cathedral of Saint-Front at Perigueux ( Dordogne ) Campanile and Cathedral of Santa Maria at Pisa Basilica of Sant' Ambrogio at Milan Cathedral of San Martino at Lucca Abbey Church of Santa Maria at Pomposa ( Ferrara ) Cathedral of Worms Cathedral of Saint-Sernin at Toulouse Church of Notre-Dame-du-Port at Clermont-Ferrand Abbey Church of Maria Laach Church of La Madeleine at V ezelai .Abbaye-aux-Hommes ( St. Etienne ) at Caen Mediaeval Scaffolding Elevations of Mediaeval Cathedrals Cathedral of Amiens Cathedral of Beauvais Cathedral of Saint-Julien at Le Mans Cathedral of York Cathedral of Chartres Cathedral of Bourges Cathedral of Chartres Cathedral of Amiens Monte Cassino Miniatures Sketches of Apses and Ambulatories by Villard de Honnecourt Sketches of Naves by Villard de Honnecourt The West Tower of Laon Cathedral A Flying Buttress of Reims Cathedral Cathedral of Monreale in Sicily Cathedral of San Pietro at Cefalu Krac-des-Chevaliers Cathedral of Albi Seal of the Bishop of Liege
277 279 279 285 286 288 288 288 294 3 34 335 336 336 3 37 337 338-339 340 341 342 343 34 4 347 347 350-3 5 2 353 354 355 356 357 3 5 8-35 9 360 364-367 368 368 369 370 390 391 393 42 1 423
ILLUSTRATIONS
xut
Fresco of Giotto 425 Six Episodes from the Life of St. Louis 446 A Session of the Royal Court of Philip VI of France 448 45 1 King John of England 465 Seal of Philip IV of France Seal of Edward III of England 487 488 King John the Good of France John the Fearless, Duke of Burgundy 498 Philip the Good, Duke of Burgundy 5 04 Fresco of Ambrogio Lorenzetti 5 30 558 The Butter Tower of Rouen Cathedral Cathedral of Gloucester 559 Cathedral o f Winchester 5 60 561 Town Hall of Bruges House o f Jacques Coeur a t Bourges 5 62 5 64 Miniature from the Book of Hours Illuminated Miniature 5 65 St. Luke Drawing a Portrait of the Virgin by Roger van der Weyden 566 5 67 Detail of St. Luke Drawing the Virgin Reliquary of Charles the Rash, Duke of Burgundy 5 70 570 Collar of the Order of the Golden Fleece Cathedral of Florence 571 573 Anatomical Drawing by Guido da Vigevano Portrait o f Charles the Rash, Duke o f Burgundy 5 80
FIGURES
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 1 1. 12. 13. 14. 15. 1 6. 17. 1 8.
Greek Entablature. Ground Plan of a Basilican Church. Section of a Basilican Church. Dome on Pendentives. Toledo Astrolabe of the Eleventh Century. Arches. The Expansion of Mediaeval Cologne. The Expansion of Mediaeval Ghent. Barrel Vault. Cross Vault. Section of Notre-Dame ( Clermont) . Gothic Vault. Skeleton of Amiens Cathedral. Section of a Gothic Pier. Ground Plan of Reims Cathedral. Al-Idrisi's Map of the World. Chart of the Black Sea by Petrus Vesconte. Examples of Early Printing. XV
15 104 104 105 190 195 270 271 335 335 340 34 9 34 9 352 352 543 545 5 97
MAPS
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 1 3. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18.
The Roman Empire and Its Neighbors in the Fourth Century. Constantinople. Europe at the Death of Clovis. Italy after the Lombard Invasion. The Growth o f the Arab Empire. The Anglo-Saxons in Britain. The Formation of the Carolingian Empire. The Disintegration o f the Carolingian Empire. Europe at the Time of the First Crusade. Latin States in Syria. Towns o f Western Europe in the Thirteenth Century. The Extension of the Capetian Domain. The Eastern Mediterranean after the Fourth Crusade. Spain at the Close of the Thirteenth Century. The Extension of German Power in the Baltic. Central and Eastern Europe about 147 5 . The Ottoman Empire in 1481. France at the Death of Louis XI. xvii
10 30 92 96 122 1 31 152 170 258 264 282 401 414 453 457 519 520 579
GENEALOGICAL TABLES
I. II. Ill IV. V. VI. VII. VIII. IX. X. XL XII. XIII. XIV. XV. XVI.
The Early Carolingians. The Later Carolingians. The Early Capetians. The Saxon and Franconian Kings. The Norman Kings. The Haureville House. The Angevin Kings. The Hohenstaufen House. The House of Guelf. The Capetian House ( 1 108 to 1285 ) . The Habsburg House. The Last Capetian Kings. The Valois House ( 1 328 to 1498 ) . The Houses of Lancaster and York. The Burgundian Dukes in the Low Countries. The Luxemburg House.
XIX
146 174 211 244 378 389 397 402 403 445 456 466 486 496 5 04 511
PREFACE TO THE FOURTH EDITION
IT IS now ten years since the third edition of Carl Stephenson's Mediaeval History appeared. There would certainly have been a fourth edition long ago if Carl Stephenson had not died in 1954. So acute was his historical con science that he could not long remain satisfied with a book which did not reflect the results of the best and most recent scholarship. The present revised edition is an attempt to do what he would have done if death had not inter vened. Perhaps my part in this edition should be explained. There are two reasons for it. The first is that Carl Stephenson named me his literary heir, responsible for subsequent editions of his writings. The second, and what I consider the more important, is my conviction that a text so useful and suc cessful for a quarter-century should not be allowed to die. If it appears pre sumptuous for me to revise a book of Carl Stephenson, may I say that I have done so out of loyalty to a fine master and out of a belief that my close association with him has taught me something of his feeling for mediaeval history. I only hope that I have captured some of his sensitive spirit and been faithful to his high standards of style and clarity. I have made a number of changes. More detail has gone into the sections on political history to fill out a story that at times was overly brief. To in corporate the results of the latest scholarship, the chapters dealing with Byzan· xxi
xxii
PREFACE TO THE FOURTH EDITION
tine, Islamic, cultural, artistic, and late mediaeval economic history have been considerably revised and augmented. The physical appearance of the book has undergone major renovation. The bibliography, which has been com pletely revised and brought up to date, is no longer at the end of the book; it has been broken up and placed as Suggested Reading at the end of each chapter. Genealogical tables have been expanded and are now located in the text to facilitate reference. The maps have not been redrawn, but some have been redesigned with the hope of making them more aesthetically pleasing and clearer in the presentation of geographical information. Most of the illustrations and some of the figures are new and have been appropriately placed in the text. Finally, the marginal headings have been abandoned, not because they are without value, but in the interest of printing economy. To atone partially for this change, frequent subheadings have been added within the tripartite sections of each chapter. If, as I hope, this edition upholds the fine tradition of mediaeval scholarship in which Carl Stephenson was trained and which he himself did so much to maintain, then its continued dedication to Charles Homer Haskins will be justified. It is a privilege to acknowledge my debt to the scholarship that has made possible this edition, to emphasize that such a book rests upon the labor of numerous mediaevalists who have devoted themselves to widening and deepening our knowledge of the Middle Ages. Again, as so often upon previous occasions, I am happy to acknowledge the help of my wife who has typed and revised the manuscript and given wise counsel. BRYCE LYON
january 21, 1962
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS FOR ILLUSTRATIONS
Aerofilms &_Aero Pictorial Ltd-p. 393 Alinari Photo-pp. 107, 286 Alinari-Anderson Photo-p. 334 Archives Generales du Royaume, Bruxelles-pp. 229, 272, 288, 423, 465 , 487 Archives Photographiques d'Art et d'Histoire, Paris-pp. 279, 5 62 Ars Liturgica, Maria Laach, Germany-p. 342 Marcel Aubert, Cathedrales Gothiques de France, Grenoble, B. Arthaud, 1959 -pp. 354, 3 5 8 Bibliotheque Nationale, Paris-p. 446 Bildarchiv Foto Marburg, Marburg-p. 5 6 1 British Air Ministry, British Crown Copyright Reserved-p. 223 British Information Services of the British Consulate General-p. 230 Brown Brothers-p. 5 80 Dr. Harald Busch, Frankfurt am Main-pp. 1 68, 3 39 Cathedral of Saint Paul, Liege-p. 570 left Cliche La Cigogne-p. 3 5 1 H. S. H. Prince de Croy-Roeulx, Le Roeulx, Belgium-p. 5 70 right Daniel-Rops and Yvan Christ, Cathedrales de France, Paris, :bditions des DeuxMondes, 1950-pp. 357, 360 H. Decker, Romanesque Art in Italy, published by Abrams, Inc., New York, and Thames and Hudson Ltd, London-pp. 3 36-337, 390-39 1 John Fitchen, The Construction of Gothic Cathedrals, Oxford, The Clarendon Press, 1 961-pp. 3 3 5 , 347 Joseph Gantner and Marcel Pobe, Romanesque Art in France, published by Abrams, Inc., New York, and Thames and Hudson Ltd, London-pp. 3 3 5 , 341, 3 5 9 Page numbers following the sources indicate the pages o n which the illustrations appear in this text. xxiii
XXlV
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS FOR ILLUSTRATIONS
Dr. Andreas Grote, Florence-p. 5 7 1 R . T. Gunther, The Astrolabes of the World, Oxford, Oxford University Press -p. 190 Hans R. Hahnloser, Villard de Honnecourt. Kritische Gesamtausgabe des Bau huttenbuches ms. fr. 19093 der Pariser Nationalbibliothek, Vienna, Anton Schroll, 1 935-pp. 368-370 Walter W. Horn-p. 274 Charles Hurault, St. Germain-en-Laye-p. 3 5 6 Martin Hiirlimann, English Cathedrals, published by Viking Press, New York, and Thames and Hudson Ltd, London-pp. 3 5 5 , 5 5 9-560 Koninklijk Museum voor Schone Kunsten, Antwerp-p. 498 Kunsthistorisches Seminar, Univeristat Miinchen-p. 352 La Documentation Fran 0
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staufen was no unmixed blessing and should try to check their overzealous vas sal. In 1 2 8 1 , however, Charles removed that source of opposition by securing the election to the papal throne of another complaisant Frenchman, Martin IV. Everything now seemed propitious for the launching of a magnificent enter prise to the east, when all his dreams were shattered by a major catastrophe in the west-the Sicilian Vespers of 1 282. On Easter Monday, while the church-bells were ringing for the evening serv ice, an anti-French insurrection began at Palermo. Thence it spread throughout the island, to end in a general massacre of all who had supported the Angevin cause. The disaster was irreparable; for it coincided with armed intervention from Aragon, a power which Charles had foolishly underestimated. As already remarked, a new era had begun for that little kingdom in 1 1 5 0, when it was acquired through marriage by a count of Barcelona. Henceforth established on the sea, Aragon was pushed southward at the expense of the Moors, finally to include, under James the Conqueror ( 1 2 1 3-1276 ) , the port of Valencia and the Balearic Islands ( see Map 1 4 ) . It was his son Peter III ( 1 236-1285 ) who now, being married to a daughter of Manfred, showed an interest in the king dom of Sicily. At the very moment when the Sicilians rose in revolt, Peter hap pened-so he said-to be nearby with a fleet bound for Africa. Having landed at the request of the rebels, he agreed to be their king and to defend them against all aggression. The immediate result of this affair was the proclamation by Martin IV of a
454
MEDIAEVAL HISTORY
crusade against Aragon. The prime mover in the enterprise was of course Charles of Anjou; but Philip III of France, who had succeeded Louis IX in 1 270, was enlisted as commander of the expedition by the offer of the Arago nese crown to his younger brother. Whatever the hopes of the papal coalition, they quickly faded, and the year 1 285 brought death to all the major partici pants: first to Charles of Anjou, then to Pope Martin, next to Philip of France, and finally to Peter of Aragon. Of the four the most picturesque figure was assuredly the Capetian adventurer. His passing marked the end of the last serious attempt in the Middle Ages to bring Italy under one secular administra tion. Henceforth the peninsula was left to unceasing conflict among a horde of petty states. One of them at the bottom of Italy was styled the kingdom of Sicily; but it no longer included the island of that name, which continued to form a separate kingdom under a branch of the Aragonese house. This was the origin of the famous Two Sicilies, which were marked on the political map of Europe until the nineteenth century. The fortunes of the other Italian states can be more conveniently examined in later chapters. Superficially the popes seemed now to have gained the independence for which they had so long striven. The Hohenstaufen dynasty had been ex tirpated; the Holy Roman Empire had virtually ceased to exist; Italy had re lapsed into chaos; even the proud kingdom of Sicily had been divided and ruined. This series of disasters to the imperial cause might indeed be taken to mark a signal triumph for the papacy, but its cost was heavy. Gregory VII's political defeat proved to be a great moral victory for the church; the political victories of his thirteenth-century successors were accompanied by a shocking decline in ecclesiastical prestige. It was not that the later popes were bad men; their average in personal integrity was extraordinarily high. The source of trouble lay rather in the traditions of their office-traditions which forced them to devote their best energies to the nonreligious tasks of diplomacy, warfare, and finance. In a more primitive age the pope could play an active part in world politics and yet remain primarily a spiritual leader. That was now im possible. The test of a good politician is success. In their effort to be successful, the popes of the thirteenth century forgot that there are nobler ambitions-and they could not always succeed. The Roman Church, by identifying itself with the Angevin cause in Italy, suffered defeat along with it. The Sicilian Vespers were a disaster from which the papacy, as a secular power, never recovered. And the ensuing war of papal revenge against Aragon was even more calamitous, for it proclaimed the utter degradation of the crusading ideal. While papal threats and curses were being ignored by the disillusioned peoples of the west, the Moslems completed the reconquest of the Holy Land, taking Antioch in 1 268 and Acre in 1 2 9 1 . This deprived the west of its last possession in Syria; thereafter the great crusade was merely a glorious memory.
CHURCH AND STATE AFTER INNOCENT III 3·
455
Germany and Eastern Europe
The later thirteenth century also witnessed the final disintegration of Germany. Even while Frederick II lived, his northern kingdom had been virtually aban doned to the local princes because his first and only interest was Sicily and Italy. With the disappearance of the Hohenstaufen dynasty, there occurred an Inter regnum during which the German princes ruled the country. And when they finally agreed to hold an election, they deliberately chose an obscure Alsatian landgrave named Rudolf of Habsburg ( 1 273- 1 29 1 ) whose lands were con centrated in the area that is now eastern Switzerland and western Austria. RUDOLF OF HABSBURG AND THE GERMAN CONFEDERATIONS
Rudolf very sensibly accepted conditions as he found them. He never went to Italy and even at home made no effort to revive the monarchical power. Instead he devoted his energy to improving the fortunes of his own family-a project in which he won remarkable success. Rudolf's opportunity arose when Ottokar, king of Bohemia, refused to recognize his accession or to attend his court. After the rebel's fiefs had been declared forfeit, Rudolf took the field against him and slew him in battle. Seizing Austria, Styria, Carinthia, and Carniola, which Ot tokar had held of the German crown, Rudolf gave them to members of his own house. Thus was established a Habsburg dominion on the upper Danube that was to persist until 1 9 1 8 ( see Map 1 6, p. 5 1 9 ) . Thenceforth the Holy Roman Empire, practically identified with Germany, remained a sort of theoretical union, symbolized by an elected king who had no real power beyond what he might enjoy as ruler of a hereditary principal ity. Under such conditions many local associations were established for the sake of common defense, but of them only two can be mentioned here. One was the Hansa, the great northern league of German towns, which will be discussed when we come to the subject of Baltic trade. The other was the Swiss Confederation founded in 1 29 1 by the mountaineers of Uri, Schwyz, and Unterwalden, the so-called Forest Cantons that constituted a portion of the original Habsburg territory. To explain the origin of this confederation we do not have to imagine the persistence of primitive institutions in isolated valleys. As a matter of fact, the Swiss were not isolated; for their homes were situated on the highroad connecting the St. Gothard pass with the Rhine. From the Italian side had long come tales of victorious communes. To the north was Freiburg-im-Breisgau,13 whose customs had been extended to Bern and other nearby towns. In demanding rights of self-government the Forest Cantons were merely following the example already set by rural communities in all the 13 See
above, p. 276.
MEDIAEVAL HISTORY
45 6
Rudolf of Habsburg ( 1273-129 1 )
I
Albert I ( 1 298- 1 3 0 8 )
r
Frederick ( opposed louis
l
( Dukes of Austria) 1
Albert II
of Bavaria)
Albert III
leopold, slain at Sempach ( 1 3 8 6 )
I I
I
Albert IV
I
Albert V (II)
( 1438-1439)
Ernest
Frederick III ( 1440-1493 )
Charles the Rash
I
Mary of Burgundy ( See p. 582)
=
I
Maximilian ( 1493-1 5 19 )
House of Habsburg in Austria, Bohemia, Netherlands, Spain, etc.
TABLE XI. THE HABSBURG HOUSE
more advanced regions of Europe. When, i n 1 2 9 1 , the Swiss took a n oath to resist aggression and defend their rights, their object was to free themselves from the Habsburg rule. With the elevation of Rudolf to the German throne they had recently come to stand directly under the monarchy. Now that the king was dead, they sought to maintain that position-like the free cities of Germany, to hold their liberties immediately from the empire. And eventually, thanks to events that will be described in a later connection, they were able to attain their ambition. EASTERN EUROPE IN THE THIRTEENTH CENTURY
Turning our attention to eastern Europe, we find that by 1 2 5 0 two major changes had been made in the political map. As a consequence of the Fourth Crusade, the Byzantine Empire had all but disappeared, while another great horde of Asiatic nomads-the Mongols or Tartars of Jenghis Khan and his successors-had destroyed the Russian state and subjected its inhabitants. For the Christian lands farther west it was sheer good fortune that the Mongols
MAP 1 5
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Centers of Hansa Trade
� Dominions of Teutonic Knights
IN THE BALTIC
GERMAN POWER
THE EXTENSION OF
...
45 8
MEDIAEVAL HISTORY
now diverted their energies towards Mesopotamia, where in 1 2 5 8 they took Bagdad and slew the last of the Abbasid caliphs. The three kingdoms along the German border thus escaped serious danger : Hungary, which included Croatia and so reached the Adriatic; Bohemia, which had been definitely incorporated in the Holy Roman Empire as a fief of the German crown; and Poland, which like Hungary had thrown off its earlier dependence on Germany. To the north along the Baltic lived a series of peoples who were still for the most part heathen : between the Vistula and the Dwina the Prussians, Lithuanians, and Letts, speaking an Indo-European language that was neither Slavic nor Ger manic; farther eastward the Livs, Kurs, Esths, and Finns, speaking a variety of Ural-Altaic dialects. If the Polish monarchy had remained as strong as it had been two hundred years earlier, the southern Baltic coast might have had an altogether different fate. But by the thirteenth century Poland had badly weakened, and the Ger mans, already in possession of Mecklenburg and Pomerania, found nothing to prevent their advance into Prussia ( see Map 1 5 ) . The project of Christianizing another heathen land naturally received the support of the papacy, with the result that in 1230 the direction of the Prussian war was given to the Teutonic Knights. This religious order, like the Templars and Hospitallers, had origi nally been founded as an organization of crusaders in Palestine; now, with the victorious advance of the Moslems, its activity was gradually diverted to the north. In 1 2 3 7 it absorbed a similar order, the Brothers of the Sword, that had been established by a missionary bishop in Livonia, and together the two won great success. Within a hundred years the whole Baltic coast from the Pomeranian border to the Gulf of Finland was held by the Knights, who there, under the nominal control of the papacy, exercised sovereign powers. On all sides they carved out fiefs to be held by German barons, settled the devastated areas with German peasants, and, cooperating with the Hansa,1 4 built new towns for the benefit of German merchants. In spite of the Polish revival in the next century,15 much of this work has never been undone. Prussia, especially, became a thoroughly German country, and so remains today. Meanwhile the Russians, submerged under the tide of Mongol conquest, all but disappeared as an independent people. Only one of the Russian states was able to survive-the little northern republic of Novgorod, whose flourishing commerce brought it into close affiliation with the Hanseatic towns of the Baltic. The restoration of political sovereignty to Russia as a whole came much later, in an age that lies beyond the scope of this book. Here it can merely be noted that the nucleus of modern Russia was the principality of Moscow ( Muscovy) , whose rulers led a successful revolt against their Mongol lords to14 See below, pp. 540-542. 15 See below, p. 5 1 8.
CHURCH AND STATE AFTER INNOCENT III
459
wards the close of the fourteenth century and then, in the course of the next two hundred years, subjected all their Russian rivals. As had often happened in the past, it was the Slavs, rather than their conquerors, who throve and multiplied.
SuGGESTED READING
All the books cited previously on mediaeval Germany deal with Frederick II. The principal study is E. Kantorowicz's Frederick II ( London, 1931 ) . Another biography is that of G. Masson, Frederick II of Hohenstaufen ( London, 1957 ) . A more technical study is T. C. Van Clive's Markward of Anweiler and the Minority of Frederick II ( PrincetOn, 1937 ) . See also Haskins, The Normans in European His tory, chap. viii, and the special articles in the same author's Studies in the History of Mediaeval Science. For Frederick's own work on birds, anyone interested should by all means read the translation by C. A. Wood and F. M. Fife, published as The Art of Falconry ( Stanford, 1 943 ) . For thirteenth-century England the standard work is F. M. Powicke's The Thirteenth Century, 1 2 1 6-1307 ( Oxford, 1953 ) . For the constitutional problems see Lyon, Constitutional and Legal History of Medieval England, and B. Wilkinson, Constitutional History of Medieval England, 1 2 1 6-1399 ( London, 1 948-1958 ) , 3 vols. Particularly good on Magna Carta is Powicke's Stephen Langton ( Oxford, 1928 ) . For the baronial struggle during the reign of Henry III, see R. F. Treharne, The Baronial Plan of Reform, 1 258-1 263 ( Manchester, 1932 ) , and C. Bemont, Simon de Montfort ( Oxford, 1930 ) . Magna Carta and the pertinent records are found in Stephenson and Marcham, Sources of English Constitutional History. There are also a number of chronicles easily available in translation. On thirteenth-century France one should consult Petit-Dutaillis, Feudal Mon archy, and Fawtier, The Capetian Kings. A fair study of St. Louis is F. Perry's St. Louis, the Most Christian King ( New York, 190 1 ) . On Sr. Louis and his crusade the one work that should be read by everybody is Joinville's biography, which can be found in several translations including one in the *Everyman Library entitled Memoirs of the Crusades. For the end of the Hohenstaufen dynasty and for political developments in central and eastern Europe see the Cambridge Me dieval History, vols. VI and VII. The one book that should be specifically noted is *S. Runciman's The Sicilian Vespers: A History of the Mediterranean World in the Later Thirteenth Century ( Cambridge, 1958 ) .
�� I
THE GROWTH OF OPPOSITION TO THE PAPACY
I.
The Emergence of Constitutional Monarchy
EDWARD I ( 1272-1 307 ) , already an experienced man of thirty-two when he acquired the English crown, proved to be an admirable king, famous not only for his conquests and his legal enactments but also for his unstained pri vate life. An ardent knight and a loyal son of the church, he allowed neither romantic chivalry nor exaggerated piety to outweigh the practical demands of his office. He made good use of his excellent education, especially in the fields of law and administration. His reputation for justice rivaled that of St. Louis. Despite a proud and ambitious temper and a tendency to be slothful like his father Henry III, Edward offset these characteristics by boundless energy, ex ceptional powers of concentration, and a sense of order and efficiency. His enemies, and occasionally his subjects, found him a hard man; yet even his hardness, after the feeble rule of Henry III, might be accounted a political vir tue. In many ways the reign of Edward I influenced the whole future of Eng land. Only that of Henry II compares with it in the development of English institutions. 460
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461
THE ENGLISH STATE UNDER EDWARD I
How the judicial reforms of Henry II inaugurated the English common law has been seen in an earlier connection. During the succeeding reigns, without regard to the fluctuations of foreign war, the system maintained a vigorous growth. Its basis was the series of writs1 granted by the royal justices to per sons who wished to have their suits tried in the king's court. And since new writs were devised at pleasure until the practice was checked under Edward I, the thirteenth century witnessed the rapid development of the common law. In this respect the prohibitions of Magna Carta were of no avail; what the judges might not do under one form they did under another. As a consequence, the royal courts rapidly secured a monopoly of j ustice, with noteworthy exceptions. Ecclesiastical courts still enjoyed extensive powers, especially in cases of mar riage, wills, perjury, and, to a limited degree, criminous clerks.2 Manorial courts continued to deal with matters of villeinage, for servile tenures were not protected by the king's law. The boroughs and certain other localities re mained under their own peculiar customs for many centuries to come. Fur thermore, a large number of barons asserted the right to exercise criminal jurisdiction of an inferior sort; but such claims were rigidly investigated under Edward I and allowed to stand only as a specific delegation from the monarchy. The thirteenth century was also the age when the jury system was extended in many ways not contemplated by Henry II. In cases regarding the tenure of land the question put to the jury was gradually changed, by means of various preliminary motions, from a matter of possession to one of legal title. And as juries came to be employed for settling these and other disputes over civil rights, the men who were impaneled, instead of rendering a verdict on the basis of their own knowledge, had to learn the facts from the testimony of witnesses in open court. Under the original plan of Henry II, criminals presented by a grand jury were sent to the ordeal. Then, in 1 2 1 5 , the participation of clergy in that method of trial was forbidden by Innocent III in his Lateran Council. The English government, being thoroughly obedient to the papacy, thus had to devise a substitute for trial by ordeal which, because of its semireligious na ture, required the presence of the clergy for part of the procedure. Eventually the practice was adopted of leaving the accused man's guilt or innocence to a special jury of twelve. It was a long time, however, before jury trial for crimi nal cases came to be governed by such elaborate rules as are enforced today. By the time of Edward I there had also been a significant evolution of the 1 A writ is an order in writing issued by a court. Since the writs were originally in Latin, many of them are still known by their initial words in that language : e.g., certiorari, manda mus, scire facias, subpoena, habeas corpus. 2 See above, pp. 398-399.
462
MEDIAEVAL HISTORY
English courts; as in France, the curia regis had tended to subdivide into a num ber of distinct organizations. The first to take form was the exchequer, which kept the financial accounts of the kingdom and sat as a court of law for fiscal cases. In the thirteenth century it came to have a separate personnel under a chancellor of the exchequer, the official who is today an important member of the British cabinet. The second offshoot from the central curia was the court of common pleas, permanently set apart for the trial of cases between private citizens. Suits to which the king was a party normally followed his person until Edward I constituted another permanent court styled the king's bench. The three great courts of common law, thus fixed at Westminster, remained essen tially unchanged until the nineteenth century. Below them were the circuit courts, held in the counties by regularly empowered justices on mission. And exceptional matters of all kinds could yet be taken to the king by means of petition-the procedure that later gave rise to the supplementary legal system called equity. Even more significant for the history of England and of the world was the development of �he assembly that became known as parliament. The word parliament, which was derived from the French verb parler meaning "to talk," long retained its literal meaning-a talking or discussion, rather than a par ticular group of men. In thirteenth-century England it was especially applied to deliberations of the king's central curia. Established custom, as set forth in Magna Carta, required that for all scutages and extraordinary aids the king had to secure the consent of the baronage. And since the lesser barons were only too glad to avoid the expensive journey to court, parliaments came to in clude only the greater barons, lay and clerical-those who were summoned by individual letters. This group, later known as the house of lords, was there fore the original parliament, which then constituted, as it still constitutes, the supreme court of England. But for business other than judicial, parliaments also came to include deputies of the counties and boroughs. In particular, the mounting cost of the royal government necessitated more and more frequent demand for special subsidies-a regular system of taxation in place of the oc casional aids, scutages, tallages, and the like of the previous century. Experi ence proved that the best results were obtained from a uniform levy on the personal property of all classes and that, to facilitate assessment, all classes should be asked to make a voluntary grant. For a long time the kings had made increasing use of the counties and boroughs in connection with the levying of taxes and all sorts of administra tive business. Through the itinerant justices and other commissioners constant negotiations had been kept up with both sets of communities. Such practices led by easy transition to the calling of representatives to meet with the king. Although occasional assemblies of deputies from the counties can be traced
THE GROWTH OF OPPOSITION TO THE PAPACY
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back to the early thirteenth century, Simon de Montfore was in 1 265 the first, so far as we know, also to summon deputies from the boroughs. Edward prob ably had no need of a precedent set by a rebel earl, for arrangements of this sort were being adopted all over Europe. Nevertheless, he followed it. For his greater parliaments Edward assembled no less than three groups in addition to the barons: knights of the shires, elected in the county courts; burgesses, chosen in any way agreeable to the particular communities; and representa tives of the lower clergy, both secular and regular. In his day none of these groups had a definitely constituted membership. By the middle of the four teenth century, however, it became recognized practice for the king-dispens ing with the representation of the lower clergy-to order the election of two knights in each county and of two burgesses in each borough. And since those quotas had been used by Edward for his parliament of 1 295 , the latter be came known as the Model Parliament. Meanwhile, too, the knights of the shires and the burgesses had adopted the custom of sitting together; so, being the deputies of the English communities, they were called the house of communes or, as we say, commons. Edward, it is worth repeating, never thought of organizing a house of commons, and under him the powers of the local representatives remained vague. He had, in fact, no concept of legislation as distinct from the issuing of royal ordinances. Although various important enactments of his reign have al ways been referred to as statutes, the latter term as yet was not restricted to formal acts of parliament. In such matters, as in taxation, the practical Edward adopted any plan that seemed feasible, without regard for what future gen erations might turn into constitutional principles. His handling of a parlia mentary crisis in 1 297 is especially significant. After a long and bitter con troversy with the barons over a tax that was requested for an expedition against France, he finally promulgated his famous Confirmation of the Charters. Thereby he promised to observe Magna Carta as reissued by his father, aban doned his recent increase of duties on imports and exports, and agreed to take no aids or other taxes without the common consent of the kingdom, "saving to the crown those aids and taxes anciently accustomed." Precisely what the king gave up by this last article is hard to see; yet the moral victory lay with parliament. The really important consideration was that, by assuring the good will of all classes in the state, he could afford to drop old exactions that caused more trouble than they were worth. Parliamentary control of royal taxation, the basis of the later constitutional government, was already becoming an es tablished fact. Throughout his entire reign Edward's parliamentary policy was mainly gov erned by his warlike undertakings in Wales and Scotland. Long before his ac3 See above, p. 4 5 1 .
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MEDIAEVAL HISTORY
cession the mountainous peninsula between Bristol Channel and the Irish Sea had come to be divided into two main portions : the southeast under a series of Norman lords marchers and the northwest under a Welsh prince who ac knowledged himself the vassal of the English king. In 1 272 Llewellyn, prince of Wales, foolishly refused the accustomed homage and thus gave Edward a good excuse for marching against him. Finally, after Llewellyn had submit ted and again rebelled, his country was incorporated with England in 1 284 and has so remained down to the present-leaving only a memory to be perpet uated by the title, Prince of Wales, that is borne by the king's eldest son. An other important consequence of the Welsh war was Edward's reform of the army. From experience in the field he learned how to supplement a force of knights with light-armed troops, especially infantry equipped with longbows; and this military lesson, coinciding with his policy of weakening the nobility, led him to supersede the old feudal tenures by a system of voluntary enlistment and pay. The superiority of the army thus formed was soon demonstrated in Scotland. Although the English kings had earlier claimed a vague overlordship in the north of Britain and had exacted homage from the kings of Scotland, Edward was the first of them to exercise any real authority there. His opportunity arose from a disputed succession to the throne in 1290. Having been invited to ar bitrate the affair, he awarded the crown to John Balliol. The new king, in accordance with a previous agreement, duly became Edward's vassal, but re belled when his lord called on him for service in France. Thereupon Edward took his army north, deposed Balliol, and set up a government of his own. A Scottish insurrection under William Wallace led only to another English victory. Using his longbows to prepare for a cavalry cha'rge, Edward annihi lated the Scottish array at Falkirk in 1 298 and once more established his rule throughout Britain. The Scots, however, refused to submit. A new uprising was headed by Robert Bruce, who assumed the crown in 1 307, just before Edward was succeeded by his incompetent son. Attempting to punish the Scottish rebels while ignoring the military lessons of his father, Edward II suffered crushing defeat at Bannockburn in 1 3 14-a battle that established the independence of Scotland for the next three centuries. FRANCE UNDER PHILIP IV
Meanwhile, in 1 285, the French throne had passed to Philip IV ( 1 2851 3 1 4 ) , whose handsome face won him the nickname of "the Fair." Little is known of his personality because he never inspired a biographer like Join ville. His official acts were generally carried out by ministers, principally lay men trained in the new universities and devoted to the traditions of the civil law. Yet it would seem that Philip's �wvernment, in fact as well as in theory,
SEAL OF PHILIP IV OF FRANCE ( 1 2 8 6 ) This seal, known a s the majestic type, depicts Philip attired in his regalian robes, wearing the crown, holding the scepter and orb, and seated on his throne.
was essentially his own-ambitious, mercenary, and unscrupulous. There can, at least, be no doubt that it had significant consequences both for France and Europe as a whole. One of his chief concerns was of course the relation to the crown of the ancient French principalities. Failing an opportunity to secure a great fief by escheat or forfeiture, the king inevitably sought to undermine the barons' power by extending direct control over his subjects. Languedoc, the old county of Toulouse, had now been wholly incorporated in the royal do main and Philip IV, by marrying the heiress of Champagne, had recently ac quired that rich territory. Since Burgundy and Britanny were of secondary im portance, the royal attention would naturally be concentrated on Guienne and Flanders. Edward I, in lawful possession of Guienne, could be counted on to resist all French encroachment and to push his claim to the lands promised by Louis IX but never received. The count of Flanders was considered a weaker antagonist. To all practical intents his state was a union of great self-governing cities, whose prosperity depended on the cloth industry and so upon the im portation of wool from England. By threat of embargo the English king could normally force the count into alliance, although the Flemish aristocracy and great patrician merchants, fearing the urban labor populace, tended to be strongly pro-French. These issues are worth emphasizing because they lay at the root of the so-called Hundred Years' War that began in the next century. Edward I and Philip IV engaged in only sporadic and inconclusive hostilities, the former encouraging the count of Flanders to oppose French aggression, the latter supporting the rebel Scots under Wallace. When the two kings signed peace in 1 298, each deserted his allies. Edward, as we have seen, thereupon conquered Scotland, while Philip proceeded to occupy Flanders. But the mass of the Flemish population, consisting largely of artisans in the weaving trade and the economically allied peasants of the coastal strip in Maritime Flanders,4 refused to accept French domination. In the spring of 1 3 02 the townsmen of 4 See above, p.
281.
MEDIAEVAL HISTORY
466
Bruges suddenly rose up and massacred the French garrison. Known as the Matins of Bruges, this event incited other towns to revolt and forced Philip to send an army to restore order. But all Flanders was now aroused and the urban and peasant militias led by that of Bruges met the invading French army at Courtrai and slaughtered it. This battle shocked all western Europe because the mightiest feudal army of the age had been humbled by lowly F lemish foot soldiers with their pikes. Although Philip somewhat repaired his fortunes in later campaigns, he was soon persuaded to abandon his design of annexing Flanders and to restore the count; for in the meantime he had become em broiled in a much greater controversy with the pope. This affair will be dis cussed in the following section; for the moment something should rather be said of Philip's governmental policy.
;:J
Philip IV ( 1285
=
Louis X ( 1 3 14-1 3 16 )
I I
Philip III ( 1270- 1 28 5 )
heiress of Champagne and Navarre
l
Philip V ( 13 16-1 322 )
Charles IV ( 1322- 1 3 2 8 )
Charles, Count of Valois ( England)
I
Isabelle
=
I
Edward II
Edward III ( See p. 496)
Jeanne, Queen of Navarre Charles the Bad
Philip VI ( 132 8-1 3 5 0 ) ( See p. 486 )
TABLE XII. THE LAST CAP ETlAN KINGS
The most striking contrast between the English and French states arose from the fact that, whereas the former had been conquered as a whole by its ruling house, the latter was built up piece by piece, as first one fief and then another was absorbed into the royal domain. Thus it came about that France had no common law and that, down to the Revolution of 1 789, each province re tained its own peculiar institutions. In England the king's military, judicial, and fiscal pre-eminence had been recognized for over two centuries; in France such powers had to be gradually revived. Philip's taxes and decrees had no validity in the great fiefs without the consent of the respective counts and dukes. Even within the territory that now constituted the royal domain there were scores of nobles and privileged communities that had to be separately dealt with, often at the cost of a stiff consideration. At one time or another the king, in addition to debasing the currency, tried almost every known ex-
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pedient for raising money. He levied feudal aids, tallaged the towns, obtained special grants from the clergy and nobility, extorted loans and gifts, increased the customary tariffs, laid an impost on sales, and, in order to substitute cash equivalents, revived the Carolingian principle that every able-bodied subject owed him military service. But the collection of these taxes caused him serious trouble, sometimes leading to sanguinary riots. It was only towards the end of his reign that Philip learned the advantage of securing subsidies by the vote of representative assemblies called for that purpose. Throughout western Europe it had long been the established custom that, except perhaps in special cases, a prince could tax his noble tenants only by their consent, and this was normally sought from them as a body when as sembled in a great court. The clergy, as a matter of legal necessity, received the same t�eatment when it was asked for subsidies. By the later thirteenth century two orders or estates-the First and Second Estates-had thus appeared in the central assemblies convoked to facilitate taxation or to provide other political support. Meanwhile the towns, as privileged communities, had been consulted individually; had been visited by princely agents whenever they were required to pay an aid or otherwise cooperate with the administration. Eventually, how ever, it was found more convenient to consult them by means of deputies sent to a particular place. Through such procedure arose what was later to be called the Third Estate. The first authenticated general assemblage of the three estates was in 1 302,5 when Philip IV summoned representatives of the towns, together with the barons and the clergy, to one great central court. But consultations with smaller groups had been held earlier, and the more normal procedure in fourteenth-century France was to call estates for separate districts, such as Normandy and Toulouse. Despite all local variation of custom, constitutional development in France and England during the thirteenth century thus remained fundamentally the same. Earlier, as noted above, Frederick II had provided that representatives of the bourgeoisie should attend the councils held for his Sicilian kingdom. Within another generation the cortes of the Spanish kingdoms had likewise come to include deputies from the towns. Meanwhile similar assemblies came to be held sporadically in the kingdom of Germany, as well as in many of its component states. However striking the similarities of constitutional develop ment in thirteenth-century Europe, they did not continue in the following two centuries. Due to different political, social, and economic conditions represent ative assemblies developed in different ways and it was only the English par liament that emerged as a powerful institution capable of controlling the king. On the continent, as we shall see, representative assemblies declined in power and royal absolutism triumphed.6 5 See below, p. 470. 6
See below, pp. 5 7 8-584.
468
MEDIAEVAL HISTORY
2. Boniface VIII and the Avignon Papacy
The ruin of the Hohenstaufen kingdom and the disaster suffered by Charles of Anjou left Italy to be fought over by a medley of local states for the next five hundred years. And the participants in these conflicts long continued to use the old names of Guelf and Ghibelline.7 The latter, an Italian substitute for Hohenstaufen, had come to designate the party of the imperialists; the for mer to designate their opponents, the papalists. So the Angevins were Guelfs and the Aragonese were Ghibellines. ITALIAN PARTICULARISM AND CIVIL STRIFE
Traditionally, Florence and Milan were Guelf, while Pisa and Pavia were Ghibelline. But the alignment was at most a matter of vague loyalty. Flor ence, for example, had no desire for a papal government and might be willing to fight either Milan or the Angevin king. Indeed, the traditional epithets soon lost all but a local significance, to be tossed back and forth in feuds of city against city and of faction against faction. At Florence a Ghibelline coalition, aided by Manfred, took the city in 1 260. Then, six years later, the power of the Guelfs, under a new and more democratic constitution, was restored by Charles of Anjou. His death brought further changes in the government, ac companied by fierce contests between nobles and gildsmen, between the greater and the lesser gilds, and between rival groups of nobles-in all of which the popes played an active and not disinterested part. Such was the environment that influenced Dante Alighieri and, after him, so many other distinguished writers. Largely on account of similar turmoil, it was now the general practice throughout Lombardy for a commune to be governed by a dictator. Some times he was formally elected by the citizens; sometimes he installed himself by force. Whatever the local circumstances, Italians were already becoming used to the despots who were to play a prominent part in their later history. To this fashion one northern city was never to submit; instead Venice became synonymous with political stability through the unbroken rule of a closed oligarchy. The final step in that direction was taken in 1 298, when member ship in the great council, and with it eligibility to governmental office, was made into a strictly hereditary privilege. Thenceforth political power at Venice remained the monopoly of certain great families, whose marriages and births 7
Said to be a corruption of Waiblingen, a family estate of the Hohenstaufen.
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were listed in an official register, the famous Golden Book. How the Fourth Crusade brought the Venetians a splendid maritime empire has already been seen. Much of it they retained, although the restoration of Greek rule at Con stantinople in 1261 broke their control of the straits and readmitted the Genoese. The result, as will be explained below, was a commercial war that lasted for almost another hundred years. THE STRUGGLE OF BONIFACE VIII AND PHILIP IV
In the meantime the failure of Martin IV's Sicilian policy had produced an anti-French reaction among the cardinals, which eventually carried into power the energetic but unfortunate Boniface VIII ( 1 294-1303 ) . The latter, be fore his election, had long been prominent in the service of the Roman Church. He was unquestionably a man of considerable ability, especially in law and business administration. As papal legate in France he had gained the ill will of many influential persons and his election was consequently opposed by the French cardinals; but he received the votes of the principal Italian factions. Subsequently all sorts of scandalous charges were leveled against him, ranging from atheism to moral turpitude. There is no reason to take such accusations for more than the usual invective of fierce partisanship. Judged by his own words and acts, Boniface appears rather a misguided enthusiast than a mon ster of corruption. The ideals to which he gave his passionate devotion were those of his office, consecrated by centuries of tradition. The means he took to serve his ends differed in no essential from those of his predecessors. To a large degree he was the victim of circumstances, being made to suffer for the upholding of long-established principles. On the other hand, it must be ad mitted that Boniface was no statesman. He was utterly lacking in the tact de manded by his position. Having no real understanding of men, he failed to grasp the realities of any situation. With him violence of affirmation seemed always to take the place of intelligent thought. Above all, he failed to recog nize that the Europe of Pope Gregory VII was different from the Europe of 1 300. The first two years of Boniface's pontificate passed quietly. Then, by the bull Clericis Laicos8 in 1 296, he suddenly forbade all secular princes to levy any taxes on the clergy without papal authorization. This act, directed primarily against the subsidies which the kings of .France and England were then raising for their war, was based on good ecclesiastical theory. Yet the event proved that the pope was in no position to enforce his prohibition. While Edward out8 The formal decrees of the popes are called bulls and are commonly known by the first few words of the Latin text. The first sentence of this bull reads : "Antiquity shows that laymen are most hostile to the clergy."
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MEDIAEVAL HISTORY
!awed all who disobeyed him, Philip stopped the exportation of gold and silver from his dominions and so, indirectly, cut off a good portion of the papal reve nue. Within a year Boniface had first modified and then rescinded his decree. Nor was this all. Reversing his previous attitude, he proceeded to treat the French government with the utmost consideration. The reason, obviously, lay in the "crusades" which he was then pressing on two sides. One he inherited from his predecessors-the vain effort to re-establish the Angevin authority throughout the kingdom of Sicily and to punish the house of Aragon for its presumptuous opposition. The other was a war of Boniface's own making a feud with the Colonna family in Rome, which resented the pope's aggressive acts for the benefit of his relatives. Having forced the Colonna chiefs to submit, Boniface in 1 300 celebrated the opening of rhe new century with a great jubilee at Rome. Enormous throngs of pilgrims poured into his capital from all regions of Christendom, and this apparent evidence of universal ascendancy seems to have heightened his already exalted concept of the papal office. At least, he now acted as if he were in truth the dictator of Europe. Even while calling upon Charles of Va lois, younger brother of Philip IV, to overturn a hostile government at Florence and reconquer Sicily, Boniface saw fit to bring on a second quarrel with the French king. Again the pope took his stand on solid legal ground-the de fense of a bishop against arbitrary judgment in a lay court. But he wrecked all hope of a peaceable settlement by gratuitously issuing a bull that revived the claims of Clericis Laicos and by following that with another, Asculta Pili ( Listen, My Son! ) , which the French could not fail to regard as an insult because Boniface claimed the right to intervene in the internal affairs of a state when it was governed unjustly by an impious ruler. Philip's reply was to summon, in 1 302, the general assembly of clergy, no bility, and bourgeoisie that is known in the history of France as the first meet ing of the estates general. Although the king got from it the support he wanted, the effect was overbalanced, in the eyes of the pope, by the Flemish victory in the same year at Courtrai. So Boniface did not hesitate to continue his offen sive with the bull Unam Sanctam. All must believe, it is there proclaimed, in one Holy Catholic Apostolic Church, outside which there is no salvation. This one true church has a single head, namely Christ, who is represented on earth by the bishop of Rome, the successor of St. Peter. The two swords spoken of in the Gospel are the spiritual power and the temporal power. Both belong to the church. "The former is to be used by the church, the latter for the church; the one by the hand of the priest, the other by the hand of kings and knights, but at the command and permission of the priest." "If the temporal power errs, it will be judged by the spiritual power, and if the lower spiritual power errs, it will be judged by its superior. If, on the other hand, the highest
THE GROWTH OF OPPOSITION TO THE PAPACY
47 1
spiritual power errs, it cannot be judged by men, but by God alone." Who ever resists God's vicar resists God. "We therefore declare, say, and affirm that submission on the part of every man to the bishop of Rome is altogether nec essary for his salvation." The sequel to this pontifical utterance would have been ludicrous had it not been so tragic. While the French government was formally accusing the pope of the most shocking crimes and demanding his trial before a general council of the church, Nogaret, one of the king's ablest and most unscrupulous ministers, went to Italy and joined hands with certain vindictive members of the Colonna faction. Gathering a small army of Boniface's personal enemies, they broke into the little village of Anagni near Rome, where the pope hap pened to be, and held him captive for a number of days. Then, in the face of growing hostility, they abandoned whatever project had at first been contem plated, and left Boniface to be escorted back to Rome by a group of his friends. The blow to the aged man's pride, however, was more than he could survive. Completely broken in spirit, he died one month after his release, in October, 1 303. Such a disgraceful affair was in itself no moral victory for the French king. That Philip was able to turn it to his advantage is sufficient proof of the discredit into which the papacy had already fallen. To succeed Boniface, Benedict IX, an Italian of high character, was at once installed, but his efforts at compromise were ended by his death in the follow ing year. Then, after a protracted vacancy, the papal office was conferred on the archbishop of Bordeaux, who assumed the name of Clement V ( 1 3051 3 14 ) . If some had expected him, as a vassal of the English king, to be un friendly to Philip, they were quickly disillusioned; for he quashed the decrees of Boniface that had offended the French king and gave full absolution to the persons who had attacked the pope at Anagni. Meanwhile, Clement, for one reason or another, had continually postponed his expected journey to Rome. He had first celebrated his coronation at Lyons and then summoned a council at Vienne in Dauphine. Temporarily the papal residence was established at A vignon, a city belonging to the Angevin count of Provence, but practically surrounded by the papal territory of the Venaissin.9 And although Clement may have been honest enough in his declared intention of going to Rome, that project was virtually annulled by his appointment to the cardinal college of numerous Frenchmen. Whether partisans of Philip IV or not, they were agreed in disliking Italy. The momentary halt at Avignon lapsed into a con tinuous residence. And we may be certain that the establishment of the papal residence bordering upon the French realm was not contrary to the design of Philip IV. 9 It had earlier belonged to the count of Toulouse, but had fallen to the pope as the result of the Albigensian Crusade.
MEDIAEVAL HISTORY
472
THE SUPPRESSION OF THE KNIGHTS TEM PLARS AND THE CHARACTER OF THE AVIGNON POPES
One cause for the papal delay on or near French soil was the trial of the Templars, which dragged its scandalous course through the years between 1 307 and the pope's death in 1 3 14. That order, since the fall of Acre in 1 29 1 , had of necessity lost its crusading functions; yet through acquisition of land and goods and extensive banking operations10 it continued to accumulate wealth. It was a secret organization, surrounded by much mystery. Its members lived in luxury and many of them were devoted to worldly interests. Earlier popes had suggested combination with the Hospitallers, who were still engaged in charitable work; but the Templars objected and so gave a certain color to the charges made against them. In France the feeling against the Templars was especially strong because they had managed the royal treasury and had loaned large sums to the French crown. In 1307 Clement was prevailed on to au thorize an investigation; and when Philip ordered the arrest of all Templars in France and placed Nogaret in charge of securing adequate confessions by the use of torture, the case was virtually decided in advance. A tale of horrid deeds was drawn up by the royal commissioners, acting in collaboration with the Inquisition, and some scores of unfortunate victims were sent to the stake as relapsed heretics. Finally, after much hesitation, the pope removed the case from his council at Vienne and abolished the order. By the terms of the papal decree, the property of the Templars, except in the Spanish peninsula, was to go to the Hospitallers, but they found it difficult to en force their rights. In France the cash of the condemned order had already been appropriated by the king, whose grasp on such assets never relaxed. Even the Templars' lands had been brought under royal occupation; and before they could be obtained by the beneficiaries, the latter had to pay under the head of expenses what amounted to a good price. As a whole, the affair served, even in the eyes of contemporaries, to advertise the decadence of the papacy and the ruthless greed of the French monarchy. Clement V was the first of six French popes who maintained their residence at Avignon. Life was indeed pleasanter on the Rhone than on the Tiber. Rome and the adjacent countryside had now fallen into a chronic state of disorder. Avignon, on the other hand, was a relatively tranquil spot immune from for eign invasion; and, after its purchase by the pope in 1 348, it became papal territory. Meanwhile an older episcopal building had been converted into the great fortified palace that remains one of the most impressive monuments in southern France. There the popes lived in magnificent state, surrounded by their cardinals, each of whom had a princely establishment of his own. But 10
See below, p. 529.
THE GROWTH OF OPPOSITION TO THE PAPACY
473
the peace and comfort of Avignon were more than counterbalanced by the fact that, to remain there, a pope had to absent himself from his proper see. The very essence of his authority was the Roman episcopate; separation from the Perrine city, except in case of dire necessity, could be no less than a scandal in the eyes of the devout. Avignon, though not in France, was encircled by Capetian lands; and it was only too apparent that, beginning with Clement V, the popes were very careful not to displease the French king. To Europe at large the papacy thus appeared to have lost its independence-to be suffering what ecclesiastical historians came to call the Babylonian Captivity ( 1 3051378 ) . Personally, the Avignon popes were by no means inferior to most of their predecessors. They remained devoted to such traditional ideals as the promotion of peace among Christians, the organization of united resistance to Moslems, missionary work among the heathen, and the suppression of heresy. They were, however, more successful as jurists and administrators than as religious leaders. While the inspirational failure of the church was bewailed by a grow ing multitude of the faithful, the popes gave their principal attention to finance and administration. They established many reforms to increase the efficiency of their central government and improve its resources. Some of them were really distinguished jurists, who contributed important sections to the Corpus !uris Canonici. 11 These labors, admirable as they were, could not make up for a lack of spiritual leadership. It was no new complaint that the papal court was mercenary and corrupt. The charge now gained added force from the un precedented luxury of the pope's establishment at Avignon, the mounting cost of his government, and the multiplication of his demands for money. In these respects, of course, the papal monarchy was merely developing ambitions com mon to all the great states of the age. That was the trouble. If the papacy was not to be different from its secular rivals, it could hardly be immune from attack.
3· Popular Literature and Anticlerical Agitation
Under the conditions that had come to prevail by the early years of the four teenth century it was only natural that Europe should be swept by a flood of anticlerical writings which continued and amplified the attacks of satirists and reformers in the preceding period. On the side of vernacular literature the critical spirit of the fabliaux, if not their humor, reappeared in the Romance 11
See above, p. 304.
MEDIAEVAL HISTORY
474
of the Rose, one of the most remarkable and influential compositions of the Middle Ages. Begun by Guillaume de Lorris as an allegory of courtly love,1 2 the poem was completed in a very different vein by Jean de Meun. The lat ter was a well-educated man of bourgeois origin who, presumably employed by Philip IV, came to live at Paris and died in 1 305 . Although perfectly fa miliar with the scholastic learning of the day, Jean was no theologian; and al though he had read and reread all the Latin classics then available to students, his dominant interest lay in the contemporary world. Very significantly, he translated into French a number of Latin works: together with others, the let ters of Abelard and Heloise; Boethius, On the Consolation of Philosophy; and the fourth-century treatise of Vegetius on warfare, which included a famous discussion of siegecraft. Why he decided to continue the unfinished poem of Guillaume de Lorris he does not tell us; we know merely that, beginning with 4220 lines in the original, he brought the total up to 2 1 ,780. ROMANCE OF THE ROSE
As resumed by Jean de Meun, the Romance of the Rose becomes a satire against the follies of mankind. The plot is wholly subordinated to the con victions of the author. By putting words into the mouths of his characters, Jean speaks his mind on every subject. Caring nothing for convention, he flays the great and respected of all classes. Neither birth nor authority nor wealth nor a reputation for holiness is sacred in his eyes; each must justify itself by something more than tradition. In the course of one passage or another he is able to ridicule many an honorable belief; yet his diatribe, we feel, gains momentum when he approaches two particular subjects. On women-and this in a romance! -he quotes Juvenal with relish and adds a bitter invective of his own. Also against the clergy, particularly the mendicant orders, he levels a damning indictment, accusing them of avarice, pride, sloth, and general worthlessness. Thus, as one of the Lover's advisers, the author introduces False-Seeming, who describes himself as follows: Sometimes I am a knight, sometimes a monk, sometimes a prelate, sometimes a canon; or perhaps a clerk or a priest. Sometimes I am a pupil, sometimes a master; sometimes a chdtelain, sometimes a game-keeper. In other words I am of all professions. Sometimes I am a prince and sometimes a page; and I know by heart all languages. At one moment I am old and decrepit; at the next I have renewed my youth. I am Robert or Robin, Franciscan or Dominican. And for the sake of my companion, the lady Forced-Abstinence, who goes with me and solaces me, I assume many another disguise; as may please her, I do whatever she says.
12 See above, p.
329.
THE GROWTH OF OPPOSITION TO THE PAPACY
475
Thus I may appear in the robes of a woman; I am either dame or damsel, either
religieuse, prioress, nun, abbess, sister, or novice. I go through all countries seeking
all religions; but of religion itself I always leave the grain and take the straw. In order tO fool people I need only the dress.13
The favorite residence of False-Seeming, therefore, is among the clergy-es pecially among those who pretend to be poor but live in luxury, or among those new apostles of the church who prefer begging to honest work. In itself a robe means nothing. True saints are more likely to be found in the clothes of laymen than in the habits of religion. Of the many other examples that could be given to illustrate this astonish ing romance two must suffice. The Friend, in the course of a long disquisition on the madness of love, tells how society has degenerated since the Golden Age.14 At that time all men were equal and held everything in common. It was only later, when this primitive simplicity had succumbed to evil, that it became necessary to protect either persons or property. Then the people de cided to find someone to defend them against malefactors and enforce justice. "They elected a big villein, the strongest and largest in body and bones that they could find, and they made him prince and lord." He swore that he would guard their homes if they would give him enough to live on. But eventually the people had to enlarge his powers, setting aside vast estates for his house hold and establishing taxes to support his government. "This was the origin of kings and territorial princes." And it led to the growth of a wealthy class in the state-of men who, "through cupidity, appropriated what had earlier been as common as air and sunshine." Even more interesting as a reflection of contemporary learning is the tribute to Nature which is abruptly inserted towards the end of Jean's poem.15 "Mean while Nature, meditating on things under the heavens, had entered her work shop, where she gave all care to the creation of individuals who should per petuate the species." For black-visaged Death pursues all, and none may escape. "Sweet merciful Nature, seeing that jealous Death comes with Cor ruption to destroy whatever they find in her workshop, hammers and forges without ceasing to replace her creatures in new generations." Art, for all his marvelous works in divers materials, can make nothing that of itself will live, move, feel, and talk. Nature is infinitely more wonderful-so wonderful that no human talent can describe her. Jean has tried a hundred times, only to abandon the task as quite beyond his powers. The beauty of Nature is inex pressible. "For God . . . made her into a fountain, ever flowing and ever full from which all beauty is derived; but of which no man knows the depth or 1 3 Lines 1 1 ,189- 1 1 ,2 1 8. 14 Lines 9603-966 1 .
15
Lines 1 5 ,893-19,405.
476
MEDIAEVAL HISTORY
the breadth." This eloquent tribute serves to introduce Nature's confession a sort of miniature encyclopaedia, in which Jean reviews the wonders of the natural world. Here are merely some of the subjects there discussed : the crea tion of the earth, its elements, and its inhabitants; the heavens, the planets, and the influence of celestial bodies upon man; predestination, free will, and how they can be reconciled; meteorology, including floods, clouds, rainbows, shoot ing stars, comets, eclipses, winds, hail, snow, and tides; mirrors, burning glasses, and other optical phenomena; dreams, apparitions, and hallucinations; true nobility, as contrasted with that of birth; the value of learning and the chronic disloyalty of mankind to Nature. POLITICAL TRACTS AGAINST THE PAPACY
Unlike Jean de Meun, Pierre Dubois was famous neither in his own day nor in those to come, until his work was discovered by nineteenth-century scholars and published as a mediaeval curiosity. Dubois, a l awyer at the court of Philip IV, addressed to that king various Latin pamphlets, including one which was written in the early fourteenth century entitled De Recuperatione Terrae Sanctae ( Concerning the Recovery of the Holy Land ) . Its nominal theme, the revival of the crusade, merely provides an excuse for the author to air his opinions about the reformation of almost everything. Crusading enter prise, he declares, has been prevented by chronic dissensions among the princes of Europe, both lay and ecclesiastical. Nothing can be expected of the clergy; for they, as a consequence of their wealth, are sunk in general corruption. Eu ropean wars can be ended only by force and there is only one prince strong enough to apply it, the king of France. Without waiting for further justifica tion, Philip should undertake the project of uniting Christendom and, to secure the necessary funds, should confiscate all ecclesiastical property. Dubois then proceeds to show how such funds can be used for the improvement of many institutions. For example, education should be taken over by the state and ex tended to both sexes. It should also be made more practical by introducing the study of contemporary languages and of technical subjects like agriculture, engineering, and pharmacy. The surprising feature of this little book is its realistic point of view, which utterly disregards the ecclesiastical and imperial traditions of the past thousand years. Fantastic as its suggestions were, they reveal a world of actuality far removed from the world of theory that con tinued to fascinate Boniface VIII. The ancient controversy between papacy and empire flared up again in the fourteenth century, but it remained largely a war of words. Clement V ex changed recriminations with the emperor Henry VII/6 who invaded Italy and 16 See below, p. 5 1 1 .
THE GROWTH OF OPPOSITION TO THE PAPACY
477
died there in 1 3 1 3. The former was succeeded by John XXII ( 1 3 1 6-1 334 ) , the latter by louis of Bavaria; and they, too, indulged in violent altercation over prerogatives that neither could enforce. Altogether it was a thoroughly tire some affair, which is worth mentioning only because it came to be involved with a more significant quarrel. By the close of the thirteenth century, as we have seen, the Franciscans had widely departed from their original ideals. With out holding actual title to property, they had generally come to live in houses and not infrequently to engage in other than charitable pursuits. The change of discipline was frankly recognized as necessary by the governing majority in the order known as the conventuals; but a zealous minority, called the Spiritual Franciscans, fiercely resented all lax interpretation of the rule and insisted upon a life such as had been led by the saint's early disciples. Some went so far as to preach and write against the wealth of the clergy, thus ally ing with numerous radical groups that had waged a similar campaign for gen erations. Although Clement V commanded the Spiritual Franciscans to obey their superiors, many refused to do so and instead formed a separate organiza tion styled the Fraticelli. John XXII then made the situation worse by issuing various extreme pronouncements that antagonized the entire order. Although the majority of the Franciscans eventually submitted, their minister general and a number of his ablest associates took refuge with louis of Bavaria. Among these refugees was William of Ockham ( d. 1 349 ) , the foremost scholar of latin Christendom in the fourteenth century.17 As a doctor of theol ogy at Oxford, he had gained especial fame from a bold attack on the teach ings of Aquinas. Now he devoted his dialectical skill to the writing of weighty volumes against John XXII in particular and against the papal claims in general. The pope, said Ockham, has no authority at all in temporal affairs; even in matters of faith his decision is not absolute, for against him there must always be an appeal to Scripture as interpreted by wise and honest men. Thus the Franciscans fell back upon the defense which had been raised by Peter Waldo a hundred and fifty years earlier, and which was to be raised in the future by a host of other dissenters. At the imperial court Ockham was joined by a great Parisian master, Marsiglio of Padua ( d. 1 342 ) . As a feature of the campaign against John XXII, he wrote a remarkable book entitled Defensor Pacis ( Defender of Peace ) . It is divided into two main parts, one dealing with the state and the other with the church. The first part is largely drawn from Aristotle's Politics and develops the familiar thesis that monarchy rests on a delegation of power from the people. The second part, on the other hand, is strikingly original an ample justification of Marsiglio's lasting fame as a political theorist. Here he sets forth the idea that the church is really the body of believing Christians. 17 See above, pp. 369-3 7 1 .
MEDIAEVAL HISTORY
478
Within that congregation clergymen have the power to determine purely ec clesiastical questions; but they have no power to assess temporal penalties, for God alone may punish violations of His law. Nor have clergymen any j ust title to worldly goods; their sole function is to save souls by preaching the Gospel and by administering the sacraments. The pope is merely the elected head of the clergy. His alleged plenitude of power is sheer usurpation. Sov ereign authority within the church lies with the community of Christian citi zens. A general council representing them not only can but must carry through a sweeping reform. Until that is done, there will be no lasting peace in the world. DANTE
( 1265-1321 )
AND HIS WRITINGS
Thus formulated as a matter of academic discussion, the conciliar theory of ecclesiastical government was soon to become a practical issue of supreme interest to all Europe. Meanwhile, however, Italy had produced another fa mous man, whose work may well be examined before we continue the trou bled history of the later mediaeval church. The illustrious Dante Alighieri owed his literary career to the fact that, in the course of a municipal revolu tion encouraged by Boniface VIII, he was exiled from Florence in 1 302 be cause he was a member of the antipapal party. For nearly a score of years, as the son of a prominent lawyer, he had taken an active part in the politics of the republic and had been intimately associated with a number of talented artists and scholars. He had received a good education, presumably of the scholastic type then prevalent, and he had assuredly come under the influ ence of the vernacular poets. Some Italians, loyal to an ancient tradition, still wrote in Provenc;al; others, adopting a fashion set under Frederick II, preferred one of the native dialects. Dante, for reasons that he was subsequently to ex pound at length, followed the example of the latter group. Writing lyrics, he was naturally led to celebrate a beautiful lady whom he was compelled to adore from a distance; but his treatment of the familiar theme was distinctly original. The story is told in Dante's first book, the Vita Nttova-the New Life, to which he had been introduced by Beatrice. Actually, she was the wife of another Florentine gentleman and, according to Dante's own account, she had only spoken to him once, when he chanced to meet her on the street. Yet she had inspired the young poet to compose a series of mystic sonnets, which are included in the Vita Nttova; and, after her premature death in 1 290, she had come to be his spiritual guide, leading him ever upward towards ulti mate truth. Although Dante later took a wife and lived with her happily, it was not she whom he glorified in poetry but the idealized Beatrice. At the close of the Vita Nttova we are told how, in a vision, Beatrice had
THE GROWTH OF OPPOSITION TO THE PAPACY
•
479
inspired Dante to proceed with certain labors so that he might speak of her more worthily. Within half a dozen years after his exile, these labors led him to begin the C onvivio ( Banquet ) -a curious mixture of verse and prose, of personal reminiscence and scholastic reasoning. Through the elaborate allegory of a spiritual feast the reader was to be introduced to universal knowledge but the work was left unfinished. It is interesting, first, because it reveals the author devoting himself to study in order to forget his bereavement. By reading Boethius and Cicero, he had discovered that the lady Philosophy might govern his mature life even as the lady Beatrice had governed his youth. A second re markable feature of the book is its use of the vernacular, which shows that Dante, a bourgeois and a layman like Jean de Meun, was interested in popu larizing the learning of the schools. The Florentine poet, however, was con templating a grander project than the Romance of the Rose, and to j ustify his preference for Italian he presented a lengthy argument. This subject, broached in the Convivio, was developed in a separate essay called De Vttlgari Eloqttentia-a defense of the vulgar tongue, put into Latin so that it would be read by the learned. At the outset Dante briefly considers the origin of human speech, accepting the orthodox view that men spoke He brew from the Creation until they incurred God's anger by attempting to build the tower of Babel. He passes rapidly over the ensuing confusion of tongues and so comes to the three related languages of oil ( French ) , oc ( Proven C.
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ENGLAND
INDEX
NOTE : In the following pages, as a matter of convenience, Roman emperors in the east after Justinian are called Byzantine emperors; kings of the West Franks after 843 are called kings of France; kings of the East Franks afrer 843 are called kings of Germany. Absolute uniformity in indexing personal names is impossible, but in general a man will be found under that portion of his name by which he is commonly known : e.g., John of Salisbury; Hus, John. Tides of books have ordinarily been omitted except those whose authors are unknown. For a large number of things which are not separately listed the student is re ferred to such comprehensive topics as Arms and armor, Cloth-making, Costume, Domestic animals, Food and drink, Fowls, Fruits, Grain, Harness, Houses and furnishings, Metal-work ing, Music, Tools, Vegetables, Writing materials.
Abacus, 1 7 , 1 88-189, 293, 3 8 1 , 429 Abbas, 129 Abbasid dynasty, 129, 1 5 1 , 1 87-197, 4 5 8 Abbaye-aux-Dames ( Caen ) , 342 Abbaye-aux-Hommes ( Caen ) , 342 Abbot : office, 7 5-76; temporal authority, 1 5 7 , 249 See also Cluny; Investiture controversy Abd-al-Malik, 126 Abd-al-Rahman, 1 5 1 Abelard, Peter, 296-300, 3 19, 4 19, 474 Abraham, 1 19 Absolute monarchy, see Despotism Abu Bakr, caliph, 1 14, 1 2 0 Abyssinia, see Ethopia Acre, city, 4 10, 439, 4 5 4 Acre, unit of land, 223 Acts o f the Apostles, 4 1-42 Adana, 1 2 7 Adder, 346 Adelard of Bath, 305 Adoubement, 207, 5 3 8 Adrianople : batde of, 5 3 ; capture by Turks, 521 Aesop, 328 Aethelberht, king of Kent, 1 36-1 3 7 Aethelstan, king of England, 202 Aetius, 5 5 Africa : Roman province, 6-8; Vandal conquest, 5 6, 142; Justinian's reconquest, 617
90-93; Moslem conquest, 1 2 6-127; Moorish states, 1 72-1 73 , 267, 392 See also Crusade; Portugal Agentes, 3 1 Agincourt, batde of, 498 Agnes, regent of Germany, 25 1 Agreement with the Ecclesiastical Princes, 439 Agriculture : in Roman Empire, 23-24; among early Germans, 5 1-52; in Carolingian Empire, 1 5 6-1 5 7 ; in Moslem world, 196-197; in manorial system, 2 2 0-228; later developments, 266, 2 7 5-278, 5 3 2536, 593-594 Aids, 205-207 See also Taxation Alsha, 1 2 0 Aisles, 1 03-104, 3 3 8 Aistulf, king o f the Lombards, 146 Aix-la-Chapelle, 1 63, 168 Alamans : invasions, 29, 5 3 , 55, 57; under Franks, 5 7 , 85, 1 3 5 , 1 5 5 See also Suabia Alaric, king of the Visigoths, 54-57 Alba, 323 Albert of Saxony, 5 7 1 Albercus Magnus, 430-43 1 , 436 Albigensians, 420-422 Alboin, king of the Lombards, 95 Alchemy, 1 9 1
618 Alcuin, 1 63-164 Alderman, office, 526 Aleppo, 182, 394 Alessandria, 403 Alexander II, pope, 2 5 1 Alexander III, pope, 403-404 Alexander the Great, 8, 1 4 Alexander o f Hales, 430 Alexandria, 3 7, 70, 98, 1 23-124 Alexius, son of Isaac Angelus, 4 1 3 Alexius I , Byzantine emperor, 2 5 6 , 2 6 1 Alexius III, Byzantine emperor, 4 1 3 Alfonse, count o f Toulouse, 2 7 8 Alfred, king o f Wessex, 1 39, 2 01-202, 2 3 5 , 248, 292 Algebra, 1 88-189, 305, 429 Algorism, 305 Alhazen, see Haytham, al Ali, caliph, 1 14, 1 2 0, 1 2 5 Allah, 1 1 3 , 1 2 0 Allegory, 8 1 , 1 4 1 , 1 64, 302, 3 59-360 See also Dante; Mysticism Allodial property, 384 Almagest, see Ptolemy Alp Arslan, Seljuk sultan, 2 5 5 Alphabet, 6 0 , 1 1 1- 1 1 2 , 1 8 0 Alsace, 1 70, 5 8 1 Ambrose, St., 78-79, 8 1 , 2 5 2 America, 2 0 2 , 546 Amiens, 289 Amiens Cathedral, 345, 3 5 1 , 3 54-3 5 5 , 3 5 9361 Ammianus Marcellinus, 77 Amorian emperors, 1 7 9 Amr i b n al-As, 1 23-124 Anagni, 471, 506 Anastasius, Roman emperor ( east ) , 86-87 Anatolia, 1 2 7 , 1 78, 2 5 5 , 262, 52 1-522 Anatomy, see Medicine Angel of the Annunciation, 3 6 1 Angevin dynasty, in Normandy and England, 3 78-3 79, 396-400 See also Anjou; England; Sicily, kingdom of Angles, see Anglo-Saxons Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, 2 3 5 Anglo-Saxon language and literature, 60, 2 3 5 -2 36, 3 3 1 , 3 52-3 5 3 Anglo-Saxons : invasion o f Britain, 5 5 , 60; kingdoms, 1 30-1 3 1 ; conversion, 1 3 6- 1 3 7 , 143-144, 147-148 See also England Angora, battle of, 522 Anjou : origin of county, 201, 2 1 2 , 2 1 8; in twelfth century, 378, 396; conquest by Philip Augustus, 400-40 1 , 444; acquisi tion by Louis XI, 5 82 See also Angevin dynasty Annates, 5 1 7
INDEX Anne, wife o f Richard I I , 5 12 Annona, 3 3 Anselm, archbishop of Canterbury, 380, 382 Anselm of Laon, 297 Anthony, St., 72, 82 Antioch : bishopric, 70; Persian capture, 98; Arab conquest, 1 2 3 ; Byzantine reconquest, 1 82 ; Latin principality, 262-263, 394; Moslem reconquest, 4 54 Antonines, 9 Antoninus Pius, Roman emperor, 9, 44 Apocalypse, 42, 67, 107 n., 242, 345 Apocrypha, 67 n. Apolinaris Sidonius, 77 Apollonius, 17 Apostolic succession, 67-68 Appanage, 445 Apprentice, 526 Apse, 104, 339 Apuleius, 36, 552 Apulia, duchy of, 2 1 3, 256, 388 Aquinas, Thomas, 430-433, 477, 4 8 1 , 569 Aquitaine : under Visigoths, 5 5 ; under Franks, 58, 1 32, 1 4 5 ; in eleventh century, 2 0 1 , 376; in Angevin-Capetian wars, 396, 399-40 1 , 444 See also Guienne Arabesque, 195 Arabia, 109- 1 1 3 See also Arabs Arabia Petraea, 1 1 1- 1 1 2 Arabic language and literature, 1 1 2, 1 16-1 18 , 1 85-187, 3 05 , 3 2 5 , 388, 392, 434, 443 Arabs : before Mohammed, 48, 109-1 1 3 ; reli gious unification, 1 1 3- 1 20; raids in Caro lingian Empire, 1 58, 1 72-1 7 3 ; civilization, 1 84-1 9 7 ; influence on western culture, 274, 293, 295, 305, 322, 3 2 5 , 348, 364, 367-370, 542-544 See also Arabic language and literature; Caliphate; Crusade; Mohammedan ism; Navigation Aragon : origin of kingdom, 2 14; in twelfth century, 387; in thirteenth century, 4 5 3454; union with Castile, 5 84 See also Barcelona Aramaeans, 41 n., 109, 1 1 2 Aramaic language, 4 1 , 1 1 2 Arcadius, Roman emperor ( east ) , 54-55 Arch, 1 5, 102-103, 195 See also Architecture Archbishop, office, 68, 1 7 5 Archdeacon, office, 250 Archimedes, 17, 5 7 5 , 596 Architecture : Greek, 14- 1 5 ; Roman, 1 5, 36, 1 02- 1 04; Byzantine, 1 02-107, 1 83, 3 3 3 ; Moslem, 193-195; Romanesque, 3 3 3-345; Sicilian, 344, 390-392; Gothic, 346-358,
INDEX 3 7 1-372, 5 58, 5 8 5 ; Flamboyant, 5 5 8; Flemish, 5 5 8 ; Italian, 563-564 Archpoet, the, 3 1 6-3 1 7 Arianism, 69, 94, 1 34 Aristarchus, 1 7 Aristippus, Henry, 390 Aristotle : in Greek schools, 1 6; early trans lations, 78, 166, 295; in Moslem world, 187, 1 89; later latin translations, 299, 305; in scholastic education, 428-4 3 3 , 4 3 5 , 477, 568-570 Arithmetic : Greek and Roman, 16-17, 143, 1 65-1 66; Arabic, 1 88-1 9 1 , 429; in west ern schools, 295, 305, 429 Arius, 69 Aries, 290 Aries, council of, 69 Aries, kingdom of, 1 75, 243, 246 Armagnacs, 498-499, 508 Armenia, 97-98, 2 5 5 Arms and armor : Roman, 1 1 ; o f U raJ Asiatic nomads, 49; early German, 5 2 ; Byzantine, 9 0 , 364; feudal, 2 0 8 , 2 2 9 , 366, 536 See also Army; Fortification and siege craft; Guns and gunpowder Army : Roman, 7-1 1 , 28, 3 1-32, 5 3 ; Byzan tine, 90, 184; Moslem, 1 2 1- 1 24; Carolin gian, 145, 1 5 5- 1 5 6, 1 60; feudal, 203-204, 207-2 1 0; English, 2 16-2 1 7 , 464, 488, 498, 5 3 7; crusading, 260-2 6 1 , 392; Ger man, 383-384; French, 491 , 5 8 3 ; Hussite, 5 16; Ottoman, 522-5 2 3 ; Swiss, 5 3 7 Arnold o f Brescia, 402, 4 1 9 Arnulf, king o f Germany and emperor, 1 7 5 Arras, 270, 2 7 2 ; witchcraft at, 5 9 1 Arras, peace of, 505 Arrian, 16 A rriere ban, 2 1 2 Artevelde, Jacob van, 487 Arthur of Brittany, 400--401 Arthurian cycle, 3 2 5 , 329 Artisans, see Industry; Technology Artois, 400, 504, 582 Ascalon, battle of, 263 Asceticism, 7 1-7 2 See also Monasticism Assize of Clarendon, 398 Assonance, 2 3 6 Astrolabe, 1 89, 2 9 5 Astrology, 40, 1 9 1 , 443 Astronomy : Greek, 18; in early latin schools, 143, 1 6 5 ; in Moslem world, 1 88-1 9 1 ; in later latin schools, 293-295, 434-4 3 5 Athanasius, 69 Athens, 14-1 5, 94 Atlantic, see Trade routes Attila, king of the Huns, 5 5-56, 97 Aucassin et Nicolette, 3 2 8-329
619 Augsburg, 2 5 3 Augustales, 44 1 , 529 Augustine, bishop of Hippo, 78, 80-83, 139, 1 4 1 , 247, 296 Augustine, missionary to Kent, 1 3 7 Augustus, Roman emperor, 7-8 Aulus Gellius, 36 Aurelian, Roman emperor, 29, 32, 5 3 Aurillac, 293-295 Ausonius, 7 7 A ustrasia, 1 3 2 , 144 Austria, 383 n., 404, 4 5 5 Auvergne, 1 3 7, 3 7 9 , 40 1 , 444 Avars : invasions and conquest, 48, 86, 9799; reduction by Charlemagne, 1 5 0-1 5 1 , 1 72, 1 80; amalgamation with Hungarians, 173 Aver roes, 1 89, 305, 48 1 , 5 69 Avicenna, 1 89, 305, 4 8 1 , 5 69-572 Avignon : city, 422; papal residence, 471473, 485, 506, 569 Azores, 546 Babylonian Captivity of the papacy, 473 See also Avignon Bachelor, degree, 309 Bacon, Roger, 434--436 Badr, battle of, 1 1 9 Bagdad, 129 See also Caliphate Baian, Avar khan, 97 Bailey, see Castle Bailiff ( bailli ) , 449 Bake-oven, in manor, 227 Baldwin I ( Iron-Arm ) , count of Flanders, 200, 268 Baldwin IX, count of Flanders and emperor, 413 Baldwin I, king of Jerusalem, 260, 262-264 Balearic Islands, 91, 453 Balliol, John, 464 Balliol College, 3 1 1 Baltic, see Trade Routes Baltic languages, 458 Banalites, 227 Banking, 393, 472, 528-5 3 1 Bannockburn, battle of, 464 Baptism, 67 Bar, county of, 582 Bar-sur-Aube, 529 Barbarian invasions : third century, 29, 5 3 ; fourth and fifth centuries, 5 3-58; sixth and seventh centuries, 90, 95-97; ninth and tenth centuries, 1 7 0- 1 7 5 , 199-2 0 1 Barbarians : in Roman army, 32, 5 3 , 56; outside Roman Empire, 48-54 See also Barbarian invasions Barbastro, battle of, 2 14 Barca, 124, 1 2 6
620 Barcelona, 1 5 1 , 2 9 1 Barcelona, county of, 2 0 1 , 2 14, 3 8 7 See also Spanish march Bardas, Caesar, 1 83 Barnet, battle of, 50 3 Baron, title in England, 2 16, 493 Basel, council of, 5 1 7-5 1 8, 588 Basil, St., 7 3 Basil I, Byzantine emperor, 1 7 9-1 8 1 Basil II, Byzantine emperor, 1 8 2 , 2 54 Basilica, 1 0 3- 1 04, 3 3 3-345 Basilics, 1 8 1 Basilisk, 346 Basques, 1 5 1 Bastides, 2 7 8 Battani, a!-, 1 90 Battle of the Masts, 1 2 6 Bavaria : in tenth and eleventh centuries, 1 99, 243; under Gue!fs, 3 8 3 , 3 8 5 ; under Wittelsbach house, 404 Bavarians, 85, 1 30 , 1 3 2 , 1 5 5 See also Bavaria Bayazid I, Ottoman sultan, 5 2 2 Bayeux tapestry, 2 2 8-229 Bayonne, 290 Beasts of the Apocalypse, 42, 107 n., 345346 Beatrice, 478-479, 480-48 1 Beaumaris castle, 363 Beaumont-en-Argonne, 2 8 1 Beauvais, 2 89 Beauvais Cathedral, 3 55 Becket, Thomas, 399 Bede, 1 36, 143-144, 1 65-166 Bedford, duke of, 499-502 Bedouins, 1 09-1 10, 124 Bees, 23, 2 24, 2 3 2 Beiaunus, 3 10 Belisarius, 9 1 Benedict, St., 73-76, 1 3 5 , 140 Benedict XIII, pope, 507-508, 5 1 3 Benedictines, see Monasticism Benefice, 1 56, 1 60- 1 6 1 Benefit o f clergy, 399 Benevento : duchy of, 97, 145; battle of, 452 Beowulf, 2 3 5 Berbers, see Moors B.erengar of Tours, 3 0 1 Bergen, 5 4 1 Berlin, 5 2 5 Bern, 2 76, 4 5 5 Bernard, St., 3 0 1 , 393-394 Bernard de Ventadour, 320-3 2 1 Berry, duke of, 5 6 1 Bertran d e Born, 322-323 Bezant, 5 2 8 n. Beziers, 422 Bible: Gothic, 60; formation of canon, 66-
INDEX 67; Latin, 80; Slavic, 1 80; Proven,al, 420; English, 5 1 0, 5 5 2 See also Allegory; Heresy; Theology Biology, 1 7 , 430, 442 See also Medicine Birds, Frederick II on, 442 Biruni, a!-, 190 Bishop : office, 68, 139; temporal authority, 1 3 3 , 1 5 7- 1 5 8, 2 06, 247 See also Apostolic succession; Cathedral; Church; I nvestiture controversy; Papacy Black Death, 489, 5 3 5, 5 5 2 Blanche o f Castile, 444 Blois, county of, 2 0 1 , 2 12 , 444 Blood-feud, 63, 1 1 6 Bobbio, 1 3 5 Boccaccio, 5 5 1- 5 5 2 , 574 Boethius, 60, 78-79, 142, 165-166, 2 3 5 , 474, 479, 4 8 1 , 569 Bohemia : under German lordship, 1 5 1 , 246, 386, 404, 458; under Luxemburg house, 485, 5 1 1-5 1 3 ; Hussite wars, 5 12-5 1 3 , 5 1 5-5 1 7 Bohemund, prince o f Antioch, 2 5 3 , 260, 262-263 Boleslav, king of Poland, 386 Bologna, 2 86 Bologna, University of, 304, 306-308, 5 7 2 Boniface, Sr., 148 Boniface VIII, pope, 468-4 7 1 , 479-480 Book of Ceremonies, 1 8 1 Book of the Prefect, 1 8 1 Bordeaux, 2 7 2 , 290, 502 Boris I, tsar of Bulgaria, 180 Boroughs : primitive, 202, 2 1 7 , 269; privi leged, 269, 290, 3 8 1 , 397, 463 See also Parliament Bosnia, 5 2 3 Bosworth Field, battle of, 583 Bourgeoisie : in Roman Empire, 1 1 ; in twelfth century, 2 7 5-29 1 , 3 7 5 ; in later Middle Ages, 5 2 5-532, 593 See also Estates; Towns Bouvines, battle of, 408 Brabant, 504 Brandenburg, 404, 5 1 2 Bremen, 2 7 2 , 541 Brescia, 286, 540 Bretigny, treaty of, 5 9 1 Breteuil, 2 7 8 Bretons, see Brittany Bristol, 27 1-272 Britain : Roman province, 9, 55; Anglo-Saxon invasions, 5 5 , 57, 1 30-1 3 1 ; Christian mis sions, 1 3 5- 1 3 7 ; Viking invasions, 1 7 2 See also Anglo·Saxons; England; Scot land; Wales Britons, 50, 1 3 1
INDEX Brittany : British invasion, 1 3 1 ; Christian missions, 1 3 5 ; duchy, 200; in Angevin Capetian wars, 3 7 7 , 399, 444, 485; acqui sition by Charles VIII, 582 Brothers of the Common Life, 509 Brothers of the Sword, 458 Bruce, Robert, 464, 487 Bruges, 2 70, 2 7 2 , 5 3 2 , 541 Bruges, cloth hall of, 5 58 Brunanburh, battle of, 235 Brunelleschi, 563 Bulgaria : origin of kingdom, 1 80-1 8 1 ; Byzantine conquest, 182-183; restored in dependence, 4 1 3 ; Ottoman conquest, 522 Bulgars, 48, 86 See also Bulgaria Bull, papal, 469 n. Burgage tenure, 278, 289 Burge� 1 99, 2 1 0, 269 See also Boroughs Burgermeister, 526 Burgundians : invasions, 55-58; under Franks, 5 8 , 8 5 , 145, 1 7 0 See also Burgundy Burgundy, county of, see Franche-Comte Burgundy, duchy of : origin, 200; first Ca petian house, 444, 492; second Capetian house, 497-50 5 , 5 78-5 8 1 ; acquisition by Louis XI, 5 8 1-582 Burgundy, kingdom of, see Aries, kingdom of Buridan, Jean, 5 7 1 Bury St. Edmunds, 2 7 1 Butler, office, 1 54, 380 Buttress, 336, 346-348, 3 5 8 Byzantine Empire : origin and nature, 9599; civilization, 99-108, 1 8 3-1 84, 1 9 1 1 9 3 , 1 96-197; losses t o Moslems, 1 2 11 2 7 ; under Leo III, 1 2 7 , 1 78-179; Italian provinces, 145-146, 1 5 3 , 245, 250, 2 5 5 ; under Macedonian dynasty, 1 7 9-184, 1 961 9 7 ; losses to Seljuk Turks, 2 5 4-2 5 5 ; relations with early crusaders, 2 6 1 ; Fourth Crusade and Latin Empire, 4 1 1-4 1 5 , 456; Greek restoration, 469, 5 2 1 ; Ottoman conquest, 42 1-423 Byzantium, 99 Cadiz, 127 Caernarvon castle, 363 Caesar, Julius, 7 , 1 8, 5 1 , 480 Caesar, title, 8, 180 Caesarea, 1 2 3 Cairo, 1 2 3 , 193 Calabria, 2 1 3 Calais, 488, 502 Caliph, title, 120 Caliphate : early, 1 20-124; Ommiad, 124129; Abbasid, 129, 1 5 1 , 184-1 92 , 458;
62 1 of Cordova, 1 5 1 , 1 8 5 , 2 14; of Egypt, 394 Calixtines, 5 1 5-5 1 7 Calmar, union of, 542 Cam, Diego, 546 Cambrai, 289 Cambrai Cathedral, 3 70 Cambridge Universiry, 308 Canaries, 546 Cannon, see Guns and gunpowder Canon of Bible, 66-67 Canon law, 303-304, 399, 409, 427, 429, 46 1 , 4 7 3 , 5 1 0 Canonization, 79 n. Canons : of councils, 94 n.; Augustinian, 4 1 9 Can ossa, 2 5 3 Canticle o f the Sun, 424 Canterbury : city, 1 3 7 , 2 7 1 ; province, 1 37 , 147, 382 Canute, king o f England, 203, 2 1 5 Capetian dynasty, 1 7 5 , 200-2 0 1 , 243 See also France Capitalism, 5 2 7-532 Capitularies, 1 54-1 5 5 Caracalla, Roman emperor, 2 8 Caravans, see Trade routes Carcassonne, 290, 422 Cardinals, 250-2 5 1 , 409 Carinthia, 383 Carniola, 455 Carolingian dynasty, 145-147, 1 5 0 , 243 See also Carolingian Empire Carolingian Empire : foundation, 1 50-1 5 3 ; institutions and culture, 1 54-168; disinte gration, 169-176, 199, 2 1 8 See also Aries, kingdom of; France; Germany; Italy, kingdom of Carpentry : Roman, 24; mediaeval, 368, 3 7 1 3 7 2 , 594 Carthage, 126, 448 Carthusians, 4 1 8 Cassel, battle of, 487 Cassiodorus, 60, 143 Caste system, in Roman Empire, 34-35 Castella, 9 See also Castle Castile : origin of kingdom, 2 14; union with Le6n, 387; union with Aragon, 584 Castle, 2 10, 2 1 7, 229-2 3 2 , 269, 362, 384, 536-5 3 7 Castra, 9 Catalaunian Fields, battle of the, 5 5-56 Catalonia, see Barcelona Cataphracti, 90, 208 Cathari, 420 Cathedral : meaning of term, 68; schools, 163, 1 6 5 , 292, 296-297, 307; chapters, 2 5 1 , 4 1 8-4 19 See also Architecture
622 Catherine, St., 5 09 Catherine of France, 499 Catullus, 1 8 Cavalry, see Army Celestine III, pope, 404 Celibacy, 7 2 , 248, 2 50, 2 5 2 Celtic peoples, 48, 5 0 , 1 3 1 , 1 3 5 Cenobites, 72 Ceramics, 195 Cerdagne, 5 84 Ceuta, 546 Chalcedon, 98 Chalcedon, council of, 7 1 , 94, 1 3 2 Chamberlain, office, 1 5 4 , 3 80 Chambre des comptes, 369 Champagne : origin of county, 2 0 1 , 2 12 ; in thirteenth century, 444; acquisition by Philip IV, 465 ; fairs of, 2 7 3 , 529 Chancellor : Carolingian, 1 54; of Paris, 307308; English, 380, 494; of the exchequer, 462 Chancery, 494 Chansons de geste, 2 3 6-240, 3 1 8-3 19 Chaplain, office, 1 54 Charlemagne, king of the Franks and em peror, 1 5 0-1 5 7, 481 Charles, count of Anjou and king of Sicily, 452-454, 468, 485 Charles, king of Navarre, 485 Charles I ( the Bald ) , king of France and emperor, 169-1 70, 200 Charles II (the Fat ) , king of France, king of Germany, and emperor, 1 7 5 , 200 Charles IV, king of France, 485 Charles V, king of France, 491-492, 506, 5 3 8 Charles V I , king o f France, 497-499 Charles VII, king of France, 499-502, 5 0 5 , 578, 582 Charles VIII, king of France, 582 Charles IV, king of Germany and emperor, 492, 5 1 2 Charles the Great, see Charlemagne Charles Martel, 145-146 Charles the Rash, duke of Burgundy, 5 78582 Chartres, school of, 292, 295, 302 Chartres Cathedral, 3 5 1-361 Chateau, see Castle Chatelain, office, 2 1 1-2 1 2 , 3 7 5 Chaucer, Geoffrey, 5 50, 5 5 5-5 5 7 Chemistry, 1 9 1 n . Chess, 2 3 3 , 3 8 1 n . Chester, 202 Chevage, 227 Chevet, 3 39, 353 Childeric III, 146 China, 127, 196 Chinen, 500
INDEX Chivalry : original, 207-208; romantic, 3223 2 7 ; decadent, 5 37-5 3 8 Chosroes, king of Persia, 99, 1 2 1 Chretien d e Troyes, 3 2 6 Christianity : foundation, 40-43; growth, 4446, 66-7 1 ; outside Roman Empire, 60, 69; in Arabia, 1 1 3 See also Church Chronology : Roman, 22; Babylonian, 40; Christian, 75, 143-144, 147, 434; Moslem, ll5, 191 Church : from fourth to sixth century, 66-83; relations between east and west, 70-7 1 , 94, 1 32-1 3 3 , 145-147, 1 79, 247, 250, 5 1 7 ; Irish and Roman missions, 7 3 , 1 3 5 , 147148; in Carolingian Empire, 1 5 7- 1 5 8 ; in feudal society, 2 1 1 , 2 1 6; theory of church and state, 246-247; Cluniac and papal re form, 249-2 52; height, 263, 3 74, 3964 1 5 ; decline, 506-5 18, 5 5 7-558; conciliar movement, 508-5 1 8 See also Architecture; Bible; Chris tianity; Crusade; Hersey; Latin lan guage and literature; Monasticism; Papacy; Schools; Universities Cicero, 182, 479, 4 8 1 , 574 Cid, Poema del, 3 3 1 Cilicia, 1 8, 262 Cinque Ports, 290, 3 8 1 Cistercians, 3 0 1 Clteaux, 301 Cities : in Roman Empire, 8-1 1 , 3 5-38, 9 3 ; in ecclesiastical organization, 68; in By zantine Empire, 86, 192; in Carolingian Empire, 1 5 8-1 59, 269; in Moslem world, 192-193 See also Towns Citizenship, Roman, 7, 9-1 3 , 28, 5 7 Civil service : in Roman Empire, 1 2 , 3 1-34, 54; in Byzantine Empire, 1 84; in England, 38 1-382, 398-399, 450, 461-462; in Sicily, 388-390, 440-441; in France, 449, 464-467 Civitas, 1 1 , 3 1 , 3 5 , 68, 95, 1 54, 1 5 9 See also Cities Clairvaux, 301 Claudian, 77 Clement IV, pope, 434, 452 Clement V, pope, 47 1-47 3 , 476-477 , 48 1 Clement VII, pope, 506-507 Clerestory, 103, 3 3 3-3 5 2 Clergy, secular and regular, 6 8 , 7 6 , 1 6 3 See also Bishop; Church; Monasticism Clerks, 3 1 3 Clermont, 1 3 7 Clermont, council of, 2 5 7-260 Clientage, 1 6 1 Clock, 22, 594 Cloisonne, 367
INDEX Cloister, 248 Cloth-making : Roman, 24; Moslem, 1 9 5 , 2 7 4 ; Flemish, 2 7 4 , 465, 528, 542; Italian, 528, 595; English, 542 Clothiers, 5 3 1 Clovis, king of the Franks, 5 8 , 6 1 , 70, 85, 138 Cluny : monastery, 2 14, 249; congregation of, 249 Code : of Theodosius, 56, 100; of Justinian, 1 00- 1 0 1 , 304; of Frederick II, 440 See also Germanic law; Roman law Cog, 272 Coinage, see Money Colleges : of masters, 306-307; residential, 3 1 0-3 1 1 , 429-430 Colmar, 276 Cologne, 1 59, 270-272, 276, 290, 540 Cologne Cathedral, 292, 356 Coloni, 26, 3 5 , 5 1 , 61, 1 59-160, 22 1 , 593 Colonna family, 470-47 1 Colosseum, 1 5 , 563 Columba, St., 1 3 5 Columban, St., 1 3 5 Columbus, Christopher, 546 Columella, 23 Comitatus, 52, 1 6 1 , 1 7 1 , 203 Comites, 52 See also Count Commencement, 309 Commerce : in Roman Empire, 36-38; in Byzantine Empire, 86, 1 84, 192 , 197; in Moslem world, 1 1 1-1 1 2 , 1 92-193, 196197; in Carolingian Empire, 1 5 8-1 59; revival in eleventh and twelfth centuries, 266-2 9 1 , 404; in Sicilian kingdom, 392, 44 1 ; in later Middle Ages, 5 2 5-532, 5 3 8546 See also Towns Commines, Philippe de, 580-58 1 Commodus, Roman emperor, 2 8 Common, rights of, 224 Common law of England, 398-399, 450, 460-462, 494 Common pleas, court of, 461-462 Commons, house of, 462-463 , 493, 495-497 Communes, 284-2 9 1 , 3 7 5-376, 388, 402403, 463, 526, 538 See also Towns Commutation in manor, 5 3 3-536 Compass, magnetic, 1 96, 369-370, 544 Compiegne, 5 0 1 Compurgation, 63 Concentric castle, 363 Conciliarists, 507 Concordat of Worms, 384 Condottieri, 539 Confirmation, sacrament, 67 Confirmation of the Charters, 463
623 Conan de Bethune, 3 2 3 Conrad, duke o f Zahringen, 276 Conrad I, king of Germany, 199 Conrad II, king o f Germany and emperor, 246, 3 8 5 Conrad I I I , king o f Germany and emperor, 378, 3 8 5 , 394 Conrad IV, king of Germany and emperor, 452 Conradin, 452 Consistorium, 3 1 Consistory, papal, 409 Constable, office, 34, 1 54, 2 1 7, 380 Constance, council of, 508, 5 1 3- 5 1 4 Constance, peace of, 403 Constantine, Roman emperor, 29-3 3, 45-46, 69-70, 182, 247 Constantinople : 1 33 ; foundation, 30, 45-46; patriarchate, 70, 94, 1 7 5 , 1 78-1 8 3 , 250; siege by Avars, 97; siege by Moslems, 1 26-1 2 7 , 1 7 8; siege by Bulgars, 1 791 80; capture by crusaders, 4 1 3-4 14, 469; capture by Ottomans, 5 2 3 See also Byzantine Empire Constantius, Roman emperor, 4 5 Constitutions o f Clarendon, 399 Constitutions of Melfi, 440 Consuls : Roman, 7, 58-59; in mediaeval towns, 290 Conventuals, 477 Convocation, 493 Copenhagen, 5 4 1 Copts, 1 2 3 Copyhold, 5 3 5 Cordova : caliphate of, 1 5 1 , 1 8 5 ; mosque of, 194 Corfu, 2 5 3 , 392, 4 1 3 Corinthian order, 1 5 Cornwall, 1 3 1 Coronation Charter o f Henry I , 3 7 7 , 3 80 Corpus Juris Canonici, 304, 4 7 3 Corpus Juris Civilis, 1 00- 1 0 1 , 304 Corsica, 1 7 2 , 267, 285 Cortenuova, battle of, 440 Cortes, 467, 5 84 Corvee, 226, 2 7 7 Costume : Roman, 1 1 , 20-2 1 ; early German, 5 1-52; monastic, 7 5 ; in feudal age, 228229, 2 34; in later Middle Ages, 593 See also Arms and armor Cotters, 226 Count, office, 34, 6 1-62, 95, 97, 1 54, 1 59, 2 1 1-2 1 2 , 2 1 7 County, see Count, Shire Court : Roman, 3 1 ; Carolingian, 1 5 4-1 5 5 ; Byzantine, 1 8 1 ; Anglo-Norman, 380-381 See also Curia; Justice Courtoisie, 322-323, 5 3 8 Courtrai, battle of, 466
INDEX
624 Crecy, battle of, 488 Crete, 126 Croatia, 1 5 1 , 1 80, 387, 458 Crucifixion, 40 Crusade : first, 2 54-264; second, 392-394; third, 4 1 0-4 1 1 ; fourth, 4 1 1-4 1 5 , 456, 469; Albigensian, 420-423; of Freder ick II, 439; of Louis IX, 445-448; Bus site, 5 1 6-5 1 7 See also Knights, Teutonic; Ottoman Turks Ctesiphon, 99, 1 2 3 Curia : Roman, 1 1 ; papal, 409, 4 7 3 , 5 1 55 16 Curia regis: in England, 2 16, 380- 3 8 1 , 450, 461-463; in France, 449 Curiales, 1 1 , 3 5 , 593 Cybele, 39, 43 Cyprus, 126, 1 8 1 Cyril, St., 180 Czechs, 1 5 1 See also Bohemia; Moravia Dacia, 9, 5 3 , 97 Dagobert, king of the Franks, 1 3 2 , 144 Dalmatia, 15 3 Damascening, 2 7 4 Damascus : Persian capture, 9 8 ; under Mos lems, 1 2 3 , 1 2 5 , 394 See also Caliphate Damascus, mosque of, 194 Damasus I, pope, 70, 80 Damietta, 44 7 Damoiseau, 207 Dandolo, Henry, 4 1 2 Danegeld, 2 0 3 , 2 1 5-2 1 6 Danelaw, 1 7 2 Danes, see Denmark, Vikings Dante, 468, 478-482 Danzig, 5 2 5 Dark Age, meaning o f term, 1 3 7 Dauphin, title, 485-487 Dauphine, 485 , 582 De Contemptu Mundi, 3 1 4 De Regimine Principum, 433 De Tempore Ratione, 143-144 Deacon, office, 68 Decretals, 70 Degrees, in universities, 309 Demesne, 206, 221, 227 Demonology, 432, 589-592 Denarius, 528 Denmark, 541-542 Desiderius, king of the Lombards, 147, 1 5 0 Despotism : o f Roman emperors, 3 1-3 3 ; of later caliphs, 1 8 5 ; in Italian cities, 468, 5 3 8-539; in France, 49 1 , 502, 582-5 8 3 ; i n Spain, 5 84-5 85 See also Papacy
Destrier, 208 Dialectic : in western schools, 143, 1 65-1 66; in eleventh century, 295-297, 299-3 0 1 ; in university education, 306, 429, 569 Diaz, Bartolomeo, 546 Dies Irae, 3 14 Digest of Justinian, 100- 1 0 1 , 304 Dio Chrysostom, 1 6 Diocese: civil, 3 1 ; ecclesiastical, 68 Diocletian, Roman emperor, 29-3 3 , 3 5 , 45 Doge, office, 285 Dome, 1 03-1 06, 563 Dome of the Rock ( Jerusalem ) , 193 Domesday Book, 382 Domestic animals : of Romans, 2 3 ; of Ural Altaic nomads, 48-49; of early Germans, 5 1 ; of Arabs, 1 10; in manor, 222-2 2 5 , 2 3 3-234 Dominic, St., 426-427 Dominicans, 426-427, 429-430, 509, 569 Domremy, 499 Donatello, 565 Donation of Pepin I, 146 Donatists, 69, 420 Donatus, 77, 142, 165 Donjon, 2 10, 2 1 2, 229, 536 Dooms, 60, 62, 64, 2 1 5 Doomsmen, 62, 1 5 5 Doric order, 1 5 Dorylaeum, 5 2 1 Dorylaeum, battle of, 262 Douai, 528 Dover, 290 Drama, 329-3 30 Drang nach Osten, 404 Dresden, 5 2 5 Drink, see Food and drink Dublin, 379 Dubois, Pierre, 476 Ducat, 529 Duces, 31, 97 See also Duke Duchy, see Duke Duke: office in Roman Empire, 3 1 ; in Italy, 97, 2 8 5 ; in Carolingian Empire, 1 54; in France, 200-2 0 1 ; in Germany, 382-3 8 5 ; title in England, 493 Duns Scotus, 569 Durazzo, 2 53 Durham, 2 7 1 Durham Cathedral, 344 Earl, office and title, 202, 2 1 7, 493 East Anglia, 1 3 1 , 1 72, 202 East Mark, 383 Easter, 147 f!.chevins, 1 5 5 , 287 Eckhart, 509 Edda, 235
INDEX Edessa, county of, 262, 263, 394 Edict of Theodoric, 59 Edington, battle of, 202 Edith, queen of England, 2 1 5 Education, see Schools, Universities Edward I, king of England, 363, 460-464, 531 Edward II, king of England, 464 Edward III, king of England, 484-495, 509, Edward IV, king of England, 503, 583 5 3 8, 542 Edward V, king of England, 583 Edward the Black Prince, 488, 492 Edward the Confessor, king of England, 2 1 5 Edward the Elder, king of Wessex, 202 Egypt : in Roman Empire, 6, 14; Arab con quest, 1 2 3- 1 24; in Crusades, 263, 392, 4 1 1 ; under Mamelukes, 5 2 1 Einhard, 1 5 3 , 1 64- 1 6 5 , 1 68 Eleanor of Aquitaine, 2 3 3, 3 19-320, 322, 326, 376, 378-379, 400 Electors, of Germany, 5 1 2 Elements, Aristotelian, 189 Elus, 491 , 5 02 Emancipation, in manor, 5 32-53 6 Emma o f Normandy, 2 1 5 Emperor, origin of title, 8 Engineering : Roman, 2 5 ; twelfth and thir teenth centuries, 362-3 72, 436; fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, 595-596 See also Architecture; Fortification and siegecraft England : formation of kingdom, 201-203; Danish conquest, 202-2 0 3 ; Norman con quest, 2 1 5-2 1 7 , 2 5 1 ; under Henry I, 377-382; under Henry II and sons, 39640 1 , 449-450; under Henry III, 450-45 1 ; under Edward I , 460-464; during Hun dred Years' War, 485-489, 492-499, 502503; Tudor accession, 584 English language and literature, 5 52-5 5 7 See also Anglo-Saxon language and literature Enquete, 449 Entablature, 1 5 , 1 03-104, 5 59-563 Ephesus, council of, 7 1 Epic : Homer and Vergil, 18, 102; Arabic, 1 1 2, 1 85-186; mediaeval, 234-240, 3 18319 See also Dante Epictetus, 19 Episcopate, see Bishop Episcopus, 68 Epistola de Magnete, 3 70 Equites, 1 1- 1 2 Equity, 462, 494 Eratosthenes, 1 7
625 Ericsson, Lei£, 2 3 5 Escheat, 206 Essex, 1 3 1 , 495 Estates, of France, 467, 470, 489-491 , 5 82 Esths, 386, 458 Ethiopia, 1 1 2, 544 Eucharist, 67, 3 0 1 , 5 1 0, 5 1 6-5 1 7 Euclid, 1 7, 166, 1 87-188, 305, 4 8 1 Eugenius IV, pope, 5 1 7-5 1 8 Eusebius, 46 Eustace of Boulogne, 260 Evesham, battle of, 4 5 1 Exarchate, 9 7 Exchange, 528 Exchequer, 3 8 1 , 398, 462 Excommunication, 94 n. Exeter, 2 7 1 Exorcist, office, 590 Eyck, brothers van, 561-563, 568 Fabliaux, 3 2 7-328, 419, 4 7 3 Fairs, 2 7 3 , 441, 5 2 9 Falkirk, battle of, 464 Farabi, a!-, 1 9 1 , 305, 3 2 5 Fatima, 1 2 0 Fealty, 2 0 3 Felony, 206 Ferdinand, king of Spain, 546, 584 Feudalism : origins, 155, 1 60- 1 6 1 ; fundamentals, 199-2 10; spread in eleventh cen tury, 2 1 0-2 18; in the church, 248; decay, 536-538 See also England; France; Germany; ere. Fez, 1 8 5 Fiametta, 5 5 1 Fief, meaning o f term, 1 60 See also Feudalism Finns, 386, 458 Flanders : origin and development of county, 200, 2 1 2 , 465, 5 3 3 ; commercial impor tance, 268, 270, 287-289, 542; in thir teenth century, 444, 465; in Hundred Years' War, 487-488; union with Bur gundy, 492, 503-5 0 5 ; acquisition by Habsburgs, 5 82 Florence, 2 86, 308, 528, 5 3 9 Florence Cathedral, 563 Florin, 529 Foederati, 32, 5 3-54, 57, 95 Food and drink : of Romans, 20-2 1 ; of Ural Altaic nomads, 49; of early Germans, 5 2 ; o f Benedictines, 7 5 ; o f Moslems, 1 16; i n feudal age, 2 30-234; in later Middle Ages, 5 93-594 Forest cantons, 45 5-456 Forfeirure, meaning of term, 206 Formariage, 2 2 7 Fortification and siegecraft : Roman, 2 5 , 3 2 ; Byzantine, 8 6 , 9 0 ; Moslem, 1 19, 124,
626 196; western, 2 1 0, 362-363, 3 7 1 , 5 3 65 3 7 , 595-596 See alJO Burgen; Castle; Cities France: origin of kingdom, 1 70, 1 7 5 ; ninth to eleventh century, 200-2 0 1 , 2 1 0-2 1 1 ; under Louis V I and VII, 374-376, 378379; under Philip Augustus, 400-40 1 , 407-408, 444; under Louis IX, 444-449; under Philip IV, 464-467, 469-4 7 3 ; during Hundred Years' War, 484-492, 497-502; under Louis XI, 5 7 8-583 Franche-Comte, 492, 504, 582 Francis, St., 42 3-426, 568 Franciscans, 423-426, 429, 433-435, 47 7 , 508-509, 569-572 Franconia, duchy of, 243, 3 8 3 Franconian dynasty, 246 See also Germany Franks : invasions, 29, 5 3 , 5 5 ; Merovingian kingdom, 58, 60, 85, 90, 1 3 1- 1 3 2 , 1 38, 145-147 See also Carolingian Empire Fraticelli, 477 Frederick I ( Barbarossa ) , king of Germany and emperor, 306, 3 8 5 , 40 1-405 Frederick II, king of Sicily, king of Ger many, and emperor, 405-407, 438-443, 452 , 45 5 Frederick III, king o f Germany and emperor, 5 82 Frederick of Hohenstaufen, duke of Suabia, 383 Free alms, tenure, 205 Freiburg-im-Breisgau, 276, 280, 4 5 5 French language and literature : beginnings, 1 62 , 168; chansons de geste, 2 35-240, 3 1 8-320; early lyric poetry, 3 1 8-322; ro mances, 3 2 5-327; fabliaux, 3 2 7-328; drama, 3 2 9-3 30; Villehardouin, 4 1 1-4 14; Joinville, 445-449; Froissart, 550; Com mines, 580-58 1 , 5 8 5 ; Villon, 5 85-588 Fresco, 565-568 Friars, see Dominicans, Franciscans Friends of God, 509 Friesland, 504 Frisians, 148, 1 5 5 , 1 7 2 Froissart, 5 5 0 Fulbert o f Chartres, 295-296, 302 Fulda, 148, 1 64 Fulk Nerra, count of Anjou, 2 1 2 Furlong, 224 Furniture, see Houses and furnishings Gabelle, 502 Gaels, 50 Gaiseric, king of the Vandals, 55 Gden, 1 7 , 1 8 7 , 1 9 1 , 3 0 5 , 572 Galicia, 5 1 8 Gallican liberties, 508, 588
INDEX Gallipoli, 5 2 1 Gama, Vasco da, 546 Gascony, duchy of, 201 Gaul : Roman province, 6, 8; barbarian in vasions, 50, 54-58 See also Franks Generaux, 490-49 1, 502 Genoa, 2 5 5 , 267-268, 272, 285, 469, 539 Geoffrey, count of Brittany, 399 Geoffrey Martel, count of Anjou, 2 1 2 Geoffrey o f Monmouth, 3 2 5 Geoffrey Plantagenet, count o f Anjou, 2 1 2 , 378 Geography : Greek, 1 7; Moslem, 1 88-1 9 1 , 1 96-197, 390, 543-544; western develop ments, 544-546 Geometry, 17, 143, 1 65-166, 305, 429 Gepids, 86, 95 Gerard of Cremona, 305 Gerbert, 245, 292-295 German literature, 2 3 5 , 3 30-3 3 1 Germanic languages, 60, 1 68, 2 3 5 Germanic law, 5 2 , 5 8-64 Germans, early, 48, 5 0-54, 56-59 See also Alamans; Anglo-Saxons; Bur gundians; Franks; Lombards; Ostro goths; Vandals; Vikings; Visigoths; etc. Germany : under Merovingians, 58, 85-86, 1 3 1-132; under Carolingians, 144-148; ecclesiastical organization, 147-148; origin of kingdom, 169, 1 7 5 ; Saxon dynasty, 1 99, 243-246; Franconian dynasty, 246, 2 5 1-2 54, 382-3 8 5 ; Guelf vs. Hohen staufen, 3 8 3-385, 401-406; Frederick II, 438; Rudolf of Habsburg, 45 5-456; in fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, 485, 5 1 1-5 1 3 Ghana, 543, 546 Ghent, 270-27 2 , 436, 487, 528, 532, 5 5 8 Ghibellines, 468, 479 Ghiberti, 565 Gibbon, Edward, 9 Gibraltar, 1 2 7 Gilds : merchant, 2 7 3 , 2 80-2 8 1 , 287, 299; academic, 306; craft, 526-5 2 7 , 5 3 1 Giotto, 567-568 Glanvill, Ranulf de, 399 Glass, 195, 274, 367, 528, 593 Glossators, 304 Gloucester, duke of, 499 Gnostics, 45, 69 Godfrey of Bouillon, duke of Lorraine, 260-263 Godwin, earl of Wessex, 2 1 5 Gold, see Metal-working, Money Golden Book of Venice, 469 Golden Bull, 5 12 Golden Horn, 30
INDEX Goliardic verse, 3 14-3 1 8 Gothic, meaning of term, 348 n . , 597 See also Architecture; Painting; Print ing; Sculpture Goths, 29, 5 3 , 69 See also Ostrogoths; Visigoths Gottfried von Strassburg, 3 3 1 Grain : i n Roman Empire, 20, 23-24; in Middle Ages, 22 3-224, 5 34 See also Agriculture Grammar : in Roman schools, 76-77 ; in By zantine schools, 102; in mediaeval schools, 1 3 7-139, 1 6 1-163, 1 65-167, 295, 302 See also Humanism Granada, 5 84 Grande Ordonnance, 490 Grandson, battle of, 5 3 7 , 5 8 1 Gratian, Roman emperor, 5 3 Gratian, scholastic, 303-304, 481 Great Revolt of 1381, 495, 5 10, 5 3 5-536, 555 Greek fire, 196 Greek language and literature : in Roman Empire, 1 3-18, 76-78; in Byzantine Em pire, 1 01-102, 183-184; in west, 1 3 5 , 143, 161, 165-166, 304-305, 390, 433, 443; in Moslem world, 1 86-192; humanistic revival, 5 72-5 7 5 Greenland, 202 Gregory I ( the Great) , pope, 73, 1 32-141, 165-166, 2 3 5 Gregory VII, pope, 2 5 0-254, 3 8 2 Gregory I X , pope, 427, 439-440 Gregory XI, pope, 5 1 0 Gregory XII, pope, 508, 5 1 3 Gregory of Tours, 1 3 7-139 Groote, Gerard, 509 Gros tournois, 5 2 8 Grosseteste, Robert, 433-434, 4 3 6 Grossus, 528 Guelf dynasty, 383 See also Germany Guelfs, Italian party, 468 Guesclin, Bertrand du, 491 Guido da Vigevano, 572 Guienne, 444, 465, 485, 491, 582 Guillaume de Lorris, 329, 474-476 Guinea, 543, 546 Guns and gunpowder, 435-436, 5 3 6-537, 595-596 Gutenberg, 5 97 Habsburg dynasty, 45 5-456, 5 8 1-582 Hadrian, Roman emperor, 9, 1 3, 44; wall of, 5 5 Hadrian IV, pope, 402 Hainaut, 504 Hamburg, 2 7 2 , 540
627 Hamlet, 222 Handwriting : Roman, 2 2 , 1 66; Gothic, 60; Anglo-Saxon, 60; Carolingian, 166-168; Humanistic, 5 74, 597 Hansa, 455, 5 2 5, 540-542 Harding, Stephen, 3 0 1 Harfleur, 498 Harness, 2 2 5 , 229, 595 Harold, king of England, 2 1 5 Hastings, 290 Hastings, battle of, 2 1 5 Hauteville dynasty, 2 1 3-2 14 Hawking, 2 3 3 See also Birds, Frederick II on Haytham, al-, 190, 305, 434 Hebrew language, 67, 80, 479 Hegira, 1 1 5 Hejaz, 1 12 Hellenistic monarchies, Syria and Macedon, 6 Heloise, 297-299, 3 1 9 Henry, son o f Frederick II, 439 Henry, son of Henry II, 323 Henry I, king of England, 2 7 8 , 289, 377 Henry II, king of England, 3 79, 3 96-400, 540 Henry III, king of England, 450-4 5 1 Henry IV, king o f England, 495-497, 5 1 0 Henry V, king o f England, 497 Henry VI, king of England, 497, 503 Henry VII, king of England, 503, 583 Henry I ( the Fowler ) , king of Germany, 199-200 Henry II, king of Germany and emperor, 246 Henry Ill, king of Germany and emperor, 246, 249-2 5 1, 3 8 3 Henry IV, king o f Germany and emperor, 2 5 1-254, 383-384 Henry V, king of Germany and emperor, 384 Henry VI, king of Germany, king of Sicily, and emperor, 404-405 Henry VII, king of Germany and emperor, 476-47 7 , 479, 5 1 1 Henry the Lion, duke of Bavaria and Saxony, 402, 404 Henry the Proud, duke of Bavaria and Saxony, 385 Henry of Portugal, 544-546 Heptarchy, 1 3 1 Heraclius, Byzantine emperor, 98-99, 1 2 1 , 1 23-124 Heraldry, 229 Heresy : early, 45, 69-70, 94; eleventh to thirteenth century, 296-3 0 1 , 4 1 9-428; in later Middle Ages, 477, 5 08-5 1 8 See also Witchcraft Heriot, 2 2 7 Hermann o f Carinthia, 305 Hermits, see Monasticism
628 Herodotus, 102 Hide, unit of land, 1 5 5 Hildebrand, see Gregory VII Hindus, 1 2 7 Hipparchus, 1 7 Hippo, 8 2 Hippocrates, 1 7 , 187, 3 0 5 History Against the Pagans, 142 Hohenstaufen dynasty, 383 See also Germany Holland, 504 Holstein, 1 5 1 Holy Cross, 98 Holy Grail, 329 Holy Lance, 262-263 Holy Roman Empire : ongtn and nature, 242-246; contests with papacy, 249-2 54, 40 1-408; dissolution, 4 5 5 , 5 1 1-5 1 2 See also Aries, kingdom of; Germany; Italy, kingdom of Holy war of Moslems, 1 1 9-120 Homage, meaning of term, 203, 537 Homer, 1 02 Honorius, Roman emperor, 5 5 Honorius III, pope, 4 2 5 , 439 Horace, 18 Horse, 24, 49, 90, 1 10, 208, 229 Hospitality : monastic, 76; Arab, 1 10; feudal, 206 Hospitallers, 392-393, 4 1 9 , 472 Hate, 375, 5 3 2 Hotels d e ville, 5 5 8 Houses and furnishings : Roman, 2 1-22; nomadic, 49-50; early German, 5 1 ; mano rial, 2 2 5 , 2 3 3 ; baronial, 229-230; later mediaeval, 527, 593-594 Hugh, count of Vermandois, 260 Hugh Capet, king of France, 200, 2 1 0 Hugh o f St. Victor, 302-303 Humanism, 572-5 7 5 , 5 8 5 , 597 Hunayn ibn Ishaq, 1 88-189 Hundred, assessment district, 2 1 7 Hundred Years' War, 465, 484-505 Hungarians, 1 7 3 See also Hungary Hungary, kingdom of, 246, 386, 5 1 3 , 520523 Huns, 48-50, 5 3 , 55-56, 86, 97 Hus, John, 5 12-5 1 4 Hussite engineer, the, 595-596 Hussites, 5 14-5 1 7 Ibd Rushd, see Averroes Ibn Sina, see Avicenna Iceland, 202, 3 3 1 Iconoclastic controversy, 145, 1 78-1 7 9 Idrisi, a!-, 390, 543-544 Igor, prince of Kiev, 1 82 He de France, 200-2 0 1 , 2 10, 268, 3 7 5
INDEX Illumination of manuscripts, 1 3 5 , 167, 560561 Illyria, 1 00 Immunity, 1 57, 1 60, 204, 279 Imperator, 7 Imperium, 7 Incidents, feudal, 206, 2 1 6 Indies, 546 Indulgence, 2 5 7 , 509, 5 5 3 , 5 56 Industrial arts, see Technology Industry : in Roman Empire, 24-2 5 , 34-3 5 ; in manor, 1 58-1 59, 226-2 2 7 ; in Byzantine Empire, 1 84; in Moslem world, 1 92-193; in mediaeval towns, 269, 2 7 1-2 7 2 , 526, 531 Infantry, see Army Inland, 226 Innocent III, pope, 405-4 1 5 , 425-427, 438, 510 Innocent IV, pope, 440 Innocent VIII, pope, 59 1-592 Inquest, 3 8 1 , 398 See also Enquete; Inquisition Inquisition, papal, 427-428, 472-473, 509, 590-592 Institutes of Justinian, 100- 1 0 1 Insurance, 528 Interdict, 407 Interest, 52 9-5 3 1 Interregnum, in Germany, 452-4 5 5 Investiture controversy, 2 5 2-2 54, 3 82, 384 Ionian order, 15 Iraq, 123 Ireland : Christianization, 73, 1 3 5 ; Viking invasions, 1 7 2 ; under Henry II, 3 79 See also Monasticism Irene, Byzantine empress, 1 5 3 , 1 7 9 Irminon, abbot o f Saint-Germain, 2 2 1 Irnerius, 304 Irrigation, 197, 369 Isaac Angelus, Byzantine emperor, 4 12-4 1 3 Isabella, queen o f Spain, 5 84 Isabelle, queen of France, 498 !saurians, 56, 180 Isidore of Seville, 142-143, 165-166, 48 1 Isis, 39, 43 Islam, 1 1 5 See also Mohammedanism Italian literature : beginnings, 3 3 1 , 443; Dante, 478-482; Petrarch, 5 5 0-5 5 1 ; Boc caccio, 5 5 1-552 Italy : in Roman Empire, 6, 13; collapse of imperial government, 55-56; Ostrogothic kingdom, 57-60, 9 1-93 ; Justinian's re conquest, 9 1-93 ; Lombard conquests, 9597; rise of papal authority, 1 32-1 3 5 , 1 39-1 4 1 ; Frankish intervention and con quests, 145-147; in ninth and tenth cen turies, 243-246; Norman conquests, 250;
INDEX in later Middle Ages, 284-287, 5 38-540 See also Italy, kingdom of; Papacy; Sicily, kingdom of; Venice; etc. Italy, kingdom of : under Carolingians, 1 50, 1 5 5 , 1 69, 175; under Saxons, 2 1 3 , 243246; under Franconians, 249-2 54; Guelf vs. Hohenstaufen, 401-408; under Fred erick II, 440-44 1 ; disintegration, 452454, 468-469 See also Lombards Itinerant justices, 380, 397-398, 462 Ius civile, 1 2 - 1 3 , 3 1 Ius gentium, 1 2 - 1 3 , 3 1 Ius naturale, 1 3 Jacobites, 94 n., 1 8 7 Jacquerie, 490, 5 3 5 Jagiello, king o f Poland, 5 18-520 James the Conqueror, king of Aragon, 4 5 3454 ]arrow, 143 Jean de Meun, 474-476 Jeanne d'Arc, 498-5 0 1 , 5 9 1 Jenghis Khan, 456 Jerome, St., 70, 79-80 Jerome of Prague, 5 14 Jerusalem : in Persian wars, 98; Arab con· quest, 1 2 3 , 193; Turkish conquest, 2 5 5 ; Latin kingdom, 263-264; conquest by Saladin, 394, 4 1 0-4 1 1 ; acquisition by Frederick II, 439 Jesus, 40-43 Jesus, order of, 546 Jews : in Roman Empire, 43-44; relations with Moslems, 1 1 3-1 1 6, 1 2 1 , 1 8 5 ; in mediaeval Europe, 440, 5 3 1 John, gospel of, 4 1 John, king o f England, 400-401 , 406-408, 449-450, 509 John, king of France, 488-489 John XII, pope, 243-245 John XXII, pope, 4 7 7 , 569 John XXIII, pope, 508, 5 1 3 John the Baptist, 40 John of Cappadocia, 89 John the Fearless, duke of Burgundy, 497, 504 John of Salisbury, 302 ]ohn the Scot, 16 5 John of Seville, 305 John Tzimisces, Byzantine emperor, 182 ]oinville, Jean de, 331, 445-449 jongleurs, 3 19 Journeyman, 526 Jousts, 2 3 3 Judaism, 42-43 See also Jews Judge, see Justice Julio-Claudians, 8-9
629 lures, 290 Jurisprudence, see Roman law Jutisn, 13, 100- 1 0 1 Jury, 3 8 1 , 398, 461 Justice : Roman, 12-13, 1 00- 1 0 1 ; Germanic, 60-64; Moslem, 1 1 6; Carolingian, 1 5 5 ; feudal and manorial, 205-206, 2 1 2 , 2262 2 7 ; English, 2 1 6-2 1 7 , 3 79-382, 397399, 450, 5 83-584; in towns, 279-2 8 1 , 287-2 9 1 ; under Frederick I I , 440-441 ; French, 449, 582 See also Canon law, Inquisition, papal Justin, Roman emperor ( east ) , 87, 94 Justinian, Roman emperor ( east ) , 8 7-95, 1 00-1 08 , 304, 4 8 1 Juvenal, 18, 474 Kaaba, 1 12 , 1 19 Kairawan, 126, 1 8 5 Keep, see Don jon Kent, 1 3 1 , 1 3 6-1 3 7 , 202, 495 Khadija, 1 1 3 , 120 Khaldun, ibn-, 186 Khalid, 1 2 1-124 Khorasan, 2 5 4 Khwarizmi, al-, 1 88-1 89, 3 0 5 Kiev, 1 82 Kindi, a!-, 1 8 8 King's bench, court of, 4 6 1 Knight service, 205, 2 0 8 Knighthood, see Chivalry Knights, Teutonic, 458, 520, 541 Knights of St. John, see Hospitallers Knights Templars, 392, 472-47 3 , 5 3 1 ; 546 Konigsberg, 5 2 5 Koran, 1 16-1 1 8, 186 Kramer, 592 Kublai Khan, 544 n. Kuraish, 1 1 3-1 14, 1 1 9 Kyeser, Konrad, 595 La Rochelle, 290 Laach, abbey of, 339 Labor, see Agriculture, Industry, Monasticism Laborers, statute of, 5 3 5 Lactantius, 7 8 Ladislas II, king of Poland, 5 1 8-520 Lagny-sur-Marne, 529 Lancastrian dynasty, 495, 502-503 Lanfranc, 380, 3 82 Langland, 5 50, 552-5 5 5 Langton, Stephen, 407 Languedoc, 465, 582 See also Toulouse, county of Laon, 2 89, 292 Laon Cathedral, 347 Last Judgment: Moslem, 1 14, 1 18; Christian, 242, 360 Lateen sail, 197
INDEX
630 Lateran Council, 409, 414, 427 Latin Empire, 4 1 4 Latin language and literature : classic, 1 8 , 36, 77-80; fifth to eighth century, 80-83, 8788, 1 37-144, 1 6 1- 1 6 3 ; Carolingian, 1 63167; eleventh to thirteenth century, 295300, 3 1 3-3 1 8 , 428-436; later mediaeval, 568-57 2 ; humanistic revival, 572-5 75 Latin Quarter, 307 Latins, 6 See also Roman Empire; Latin language and literature; etc. Laura, 5 50-5 5 1 Law, see Canon law, Common law, Germanic Jaw, Justice, Roman law, etc. Leather-working, 1 9 5 , 2 7 3 , 593 See also Harness Lech, battle of the, 243 Legnano, battle of, 403 Lenses, 434, 436, 596 Leo III, Byzantine emperor, 1 2 7 , 1 78-1 7 9 Leo V I , Byzantine emperor, 1 8 1 Leo I ( the Great ) , pope, 7 0 Leo III, pope, 1 5 1 - 1 5 3 Leo I X , pope, 2 5 0 Leo the Mathematician, 1 83 Leon, kingdom of, 2 14, 387, 5 84 Leonard of Pisa, 429, 443 Lerins, 73 Letters of credit, 529 Lewes, battle of, 4 5 1 Liber Augusta/is, 440 Liberal arts, 7 7-78 , 142-143, 164-165 See also Universities Libraries : monastic, 1 64; in Moslem world, 1 86-1 8 7 ; humanistic, 574 Licinius, Roman emperor, 45 Lidi, 2 2 1 Liege, 2 7 2 , 290, 292 Limousin, 3 2 1 Lincoln, 2 7 1 Lincoln Cathedral, 3 5 7 Lingua romana, 169 Lingua teudesca, 1 69 Literature, see Anglo-Saxon, Arabic, English, French, German, Greek, Italian, Latin, Proven�al, Spanish, etc. Lithuania, 386, 458, 5 1 8-520 Liutprand, king of the Lombards, 1 45 Lives of the Twelve Caesars, 1 64 Livonia, 458 Livs, 458 Livy, 18 Llewelyn, prince of Wales, 464 Logic, see Dialectic Lollards, 5 1 0-5 1 1 , 5 1 3 Lombard League, 403, 440 Lombards, bankers, 529-5 3 1
Lombards : invasion of Italy, 95-97; relations with papacy, 1 32-1 3 3 , 146-147; Frankish conquest, 1 5 0 See also Italy, kingdom of Lombardy, 95, 245 London : Roman, 3 7 ; twelfth and thirteenth centuries, 2 7 1-2 7 2 , 290, 526, 5 3 2 ; later Middle Ages, 495, 540-541 Longbow, 464, 488 Lords, house of, 463, 493 Lords Marchers, 3 79, 464 Lordship, 160, 203-204 Lorraine: kingdom, 1 7 3 ; German duchy, 1 99, 243, 246; partition, 383; in Burgundian wars, 5 8 1 Lorris, 276-278, 3 7 5 Lothair, king o f Italy and emperor, 169-170, 173 Lothair III, king o f Germany and emperor, 383, 385 Lothair II, king of Lorraine, 1 7 3 Lothair o f Segni, see Innocent III Lotharingia, see Lorraine Lothian, 2 1 5 Louis, duke o f Orleans, 497-498 Louis VI, king of France, 374-3 7 7 Louis V I I , king o f France, 3 78-3 7 9 , 394 Louis VIII, king of France, 422-423 , 444 Louis IX, king of France, 444-449 Louis X I , king of France, 5 02, 5 7 8-583 Louis de Male, count of Flanders, 492 Louis of Bavaria, king of Germany and em peror, 477, 5 1 1 Louis the German, king of Germany, 169 Louis the Pious, king of the Franks and emperor, 1 69 Low Countries, 170, 582 Lubeck, 2 7 2 , 276, 404, 540 Lucca, 286, 508 Lucian, 1 6 Luke, 4 1 Lupus o f Ferrieres, 1 6 5 Lutterworth, 5 1 0 Luxemburg, 504 Luxemburg dynasty, 485, 504, 5 1 1 Luxeuil, 1 3 5 Lyric : classic, 1 8 ; Arabic, 1 8 6 ; Anglo-Saxon, 2 3 5 ; Goliardic, 3 14-3 1 8; Proven�al and French, 3 1 8-32 3 ; German, 3 3 1 ; Italian, 5 5 0-5 5 1 Macedonia, 97, 1 80, 522 Macedonian dynasty, 1 79-1 8 3 , 254 Macrobius, 77 Madeira, 546 Magdeburg, 245, 2 7 1 , 290 Magi, 36 Magic, 432, 590-592 Magna Carta, 408, 450, 461-463
INDEX Magna Mater, 39 Magnet, 369 Magnus, king of Sweden, 54 1 Magyars, see Hungarians Maine, county of, 582 i'vlainmorte, 227 Mainz, 148 Maior, 1 5 7 Majuscule, 1 66 Maldon, battle of, 2 3 5 Malik Shah, Seljuk sultan, 2 5 5 , 262 Malleus Maleficarum, 592 Mamelukes, 5 2 1 Mamun, a!-, caliph, 1 84, 1 8 7 Manfred, king o f Sicily, 452, 468 Manichaeans, 4 5 , 8 1 , 94 Manorial system : origin, 1 58-160; feudal age, 203, 220-228; decay, 5 32-536 Manse, 1 5 5 , 2 2 1 Mansur, a!-, caliph, 1 84, 1 8 7 Manzikert, battle o f , 2 5 5 Marcel, Etienne, 490-491 March, frontier territory, 1 5 1 See also Slavic marches; Spanish march; Wales Marcomanni, 5 3 Marcus Aurelius, Roman emperor, 9 , 1 2 , 1 6, 19, 44 Margaret, queen of Denmark, 542 Margaret of Flanders, 492 Margrave, office, 1 5 4 Mariano, Iacopo, 595-596 Marie de France, 326 Mark, gospel of, 4 1 Markets : rural, 1 5 8, 2 7 3 ; urban, 2 7 2 , 280 See also Commerce Marquis, office, 1 54; title in England, 493 Marriage : among early Germans, 5 1 ; of clergy, 7 2 , 248-25 2 ; among Arabs, 1 1 51 1 7 ; in feudal society, 205-206, 2 3 2-2 3 3 ; in manorial custom, 2 2 7 Marseilles, 2 72, 290 Marshal, office, 1 5 4 Marsiglio of Padua, 477-478, 5 0 7 , 5 10 Martial, 1 8 Martianu s Capella, 7 7 , 1 42 Martin IV, pope, 4 5 3 Martin V, pope, 5 1 5-5 1 7 Martin ( St. ) o f Tours, 1 3 7-139 Mary of Burgundy, 582 Masaccio, 568 Masonry, see Architecture, Engineering, Fortification and siegecraft Mass, see Eucharist Master, degree, 309; of gild, 5 26, 5 3 1 Masudi, a!-, 1 8 6 Mathematics, see Algebra, Arithmetic, As tronomy, Geometry, Music, Trigonometry Matthew, gospel of, 4 1
63 1 Matilda, daughter of Henry I , 3 7 7 Matins o f Bruges, 466 Maurice, Byzantine emperor, 97, 102, 1 3 3 Maxentius, 4 5 Maximilian, duke o f Austria, 582 Mayor, office, 5 2 6 Mayor o f the palace, 144 Mecca, 1 12 , 1 1 3, 1 1 5 , 1 1 8-1 2 0 Mecklenburg, 458 Mediaeval, meaning of term, 1 , 599-601 Medici family, 5 3 9 Medicine : Greek, 1 7 - 1 8 ; early mediaeval, 1 38-139, 144; Moslem, 1 87 - 1 88, 1 9 1 ; in universities, 305, 308-3 1 1 , 430-4 3 1 , 5 7 2 Medina, 1 12-1 1 5 , 1 1 9, 1 2 5 , 193 Mediterranean, see Trade routes Mernling, Hans, 563 Merchants, see Commerce Merchet, 2 2 7 Mercia, 1 3 1 , 1 72, 20 1-202 Merovingian dynasty, 5 8 See also Franks Merseburg, 2 7 1 Merton College, 3 1 1 Mesopotamia, 109, 1 2 1 , 1 2 3 , 458 Messiah, 40, 1 1 4 Messina, 1 7 3 , 2 14 Metal-working : Roman, 2 2 , 2 5 , 3 7; Arab, 1 1 1 , 1 9 5 , 197; mediaeval, 365-366, 593, 596 See also Arms and armor; Tools Methodius, St., 180 Metropolitan, office, 68 See also Archbishop Michael III, Byzantine ernper or, 1 7 9 Michael Cerularius, 2 5 0 Middle Ages, meaning o f term, 1 , 599-601 Middlesex, 1 3 1 Milan, 78-79, 2 86, 403, 468, 5 3 9 Milan Cathedral, 3 5 5 Miles, 2 0 8 Military service, see Army, Feudalism Mills, 24, 2 2 7 , 595 Milvian Bridge, battle of the, 46 Minaret, 194 Mining, 2 5 , 1 1 1 , 367-37 1 Minnesinger, 3 3 1 Minstrel, 2 3 2 , 3 1 8, 390 Mint, see Money Minuscule, 1 6 7 , 597 Missi dominici, 1 5 5 Missions, see Church Mithras, 39, 43 Mohammed, 1 1 3-120 Mohammed I , Ottoman sultan, 5 2 2 Mohammed I I , Ottoman sultan, 5 2 3 Mohammedanism, 1 1 3-1 29, 1 84, 1 86
632 Monasticism : early, 7 1-73; Irish, 7 3 , 1 3 5 , 147, 1 6 1 ; Benedictine, 7 3-76, 1 3 5-136, 147, 164, 248-249; Cluniac, 249 ; Cister cian, 3 0 1 ; Carthusian, 4 1 8 Mondino dei Luzzi, 5 72 Money : Roman, 32; Carolingian, 1 58; later mediaeval, 44 1 , 528-529 Money-lending, 3 7 , 529-5 3 1 Mongols, 48, 458, 5 2 1 Monk, see Monasticism Monnica, 80 Monophysites, 7 1 , 94, 1 2 3 Monopolies : manorial, 2 2 7 ; o f Frederick II, 441 See also Gilds Monotheism, 43, 1 14 Monreale Cathedral, 344 Montauban, 278 Monte Cassino, 74, 164, 1 7 3 Montereau, bridge of, 499 Montpellier, 290 Montpellier, University of, 308 Moors, 48, 5 3 , 9 1 , 1 26-1 2 7 , 145, 1 7 2 , 1 8 5 , 255 Morat, battle of, 5 3 7, 5 8 1 Moravia, 1 5 1 , 180, 387 Morea, principality of, 4 1 4 n. Morocco, 1 8 5 , 267 Mortgage, 529-530 Mosaic, 1 05-108, 195 Moscow, 458 Moslem, 1 1 5 See also Caliphate; Mohammedanism Mosque, 1 0 5 , 1 1 5 , 1 93-195 Mosul, 1 2 3 , 394 Motte, see Castle Muawija, caliph, 1 2 5-126 Munich, 276, 404 Murad I, Ottoman sultan, 5 2 1 Murad I I , Ottoman sultan, 522 Muret, battle of, 422 Music : Greek, 1 8; in Latin schools, 1 65-166, 293; in Moslem world, 1 9 1 ; mediaeval de velopments, 324-32 5 Myriobiblon, 1 8 3 Mystere d'Adam, 3 3 0 Mysteries : oriental, 39-40; dramatic, 329330 Mystical Lamb, painting of, 563 Mysticism, 3 8-39 See also Church; Monasticism Mystics of fourteenth century, 509 Namur, 290, 504 Nancy, 5 8 1 ; battle of, 5 3 7 Naples, 97, 485 Naples, University of, 308, 443 Narbonne, 422 Narses, 9 1 , 96
INDEX Nation : modern meaning of term, 2-3 ; in universities, 306-308; in Council of Con stance, 5 1 3 Navarre, 2 14, 584 Nave, 103, 3 3 5 , 346 Navigation : Roman, 2 5 , 3 7; early German, 5 3 ; Byzantine, 93, 95-96; Arab, 1 26, 1 7 11 72 , 193, 196, 542-546; Carolingian, 1 58, 1 72 ; Viking, 1 7 1-172, 20 1-203, 268; Ital ian, 2 5 5 , 2 6 1 , 262, 267, 2 8 5 , 543-544; Hanseatic, 540-542; maps and charts, 543546; Portuguese, 544-546 Navy, see Navigation Neoplatonism, 38, 69, 8 1 , 189, 296, 569 Nero, Roman emperor, 9 Nerva, Roman emperor, 9 Nestorians, 7 1 , 94, 1 8 7 Netherlands, see Low Countries Neustria, 1 3 2 , 145, 200 Newcastle-upon-Tyne, 278, 3 8 1 Nibelungenlied, 2 3 5 Nicaea, 262, 5 2 1 Nicaea, Council of, 69 Nicephorus Phocas, Byzantine emperor, 182 Nicholas I, pope, 1 7 5 , 1 8 1 Nicholas II, pope, 2 5 1 Nicholas III, pope, 481 Nicholas V, pope, 5 1 8, 522 Nicomedia, 5 2 1 Nlmes, 3 7 , 290 Nineveh, 99 Nishapur, 2 54 Nithard, 169 Nogaret, 4 7 1 Nomads : Ural-Altaic, 48-49; Arab, 109-1 1 1 , 124 Nominalism, 296, 299 Norman dynasty, 2 1 5-2 17 See also England Normandy : settlement, 1 7 2 ; foundation of duchy, 200; in eleventh century, 2 1 2-2 14, 2 1 8, 269; Angevin succession, 396; con quest by Philip Augustus, 400-401, 444; in Hundred Years' War, 488, 498, 502 Normans : in England, 203, 2 1 5; in Italy and Sicily, 2 1 3-2 14, 250, 2 5 3 ; on crusade, 2 5 5-263 See also England; Normandy; Sicily, kingdom of North Mark, 383 Northmen, see Vikings Northumbria, 1 3 1 , 1 72 Norway, 1 7 1 , 202, 2 1 5 , 3 8 5 , 540-542 Norwegians, see Norway, Vikings Norwich, 2 7 1 Norwich Cathedral, 345 Notre-Dame ( Clermont ) , church, 340 Notre-Dame ( Paris ) , church, 347, 349, 3 5 1353
INDEX Nottingham, 2 7 1 Novels of Justinian, 1 00 Novgorod, 458, 541 Nucleated village, 222 Numerals, see Arithmetic Nur-al-Din, 394 Ockham, William of, 477, 5 10, 569-574 Odo, king of France, 1 7 5 , 200 Odoacer, 56 Offices, liturgical, 7 5 Olaf ( St. ) , king of Norway, 385 Olga, princess of Kiev, 1 8 2 Omar, caliph, 1 14, 120-124 Omar Khayyam, 1 90 Ommiad dynasty, 1 24-129, 1 84 On the Administration of the Empire, 1 8 1 Open-field system, 224 Optics, 188, 1 9 1 , 434 Ordeal, 63, 263, 398, 46 1 Orders, classic, 1 5 Ordinance, 494 Oresme, 5 7 1 Orkhan, Ottoman sultan, 5 2 1 Orleanisrs, faction, 497 Orleans, 290, 3 7 5 , 499-5 0 1 Orleans, Universiry of, 308 Orosius, 1 42 , 235, 4 8 1 Osman, Turkish sultan, 52 1 Osrrogoths, kingdom of the, 58, 90-93 Oswy, king of Northumbria, 147 Othman, caliph, 1 2 5 Otto I ( the Great ) , king of Germany and em peror, 200, 243-245 , 292, 382, 386 Otto II, king of Germany and emperor, 245 Orro III, king of Germany and emperor, 245246 Otto IV, king of Germany and emperor, 405408 Orrokar, king of Bohemia, 455 Otroman Turks, 5 2 1-5 2 3 , 540 Ovid, 1 8 Oxford, 2 7 1 ; provisions of, 4 5 1 Oxford University, 308, 429, 43 3-434, 5 1 0, 5 1 2 , 569 Pachomius, St., 73 Padua, University of, 308 Pagan, meaning of term, 7 1 Painting, 559-568 See also Illumination of manuscripts; Stained glass Palermo, chapel of, 344 Palestine, see Syria Pannage, 224 Pannonia, 93, 97, 1 5 1 Papacy : theoretical basis, 70; early popes, 70; Gregory the Great, 1 32-1 3 3 , 1 39-1 4 1 ; re lations with Carolingians, 146, 1 5 1- 1 5 3 ,
633 1 57-1 58 ; degradation, 1 7 5- 1 76, 1 8 1 , 243245; revival under Leo IX and Gregory VII, 249-2 52; Urban II and the crusade, 2 5 5-264; in the twelfth century, 40 1-405; Innocent III, 405-4 1 5 , 42 1 , 425-427; in thirteenth-century politics, 438-44 1 , 450454, 467; Boniface VIII, 468-47 1 ; Baby lonian Captiviry, 47 1 , 485, 506-508; Great Schism, 506-5 1 5 ; victory over coun cils and relapse, 5 1 6-5 1 8 Papal States, 1 46, 406, 440, 47 1 , 5 3 9 Paper, 1 96, 367, 597 Paraclere, 298 Par�, 290, 292, 297, 499, 5 85-588 Paris, University of, 295, 306-3 1 1 , 430-4 3 3 , 507' 5 1 3, 5 7 1 , 585 Parish, 68 Parlement, 449, 5 82 Parliament, 462-463, 493-497, 5 8 3-584 Parthenon, 1 5 Parthians, 86, 90 Pastourelle, 3 2 3 Pasture, 22 5 Patricius, title, 34, 54, 5 6-5 7, 87, 146, 1 5 3 Patrick, St., 7 3 Patrimony of St. Peter, 1 34 Patronage, Roman, 1 6 1 Paul, St., 4 1-42, 70, 82 Paul the Deacon, 9 5 , 1 64 Pavia, 286, 308, 403 Pavia, council of, 5 16 Pays d' idection, 502 Pays d'hats, 502 Peace of God, 2 5 6 Peasantry, see Coloni, Manorial system, Serfdom Peasants' Crusade, 2 5 7 Peerage, English, 493 Penance, 67 See also Indulgence Penny, see Money Pepin I, king of the Franks, 146, 1 50, 1 6 3 , 247 Pepin of Herstal, mayor of the palace, 145 Pepin of Landen, 145 Perfecti, see Albigensians Persecutions of Christians, 43-44 See also Heresy; Jews Persia: revived kingdom, 29, 48, 86-87; reli gion, 40, 94; Byzantine wars, 8 7 , 9 1 , 9799; Arab conquest, 1 2 1-124; Turkish con quest, 2 54-2 5 5 ; Mongol conquest, 458 Peter, St., 41, 70 See also Perrine supremacy Peter II, king of Aragon, 422 Peter III, king of Aragon, 4 5 3 Peter Bartholomew, 262 Peter the Hermit, 2 5 7 Peter Lombard, 303, 4 8 1
INDEX
634 Petra, 1 1 1 Petrarch, 5 5 0-5 5 1 , 5 72-574 Petrine supremacy, 70 See also Papacy Pharmacy, 1 8 8 Philip I , king of France, 2 1 0, 260, 3 74 Philip I I ( Augustus ) , king of France, 400401 , 404-408, 42 1-422, 444 Philip III, king of France, 454 Philip IV ( the Fair ) , king of France, 464467, 469-47 3 , 5 3 1 Philip VI, king o f France, 485-488, 5 3 8 Philip the Bold, duke o f Burgundy, 492, 497 Philip the Good, duke of Burgundy, 503505 , 580 Philip of Suabia, king of Germany, 405-406 Philosophy : classic, 1 6-20, 39-40; in Moslem world, 1 87-192; in western schools, 295302, 428, 4 3 5 , 5 7 5 Phocas, Byzantine emperor, 97-98 Photius, 1 8 1 , 1 8 3 Physics, see Aristotle, Engineering, Technology Physiology, see Medicine Picardy, 269, 444, 582 Picts, 5 5 , 1 3 1 , 1 3 5 Fiero della Vigna, 440, 443 Pierre de Maricourt, 3 70-3 7 2 , 436 Pipe rolls, 381, 397 Pisa, 2 5 5 , 267, 2 7 2 , 285 Pisa, council of, 508 Pisa Cathedral, 339 Plague, bubonic, 489 Plain chant, 324 Plato, 39, 1 66, 1 87 , 390, 4 8 1 , 5 7 5 Pliny the Elder, 2 3 Pliny the Younger, 18, 44 Plotinus, 39 Plow, 2 3 , 222, 2 2 5 , 365, 595 Plutarch, 15 Podesta, 526 Poitiers, 58, 145 Poitiers, battle of, 489 Poitou, 376, 445 Poland : early kingdom, 246, 386-387, 4 5 8 ; papal fief, 4 1 0 ; Lithuanian dynasty, 5 1 8520 Political theory, 246-247, 409-4 10, 469-4 7 1 , 476-479 Polo, Marco, 544 Polytheism, 42-43 Pomerania, 386, 4 5 8 Pope, see Papacy Population : Roman Empire, 9, 34, 37-38; in crease in Middle Ages, 266; mediaeval towns, 2 70-2 7 1 , 5 3 2 ; after Black Death, 489 Porphyrogenitus, 1 8 1 Porphyry, 7 7 , 1 66, 295, 569
Porto/ani, 544 Portugal : development of kingdom, 2 14, 387, 584; maritime expansion, 544-546 Poverty : monastic, 7 1 , 74-7 5 , 248; of Wal densians, 4 1 9-420; of friars, 423-427, 4 77; of Lollards, 5 1 0-5 1 1 Praemunire, statute of, 509 Praetor, office, 7 , 1 3 Pragmatic Sanction of Bourges, 5 8 8 Prague, 5 1 7, 5 2 5 Prague, University of, 3 0 8 , 5 1 2, 5 16 Precaria, 160 Prefect, office, 3 1 , 33, 1 3 2 Presbyter, 68 Prev6t, office, 2 1 1 , 3 7 5 Priest, office, 68, 5 1 6 Primogeniture, 204, 485, 493 Princeps, 7-8 Principate, 7-8, 28 Printing, 196, 596-598 Priscian, 77, 142 Privy council, 494 Procopius, 87-89, 1 02 Professor, degree, 309 Prophets, Moslem, 1 1 3-1 14 Proven�al language and literature, 2 0 1 , 3 1 93 2 3 , 420, 479 Provence : Frankish conquest, 85, 93, 1 7 0 ; kingdom, 1 7 5 ; under Angevins, 485; ac quisition by Louis XI, 582 Province : civil, 7, 31; ecclesiastical, 68 Provins, 529 Provisions, papal, 450 Provisors, statute of, 509 Prussia, see Knights, Teutonic Prussians, 386, 458 Psellus, Michael, 183 Ptolemy, 1 7 , 1 87-188, 190, 293, 305, 4 8 1 , 544, 5 7 5 , 596 Purgatory, 1 4 1 , 480-481 See also Indulgence Quadi, 5 3 Quadrivium, 165-166, 293 Quedlinburg, 2 7 1 Quintilian, 1 8 Rabanus Maurus, 1 64-165 Race, meaning of term, 3-4 Rachimburgi, 62 Ramadan, 1 1 5 Raschid, al-, caliph, 1 84, 1 8 7 Ratisbon, 290 Ravenna : imperial residence, 5 5 ; exarchate, 97; Lombard conquest, 97, 1 4 5 ; architec tural monuments, 104, 106-108 See also Papal States Raymond IV, count of Toulouse, 260-263, 377
INDEX Raymond V I , count of Toulouse, 42 1-422 Raymond VII, count of Toulouse, 422, 444 Razi, al-, 188, 191 Realism, 296 Reccared, king of the Visigoths, 1 34 Reconquista, 2 1 4 Rector, office, 306-307 Reims Cathedral, 2 1 0, 292, 296, 3 5 3-3 5 5 Relief, 206 Religion : Roman, 38, 43; oriental mysteries, 38-40; primitive Arab, 1 12 See also Christianity; Judaism; Moham medanism; Zoroastrianism Renaissance : Carolingian, 163-168; Italian, 549-5 50, 5 5 7-559, 5 7 2-5 7 5 Rents : manorial, 1 59, 2 2 1 , 2 26; urban, 2 7 6281, 527 Republic, Roman, 6-7 Revelation, see Apocalypse Revolution of 1 399 in England, 495 Reynard, Romance of, 328 Rhetoric : in Roman schools, 7 7 ; in Byzantine schools, 1 0 1-102; in mediaeval schools, 1 38-139, 143, 165-166 Rhodes, 1 2 6 Rhos, see Russians Rialto, 284 Richard, duke of York, 503 Richard, son of Edward IV, 583 Richard I ( Lion-Heart ) , king of England, 3 2 3 , 400, 4 1 0-4 1 1 Richard II, king of England, 494-495 Richard III, king of England, 583 Richard Fitz-Nigel, 398-399 Richer, 293 Riga, 525 Rings, of Avars, 1 5 1 Roads : Roman, 9 ; mediaeval, 2 26, 267, 2 7 1 Robert, duke of Normandy, 260, 3 77 Robert II, count of Flanders, 260 Robert de Baudricourt, 500 Robert of Chester, 305 Robert Guiscard, duke of Apulia, 2 1 3 , 250, 255 Robert of Moleme, St., 301 Robert the Strong, marquis of Neustria, 200 Rod, measure, 2 24 Roderick, king of the Visigoths, 1 2 7 Roger I, count of Sicily, 2 1 3 , 250, 388 Roger II, count and king of Sicily, 388-392, 440 R ois faineants, 144 Roland, 1 5 1 Roland, Song of, 2 3 6-240 Roman Church, see Papacy Roman Empire : growth, 6-14; decline, 2846; barbarization of west, 48-64 See also Carolingian Empire; Holy Ro man Em!Jite; Roman Empire ( east)
63 5 Roman Empire ( east) : separation from west, 56; in fifth century, 85-86; under Justin ian, 87-95 See also Byzantine Empire Roman law : development, 7, 1 2 - 1 3 , 3 1 , 56, 62; Justinian's codification, 100- 1 0 1 ; re vival of jurisprudence in west, 303-304; influence in Sicily, 440 Romance languages, 162, 1 69 Romances, 3 2 5-327 Romanesque, see Architecture Romanus IV, Byzantine emperor, 2 5 5 Rome : ancient city, 6 , 3 2 , 3 7 ; barbarian cap ture, 5 5-5 8, 83; papal capital, 70, 1 33; Jus tinian's reconquest, 91-93 ; in Italian wars, 245, 2 5 3 See also Papacy; Papal States Romney, 290 Romulus Augustulus, 56 Roncaglia, diets at, 402 Roncevaux, 1 5 1 , 2 3 6 Roscellinus, 296, 299 R ose, Romance of the, 329, 474-476 Rostock, 5 2 5 , 540 Rouen, 2 0 1 , 2 7 2 , 289, 498, 5 0 1 Roum, sultanate of, 2 5 5 Roussillon, 584 Rue du Fouarre, 309 Rudel, Jaufre, 3 2 1-322 Rudolf of Bruges, 305 Rudolf of Habsburg, king of Germany, 4 5 5456 Russians : origin, 172, 1 8 2 ; Christianization, 1 82-183, 386; Mongol domination, 4 5 5458; revival of independence, 4 5 8-459 Sabaeans, 1 1 1 Sabbath, 43 Sacramental system, 67 See also Heresy; Papacy Sagas, 1 7 1 , 2 3 5 , 386 Sagres, school of navigation at, 546 Saine-Denis, abbey of, 349, 3 76 St. Gall, monastery and town, 1 3 5 , 2 7 1 St. Gerauld, monastery of, 293 St. Gildas, abbey of, 298 St. Mark's ( Venice ) , church, 3 3 3 , 4 1 2 Saint-Martin ( Tours ) , church, 340 St. Michael ( Hildesheim ) , church, 339 Saine-Orner, castle and town, 2 7 0 St. Peter's ( Rome ) , church, 1 7 3 Saint-Quentin, town, 2 89 Saint-Sernin ( Toulouse ) , church, 340 Saint-Trophime ( Aries ) , church, 340-342, 345-346 Sainthood, 79 n. Saladin, sultan of Egypt, 394, 4 1 1 , 4 8 1 Salamanca, University of, 3 0 8 Salerno, University of, 3 0 6 , 3 0 8 , 443
636 Salic Law, 60-64, 485 n. Salisbury Cathedral, 358 Sallust, 1 8 Salt, 2 3 , 234, 2 74, 284, 441, 502 San Vitale ( Ravenna ) , church, 1 04-108 Sandwich, 290 Sant' Ambrogio ( Milan ) , church, 338, 346 Sant' Apollinare ( Ravenna ) , church, 1071 08 Santa Sophia ( Constantinople ) , church, 1 051 06 Saragossa, 2 14, 387 Sardinia, 1 7 2 , 2 5 5 , 267, 285 Sarmatians, 19, 48, 5 3 Sassanid dynasty, 8 6 Saxon dynasty, 199 See alJo Germany Saxons : emergence, 5 3 , 1 30; conquest by Charlemagne, 1 50, 1 5 5 See alw Anglo-Saxons; Saxony Saxony : origin of duchy, 199; Saxon-Franco nian kings, 243-246; under Guelfs, 402404; later duchy, 5 1 1- 5 1 2 Scabini, 1 5 5 Scandinavia, Jee Norway, Sweden, Vikings Scania, 5 4 1 Schism : meaning o f term, 9 4 n.; between east and west, 94, 1 8 1 , 2 50, 262, 5 1 7 ; Great Schism, 506-5 1 5 Scholasticism : twelfth century, 300-302; thir teenth century, 428-436; fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, 568-572, 590-591 Schools : Roman, 76-77; Byzantine, 94, 1 0 1 102; monastic, 1 6 1-163; cathedral, 1 631 66, 292; Carolingian, 1 63-168, 292; elev enth century, 292-300 See also Universities Science : Greek, 16-18; Byzantine, 102; Dark Age, 142-144; Moslem, 1 87-192; revival in west, 293-295, 304-305; thirteenth cen tury, 428-436; in later Middle Ages, 542544, 569-5 7 5 , 595-596 Scot, Michael, 443 Scotland : origin of kingdom, 2 1 5 ; relations with England, 3 79, 399, 464 Scots, 50, 1 3 1 See alw Ireland; Scotland S criptorium, 1 54 Sculpture : Greek, 14; Byzantine, 1 0 5 ; Mos lem, 1 9 5 ; Romanesque, 345-346; Gothic, 3 5 8-3 6 1 ; later Italian, 565-567 Scutage, 398, 462, 493 Scythians, 48 See of bishop, 68 Seigneur, 1 6 1 Seljuk Turks, 2 5 4-263 Semitic peoples, 1 09 See alw Arabs; Jews Senate, Roman, 7, 1 2 , 2 8 , 32, 3 5 , 59, 93
INDEX Seneca, 18, 4 8 1 , 574 Seneschal, office, 1 54, 449 Senior, 1 6 1 Sens, council of, 299 Sententiae, 300, 303 Septimania : Visigothic possession, 58, 93; Moslem conquest, 1 2 7 ; Frankish conquest, 145 See alw Toulouse, county of Septimius Severus, Roman emperor, 28 Septuagint, 67, 80 Serbia, 1 80, 522 Serfdom : origin, 35; in manorial system, 1 5 9- 160, 206-207, 2 2 1 , 2 2 5-228; decay, 5 32-5 36 Serjeanty, 205 Servus, Jee Serfdom, Slavery Severi dynasty, 2 8 Sheik, title, l l 0 Sheriff, office, 2 1 7 , 380 Shiah, 186 Shilling, Jee Money Ships, Jee Navigation Shire, 202, 2 1 7 See a!Jo Parliament Sicilian Vespers, 4 5 2-454 Sicily : in Gothic wars, 9 1 ; Moslem conquest, 1 7 2 ; Norman conquest, 2 1 3-2 14, 2 5 5 , 267 Sicily, kingdom of : under Roger II, 388-392; under Frederick II, 438-443; in later wars, 452-454, 5 3 8 Siegecraft, Jee Fortification and siegecraft Siena, 286 Sigismund, king of Germany and emperor, 508, 5 1 2-5 1 7, 522 Silvester II, pope, Jee Gerbert Simeon, tsar of Bulgaria, 180 Simeon Stylites, St., 72 Simon de Montfort, count of Toulouse, 422 Simon de Montfort, earl of Leicester, 4 5 1 , 463 Simony, 249-2 50, 2 5 2 Sinai, peninsula of, 1 1 1 Siricius, pope, 70 Slave, origin of word, 50, 1 5 9 Slavery : in Roman Empire, 2 6 ; among early Germans, 5 1 ; among Moslems, 1 1 6, 546 See a!Jo Serfdom Slavic languages, 1 80, 1 83, 386 Slavic marches, 1 5 1 , 245 Slavs, 48, 50, 7 3 , 86, 97, 1 5 1 , 245 See also Bohemia; Poland; Russians; Serbia Sluys, battle of, 488 Soissons, battle of, 58 SoliduJ, 32, 276 Sorbonne, 3 10 Sorcery, Jee Witchcraft Sou, 63 n.
INDEX Spain : in Roman Empire, 6, 8; Visigothic kingdom, 5 5 , 5 7 , 9 1-93; Byzantine con quest, 9 1 ; Moslem conquest, 1 2 7 ; caliphate of Cordova, 1 5 1 , 1 85 , 1 94, 2 14, 267; Christian reconquest, 2 14, 255; in twelfth century, 387; in thirteenth century, 453; new kingdom, 584 Spanish literature, 3 3 1 , 584 Spanish march, 1 5 1 See also Barcelona Sphere, armillary, 293 Spices, 1 1 1 , 2 3 2 , 274 Spinning wheel, 196, 595 Spoleto, duchy of, 97, 145 Sprenger, 592 Squire, title, 208 Stained glass, 3 5 8-360, 5 59 Stallage, 2 7 3 Statute, 463, 494 Stephen, count of Blois, 260 Stephen, king of England, 3 78 Stephen II, pope, 146 Sterling, 528 Steward, office, 1 56, 2 2 5 , 380 Stilicho, 54-55 Stoicism, 1 3 , 19, 38 Stralsund, 525, 540 Stralsund, peace of, 541 Strasbourg, battle of, 58 Strasbourg Cathedral, 3 56 Strasbourg oaths, 169 Strategicon, 102 Srrathclyde, 1 3 1 Sryria, 4 5 5 Suabia : origin of duchy, 199; under Saxon Franconian house, 243-246; under Hohen staufen, 3 83-38 5 Subinfeudation, 207 Suetonius, 18 Sugar, 274, 441 Suger, 376, 3 78-379 Summa Contra Gentiles, 4 3 2 Summa Theologica, 43 1 , 569 Summists, 429-436 Sunnah, 1 8 6 Sussex, 1 3 1 , 2 0 1 Svyatoslav, prince o f Kiev, 1 82 Sweden, kingdom of, 1 7 1 , 202, 2 1 5 , 3 8 5 , 541-542 Swedes, 1 7 1- 1 7 2 , 182 See also Russians; Sweden; Vikings Sweyn, king of Denmark, 203 Swiss Confederation, 45 5-456, 5 3 7, 5 8 1 Symmachus, 7 7 Syria: i n Roman Empire, 6 , 1 3 ; Persian inva sions, 98; Arab conquest, 1 2 1- 1 2 5 ; Byzan tine reconquest, 182; Seljuk conquest, 2 542 5 5 , 394; Latin states, 392-394; Saladin's
637 conquest, 394, 410; Mongol invasion, 52 1 See also Caliphate; Crusade Tabari, al-, 186 Tabor, mountain of, 5 16 Taborites, 5 1 6-5 1 7 Tacitus, 1 8 , 5 1-5 3 , 77 See also Comitatus Tactics, 1 8 1 Taille, 2 2 7 Tallage, 227, 277, 397 Tamerlane, see Timur Tancred, prince of Antioch, 260-263 Tannenberg, battle of, 520 Tariq, 1 2 7 Tarsus, 262 Tartars, see Mongols Tauler, 509 Taurobolium, 40 Taxation : in Roman Empire, 12, 32-33, 3 5 ; in Arab Empire, 1 2 8 ; in Carolingian Em pire, 1 56; feudal and manorial, 204, 206207, 2 2 7 ; in England, 2 1 6-2 1 7 , 397, 462, 493-497, 5 3 5 ; under Frederick II, 44 1 ; papal, 4 5 1 , 469, 5 1 7; i n France, 466-467 , 489-49 1 . 502, 5 3 5 , 582 Technology : Roman, 24-26; in east, 196197; in west, 36 1-3 7 2 , 542, 594-596 Tenure : feudal, 203-207, 3 84, 464; manorial, 22 1-222, 224-228, 5 32-5 36; urban, 276284 Terrullian, 7 8 Tewkesbury, battle of, 503 Textiles, see Cloth-making Thagaste, 80, 82 Theodora, Roman empress ( east ) , 88-89, 94 Theodoric, king of the Ostrogoths, 5 7-60 Theodosius I, Roman emperor, 29, 54-5 5 , 69. 79 Theodosius II, Roman emperor ( east ) . 55 Theology : of church fathers, 78-83, 1 3 91 4 1 ; in Byzantine Empire, 93-95, 102, 1 80-1 8 1 ; in Carolingian schools, 1 64- 1 6 5 ; in twelfth and thirteenth centuries, 299304, 428-43 3, 435; in fourteenth and fif teenth centuries, 508- 5 1 3 , 569-572 See also Heresy Theophano, Byzantine empress, 182, 245 Thessalonica, 79 Thomas a Kempis, 509 Thomas of Marie, 375 Thorn, peace of, 520 Thousand and One Nights, The, 1 86 Thrace, 97, 1 80 Three-field system, 224-225 Thucydides, 18, 102 Thuringians, 85, 1 32 , 148 Timur, 522 Togrul Beg, Seljuk sultan, 254
638 Toledo, 387 Tools : Roman, 24-2 5; mediaeval, 226-227, 272, 365-368 , 594-596 Totila, king of the Ostrogoths, 9 1 Toulouse, county of: i n eleventh and twelfth centuries, 2 0 1 , 290, 376, 379; in Albigen sian crusade, 420-423; royal acquisition, 444 Toulouse, University of, 308 Tournaments, 2 3 3 Tours, battle of, 1 4 5 Towns : mediaeval development in general, 266-2 9 1 ; French, 3 7 5 ; English, 3 8 1 , 397, 5 3 1-532; Sicilian, 390, 44 1 ; Italian, 402403, 440, 468-469, 5 3 1-5 32, 5 3 8-540; German, 404, 455, 52 5-526, 540-542; eastern European, 458, 5 2 5-526; Flemish, 526, 5 3 1-532 See also Cities; Commerce; Estates; Par liament Trade routes : in Roman Empire, 9-1 1 ; in Moslem world, 1 1 1 , 543-544; in mediae val Europe, 1 7 1- 1 7 2 , 266-269, 272, 540542 See also Commerce; Navigation Trajan, Roman emperor, 9, 44, 1 1 1 Transepts, 1 04, 3 3 9 Transubstantiation, see Eucharist Trebuchet, 364, 3 7 1 Trial : by compurgation, 62-63, 2 1 7; by or deal, 62-63, 2 1 7 , 398; by combat, 63, 206, 2 1 7; by jury, 3 8 1 , 398 , 46 1 See also Justice Tribal system, 49, 1 10, 379 Tribonian, 89, 1 00 Trier, 3 7 Triforium, 348-349 Trigonometry, 1 7 , 1 89, 305 Trinity, dogma of the, 69 Tripolis, county of, 263, 377, 394 Triptychs, 563 Trivium, 1 65-166, 293, 302 Troubadours, 3 18-3 2 5 , 390 Troyes, 2 0 1 , 529 Troyes, peace of, 499, 502 Truce of God, 2 5 6 Tudor dynasty, 5 83-584 Tunis ( Tunisia ) , 1 7 2 , 1 8 5 , 2 5 5 , 392 Turkestan, 1 2 7 , 522 Turks, 48, 1 2 7 , 1 85 See also Ottoman Turks; Sel juk Turks Turquoise, 1 1 1 Tuscany, 95 Type, see Printing Ukraine, 520 Ulfilas, 60, 69 Unam Sanctam, 470, 480 Universals, see Dialectic
INDEX Universitas, 306 Universities : in twelfth and thirteenth cen turies, 306-3 1 1 , 428-436; in later Middle Ages, 568-575 U nstrut, battle of the, 199 Ural-Altaic peoples, 48, 386 Urban II, pope, 2 5 5-263 Urban IV, pope, 4 5 2 Urban V I , pope, 506-507 Urbs, 1 1 Usury, 529 Utrecht, 147, 290, 292 Valencia, 4 5 3 Valens, Roman emperor ( east ) , 5 3 Valentinian I , Roman emperor, 29, 78 Valentinian III, Roman emperor, 5 5 Valet, 207 Valois dynasty, 484-492 See also France Vandals : invasions, 5 5 ; kingdom, 56, 8 5 ; conquest b y Justinian, 90-91 Varangians, 1 7 2 , 1 8 2 , 268 Vassalage, 1 60- 1 6 1 , 203-2 1 0 See also Chivalry; Feudalism Vaucouleurs, 500 Vault, 103, 3 3 3-358 Vegetables, 232 Vegetius, 474 Venaissin, 471 Venetia, 97, 1 5 3 , 284-285 Venice : early development, 1 5 8 , 197, 2 5 5 ; constitution, 2 8 5 , 2 8 7 , 468-469; maritime empire, 4 1 1-4 1 5 ; in later Middle Ages, 520, 529, 5 3 2 , 539-540, 543 Verdun, 290 Verdun, peace of, 1 7 0 Vergil, 1 8 , 480 Verneuil, 2 7 8 Vezelai, 2 7 1 vezelai, abbey of, 342, 346 Vicar, office, 3 1 Vienne, 47 1 , 485 Vikings, 1 70-1 7 3 , 20 1-203 See also Danelaw; Navigation; Nor mandy; Russians; Sagas Villa : Roman, 22, 26, 3 5 ; Carolingian, 1 5 61 5 7 , 1 59-1 60, 220-2 2 1 See also Manorial system Villard de Honnecourt, 363, 3 70-3 72 Villehardouin, 330, 41 1-4 1 5 , 5 8 1 Villeinage, 6 1 , 1 5 9-1 60, 226-228 See also Serfdom Villes neuves, 2 7 1-284, 5 2 5 , 527, 534 Villicus, 15 7 Villon, Franr;ois, 5 8 5-588 Vincent of Beauvais, 430 Vineland, 2 3 5 Visconti family, 5 39
INDEX Viscount : office, 2 1 7 ; title in England, 493 Visigoths : invasions, 5 3 ; kingdom, 54-5 5 , 5 ; losses t o Franks, 58, 9 0 ; Moslem con quest, 1 2 7 Vitruvius, 5 6 4 , 596 Vladimir, prince of Kiev, 182 VoiJtmgaJaga, 2 3 5 Wakefield, battle of, 5 0 3 Waldemar, king o f Denmark, 54 1-542 Waldensians, 4 1 9-420, 5 1 6 Waldo, Peter, 4 1 9-420 Wales : in eleventh and twelfth centuries, 1 3 1 , 2 7 8 , 379, 399-400; conquest by Ed ward I, 464 Wallace, William, 464 Walter the Penniless, 2 5 7 \'Q'alther von der Vogelweide, 3 3 1 Ward, district, 526 Wardship, 206 Warfare, see Arms and armor, Army, Fortification and siegecraft, Navigation Wars of the Roses, 502-503 Warwick the Kingmaker, 503 Waterford, 3 79 Welsh, 1 3 1 See also Wales Wenceslas, king of Germany and Bohemia, 5 12-5 1 3 , 5 1 5 Wergeld, 63-64 Wessex, kingdom of, 1 3 1 , 201-202 See also England Westminster, 462 Westminster Abbey, 3 5 8 Wexford, 3 7 9 Weyden, Roger van der, 563 Whitby, council at, 147 Wholesalers, 527-528, 5 3 1 William IX, duke o f Aquitaine, 3 1 9-320, 3 2 2 , 376 William X, duke of Aquitaine, 3 7 6
639 William I ( the Conqueror ) , king o f England, 2 1 5-2 17, 377, 3 8 1 William II, king o f England, 3 77 William of Champeaux, 297 Willibrord, 147 Winchester, 271 Windmill, 196, 369, 595 Winfrid, see Boniface, St. Wisby, 540-541 Witan, 2 1 6 Witchcraft, 5 0 1 , 588-592 Wittelsbach dynasty, 404, 5 1 1 Wolfram von Eschenbach, 3 3 1 Women : Roman, 2 1 ; Urai-Aitaic, 49; early German, 52; Arab, 1 10, 1 1 5-1 16; in feu dal society, 205, 228, 2 32-2 3 3 ; in mediae val literature, 240, 3 14-329, 478-479, 5 50-5 5 1 ; inheritance of crown, 485 Worms, concordat of, 384 Worms Cathedral, 356 Writ, 461 Writing materials, 22, 166-168 See also Handwriting; Printing Wycliffe, 509-5 1 2 , 5 14, 5 50, 5 5 2 Yarmuk, battle o f the, 1 2 3 Yemen, 1 1 1 Yezdegerd, king of Persia, 1 2 1- 1 2 3 York: city, 1 6 3 , 2 7 1 ; province, 1 37, 147 Yorkisr dynasty, 503, 5 8 3 Ypres, 2 7 0 , 528 Zahringen, duchy of, 383 Zangi, 394 Zara, 4 1 2 Zeeland, 504 Zeno, Roman emperor ( east ) , 56, 94 Zero, 1 89, 293 Zizka, John, 5 1 6 Zodiac, 40, 293 Zoroastrianism, 40, 1 12