Learning At Work: How to Support Individual and Organizational Learning

Learning at Work How to Support Individual and Organizational Learning Bridget N. O’Connor Michael Bronner Chester Delan...

Author: Bridgett O'Conner; Chester Delaney; Michael Bronner

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Learning at Work How to Support Individual and Organizational Learning Bridget N. O’Connor Michael Bronner Chester Delaney

HRD Press, Inc. • Amherst • Massachusetts

Copyright © 2007 by Bridget N. O’Connor, Michael Bronner, and Chester Delaney

All rights reserved. Printed in the United States of America. No part of this material may be reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system without written permission from the publisher.

Published by:

HRD Press 22 Amherst Road Amherst, Massachusetts 01002 1-800-822-2801 (U.S. and Canada) 413-253-3488 413-253-3490 (fax) www.hrdpress.com

ISBN 978-1-59996-056-2

Production services by Jean Miller Editorial services by Suzanne Bay Cover design by Eileen Klockars

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Preface ...................................................................................................................... Introduction to the Book ..................................................................................... Overview of the Book ......................................................................................... Features of This Book .........................................................................................

ix ix xi xii

Part 1: Prologue..........................................................................................................

1

Chapter 1: Putting Learning at Work Into Perspective.............................................. The Workplace Learning Professional’s Changing World ................................. Integrating Learning Goals with Organizational Goals ...................................... Organizing the Learning and Performance Function .......................................... Identifying Current and Emerging Roles for the Workplace Learning Professional .................................................................... Understanding the Instructional Development Cycle ......................................... Summary ............................................................................................................. Think It Through ................................................................................................. Ideas in Action .................................................................................................... Additional Resources ..........................................................................................

3 3 7 10 21 24 27 29 30 30

Voices from the Field: Captain Mike Barger............................................................. 33 Part 2: Needs Assessment and Evaluation................................................................. 39 Prologue to Part 2................................................................................................ 39 Chapter 2: Establishing the Need for Assessment and Developing Needs Assessment Strategies.................................................................................. Learning for Performance ................................................................................... The Needs Assessment Process .......................................................................... Systematic Approaches to Needs Assessment .................................................... Targeting the Learner Population........................................................................ Summary ............................................................................................................. Think It Through ................................................................................................. Ideas in Action .................................................................................................... Additional Resources .......................................................................................... iii

41 41 45 48 54 59 60 61 62

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Chapter 3: Understanding the Purposes of Evaluation and Building Evaluation Strategies .............................................................................................. Evaluation as a Basis for Sound Decisions ......................................................... Domains of Evaluation Criteria .......................................................................... Guidelines for Using Evaluation Data ................................................................ Summary ............................................................................................................. Think It Through ................................................................................................. Ideas in Action .................................................................................................... Additional Resources ..........................................................................................

63 63 68 83 86 88 88 89

Chapter 4: Collecting and Analyzing Needs Assessment and Evaluation Data........ 91 Acquiring Valid Data .......................................................................................... 91 Observations........................................................................................................ 93 Interviews ............................................................................................................ 98 Surveys ................................................................................................................ 103 Testing................................................................................................................. 112 Experiments......................................................................................................... 114 Summary ............................................................................................................. 120 Think It Through ................................................................................................. 122 Ideas in Action .................................................................................................... 123 Additional Resources .......................................................................................... 123 Voices from the Field: Mary Paul.............................................................................. 127 Part 3: Instructional Design and Delivery.................................................................. 131 Prologue to Part 3................................................................................................ 131 The Delivery of Instruction ................................................................................. 133 A Genuinely New Form of Instructional Delivery?............................................ 136 The Irreducible Challenge of Instruction ............................................................ 137 Chapter 5: Appreciating Theoretical Perspectives on Workplace Learning ............. 139 Theoretical Foundations...................................................................................... 139 The Role of Experience in Adult Learning ......................................................... 141 Learning Orientations and Instructional Design ................................................. 151 Learning Through the Workplace ....................................................................... 159 Humanism and Workplace Motivation ............................................................... 161

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Summary ............................................................................................................. 167 Think It Through ................................................................................................. 169 Ideas in Action .................................................................................................... 169 Additional Resources .......................................................................................... 169 Chapter 6: Planning for Instruction ........................................................................... 173 The Task of Instructional Design........................................................................ 173 The Design Team ................................................................................................ 176 Planning the How ................................................................................................ 180 Design Challenges............................................................................................... 182 Program Development......................................................................................... 183 Instructional Materials......................................................................................... 187 Evaluation in Instructional Design...................................................................... 189 The Leader’s Guide............................................................................................. 190 Summary ............................................................................................................. 192 Think It Through ................................................................................................. 193 Ideas in Action .................................................................................................... 194 Make a Decision.................................................................................................. 195 Additional Resources .......................................................................................... 197 Chapter 7: Enabling Learning in the Classroom........................................................ 199 The Teacher in a Classroom................................................................................ 199 Whole-Group Methods........................................................................................ 200 Discovery Methods ............................................................................................. 203 Small-Group Methods ......................................................................................... 206 Distance Learning ............................................................................................... 210 Computer Conferencing and Groupware ............................................................ 212 Instructional Aids ................................................................................................ 215 The Leader’s Guide............................................................................................. 221 The Management of Teaching ............................................................................ 226 Summary ............................................................................................................. 228 Think It Through ................................................................................................. 229 Ideas in Action .................................................................................................... 230 Additional Resources .......................................................................................... 231

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Chapter 8: Enabling Learning Outside the Classroom .............................................. 233 Setting the Stage for Alternative Learning Options............................................ 233 Choosing Alternative Learning Strategies .......................................................... 234 A Variety of Media ............................................................................................. 236 Using Self-Paced Tools for Instruction............................................................... 245 Additional Workplace Learning Strategies......................................................... 248 Summary ............................................................................................................. 254 Think It Through ................................................................................................. 255 Ideas in Action .................................................................................................... 256 Additional Resources .......................................................................................... 260 Voices from the Field: Gloria Gery ........................................................................... 263 Part 4: Additional Competencies ............................................................................... 269 Prologue to Part 4................................................................................................ 269 Chapter 9: Writing the Training Proposal.................................................................. 273 What is a Training Proposal? .............................................................................. 273 Communicating Learning Solutions ................................................................... 274 Proposal Presentation .......................................................................................... 287 Summary ............................................................................................................. 288 Think It Through ................................................................................................. 289 Ideas in Action .................................................................................................... 290 Additional Resources .......................................................................................... 290 Chapter 10: Supporting Change in the Workplace .................................................... 293 The Importance of Planned Organizational Change ........................................... 293 Factors Influencing Planned Organizational Change.......................................... 294 Bringing Change to the Workplace..................................................................... 299 Forming Collaborative Relationships ................................................................. 304 The Learning and Performance Professional as Business Partner........................................................................................... 309 Summary ............................................................................................................. 309 Think It Through ................................................................................................. 311 Ideas in Action .................................................................................................... 312 Additional Resources .......................................................................................... 312

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Chapter 11: Administering Workplace Learning Programs ...................................... 315 The Importance of Administrative Support ........................................................ 315 The Program Administration Sequence .............................................................. 316 Creating a Budget................................................................................................ 351 Learning and Performance Department Reports................................................. 357 Summary ............................................................................................................. 360 Think It Through ................................................................................................. 360 Ideas in Action .................................................................................................... 361 Additional Resources .......................................................................................... 361 Voices from the Field: Ron Zemke............................................................................ 363 Part 5: Future Direction ............................................................................................. 369 Epilogue .............................................................................................................. 369 Chapter 12: Maintaining Your Professional Edge..................................................... 371 Summary ............................................................................................................. 374 Think It Through ................................................................................................. 374 Ideas in Action .................................................................................................... 375 Additional Resources .......................................................................................... 375 Voices from the Field: Rebecca Ray ......................................................................... 379 Appendix A: Long Training Proposal ....................................................................... 385 Appendix B: Short Training Proposal ....................................................................... 407 Appendix C: Selected Workplace Learning-Related Resources ............................... 411 About the Authors...................................................................................................... 417

PREFACE

Introduction to the Book Learning at Work underscores the notion that training is a crucial function in an organization. As a learning and performance professional, your job is to support both individual and organizational learning. To do this, you need to understand the needs of your particular industry, business, and personnel. You are a team player and a respected colleague. You are an adult educator and a savvy business person. You are a writer, teacher, coach, mentor, and administrator. You are versed in the role of technology in both instruction and administration. You are keenly aware of trends in your community, your organization, and in society at large that affect the workplace. In short, you are an active, integral, and vital part of your organization. As a learning and performance professional, you are heavily involved in the personnel processes of your organization: hiring, retaining, and developing staff. You provide training and development programs for new hires and long-timers at all levels of the organizational strata to enable them to do their jobs successfully. You provide counseling and educational programs that help individuals grow their careers. You focus intensively on management and executive development activities, including self-directed and mentoring programs. If organizational downsizing occurs, you provide howto programs concerning job-search strategies for those who leave and stress management programs for those who stay. As organizations adapt to new work processes and organizational structures become flatter and less hierarchical, your role as a problem-solver and facilitator becomes even more vital to the organization’s success. Also, as promotional opportunities expand and contract, you help managers and staff deal with new reward structures that acknowledge individuals at all levels for what they know, rather than for whom they manage. Your many roles include needs assessor, instructional designer, instructor, evaluator, coach, and project manager. Your job demands thus are complex and varied. You apply theoretical foundations in adult learning, instructional design, group behavior, and planned change to develop sound learning initiatives. You are continually questioning, testing, and evaluating the results of your craft. ix

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As members of a professional field, we identify ourselves through a particular vocabulary. In the field of training and development, we have long known that we do more than train people to do their jobs. The American Society for Training and Development (ASTD), our largest professional association with membership of 15,000 individuals in more than 100 countries, is keenly aware of this fact. The ASTD, while keeping its link to the past, goes forward with its motto of “linking people, learning, and performance” and a logo subheading of “workplace learning and performance.” Following this shift, we have made conscious efforts in this edition to update the vocabulary of our discussions. Our choice of language moves us from thinking about ourselves as instructors in a behaviorist tradition (trainers) to workplace learning and performance professionals—learning support specialists. We use a much wider repertoire of tools and theory to meet the important mandate of making sure that individuals in the workplace learn what they need to know at the time they need to know it, and in a way that transfers the learning back to the workplace. This evolving mandate manifests itself in the vocabulary we use to talk about our roles, our work environment, our tasks, and our skill set. This vocabulary reflects the reality that we have shifted from being dispensers of basic skills and information to being educational experts and business partners whose work is to make sure that learners learn, and not just that training takes place. Examples of former and revised vocabulary include, but are not limited to: • • • • • •

The field of training and development → the field of workplace learning Trainer → workplace learning professional Trainee → learner Training programs → learning initiatives The training function → the learning and performance function The training department → the learning and performance department

Learning at Work is the third edition of Training for Organizations (2002, 1996). This edition includes additional topics, new “Voices from the Field,” and a general update of what was covered previously. Like our previous editions, we emphasize the practical as well as the theoretical in discussing needs assessment and evaluation strategies. We acknowledge the promises and limitations of technology on the delivery of learning experiences, as well as on the administration of learning and performance departments. We stress the art and science of writing proposals to address learning needs. In short, Learning at Work offers a view of the many roles you will play in

Introduction to the Book

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your career and provides concrete examples and information that you can transfer to your first job or your current job, as well as use to move up your career ladder.

Overview of the Book Learning at Work is divided into five parts and twelve chapters. The parts and chapters are presented in a logical order, but each part can stand on its own. This means that you can start at your key point of interest and move through topics and chapters as your interest or learning needs expand. Part 1, Introduction, sets the stage for the entire book. In the prologue to Part 1, we describe the need for organizational learning against a backdrop of social trends and issues. We begin the first chapter by discussing the concepts of the “learning society,” the learning organization, and Knowledge Management. Then, we describe how the mission of a learning and performance department influences its structure and the services it provides, as well the competencies required of the training and performance professional. We conclude the chapter with an overview of a model we call the Instructional Development Cycle. This model can help us understand how assessment, design, implementation, and evaluation tasks are separate and distinct tasks, yet interrelated and interdependent. Part 2, Needs Assessment and Evaluation, consists of three chapters. In Chapter 2, we emphasize that learning initiatives are undertaken to address organizational needs and new opportunities. The best learning initiatives are based on a careful needs assessment that takes into account the organizational environment and its businessdriven requirements, as well as the needs, abilities, and aspirations of individuals. In Chapter 3, we stress that evaluation should be considered up front in instructional design, rather than as an afterthought or “it’s nice to have, but hard to do, so we don’t do it” philosophy. Tying the outcomes of the needs assessment with strategies to determine if those outcomes actually occurred is the focus here. The final chapter in Part 2, Chapter 4, provides the practical how-to for these two vital steps in the Instructional Development Cycle. Research techniques related to designing and using selected methods—observations, interviews, questionnaires, and simple experiments—are discussed. In Part 3, Instructional Design and Delivery, the best of what we know about learning is reviewed: adult learning theory, learning orientations, and motivation

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theory. In Chapter 6, instructional design templates and strategies are offered. These procedures and forms are intended as pragmatic guides in planning for learning initiatives. Part 3 includes a chapter on classroom-based instructional approaches and selfdirected and mediated learning support strategies. Here, you’ll find techniques and ideas for supporting learning throughout your organization, no matter where your learner is housed. The three chapters in Part 4 are all about creating an environment where learning can flourish. To ensure that plans for learning initiatives are well communicated, we offer an outline guide for writing a proposal and suggestions for developing oral presentation skills. To better appreciate your role in planned change efforts, read Chapter 10’s overview of theoretical foundations for planned, systematic change efforts and overview of techniques and tools for facilitating group processes. Chapter 11 in Part 4 centers on administrative tasks. While these tasks are not glamorous, they are crucial to program success. To this end, we include descriptions of typical course registration and scheduling systems, checklists for facility administration, and even a special training module on developing departmental budgets. In Part 5, Future Directions, we suggest action steps you might consider as you take your career to the next level. In this section, we suggest ways in which you can hone your professional skills. Here, the goal is to think creatively about what your current roles are and to think about what they can and might be.

Features of This Book •

Learning Objectives. Each chapter begins with learning objectives to help you focus on key points in the chapter.

•

Think It Through. Each chapter closes with questions designed to reinforce key concepts and to provide a structure for critically thinking about what you have read.

•

Ideas in Action. Each chapter includes suggestions for further research or practical activities that are intended to extend your thinking about these issues.

•

Voices from the Field. Each of the book’s five parts concludes with an interview of a workplace learning professional who offers related insights, experiences, and perspectives.

Introduction to the Book

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•

Additional Resources. Each chapter concludes with a short list of annotated recommended readings.

•

Appendices. In Appendix A, you’ll find an example of a long proposal. This full-blown proposal includes all the steps listed in Chapter 9. In Appendix B, you’ll find a short proposal. Appendix C lists professional resources such as popular magazines and scholarly journals in the field, as well as important professional organizations and listservs.

Learning at Work attempts to synthesize what we know about workplace learning and management of the learning and performance function in organizations. It is also an attempt to explain why some learning ventures succeed while others fail. Combined, we have a wide range and many years of experience as academics and practitioners. Our professional lives have been spent in teaching, research, consulting, and managing training. Our key purpose in writing this book is to provide a single source of information that is both theoretical and practical, a book that can serve as a learning guide for the newcomer and a reference tool for the seasoned professional. Learning at Work can be used in support of train-the-trainer programs in the workplace or career education courses in colleges of business or applied psychology. We hope this text helps our readers create and maintain rewarding and satisfying careers in this dynamic field of workplace learning!

PART 1

Prologue Companies in the United States spend more money annually on learning initiatives than all the public school systems in the country put together. No better commentary on the importance of learning exists than this enormous investment by organizations in its people. And while learning and performance department budgets continue to expand, this investment may not be enough, as the learning needs of individuals continue to expand at an even higher rate. Perhaps the overriding theme of Part 1—and this book—is the need for educational leadership in organizations. What trends are pushing for innovation in learning options? What does it mean to be a leader in workplace learning? What does a learning and performance department look like? As a workplace learning professional, what do I need to be able to do keep up and move ahead? The savvy workplace learning professional is a full team player who speaks the language of the business and the industry. He or she makes sure that departmental goals are tightly aligned with the goals of the organization. These goals are then reflected in the way learning and performance departments are organized and how the innovative approaches to support learning— both classroom-based and self-paced or mediated programs—are designed, delivered, and evaluated. To this end, this chapter provides a backdrop for the changing nature of the world in which we work, presents models for organizing the learning and performance department, provides an overview of the evolving set of skills needed by workplace learning professionals, and introduces the “Instructional Development Cycle,” the action and research framework that serves as a basis for this book. Take special note of the JetBlue University mission statement that ties its work tightly to the needs of the industry, the business, and the employees it supports. Then read the “Voices” interview that concludes this chapter. Captain Mike Barger, vice president and chief learning officer of JetBlue Airways, talks about the challenges and opportunities of setting up and supporting a structure to foster learning in this rapidly growing organization. 1

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The needs of an organization always mirror those of the society in which it exists. The term learning society aptly describes our needs in this changing world and workplace. Workplace learning professionals who can understand big-picture issues and who are well versed in organizational behavior and adult learning theory, corporate culture, sound business practices, and the promises and limitations of technology are in an excellent position to succeed.

CHAPTER 1

Putting Learning at Work Into Perspective In this chapter, we will do the following: • Discuss the importance of individual and organizational learning in today’s global economy. • Provide the rationale for linking an organization’s learning programs to organizational goals. • List examples of strategic, informational, and operational learning. • Discuss how the philosophy and mission of the learning and performance function impacts the way the learning and performance department is organized and the way learning services are provided. • Identify the advantages and disadvantages of the faculty model, the client model, the matrix model, and the corporate university model as a means for structuring the learning and performance function. • Outline the usefulness of the Instructional Development Cycle for project management.

The Workplace Learning Professional’s Changing World Noted journalist and author Thomas Friedman says that we’ve been undergoing globalization since the discovery of the “new world” in the late 15th century. He suggests that we have evolved from a mindset that success depended on how much muscle and raw horsepower our country had (Globalization 1.0: 1492–1800) to how well our global organization could take advantage of expanding options and declining costs in transportation, computing, and telecommunication that led to success (Globalization 2.0: 1800–2000), to today’s Globalization 3.0: 2000–) in which individuals from all over the world are the driving force and communication technologies are their enabler. Friedman says that what we know as work can be broken down into components and done anywhere in the world. In this flat world, 3

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any individual with the right skill set can work in any job at any location. How do we as learning professionals help ensure that the individuals we support can compete in such an environment? What can we do to ensure that our people and the organization flourish?1 If we accept the notion that the individual is the driving force today, then the knowledge and the “how-to” that individuals possess becomes paramount to their success. Knowledge is more than information—it’s what we have come to know about how to use that information that helps us process it in new ways. Learning is a term that describes the process of making those new connections, and we are fast becoming the learning society. Learning to construct and transform experiences into new ways of addressing issues is the single most-important skill we need to possess if we want to succeed in this new world. And those of us who can teach others how to learn are in a position to make unique and important contributions to not only the people we teach, but also to the organizations in which we work and the world at large. In determining learning goals, we often rely on methods and approaches appropriate for times long past, forgetting today’s global, diverse workforce with its evolving job demands and its ever-changing needs for skills and knowledge. Sometimes we forget that we are in a flat world, and the goal is not to prepare a workforce to adapt to existing jobs; rather, the goal is to enable the workforce to adapt to global work environments and demands. This transformational perspective helps us understand the magnitude of the dramatic changes that are affecting all aspects of our individual lives, our organizational lives, and society as a whole. Two concepts that can help us understand the changing nature of a workplace learning professional’s world are the learning organization and knowledge management. A discussion of these concepts follows. The Learning Organization A learning organization responds to the demands of both the organization and the individual learner. In a learning organization, the organization itself learns not only from its past mistakes, but also from its past successes. In a learning organization, the rewards for individual success are high and the risks of failure are low, thus encouraging people to try something new. In a learning organization, individuals are empowered to do their jobs creatively and well. “Organizations learn only through

Putting Learning at Work Into Perspective

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individuals who learn,” said MIT Professor Peter Senge. Senge calls this empowerment “personal mastery”: Individuals with this freedom are more committed to their jobs, take more initiative, and have a broader sense of responsibility in their work.2 In a learning organization, business managers and workplace learning professionals work together for a common purpose. In a learning organization, they both share accountability for learning programs. You are more than just the deliverer of instructional programs; you are a full business partner and organizational change agent, relying on a wide repertoire of skills that includes instructional design, teaching, facilitating, mentoring, and counseling. In a learning organization, individual workers/learners have an increasingly independent responsibility to both learn and share what they know. Microsoft software designers illustrate this point: Designers have no regular hours, and no one keeps track of their hours—just their output. New employees are given a buddy/mentor to help them learn. Projects are usually team-based, and team members learn together and share what they know, a concept Etienne Wenger calls a community of practice (see Chapter 8). In a community of practice, individuals are responsible for their own learning, and willingly share what they know with others.3 The implications for workplace-learning specialists is that we must play an increasingly important role in supporting organizational and individual needs and demands, particularly in identifying the skills an organization and its workers need and helping learners choose and use a wide range of appropriate learning options. This trend can be clearly seen in changing job titles: performance consultant, instructional specialist, knowledge engineer, relationship manager, and so on. The person in charge of these functions might be called the chief learning officer, vice president for learning and development, or president of the organization’s corporate university. Knowledge Management Learning and performance functions are increasingly part of an organization’s knowledge management (KM) effort. While many different definitions exist for this concept, knowledge management is basically a formal effort to codify an organization’s collective experience and wisdom, including the know-how that exists in people’s heads, and to make it accessible and useful to everyone in the enterprise.4

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While KM is often discussed in terms of the technology that can support knowledge sharing, the key to supporting knowledge management is to help employees find ways to share their expertise—either face-to-face, or though technology. When Xerox copier technicians consult with each other about how to make specific kinds of repairs or when they contribute to a database of “tips,” they are practicing KM. Developing such systems, however, requires both the personal and the technical, as knowledge management systems are only as good as the information that goes into them: At first, the technicians were reluctant to submit tips. They didn’t find it natural to write down what they knew… But managers seeded the database with suggestions from engineers at headquarters. Some bosses offered rewards such as cash and T-shirts for submitting tips. Administrators also featured the names of people who contributed, resulting in thank you’s from colleagues around the world. Today, Xerox’s “Eureka” system holds about 70,000 suggestions and saves the company millions of dollars a year in repair costs.5 Instructors, managers, and practitioners can use the power of the Internet to share information, communicate, and organize and access a wide range of learning resources. The KM umbrella can also include communication hardware and software, as well as performance support systems. Learning takes on a strategic role when employee knowledge is referred to in corporate reports as an asset called “intellectual capital.” It is clear that learning and sharing knowledge is a high priority in such organizations. To foster information sharing in knowledge-based organizations, learning and performance professionals need a mix of theory and know-how. Moreover, as a savvy business professional and adult educator, you must be aware of the myriad of options for supporting learning. This emphasis on sharing information and effectively using resources suggests that learning initiatives are increasingly tied to addressing problems and opportunities in new ways. In the first section of this chapter, we present this challenge: Take a more active role and link learning and performance department goals to organizational goals. In the next section, we help put these organizational challenges into focus by providing perspectives on how the structure of a learning and performance department supports organizational aims and mirrors its philosophy and mission. Best practices


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evolve when there is a match between organizational goals, the philosophy and mission of the learning and performance function, and the career development needs of individuals. Therefore, we also include a listing and discussion of current and emerging roles for the workplace learning professional. In part of this discussion, we provide a perspective on the many interrelated yet distinct roles a professional might be asked to play during his or her career. The Instructional Development Cycle, a problem-solving model for project management as well as the organization of this book, concludes this chapter. The cycle depicts the four stages of learning program development—needs analysis, development, implementation, and evaluation—while emphasizing their interrelationships.

Integrating Learning Goals with Organizational Goals In large organizations, a human resource department is charged with a set of staff functions, such as hiring (and firing), salary administration, benefits administration, union relations, and sometimes learning and performance. Whether the learning and performance function is separate from or part of this department, decisions that affect the existing or needed labor pool impact the entire organization. The workplace learning professional can play a crucial role in ensuring that the organization hires, trains, and retains the skilled workforce that it needs. Resources for learning, like all resources, are limited. The challenge is to use them wisely and to provide evidence of their value to the organization. While it is difficult to measure learning and its organizational impact, the premise is made that learning initiatives that contribute to organizational goals can be linked to tangible outcomes of some sort: an increase in sales, reduced turn-over, higher production levels, improvements on employee attitude questionnaires, and so on. To make these links between organizational goals and learning initiatives, it is useful to consider instructional strategies as responses to one of three identified organizational thrusts: strategic focus; informational focus; or operational focus. While many learning efforts transcend these categories, they can help describe the impact of learning initiatives, and thus establish the linkage from organizational goals to learning and performance activities.

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Strategic Learning Strategic learning refers to plans that take into account long-term organizational goals and objectives. Examples of these goals might include the development of new or better products; operating with fewer people; or expanding into a global market. Strategic learning efforts are typically initiated by the chief executive officer, the chief learning officer, or the director of learning and performance. Developing a workforce with core competencies can be considered strategic. Core competencies are the knowledge, skills, and abilities the organization has deemed critical to long-term success, such as creative thinking and problem solving; leadership and visioning; and self-development. The development of core competencies not only contributes to organizational goals, but also adds to personal mastery. Such core competencies become the foundation for specific job skills.6 For example, assume that a large U.S. firm is in the midst of expanding its business to include distributors in Mexico. Workers in its corporate headquarters should ideally be relatively fluent in Spanish and knowledgeable about Mexico’s history and culture. A learning initiative to teach these language and cognitive skills could be considered strategic to individual success and paramount to the organization’s success in their global expansion. Providing learning initiatives for partners, suppliers, and customers can be part of an organization’s overall strategic plan. Take Harley-Davidson, for example. It invests between 3 and 5 percent of its payroll in learning and performance throughout its entire customer and supply chains.7 When the company expanded its business to include clothing and collectibles, it expanded its learning services as well. HarleyDavidson has an integrated curriculum; dealers are given the opportunity to learn business skills—everything from finance to Web site design. The company also provides its customers with rider training. Such efforts are clearly strategic and are thus appropriately linked to organizational goals. Informational Learning Informational learning provides the workforce with information about the organization. Many programs highlight the close relationship learning and performance departments have with their human resource departments. Workplace learning professionals can help ensure that employees are oriented to their new jobs, learn about their


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benefits package, and understand the organization’s operating policies. Orientation programs also serve to help new employees develop corporate citizenship and a contextual reference for their work.8 Developing corporate citizenship means developing learning initiatives that result in the employee knowing the organization’s history, culture, traditions, and values. Creating a contextual reference means ensuring that employees understand big-picture issues related to the firm’s products and services and its relationship to its competitors, suppliers, and customers. Such efforts provide information that will prepare the employee for his or her role as a contributing player in an organization whose mission, goals, and operating policies are fully understood. Informational learning is not usually directly applicable to the employee’s specific job or task, but rather enhances his or her overall awareness and understanding of the firm, its culture, and its product line. An employee who knows and understands the organization and who works for a manager who communicates the rationale for directions and policies is an employee who is more likely to be able to contribute to a learning organization. Programs with an information focus can be directly linked to the organizational goals that improve employee retention rates or raise employee job satisfaction. Thus, informational learning efforts are ongoing in nature—not one-shot events—to maintain open lines of communication. Operational Learning Operational learning provides the information necessary to conduct day-to-day activities, and directly relates to an employee’s job. Line managers and workplace learning professionals must work together at all stages of this kind of program development. Examples of operational learning include instruction in new work methods and procedures, skills needed to use new technologies, and new skills required to upgrade to a new task/job. Every organization offers operational learning programs of one type or another. Because this type of learning is so vital to the ongoing day-to-day activities of an organization, linking operational learning initiatives to organizational goals is usually a simple and direct task. Increasingly, operational learning follows strategic and informational training, rather than the other way around. This does not mean that operational training is less important than developing core competencies; nothing is more important than making sure that the organization’s work can be done. Workplace learning professionals and

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the managers of departments they support are finding that they need to develop their employees’ core competencies, as well as provide them with a contextual framework. Increasingly, many job tasks cannot be done well unless the employee already has the necessary strategic and informational knowledge and skills. To restate, it is not critical to categorize each and every learning initiative as either strategic, informational, or operational. In reality, much overlap exists. These categories simply help us put instructional efforts into perspective and describe how a specific program will address the overall goals of the organization. The terms strategic, informational, and operational simply help us link organizational goals to learning practices.

Organizing the Learning and Performance Function It has been said that a workplace learning professional must be both a priest and a prophet. The former would provide good counsel to the individual employee; the latter would be able to predict market, technological, and organizational developments. As a counselor and a business strategist, you work inside the organization to ensure that it has a well prepared and motivated workforce. To do this, it is important to have a departmental philosophy and mission on which to build a structure for operations. A Learning Philosophy and Mission A philosophy is a system of values. A mission is an activity that is to be carried out. A corporate philosophy for the learning and performance department originates at the executive level. Such departments are typically based on one or more of the following goals: 1. To prepare employees to develop specific skills necessary to perform effectively in their current job assignments. 2. To build skills and impart knowledge that will make employees more effective in a variety of possible job roles. 3. To prepare employees to take on broader or more demanding job assignments in the future. 4. To help employees recognize and realize their full potential as human beings.9


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These philosophies are offered in order from the most concrete to the most abstract. In the first, to prepare employees to develop specific skills necessary to perform effectively in their current job assignments, learning resources would be directed at operational learning activities that can change worker behavior. Results would be measurable and would likely affect the organization’s outcomes and profits. A learning and performance department takes on an informational and strategic role when its philosophy is akin to numbers two and three above: To build skills and impart knowledge that will make employees more effective in a variety of possible job roles; and to prepare employees to take on broader or more demanding job assignments in the future. Ideally, learning efforts within these roles will be rewarding to both the organization and the employee. Successful programs match what the organization needs with what employees want to learn. An organization focused primarily on the fourth item, to help employees recognize and realize their full potential as human beings, has a broad mission that is similar to the U.S. government’s mission regarding education. No learning and performance department should neglect operational, informational, and strategic learning, but broad-based learning is transferable to any number of different jobs. In this book, we consider a learning and performance department’s role to be concerned with a variety of strategic, informational, or operational learning outcomes. Moreover, assisting employees to achieve their potential is indeed a desirable outcome, and one that is increasingly important to keeping a skilled, knowledgeable workforce. A learning and performance department’s mission statement is a much more concrete version of its philosophy. The mission statement offers an explanation as to why it is organized in a certain way, what the staff does, and how services are delivered. Note that these specific activities set the stage for what the learning and performance department actually does. The mission typically falls under one or more of the following descriptions: 1. To establish a basic curriculum of programs and courses that management can access to ensure that employees can do their jobs. 2. To anticipate changing conditions (internal and external) and provide programs to help employees cope with these changes.

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3. To provide expertise in analyzing performance problems and to then devise appropriate solutions. 4. To provide programs that will improve productivity. 5. To respond to requests from individual managers and supervisors for employee training and development.10 Note the strong connection in JetBlue University’s mission statement (Figure 1-1) and long-term goals depicted in Figure 1-1 to business goals, its workforce, its faculty, and its industry. (Every employee, by the way, is referred to as a “Crewmember.”) Models for Learning and Performance Department Organization Organization charts are graphic illustrations of who reports to whom and their overall responsibility. Organizational charts in most large organizations are not static in nature; they are dynamic—constantly changing. As organizations transform themselves into learning organizations, organizational charts will probably change frequently to reflect changes in titles or duties that are shuffled among key players. Sometimes new people are hired; sometimes organizations are forced to downsize (a more-positive term is “right size”). Sometimes organizational charts change to reflect the assignment of more individual responsibility for a given project. Learning and performance departments share the shifting, dynamic nature of today’s organizations. A learning and performance department can be organized to do some or all of the following: conduct needs assessments, create program/course development; identify internal and external consultants; select learning materials; provide instructional delivery; and conduct program evaluation. The learning and performance department structure itself can be considered either “mostly” a faculty (product) model or “mostly” a client (customer) model. Sometimes, too, the product and customer models converge to form a matrix model. Some large organizations are also adding a corporate university approach to address their mission and to organize their training resources. In reading descriptions of each of the following models, consider the philosophy and mission that a department demonstrates when it uses a particular model.


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Figure 1-1. The JetBlue University Mission and Goal Statement • • • •

To ensure the successful delivery of Crewmember education, in both regulatory and non-regulatory areas, and the accuracy of records to support these efforts To continually advance Crewmember knowledge and awareness; and to facilitate the conversion of continuous learning into better performance, initiative, and innovation To effectively deliver, promote, and consistently exemplify the corporate culture, the JetBlue Values, and the JetBlue Principles of Leadership To be credible and accessible sources of reference and subject matter expertise

Long-Term Goals: Increase faculty effectiveness by: • • • •

Ensuring 100% faculty selection and placement accuracy Making JetBlue U the spawning ground for Leadership positions across JetBlue and our industry with a best-in-class approach to personal and professional development Establishing JetBlue U as a crucial partner in strategic planning, tactical policy making, and process development across JetBlue and our industry Providing a World Class set of instructional tools

Ensure corporate viability by minimizing corporate risk through: • • •

Flawless recordkeeping and qualification management Impassioned and tangible commitment to safety Intelligent use of our budgeted capital

Continuously advance Crewmember knowledge and awareness by: • • • •

Leading all service industries in our approach to Performance Management Creating a World Class JetBlue U course catalog of organic and partnered offerings Achieving regulatory approval and global recognition for our company-wide approach to Crewmember development that is directly tied to individual performance improvement Establishing a World Class reputation for our delivery strategies and technologies

Reprinted with permission, JetBlue Airways

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Faculty Model for a Learning and Performance Department. As Figure 1-2 shows, the “faculty” model of a learning and performance department is much like that of a college. Its director operates much like a dean, with a staff of experts (often referred to as consultants) who develop, update, and deliver instruction. Informational and operational learning programs are kept current and are repeated on a scheduled basis for a wide range of audiences, or they are custom-designed to meet the needs of a specific group on a particular subject. Examples include ongoing new employee orientation programs, and workshops in SEC regulations, business communications, and presentation skills. Upgrading sales techniques and improving telephone behaviors are yet other examples. With the faculty model, subject matter experts who are employees of the organization are responsible for updating and delivering instruction. Figure 1-2. Faculty Model for a Learning and Performance Department Learning and Performance Director

Management Development

Sales Skills

Computing Skills

Administrative Support Skills

Legal Regulations

Consultant 1

Consultant 2

Consultant 3

Consultant 4

Consultant 5

Assistant Assistant

Assistant Assistant

Assistant Assistant

Assistant Assistant

Assistant Assistant

A learning and performance department that is organized on the faculty model offers some real benefits. One advantage is the careful coverage of the topics they teach. Also, laying out plans is considerably simplified: what will be taught and when it will be offered are determined according to the staff’s capabilities and availability. This arrangement makes planning and control easy. Moreover, the faculty model—at least in the ideal—is an efficient use of staff, drawing precisely on the strengths of the instructors, and ignoring their weaknesses.11


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The faculty model has its limitations. By its very nature and organization, its use can result in ignoring content areas in which the instructors lack expertise. This means that a department of instructors might teach only some of the skills needed in the organization, and might even teach skills that the organization does not need at all. Another danger is that a department of teachers tends to focus on evaluating instruction, rather than on whether or not specified skills were acquired or were useful on the job. In other words, the use of the faculty model can put too much emphasis on what the faculty does and not enough on what the individual or organization needs. Client Model for a Learning and Performance Department. With a customer or client approach to structure, as shown in Figure 1-3, a learning and performance professional might have responsibility for an entire subpopulation of an organization. In this illustration, the workplace learning professional (an internal consultant) would work with line business managers to identify the skill/competency needs of a particular subgroup and ensure appropriate learning initiatives. Often, this internal consultant can come up with solutions (e.g., programs) from outside vendors (outsource) or from an internal program-development group. The emphasis in this model is on ensuring that the learning needs of a given functional department or group of individuals are addressed, with the internal learning and performance consultant serving as a broker or consultant in meeting these needs. A client model of organization results in built-in responsiveness to changing business needs. In this highly flexible model, needs assessment (discussed in the next chapter) can focus on business needs rather than faculty interest and capability, since the consultant does not necessarily have a personal investment in a particular subject being taught. The design and delivery of learning initiatives can more easily focus on learner’s needs and their learning styles without overt or covert influence from the instructor. This is a significant benefit, given an adult learner’s need for individualized, self-motivated instruction.

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Figure 1-3. “Client” Model for a Learning and Performance Department Learning and Performance Director

Operations Department Consultant 1

Assistant Assistant

Information Systems Department Consultant 2

Assistant Assistant

Marketing Department

Finance Department

Consultant 3

Consultant 4

Assistant Assistant

Assistant Assistant

Internal Program Development Director

Assistant Assistant

However, a learning and performance department operating in the client model is always in motion, always shifting, and always compensating for new emphases and directions. Planning is not easy in such an environment. In addition, workplace learning professionals who consider teaching as their primary job function find that this model offers a less-satisfying personal work experience. Matrix Model for a Learning and Performance Department. Professionals who are considered part of the learning and performance staff in a matrix structure generally report to both a line manager and a learning and performance department director. The workplace learning professional here has the duties of being both a content (faculty) expert and a client representative. This situation is depicted in Figure 1-4, which shows the consultant as a subject matter expert (SME) within a centralized department who is also responsible for coordinating needs assessment, development, delivery, and evaluation activities for a given population.

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Putting Learning at Work Into Perspective Figure 1-4. Matrix Model for a Learning and Performance Department Learning and Performance Department Director

Assignment

Consultant 1

Consultant 2

Consultant 3

Client Population

Financial Controller’s department

Marketing department

Operations department

Subject Matter Expert

Desktop technology (including computerbased training)

Team building and self-managed work groups

Executive education

Special Projects

Selection of new PCbased training administration system

Development of video for new-hire orientation program

Selection of 360degree feedback instrument for use in performance reviews

Proponents of the matrix structure explain that this structure helps ensure that learning initiatives match the needs of the line department and that they will most closely link with organizational goals. This structure also makes it possible to share resources and minimize duplication of efforts. This structure also allows for the career development of the workplace learning professional, who has the opportunity to continue his or her own learning in a particular content area. However, critics of this structure explain that in a matrix organization, the professional has two sets of supervisors—the line manager and the learning and performance department director. Such a situation can lead to conflict and confusion. Nonetheless, if carefully managed, the matrix organization can be a very effective way to balance the needs of a line department with the skills of a learning and performance faculty. The Corporate University Model. Many organizations create their own internal “universities” that provide an organizational base for a wide array of strategic, informational, and operational services and programs that meet the needs of the individual employee, the organization, its business partners, and the community at large. What differentiates this model from the faculty, client, and matrix models is its governance structure, the audience for its learning programs, how it is funded, and its outreach to partners.12

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The governing structures of corporate universities often mirror those of traditional universities, with a board of trustees and advisory boards that provide input on direction and curricula. According to a 2005 survey, corporate universities in their early stages were more likely to report to human resource departments (64%) than those that are more established (51%). Survey findings also revealed that corporations with corporate universities spent 2.5% of their payroll on learning and development and 9% of their own budgets on technology infrastructure.13 The program audience often includes customers and suppliers, and many team up with local colleges and universities to offer courses and even degree programs. Sue Todd, head of Corporate University Xchange, says that “corporate universities in agile and successful companies today are finding they can have an impact on business performance because they (1) speak the language of the business; (2) partner with business leaders and take accountability for business results; and (3) add substantial value in the pursuit of achieving mission-critical objectives.”14 Todd says that while the original model of the corporate university was based on terms and concepts related to traditional universities—functional colleges, deans, registrars, and the like—the corporate university itself is becoming increasingly organized “like” a business and “for” the business, as shown in Figure 1-5. Again, what distinguishes the corporate university model from more traditional structures is its target audience— employees, suppliers, customers, and even learners from the community, who all take core courses together. To support learners from the community, corporate university planners can work with educators at their local community colleges to develop core competencies. Community colleges are often targeted for such partnerships because their mission is essentially to respond to the needs of the community (this includes local businesses). Such collaboration is a win-win situation for everyone involved. For starters, it ensures that the community college is developing competencies that are relevant in the workplace. Moreover, individuals who complete these community college core courses earn a credential that will be favorably considered if they apply for a job at the partnering organization. In addition, many organizations and colleges have developed plans that allow those who have successfully completed the organization’s corporate program to transfer these credits to the local community college and beyond.

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Figure 1-5. Corporate University Model for a Learning and Performance Department Governing Body

Board of Directors

Head of the Corporate University Training

Company President and CEO

Training Leads and Advisory Councils

Voice of Customer

Global Selling Process

Product Management

Research and Development Consortium

Product Marketing

Global Building Process Improvement Processes Global Supply Chain

Shared Services

Corporate Function

Performance Consulting

Research and Development

Solution Design

Finance

Solution Development

Engineering

Sourcing

Sales and Marketing

Regional L & D

Delivery Network

ASIA PAC

Distributors

Europe

Retailers

North America

Source: Todd, Sue. “The corporate university is alive and well.” Accessed from www.corpu.news, June 19, 2006. Used with permission.

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These partnerships take many forms. John Deere has partnered with Indiana University’s Kelly School of Business for a personalized e-MBA for their employees. Lincoln Technical Institute in Maryland has partnered with BMW to build a joint facility where the latest in automotive technology can be taught to Institute students and BMW employees. JetBlue Airways has contracted with New York University’s School of Continuing and Professional Studies (SCPS) to provide JetBlue University faculty development programs that result in credits that can be applied toward the SCPS master’s degree in Human Resource Development. The corporate university model appears to be emerging as the way to set up the learning and performance function in large organizations. By providing one-stopshopping for ways to address core competencies, the corporate university offers economies of scale and more choices. Additionally, as the Internet becomes a prevalent mode of communicating, the model supports strategic, informational, and operational learning by functioning as a portal to any number of live and mediated learning options. Moreover, in partnering with organizations throughout its supply chain— suppliers, distributors, customers, and the community in general—it provides a way of serving not only its own business needs, but also those of society at large. To recap, a learning and performance department’s organizational structure is often a merger and/or combination of the best of these four approaches. The value of these descriptions is that they allow the workplace learning professional to use the learning and performance department’s philosophy and mission as the basis for a useful organizational structure. The department’s structure facilitates its being able to provide an array of strategic, informational, and operational learning programs. The following section moves from these global, organizational issues faced by workplace learning professionals to a discussion of the skill set needed by individual training professionals. To provide an array of learning activities, departments rely on a variety of individuals who have a wide mix of competencies. Competent workplace learning professionals are the means through which a learning and performance department offers its services, enabling the department and the organization to achieve its goals and objectives.


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Identifying Current and Emerging Roles for the Workplace Learning Professional Most workplace learning professionals have had several jobs during the course of their careers. One individual might have held jobs of “instructor” and “instructional designer” before being promoted to “department manager.” Within each job, this individual played various roles. Roles are job functions. To perform specific roles, the professional uses special skills or competencies. Thus, he or she develops a career by building a foundation of competencies that allows a variety of roles to be performed in a number of different but related jobs. In this discussion, we use the term job to describe how a workplace learning professional uses his or her competencies in a given workplace. The American Society for Training and Development (ASTD), as part of a longterm, ongoing study of learning and performance practices, identified and defined three layers of competencies that workplace learning professionals need now and in the future as they grow their careers: foundational competencies, areas of professional expertise, and the ability to use the competencies in specific roles.15 ASTD’s foundational competencies include interpersonal, business/ management, and personal competencies. Having interpersonal skills means being able to build trust and to communicate effectively, and to be able to appropriately influence stakeholders on the value of learning solutions. Interpersonal competencies also include the ability to leverage diversity and to network and partner with internal and external contacts. Business/management competencies include the ability to propose learning solutions based on business and learner needs, to apply an understanding of the organization’s business model, to set goals related to instruction, planning, and implementing action plans, and to think strategically. Personal competencies include being adaptable to changing situations, and continuing to learn for one’s own personal development. The second ASTD competency layer, areas of expertise, concerns the ability to help employees plan their careers, coach, and deliver engaging learning solutions. This skill set also includes the ability to facilitate organizational change efforts, manage organizational knowledge, measure the impact of learning interventions, and, of course, to manage the learning and performance department. The third level is about roles, which require combinations of competencies. The four roles ASTD identified were: (1) strategist; (2) business partner; (3) project

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manager; and (4) professional specialist. Within a career, a training professional typically holds several jobs, each requiring him or her to play roles that rely on a different mix of competencies or skills at different ability levels. For example, an instructor needs a high level of presentation skills. A learning and performance manager who also uses presentation skills may take them one step further and include evaluation of presentation skills. Keep in mind, too, that hardly anyone joins an organization as a director of learning and performance without first having field experience in a wide variety of learning-related jobs. In building a career, such a professional becomes expert in any number of competencies; it is the mix of these competencies that determines the job and the inherent roles the individual plays in that position. Core competencies are at the hub of Figure 1-6. Note that several competencies are combined to define roles. Roles in combination define jobs. Jobs in combination make up a career in workplace learning. Thus, each professional’s career “wheel” is very specific and individual. So far, we have discussed structures for organizing a learning and performance department and the skill mix the professional will need to have in order to perform various jobs within a given structure. Now, it is important to understand what the learning and performance department or function actually does, putting individuals’ competencies, roles, and jobs into a larger perspective. The Instructional Development Cycle, a conceptual project management strategy, is applicable to strategic, informational, and operational learning efforts. It can be used within any model of department organization. In the next section, we discuss the stages of the Instructional Development Cycle, who should be responsible for each stage, and how activities at each stage relate to activities in other stages. As a project management strategy, the Instructional Development Cycle can help ensure that: the right things are learned in the right way at the right time and in the right priority order.

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Figure 1-6. The Relationship among Competencies, Roles, and Jobs within a Career

Workplace Learning Professional

Career

Roles Instr Des uctio i gn n er

Materi als Develo per Me Sp dia ec ial ist

ctor

to ua al v E

str ato r

c ear Res

Core Competencies

her

Needs Analyst Ev alu a

tor

r ree lor Ca unse Co

O C rga ha n ng iz e atio Ag n en al t Mark eter

Evaluator

r

s Asses so Need r

Administrator

u Instr

ls r ia r te ato Ma alu Ev

Jobs

Ad mi ni

al

or u ct s tr n I

Director

Competencies

24

Learning at Work

Understanding the Instructional Development Cycle Experts in the field of workplace learning have used a number of systems-based models that depict the steps for developing learning programs. Systems approaches to program development rely on observable inputs and outputs. Systems theory also says that everything is connected to everything else, and a change in one area impacts others. Systems theory is useful here as workplace learning professionals attempt to design learning services that will achieve maximum operating efficiency for each component of the system. However, the use of these models often assumes that a decision to develop instruction to solve a performance problem has already been made. The Instructional Development Cycle model is similar to traditional systems models, but it emphasizes stakeholders solving problems and continual examination and refinement of the process. In other words, planned change is a key underlying component of the model (see Chapter 10). Kurt Lewin, a noted social psychologist, described change as a three part process: unfreezing (reducing negative forces toward the change); moving (making the changes happen); and refreezing (reaching a new status quo). Lewin believed that learners are more likely to modify their own behavior and managers are more likely to support learning initiatives when they are themselves involved in the process. This participation can occur in problem assessment and the design and implementation of the problem intervention (in this case, a learning intervention), as well as its evaluation. Continuous evaluation and stakeholder participation are the foundations of Lewin’s action research model. Action research is a basis for solving problems in many different situations, and is useful in conceptualizing organizational learning. Action research has four components: at its base is the assessment of a problem; next, the development of an intervention to solve the problem, then the implementation of that intervention, and finally, the evaluation of the intervention as well as the evaluation of the other three components (needs assessment, design, and delivery). All stakeholders—whoever has something to win or lose by the success or failure of the intervention—are directly involved in this process. Action research has a goal of solving problems, and the organization is the learning laboratory within which it is applied. Participants in the process learn what works and what does not work in solving the problem in a particular environment, and then profit from their experiences. Because


25

of the strong, cyclical role action research plays, it supports the goal of creating a learning organization. Action research is the basis here for the Instructional Development Cycle, depicted in Figure 1-7A and 1-7B. Note that the assessment, design, implementation, and evaluation stages are distinct yet fluid (1-7A). Feedback is continual (1-7B). The outputs of one stage become the inputs for the next stage. The process is cyclical as the evaluation stage of one project can become the assessment stage of the next project. Ideally, learning program development includes all stages. In reality, however, not all programs are so neatly structured. Many such projects are effectively done quickly. The more strategic and larger the project, the more useful it is for planners to follow this more-structured planning method. Each element in the Instructional Development Cycle encompasses a distinct and complete process. Circle A in Figure 1-7A shows each element of this cycle. The first such process is defined as the assessment stage (or phase). Assessment is the investigation of the current “state” or scope of the perceived problem. Activities related to the assessment stage include organizational analysis, job analysis, task analysis, and person analysis. The second stage is design. Design can be defined as the creation of an intervention (a learning intervention) that is targeted at addressing the problem identified in the needs assessment. Examples of activities at this stage include curriculum development, a classroom-based course design, CBI course development, and the creation of instructional aids or materials. The third stage, implementation, is the actual delivery of the intervention (the learning initiative) that was designed in the second stage. The fourth stage is evaluation. Evaluation measures the extent of the intervention’s impact on the problem.

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Learning at Work

Figure 1-7A. The Instructional Development Cycle: An Action Research Model Assessment of the Problem

Evaluation of Outcome

Design of an Intervention

Implementation of the Intervention

Figure 1-7B. The Instructional Development Cycle: The Interrelationship of Stages Assessment of the Problem

Evaluation of Outcome

Design of an Intervention

Implementation of the Intervention


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Activities at the evaluation stage include the assessment of instructional delivery; the review of the needs assessment process, course materials, instructional evaluation, and organizational impact; and evaluation of the learning outcomes. To this end, Figure 1-7B depicts the interrelationship of each stage of the Instructional Development Cycle. Note that each stage relies on each and every stage that precedes it. Feedback at each stage means that outcomes are continually being evaluated. Using the Instructional Development Cycle, evaluation criteria come about as the result of a valid needs assessment. Likewise, successful delivery of a learning intervention assumes that not only was the needs assessment valid, but also that the design phase was effectively carried out and that the right population of learners was being reached at the right time. The continual interplay between each of these four elements, while cyclical in presentation, is interactive in nature. This cycle supports the notion that a workplace learning professional can help facilitate change efforts (this will be discussed in Chapter 10). Moreover, because stakeholders are involved in all phases, the cycle supports adult learning theory, discussed in Chapter 5, which is based on the premise that adults want a say in decisions that impact their lives. In future chapters of this text, we will explain and expand each phase of the Instructional Development Cycle, offering practices that are based on theoretical foundations. Two underlying premises will be repeated: Firstly, learning efforts must support the organizational mission, goals, and strategies. Secondly, they must be efficiently implemented. Anyone considering the field of workplace learning as a career focus should have an appreciation and a skill base for each of the specific stages of the Instructional Development Cycle. It follows that the more competencies that a workplace learning professional has, the more roles he or she can play and the more prepared he or she will be to lead the enterprise toward full participation in the learning society.

Summary In the learning society, your role as a workplace learning professional has taken on a new importance. The globalization of the economy, demographic trends, and new technologies have changed where work is done as well as how it is done. These trends have forced organizations to rethink their roles and responsibilities to maintain a skilled, knowledgeable workforce. Knowledge management systems, which are

28

Learning at Work

designed to collect, store, codify, and distribute what an organization “knows” to individuals at the time they need to know, is an organizing force for learning options that supports the idea that the focus is on individual learning and is not limited solely to classroom instruction. In this chapter, we described strategic, informational, and operational focuses for learning programs. Strategic learning is related to the organization’s long-term plans. Informational learning has to do with raising workers’ overall awareness of the organization and/or its products. Operational learning focuses on the day-to-day operations of the organization. Learning services in all categories should be based on a well-planned needs assessment, and expected learning outcomes should be identified in advance and used to evaluate program success. A learning philosophy is a set of values upon which a learning and performance department builds its mission and its structure. The philosophy may be operational (to prepare individuals to perform their current jobs) and/or strategic and informational (to prepare individuals to perform a variety of possible roles or take on more demanding assignments). Sometimes, by the very nature of the learning programs, training can be considered educational (to prepare individuals to realize their full potential as human beings). Four models for organizing the learning and performance department were described: faculty, client, matrix, and corporate university. Under a faculty model, workplace learning professionals operate as subject matter experts and offer a range of ongoing courses and workshops. Under a client model, professionals have responsibility for ensuring that learning and development needs for an entire subpopulation of an organization are addressed. The matrix model combines the faculty and client models: the professional works as a subject matter expert within a centralized learning and performance department, and is also responsible for coordinating the needs assessment, development, and evaluation activities for a given population. The corporate university model goes a step further, providing a structure that allows for a wide range of strategic and informational learning programs for learners who are not typically learning and performance department clients—customers, suppliers, partners, and the community. The corporate university is also a useful way to offer continuing education services to employees at all levels. Because this model supports strategic learning so well, the mix of individuals who are involved in the program planning efforts are often diverse.


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In your workplace-learning career, you will use a wide range of competencies to perform specific roles within jobs. The American Society for Training and Development sponsored a study that resulted in a list of competencies and roles that describe the needs of workplace learning professionals. Clustered competencies are roles, and clustered roles are jobs. A mix of jobs constitutes a career. We concluded this chapter with an overview of the four-part Instructional Development Cycle—assessment, design, implementation, and evaluation. The Instructional Development Cycle is a means of understanding processes required to establish effective, efficient learning programs. Its methodology encourages cooperation from all organizational stakeholders. Understanding the relationships among tasks related to assessment, design, implementation, and evaluation is important for project planning and organizational learning. The Instructional Development Cycle, based on principles of action research, has the dual goal of systematically solving the problem and at the same time learning from the entire problem-solving process.

Think It Through 1. Why are trends in the world at large important to organizations? Identify two such trends, and offer examples of ways that learning and performance departments have begun to address them. 2. What differentiates strategic learning from informational learning and operational learning? Is such a distinction important? Why or why not? 3. How might a learning and performance director’s personal philosophy conflict with the philosophy of the department he or she leads? 4. As a workplace learning professional, would you prefer to work in a department that was organized on a faculty model, a client model, a matrix model, or a corporate university model? What are some advantages and disadvantages of each? 5. “Corporate University is just a new name for a learning and performance department.” To what extent do you agree or disagree with this statement?

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6. Describe each of the four stages of the Instructional Development Cycle: assessment, design, implementation, and evaluation. Why is it termed a “cycle”? Discuss why efforts at each stage are so dependent upon outcomes of other stages.

Ideas in Action 1. Begin a file from your local newspaper for news items and editorials related to the need to train America’s workforce, and the need for corporate education to maintain our competitive edge. Highlight important concepts and points and share selected copies of your readings with your colleagues. 2. As a group project, brainstorm the wide range of roles that an individual might play in the following jobs: instructor, instructional designer, department manager. Which jobs appeal to you? Expand the list offered in this chapter. Which competencies do you already possess? Which do you need to develop? 3. Draw your own workplace learning career wheel that includes a vision of your future in the field. In completing this exercise, you may find it useful to build on your answers to Question 2.

Additional Resources Friedman, T. L. 2005. The World is Flat: A Brief History of the Twenty-first Century. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux. Award-winning New York Times columnist Thomas Friedman identifies forces impacting life in this century. Harvard Business Review on Organizational Learning. 2001. Cambridge: Harvard Business School Publishing. This book includes eight classics (the best of the best) from the Harvard Business Review on organizational learning.


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Meister, Jeanne C. 1998. Corporate Universities: Lessons in Building a World-Class Work Force. New York: McGraw-Hill. Meister provides a behind-the-scenes look at how fifty corporations are using the corporate university model to manage their investment in education. Web sites http://www.corpu.com is the portal for the myriad of services offered by Corporate University Xchange (CUX). Through the site, you can subscribe to a variety of free services, such as a listserv and Web letter. Additionally, you can purchase books and research reports, and learn of upcoming seminars sponsored by the company.

Chapter 1 Notes 1.

Friedman, Thomas L. 2005. The World is Flat: A Brief History of the Twenty-first Century. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux.

2.

Senge, P. 1994. The Fifth Discipline. New York: Doubleday.

3.

Bridges, W. 1994. Job Shift. Reading, Massachusetts: Addison-Wesley.

4.

Gordon, J. 1999. Intellectual capital and you. Learning, 36(9), 30–38.

5.

Thurm, S. 2006. Companies struggle to pass on knowledge that workers acquire. The Wall Street Journal (January 23, 2006. B1).

6.

Meister, J. C. 1998. Corporate Universities: Lessons in Building a World-Class Work Force. New York: McGraw-Hill.

7.

Ibid.

8.

Ibid.

9.

Zemke, R. 1985. In search of a learning philosophy. Learning Magazine.

10. Ibid.

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11. Delaney, C. 1984. Alternate Models for Structuring a Learning Department. New York: Aurback Publishers. Lui, A. T. (in process). Unpublished doctoral dissertation. 13. Update on Corporate Universities. 2005. Training. (42)4, p. 8. 14. Todd, Sue. “The Corporate University: Alive and Well.” Accessed from www.corpu.com/news, June 19, 2006. 15. Davis, P., J. Naughton, and W. Rothwell. 2004. New roles and new competencies for the profession. T & D. 58(4), 26–36.

VOICES FROM THE FIELD Captain Mike Barger on the Learning and Performance Function

Captain Mike Barger is vice president and chief learning officer for JetBlue Airways. Mike attended the University of Michigan, where he received his undergraduate degree in economics and psychology in 1986. He then received his commission as an officer in the United States Navy, and served three deployments flying the F-18 Hornet aboard USS Theodore Roosevelt and USS Dwight D. Eisenhower. These deployments included combat action in Desert Storm, over Bosnia, and in the skies above Kosovo. While in the Navy, Mike spent three years as an instructor at the Navy Fighter Weapons School (TOPGUN). He is also an impassioned and widely published author of numerous articles on strategy, learning techniques, and complex weapons systems. Mike was part of the JetBlue start-up team in early 1999. He founded JetBlue University, the corporate learning organization, which is now supported by over 200 faculty at five campuses across the United States. He still flies for JetBlue as a captain and check airman (instructor pilot). He says he wakes up every morning knowing that he has the greatest job in the world. Learning at Work (LAW):

Mike, thank you for taking the time for this interview.

Mike G. Barger (MGB):

It’s my pleasure, Bridget. At JetBlue U we like to say that we spend the majority of our time in our “places of most potential.” I think this chat clearly fits into this category.

LAW:

JetBlue is renowned for its great service and friendly staff. You must be very proud of your workforce.

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MGB:

We couldn’t be more proud of our Crewmembers (what JetBlue calls all of its employees). David Neeleman, our CEO, has always said that we could have the greatest business plan in the world, but without the best people we’d be just another run-of-the-mill company. From day one, we committed ourselves to finding the right people and giving them all of the tools they need to enjoy exceptional success in our operation.

LAW:

Six years ago, you had the unique experience of building a structure for a learning and performance function from scratch. Can you tell us what guided your thinking as you created JetBlue University?

MGB:

We were a start-up company in a heavily regulated industry where new entrants had a greater than 95 percent chance of failure. We also faced the unique challenge of having to meet significant regulatory training requirements with only limited resources with which to accomplish them. Honestly, Bridget, out of necessity to maximize the efficiency of our training operations and to simplify the management of our limited resources, it made sense to centralize. Centralizing the learning function also gave us the opportunity to create a common and consistent vision, philosophy, and strategy for Crewmember development across our enterprise. We were able to cost-effectively deploy technologies that met the needs of every department within JetBlue U. We uncovered so many natural efficiencies in our centralized approach that it’s hard to imagine doing it any other way. One final part of this story that should be told, Bridget, is the extent to which we have been able to effectively collaborate across the University. Our faculty is composed of subject matter experts from every corner of our operation. Having all of these experts in a common location gives us the opportunity to truly understand how things work at JetBlue. I can’t think of a better environment in which to create the most effective learning experiences for our Crewmembers.

LAW:

Today, JetBlue Airways is having exponential fleet growth. How has this impacted your corporate university?

Voices—Captain Mike Barger

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MGB:

Our growth plan over the next ten years includes the addition of a new airplane to our fleet about every ten days. At JetBlue, it takes about 100 new Crewmembers to support each airplane, so with a little simple math you can see that we’ll be adding about ten new Crewmembers each day for the next, oh, 3,650 days or so! This clearly puts the pressure on both our hiring and our training teams to meet the demands of our growing operation. While these numbers seem a bit staggering, at least they are fairly well defined. I know how many new Crewmembers I’ll need to support with both initial and what we call continuous (i.e., recurring annual) training for the next decade. This clearly requires some solid strategic planning to execute, and we have no choice but to do our best to optimize the efficiency of our programs. If we don’t find the proper balance of effectiveness and cost, we will quickly find ourselves either dangerously ill-prepared or significantly over-budget.

LAW:

The corporate culture of JetBlue is captured in your five corporate values of Safety, Caring, Integrity, Fun, and Passion. How does this culture translate into how JetBlue University operates, as well as the learning initiatives its faculty develops?

MGB:

I’ve always believed that at least half of what our new crew members take away from their initial training experience is the cultural component of their education. Naturally, we expect each new Crewmember to leave their classes with the knowledge, skills, and abilities to effectively function in his or her operational role. But we expect each to leave JetBlue U with a very clear understanding of our culture. We hire people who have the same fundamental core beliefs and values as JetBlue, and then we provide education that emphasizes how our success depends on value-based decision making. If our Crewmembers are able to take the skills they are taught during their initial training and apply those skills in a manner consistent with their values—which are the same as the JetBlue values—then we are virtually ensured success.

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LAW:

Can you describe strategic learning initiatives your corporate university is developing?

MBG:

All of our strategic initiatives align with the evolving goals of our business. We exist to support the needs of our operational Crewmembers. We accomplish this through strategic partnerships with the leadership of each JetBlue business unit. Each fall, as the plans for the upcoming year are vetted and set forth by each operational department, a JetBlue U partner participates in the process to ensure alignment and support for the unit’s strategic objectives. This has been an exceptionally effective methodology.

LAW:

What’s JetBlue University’s biggest success story?

MBG:

I think JetBlue U’s biggest success story is the fact that we have earned the confidence of the operational units that we serve and are viewed as true strategic partners across our enterprise. We have done this by establishing exceptional relationships through the clear and comprehensive management of roles, responsibilities, and expectations. We then nurture these relationships through honest, two-way communication about what we perceive and when we perceive it, and how we believe things could be done more effectively. We’d like to think that we’re well on our way to creating a highperformance, learning organization.

LAW:

What about professional development for your staff? Can you tell us why JetBlue University chose to partner with NYU to create and deliver a faculty development program? What do you see as the biggest results of this program?

MGB:

Early in the creation of JetBlue U, I decided to draw my faculty from the best that our operation had to offer. I went out to our front lines and offered faculty positions to our very best operators. This ensures a “been there, done that” credibility that I feel is truly important to the success of our educators. Unfortunately, I knew that being a great doer did not necessarily guarantee being a great instructor. This proved to be true, as very few of my faculty had any background in formal education. I knew that I needed to find a way to develop my faculty in the fundamentals of adult education.

Voices—Captain Mike Barger

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My search for the ideal strategic partner led me to NYU. They shared my passion for quality learning experiences and it was the only institution of higher education that was willing to learn as much from us as we could from them. The faculty at NYU was excited to work outside the traditional box of higher education to partner with me in the creation of a Master Instructor program that aimed to provide the fundamentals of adult education to my faculty. The program has been an absolute success. Specifically, not only do we all now speak a common language, but across the board, my team understands the manner in which program needs are identified, objectives are determined, and curricula are developed, deployed, and assessed to ensure effectiveness and down-the-line improvements. LAW:

I know you are familiar with the ASTD competency study described in this text. How applicable or useful is the resultant model to you and your faculty? Do you see anything that might need to be taken away or added?

MGB:

I happen to like the work that ASTD did with their competency model. Naturally, as it was built to be globally applicable, it provides only a starting point from which to specifically define the unique requirements and ideal characteristics of a particular organization. With this in mind, however, I think the ASTD model is a great place to start. I would offer only that organizations might find that they have competency requirements not addressed in the ASTD study. At JetBlue U, for example, we believe that a significant product of our educational programs is cultural inculcation. So, our faculty must be living, breathing models of our values and culture. Therefore, we have defined a competency not suggested by ASTD that we call “corporate citizenship.”

LAW:

What journals do you read on a regular basis that are related to corporate learning? Do you have any books to recommend?

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MGB:

There is so much good work being done out there in the learning space these days. I love to read, and find myself all over the board with my favorites. I never miss an issue of T+D, CLO, or Training magazine. I thoroughly enjoy reading Elliott Masie’s Learning Trends (http://trends. masie.com) and ASTD’s blog, Learning Circuits (http://learningcircuits. blogspot.com). These e-spaces provide wonderful opportunities to keep one’s creative juices flowing. Finally, if you’re looking for a good book or two (and assuming that anyone reading this will have Learning at Work in their hands), I consider Peter Senge’s The Fifth Discipline an absolute gem for understanding organizational learning from a systems perspective, and Thomas H. Davenport’s Thinking for a Living as a super piece for understanding the unique needs of today’s knowledge worker. Thanks for the chat. I really enjoyed our talk.

LAW:

Mike, I know our readers will find your experiences and insights to be invaluable. Many thinks.

PART 2

NEEDS ASSESSMENT AND EVALUATION Prologue to Part 2 The very raison d’être of a learning and performance department is to ensure that the right people learn the right things at the right time, and in the right priority order. The task essential to achieving this goal is to ascertain what must be learned and by whom, and what the organization’s learning priorities are in terms of topics and people. This task is referred to variously as needs analysis, needs identification, or needs assessment. It is Step 1 in the Instructional Development Cycle (see Chapter 1). We will use the term needs assessment to refer to this stage of the cycle. Evaluation is conceptually the fourth stage of the Instructional Development Cycle, and learning evaluation data serve as input for the next step in the process—the organization’s ongoing needs assessment. Therefore, in Part 2, we present an overview of needs assessment and evaluation, and describe the tools you will need to do both. We will discuss data collection and analysis techniques in Chapter 4. Needs assessments are performed in a wide variety of situations. Marketing and sales departments are constantly attempting to discover what their customers’ needs are. Doctors want to discover their patients’ medical needs, beginning with symptoms and moving to causes. An entertainment conglomerate is always in search of consumer interests and needs and wants, so it can respond with profitable productions and products. An assessment to determine learning needs follows the same line of thinking as all of these, but with its own particular focus. The goal of learning needs assessment is to discover what our clients need to know. Evaluation, the fourth stage of the Instructional Development Cycle outlined in Chapter 1, has relevance to all other stages because evaluation of outcomes is conducted at all stages. One major aspect of program evaluation is to determine whether or not planned learning occurred. If it was not attained or was only partially attained or it generated new needs, this information should be fed back as needs assessment data. Conflicts can arise concerning the learning interests of employees. It is possible in the needs assessment process to uncover personal learning goals 39

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that the organization does not support. For example, what the employee wants to learn may not fit with either the organization’s business plans or with their view of the employee’s job needs, skills, or potential. That is, an employee may consider it necessary or desirable to learn “x” or may simply express an interest in doing so because that is where he or she would like to move in terms of career. Management, on the other hand, may not agree and thus may not support this learning interest; they may not think that learning “x” will help achieve the individual’s or the organization’s performance goals. The employee’s manager may judge that the employee’s demonstrated performance record does not support his or her career interests, and thus having the employee learn “x” is not a good allocation of scarce learning resources. In a large company, there may be many job options available to satisfy the career aspirations and learning interests of virtually all employees. In smaller organizations, this might not be the case, and even in larger organizations a match is not always realistically possible. When such a difference exists, it frequently surfaces as part of the needs assessment process. It is important that workplace learning professionals be clear about the philosophy of the organization and how such differences are to be handled. One point of view says that any such conflict should be resolved in favor of the company’s interests, and not those of the individual. The thinking here is that an organization’s management must decide how its resources are to be invested and thus will have to ultimately determine not only what needs to be learned by employees, but which employees should learn which subject matter, and when the learning initiative should take place. A second point of view argues that the organization will in the long run benefit (and perhaps even in the short run) if its members all strive to identify and maximize their own personal potential in terms of work. Thus, in this case, the employee’s interests would prevail. The truly important thing for the individual conducting a needs assessment is to be clear on how this potential conflict is to be resolved. With these preliminary points made, we can now turn our attention to a more detailed look at Chapter 2, “Establishing the Need for Assessment and Developing Needs Assessment Strategies”; Chapter 3, “Understanding the Purposes of Evaluation and Building Evaluation Strategies”; and Chapter 4, “Collecting and Analyzing Needs Assessment and Evaluation Data.”

CHAPTER 2

Establishing the Need for Assessment and Developing Needs Assessment Strategies In this chapter, we will do the following: • • • • • •

Identify the interrelated goals of a needs assessment effort. Summarize the value of systematic approaches to needs assessment. Explain how to use the needs assessment template. Explain the value of the needs assessment bull’s-eye in targeting the right individuals for needs assessment data. Determine the appropriate needs assessment techniques for a given situation. Explain why needs assessment is an ongoing activity and not a one-shot event.

Learning for Performance The basic definition of needs assessment is simple and straightforward. Assessing is not always easy, but the definition is simple. Needs assessment, the first step in the Instructional Development Cycle, is the process of identifying what employees need to learn so they can successfully perform their jobs and grow their careers, and so help the organization to carry out its plans and achieve its performance goals. The focus on learning in this definition is crucial. The particular focus is on what needs to be learned, either to enable or to enhance performance. The learning and performance department seeks to answer several questions: What do people need to learn in order to perform? What do people need to learn in order for the organization to perform? Where and how can learning support performance? Once these questions are answered, the task is to help learning occur with maximum efficiency and effectiveness. 41

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In any organization, there is a constant influx of the new. New hires are asked to take on new tasks. There are new job responsibilities to be met, new areas of business the organization has decided to enter, or perhaps a whole new business to grow. New tools and new processes are continually being introduced into the workplace. In all these cases, people need to acquire new knowledge or master new skills. That is to say, they have a need to learn in order for them to perform and in order for the organization to perform. A needs assessment seeks to identify these learning requirements. Organizations also have a recurring need to overcome performance deficiencies of one kind or another. Such deficiencies are caused by many factors, only sometimes by a lack of knowledge or a lack of skill. It is only a lack of knowledge or skill that can be addressed by learning. One of the key tasks for needs assessment is not only to identify performance deficiencies, but also to identify those that can be remedied by learning to do something better. Workplace learning professionals must be careful not to leap too quickly into instruction as a solution for all problems. Such solutions can be successful, but they should be applied if and only if learning something is the remedy for the problem. This is not a question of being noble, nor is it merely as a matter of professional discipline. It is an exercise in self-interest. Developing instructional programs as a solution to the wrong problem or to a non-learning issue is an exercise in futility and a waste of valuable resources, and it will earn the learning and performance department a reputation for ineffectiveness. This definition of needs assessment also reminds us that organizational learning is dependent upon employee learning. Needs assessment does not focus on instruction or on programs or on what the learning and performance department has to offer. It focuses instead on the learning that is needed, and on the knowledge, skills, and abilities employees need to acquire for the sake of performance. This focus on learning may lead to a wide variety of methods for helping learning to take place. It does not automatically lead to a classic classroom-based instructional program. When the focus remains on learning, the workplace learning professional will always search for the most efficient and effective way to make that learning happen, whether that means a traditional classroom program or something else. Needs assessments are not about setting up instruction. They are about finding the right responses to opportunities and problems caused by performance gaps. The following discussion deals with issues related to each component in the definition of this kind of needs assessment: learning for the job, for a career, and for the organization.

Establishing the Need for Assessment

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Learning for the Job The purposes of learning listed in the opening paragraph of this chapter are in the order in which they are usually encountered. By far the most usual and frequent reason why a learning initiative is needed is so that employees can successfully perform their jobs, carrying out their tasks and meeting the responsibilities assigned to them. This covers an enormous range of possibilities, varying from project to project and from job to job. A manager, for example, must learn different things than a receptionist. Computer programmers have to know vastly different things than sales people, who differ dramatically in what they need to know versus the maintenance staff or the cafeteria workers or the auditors. Each member of an organization, from top to bottom, has the need to learn or re-learn how to do his or her job. This might mean learning how to do the job in the first place. Basic, entry-level learning for all kinds of work is a staple of organizational life. Once the basics are acquired, additional learning needs will surface sooner or later. After a while, some part of these basics may need refreshing. More typically, as the individual gains experience and becomes more proficient, the need arises to learn more complex skills within the same job stream. An MBA fresh off the campus may be able to perform solid business analysis at a fundamental level, but may require additional skills to deal with the complexities of a merger, corporate expansion, or the subject of international taxation. People in management jobs face the need to learn new skills as their slice of the organization’s resources changes—growing larger or different—or as the organization’s objectives and priorities shift with the tides of business or technology or demographics or other factors that shape the world in which the organization “lives.” The ripples of change in the workplace require every organization’s members to continually relearn, learn new things, and even unlearn what was previously acquired. In almost any job, there are core competencies that an incumbent must master. Core competencies often cover organizational culture as well as problem-solving, basic computer literacy, and interpersonal communication. The responsibilities of an administrative assistant or controller or systems analyst or supervisor imply that the individual possesses the ability to apply a set of skills that are needed to meet those responsibilities—a skill set that someone new to the job may need to acquire. Furthermore, given the basic core competencies, every job also makes other demands that are situational in nature. Such demands vary from company to company. Management philosophy, company goals and constraints, the company’s vision of itself and its

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future, its equipment—a host of factors—determine a core set of skills that will vary from one company to another. Even though an individual may be experienced in a core set of competencies, a new circumstance might require new learning. A needs assessment can identify what those new understandings or skills are. Even within the same organization, core competencies for a job can remain the same but vary in their application from department to department or from unit to unit inside a single department. Once again, the need for new skills is real, and is no less a job-related need than the original core set. Through a careful assessment, the learning professional captures all these learning needs. Learning for Careers Beyond the learning necessary to perform individual jobs, there is the whole issue of career development. Most organizations and managers think beyond the immediate present, recognizing employees’ needs for professional growth. It is almost always in an organization’s best interest to address such career interests, and most do. Careergrowth interests, of course, generate a great deal of learning requirements and are usually an exciting area for a needs assessment activity to address. There is also the issue of growth across careers. New learning needs often arise from an employee’s desire to move into a career different from his or her present one, or to move to a substantially different branch of the existing career track. Perhaps the most common example of this is the desire of an employee to move into management; typically, a productive, successful worker is offered or seeks the opportunity to become a supervisor in the department or profession where that success has taken place. Such a move builds upon the technical job mastery the employee has achieved through experience, but it also necessitates mastery of a whole new set of skills. Moving into a management position makes it necessary to acquire the managerial skills of planning, organizing, delegating, staffing, work monitoring, evaluating, and the like. To this skill set must be added the interpersonal skills of supervision, performance appraisals, corrective discipline, coaching, mentoring, and counseling. While the shift to a management position is the most common jump to a new career, in most organizations a whole range of careers exist to which people aspire. Organizations are usually supportive of such career moves, for the results are generally a win-win all around. Recall the caveat in the prologue to this section of this text, however. The last thing a learning and performance department wants to do is help an employee acquire skills for which there is no existing demand within the organization.


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Learning for the Organization Learning initiatives that help the organization meet its goals are the end results that all learning and performance departments must keep in focus. Organizations make enormous investments in people and the tools they use to do their work. Programs with well-documented needs assessment data that can be explicitly tied to organizational goals are in the best position to have an organizational impact and to earn organizational support. Employee learning is a business function, and its activities must align with organizational goals. Needs assessment data provide baseline information regarding the current level of knowledge, skills, and abilities that employees have. Evaluation data can provide evidence of the outcomes of a learning initiative. Thus, the learning and performance department can make a business case for specific initiatives. This business case has to do with return-on-investment (ROI) (techniques for computing ROI are offered in a later chapter). A well-designed and executed needs assessment helps ensure that dollars allocated to support learning are spent on the right projects and the right people— i.e., that the programs align with organizational goals.

The Needs Assessment Process Needs assessment means searching out and discovering who in the organization needs to learn what and with what priority. It is not the same as simply distributing a list of available courses and asking managers whom they wish to send to which programs and when—information that you need in order to plan and allocate resources (instructors, materials, classrooms, travel plans, etc.). This is an important task and an administrative necessity, but it is not a needs assessment, because it does not extend beyond existing courses or programs. When a list of courses has gone out and there is interest in these courses, the learning and performance staff will have a good handle on which programs people plan to attend, and will know which courses should be either canceled or marketed more aggressively. They will know what they need in the way of resources. They will even know that some people in the organization need to learn what the programs present. But what it will not really understand are the organization’s learning needs.

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Beginning with the Job Begin a needs assessment by first identifying what people must know in order to do their jobs. Assess the current job with all its changing demands, as well as any new assignments within the same job track. Then look at promotions and career goals that build upon the current job to identify what the organization needs its employees to do to operate successfully in the immediate present and with a reasonable eye on the future. In the simplest of terms, the focus of needs assessment is always on the job, the job, the job: enabling a person to do this job here and now, as well as to do a future job that will meet the organization’s needs and the individual’s career goals. The real focus of a needs assessment is on the learner. Begin with the learners in their jobs and systematically build from there; this provides a way to look at the entire organization’s learning needs or any segment of it, since learners and jobs can be clustered into job families or departments or even the total organization. Convincing the Client One of the difficulties that learning and performance departments face is that their clients often do not understand the value of a needs assessment. Busy managers and professionals will often assume that they know what the problems are and just as often have pre-conceived notions about solutions. Managers all too frequently make assumptions about what their staff members need or don’t need to learn. Learning and performance professionals also make such assumptions in their eagerness to prove themselves to their clients. Even worse, they are often ready to leap to a learning solution after the initial phone call from a potential client. Learning and performance professionals must restrain themselves from relying on the tried and traditional, and be prepared to educate their clients in the necessity—including justifying the costs—of needs assessment as an essential first step. One suggestion toward convincing managers of the value of a needs assessment is that a quick “solution” almost always leaves things in worse shape than doing nothing at all. Doctors begin the diagnostic process with an assessment in order to get at the root cause of an illness (rather than focusing on only the symptoms). Yet another good argument can be drawn from the client’s own experience. Most business professionals, whether focused on internal or external customers, are careful not to sell the wrong product or service because they know the risks of doing so. Most of them conduct a needs assessment with their own customers to make sure they understand the


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real issue before they recommend a course of action. A client pushing prematurely for a learning solution to a problem can usually be convinced to spend the time and the money to do a needs assessment by invoking his or her own business practice or track record. It is very important to persuade a client of the need to assess learning needs before coming up with learning solutions. To summarize: The concept of needs assessment is a process that provides answers to a specific set of questions, answers that both the organization’s management and its workplace learning professionals need to know. It responds to questions such as: • • • •

Who needs to learn what? Why do they need to learn it? At what depth? What is the priority of the learning in question? − − −

Priorities in terms of learners Priorities in terms of topics Priorities in terms of time (When must the learning be completed by each group of workers?)

The assessment of learning needs, thus, is a set of answers to the right questions that have been asked systematically of the right people. What are these right questions? And what is a systematic approach to asking them and capturing the answers? And who are the right people to ask?

Systematic Approaches to Needs Assessment The questions that need to be asked of people in an organization to identify learning needs must begin with what they know about business plans, projects, and strategic direction. Discussions about these issues reveal gaps in what people need to know or know how to do. Needs assessment does not begin by asking questions about courses to be offered. It certainly does not begin with a list of classroom programs that the learning and performance department has available to offer. The focus must be on the organization’s needs: its plans and problems and issues, and the learning requirements that follow from them. To keep the focus of needs assessment firmly on the need for learning, take a systematic approach. This will put discipline in the process, and

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ensure focus and follow through. Two such systematic approaches will be examined here. The traditional systems view examines person, task, and organization, as well as the interactions among these variables, in order to identify various forms of learning needed. The learner-centered approach puts the learners at the center of the process. A Systems Approach One traditional and quite productive way to undertake a needs assessment is to use a systems approach. Learning systems lie within and are directly affected by the larger system consisting of organizational policies, traditional work modes, and a variety of individual skills. The systems approach to needs assessment is concerned with three key variables and the interaction among them (a change in any of these variables will affect the other two): • • •

The organization (the background, setting, and context) The task (the work to be done) The individual who is to do the work

Organizational Analysis. Organizational analysis provides a viable framework for considering work and the people who do it. It provides background, setting, and context. One goal of organizational analysis, for example, is to ensure that learning focuses on the topics that both fit and foster the organization’s various agendas. Another goal is to ensure that learned outcomes can be transferred back to the workplace (to make sure that what people learn actually suits the real workplace and its values). Outcomes must fit within the organizational culture if they are to do any good. Organizations today are working hard to understand their own specific cultures as a necessary backdrop to learning activities, but in many cases are striving to change their cultures to support new ways of working and doing business, given the new economic realities of the turbulent, global marketplace. Organizational culture is addressed in the needs assessment process when key stakeholders (employees, management, reporting staff, human resource professionals, customers) provide meaningful input to the needs assessment process.


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Task Analysis. Task analysis refers to the dissection of a task into the specific knowledge, skills, and abilities needed to accomplish it, and a description of these components in observable terms. As will be discussed in a later chapter, this observable or behavioral vocabulary includes very specific terms that provide the means to identify and measure the competencies needed to carry out a task. Human resource professionals find such job descriptions to be very useful, particularly as standard job titles can be misleading or incomplete. The position of “administrative assistant” might involve a wide variety of responsibilities and positions. Detailed, performance-oriented job descriptions can be used for hiring purposes to help assess whether or not a particular candidate is capable of doing the work described. Job descriptions are also useful for performance evaluation, supporting a judgment concerning the accomplishment or lack thereof of the work so carefully described. The details of job descriptions written in performance terms also provide concrete means of identifying gaps in task skills and thus training needs, as well as to establish standards for evaluation purposes. Individual Analysis. Organizational and task analyses paint a picture of the organizational setting and the work that is done. What is missing is a picture of the individual doing the work, the employee to be prepared, and the gaps that might exist in this person’s knowledge and skills. Individual analysis adds this missing dimension. It provides an understanding of the characteristics of the individuals within the targeted population. Obtaining a clear picture of what these individual characteristics are is not an easy task, since learning initiatives are often provided for groups of new hires with a wide variety of backgrounds. It is nevertheless invaluable information with which to shape the required learning. The basic job skills of entering workers today are very different from those of earlier generations of workers; knowing the target population and the experiences, aptitudes, and attitudes of the workers in this group provides important information. This is critical today as new generations—Gen Xers and “millenials”—will have different learning needs and attitudes about what they learn and how they prefer to learn it.

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A Learner-Centered Approach Another approach to needs assessment puts the learners in the center of the process and keeps them there, while systematically reviewing the other relevant organizational issues to create a full picture of what people need to learn. The process begins by asking job holders about their job responsibilities and tasks. The questions then move on to broader areas (less tactical and more general) that are of interest to managers and strategic leaders. The learner remains at the heart of the questions. The template depicted in Figure 2-1 captures precisely this flow of issues. The learner-centered approach is the form of needs assessment we espouse in this book. Not that there is anything wrong with the conventional systems approach—we simply believe that keeping the learner central to the process is the single most important aspect of needs assessment. The template offered here is a tool for surfacing the right issues in identifying what learning initiatives are needed, and keeping the learner firmly in mind. A Needs Assessment Template The first task of a needs assessment is to ask the right questions of the right people. The first column in Figure 2-1 lists a representative set of topics around which questions can be developed that can help you probe and explore learning needs with the job incumbent and other members of the organization who have insights on the knowledge and skills needed to perform effectively in that job. The second column indicates whether it is the individual or someone else who has interest or knowledge about that identified topic. Figure 2-1 is a template, not a strait jacket. It should be tailored to fit specific situations. The list of topics will change, depending on the organization being studied or the timing of the assessment. The template is a road map and provides a way to ensure that important topical areas are investigated in a systematic way. Here are the basic items in the template:

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Establishing the Need for Assessment Figure 2-1. Needs Assessment Template: Topics

Topics

Interest/Knowledge Individual

Manager

1.

Assigned job responsibilities

X

X

2.

Planned projects

X

X

3.

Career aspirations

X

4.

Organizational plans

5.

Technical forecasts

6.

Business forecasts

X

7.

Departmental skills mix

X

8.

Dialogue

X

9.

Strategy

X

X X

X

Assigned job responsibilities. Every member of the organization, from the president to the lowest level, should be able to talk about their responsibilities and identify what they need to know in order to meet their responsibilities satisfactorily. Job responsibilities are a topic for everyone. Planned projects. Are there special assignments taken on as part of or in addition to regular job duties? Work on specific projects, alone or as part of a team, can easily generate the need to learn tools, procedures, interpersonal skills, or a new facet of the business. Project plans usually concern everyone in an organization. Career aspirations. The focus here is not on the present, but on the future. What do individual employees want to do next? What would the organization like them to take on next, currently or in the future? What sorts of knowledge or skills will position the individual for a career move that is of interest to and in line with what the organization needs and supports? Career development should be driven primarily by individual employees, when they are ready to work on it.

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Organizational plans. What sort of learning initiatives will the organization need to launch in the near future? The organization here might mean anything ranging from a small unit to a large department to the entire enterprise. The organization or even a department might be planning to install a new invoice processing system or a new technology standard, or to downsize, outsource, or begin a new venture or reprioritize its existing ones. The point is that business plans should be frequently reviewed to determine new learning needs. As the sample template indicates, primary information here is from management. Individual contributors should also review business plans to identify what it is they need to know (to the extent they have access to these plans). However, managers must make sure that employees have the information, skills, and knowledge that the organization’s goals call for. Technical forecasts. Technical specialties are always changing. Administrative assistants, salespeople, computer technicians, human resource personnel, machinists, mechanics, and cooks do not work today the same way their counterparts did a decade ago, or five years ago, or even three years ago. Constant change is an equally constant driver of learning needs. Everyone in the workforce must be aware of trends impacting their profession and they might need learning services to help them adapt. Business forecasts. We live in what some people have called a “whitewater world,” a world of foaming business rapids, demographic rocks, and fast-flowing technology streams, with only a few quiet, placid pools. The management of an organization must keep an eye on where researchers think their enterprise in particular and their industry in general is going. Once again, the goal is to make sure the organization’s people are ready to handle what looks to be coming down the road. The development of learning initiatives that address this whitewater world has to be a management concern. Departmental skills mix. All managers want the people in their areas of responsibility—a small unit, a large department, the organization as a whole—to be crosstrained. The idea is to prepare people to back each other up, fill in for each other to keep things flowing smoothly when a team member leaves for any reason, and test out new tools and techniques before the old ones are discarded. Learning initiatives need to be based on the skills mix that management thinks is necessary.


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Dialogue. Within every organization, there are boundaries between departments, professions, and geographical sites, and even between floors. Managers must see that these boundaries do not hinder the goals of the organization, particularly in these days of flatter organizational structures. Good and frequent communication can help the various communities of professionals inside the organization learn about one another. People in one organizational silo or self-contained vertical unit need to learn about the work of their colleagues in another. Systems analysts typically need to learn the language of business. Field personnel should learn how to communicate with managers in the central office. Product developers must do some cross-talk with sales. These kinds of insights surface from discussions with managers. They are a rich source of information about learning needs. Strategy. Organizations are always thinking about where they want to be tomorrow and about how they want to be positioned in their marketplace. Over and above short term business plans, thinking goes on concerning the longer, more strategic haul. Strategy is an important responsibility that deserves serious discussion at senior levels. While attention to long-term strategy may not identify near-term learning requirements, it can provide insight into what the organization must learn in order to survive and prevail over the long term. Note that as you move down the list of topics in the sample needs assessment template, the issues move from employee concerns to management concerns and from the tactical to the strategic. There is some crossover around the middle of the list, as both individuals and their managers often share an interest in learning needs around business plans and forecasts concerning the future of the business. While not all topics or issues are appropriate for every employee, some may apply to people or situations that the learners themselves do not see. There is a natural tendency to get caught up in what we have to learn in order to do our assigned job or complete project responsibilities. Remember that the needs assessment template is a guide as to the kinds of topics and issues to explore with the right people in order to identify key learning needs. Customize this template or create your own. It is a good way to get the right population of learners to discuss what they need to learn and help you record the information systematically. Now let’s look at how to identify your target learner population.

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Targeting the Learner Population The goal in needs assessment is to find out what the members of a given organization need to learn for their jobs, their assignments, and their careers against the backdrop of the organization’s plans and directions. Except in the most unusual cases, it is virtually impossible to deal with the learning needs of the entire organization at once. You must inevitably focus on a single group of employees at a time. The set of employees in question might be a project team, a department, or a group of like professionals from the entire organization (on the assumption that they would have similar learning needs, such as programmers from all departments). In a very small organization, it is possible for the target audience to be the entire membership as a whole. Setting Up the Bull’s-Eye Whatever the population of employees is, make them the central focus of your needs assessment effort for the moment. Discuss with the targeted group or groups all the topics you have selected. Begin by asking them directly what they think they need to learn about the topics. Work these employees down your topic list, but remember that not all topics on the template are suitable for everyone. You need to be proactive as well as responsive: accurately capture the information about what they have to say and add your own thinking to theirs. Challenge the assumptions workers are making about what they need to learn. Bring up issues they ought to consider but have left out. It is important that you keep a record of the learning needs that derive from these discussions systematically (such as by using a template). An Example Let us imagine that in the course of performing the needs assessment for your organization, you are ready to look at the recruiting department. The manager of recruiting is delighted to have your help. She and her recruiters have a good track record in terms of timeliness and cost control, but she is concerned that her people are getting burned out and growing a bit brusque and abrasive with the hiring managers. You remind her that you do not want to sell anybody a false bill of goods; you can help only with problems for which learning is a solution. Burnout, on the face of it, does not seem to be a problem that a learning initiative will solve. On the other hand,

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gaps in customer service skills can usually be closed through a learning initiative. The two of you agree that you will undertake a full-scale needs assessment to identify all the things the people in her department need to learn. You recommend that she get in touch with her human resource manager to discuss the burnout problem and develop some countermeasures. You also offer to help. The recruiting department has a membership of 23: sixteen recruiters in teams of four, each with a senior recruiter serving as team leader; four administrative assistants, one for each recruiting team; the manager and her assistant; and a front-desk receptionist who manages the waiting room and is also in charge of the department’s résumé bank and its high-volume copier. You make each component of the department a target of the needs assessment (see Figure 2-2.) Figure 2-2. The Recruiting Department: Taking Turns in the Bull’s-Eye

Recruiters

A

Administrative Staff

B

Managers

C

Begin the needs assessment discussions with the 16 recruiters (Figure 2-2, A), leading them through a customized needs assessment template. You hold these discussions in several different ways, fitting yourself into each recruiter’s hectic schedule. Phone interviews are used to accommodate several recruiters who are traveling. Written questionnaires, personal interviews, and a focus group for six recruiters over a brown-bag lunch are also used. Your objective is to get their ideas about what each individual needs to learn about each topic appropriate for them. Next, invite the administrative staff consisting of the manager’s assistant and the four administrative assistants to a group discussion. Your thinking, and the manager

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concurs, is that these five people make up a cohesive cluster of employees concerned with administrative support within the entire department. The discussion of their learning needs focuses heavily on the top half of your template’s topic list. Business trends and strategic issues hold little interest for them. They are, however, keen to discuss some of the technical trends in administrative work, especially new desktop technology and the new computer system that the Computer Services Department is rumored to be implementing soon. Finally, in a face-to-face interview, put the manager herself into the needs assessment bull’s-eye (Figure 2-2, C). Your discussion with her ranges across the entire department and the organization as a whole. She focuses sometimes on her own learning needs and sometimes on things she wants to make sure that her staff masters. She covers most of the items on your template’s list, and you remind her of the potential impact of the new computer system being introduced into the organization. Rings around the Bull’s-Eye Once you have gotten the recruiters, the administrative staff, and the manager to provide direct input about what they need to learn, the next step is to seek similar input from others. These are people who have a stake in how and how well recruiting is done. They are the recruiting department’s stakeholders (customers) and they can offer a useful perspective on what the target population needs to learn. The target illustrates that there are people who have information to offer or a vested interest in what the group learns. The individuals represented by these concentric rings will, of course, vary in real life from situation to situation, as you can see in Figure 2-3 on the following page. Any group of people with insight into the learning needs of the target population should be asked to provide input. External customers and suppliers are also interesting sources of data about the target population’s learning needs, particularly for employees with jobs in sales, customer inquiry, or field service. The point is to try to get a complete picture of what needs to be acquired through learning initiatives from several sources. You want to be certain to get more than just their own self portrait. Talking to those surrounding the target provides exactly that: Individuals in each ring around the bull’s-eye provide different perspectives on the target’s learning requirements. Exercise care when involving a supervisor’s subordinates in needs assessment, of course; you don’t want it to turn into a gripe session (or something

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worse). The basic process is to go through each topic on your template and discuss the issues and questions the template raises concerning the target population. This will provide a rich, multi-dimensional picture of what that target population needs to learn. Involving these stakeholders in identifying what the target population needs to learn is important. It is also a fundamental premise of action research, the model for this book’s approach to the Instructional Development Cycle.

h

cruiters Re

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Th e

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s

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tive Staff

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HR Staff anagers (cu gm st n i o Boss ir

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HR Staff anagers (cu gm st n i o trative ir inis St m nager Ma

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Figure 2-3. Rings around the Bull’s-Eye

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Your understanding of what the targeted group needs to learn must then be presented to the organization’s management at any level appropriate, validated with them, and then used to plan comprehensive learning initiatives. Information about one target population can be pooled with the same kind of data concerning other populations to get a bigger picture of the learning needs of larger and larger segments of the organization. The approach described here can provide all levels of management with the information they need to make business-driven decisions concerning what the members of the organization need to learn and when they need to learn it. This, of course, is precisely what needs assessment is all about. Gathering Needs Assessment Data Finally, how do all these discussions take place? The term “discussion” is used here in the broadest possible sense. You cannot talk one-on-one with every individual, but you can solicit input by questionnaire (paper, fax, e-mail, or the organization’s Intranet), by telephone survey, by group interview, by discussion, or through focus groups. Additional data can be drawn from employee sources such as exit interviews, climate surveys, and end-of-course evaluations. Literature searches and the opinions of acknowledged experts can also play a part. The ways to collect information are many and varied. In a later chapter, we will discuss the selection of appropriate datagathering methods, as well as how to create and use data collection instruments. If there is a large learning and performance staff, the director may assign key populations within the organization—such as payroll, marketing, HR—to specific staff members. The purpose of such an assignment is to focus on what needs to be learned by groups specializing in their specific content needs in a continuing, systematic way. This approach can give a staff member a rich and satisfying job. It also puts a useful emphasis on the point that gathering and pooling customer data is actually the engine that drives all the learning and performance department’s activities. Sometimes there is a need only to focus on a specific topic: A new product the organization plans to market, a new project a particular group is going to take on, a new set of tools they are going to be required to use, or perhaps a particular problem that has surfaced within the organization. Given such a fixed charter, the process remains the same: Identify what the defined group needs to learn about a topic, a problem, a project, or a tool. Lead the target group through discussions of the issues and questions appropriate to the stipulated topic, and the learning gaps will emerge


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from these discussions. Be sure to have similar discussions with stakeholders so you get a complete picture of what you need.

Summary Needs assessment is the first step in the Learning and Development Cycle, conceptually if not always chronologically. We began this chapter began by providing a definition of needs assessment: identifying what the members of an organization need to know and identifying what specific individuals need to know or be able to do in order for the enterprise to achieve its goals. The organization’s goals, of course, include having individual employees do their jobs and grow in their careers. The process provides for attention to trends and directions for the future that are important to the organization and to the people within it. One way to conceptualize the needs assessment process is to use a systems approach. The analyst considers three distinct yet interrelated variables in determining any need for a learning initiative: the individual, the task, and the organization. While each of these variables is investigated separately, a systems orientation helps make the relationship between them clear—a change in one variable inevitably affects the other two variables. In this book, we advocate a learner-centered approach to needs assessment. Such a process begins by first identifying the right questions to ask of the right persons. The needs assessment template can guide this thinking: Simply identify categories of appropriate topics and determine who in the organization has an interest in the topic or needs to learn about it. Then, the task is to target learners and identify who else has input regarding what these individuals need to know, questioning them on the topical issues. Needs assessment should be an ongoing activity, rather than an event. The key is to ask the right questions of those who can offer useful judgments concerning learning initiatives that might be needed. Ask questions face to face, but also explore issues by means of such tools as focus groups and surveys. The most important point we want to make is that if needs assessment is properly done, it will establish a solid foundation for all the other steps in the Learning Development Cycle. Failing to take this important step puts the entire cycle and the learning and performance department at great risk.

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Think It Through 1. Assessing what people need to learn is a matter of asking the right questions. Why is this so? What does it mean? 2. Why is it important to make needs assessment an ongoing process? What are the implications of this? 3. One of the key outcomes of conducting a needs assessment is that you will have a better understanding of the priorities regarding what must be learned and who must learn it. a. What are some of the factors likely to be important in determining priorities as to what should be learned by members of an organization? b. What factors should determine who gets tapped for participation in a learning initiative? What issues or criteria might set the priorities here? c. In either case, who should set priorities? 4. What are some of the ways to gather needs assessment data? Have you had any experience with any of them? Which do you think would be particularly effective? Why? 5. Distribution of a catalogue or list of courses and course registration is not a needs assessment. What need does this process speak to? Whose needs are met by this process? 6. An academic institution does not undertake needs assessment as described here in developing curriculum. Why not? What are the differences between schools and learning and performance departments?


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Ideas in Action 1. Using the key terms “learning (or training) needs analysis,” search the Internet for at least three consulting organizations that can help with needs analysis. Compare the information offered on each site as to the organization’s general philosophy on assessment, as well as documentation of their past successes. Do any sites include links to other sources of useful information on this topic? 2. Interview a workplace learning professional and find out how needs assessment is conducted in his/her organization. 3. Do a search of management and business literature (such as Forbes, Fortune, Harvard Business Review, the Wall Street Journal, Journal of the AMA, or HRD Quarterly) to see what business managers want from learning and performance departments or what they find lacking. Then do a search of training literature (such as Training and Development, Training, HRM Magazine) on the same issues. Compare the two findings. What do the results suggest concerning needs assessment? 4. Review this scenario analysis: You have just been hired as the director of learning and performance for a small cosmetics firm. In 2000, the company filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection. In the years since reorganization took place, the number of employees has dropped in half, and 70% of the remaining sales staff, who sell cosmetics at high-end department stores, have still not been given formal sales instruction. Moreover, nearly half of projected sales are expected to be made through the organization’s new ecommerce division. Your department is small, consisting of you and a juniorlevel staffer. You have been charged with creating a new learning thrust for the sales organization, both for the existing sales staff and for those working in the e-commerce division. With this information as a basis, create the topics that would appear in a needs assessment template. Target first the department store sales staff, and then the e-commerce sales staff. Use the bull’s-eye format to depict your overall strategy for the groups that you intend to focus on in the needs assessment.

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5. Search business literature for articles on companies that increase learning and performance department budgets in difficult economic circumstances. What do the articles tell you? What do they tell you specifically about the needs assessment process? 6. Prepare a one-minute “elevator speech” explaining to a potential client why it is absolutely imperative to do a needs assessment before any instruction is designed or implemented.

Additional Resources Gupta, Kavita. 1998. A Practical Guide to Needs Assessment. San Francisco: JosseyBass Pfeiffer. This how-to handbook provides guidelines for conducting and using a training needs assessment. Includes a 3.5” disk that includes forms, worksheets, and a glossary. Zemke, Ron. 1998. “How to do a needs assessment when you think you don’t have time.” Training, 35(3), 38–44. Zemke offers perspectives on ways to assess learning needs when time and resources are at a premium. One approach offered is to use already-existing data—data that have been gathered for a different purpose but that might relate to the performance problem identified. Zemke, Ron and Thomas Kramlinger. 1982, 1986. Figuring Things Out: A Trainer’s Guide to Task, Needs, and Organizational Analysis. Reading, Massachusetts: Addison-Wesley. In sharp, satiric, and even funny language, Zemke makes the case for insisting that assessing needs is an essential step in the learning cycle, and that training is a solution only for gaps in knowledge or skill and only for situations where a learning initiative can be the fix. This is classic Ron Zemke. (A professional secret: anything Zemke has written should be on your “must read” list.)

CHAPTER 3

Understanding the Purposes of Evaluation and Building Evaluation Strategies In this chapter, we will do the following: • • • • •

Explain the role that evaluation plays in the Instructional Development Cycle. Identify the domains of learning evaluation criteria. Access sources of support and expertise for learning evaluation. Describe a variety of evaluation strategies, as well as the trade-offs among them. Develop and apply guidelines for using evaluation data.

Evaluation as a Basis for Sound Decisions Every year, Training magazine publishes what it calls its “Industry Report.” The report for 2005 appeared in the December issue and was, as usual, packed with a wealth of information—numbers, charts, graphs, statistics, and anecdotes. At the core of all that information is a rather startling number: U.S. businesses spent $51.4 billion on corporate training in 2005. That total, the report hastens to add, is based strictly on formal training and on data from companies with 100 or more employees. It does not include all the informal on-the-job training (OJT) that goes on all over the business world, nor does it include the money spent by the thousands of businesses that don’t meet that employee threshold—all the mom-and-pop businesses, all the virtual companies, and all the dot-coms and e-businesses being created that are deliberately staying small.1 That number alone, apart from any other consideration, makes the evaluation of learning initiatives a topic that deserves careful, disciplined attention. The rationale for spending time and money on such evaluation is simple: It’s more expensive not to evaluate it! To evaluate means to assess or to judge. In this chapter, we define evaluation as a systematic process to assess the effectiveness and efficiency of learning initiatives. Evaluation 63

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means putting to use data that describe learning outcomes or results. Its goal is not to label a given initiative effort as good or bad. Its goal is to provide feedback useful for a variety of business-related objectives. Organizations need to know if they are doing the right things right. Evaluation data provide evidence that can be used to correct costly errors, or to support an exemplary process. Perhaps more importantly, they allow an organization to learn from its experiences. These data help decision makers judge how well learning solutions address the identified gaps in knowledge, skills, and abilities of their employees. These data are used to determine if learning had anything to do with success on the job, if one program was more effective than another, and even if the organizational culture supported new ways of doing work. In short, evaluation data tell you what you need to know about your learning initiative or activity. The evaluation process is not only about determining whether or not employees acquired particular skills from a specific learning program or if a particular instructor was well prepared for a class. While these are important considerations, of course, a wide range of evaluation data is needed by various stakeholders as they make decisions related to all stages of the Instructional Development Cycle. Workplace learning professionals know all this, of course, but they can easily rationalize why such evaluation should not be done in the organization: •

Time. “We’re on a schedule here. Who has time to do evaluations? We no more finish one project than we’re starting another.”

•

Expense. “We’re on a budget here, and working with a limited staff. Where will the additional people and physical resources come from if we are to evaluate everything we do?”

•

Expertise. “We’re instructors, not psychologists. I’m really not trained in evaluation. Evaluation is a psychologist’s responsibility, not mine.”

•

History. “We’ve always been successful with our learning programs. Everyone tells us that they enjoy the courses and learn from the instructors and materials we develop. There are no problems. That’s evaluation enough!”

W. Edwards Deming captured the essence of why evaluation is so important in corporate learning. He used the acronym PDCA: Plan, Do, Check, Act. Learning plans abound. Instructors love to do and teach. However, at each step of the Instructional Development Cycle, it is important to check and to make sure that the planned process

Understanding the Purposes of Evaluation

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is being followed correctly and that the right kind of output is produced for the next phase of the cycle. No plan is perfect; error and variability inevitably occur, requiring correction. Human nature is indeed human, and things human inevitably need to be monitored for midcourse corrections. (There are those who say that the A in PDCA really stands for “Adjust,” instead of Act, an idea that is certainly the fruit of experience.) The ultimate “why” for evaluation is that it brings the learning and performance department and its parent organization back to the reason for the department’s very existence: Did the program really help the right people learn what the organization needs them to learn in order to achieve its goals? So there are many answers to the “Why evaluate?” question. A key objective of this chapter is to offer perspectives on the when, what, who, where, and how of evaluation, while incorporating the why. Evaluation’s Role in the Instructional Development Cycle In Chapter 2, we focused on identifying the knowledge, skills, and abilities (KSAs) needed for a targeted person, task, job, or career. In the Instructional Development Cycle (See Figure 1-7), the evaluation stage is adjacent to and tightly linked with the needs assessment stage. Evaluation strategies are planned once KSAs have been identified. Throughout the Instructional Development Cycle, evaluation data provide feedback as to the efficiency or effectiveness of a program’s design, its supporting materials, and its delivery. In addition, because the Instructional Development Cycle is a cycle, evaluation results serve as input to needs assessment in the next cycle. In other words, evaluation is not merely an event that takes place once a learning initiative has been run. It is, rather, a process that occurs in each phase of the Instructional Development Cycle. •

Evaluation in the assessment stage asks: Were the right objectives developed? Were organizational goals addressed? Were the right individuals identified? Was the right content identified?

•

Evaluation in the design stage asks: Were quality instructional materials and technologies developed? Were they consistent with adult learning principles? Were programs designed to support the learning needs of the targeted group?

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•

Evaluation in the implementation stage asks: Was quality instruction offered at the right time and in the right priority order? Did learners learn what the program was designed to deliver? Did they perceive that the program was worthwhile? Were they able to use what they learned back on their job? Were organizational goals addressed in a timely and effective manner?

•

Evaluation of the Instructional Development Cycle itself asks: Are we doing enough instruction? Are we spending enough resources (or too many)? Is our instruction reaching the right populations? Is it moving the business agenda in the right direction? Is it contributing to the achievement of business strategies? Do our clients in the organization view our programs as accessible and worthwhile?

With regard to when evaluation takes place, keep in mind that evaluative data captured after instruction ends should be fed back into the needs assessment phase, bringing the Instructional Development Cycle full circle. It may well be that evaluation uncovers learning needs that have not been fully addressed by the program (or not addressed at all). Evaluation may offer fruitful avenues to explore for future needs assessments, and it is important to capture and use this information in a timely manner. Development of Criteria Criteria are measures of success, or yardsticks, that can be used to evaluate outcomes. In buying a car, for example, the savvy consumer first identifies what he or she needs from a car. Let’s say that you live in Alaska, with lots of snow and vast distances between major cities. In your needs analysis, you determine that your car must get good gas mileage and must have good traction in snow and ice. You have managed to save $20,000, and you really feel you cannot go into debt. Which of these cars do you buy? Here are three different choices: Lincoln Town Car. Equipped with: power steering, power seats, a computer with a GPS facility, AM/FM/tape/CD player, multiple airbags, rear wheel drive, and dual car seats for children in the back seat. Estimated MPG: 17 town, 21 highway. $43,000.


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Honda CRV. Equipped with: power steering, AM/FM stereo radio, multiple airbags, four-wheel drive, rack and pinion steering. Estimated MPG: 23 town, 28 highway. $20,000. Jeep Grand Cherokee. Equipped with: four-wheel drive, cassette player, AM/FM radio, multiple airbags. Estimated MPG: 20 town, 25 highway. $26,000. Given the data available here and your needs, the obvious choice is the Honda. The Lincoln has many wonderful features and outstanding luxury. The Jeep is much closer to your identified criteria, but it costs more than you want to pay, and its MPG is lower than the Honda. Neither the Lincoln nor the Jeep meets your established criteria. If you opt for one of these vehicles, you will have a vehicle, but you will not have the right one for you. You’ll realize this when making car payments, traversing difficult terrain, or buying increasingly expensive gasoline. Like the consumer buying a car, the instructional designer makes many choices in determining what to evaluate. The car-buying analogy illustrates why adherence to preplanned criteria is important. If you opt for the Lincoln, you changed your mind as to what your criteria are after the fact, so your original needs-assessment data are useless. Criteria developed early in the Instructional Development Cycle serve to keep us on track, ensuring that what is evaluated matches intended outcomes. Let us assume that outcomes from your needs assessment suggest that supervisors need to manage their time better. To address this issue, your learning solution might include a combination of workshops, podcasts, printed materials, and a lecture series. If you have determined that the sole evaluation measure for this instructional effort is for supervisors to demonstrate better time management, and then evaluate the effectiveness of the program by asking the learners how much they enjoyed the time management lectures or the materials used, you have gathered interesting data—but it is useless. You really do not know if the program met your original criterion. To evaluate properly, you need to work from appropriate criteria that ensure that the right people are prepared in the right way for the right things. Without these yardsticks to determine what is “right,” learning initiatives cannot be accurately evaluated. Relevant criteria are fundamentally derived from the knowledge, skills, and abilities (KSAs) identified in the needs assessment stage and documented there.

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Robinson and Robinson put it simply: “Write down the purposes of an assessment before you begin collecting information. Know why you are collecting the information and what decisions you plan to make from it.”2 Furthermore, to be of value, data must be used. Another way to conceptualize what should be evaluated is to identify who in an organization is interested in knowing if or how well the learning initiative met the identified results criteria. Interested stakeholders include the learning and performance department managers and staff, the learners themselves, the line managers, and the executives who make decisions about organizational goals and support/approve the budget. Once your evaluation audience has been identified, the next step is to get its commitment to the criteria. Such up-front work ensures that your audience not only understands the goals of your learning initiative, but also buys into those goals. The discussion that follows links the needs assessment to the development of evaluation criteria. Criteria measures are grouped into clusters (domains). Each domain includes brief descriptions of appropriate evaluation strategies, as well as how these evaluation data are used by the decision makers.

Domains of Evaluation Criteria Domains are categories of similar ideas or thoughts. Domains can also be precisely defined content areas. To categorize what needs to be evaluated in learning and performance, Kirkpatrick identified four evaluation domains: reaction, learning, job behavior, and organizational results. We add a fifth dimension—the instructional development process itself (See Figure 3-1). Figure 3-1. Evaluation Content Domains of Evaluation Criteria

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Reaction Learning Job Behavior Organizational Results Instructional Development Process


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Reaction Reaction refers to the learner’s perception of the worth of a learning activity. Learners themselves are in a unique position to determine if their experience is worthwhile. This means much more than determining if the program itself was an enjoyable experience. Reaction should also attempt to obtain learners’ views as to the viability of the content, the learning support materials used, the scheduling of the course, the instructor’s performance, and even their own performance. Program participants might, at first glance, seem to be only the recipients of instruction and evaluation efforts, rather than key stakeholders. This perspective is far too limited. Adult learners should be viewed as resources to the learning development process as well as its targets. Workers who are given the right information can selfscreen themselves for programs and decide what they need or do not need, thus helping managers make sure the right people receive instruction. They can also provide reviews of instructional design and delivery if they are asked the right types of questions about the learning initiatives in which they have taken part. Feedback from reaction questionnaires can also help the learning and performance department sell the programs because the consumers are describing and rating their experiences in the classroom. One way to judge the classroom performance of instructors is to use a detailed observation guide, such as the one offered in Figure 3-2. An observation guide can ensure that raters focus on established criteria. An experienced observer can then document an instructor’s performance. We recommend that you use more than one rater and observe as many times as possible. The end-of-program participant questionnaire is far and away the most common method used to evaluate learning initiatives. Such questionnaires are often dismissed as “smile sheets,” and they certainly can be constructed to elicit positive comments about the instructor or the performance and learning department. On the other hand, these questionnaires also can be designed to engage participants in determining whether or not the learning objectives were fully addressed and the extent to which they were achieved. They can, in short, enlist adult learners in the assessment of their own experience: Was it an experience that lived up to its advance billing? Did it help or hinder learning?

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Figure 3-2. Instructor Observation Guide

Instructor Course Rater

Date Time

ITEM

COMMENTS

1. Preparation 2. Knowledge of subject 3. Participant involvement 4. Use of audiovisual aids 5. Correlation with Leader’s Guide 6. Transitions between topics 7. Naturalness or ease with the class 8. Additional comments

Perhaps the most important thing to remember about these questionnaires is that whether or not reaction data are collected, learners will evaluate their experiences. The learning and performance department should make sure the right reaction questions get asked, collect the answers, and put them to use. Figure 3-3 is an example of a tailored program-reaction questionnaire. It may not be possible to tailor an evaluation form for each individual activity; if this is the case, generic (not program-specific) evaluation materials can be used.

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Understanding the Purposes of Evaluation Figure 3-3. Program Reaction Questionnaire

1.

Program

Date

Name (optional)

Sector/Function

Please rate each of the following items to indicate your reaction to the session. If you rank an item average or lower, please comment on the back of the form. ITEM

Poor

Adequate

Average

Objective 1 (list) Objective 2 (list) Objective 3 (list) Applicability to your job, responsibilities, and needs Enough examples and chances to practice, so you can apply your new skills back at work Opportunity for discussion with other participants Length of the program relative to its objectives 2.

Which part of the program was of most value to you? Why?

3.

Which part of the program was of least value to you? Why?

Good

Excellent

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Figure 3-3. Program Reaction Questionnaire (continued) 4a. Please use the following scale to comment on each instructor’s ability to lead the program in the specified area at the left: 1 = Needs improvement

2 = Adequate

Item

3 = Good

4 = Excellent

Instructor 1:

Instructor 2:

_________________

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A. Organization/preparation of subject matter

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D. Ability to control time

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4b. Please comment on these other aspects of the program: 5. How would you rate your overall reaction to the program? 6. How would you rate your level of skill or knowledge… a. before the program? b. after the program? 7.

Other comments:


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Learning The second of Kirkpatrick’s domains, learning, refers to criteria that determine whether or not learning took place. Was the learning solution an effective tool? Did learners actually acquire the knowledge, skills, and abilities that the program was designed to deliver? The question here is one of program efficiency: Did the learning initiative (whatever its shape) deliver what it was supposed to? Did participants learn what was intended for them to learn? Did their learning take place because of the experiences, or despite them? Participant reactions, as discussed earlier, are one measure of learning. Tests are another classic way to find out if learning has occurred. Paper-and-pencil exams, familiar from school days, are one form of test. Tests such as these are arguably less suitable for adult learners in an organizational setting than in academic settings. Whatever the setting, tests tend to measure test-taking skills, rather than content mastery. However, tests do provide quantifiable data that might suggest that there have been changes over a given period of time. Figure 3-4 is an example of a group test on banking principles. Several of the questions refer to items in the course content.

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Figure 3-4. Course Exam Team: _______________________________________ Score: _____________

Course Exam Principles of Banking Exam Philosophy A good exam helps you realize just how much you’ve learned. If it is really good, it will add to your knowledge by giving you the opportunity to put new concepts to work on relevant problems. Good exams concentrate on your reasoning abilities. They provide an opportunity for you to structure the problem and support your answer accordingly. Good exams do not have a single, unique answer, but stress the complexity involved in addressing realistic problems. Bad exams, in our view, just ask you to repeat specific facts and focus on tripping you up over relatively minor details. We’ve done our best to make this a “good exam.” You’ll do your best on it by keeping in mind that we’re trying to evaluate your managerial reasoning skills. Please be sure to make your reasoning process part of the answer to each question. In the managerial world, very few problems are solved by individuals working alone. Indeed, the ability to arrive at a team solution is one of the keys to success in a management career. In keeping with this, there is just one exam for the entire team and all team members will receive the same grade. Weights for each question are indicated to help the team allocate its resources efficiently. The maximum score is 100 points. You may wish to divide up the responsibility for different questions among team members. This is an open-book and an open-mind exercise. Please use the space provided to write your answer. Please write clearly and concisely. Remember, the course instructor is an experienced teacher who can readily differentiate between material relevant to the question and unrelated “fill.”


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Figure 3-4. Course Exam (continued) Questions 1.

Using the Executive Information Report and the material in your handbook, what appears to currently be: a.

your two greatest competitive advantages? 1) 2)

b.

your two worst competitive disadvantages? 1) 2)

2.

3.

(5 points) (5 points)

(5 points) (5 points)

Using the End-of-Simulation Analysis*, analyze how well structured your balance sheet is for the future economic outlook. a.

(10 points)

Briefly outline your economic forecast for the next two years.

b.

(10 points)

List advantages of your current balance sheet structure.

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(10 points)

Identify any changes you would make, and why you would make these changes.

Which individual on your team exercised the most leadership? Put their title/role in parenthesis after their name. By what means did the person(s) in this role lead the team’s behavior? a.

(5 points)

Individual and role:

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(5 points)

Leadership style:

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(5 points)

How effective was your overall team’s behavior?

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(10 points)

Knowing what you now know about the bank simulation and the composition of your team, what would you recommend to a similar team that is beginning the simulation in order to improve their overall performance?

*Note: This term refers to course content.

(continued)

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Figure 3-4. Course Exam (concluded) 4.

Assume that you’re now three years in the future, and the bank you’ve examined is being considered by your current bank as a possible acquisition. Assume that the acquisition would be structured as a tender offer at 120% of the bank’s current stock price. a.

(5 points)

Would you recommend proceeding with the tender offer?

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Cite reasons to support your recommendation.

Having people demonstrate acquired skills via role-play or actually doing what the instruction is teaching them to do (e.g., give a speech or a performance appraisal, key in a computer document at required speed and error rate, or write an anti-virus program) is another sort of test. This approach has the advantage of simulating the application of the new skills on the job. The simulation also avoids the “baggage” associated with paper tests (memories of bad experiences with school exams, cultural bias, and the like). Job Behavior The third of Kirkpatrick’s domains, job behavior, refers to the degree to which the KSAs learned were transferred back to the job. Were learners able to apply what they learned in the workplace? Were they able to take the knowledge, skills, and abilities they learned in the program back to their jobs and actually use them there? Line managers play an invaluable role here. They, after all, make (or should make) the go/no-go decisions about developing and implementing learning programs. They are ultimately the ones who decide which content the organization needs its people to learn, what the timing of that learning should be, what participants should be included, and in what priority order the people and the topics are to be ranked. Note that all of these are issues on the evaluative side of planning instruction. While you should take the lead in making sure all these issues are addressed, it is the organization’s management that must ultimately make these decisions. Line managers play yet another role in evaluation, at the other end of the process. They provide uniquely valuable insights as to whether or not the completed program has had an impact on the work of the people they sent for instruction in the first place.


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One of many ways to evaluate the impact of a learning initiative on the job is to survey participants (and their managers) once the program is over and people have had sufficient time to put acquired skills and knowledge to use in their work. This usually takes from one to three months. Such survey data are inevitably anecdotal in flavor, but they can provide useful input to the evaluation of both the design and the delivery of instruction. These data also send the useful message that the learning and performance department is paying attention to the impact of its programs and whether or not the organization is getting what it is paying for. Figure 3-5 is an example of a survey designed to solicit program evaluation from the manager, based on job behavior. This survey could easily be adapted to target employees rather than their managers. If you do survey learners’ supervisors, it is important to manage this process carefully. You want to make sure that a manager who has sent several people for instruction is not inundated with survey forms. You will also want to let your participants know about the management survey so they do not feel blindsided by the process.

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Figure 3-5. Survey of the Program’s Impact on Job Behavior

Name: _________________________________________________________ Functional title: __________________________________________________ Mailing address: _________________________________________________ Telephone: ____________ Fax: ____________ E-mail: _________________ Here is a list of those who attended the workshop. (Provide a list of participants here) Name: _________________________________ Telephone: _____________ (Provided by the learning and performance department) 1. As a result of participating in the writing skills workshop, have you noticed any changes in any of your employees’ work? Please cite specific examples. ____________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ 2. Are there additional aspects of business writing that should have been included in the workshop but were not? Please be as specific as possible. ____________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ 3. Is there any additional information that would help us assist you in working with your employees (e.g., changes in your job, major reorganization, change in business strategy, change in direct reports)? ____________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ 4. Additional comments: ____________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________


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The Organizational Results Domain Kirkpatrick’s organizational results domain refers to the instructional efforts paralleling either the short-term goals or the long-term goals of the organization. Has the instruction helped employees do their work or do it better? Manage/grow their careers? Understand the company’s culture and business goals? Has the instruction helped position the company in its market? Has it helped the company achieve its strategic objectives? In short, has the experience done whatever the organization that funded the instruction intended to accomplish? Top management is usually interested in having information that indicates that the learning objectives were linked to organizational objectives. They are not usually as interested in the outcomes of a particular learning initiative as they are in the bigger picture that depicts the learning and performance department as a viable, contributing player in corporate strategies. Organizational results—the ultimate reason for having learning programs in the first place—are very difficult to measure, chiefly because they are the product of a combination of variables. For example, if sales go up after instruction has occurred, it might be due to new product offerings, a seasonal fluctuation, or simply more advertising in the media. The instruction might indeed have had an impact, but it is very difficult to attribute increased sales to the learning initiative. On the other hand, it is possible to capture information that is a legitimate result of a given initiative. Examples here might be a sustained drop in processing errors, or increased production by an individual or a group of workers. However, the reality is that such improvements in the workplace cannot easily be tracked, much less attributed solely to instruction. Many other factors usually play a part in workplace results. Nonetheless, if such data can be captured and tracked, so much the better. If this approach to evaluation is to be pursued, it is absolutely essential that it be planned and agreed to up front, as part of program design. In a later chapter, specifics will be offered as to putting a dollar value on instructional costs and benefits, but it is important to consider the value of such calculations at this point. Cost/benefit figures allow comparisons to be made between different kinds of instructional programs, helping the professional determine if one structured program is or was more appropriate than, say, on-the-job training. Even if an initiative meets all its objectives, if production figures are not affected or if the learners are

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frequently moved from job to job without getting an opportunity to use the skills they learned in the program, the activity may not have been worth the money invested in it. The Process We are adding process criteria to Kirkpatrick’s domain list because these criteria are measures of what occurred during the assessment, development, and implementation of a learning initiative. They form an assessment or audit of the learning and performance department as a whole. Process evaluation takes a look at what happened before, during, and after the learning initiative. Process evaluation, thus, asks these kinds of questions: Did we target the right group? Were any stakeholders missed in the needs assessment? Was the right content covered? Does one kind of activity seem to foster learning more than another? What segment of the program worked best (worst) for this audience? Were any of the design objectives left unmet? Were any objectives given too much time and attention? Were any organizational needs in this topic area omitted? The answers to these questions provide critical information about the learning and performance department’s programs. After all, if an initiative does not focus its participants on the right learning and help them learn faster, easier, cheaper, and more efficiently than otherwise, then why bother with an instructional program at all? Evaluating programs, however, is not enough. The astute learning and performance department manager will also evaluate the effectiveness of the department within the organization. He or she should, from time to time, answer these questions: •

Are we paying attention to the right issues?

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Are we playing our proper role as a staff resource to the management of our organization?

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Are we making sure that our programs are on target, properly accessible, and viewed as cost-effective and helpful?

A workplace survey is a good way to ask these questions. One-on-one interviews are another effective approach. Interviews with workers, their supervisors, organizational decision makers, and even learning and performance staff are also rich sources of qualitative information about the department. Interviews with key


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individuals who have content matter expertise, knowledge of the department, or instructional design can tell you the effectiveness of learning initiatives. Questions such as the following all lend themselves well to the interview format: Were the right employees selected? Were the right topics presented? Was the program itself designed for the needs of the adult learner? In addition, group interviews and focus groups can provide qualitative data that can be immediately verified by others in the group. The same type of questions posed earlier can result in rich data when the interviewees have an opportunity to discuss their impressions with each other, as well as with the learning evaluator. For the sake of objectivity, the learning and performance department should not conduct its own audit. An appropriate sister department within the organization— another learning and performance group, the firm’s auditors, the communication/ public relations people—can perform a quality audit of the department’s work and reputation. Outsiders such as faculty members or students in a college academic program in Human Resource Management or Business Education, external consultants, and even a learning and performance department in another company can help with such evaluations. This will give you a healthy, deliberately independent, evaluative look at the learning and performance department itself, most especially its achievement (or lack thereof) of its own mission of the right people learning the right things at the right time, all in terms of organizational needs. Figure 3-6 shows a list of key stakeholders and their uses of evaluation data. It briefly summarizes, by criterion domains, what it is that those involved want/need to know about instructional efforts, along with examples of evaluation strategies. The methods listed are discussed in detail in the next chapter.

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Figure 3-6. Key Stakeholders and Their Uses of Evaluation Data Criterion Domain and Methods Reaction Participant questionnaires Observations

Learning Tests

Workplace Learning Professionals Ensure programs deliver planned outcomes

Learning and Performance Department

Line Managers

Compare their Interested only if Interested only if reactions with there are problems there are problems others in the group

Ensure delivery skills of instructors Establish that course objectives were achieved

Serve as feedback that personal achievement resulted

Establish that employees learned new skills, tasks, or abilities

Establish a connection between organizational goals and learning services

Establish that new KSAs are appropriate for the targeted job

Establish that what was learned was transferred back to the job

Confirm the connection between organizational goals and the transferability of learning initiatives

Provide evidence of the value of services to the organization’s bottom line

Establish that the learning initiative was valued by superiors

Basis for deciding whether or not to send other employees to formal learning programs

Basis for determining the viability of the learning and performance function in the organization

Assess and modify needs assessment, design, and delivery stages

Ensure participation in setting goals and identifying appropriate learning solutions

Ensure participation

Ensure a connection between organizational goals and learning services; probably not interested, unless there are problems

Simulations Observations Confirm that the right knowledge, Participant surveys skills, and abilities (KSAs) were idenManagement tified surveys Job behavior

Organization results Department audit Interviews Focus groups The Instructional Development Process Surveys Audits Focus groups

Organization Decision Makers


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Guidelines for Using Evaluation Data The so-called contingency approach to evaluation strategies is to do what is best under the circumstances. Programs should be evaluated from many angles using valid and reliable measures, but in reality, the instructional designer has to take workplace constraints and opportunities into consideration. Based on the previous discussion, guidelines for planning an evaluation strategy include the following: •

Make evaluation part of the training proposal.

•

Make sure that stakeholders agree on criteria and understand their individual roles in the process.

•

Use as many different evaluation strategies as is feasible.

Remember that evaluation is feedback. Evaluation data do not have value unless they are used. At the proposal stage, you must identify needed evaluation data and specify how you propose to collect this information. Then you need to work with key stakeholders to determine what kind of business decisions would be based on the data. Will data be quantitative (numbers), or qualitative (words)? Or a combination of both? When it comes to using the data, be sure to go back to your initial questions and respond to them. Here are some guidelines for using evaluation information: Analyze as much data—qualitative as well as quantitative—for use by decision makers as possible. Provide feedback reports to those who provided the data. Share credit for results. Hone your evaluation skills. We’ll discuss each of these points next. Quantitative and Qualitative Data Quantitative data are about the numbers. Qualitative data consist of observations and descriptions. Evaluation data come from such sources as questionnaires, tests, observation guides, interview guides, and organizational records. You make sense of each piece of information by analyzing it in a manner that will help answer key evaluation questions. Assessment areas can include the classroom delivery skills of the instructor, the post-instruction job performance of participants, end-of-course cognitive learning outcomes, and the like. Making sense of numeric data generally relies on the use of statistics. Making sense of “word” data can involve coding schemes and

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summaries. While quantitative data such as test scores and questionnaire results are often described as being more objective (and therefore the more useful), qualitative data can be equally useful, explaining or confirming the quantitative, numeric data. Qualitative data can provide a richness of information that mere numbers cannot provide. Evaluation Reports—Examples Reading this book will not make you an expert in evaluation, but it will help you understand the role of evaluation in the Instructional Development Cycle. Let’s say you are the learning and performance department director and you have data that assess a newly developed leadership development seminar. You are sitting at your desk, looking at stacks of end-of-course employee reaction questionnaires. Two months after the course, you interviewed a sample of participants and their managers to determine what use they had made of the courses since then. A computer printout detailing end-of-course achievement tests is rolling out onto the floor. Another printout of scores from a leadership style inventory given to the participants is sitting on the windowsill. A videotape of the instructor delivering a unit of study is serving as a paperweight. What do you do? Report to the Learning and Performance Department. The department wants to know whether or not employees found the seminar to be a worthwhile and useful overall experience, and whether or not the programs resulted in employees’ applying key concepts. Information for this analysis will be found in the reaction questionnaires, the end-of-course test, and notes from interviews. To create a useful report, you can organize employee feedback by averaging scores on the quantitative end-of-course reaction forms and citing comments from the interviews as to the perceived long-term effectiveness of the course. A listing of raw achievement-test scores—separated into averages, means, and modes—would provide a numeric or statistical description of what was learned. Report to Employees. The employees themselves want to know how their individual leadership style scores compare with the test’s norms and with their colleagues’ scores. They are also interested in knowing how well they did on the objective test, which measured how well they understood the course materials.


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You design a report for individual employees made up of two key parts. One part offers the individual’s leadership score and compares it to the group’s and the test’s norms. The second part is an overview in which statistical sense can be made of test averages, standard deviations, and percentile rankings. This allows comparisons of a broader nature to be made by each person. Report to Instructors. Instructors want to know whether or not their presentation styles were effective and the materials used were helpful. Analysis of the videotape might require an observation guide or a simple checklist. Findings can be summarized in narrative form or by providing scores for individual observation items. While you decide that the quantitative scores should be included in a printed report, you opt for oral, private feedback to the instructor. In addition, you give the instructor a copy of the videotape to review, along with your instructor-observation checklist. Report to the Line Manager. Managers want to know whether or not employees considered the seminar a worthwhile experience, what they actually learned from the experience, and the degree to which they were able to apply it back on the job. To this end, you summarize data from reaction forms, compile interview data, and perform statistical analyses of the actual test scores. Will the manager have access to individual scores by employee name? Or will the scores be tabulated anonymously? These questions must be addressed at the proposal stage. Line managers should be key players in the needs assessment and program-design stage of the seminar. If they were, write thank-you notes and give them credit for their involvement in the introductory part of your report. Managers often give the go/no-go decisions about learning efforts. List their roles in the program report; this not only gives the manager a sense of ownership, but also makes the instructor more than just a deliverer of learning program content. It highlights how instruction contributed to the achievement of organizational goals. Such joint accountability supports the instructor’s role in becoming a key player in the overall organization. Report to the Organization. Evaluation data are also useful public relations for the learning and performance department. At the completion of a particularly successful and high-visibility effort, consider putting an article in the company newspaper or on a company video broadcast. You can also use the data in employee briefings, and take

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it to staff meetings where you report on the success of the program. Such public relations use of evaluation data serves to further the interests of the department. Honing the Skills Needed for Evaluation As the workplace learning professional, you can take the lead in evaluation, making sure that each phase is done appropriately and effectively. It is also your role to make sure that evaluation strategies coordinate with each phase of the Instructional Development Cycle. You also must direct the services and interests of others who are part of the process. Depending on what is to be evaluated, you can rely on the expertise of others to guide your efforts. You can use trade journals such as T+D or Training magazine, scholarly journals such as Human Resource Development Quarterly, or journals specific to the content itself as reference points. You can tap the expertise of professionals who have instructional development or content expertise. Become a member of a professional association, participate in benchmark studies, and by all means network! Courses in qualitative and quantitative analysis provide the necessary skills to develop, understand, and report data, but remember that data are only as useful as the data-collection instruments are valid and reliable. The more you know about designing evaluation instruments, the better. Sometimes, you will rely on measurement experts to actually design evaluation instruments. Depending upon the complexity of the evaluation itself, the intended audience of the evaluation report, and time factors, you may want support from psychology and testing professionals. The next chapter provides an overview of methods related to designing and using evaluation tools.

Summary In this chapter, we provided the “when,” “what,” “who,” “where,” “how,” and “why” of evaluation. Given the need to operate effectively and efficiently, you must be able to determine whether or not you are doing the right things right, and should be able to document the outcomes.


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Evaluation, part of the Instructional Development Cycle, is tightly related to the needs assessment stage. Outcomes of the needs assessment—knowledge, skills, and abilities—provide the basis for identifying learning goals and criteria that will help you determine whether or not the resultant programs met those goals. We described two approaches that can be combined to offer a perspective on what needs to be evaluated: the grouping of criteria into domains, and identification of just who needs evaluation data. Five domains of learning criteria were identified. Reaction refers to the learner’s perception of the experience and its value. Learning refers to the content mastery. Job behavior refers to whether or not the content learned was transferred back to the workplace. Organizational results describe how instructional efforts are linked to short- or long-term organizational goals. The process domain includes assessment of what occurred during the entire cycle and an audit of the learning and performance department itself. We discussed what kind of evaluation data various stakeholders would find useful, because each group has distinct and different needs and interests related to evaluation. The manager of the learning and performance department may want data documenting appropriate content and effective instructional delivery, organizational decision makers may want to ensure that instructional efforts match organizational goals, and so on. The evaluation planner often relies on content matter specialists and experts in measurement to determine and develop appropriate evaluation measures. Tests, observations, interviews, participant questionnaires, and workplace surveys are all commonly used as evaluation instruments. The appropriate mix of these approaches depends on the resources of time, people, and money, and the perceived usefulness of the evaluation data. Because data have no value unless they are used, we concluded by offering guidelines for their use. Understanding the nature of quantitative and qualitative data, as well as a variety of data analysis methods, is extremely important. Participants in learning programs and decision makers must have data prepared in a useful report format. Moreover, when report recipients participate in the needs assessment, design, or delivery of programs, you must be sure to acknowledge their contributions. Shared accountability and acknowledgment benefits everyone.

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Think It Through 1. What rationales do learning professionals offer for not evaluating instructional efforts? Are these rationales ever valid? Why? When? 2. Let’s assume that a learning and performance department completed a needs assessment by identifying a group of employees who need to learn project management skills. How would you go about identifying relevant evaluation criteria? 3. See if you agree or disagree with this statement: “The only criteria that really mean anything are criteria related to employee learning.” Why do you agree or disagree? 4. Review the following list of evaluation criteria for a program on sales presentation skills. Then identify a different evaluation strategy appropriate for each item. In which evaluation domain does the selected strategy fall? a. The learner was able to provide an overview of the company’s products in five minutes b. The learner believes that the instructional materials were useful. c. The program content was transferred back to the job. d. The program content addressed the identified problem. e. The program was directly linked to improved sales figures. 5. Brainstorm evaluation strategies appropriate for determining the effectiveness of a program designed to make managers more aware and supportive of a culturally diverse workforce. Is answering this question more difficult to answer than the previous question? If so, why?

Ideas in Action 1. Interview a workplace learning professional about how his or her organization handles evaluation. Share these comments with your colleagues. Were practices consistent with those outlined in this text? Why or why not? What patterns (small vs. large organizations, service organizations vs. manufacturing organizations, and the like) do you see when comparing your information with theirs?


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2. Review recent journal articles in publications such as Training, T+D, and Human Resource Development Quarterly to identify what authors in the field say about issues related to effective evaluation. Summarize your findings in a brief annotated bibliography. 3. In small groups, construct a reaction-domain evaluation instrument. Then, compare each group’s instruments. How are they similar or different?

Additional Resources Brown, Stephan M. and Constance J. Seidner. 1998. Evaluating Corporate Training: Models and Issues. Norwell, Massachusetts: Kluwer Academic Publishing. The authors present an overview of current models and issues in educational evaluation. Kirkpatrick, Donald L., and James D. Kirkpatrick. 2005. Evaluating Training Programs: The Four Levels. San Francisco, California: Berrett-Koehler. Here’s an updated discussion of the four levels of evaluation. You’ll want to read this version to get new insights on why the authors believe their domains have been so useful to the field. Parry, Scott B. 1997. Evaluating the Impact of Training. Alexandria, Virginia: ASTD. Parry offers a reference book of tools and techniques for conducting learning evaluations. Phillips, Jack J. 1997. Handbook of Training Evaluation and Measurement Methods (3rd edition). Woburn, Massachusetts: Butterworth-Heinemann. An excellent text that covers a wide range of measurement and evaluation methods, complete with “how to” examples. It is a bit dated, but a worthwhile consideration for your professional learning library.

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Phillips, Patricia P., Jack J. Phillips, Ron Stone, and Holly Burkett. 2006. The ROI Fieldbook: Strategies for Implementing ROI in HR and Training. London and New York: Elsevier Science and Technology Books. Here’s a text that can help you translate soft dollars into ROI figures. There are lots of useful ideas here. Web sites http://www.hronline.com/forums/training/training.html This is the entry to searching the archives of TREDV-L, a very useful listserv through Pennsylvania State University. Read what practitioners and scholars are discussing on any number of topics, including evaluation. http://www.workforceonline.com/archive The archives of Workforce magazine. Use their research center to search for current articles on human resource topics, including evaluation.

Chapter 3 Notes 1.

Training, December 2005. Minneapolis, Minnesota: Lakewood Publications.

2.

Robinson, Dana and James C. Gaines. 1989. Training for Impact: How to Link Training to Business Needs and Measure the Results. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

CHAPTER 4

Collecting and Analyzing Needs Assessment and Evaluation Data In this chapter, we will do the following: • • • • • • • •

Propose techniques for gathering assessment and evaluation data. Describe ways to prepare for and conduct observations. Suggest approaches to preparing for and conducting interviews. Discuss appropriate ways to design and use surveys. Explain instrument development and validation. Discuss techniques of valid test construction. Outline approaches to designing experimental research. Offer suggestions for using quantitative and qualitative data.

Acquiring Valid Data A wise consumer comparison-shops for goods and services by evaluating quality, price, location, and service. Likewise, instructional designers seek the most effective methods for conducting needs analyses and evaluating the initiatives delivered. This means determining how to obtain useful information on which to base your decisions about program design and evaluation. We use the term data to refer to bits and pieces of detail from which information is derived. Information is data that have been compiled in a useful way. Thus data and information are not synonymous but complementary. In reverse order, decisions are made from conclusions, which are obtained from information. Information comes from data. In this chapter, we will describe methods and tools used in the collection of accurate, valid, and reliable data and how these data combine to provide information that is of maximum use to all decision makers: the learning and performance department, instructors, line managers, the learners themselves, and the organization’s leaders.

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Needs assessment and evaluation are tightly linked stages within the Instructional Development Cycle. In fact, the evaluation of one project can become the needs assessment component of the next project. Evaluation is an ongoing activity that takes place at all points in the cycle; the design team works continuously to ensure that the right people learn the right things in the right way at the right time. The essence of needs assessment begins by identifying and defining a problem to be addressed. After this step, determine what is already known about the issue and make some educated guesses or hypotheses about the relationships between the variables that might help you solve or address the problem. All needs assessments tend to follow basically the same pattern: 1. Identify the problem to be studied. 2. Determine what is already known about the problem. 3. Make assumptions about the problem (which leads to educated guesses about the relationships between the identified variables). 4. Choose appropriate methods to collect needed data. 5. Select existing instruments or develop new ones that will result in the collection of valid and reliable data. 6. Collect the data. 7. Analyze the results of this data collection to determine what it all means. 8. Formulate conclusions and recommendations that address or resolve the original problem. In earlier chapters, we covered items 1 through 3. This chapter begins at point 4 to describe a variety of assessment and evaluation methods that can be used to acquire appropriate data. We will also look at how to use these methods effectively. There are many assessment and evaluation techniques; this chapter will focus on those most frequently used in organizational learning environments: observations, interviews, surveys, tests, and experiments.

Collecting and Analyzing

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Observations Of all the data-collecting methods available, the most basic and perhaps the most useful method is observation. Assessment by observation can be as simple as sitting down with a spreadsheet user and identifying instances where advanced features of a program can be used. On the other hand, observation can be as complex as trying to identify the myriad of tasks a worker performs in a normal day. How simple or complex the observation process is depends on the questions and the value of the information gathered. To use the observation method, you first determine the type of activities to be observed, decide how to record these observations, and then create an instrument that will systematically guide the data collection and subsequent analysis. Types of Observation Variables There are three basic types of variables in observation research: descriptive, inferential, and evaluative. Descriptive variables are measured by using checklists to describe situations or events. Descriptive variables such as “resources used” and “voice and projection” are relatively straightforward, and are valid if recorded accurately—that is, if the observer’s instruments and the data thus obtained truly measure what they are supposed to measure, not something else. Subsequently, when other raters use the same checklist and describe the same variables in similar manner, the observation results are considered to be reliable. Reliability refers to consistent, comparable data. Data that are valid and reliable are two basic requirements not only in the observation method, but for all other research methods used. Descriptive variables, as this phrase suggests, describe a situation or event, and in general do not require major interpretations or projections on the part of the researcher. However, inferential variables, on the other hand, do. Inferential variables take descriptive variables a step further. Inferential variables are developed by the researcher by drawing on past research and personal experiences to make sense out of what is currently being observed—what can be inferred from the data collected. Some activities contain so many interrelated actions and behaviors that inferences are difficult to make. For example, when evaluating instructor performance, the observer may be required to interpret facial expressions and body language to see if the instructor is encouraging or discouraging participation. Recording an instructor’s defensive posture, such as standing with arms folded, is a descriptive measure. The recording

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becomes inferential when the observer concludes from this behavior that the instructor may be uncomfortable with the class or that he or she reflects a degree of unpreparedness. It is likewise inferential to interpret vocal mannerisms or tones to imply encouragement or disapproval. Valid and reliable inferences may be difficult for a single observer to make; therefore, it is useful to have multiple observers and/or observations, depending on the complexity and importance of the situation. Evaluative variables are the most complex of all observations because the observer goes a step further and makes an informed judgment about what is seen. Measuring the quality of responses to questions, for example, requires more skill than saying simply that a number of learner-instructor interchanges occurred. Therefore, a single observation by one observer in a single setting cannot, on balance, provide adequate, reliable, and/or valid data upon which to judge the instructor’s behavior. Many firms that rely on customer contact use volunteer observers called “mystery shoppers” in order to identify areas where service can be improved. A mystery shopper observes, notes, and evaluates the nature and the quality of the contacts between a supplier and a customer. Mystery shoppers can be found as travelers on airlines, as customers in bank queues, as information seekers in brokerage houses, as diners in restaurants, and as retail shoppers in department stores—anywhere there is contact with the customer. Many use an observational checklist; however, due to the covert nature of this contact, the checklist is usually designed to record an event, rather than to record the number or frequency of activities that have taken place. The next section describes strategies for recording these observational data. Recording Observation Data Observational data may take many forms, and recording these data in a usable format is important. Decisions are made on information derived from many data points or observations; therefore, the recording method is critical if sense is to be made of what is collected. At least four different types of observational recording exist: (1) elapsed time recording; (2) frequency recording; (3) interval recording; and (4) continuous recording. Elapsed Time Recording. Elapsed time recording relates back to the scientific management approach of the early 20th century and the work of Frederick Taylor. Taylor, often called the “father of scientific management,” was an engineer who maintained


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that an expert, not the manager or the employee, can find the one best way to do a job or perform a task. Scientific management is based on the premise that every task can be observed and broken down into its smallest component parts. An expert can then determine how best to complete the task and how long it should take. Workers can then be trained to accomplish the task in the best way. Taylor is credited with being the first to use elapsed-time recording where the observer, complete with stopwatch and checklist, records the amount of time it takes someone to complete a specific activity or task. Today, the computer is used instead of the paper and stopwatch checklist for elapsed-time recording. Elapsed-time recording yields quantitative data that are relatively descriptive and relatively reliable. For this reason, this method is often used for certain types of repetitive tasks that lend themselves to measurement observation. Workers tracked via elapsed-time recording include order takers for home-shopping networks, stock and bond inquiry clerks, and airline and hotel reservation clerks. However, a number of extraneous variables often account for wide variations in these data (the time of day, the day of the week, the month or season, etc.), and provide a wide variety and range of data. For example, the home shopping network order takers are likely to be much busier in December due to the holidays than they are in August, when many people are on vacation. Other complicating variables include the personality of the caller or the degree of detailed information required from the employee or from the caller. Yet another variable might concern the type of equipment involved—PBX, touch-tone, dial, headset, and the like. Downtime, 800-numbers, routing number and information requests, and “please hold” announcements all influence these observations and thus can impact the data noted on the observer’s checklist. Frequency Recording. Frequency recording is about determining the number of times that the telephone user or the target individual performs a specific activity. Most frequency observations are best done under conditions of short duration when there is relative stability or consistency in the activity observed. While more complex behaviors can be observed, they will take more time and effort. The more expert or experienced you are in the activities being recorded, the easier it will be to identify and record the behaviors. For example, a former telephone operator might have a better sense of the type of call being answered; a former teacher, a better idea of the nature of a classroom observation; and a former production supervisor, a better understand-

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ing of the assembly-line activity performed. The more complex the behavior is, the more important it is that an experienced and knowledgeable observer conduct the observation. These illustrations all describe an observer tallying certain types of data, but there are also instances where individuals can track their own activities. For example, Help Desk agents can record the instances of calls that come in for help on specific topics. Customer-service representatives can tally how many times customers call in asking questions about a new product. The corporate librarian can keep tabs on how many people enter the organization’s library during lunch time. Data about these kinds of questions can easily be captured on time logs and document logs maintained by the workers themselves, thus providing valid, reliable self-evaluation data. Interval Recording. Interval recording usually takes the form of observing targeted individuals at specific time intervals. A recorder observes a target at specific periods of time (say five minutes out of each hour, over a one-, two-, or three-day period). If consistency is noted—that is, if the same actions occur within the observed period over a block of time—the observer might conclude that those behaviors are typical. The disadvantage of interval recording, however, is that there might not be any observed or recorded flurries of activity or peaks of high volume and valleys of low activity during the observation period, which might skew the categorized data in one direction. On the other hand, interval observations are an effective use of time when the observer has to record the activities of multiple individuals. Continuous Recording. In continuous recording, you note all the activities or behaviors of the target(s) throughout an entire observation period. For example, if you wish to determine which tasks an employee engages in during a normal day, you would, of course, have to observe him/her throughout the entire day and record every task performed. This is usually done during the exploratory or opening phase of a needs assessment project to determine patterns or significant clusters of actions, which will help you develop categories useful for observation guides.

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Using the Observation Method The observation guide itself largely determines not only what is observed, but how it is observed, so it is critical to the observational process. Take care to design and validate it to make sure that the data collected are accurate and valid. Many samples and styles of observation guides are available from commercial sources, but the best one is the one that you design for your specific purpose. The Observation Guide. Figure 4-1 illustrates a partial observation guide used to observe a new instructor. To create such an observation guide, first decide what you wish to observe. Second, determine how you want to observe it (in person, covert, video). Third, list the questions or items you need to record, referring back to the first step in this process. Fourth, pilot-test the form with an actual observation to see if it actually can do what you want it to do. Finally, revise the guide accordingly. These steps, of course, have many subparts; however, the point is to design a guide that helps you gather the needed data effectively and efficiently. Figure 4-1. Sample Instructor Observation Guide Name of Instructor

Date of observation

Class observed

Course/Module ID

Number of participants 1.

Instructional aids used (number and type)

2.

Interactive questioning involved (number and type)

3.

Medial summaries used for each topic (number and type)

4.

Mannerisms noted (positive)

5.

Mannerisms noted (negative)

(Note: Add other factors you wish to observe)

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One way to reduce the problems related to observer interpretations and to cut down on labor costs is to use audio or video to record behaviors. Whether recorded on analog tapes or digital disks, audio and video provide running commentary of the observed phenomenon, to which you can return time and time again for clarification. Video provides additional value, because you can record the precise activity desired during the observation. When conducting any type of observational study using recording devices, you must be responsive to the ethics and legalities of observational data collection and obtain the permission of any individual who will be observed. Remember that if your presence influences or impacts the observed in any way, your data is likely to be considered contaminated, and thus be of limited value. Computer-Assisted Observation. Computer-assisted observation is an increasingly popular method for data collection. For example, a computer program called a “cookie” can track the number and type of features people use in doing on-line data searches. Such data can be incorporated into instructional designs to ensure that the most frequently used commands are taught to new employees. Computers might also record data showing that some employees are using only a few features and thus might benefit from additional instruction, or benefit by joining a users group. Keep in mind, however, that these computer-based observations/data-collection procedures must be openly announced and fully explained, lest they be perceived as a sign that “big brother” is keeping tabs on employees. How you approach this issue is critical to the success of all of your data-gathering activities. Allowing people to opt out of such tracking is one good way to address the serious problem with privacy invasion. The computer can be an invaluable aid in collecting, tabulating, and analyzing data.

Interviews Interviews are meetings between an information-gatherer and an information-giver. Interviews can be conducted face-to-face, via the telephone, online, or in a group (focus groups). The key to success in using this method is to identify the right people to interview, know what kind of information you need, and design a good interview guide. Observation data can provide a framework for developing interview guides, ensuring that the right questions are asked of the right people.


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Types of Interviews Interviews can be open or structured. Open interviews are exploratory, and are used when only a small number of interviewees are needed. Almost all of the resultant data obtained through open interviews are qualitative. Structured interviews, on the other hand, tend to be based on questions that require yes/no, categorical, and other specific answers. Whether interviews are open or structured (or a combination), the interviewer uses an interview guide to ensure that the right questions are asked and resultant data can be interpreted easily. A guide also makes it easier to compare data among respondents. Conducting interviews takes skill and practice; however, the process in interview research is similar to what is used in the observation method. The next section presents guidelines for using the interview method and illustrates how you can apply this method to address a perceived problem. Using the Interview Method Step 1. Define the purpose or problem to be studied. The first step in any investigation is to identify the problem to be studied. It must, therefore, be assumed that the problem can be answered through the interview process. Data from previous assessments and evaluations should also be reviewed to ensure that the organization has not already answered the question or addressed the issue. Step 2. Select the sample to be interviewed. Carefully select the individuals to be interviewed so you get a range of responses. Avoid tapping those willing or eager to participate, as they may not be the most appropriate subjects. Avoid this trap: “Why not interview Harry? He’s between projects this afternoon, and has nothing pressing to do.” Another bit of advice is to include as many stakeholders as possible. Participation in the assessment stage is highly correlated with success in the implementation stage. Step 3. Design the interview guide by determining the major points, questions, and sequence of the interview topics. An interview guide should be neither too long nor too short. One way to begin is to brainstorm questions to which you’ll need answers, and then structure or cluster these questions into a logical order. Remember,

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the guide should focus on the objectives and outcomes desired. Figure 4-2 presents a sample interview guide to assess current and future learning needs of the sales staff. Figure 4-2. Sample Interview Guide (Partial) Name and job title of subject

Date

(Attach business card, if possible)

Location of interview

Telephone

Subject of interview

Topics and/or Questions 1.

How large is your sales department? Is it growing, shrinking, or in a steady state?

2.

What has been your experience with the instruction conducted for members of your staff? (positive/negative/neutral/unknown—and to what degree)

3.

In what cases has instruction been effective? How did you measure this effectiveness?

4.

In what cases has instruction been ineffective? How did you measure this?

5.

What products does your staff find the easiest to sell?

6.

What products are the most difficult to sell?

7.

Where do you see the gaps in your staff’s effectiveness that the learning and performance department might be able to fill?

(Note: Additional questions should be developed.)

Step 4. Test the effectiveness of your interview guide by conducting pilot interviews with similar individuals to determine the validity, accuracy, reliability, and shortcomings of the interview. Developing a good interview guide takes time and practice, and often has to go through many revisions. Test the effectiveness of your interview guide by asking people who reflect your target group to help you try it out. Determine whether or not the questions are worded in a way that will result in useful data, and practice your skills as an interviewer. You can also see whether or not your note-taking ability is adequate and determine whether you should audiotape or videotape the interview. This “tryout” interview also serves as a way to determine how much time an interview will take, as well as help you identify any difficulties in


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asking questions or keeping the subject on track. How do you get beyond what the interviewee is saying to capture what is being meant, rather than what is being said? Most important, can the questions you need to have answered actually be answered? Step 5. From the pilot data, develop and refine a coding or tabulating method that will allow you to arrange and categorize responses. The practice session also provides you with data that can be used to form your coding and analysis structure. Since interviews frequently result in lengthy transcripts or qualitative data, what type of coding will you use? Key words? Phrases? Images? Themes? Should quantitative data also come out of the interview, how will you compile or tabulate these data so they are useful? Many interviewers find coding to be the most difficult step in the interviewing process. Coding responses to a 30-minute interview can take longer than the interview itself. At the problem development stage, you decided on what data you needed—key themes or issues, important processes, and the like. Coding is done by looking for key phrases that occur throughout the interview. Coding can also be done by listing the specific issues you wish to identify through this process. One of the most effective ways to code data is to list your desired outcomes (your interview goals) as column headings across the top of a large sheet of paper. For each item down the left-hand side of the page, identify the specific questions you intend to ask to get at these goals or objectives. As you review your notes or listen to your tape recording, fill in the blanks accordingly. You might have to read between the lines from time to time to pick up on important responses; however, after a few practice sessions, you will become more comfortable with this process. Data-reduction skills such as these are developed over long periods of trial and error, so do not be discouraged if your first efforts do not produce the hoped-for results. Time and experience will sharpen these skills to where you will become proficient in the process. Figure 4-3 illustrates a topic from the sample Interview Guide shown in the previous figure.

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Figure 4-3. Sample Interview Coding and Analysis Matrix

Questions 1. What products does your staff find the most difficult to sell?

Types of Products General

Specific

Copier supplies and new trends (1, 2)

Color toner and high quality paper (1,2)

Knowledge, Skills, and Abilities Needed Product knowledge, how to match color inks and toner with appropriate paper (1, 2)

Learning Strategies Instructor-led class (1) Web-based instruction (2)

2. What new products will your department have to sell in the next two years? 3. What instruction will be required for your sales staff in the next two years? Code:

1 = New employees

2 = Experienced employees

Step 6. Collect data by conducting interviews. Schedule interviews in a timely fashion. Many interviews focus on time-sensitive issues that your instructional efforts must address, so request and hold interviews as soon as possible following the approval to conduct them. Interviews are generally conducted on the interviewee’s home turf; you may have to make prior arrangements to record the interview on audio or video. It goes without saying that interviews must be conducted at a time when you won’t be interrupted. However, be prepared for interruptions, and keep the conversation focused on the topics established. Try to differentiate between fact and opinion, and avoid inserting your own ideas. Finally, make sure you ask your subject for any final comments: It is at the end of the interview, when rapport has been established, that your interviewee is most likely to provide the most valuable data. Thank your subject for the interview, gather up your materials, and depart on good terms. It is likely that you will need additional information or clarification of some of the discussion content later; leaving on good terms is therefore crucial.


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Step 7. Analyze and interpret the results of your interview. Assemble your materials and begin to analyze the data as soon as possible, because impressions, body language, setting, and tone all fade from memory with the passing of time. Transcribe notes or tapes as quickly as possible, and search for themes and answers to questions. There are sophisticated qualitative software programs to assist you in this process; however, you should conduct a number of trial runs with such programs so you are familiar with the package you select. If you have questions concerning gaps in information or what was said, contact your interviewee for clarification as soon as possible. Do not wait until a complete series of interviews has been completed before transcribing and coding data. This is why audio or video recording the interview is so valuable; it allows you to focus on your conversation, rather than trying to take good notes. When you have completed your transcript, summarize your findings and conclusions and make recommendations based on your interviews. Ask yourself what you have learned from the results. What instructional programs need to be developed? If your investigation was part of an evaluation of the learning and performance department’s effectiveness, which programs might need to be created, revised, or deleted? Then make recommendations for the next steps in the process. Despite the complexities of doing interviews, interviewing is one of the best ways to gather valuable information needed to focus on a problem. Many researchers use a selective interview process before gathering survey data to ensure that they ask the right questions on the questionnaire. Some do additional interviews after gathering survey data to add meaning and depth to the responses.

Surveys When data are needed from a large number of people who are geographically dispersed or when time and expense do not permit observations, a questionnaire is the data-collection instrument of choice. This section will cover some of the essential elements in the survey method: designing and validating questionnaires, selecting the people who can give you the data you need, and developing follow-up strategies to acquire missing data or to contact nonrespondents.

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Types of Surveys Surveys are very helpful in acquiring a great deal of data that reflect a large group, and standard statistical techniques can be used to extrapolate useful data from a small sample. Begin by designing and validating a questionnaire, or locate one that has previously been used and validated. You can distribute surveys through office mail or through in-person or group contacts (i.e., corporate meetings, or at the end of a class or seminar). Increasingly, however, participants are invited to respond electronically via an Internet or Intranet site. Using the Survey Method Step 1. Identify the data you need. What data are needed? By focusing on identified objectives, you will be better able to construct a questionnaire that addresses these specific issues. These objectives can be generated through needs assessments, observations, and interviews. Step 2. Identify the individuals who can answer your questions. If you are targeting employees in a small department, you will probably want to send a questionnaire to everyone. If, on the other hand, the size of your group is large (such as your entire organization), you will need to identify a sample. A sample is a subset of the target group that reflects all of the characteristics of the larger population. For example, if your population is the entire organization, you cannot send a questionnaire to people in one specific department and then assume that these people can speak for everyone else. Not all departments operate in the same manner, and individual needs and reactions will vary. Drawing a sample that reflects the larger population, however, can be conducted through randomization. Randomization refers to the selection of individuals on a pure chance basis. You will need to take steps to ensure that everyone in your population has an equal chance of being selected to receive the questionnaire. Randomization helps ensure that the individuals who are asked to respond to your questionnaire reflect the characteristics of individuals throughout the entire organization. Techniques for randomization include picking names from a hat, assigning random numbers and picking several randomly, or using a computer program to generate a random list.


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Step 3. Design the questionnaire. Once you find out what you need to know and who has the answers, you then turn to the development of the questionnaire instrument itself. As mentioned before, avoid reinventing the wheel; before you put pen to paper or fingers to computer keyboard, check your company files and the research literature to see if a data-gathering instrument or questionnaire already exists that will do the job you want. When measuring broad, general constructs such as organizational culture or group behavior, it is useful to check to see if there are instruments already available. Two references may prove helpful: Tests in Print V, Vols. I & II (1999), and The Sixteenth Mental Measurements Yearbook (2005). These reference books, both published by The Buros Institute of Mental Measurements, describe hundreds of test instruments and contain information on their development, background, previous use, reviewers’ comments, and important validity and reliability details. There are many advantages to using an existing instrument: You will have a validated instrument that you know does what it is supposed to do. It is already in print, and is probably available at a lower cost than if you created it from scratch. The disadvantage is that what you find might not mesh exactly with your objectives or will be too long for your practical use or too complex for your population or sample under investigation. However, check out these reference guides so you at least know what does and what does not exist. If you cannot find an instrument that does what you need it to do, you will need to create a questionnaire yourself. For the sake of illustration, assume that your objective is to determine the attitudes toward learning initiatives within your organization. What do former and current participants think about their general or specific experiences in your classrooms? Can they translate their learning into greater job-related efficiencies or effectiveness? Did their experiences result in higher productivity? Higher wages? Greater responsibilities? Did they have a good experience, and would they return for more instruction if the opportunity arose? Did they have a favorable attitude toward the learning initiative and the learning and performance department or its staff? Did participants at various levels hold similar positive, negative, or neutral attitudes toward their experiences? Once you have drafted a number of these basic questions, what other information will you need or find helpful? This “other” information may include demographic questions relative to time on the job, age, gender, or title. This information will pro-

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vide you with relationships concerning your sample’s responses to their attitudes toward the program’s effectiveness and these demographic variables. You might find that younger employees have higher positive attitudes toward learning and that women are especially enthusiastic. You might find that job titles correlate highly with the assessment of program outcomes. Such helpful data can be used to make judgments concerning your program’s effectiveness. The template in Figure 4-4 can help you design a questionnaire. Step 4. Submit the draft to a “jury” for review. After you have finished a draft of your questionnaire, your next step is to make sure that you have not missed any critical issues or forgotten to ask essential questions. This is why you should submit your draft to 3–9 experts (odd numbers are better to avoid evaluation ties). This panel, of course, should have some expertise in areas you are including in your questionnaire and should be able to evaluate the contents of your draft. They will, no doubt, add questions, delete others, and make suggestions concerning the wording and sequencing of items. The panel can also provide input as to the nature of the questionnaire responses: Will you use a separate response sheet? What type of response will you anticipate? Are your responses a yes-no type, or spread across a Likert-type scale of from 1 to 5? If so, what descriptors or codes will you give to each number? These questions should be addressed by your panel of experts. Remember to keep your ego in check because you want critical responses. You may have to return to your panel with a second draft in order to refine your questionnaire further. A consensus of your panel is generally the level of agreement necessary to proceed. Spend more time refining your questionnaire and you’ll be more satisfied with the results.


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Figure 4-4. Questionnaire Template Directions. Briefly outline how the respondent is to go about completing the survey, explain any unusual items or actions to be taken, and state where the survey form is to be returned. Prepare an accompanying letter or memo containing this information, and explain the nature of the survey, who has authorized it, the confidentiality policy, and for what purposes the results will be used. Demographic Data. Ask for the respondent’s title, organizational position, years of service, gender, age, education, and other details that are necessary to get at the objectives of the survey. Do not ask questions that are personal in nature, and do not ask for “nice to know” data that you do not intend to use. When the actual age of the respondent is not important, cluster responses such as age into categories or large chunks to hide the specific data requested (e.g., 20–30; 30–40). If the actual age is needed, ask for date or year of birth. Body of the Questionnaire. This is where you ask for responses to specific questions. Remember to keep the survey as short, simple, and uncomplicated as possible. When you have to have a lot of questions, cluster them into smaller segments or like parts under a heading that identifies the nature of the questions to follow. Try to leave enough space for open-ended responses, but plan ahead on how you will tabulate and use these comments. Here are a few examples of good questions: (continued)

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Figure 4-4. Questionnaire Template (continued) Categorical-type questions: 1. How many people do you supervise?

____________

or How many people do you directly supervise? (circle one) (a) none (b) 1–6 (c) 7–20 (d) 21–50 (e) more than 50 or How many people do you directly supervise? Place an “x” next to the appropriate response. _____ _____ _____ _____ _____

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e)

none 1–6 7–20 21–50 more than 50

Likert-type questions: Using the scale below, rate yourself in each of the following categories by circling the number of the item that best describes your proficiency. 1 = I do this very well—no help needed 2 = I do this okay most of the time 3 = I do this about average 4 = I could use a little help here 5 = I could use a lot of help here 2. Orienting new employees

1

2

3

4

5

(continued)

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Collecting and Analyzing Figure 4-4. Questionnaire Template (continued) OR:

Using the scale below, rate yourself in each of the following categories by placing a checkmark on the line above the number that best describes you. 1 = I do this very well—no help needed 2 = I do this okay most of the time 3 = I do this about average 4 = I could use a little help here 5 = I could use a lot of help here 2. Orienting new employees

1

2

3

4

5

As you can see in the first Likert-type example, by asking respondents to circle a certain number, you will get a specific response. In the second example, asking them to put a checkmark on the line that best describes them might require respondents to make judgment calls when their responses fall between numbers. Both approaches have advantages and disadvantages. The former provides “hard data,” but the latter allows for gradations in responses. End of Questionnaire. Provide space for any open-ended final comments, thank the respondent for his or her help, and state where and how the questionnaire should be returned. Provide your name and telephone number in case any respondents have questions. Finally, make sure you include in bold type your response deadline. It is a good idea to offer each respondent a summary of the results as a benefit to encourage participation as well as to encourage timely responses.

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Step 5. Field test and then distribute the questionnaire. Once you have the panel/jury’s responses and have incorporated them to whatever degree you feel appropriate, your next step is to pilot or field test the revised instrument. Select a small group similar to your sample and administer the questionnaire as a tryout measure. This is done to identify any problems with the content, distribution, and the return of the instrument; the nature and type of responses given; questions that are ambiguous or vague; and so on. This will give you an idea of responses you will get from the actual survey. This pilot or field test is the last step in validating your questionnaire before you distribute it to your targeted sample. Pilot numbers can be as few as 5–10 or as many as 50, depending on the size of your sample. All questionnaires should come with a cover letter or memo that explains the nature and importance of the survey. In this letter, you should explain why the individual was targeted to receive the survey and specify the deadline for responding and who to contact for answers to any questions about the survey itself. You might need to do one or more follow-up mailings or make individual contacts to get a sufficient number of respondents to reply; plan for this ahead of time by coding survey forms to allow for follow-up efforts. Numbers or codes printed on each questionnaire allow you to track those who have responded, as well as identify those who have not yet responded. This code preserves confidentiality, since no names are needed and only you have the coding key. However, it also allows you to check off the code name of the respondent when the survey has been returned in order to avoid unnecessary remailings. Here is an example of sample code: A number of 1023 tells you that 10 is the department and 23 represents the individual contacted. If you send a follow-up survey, you could give it a code of 1023X to indicate that it is the second survey form sent to that person. Confidentiality should be explained in your cover letter to enhance your response rate. While mail surveys used in marketing often result in a very low response rate (1–10%), you should strive for at least a 50% response so you can generalize your findings to your entire population. This may take more than one followup mailing or contact. Step 6. Analyze and interpret the data. Once you have exhausted the ways to convince members of your sample to reply and the final batch of questionnaires is now piled high on your desk, it is time to compile your data. You can use descriptive statistics to show the responses to each of your questions, such as the average response


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(mean), the midpoint response (median), and the most-frequent response (mode). These three terms reflect the clustering of responses, and together provide a picture of the group as a whole. Showing the lowest and the highest scores in each category, which is the range, will provide yet another dimension to assist the reader in understanding your results. Another descriptive statistic is the standard deviation, a number that indicates the distance away from the average. Standard deviations are expressed in terms of plus or minus numbers, usually confined to a maximum of plus/minus three. Large deviations such as plus or minus 2 suggest areas for further examination because they show where there is substantial disagreement. Small deviations such as zero or plus or minus 1 tend to suggest a homogenous sample, with the majority of the scores clustering about the average or mean score. This, too, may be worth further examination, since there might be important “outliers” that are not shown. The next logical step is to look at how certain responses relate or correlate to other responses. For example, do gender, age, or job-title differences show up on certain responses? Or do they correlate highly with other responses? This information is important if you are to design an instructional program to meet the needs of people with very different interests, learning styles, or objectives. This step requires you to enter the data obtained into a statistical software package, such as SPSS, and ask your computer to perform one or more of these relatively simple statistical tasks. Once you have performed as many calculations as you feel are necessary, it is time to return to the beginning of your research and answer your original questions. Some researchers suggest using a cut-off point to indicate statistically significant findings; however, in a learning environment, one looks for meaningfulness or importance, rather than relying solely on statistical results. Statistical techniques can be applied using pencil, paper, and hand-held calculators, but a spreadsheet program or a statistical software package supports compiling and analyzing statistics. It is easier than you think! Once you identify the type of statistic you need (such as a t-test, analysis of variance, or correlation), you enter your data or scores from your data-gathering instrument. With a simple mouse-click, the software calculates the statistics. You can save these data on your computer, so you can do multiple statistical applications without re-keying the numbers. Moreover, there are an increasing number of Web sites that offer excellent on-line survey software and development templates to help you prepare, score, and analyze data.

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Testing A test measures what an individual knows about some given content or how well he or she performs a specific task. A test can also measure how well an individual takes tests, too. Instructors use tests for assessment and evaluation; when you use a test, just like other measures, you must be sure that the test is valid and reliable. In other words, does the test measure what you want it to? And is it consistent and fair in doing so? Care must also be taken in preparing the test for use, administering it, and scoring the results. In this section, we will briefly outline written test considerations. Types of Tests There are a wide variety of test types: standardized tests such as the traditional IQ, SAT, GMAT, and GRE tests; achievement tests to measure the accomplishment of a learning objective; and performance tests to assess how well a task has been done. You can also give open-book tests to adults or use self-checking measures of achievement or progress. Tests are used for many purposes. A test can be used to determine the level of knowledge of your target audience (placement) before you instruct or used during the class to evaluate progress (formative) or identify learning problems (diagnostic). A test can also be used at the close of the class or program to determine the total learning that occurred (summative). Once you have made the important decision as to how the test will be used, you can begin to develop the test. Creating and Using Tests There are four basic steps to creating a test. Step 1. Develop and record test items. The test developer begins with the list of objectives, the expected outcomes of a classroom experience, and an outline of course content. The test developer often makes up a table of specifications (a chart that works as a test blueprint) to make sure all the important content details are included. (See Figure 4-5.) Choices are also made at this time as to what types of questions to use: true/false, matching, multiple choice, or essay. The first three are objective-type questions; essay responses are subjective-type questions.

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Collecting and Analyzing Figure 4-5. Sample Table of Specifications

Behavior

Financial Statement Design

Framework for Financial Analysis

Types of Ratios

Totals

1.

Describe the format and contents of basic financial statements

2 items on the test about this

1 item on the test about this

3 items on the test about this

2.

Determine the earning power of a company using established techniques

1 item

3 items

3 items

7 items

20

20

50

(Note: Add additional items.) Total Items

10

Step 2. Review and edit test items. The table of specifications helps ensure that major topical areas are covered, that test items are developed to measure each of the objectives, and that each area is tested for its appropriate weight (value) to learning outcomes. The reviewer of a test makes sure that the test is valid (that is, it measures what it is supposed to measure) and that test questions are clear and unambiguous. Step 3. Arrange the items in the test, and prepare directions for the test. The way you order the items can influence the results of the test. By placing objective, truefalse questions first, followed by multiple-choice questions, the test-taker is moved from simple responses to more complex responses. Moving from easier questions to more difficult questions is also a positive motivation factor. Essay, short-answer questions, and problems should be left to the end on a multiple-section test. However, participants should be directed to keep this in mind when deciding which items to take the most time on. Finally, it is a good idea to weight the test items according to their difficulty and importance. A true-false question, for example, should not receive the same weight as a short-answer essay question or a problem.

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Step 4. Administer and score the test. Test administration should be as carefully done as the development of the test. Make sure that your participants are comfortable and settled in before you distribute the test. Ensure that insofar as possible, pressures as to the outcomes of the test are reduced or removed. Provide all of the necessary materials prior to the distribution of the test so that everyone begins at the same point and with the same resources. Before the test begins, provide directions and answer any questions. Then remain available for questions during the test. The attitude of the test administrator has a great deal to do with the results of the test, and a confident, comfortable, and relaxed environment will provide the most reliable and valid data as a result of the test experience. Figure 3-4 represents a test on banking principles that measures a group’s understanding of concepts. Such a test can be a teaching or reinforcing device and may be used for diagnostic purposes (how well they are doing), rather than for a summative evaluation (how well they have done). When scoring a test, take time to review and record responses to each question. This is referred to as conducting an error analysis. If a substantial number of participants miss the same question, it is likely that the topic was not covered during the discussion or the question was too difficult to answer correctly or was worded poorly. It is also possible that your answer key is inaccurate. In such cases, you may want to discard the question and not count the responses. In any event, use the test results to measure what has been learned or use it as a teaching device for the next session or for the next course. Keep the primary purpose of the test in mind (placement, performance, formative, diagnostic, or summative), as this decision determines what you do with your test results.

Experiments Consider this scenario: Tim Owens and Lori Cortez, instructional designers with XYZ company, are considering two methods of instruction, and want to know which of the two methods will provide better results. Owens has used the direct, instructor-oriented hands-on approach before, and feels intuitively that it is effective. However, Cortez says that she has had good results with self-paced independent study. The problem they face is that while both types of programs have proven effective, not much hard data exist to provide comparisons of the relative effectiveness in their organization. Classroom-based instruction is expensive; however, Owens knows that the personal touch can be very important to achieving desired learning outcomes. Cortez, on the


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other hand, reports that since the learners are already motivated to learn, independent self-paced study is better because they can learn at their workplace, on their own time. Independent, self-paced learning also reduces the expense of traditional classroom instruction. Costs and time allocations are also factors. Materials involved in live instruction are cheaper to develop but more expensive to deliver, relatively easy revise, and inexpensive to change. Self-paced materials, on the other hand, are more expensive to develop, cheaper to deliver, and much harder to maintain and change. It’s all about the learning; however, the more expensive materials might be more effective in the long run. Owens and Cortez are willing to consider that an experiment might be the best way to collect data that would be useful in solving their dilemma. Experimental designs are research experiments that look at outcomes after a specific treatment (in this case, a specific instructional program). An experiment here would compare the learning outcomes of a treatment (the self-paced learning initiative) to the learning outcomes of a control group who learned the traditional way. Since Owens and Cortez want to determine the effect of each of their instructional methods on actual learning, an experiment sounds reasonable. What would be the impact on the learners’ performance? What would be the lasting effect, over and above short-term gains? What differences do variables such as gender, age, experience, job title, and previous learning experiences have on achievement or productivity? Through a carefully designed experiment, they can answer these questions. However, because of the number of variables that must be controlled in any experiment, the learning and performance professional cannot use a pure experimental design to assess differences between treatments in the workplace. It is difficult if not impossible to control every facet or variable between two or more groups involved in an experiment. Location, lighting, interruptions, resources, time, and other conditions won’t always conform to learner differences or preferences, or to the rigid controls necessary for a true experiment to take place. However, this is not to say that one cannot conduct an experiment in the workplace; the contrary is true as long as you take into account how these uncontrolled variables might affect the results.

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Using Experimental Designs This section briefly describes five of the most common experimental designs: a posttest-only design; a pre-test, post-test design; a two-group pre-test, post-test design; four-group designs, and time series. The difference among these designs is the effort involved in controlling for extraneous variables. In other words, the more controlled the experiment is, the more you can say that outcomes were a result of the treatment (in this case, the specific instructional effort). Keep in mind that each of these is considered quasi-experimental, primarily due to the fact that randomization of the groups may not be possible. You will not be able to precisely control such extraneous variables as individual backgrounds and abilities, experience, and prior knowledge that might impact the results. Designs are generally illustrated using the terms observation (O), and treatment (X). Thus an illustration O1 X O2 would mean an initial observation or pre-test (O1), a treatment or intervention (X), and a second or follow-up observation or post-test (O2). Post-test-only design. The most common experimental design is a post-test-only design. It is used whenever a pre-test is not possible or feasible. X O1

An example of a post-test-only design is where participants take a test or complete a reaction sheet at the conclusion of a class or program. The learning or reaction to the instruction can be measured; however, there is no way to determine if this learning resulted from the instruction or from some other interaction. For example, how much did respondents know about the subject prior to instruction? Post-test-only designs cannot provide answers to this question; however, they can suggest relationships, if any. Pre-test, post-test design. The pre-test, post-test design shown below, however, can compensate somewhat for the post-test-only design weakness because it provides for a pre-test observation, such as when you want to measure what was known before instruction took place. O 1 X O2

At the end of instruction, a post-test observation (test) can determine if a change in understanding or perception has occurred and to what degree (either more or less

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favorable), as compared with the earlier test results. Obviously, influences such as time to use the skills on the job or previous learning experiences can influence the results of either of these tests or observations and even cause an incorrect or unsupported interpretation of the results. In experimental research, a general rule is that the more control you have over the variables, the more you can trust your results. The disadvantage of the pre-test, post-test design for only one group is that you cannot tell if the results were due to the intervention or for some other reason, such as maturity (or aging) of the subjects or some other uncontrolled element. One of the more common contaminants is the presence of the pre-test itself, which can sensitize the subjects to the post-test and thus artificially inflate the results. A way to compensate for this is to use the four-group design, which we will discuss on the next page. Two-group pre-test and post-test design. One way to compare two types of interventions is to involve two separate groups, all of whom take a pre-test and a posttest. Using the opening example, only one group would receive the traditional, faceto-face instruction; the second group would receive the self-paced program. This design, of course, demands that both groups must be as comparable as possible in terms of job title, age, prior knowledge, etc. The two group pre-test, post-test design looks like the following: O1 Xa O2 O1 Xb O2

The first group is usually termed the “control” group (Xa). This group is exposed to the traditional program. The second group (Xb) is termed the “experimental” group—in this case, the group exposed to self-paced instruction. Care is taken to ensure that the groups are comparable and all receive the same pre-test and the same post-test. If both groups are comparable to begin with, any differences in outcomes— understanding, attitudes, or whatever—should be due to the learning strategy. Of course, if there is no difference in the results, it means that both programs are equally successful and that either can be used with equal effectiveness. When we look at differences in learning outcomes with this design, we will probably see differences in numeric measures. But are these differences significant? Statistical measures can be used to determine if these outcome differences are either significant or too small and/or due to chance. Keep in mind that what is statistically

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significant is not always meaningful. You might see a statistical significance between test scores of these two groups, but these differences might not be sufficiently meaningful to warrant any substantial conclusions or changes in your operating procedures. If you find a 5% positive difference in attitude about self-paced study but only a 2% positive difference in these same attitudes from the traditional group, is this difference large enough to comfortably decide to continue the traditional classes? Is this difference sufficient to warrant not offering the traditional classes? Probably not. Of course, this is an oversimplified illustration; however, it is important to point out that what is meaningful is not always statistically significant, and what is statistically significant might not be meaningful, given the context of the experiment. Four-group designs. The final formal experiment to be discussed here is the fourgroup design, commonly called the “Solomon Four” design because it uses four separate but comparable groups. It is intended to compensate for most potential contaminants (maturation, pre-test bias, or sensitivity). The Solomon four-group design is shown here: O1 Xa O2 O1 Xb O2 Xa O2 Xb O2

This design has been simplified to show only the experimental program variable (Xa)—the self-paced study. It assumes that the other group (Xb) receives the traditional treatment. As you can see, the effect of this design is to compensate for any pretest bias as well as for the two different interventions. Should scores be higher for the first and third groups, you have added assurance that the self-paced treatment was effective and that the scores were not contaminated by pre-test sensitivity, since group three was not exposed to any pre-test. If the scores for groups two and four are higher, you can feel comfortable that the traditional treatment was more effective and was not impacted by any pre-test bias. The four-group design is much more difficult to use because four separate but comparable groups must be assembled, and all other potential contaminants have to be held constant. In addition, if statistical treatments are to be incorporated, there must be sufficient numbers of individuals within each group, which adds substantially to the

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difficulty of this design. On the other hand, the results from this design are powerful; for this reason, this design should be given serious consideration. The more important the instructional program is to the organization’s goals, the more care should be taken to ensure that it’s the right learning solution. Experimental design results can help in this decision. Time series designs. The time-series design is merely a variation of previouslymentioned experimental designs. All of the foregoing illustrations can incorporate the time-series concept to identify long-range effects. You will probably find that your intervention works or does not work. If it works, you report it, make recommendations concerning it, and then move on to another research activity. Learning needs change rapidly; only rarely can you look at the longrange effects of a program. However, findings can be impacted by the learner who knows that he or she is involved in a research project. The uniqueness of the environment and/or the attention paid to the activity itself may lead an individual to perform in an uncharacteristic way. What, then, is the long-range or long-term effect of your findings? There is a relatively simple way to determine long-term effects, if any, and this is through the use of a time-series design. A single-group pre- and post-test design involving a time series appears as the following: O 1 O 2 O 3 O 4 X O5 O 6 O 7 O 8

As can be seen here, a number of observations (or pre-tests, if you will) are taken prior to the application of the variable (in this case, self-paced study). In the observation immediately following the treatment (O5), you can determine the immediate results of the program. However, unless you make additional observations, it will be impossible to know if the results were, indeed, lasting. Two, four, and six months later, for example, did the participants in this self-paced group remember what they had learned? In addition, by making multiple observations prior to the program, you can determine the benchmark progress of the group. Sometimes increases in scores are due largely to the group’s natural maturation. The negatives with this design include the time needed to make such early and post-intervention observations, and possible contamination of each observation. Most researchers tend to agree, however, that on balance, the potential gains of time-series design offset any negative factors.

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This design can be used with any of the foregoing illustrations if time and resources allow. It is also important to keep in mind that increasing numbers of learning and performance departments use experimental designs to make sure they are doing things “right” before rolling out high visibility/large scope programs. Using Statistical Measures A wide variety of statistical measures can be used to treat data acquired through the use of any of these research designs. This text will not address the statistics issue, leaving an extended discussion of this to the many excellent statistics books and software packages available. It is important, however, to refer again to the difference between statistical significance and meaningfulness. In the first case, differences occurring in group A versus treatment group B might be statistically significant due to the specific intervention, rather than to just mere chance. While the results of this statistical significance might suggest a difference between groups, the difference may not be sufficiently meaningful to justify the time or investment of other resources to achieve the same results. For example, if you are measuring the acquisition of spreadsheet knowledge between one group of learners using mediated self-paced methods and another group using a more sophisticated (but more expensive) self-paced computer-aided method and you find that there is a small but statistically significant difference, would it be worth the cost of adding the new technology needed to achieve these results in the future? You must consider significance vs. meaningfulness when making recommendations concerning the results of a planned learning intervention.

Summary In this chapter, we have presented in just a few pages a snapshot of what research texts and courses cover over entire semesters or more. Research is a complex, yet essential element in instructional development because it provides answers to questions upon which critical business decisions are made. Individual and the resultant organizational learning is a key element in business success; however, because all resources are limited, research provides a road map as to where learning resources should be directed in order to obtain the biggest bang for the buck—the greatest return


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on investment. Therefore, research efforts—observations, interviews, surveys, tests, and experiments—are all used to help answer these essential questions. Observational variables were described as descriptive, inferential, or evaluative. Descriptive data provide relatively straightforward pictures of events, whereas inferential data require that the observer interpret results or behavior. Evaluative data require that the observer assess or judge the behavior. Developing a useful observational guide is all about creating a form that will help the observer record data in a useful format. We reviewed four different types of recording observational data: elapsed time recording (timing behavior); frequency recording (determining how many times an event takes place in a given time frame); interval recording (recording behavior for short periods and at numerous instances); and continuous recording (noting all the behaviors throughout a specified observation period). Once the type of data needed is determined and the target audience is selected, you determine what behavior is to be examined and how many observations of what type and duration will be needed. The resultant form should be examined by a panel of experts, field-tested, and revised if necessary. Interviews are conversations between an information gatherer and an information giver. Knowing what kind of information is needed and who has it is the first step. Develop an open-ended or structured interview guide that will ensure that valid, reliable data are gathered. Open-ended interviews are used when a small number of people are needed to explain processes, offer opinions, or forecast needs. Results are largely qualitative. Structured interview guides, while gathering qualitative data, usually result to some degree in gathering quantitative data. Word and sequence the questions in such a way in order that you get useful data. Conducting interviews requires interpersonal skills and a good understanding of the problem at hand. You might have to transcribe the interview from audio/video tapes or disks and/or code notes using some type of an interpretation matrix in order to make sense of the results. Many software packages are available to help you analyze these complex data, and many of these are free or inexpensive and easy to use. Surveys are large-scale data collection efforts. Select individuals as a sample for the project who are representative of the larger population. Follow the tips for developing effective observation and interview guides to develop a questionnaire, and involve others, especially experts who can critique a draft questionnaire. Have a small representative sample actually complete the instrument before you use it for a larger

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group. These actions help ensure that you develop valid questions that will produce usable data. Again, as with using qualitative data, see if you can find free or inexpensive software packages to assist in the process of survey development, distribution, and analysis. Tests are used to collect data concerning the effectiveness of participant learning. They are most effective when they are developed in conjunction with your course objectives, because all important facets should be included in the test in the right sequence and with the appropriate weights and emphasis. Tests are not only useful to measure learning outcomes; they should also be used as instructional tools to modify content for future courses. Experimental designs are used when you want to know how effective a given treatment (learning intervention) is. Experimental designs discussed in this chapter include the very common post-test-only design, single or multiple group pre- and post-test designs, and the time series design (which measures outcomes at various points in time). The main difference among these designs is the degree of control within each design that helps you determine if outcomes are the result of learning rather than the result of something else. Finally, keep in mind the differences between significance and meaningfulness when using statistical assessment tools. While it is important to report significant findings, it is even more important to ensure that these findings represent results that are meaningful to the organization and useful in (re)designing instructional programs.

Think It Through 1. Describe the differences between the terms reliability and validity. What impact do they have on data-gathering activities such as observations, interviews, questionnaires, and tests? 2. List a variety of instances where using each of the following research methods would be appropriate: a. b. c. d. e.

Observation Interview Survey Test Experiment


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3. For the same group of tools listed above, provide at least three strengths and three weaknesses for each research technique. 4. Evaluate which of the four tools you would consider using in any given instance. 5. What advantages are there in testing/evaluating a research tool or instrument? 6. Compare the advantages and disadvantages of each of the five experimental designs presented in this chapter.

Ideas in Action 1. In groups of two, draft a one-page questionnaire that might be used to describe your instructor’s teaching style. When complete, act as a “jury” to evaluate other groups’ questionnaires. Make specific recommendations to enhance both the validity and reliability of this instrument. 2. Design a simple experiment that would compare the achievement of your class with the achievement of another similar class. Consider at least three important variables.

Additional Resources Babbie, E. 1990. Survey Research Methods. 2nd edition. Belmont, California: Wadsworth. A thorough and easy-to-read text about survey research methods and tools. Contains examples and specific recommendations for sampling and follow-up activities in survey research. Creswell, J. W. 2005. Educational Research. 2nd edition. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Pearson. This text covers the planning, conduct, and evaluation of quantitative and qualitative research in a lucid, comprehensive, and thorough manner. A strong basic text.

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Czaja, R. and J. Blair. 2003. Designing Surveys: A Guide to Decisions and Procedures. 2nd edition. Thousand Oaks, California: Sage. An excellent little paperback text written by a sociologist and director of a surveyresearch center that covers the basics of this type of research. Dillman, D. 2007. Mail and Internet Surveys: The Tailored Design Method: Update with New Internet, Visual, and Mixed Mode Design. New York: John Wiley and Sons. An update of one of the most widely read and recommended texts in the field of survey research. If you follow Dillman’s recommendations, your survey responses will be more complete. Leedy, P. D. and J. E. Ormrod. 2004. Practical Research: Planning and Design. 8th edition. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall. An easy-to-use, full-of-examples, paper-bound 8 1/2 x 11-inch users guide for novice researchers. If you’re just starting out in research, this text is for you. Murphy, L. L., J. C. Impara, and B. S. Plake (eds.). 1999. Tests in Print V, Volumes I and II. Lincoln, Nebraska: The Buros Institute of Mental Measurements. Another excellent reference in the Buros series that describes a wide variety of test instruments (along with their reliability) and validity assessments. Spies, R. A. and B. S. Plake (eds.). 2005. The Sixteenth Mental Measurements Yearbook. Lincoln, Nebraska: The Buros Institute of Mental Measurements. These yearbooks constitute the primary reference and resource for tests and test information in the U.S. One of the 36 publications in the yearbook and test reference series.


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Web sites The American Educational Research Association’s Special Interest Group (SIG) on Survey Research has an excellent survey research site located at: www.as.ysu.edu/ ~gunapala/surveys/index.htm The American Statistical Association’s Survey Research Section has a listserv that is very informative. The address for this listserv is: www.srmsnet@ umdd.umd.edu The Survey System is an excellent source for questionnaire development and information on interviews, questionnaires, data entry, sample size calculators, analysis, and Web surveys. It can be found at: www.surveysystem.com Survey Monkey is an easy-to-use program that allows just about anyone to create a survey instrument, collect responses, and analyze results. It is a very worthwhile addition to your library, and can be found at: www. surveymonkey.com The American Anthropological Association’s “Resources on the Internet Web Page” contains a very comprehensive list of qualitative research program sites: www.archeodroit.net/anthro/index.html

VOICES FROM THE FIELD Mary Paul on Needs Assessment and Evaluation

Mary Paul is the manager of Organization Development and Training for Powertrain Operations at Harley-Davidson. She is in charge of technical training, soft-skills training, computer training, and OD functions such as change management, individual and team effectiveness, labor-management partnering, and coaching. This is a huge undertaking, as there are roughly 2,000 employees in H-D’s Powertrain Operations— about 300 salaried and 1,700 union employees. Harley-Davidson is well-known for its innovative learning and development strategies, and Ms. Paul is on the cutting edge. Learning Mary, I always knew my old University of Evansville roommate would go at Work places. But on a Harley? Wonderful. Thanks for agreeing to this interview. (LAW): Mary Paul (MP):

Well, it’s always good to hear from you, Bridget. And it’s fun to reflect on what’s happened since the last edition of the book. Five years ago, I was director of rider training. I was responsible for development and implementation of programs for customers and for instructors of our “Rider’s Edge” programs. Today, I’m a real factory girl!

LAW:

Our readers, Mary, are very interested in what is happening at HarleyDavidson. And we’d like you to focus on assessment and evaluation trends. What sort of business benefits have you seen derived from your assessment and evaluation efforts?

MP:

2006 has brought a real focus to technical training. A highly skilled workforce is our competitive asset, and it will bring sustainability to the future business of Harley-Davidson. We have been building our technical-training laboratories to create that highly skilled workforce in the areas of high-tech manufacturing equipment. 127

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LAW:

What sorts of trouble have you seen people get themselves into in trying to do needs assessments and program evaluations?

MP:

Our problem is usually associated with time—by the time we do a traditional needs assessment, we feel like the data are outdated. We are experimenting with technology that would allow us to do data collection on needs assessments via remote electronic devices. The remote devices would allow us to forego paper assessments that are completed by our production employees. Employees would be able to submit their responses via remote control devices and we could calculate immediately upon input. We hope to have this technology up by late fall of this year.

LAW:

Are there other trends related to conducting needs assessments and evaluations?

MP:

We depend on several different methods. We do a formal needs assessment survey every two years to identify what learning is needed based on employee feedback. In addition, we meet with engineering and technical managers to identify what new types of equipment and machinery will be purchased in a one-to-three year time frame so we can plan our training budgets and courses to align with technology. Evaluation is focusing more and more on training effectiveness on the job, rather than on the quality of the training event. While the training event still has to be top quality, the transfer of knowledge and relevance of the program to the learner is the most important. Otherwise, you have wasted your time and money.

LAW:

Can you tell us about a time when training efforts didn’t go as planned?

MP:

Oh, I’ve had lots of these experiences, and of course they are the greatest learning lessons one can have! The majority of unproductive training efforts I’ve experienced have to do with large corporate rollouts, where results were expected almost immediately after training. This “giant aspirin” approach really frustrates all parties in the end—the management, the participants, and the training department. I’ve had this happen in two organizations with regard to team-based training. The training and organizational

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development departments wanted a pilot group to first experience the program, get feedback, fine-tune the program, and test the initial results. Leadership wanted the program to be given to all parties at once, sort of the “shotgun” approach, to get a quick fix. Unfortunately, launching a program to 50-some teams at once was overwhelming for not only the teams and the training department, but also the leadership. Such important factors as job relevance, expected outcomes, adequate resources, and just time to incorporate the new skills were not properly anticipated. What happened? After about a year of foundering, we were asked by leadership to do an assessment and start over small, with a pilot group. Go figure. LAW:

What’s next for training at H-D?

MP:

Harley-Davidson has begun to take a “blended” instructional approach. We blend curriculums with both e-learning and classroom learning. Often, we will use e-learning as a pre-cursor to a classroom event that usually includes hands-on activities.

LAW:

How do you know when you have been successful?

MP:

Our department depends upon customer feedback to know whether or not we have been successful. We use evaluation forms at the time of training, but the real essence is in the effectiveness of the training once the program is complete. We depend on feedback from employees, managers, and union leaders.

LAW:

Anything else?

MP:

Patience is truly a virtue when it comes to providing workplace learning programs! Even though you may be right and have the solution to a particular issue, that’s no guarantee that the powers that be will see it. Many times over the years, I have come to the leadership table with the answer, only to be told no. However, in time, divine order prevails and the learning solution is implemented at a later time. Sometimes you just have to wait for the organization to catch up with you.

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LAW:

Mary, thanks for sharing your experiences and expertise with us.

MP:

And thank you—I really enjoyed the interview.

PART 3

INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN AND DELIVERY Prologue to Part 3 Theory and practice are often seen as antagonistic to one another. The practitioner is portrayed as impatient with theory and focused solely on bottom-line results, irrespective of theory and its demands. Theory and theoreticians, on the other hand, are painted as impractical, dreamy, and not connected to the real world and its demands. This picture is not grounded in hard reality. Theory and practice are indeed different things, but they are not at all separate and distinct, much less hostile or opposed to each other. Theory, real theory, is in fact the basis for action. Theories explain observable data. They explain why things happen the way they do and predict what will happen in defined circumstances. They are testable, and what is tested is always and precisely the theory’s power to predict and explain action accurately. It is because of this very real and positive connection that the workplace learning professional needs a good understanding of learning theory. Why do people learn? What differences are there in the way they learn? How do they learn? How precisely does it happen? Do some forms of instruction help people learn better and faster and easier than others? Are some kinds of materials better than others? If types of instruction or materials differ in their effectiveness, why? And how can the design of learning programs take advantage of these differences? These are some of the questions that learning theory helps answer. And the answers are nothing if not practical. The answers—and the theories—are also complicated because they deal with human beings and the virtually infinite array of human preferences and styles and psyches and intellects. Thus, the question for the workplace learning professional is not, “What is learning theory?” The questions are “What are the various learning theories, and how can I use them to help people learn effectively?” Chapter 5 of this section, “Appreciating Theoretical Perspectives on Learning,” deals with these important issues. In this chapter, we provide a theoretical rationale for instructional design as well as delivery, and focus on understanding learning 131

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and adult learners. The chapter is concerned with what we know about teaching and learning and what motivates people to want to learn. Keeping in mind that no “one best way” exists, Chapter 5 helps us understand that we have choices to make when designing and delivering effective instruction, and that these choices matter. Chapter 6, “Planning for Instruction,” goes on to treat the topic of designing instruction based upon what we know about how adults learn. In addition to the insights of learning theory, many factors affect the process of design. These factors include the content to be delivered, the organizational climate, the background and personality of the workplace learning professional and the targeted learners, and the urgency or perceived strategic value of the instruction. These and other variables interact, making the design activity a learning process in itself, with the result that the instructional designer often discovers what works best through trial and error. Design represents the second stage of the Instructional Development Cycle, the stage where solutions are developed to help people learn what they need to learn. Design begins with the outcomes of the assessment stage. And just as the workplace learning professional was a team member in needs assessment, that same team-focus often continues in the design stage. Design requires input, feedback, and ideas from a wide range of stakeholders. Thus, design is based on multiple perspectives and is an iterative process. Instructional design is not usually a one-person, one-shot response to problems, although sometimes circumstances dictate exactly that. Instructional design is essentially all about shared learning and experimentation. The challenge for design is how to convert identified learning needs into a solution that works for a given organization. Chapter 6, “Planning for Instruction,” takes a very pragmatic, how-to approach. The Instructional Design Funnel is an approach to translating identified knowledge and skill needs into deliverable instructional solutions. Chapter 6 describes the design process itself, and the Funnel is a step-by-step guide for managing the process. Illustrations and charts are included to help the designer (more often a design team) translate identified needs into goals and break goals down into detailed training objectives. A sample worksheet to support this process is offered. Because not all solutions have to begin from ground zero, and because there are a number of external vendors who can provide design services, the chapter concludes with an overview of how to evaluate off-the-shelf learning solutions and materials, as well as how to work with external training vendors.

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The Delivery of Instruction There are two fundamental approaches to the delivery of content to be learned: (1) live instruction, which means that the instruction is delivered by an instructor, face-toface, to one or more students; and (2) mediated instruction, which means that the instruction is delivered through some medium, other than a live instructor. We are all familiar with live instruction from our own experiences in school: years of having teachers stand in front of the classrooms in which we sat, providing instruction in the material we were to learn. Live instruction is an ancient tradition. Aristotle employed it as he strolled with his students around the stoa during the Golden Age of Greece. Indeed, it was the method used by the first person in human history who realized that he or she knew something another needed to learn. Mediated or self-paced instruction is also very old. The live instructor is not present, but has left something behind from which the student can learn. The oldest form of this “something left behind” was perhaps a clay tablet with cuneiform script, or maybe a carved tree. It may have been a cave wall with a drawing, or stones with petroglyphs. It could have been as simple as a piece of bark or leather with pictures. Mediated instruction means that there is some medium for carrying and delivering instruction from a teacher who is not present. The number and types of media have expanded dramatically over the centuries. Today, the absent teacher’s instruction can be presented to the student(s) by means of video, through computer software, via the Internet, by a simple information manual, or through an iPod’s ear buds or a cell phone’s tiny screen. The varieties and possibilities are many and constantly shifting, limited only by the creativity and resources of instructional designers and ever evolving technologies. The use of media in instruction is sometimes referred to as self-study or self-paced instruction. It will be discussed in Chapter 8. Live instruction will be discussed in Chapter 7. Each of the two fundamental approaches to instruction has its advantages and disadvantages. The live instructor can adjust material and method “on the fly” in real time, adapting in ways that no preprogrammed medium can possibly do. A live instructor can also be prepared to deliver instruction far more swiftly and less expensively than the time and costs associated with developing stand-alone instructional media. Mediated or self-paced instruction, on the other hand, offers an absolute consistency of content that live teachers cannot equal, no matter how thoroughly they are prepared. Moreover, media can be shipped around the world much more easily and

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cheaply than human teachers can travel. Given the power of the Internet, instruction is but a few clicks away. Neither of the fundamental approaches to instruction can be said to be better than the other in any absolute sense. There are, however, circumstances and requirements that seem to call for one or the other approach, as the examples in Figure P3-1 show. (These examples simulate actual situations.) Figure P3-1. A Sample of Situations and Appropriate Approaches to Delivering Instruction Situation/Requirement

Approach

Need to equip sales personnel with necessary product knowledge for the release of a major new product “family” two months from now. These sales reps work in six different locations and in overlapping time zones.

Live instruction would appear to be the best choice. Experienced designers/instructors assigned full time can deliver the new program(s) in time. It is not possible to do justice to the information needed via a self-paced approach in the time frame available. The geographic spread can be dealt with by video conferencing. (The really important question here is this: Why was the training need left until the last minute in the product development life cycle?)

FASB1098/99—New accounting regulations will require the controllers in each department of the organization to handle asset calculation and tracking in an involved new way. The new regulations go into effect in 11 months.

Complexity of topic prevents handling by means of a simple informational desk drop (as was done in support of the installation of new phone equipment last year). The controllers have reliable connection to the corporate Intranet; the requirement has almost a year of lead time; and this population has a track record of successful use of self-study approaches. The discipline is there. CAI software distributed through the Net will furnish satisfactory instruction in this case.

A continuing need to orient new hires to the culture of the organization, its vision of the future, its strategies, and its values, all with allowance for appropriate tailoring for businesses and geographic circumstance. Hire rate: 130 people per month, in seven different HR centers around the world.

The job here is to design something that can be handed off for use in the seven HR centers as part of their new-hire intake process. The material will include a video of the CEO talking about the organization’s culture and values. An advantage of this is that the recording can be translated in all the needed languages and dubbed in. The acculturation demands, however, preclude solely video. Live instruction will be also necessary, as will the involvement of local senior management (as guests). Materials will have to include a full scale Leader’s Guide for the host facilitator, written to the lowest level of detail, in all the right languages, and thoroughly tested before release. This is an enormous job!


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Figure P3-1. A Sample of Situations and Appropriate Approaches to Delivering Instruction (continued) Incoming clerical staff in the Indianapolis Operations Center consistently need work on basic skills: math, writing, reading, keyboarding, word processing, analytics.

Needed programs can be bought off the shelf (self-study materials and live instruction). No need to reinvent these wheels. A mix of programs will allow the Indianapolis Center to provide employees with the approach that best suits their learning styles and preferences. Self-study modules may also serve as pre-work or reinforcement for live programs where this makes sense.

New middle managers need to learn the core job requirements for the role of manager of managers, particularly with regard to (a) policy demands concerning performance management, and (b) the value and use of employee attitude surveys.

Some of the need here might simply be informational, which can be met by simple lecture, live or mediated. Learning about performance coaching and appraisal, however, requires hands-on skill practice. Major portions of this learning requirement can be met only by live, interactive instruction, with people working in classroom groups where role playing and peer/instructor feedback are possible.

Figure P3-1 shows that decisions concerning methods of instructional delivery are highly situational. The workplace learning professional must be aware of his or her personal preferences and beliefs and be appropriately wary of them. One instructional designer might favor live instruction, while another might be biased toward multimedia computer-assisted instruction. These personal preferences, however, cannot be allowed to become guiding principles. The overriding decision criterion for choosing the best delivery method is participant learning. Instruction, live or mediated, is all about learning. If participant learning does not take place, the most elegantly designed, most sophisticated instruction in the world is simply useless. This learnerfocused thinking must go into the design stages of learning interventions, as well as into its implementation. Design decisions about delivery options must be governed to the fullest extent possible by the target audience—their learning styles, their needs, and their preferences. Cost, geographic spread, type of content, urgency of need, audience level, and other factors are all additional and legitimate parts of decisions regarding the instructional approach. The ultimate determinant is the answer to this question: What will help this target population, in this set of circumstances, learn the most, learn the best, and learn the easiest?

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Care must be exercised not to make delivery methods into screening devices. If an organization insists that all its training is to be done by method X, then only those who do well with that method will be successful learners. The organization will thus be screening out all others, without even having made a conscious decision to do so. This is a classic case of unexamined assumptions driving outcomes—the instructional tail wagging the training dog. This reversal of priorities is often what takes place when design and delivery decisions are left solely to factors such as cost, at the expense of learner need and preference. While no absolutes exist here, the voice of experience tells us that most people prefer the traditional classroom as a training vehicle because it is the approach with which we are all the most familiar. Most of us seem to respond better to the motivation, discipline, and lock-step, inertial momentum of a classroom full of peers with a live teacher and a clear agenda driven by that teacher. Most of us do not seem to learn as well if we are left completely to our own devices in a self-study situation. The point is that if learning is the goal (as it is), then decisions about how to provide instruction are decisions about how to help real people learn what they need to know. Instructional decisions cannot be left totally to designer or instructor bias, nor to the cost of different types of instructional delivery. Instruction is not a goal but a means, totally in the service of something else— namely, participant learning.

A Genuinely New Form of Instructional Delivery? As new types of self-instructional media have been introduced in the modern business world, they invariably have been surrounded by a repeated cluster of vendor promises. One ad promises that this new medium will provide consistency of content delivery, enable learners to move at their own pace, obviate the need for live instructors, and above all lower costs. This new medium, the ads trumpet, will finally break the ancient mold of training (meaning live teacher + student) and finally move things into the 21st century. These same sorts of claims were made for, in order of appearance, training that was broadcast by radio, programmed instruction, televised teaching, videotapes, CBT, interactive video, Web-based training, and so on and so forth. Indeed, the original laptops were, of all things, slate. It was a powerful educational innovation when teachers gave class participants their own small, personal-sized slates so they could write, calculate, and draw right at their seats, with the teacher at


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the classroom’s large slate blackboard. And some of the same things that are said now about the educational possibilities of portable laptop computers were surely said then about those individual “laptop” slates! In Chapter 8, we explore a wide range of mediated or self-paced instruction and investigate the possibility that today’s Net-enhanced e-learning offers potential beyond earlier forms of self-instruction.

The Irreducible Challenge of Instruction Teaching others, whether done live or with a self-paced component, has a certain inherent challenge that cannot be removed by any instructional stratagem, no matter how clever or leading-edge. The essential task is to get information or skill from the head of someone who knows into the head of someone who needs to know. This process of information transfer must work its way through the filters on both sides of the person-to-person communication gap, and then must work back through those same filters to ensure that the message was received, and received as intended. This alone makes teaching a daunting task. In addition, the outcome of instruction—learning— means change in the learner, and change is never easy. Resistance to change can be lessened by good instructional design, by strong motivational techniques, and by the clever use of technology. Resistance, however, always exists around new ideas and innovations. Most important, if instruction is to be successful, the learning mind must choose to take in and absorb what the instructing mind has presented. This interaction, which defines instructional success, cannot be forced or made to happen, let alone made automatic or effortless or self-sustaining. Grounding design and delivery in solid learning theory and choosing appropriate instructional approaches are critically important responsibilities for workplace learning professionals. But there should be no expectation that a theory or a method can eliminate instruction’s dependence on the individual learner’s preference, choice, motivation, and capability.

CHAPTER 5

Appreciating Theoretical Perspectives on Workplace Learning In this chapter, we will do the following: •

Discuss the role of experience in adult learning.

•

Compare and contrast instructor-centered (pedagogy) and learnercentered (andragogy) approaches to instructional design.

•

Discuss the importance of understanding your own and others’ learning style.

•

Explain how behavioral and cognitive science learning orientations impact instructional design.

•

Summarize the assumptions of constructivism and social learning in understanding how individuals learn in the workplace.

•

Identify the role motivation plays in adult and workplace learning.

•

Reflect on the concept of transformational learning and its implications for individuals in today’s workplace.

Theoretical Foundations Nothing is so practical as a good theory. – Kurt Lewin, 1944

Theories help us understand why something happened or help us predict what will occur under given circumstances. An educator needs to understand learning theory as a guide for the design and implementation of effective instructional programs. Learning theory explains and predicts how individuals learn. It provides the framework for answering the question of how to structure content so that the learner can grasp the concepts and/or skills being presented. However, there is no single theory that explains how or why two or more individuals learn the same material in different ways. As an adult, you learn in a way that is shaped by your experiences, aptitude, and motivation. Whether you learn best in a traditional classroom 139

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environment or by reading a book or through e-learning will depend on a number of elements, such as your individual characteristics, the perceived value of the learning task, and how much experience (and perhaps success) you have had with the topic and the learning media in the past. Thus, no single theory explains how or why learners acquire the same material using different learning approaches. One reason why learning theory is so incomplete and imprecise is that theorists find it difficult to agree on a definition of learning. In the first half of the 20th century, learning was defined primarily as some type of behavior change, influenced largely by the environment. Differences of opinion, however, generated questions like these: If no change can be observed, has learning actually occurred? How do individuals use their experiences to make changes in their behavior? And if a change in behavior is observed, did this change result from a planned instructional initiative? Does maturation or growing older alone result in learning? One useful definition was put forth by Maples and Webster: “Learning can be thought of as a process by which behavior changes as a result of experiences.”1 In other words, learning is a process, not an output—a journey, not a destination. Our purpose in this chapter is to provide an overview of historical and current thinking about how adult learning occurs in the classroom and in the workplace. The chapter begins with an overview of the role of experience in learning—current thinking about the concept of andragogy that leads to a discussion of learning as problem solving. The primary learning orientations used in instructional design, behaviorism and cognitive science, are discussed, followed by constructivism and social learning. No learning initiative will work unless the learner does, so we will review some wellknown motivation theories from a humanist orientation. We conclude the chapter with a brief overview of transformational learning, a theory that is increasingly of interest to adult educators.

Appreciating Theoretical Perspectives

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The Role of Experience in Adult Learning Experience is not what happens to you. It is what you do with what happens to you. – Aldous Huxley, 2005 (www.earlytorise.com) January 28, 2005

When examining the résumé of a job applicant with 15 years of experience, consider that the applicant may have had either 15 years of personal growth, whereby he or she continually learned, took on new tasks, and grew within the job, or 15 years of the same set of experiences that did not lead to growth. Why do some people continually learn, yet others do not? How can we best use learners’ experiences in developing relevant curricula to help them grow in their jobs? In an attempt to depict how adults use their experiences to learn, let’s first examine a set of assumptions about adult learners and look at the Kolb Learning Cycle, which depicts the roles of reflection and experimentation in learning. Here, too, we explore the notion of learning as problem solving. Problem solving includes how we think about our thinking (metacognition), critical thinking, and creative thinking. Andragogy and Pedagogy Andragogy and pedagogy refer to the study of teaching. “Andra” comes from the Greek word aner, which means “man, adult.” “Peda” comes from the Greek word pais, which means “child.” Both terms use the Greek word “ago,” which means “leading.” Those labels, however, tend to be somewhat misleading, as the terms more appropriately refer to teaching strategies than to the chronological age of the learner. Pedagogy originated with early monks who recorded common characteristics among children who were learning basic skills. Much study has been done in child development, learning, and teaching. However, it was not until the middle of the 20th century when instructors realized that their assumptions about how children learn did not fit the adults they were teaching. Andragogy, a term first used in 1833 by a teacher in Germany, was reintroduced by a Yugoslavian social scientist in the 1920s, and was next adapted by adult educators in Europe in 1957. The term became known in the United States in the 1960s through the work of Malcolm S. Knowles.2 Andragogy’s basis focuses on learner-directed instructional approaches, while pedagogy is based on teacher-directed learning experiences. Knowles emphasized that these two approaches

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coexist. The task to be learned and the individual’s learning style in combination dictate whether a pedagogical approach, an andragogical approach, or a combination of both should be considered in the design and delivery of an instructional program. For example, how would you prefer to learn in each of these situations? • • • • •

To be oriented to a new job To understand union politics To improve your writing skills To understand the technical aspects of the Internet To use a new spreadsheet program

You probably found yourself preferring an andragogical approach for some of the above and a pedagogical approach for others, depending on your experiences or background. A young MBA might learn best about union politics through the lecture method (using elements of pedagogy), but someone with more experience or a greater need to know might be encouraged to assist in a membership campaign or actually run for union office to acquire the perspective that is desired. Likewise, to improve your writing, you might need a refresher course in grammar or even an intensive, hands-on practical workshop, or you might just need to review Strunk and White’s Elements of Style. To learn to use the Internet, you might want to discover its usefulness on your own, or you might need classroom lectures or coaching from an expert. To develop skills using a new spreadsheet program, you might be able to learn through a handson directed workshop or through self-directed study of a software manual. Some of these learning strategies are pedagogical (teacher-led) and some are andragogical (learner-led). Andragogy and pedagogy are approaches that guide learning, no matter what the age of the learner is. The assumptions and process elements used by Malcolm Knowles to contrast these two orientations about teaching and learning are illustrated in Figure 5-1.

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Appreciating Theoretical Perspectives Figure 5-1. Pedagogy/Andragogy Assumptions Assumptions About

Pedagogical

Andragogical

Concept of the learner

Dependent personality

Increasingly self-directed

Role of learner’s experience

To be built on, rather than used as a resource

A rich resource for learning by self and others

Readiness to learn

Uniform by age-level and curriculum taught

Develops from life tasks and problems

Orientation to learning

Subject-centered

Task- or problem-centered

Motivation

By external rewards and punishments

By internal incentives

Climate

Tense, low trust Formal, cold, aloof Authority-oriented Competitive, judgmental

Relaxed, trusting Mutually respectful Informal, warm Collaborative, supportive

Planning

Primarily by teacher

By learners and facilitator mutually

Diagnosis of needs


By mutual assessment

Setting of objectives


By mutual negotiation

Designing learning plans

Teacher’s content plans Course syllabus Logical sequence

Learning contracts Learning projects Sequenced by readiness

Learning activities

Evaluation

Inquiry projects Independent study Experiential techniques By teacher Norm-referenced (on a curve) With grades

By learner-collected evidence validated by peers, facilitators, experts Criterion-references

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Figure 5-1 shows that learning concepts and the assumptions generated by pedagogical and andragogical points of view differ substantially. And the conditions that are manipulated—the process elements—likewise differ as to who controls them. Learning initiatives, therefore, will differ significantly, depending upon the approach taken by the instructional designer and the instructor or facilitator. How might we apply these learner characteristics in developing learning initiatives? Here are few ideas to consider: Learning is not always its own reward. Adults are not motivated by gold stars or good report cards; they want a learning outcome that they can put to use in concrete, practical, and self-benefiting terms. Therefore, instructional designers should remember that adult students prefer practical, hands-on learning sessions over general, theory-oriented classes. An appropriate way to motivate individuals to learn to use a spreadsheet software package, for example, is to show them how they can apply it in their own environment for a task such as data analysis or budgeting. This is referred to as “what’s in it for me?” or “WIIFM” (pronounced “whiff-em”). Adult learning is integrative. Adults learn best when they are able to integrate new ideas with what they already know. If the information conflicts with what the learner knows or values, learning is more difficult. The conflict must be dealt with, or it will generate resistance to learning. Adults want control. Whenever possible, instructional designers should collaborate with their target audience about the content and pace of the learning program. Such an approach gives learners opportunities to contribute to help identify what needs to be learned. They can thus suggest instructional methods that fit their preferred learning styles. In some instances, content can be structured to support self-paced learning back at the work site or at home. Practice must be meaningful. Repetition for repetition’s sake does not produce a substantial learning effect for adults. This principle is borrowed from the work of E. L. Thorndike, an early leader in learning theory, who was opposed to meaningless drill. Adults tend to be slow in some physical, psychomotor tasks, and adults generally do not like to make mistakes, so they compensate for this by being more exact. Thus, they make fewer trial-and-


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error ventures (and consequently, fewer errors). Rather than have adult learners work on textbook drills, the instructor can have them practice on actual work-related tasks in the training environment. The transfer of learning best takes place when an adult can immediately apply what has been learned in the classroom back on the job. In the language of learning theory, this is reinforcement for an instructional session just completed or pre-work for the next instructional session. How Adults Learn One of the earliest thinkers on learning as problem solving was the noted sociologist Kurt Lewin. His action learning or action research model, which serves as the basis of our Instructional Development Cycle, is the theoretical construct we have used to frame the activities that go into the instructional development process (Chapter 1). Lewin depicted the four-stage process of assessment, design, implementation, and evaluation as inclusive, cyclical, and integrative. When we use action learning as a framework, we are continually evaluating our actions and are continually learning from what we did right as well as from what we did wrong. This continuous experimentation is an effective way of depicting learning. The Role of Reflection. Other researchers, such as David Kolb, have built on Lewin’s work in an attempt to further explain the role of experience by emphasizing the role of reflection in the learning process. When we reflect on our experiences, we attempt to make meaning of them. Experiences by themselves are not learning opportunities, unless we think about them and evaluate them. Kolb described experiential learning as a cyclical process that includes reflection as one of four states (see Figure 5-2): 1. The learner has a concrete experience. 2. This experience is observed and reflected upon (reflective observation). 3. The experience is abstracted, conceptualized, and generalized (abstract conceptualization). 4. The generalization is tested in new situations (active experimentation) that lead to a new concrete experience.

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Figure 5-2. The Kolb Experiential Learning Model Concrete Experience (CE) Experiencing

ACCOMMODATORS

Active Experimentation (AE) Doing CONVERGERS

DIVERGERS

Reflective Observation (RO) Reflecting ASSIMILATORS

Abstract Conceptualization (AC) Thinking

For example, let’s say Niels, a camera salesperson, is in a class where he sees an instructor demonstrate the new swiveling-screen feature on the company’s latest digital camera (concrete experience). This is such a novel approach to using the camera (reflective observation). It seems to Niels that by using this feature, a photographer would be able to catch different perspectives and lighting effects by simply moving the camera—without having to get up on a ladder or down on the ground (abstract conceptualization). So, the next time Niels prepares a sales presentation, he includes the demonstration of this feature to see if it is, as he believes, a strong selling point (active experimentation). He does this, and notes that his audience finds what he is saying interesting but suggests that the same feature could be used like a regular camera to make the picture-taking process easier and quicker (concrete experience). In preparing a subsequent presentation, he considers this suggestion (reflective observation) and decides that he could easily incorporate those ideas into his presentation (abstract conceptualization) the next time he presents both sets of functions (active experimentation). And so it goes—learning that continues and continues and continues, based on his experiences and what he does with them.


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Learning Styles. In developing an instrument to measure how individuals prefer to learn, Kolb began with the understanding that the elements of this learning process model are polar opposites: concrete experience is the polar opposite of abstract conceptualization, and active experimentation is the opposite of reflective observation (see Figure 5-2). While we learn from all four elements, scores on the Kolb’s Learning Style Inventory (LSI) measure our preference toward each state, and results in a description that shows how much we favor one of them. Each style falls between these polar opposites: converging, diverging, assimilating, and accommodating.3 As described in Figure 5-2, each learning style is a combination of two of these four learning modes. The convergent learning style combines the abstract conceptualization and active experimentation modes. Convergers are interested in the practical application of ideas, and tend to be unemotional and task oriented. Convergers want to know how to apply what they have learned. The divergent learning style combines concrete experience and reflective observation; divergers are imaginative and peopleoriented. Divergers like time to think about what they are learning, and like to use logs and journals. The assimilative learning style combines the learning steps of abstract conceptualization and reflective observation modes. Assimilators are interested in abstract ideas more than people. Assimilators like lectures and papers and prefer to work alone. The accommodative style combines active experimentation and concrete experience; accommodators learn best through hands-on experiences and interactions with people, and they are perceived to be risk takers. Accommodators like case studies and simulations. For example: Learning to play golf: Converger:

Receiving practical tips and techniques from a golfing expert

Diverger:

Thinking about hitting the ball and watching Tiger Woods play

Assimilator:

Understanding the theory of what happens when various clubs make contact with the ball

Accommodator:

Getting out on the golf course and playing

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Learning instructional design: Converger:

Taking a structured course in instructional design

Diverger:

Observing how others have designed the courses

Assimilator:

Reading articles to find out the pros and cons of different methods

Accommodator:

Creating a new course

Learning leadership skills: Converger:

Enrolling in an executive MBA program

Diverger:

Observing others in the workplace who have been effective leaders

Assimilator:

Reading books and articles by leadership experts

Accommodator:

Taking on a leadership role

There is substantial debate about the reliability and validity of the Learning Style Inventory (LSI). However, LSI scores provide insights into the degree to which your learning style is reflective or active, and the instrument can be particularly useful in understanding yourself and your students, choosing careers, solving problems, managing people, and working as part of a team. While we have focused here on the Kolb LSI, other inventories or measures exist that help educators learn more about how the people they are teaching prefer to learn. One of these, for example, is the MyersBriggs Type Indicator (MBTI)—a well-known and widely used measure of personality type. The Theory of Multiple Intelligence. Through his theory of multiple intelligence, Howard Gardner suggests that learning capacity and one’s environment influence preferred learning styles. He suggested that our intelligence is more than our IQ, and that we reflect and come to know the world and solve problems though individual profiles of human intelligences.4 Gardner holds that each of us has some degree of each of these intelligences, but the ways we combine them are unique to our own


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personalities.5 A description of these eight intelligences and instructional strategies that take advantage of them follows. The ultimate goal is to ensure that learning takes place.6 Verbal Linguistic intelligence (sensitive to the meaning and order of words, as a poet is). Uses activities that involve hearing, listening, impromptu or formal speaking, tongue twisters, humor, oral or silent reading, documentation, creative writing, spelling, journaling, and poetry. Logical-mathematical intelligence (able to handle chains of reasoning and recognize patterns and orders, as a scientist can). Uses activities that involve abstract symbols/formulas, outlining, graphic organizers, numeric sequences, calculation, deciphering codes, and problem solving. Musical intelligence (sensitive to pitch, melody, rhythm, and tone, as a composer is). Uses activities that involve audio tape, music recitals, singing on key, whistling, humming, environmental sounds, percussion vibrations, rhythmic patterns, music composition, and tonal patterns. Spatial intelligence (perceives the world accurately, and tries to re-create or transform aspects of that world as a sculptor or airplane pilot does). Uses activities that involve art, pictures, sculpture, drawings, doodling, mind mapping, patterns/designs, color schemes, active imagination, imagery, and block building. Bodily Kinesthetic intelligence (able to use the body skillfully and handle objects adroitly, as an athlete or dancer can). Uses activities that involve role playing, physical gestures, drama, inventing, ball passing, sports games, physical exercise, body language, and dancing. Interpersonal intelligence (understands people and relationships as a salesperson or teacher does). Thinks by bouncing ideas off others (socializers who are people-smart). Uses activities that involve group projects, division of labor, sensing others’ motives, receiving/giving feedback, and collaboration skills.

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Intrapersonal intelligence (accesses one’s emotional life as a means of understanding oneself and others, as exhibited by individuals with accurate views of themselves). Uses activities that involve emotional processing, silent reflection, thinking strategies, concentration skills, higher order reasoning, “centering” practices, and metacognitive techniques. Naturalist (connected to the intricacies and subtleties in nature, such as Charles Darwin and Meriwether Lewis of Lewis and Clark fame). Uses activities that involve bringing the outdoors into the class, relating to the natural world, charting, mapping changes, observing wildlife, and keeping journals or logs. Reflective Practice. An educator in an organization may be able to help individuals learn how to learn from their experiences in any number of ways. Donald Schön was among the first to suggest that reflection is part of professional development.7 To support reflection-on-action, whereby the individual attempts to understand what he or she has experienced, the instructor can help people create portfolios or do journal writing. Creating a portfolio is simply putting examples of individual work in a format that is understandable to others. In so doing, the learner stands back and looks at what he or she has experienced. In journal writing, the individual does much the same thing, with an emphasis on not only what happened, but why they did what they did and what they might do the next time they are confronted with a similar event. Reflection-in-action, on the other hand, is when the individual responds to the experience in real time. Schön said that reflection-in-action is based on surprise. When we are in the situation and what is happening does not conform to what we believe should be happening, we experiment to see if we can change things. Classroom instructors do such “on the spot” experiments frequently. For example, when an instructor sees that the students do not understand the material, he or she changes mode (such as going from lecture mode to a small-group activity in which they ask their students to summarize what they’ve learned and/or list any questions they may have). Metacognition, Critical Thinking, and Creative Thinking. Solving problems is a type of learning. Concepts related to problem solving are metacognition, critical thinking, and creative thinking. Making sense of what we have experienced is vital, and the next step is developing ways to address perplexing issues or unacceptable out


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comes. Meta means above and cognition means thinking; thus metacognition simply means thinking about (above) our thinking. Using metacognitive skills, we think about how we best go about solving problems, given our past experiences. An ultimate goal is to think critically about what we are experiencing and to creatively plan a next level of experience to address that problem. In critical thinking, we must identify relevant evidence, rather than rely on our preconceived notions about the problem at hand. A critical thinker is fair minded, can evaluate claims of truth, and can follow logical argument structures. Stephen Brookfield suggested that one way to get people to think critically is to have them observe and reflect upon exemplary role models.8 To foster critical thinking, one activity could be to have learners identify someone whom they admire and then reflect upon how or why they consider that person to be exemplary. In so doing, they practice reflection skills and develop an ability to continually look at problems and opportunities in new ways. Creative thinking, on the other hand, is when you come up with potential solutions that will be critically considered. To foster creative thinking, a designer or instructor helps learners pull in and reflect on their wide range of experiences to develop novel responses to problems. In the data-gathering stage for problem solving, for example, instructors and designers often use focus groups and questionnaires to get participants to describe what is wrong at their workplace. Chris Argyris prefers to use double-loop learning rather than single-loop learning, in which individuals are asked only to depict what is wrong. In double-loop learning, individuals not only identify problem areas, but are also asked to reflect on the problem and offer suggestions for improvement.9 Instructors who use teaching strategies that involve the instructor as the ‘sage on the stage’ rather than engaging learners to think outside the box are sometimes surprised when their narrow curricula do not produce the thinking necessary for an individual (and thus the organization) to confront new situations.

Learning Orientations and Instructional Design The predominant learning philosophy underlying the design of many of today’s training programs comes from the behavioral tradition that dominated the psychology of learning until the 1960s.10 Behavioral science defines learning as changes in behavior. This single definition of learning is questionable, which is why other theories, particularly those based on cognitive science, have evolved that provide more insight

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into the learning process. As individuals mature and the tasks they learn become more complex, early learning strategies developed as a result of their K-12 school experiences lose their effectiveness. We suggest that it is important for instructional designers to be aware of the usefulness and limitations of both approaches: behaviorism and cognitive science. A Behavioral Orientation to Instructional Design The behavioral orientation to instructional design is grounded in the following basic assumptions: 1. There must be observable behavior before you can confirm that learning has taken place. (Identify what the learner actually must do.) 2. The environment shapes the behavior of the learner, not the reverse. (Create realistic learning conditions to mirror those under which the task will be performed.) 3. The timing of reinforcement is critical. (Plan to give feedback at the point of accomplishment and reinforce performance at appropriate intervals.) The best-known behaviorists are Edward L. Thorndike, Ivan Pavlov, and B. F. Skinner. In the 1880’s, Thorndike’s experimental work with animals and birds resulted in the stimulus-response (S-R) theory of learning. Thorndike said that connections between stimuli (sensory impressions) and responses (subsequent behavior) are strengthened or weakened, depending on the consequences of the behavior. When given an appropriate stimulus, the learner responds positively—that is, he or she accomplishes the task correctly. A response can be strengthened or changed, depending on the particular stimulus applied. Thorndike proposed three “laws of learning” to explain his findings: the law of effect, the law of exercise, and the law of readiness.11 The law of effect suggests that the learners will acquire and remember responses that led to after-effects that were satisfying. The law of exercise says that the repetition of connections that are meaningful will result in substantial learning. The law of readiness says that the learner must be ready for this connection for learning to take place. If the learner is not ready, learning will be inhibited. Learning that is satisfying, meaningfully repetitive, and taking place at the right time results in maximum effectiveness.


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Other researchers built upon and modified these premises, most notably Ivan Pavlov, who conducted experiments with dogs around 1900 in Russia, and B. F. Skinner, whose work with pigeons in the 1960s resulted in the theory of operant conditioning. In basic terms, operant conditioning means to reinforce what you want the individual to do again and to ignore what you want the individual to stop doing.12 The concept of reinforcement is critical to operant conditioning. If you accept the premise that the environment (stimulus) controls behavior, then modifying the environment means that positive behaviors can be encouraged and negative behaviors can be discouraged (and possibly even eliminated). Applying the Behavioral Orientation. The application of the behavioral approach to instructional design has traditional roots, stemming from Frederick Taylor’s work at the turn of the 20th century. Taylor, called the “Father of Scientific Management,” believed that workers want to perform well. His goal was to make sure that they were instructed in the one best way to accomplish a given task. Taylor attempted to quantify his workers’ output by recording each motion made, every tool utilized, and the time needed to perform a specific task. Each worker’s actions were then examined and modified. Workers can be individually trained to do a specific job the right way, according to Taylor’s expert analysis. Many current education and training activities can be traced to this approach. The structured and systematic design of instruction, development of behavioral objectives, programmed and computer-aided instruction, competency-based education, and instructor accountability are all grounded in behavioral learning theory and in business practicality. A behavioral approach to designing a learning experience calls for the development of learning activities that sharpen associations between stimuli and behavior, create chains of alternative responses, and develop discriminations between responses of differing effectiveness. Such experiences, thus, would emphasize drill and practice. For beginners who must learn routine tasks, behavioral approaches can result in rapid and effective learning.

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A Cognitive Science Orientation to Instructional Design Cognitive science provides another foundation for designing learning programs. Cognitivists suggest that since the individual interprets experiences and sensations and gives meaning to them, the mind is more than a simple system where stimuli arrive and responses leave. Learning, they say, involves the individual being able to reorganize past experiences to make sense of new environmental stimuli. Sometimes this sense comes through flashes of insight, but it often requires reflection. In his 1936 work Experience and Education, John Dewey proposed that all learners—regardless of their age—learn best through experience. Building on this premise, cognitive psychologist Jean Piaget in 1952 suggested that learning occurs when individuals interact with their environment in an ever-expanding number of experiences. From the cognitivist orientation emerged new research interests in informationprocessing theories, including memory, organization, and problem solving. Helping individuals learn how to learn is the key goal of a cognitive science approach to learning. It is designed to move learners from reliance on someone else to creating within themselves an understanding of how learning one task can be transferred to a more-complex activity. Once these connections are made, learners can build on them. In short, by teaching someone how to learn, an instructor provides the learner with lifelong survival skills in the workplace, and shifts the responsibility of learning from the environment to the individual learner. The cognitivist focuses on the mental processes within the learner’s control that impact on and influence learning. We will now explain how these ideas translate into a foundation for instructional design. Applying Cognitive Science to Instructional Design. Given the challenge of instructional design and its goal of helping people transform their experiences into knowledge, some organizations refer to their instructional designers as knowledge engineers. Cognitive science is concerned with the study of taking apart and rebuilding (engineering) mental processes such as memory and problem solving. Answer the following three questions quickly: 1. Where did you go to grade school? 2. What did you have for lunch yesterday? 3. What is the capitol of Kentucky?


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Which of these questions could you answer correctly? How can you explain what you remember and what you do not remember? Memory is often divided into three major processes: encoding, storage, and retrieval. Encoding is simply what we choose to notice from among all the stimuli around us in the environment. Storage is how much and how long we can remember those observations. Retrieval is accessing that information from our memory. We can keep a great deal of information in long-term memory, but short-term memory is capable of holding only a few items for a few seconds. As a rule of thumb, we can remember seven things (plus or minus two) in our short-term memory (a telephone number is a good example). While you probably remembered where you attended grade school (meaningful information stored in longterm memory), you might not have remembered what you had for lunch yesterday (perhaps not meaningful information, stored in short-term memory). And unless you recently memorized state capitals or live in the South, you might not have recalled that Frankfort is the capital of Kentucky (not stored in your long-term memory). Cognitive scientists suggest that instructional designers can help learners remember by developing organizing strategies and problem-solving skills, and learning to formulate schema. Here are some principles: 1. Develop organizing strategies. To understand this concept, quickly memorize the following list: lake, ocean, bus, pond, truck, car, brook How did you memorize these items? Some of you used rote memorization and repetition, putting the list items in your short-term memory. Others may have used a mnemonic strategy. Without any given structure, others may have organized items into similar groups (lake, ocean, pond, brook; bus, truck, car), which facilitates long-term recall far better than rote memorization. Everyone agrees that organization helps recall, but no one agrees on a one best way to do this. What we learn from this principle is that we have to help our learners organize concepts and tasks. 2. Develop problem-solving skills. Knowing how to write a database program requires procedural knowledge (knowing how to do something), rather than factual knowledge (knowing a fact). While we might understand concepts that define a relational database (facts), being able to group those facts into rules (procedures) that would allow us to write the program is yet another issue.

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Over time, facts are transformed into production rules, and these mental production rules increase efficiency. What we can learn from this principle is the desirability of developing problem-based activities that require components of a task to be made into procedures. 3. Learn to (re)formulate schema. Schema are internal diagrams or outlines of something we know (facts or frames) stored in a time sequence. Cognitive scientists believe that we learn by building frames and then continually modifying our schema based upon new facts. For example, when insurance claims adjusters get a call from a policyholder who has had an accident, they collect specific data from the policyholder (facts) in a particular order (schema) to ensure that all information about the claim is complete. No two accidents are ever the same, so adjustors continually modify the way they dealt with previous claims to deal with the unique facts of the situation at hand. What we learn from these principles is that strategies to help learners develop thinking skills are activities whereby learners solve problems in which they develop knowledge structures and flexible, evolving schema. Problem solving is composed of many processes, of which memory is a major player. Previous experience is the basis for means/end analysis. The problem solver (the learner) tries to figure out how to solve or get to the heart of the problem. Problem solving is at the crux of cognitive science; it requires remembering and organizing facts, recalling rules, and applying schema. We know that the problem-solving skills of novices and experts differ markedly. The novice learner progresses from a knowledge-based state to a rule-based state, then to a skill-based state (expert). Therefore, in designing lessons, we can work with an expert to determine how he or she organizes and develops schema, and then translate the expert’s organizational methods, rules, and schema into useful lessons. We may find that by organizing learning activities around solving a problem, learners will see relationships and develop schema to establish an understanding of how to accomplish tasks and jobs.

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Bloom’s Taxonomy Benjamin Bloom developed a cognitive learning taxonomy in the mid-1950s that identified sequential learning stages or steps. As Figure 5-3 shows, the cognitive learning taxonomy begins at the basic Knowledge level and steps up in complexity through Comprehension, Application, Analysis, Synthesis, and Evaluation stages. Each of Bloom’s levels is further subdivided into sequential levels of difficulty within the taxonomy. Knowledge, for example, moves from basic knowing of facts through knowledge of specifics, terminology, trends, criteria, principles, and theories. Thus each taxonomy level has within itself a hierarchy. Each element is also measured in terms of specific verbs, indicating what the learner should be able to do as evidence of successful and observable completion of a learning task in action terms. Figure 5-3. Bloom’s Taxonomy Evaluation Synthesis Analysis Application Comprehension Knowledge Knowledge: identify, list, tell Comprehension: describe, explain, summarize Application: construct, demonstrate, solve Analysis: analyze, generalize, organize Synthesis: compile, create, design Evaluation: appraise, compare, contrast

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In 2001, Anderson and Krathwohl13 revised Bloom’s taxonomy to reflect changes in cognitive objective development thinking over the previous five decades. Their taxonomy, also consisting of six dimensions, ranges from Remembering, Understanding, Applying, Analyzing, and Evaluating, and shifts Bloom’s Synthesis stage into one termed “Creating.” As with Bloom’s original taxonomy, Anderson and Krathwohl established stage intervals of increasing complexity within each level of the taxonomy; however, they modified Bloom’s verbs into gerunds, suggesting a more active participative role for the learner. Both taxonomies are extremely useful to the learning professional. The key point here is that these taxonomies can help us frame instructional design and evaluation. Robert Mager has contributed greatly to the use of behavioral objectives in business training, setting forth three essential elements for the measurement of an objective within Bloom’s taxonomy. These elements are the conditions under which the desired activity will occur; the performance to be completed; and the criteria established for acceptable performance. Each behavioral objective must contain all three elements. The learner may not move forward in the process until the objective has been met according to a specific performance level or standard. Some experts believe that the time frame for the completion of the task should also be identified. After all, if a worker can describe machine safety features but takes an hour to do so, the effectiveness of the performance objective is compromised. A sample behavioral objective for a knowledge task may be expressed as: Given a diagram of machine tool ‘X’ (the condition), the learner/trainee will be able to describe (the performance) all safety features with 100% accuracy within one minute (the criteria). The behaviorist, therefore, sets out to define and measure learning (behavior) with some degree of precision. These measures can take into consideration a wide variety of conditions, including increasingly complex skill and knowledge levels. However, since each behavioral objective addresses only a small segment of a larger learning task, a combination of objectives will be required as the task expands or becomes more complex. Because it is a hierarchy, Bloom’s Taxonomy becomes a useful guide for instructional design. Learning goes from the simple (knowledge) to the complex (evaluation). Once the terminal (or end) objective is identified, intermediate modules or units provide the structure and sequence of learning activities. These objectives are more meaningful when they reflect the business goals that the organization is attempting to reach.


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Performance objectives are valuable to the designer, who must be able to document the fact that learning has actually occurred. They depict practical and concrete goals. The assumption is that if one can measure learning outcomes, the training process is easier to manage. It is also important to note that performance objectives relate to more than task performances; they should also measure acquired knowledge. Performance objectives are the outcomes of needs assessment activities (Chapter 2). Whether one uses a behavioral approach or a cognitive science approach to the design of the learning activities, most training programs begin with performance objectives. Despite their value, many designers hesitate to write objectives because they find the task difficult and time-consuming. Writing is difficult for most people and the development of objectives demands a high level of skill. You must choose the right terminology (performance verbs), and identify the proper amount of qualification and quantification criteria. Objectives are only as good as the standards for the task being taught, and if no standards exist, they must be developed or identified. Learners often come to training with various levels of skill. Common goals are difficult to identify.

Learning Through the Workplace There are people who consider constructivism and social learning to be “lesser” sciences in supporting knowledge development because one person’s “truth” becomes what is experienced and is not necessarily empirically developed. The premise is that the individual or the group reflects on what they are experiencing or seeing through their own lenses. Effective instruction for such learners means challenging them to review their frames of reference or schema from other perspectives. Constructivism and social learning orientations are frequently used in diversity awareness and antiharassment programs where individuals are encouraged to work with each other to develop new schema that reflect their changing environment and not their preconceived notions. They are also the basis for much thinking around the concepts of knowledge management and the “learning organization,” which are all about developing ways to collect and share what is known about an organization’s operations and how it solves its problems.

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Constructivism Often, after a set period in school or a job training program, we begin to learn “by the seat of our pants.” The concept of constructivism suggests that we read, share ideas, experiment, learn from our mistakes and the mistakes of others, and continue our craft. Constructivism has as its premise the notion that we come to “know” by actively constructing meaning of our experiences. In the workplace, constructivism helps us understand that not all learning is instructor-driven. When applied in the classroom, constructivism is akin to learner-centered learning in which the instructor’s job is not to lecture, but rather to identify problems and issues, and to guide learners, usually through questioning, to develop new patterns of thinking. The challenge if you are using a constructivist approach is to develop problems that are meaningful to the learner, and then to provide scaffolding (support) to ensure that learning occurs. In a constructivist classroom...

Learner autonomy and initiative are accepted and encouraged. Instructors help students attain their own intellectual identity. Learners frame questions and issues and then go about analyzing and answering them. They take responsibility for their own learning, and become problem solvers. Higher-level thinking is encouraged. The constructivist instructor challenges learners to reach beyond the simple factual response. He or she encourages learners to connect and summarize concepts by analyzing, predicting, justifying, and defending their ideas. Learners are engaged in dialogue with the instructor and with each other. Social discourse helps learners change or reinforce their ideas. If they have the chance to present what they think and are exposed to others’ ideas, they can build a personal knowledge base that they understand. Only when they feel comfortable enough to express their ideas will meaningful classroom dialogue occur. Learners are engaged in experiences that challenge hypotheses and encourage discussion. When allowed to make predictions, learners often generate varying hypotheses about natural phenomena. The constructivist instructor provides ample opportunities for students to test their hypotheses, especially through group discussion of concrete experiences. The class uses raw data, primary sources, and physical and interactive materials. The constructivist approach involves students in real-world possibilities, and then helps them generate the abstractions that bind phenomena together. Adapted from In Search of Understanding: The Case for Constructivist Classrooms by Jacqueline G. Brooks and Martin G. Brooks (Alexandria, Va: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development, 1993)


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Social Learning Social learning is the theory that we learn from being participants in our environment, observing those around us. In the 1960s, Albert Bandura found that individuals sometimes learn from such observation without ever having applied or imitated that learning in another setting. Social learning helps explain what happens when we read a book or attend a lecture, or when we observe colleagues at their craft but do not immediately put what we have observed to use. For example, how did you learn to be a parent or a friend? Iron a shirt? Skateboard? While formal instruction in all these skills is possible, most probably you learned by watching others. Bandura suggested that it is our self-efficacy or belief in our own competencies that influences whether or not we learn. The higher our self-efficacy, the more likely we are to succeed at a task. To apply social learning, an instructor should work with individuals to identify exemplary behavior, and then develop ways to dissect that behavior in a way so that the individual can practice that behavior in new situations. Observations by themselves are not useful. Moreover, learners are more likely to learn in this mode if they see the value of adopting the positive behaviors of others.

Humanism and Workplace Motivation To recap, behaviorists consider “learning” to be changes in behavior based on environmental interaction that can be observed. Cognitivists think mental informationprocessing activities are key. Social constructivists and social learning theorists suggest that it is by interacting with our environment that we learn. To these we add the humanist orientation, which often overlaps with these other orientations. Humanists consider learning from the perspective of human potential for growth. This orientation suggests three things: individuals are able to control their own destiny; people are inherently good and free to act; and behavior is the consequence of human choice. Individuals hold unlimited potential for growth and development. Therefore, humanists do not accept the position that behavior is solely determined by the environment or by the subconscious. From a humanist’s perspective, learning is centered in experience, as well as motivation and capacity for self-determination. This principle is basic to the concepts underlying self-directed learning, of which adult learning is a critical extension.

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Many theories of motivation exist. As you begin reading the ideas of selected humanist/motivation theorists, draw a picture (yes, use paper and pencil!) of individuals on their first day in your classroom or as they begin a new self-directed learning task. What does your picture tell you about their motivation? Motivation, which is highly related to learner readiness to learn, determines whether or not someone actually learns. We can use the work of Abraham Maslow, Douglas McGregor, and Carl Rogers to help us understand motivation. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Abraham Maslow is perhaps the most renowned of all the humanists. He was an optimist who suggested that we all crave to be self-actualized, to be all that we can be. To get to this state of self-actualization, he suggested, we move in stages up a ladderlike hierarchy. His hierarchy of needs, depicted in Figure 5-4, connects the physiological self with the self-actualized self. This was an extremely novel idea in 1954; he was perhaps among the first to write about learning as a means to becoming a “complete person.” According to his hierarchy, our lower-level needs such as food, water, and air must be satisfied before the next level becomes a motivating element. Thus we must be safe, feel that we belong, and have a degree of self-esteem before self actualization becomes possible. The hierarchy of needs helps us understand why students don’t participate in our classes when the classroom is too warm or too hot, has uncomfortable chairs, or when the class is held right before lunch. The steps in the model can also help us understand that learners may be less motivated to learn when the organizational climate is such that they are anxious about their jobs, have personal problems, or when they feel they are not a part of the group. An experienced instructor or facilitator makes efforts to anticipate such things, and makes every attempt to alleviate negative issues by making the classroom a warm, comfortable, safe, and friendly environment in which individuals have an opportunity to learn. The theory suggests that lower-level needs must be satisfied before the next level becomes a motivator. This notion of hierarchy—that one need level must be satisfied before another can be reached—continues to be studied, because evidence exists that sometimes individuals do skip motivation levels. That said, we suggest that Maslow has provided an easily understood and applicable theory to understanding motivation to learn.

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Appreciating Theoretical Perspectives Figure 5-4. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

SelfActualization

Self-fulfillment, realization of one's potential, creative talent

Esteem or Ego/Status needs

"Belonging" needs

Safety/Security needs

Basic Physiological needs

Self-respect, recognition, achievement

Friendship, acceptance Security, protection from harm, freedom from fear of deprivation Food, water, air, shelter, sex

Rogers’s Learner-Centered Approach Carl Rogers in the 1980s applied the notion of client-centered therapy to education. This dovetails with Maslow’s concept of self-actualization and self-directed learning14 and fits in with Knowles’s concept of andragogy. The following principles comprise a learner-centered approach, according to Carl Rogers: • • • • •

The learner must be personally involved in the design of the learning activity. The individual self-initiates the activity. The learning activity affects the learner’s subsequent behavior. The learner evaluates and assesses his/her own learning. The essence of the learning takes on permanent meaning for the learner.

Both Maslow and Rogers contend that if learning is to be worthwhile in a larger social context, the humanistic approach should be used. As problem-solvers, adult learners have learning needs that are best addressed by assuming that they want to learn and are capable of learning, and that their own self-interest (as well as their organization’s) will determine the outcomes.

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McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y In his 1960 work, The Human Side of Enterprise, Douglas McGregor identified two separate and opposite concepts of human nature. McGregor refers to these terms as Theory X and Theory Y. At one extreme, Theory X suggests that individuals inherently dislike work and will, if possible, avoid it. Because they dislike work, people must be forced in some way to perform in order to meet organizational objectives. These forces include pressures of coercion, control, or threat. Theory X contends that over a period of time, the average worker has been conditioned to accept rules, and actually prefers to be directed. He or she wishes to avoid responsibility, has little ambition, and desires security most of all. On the other hand, Theory Y suggests that work—the expenditure of physical and mental effort—is as natural as play or rest. And while they may be effective in some cases, external controls and threats are not the only methods of achieving organizational objectives. Individuals who are committed to bringing about organizational goals will exercise self-direction toward those ends without coercion and threats. The individual’s commitment to organizational objectives is a function of the internal rewards associated with one’s achievement and work satisfaction. Therefore, under proper conditions, Theory Y says people learn not only to accept but to seek out responsibility. These individuals have a high capacity for imagination, ingenuity, and creativity in solving organizational problems. To sum up, Carl Rogers’s thinking about learners provides an interesting parallel to the theories concerning those of workers provided by McGregor. McGregor’s concerns dealt with assumptions by managers; Rogers’s with assumptions by educators. Paralleling McGregor’s concept of Theory X from within an educational context, Rogers believed that much educational practice assumes that students cannot be trusted to pursue their own learning—based on the prevailing attitude that instructor presentations of facts equal learning, and the aim of education is for the learner to accumulate pieces of factual knowledge. Rogers criticized other assumptions that truth is a known and teachable element; that creative citizens develop from passive learners; that evaluation equals education; and that education equals evaluation. Rogers sharply criticized the Theory X approach to management and training, and used McGregor’s Theory Y assumptions to suggest that people have a natural potential for learning and that learning occurs when the subject matter is perceived to be relevant. He believed that a great deal of learning is acquired through one’s own

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activity outside of a traditional classroom, facilitated by participation in the learning process itself. Table 5-5 illustrates these comparisons. Figure 5-5. Comparison of Assumptions about Human Nature and Behavior Underlying Theory X and Theory Y Management Philosophy Theory X Management Assumptions about Human Nature (according to McGregor)

Assumptions Implicit in Current Education (according to Rogers)

The average human being inherently dislikes work and will avoid it if he can.

The student cannot be trusted to pursue his own learning.

Because of this characteristically human dislike of work, most people must be coerced, controlled, and threatened in the interest of organizational objectives.

Presentation equals learning.

The average human being prefers to be directed, wishes to avoid responsibility, has relatively little ambition, and wants security above all.

The truth is known.

The aim of education is to accumulate brick upon brick of factual knowledge. Creative citizens develop from passive learners. Evaluation is education and education is evaluation.

Theory Y Assumptions about Human Nature The expenditure of physical and mental effort is as natural as play or rest. External control and threat of punishment are not the only means for bringing about effort toward organizational objectives. Man will exercise self-direction and self-control in the service of objectives to which he is committed. Commitment to objectives is a function of the internal rewards associated with their achievement. The average human being learns, under proper conditions, not only to accept but to seek responsibility. A high capacity for imagination, ingenuity, and creativity in solving organizational problems is widely, not narrowly, distributed in the population. Under the conditions of modern industrial life, the intellectual potential of the average human being is only partially utilized.

Assumptions Related to Significant Experiential Learning Human beings have a natural potentiality for learning. Significant learning takes place when the subject matter is perceived by the student as relevant to his own purposes. Much significant learning is acquired through doing. Learning is facilitated by students’ responsible participation in the learning process. Self-initiated learning involving the whole person— feeling as well as intellect—is the most pervasive and lasting. Creativity in learning is best facilitated when selfcriticism and self-evaluation are of primary importance and evaluation by others is of secondary importance. The most socially useful thing to learning in the modern world is the process of learning, a continuing openness to experience, an incorporation to oneself of the process of change.

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Transformational Learning When was the last time you learned something that shook your world? While such learning does not happen every day, when it does happen, it is life-changing. Transformational learning often occurs when unforeseen events or new understandings of an issue change the way concepts or political views were previously considered. Consider what happens when a parent brings home a new baby for the first time. Consider what happens when one company merges with another. To be considered transformational learning, an individual questions critical assumptions about what was true, becoming open to an entirely new way of thinking about something.15 Transformational learning is a category unto itself here, building on the concepts of andragogy, experience, reflection, and critical thinking as they relate to adult development. According to Jack Mezirow, transformation is all about questioning our inner beliefs. He suggested that transformation goes through some variation of the following phases:16 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

A disorienting dilemma Self-examination with feelings of anger, guilt, or shame A critical assessment of assumptions Recognition that one’s discontent and the process of transformation are shared Exploration of options for new roles, relationships, and actions Planning a course of action Acquiring knowledge and skills for implementing one’s plans Provisional trying of new roles Building competence and self-confidence in new roles and relationships A reintegration into one’s life on the basis of conditions dictated by one’s new perspective

For an experience or learning event to be transformative, it needs to result in profound (re)thinking about the way you view your life or world. Few experiences reach this level of intensity, but there are times when learning experiences attempt to create such disquiet. For example, in times of profound organizational change (i.e., when a need exists to rethink a business model or when global competition causes an entire


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industry to rethink its assumptions about markets and consumer wants and needs), transformational learning is often required.

Summary For effective learning to take place, it is essential that you understand learning theories, not merely as buzz words and jargon, but as ideas that can be used to design learning interventions, predict success, and explain differences between and among learners and instructional strategies. In this chapter we offered some historical perspectives on adult learning, and introduced the concept of andragogy and the foundations of behavioral science that early on helped theorists study the process of learning. However, more recent understanding about how adults learn in formal learning programs and through their interactions at work suggests that we need to take a new look at adult learning in the workplace. Adults come to learning with a wide range of experiences. The savvy educator uses those experiences to design instruction. In this chapter, we discussed the Kolb Learning Cycle, in which reflection, conceptualization, and experimentation are critical phases in adult learning. Learning “style” refers to how an individual prefers to learn. The concept can be understood by considering the degree to which someone learns through the polar opposites of concrete experience/abstract conceptualization and active experimentation/reflective observation. Another useful way to understand learners is through Multiple Intelligence theory, which holds that a set of characteristics other than IQ can predict how individuals best learn. We concluded this section with an overview of reflective practice, metacognition, critical thinking, and creative thinking—all part of a toolkit that instructional planners can use to help understand how our experiences affect our learning. Two learning theories related to instructional design were discussed: behaviorism and cognitive science. For a behaviorist, learning occurs when a demonstrated behavior change occurs. The cognitivist suggests that perception, meaning, and insight are keys to learning, and that learning how to learn occurs through discovery, flashes of insight, and motivational activities. Social constructivism and social learning orientations can be used to examine situations where individuals come together to develop knowledge or understanding with others in their workplace. The humanist looks at learning from a perspective of human growth potential and stresses the motivational

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development of the learner, an individual’s needs, and self-direction. We learn by finding new meanings, either individually (constructivism) or in a group (social learning). We concluded this chapter with an overview of transformational learning— an adult development theory that relies on foundations of andragogy, experience, reflection, and critical thinking. No one theory will fit every instructional experience, due to the complexity of human nature; the content and the context of the tasks to be learned; and the environment within which training interventions occur and are to be applied. It is critical that we be aware of these theories and concepts as we attempt to make the most effective bridge between instructor and learner. Learning, in its most effective context, can never be completely identified and isolated. We do know, however, that for effective learning to occur, you must have congruence between the learner, the content of the material to be acquired, the environment, and the instructor. An instructional designer who understands and can apply learning theories can make these parts fit.

Think It Through 1. How might learning styles differ or evolve, from the time individuals are freshmen in college to when they graduate and take on a new job? 2. What surprised you as you read about behaviorism, cognitive science, social constructivism, social learning, and humanism? Of what value are they to instructional design? 3. What motivated you to read this book? Analyze your motivation using terms found in this chapter. 4. A Theory “W” manager has been described as a Theory X manager masquerading as a Theory Y manager. Can you offer examples of Theory “W” behavior in the workplace or at your school?


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Ideas in Action 1. Using the Kolb Learning Style categories, attempt to identify your own learning style. Then compare it with what motivates you to learn. Contrast the results in the foregoing question with those of three or four of your colleagues. What differences, if any, did you observe? 2. Observe an introductory class in the natural or computer sciences and note the instructor’s instructional style. Identify the instructional approach used, and try to find out why this style was used. Compare this observation with one in a workplace environment, and note any differences.

Additional Resources Cranton, P. and A. Knox. 2006. Understanding and Promoting Transformative Learning: A Guide for Educators of Adults. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. In this book, Cranton and Knox describe transformative learning and provide suggestions for creating transformative activities. Jarvis, P. 2006. Towards a Comprehensive Theory of Human Learning. London: Routledge. Jarvis suggests that learning theory is interdisciplinary. In this book, he critically reviews existing theories. A must read for the serious scholar. Knowles, M. S. 1984. The Adult Learner: A Neglected Species. Houston, Texas: Gulf. This is a wonderful text on adult learning, as seen through the eyes of “Mr. Adult Learning” himself. An excellent resource for any instructor. Mackeracher, D. 2004. Making Sense of Adult Learning. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. Here, Dorothy Mackeracher provides ideas on how to work with adult learners.

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Merriam, S. B., R. S. Caffarella, and L. M. Baumgartner. 2007. Learning in Adulthood: A Comprehensive Guide. Third Edition. San Francisco, California: JosseyBass. This book is an overview and synthesis of what we know about adult learning, examining not only the learners but also the context in which learning takes place. At the time of this writing, TRG Hay/McBer, publishers of the Kolb Learning Style Inventory, offer you the opportunity to take the Kolb Learning Style Inventory online for $10: http://trgmcber. haygroup.com/ learning/lsius.htm

Chapter 5 Notes 1.

Maples, M. F., and J. M. Webster. 1980. “Thorndike’s Connectionism.” In G. M. Gazda and R. J. Corsini (eds.) Theories of Learning. Itasca, Illinois: Peacock.

2.

Lee, Chris. “The Adult Learner: Neglected No More.” Training. March 1998; p. 50.

3.

The Kolb Learning Style Inventory 1999. Boston: The Hay Group.

4.

Gardner, Howard. 1995. The Unschooled Mind. New York: Basic Books. p. 12.

5.

Gardner, Howard. 1993. Frames of Mind: The Theory of Multiple Intelligences (10th Anniversary Edition). New York: Basic Books.

6.

http://www.nwlink.com/~donclark/hrd/vak.html Accessed 6/16/2006.

7.

Brookfield, S. 1987. Developing Critical Thinkers. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

8.

Ibid.

9.

Argyris, Chris. 2001. Good communication that blocks learning. In Harvard Business Review on Organizational Learning. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.

10. Howell, W. C. and N. J. Cooke. 1989. “Training the Human Information Processor: A Review of Cognitive Models,” in I. L. Goldstein and Associates, Training and Development in Organizations. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. p. 123. 11. Hergenhahn, B. R. 1988. An Introduction to Theories of Learning. Third edition. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall.


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12. Skinner, B. F. 1974. Beyond Freedom and Dignity. New York: Knopf. 13. Anderson, Lorin W. and David R. Krathwohl (eds.). 2001. A Taxonomy for Learning, Teaching, and Assessing, Abridged edition. New York: Longman. 14. Rogers, Carl. 1983. Freedom to Learn for the 80s. Columbus: Merrill. p. 20. 15. Cranton, Patricia and A. Knox. 2006. Understanding and Promoting Transformative Learning: A Guide for Educators of Adults. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. 16. Mezirow, J. and Associates. 2000. Learning as Transformation: Critical Perspectives on a Theory in Process. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. p. 22.

CHAPTER 6

Planning for Instruction In this chapter, we will do the following: • • • • •

Identify the steps of the instructional design process. Offer suggestions as to how to manage the instructional design process itself. Provide suggestions to establish ongoing design evaluation. Evaluate internally-developed and externally-developed learning solutions. Discuss the importance of a leader’s guide and how to go about creating and using one.

The Task of Instructional Design To design means to develop something new. Designs have order, purpose, and utility. That “new” something can be a poster, a building, or in this case, a program that supports learning. Design is both a science and an art. The raw material for instructional design is the data derived from a needs assessment. The final design is a collection of what the individual instructional designer (or design team) brings to the table in terms of experiences and content knowledge. Given the same set of needs assessment data, it is unlikely that any two design teams would come up with the same solution. That said, both solutions might appropriately result in the needed learning. Design is the second stage of the Instructional Development Cycle. In this chapter, we offer a step-by-step approach to instructional design that is practical and easy to follow. The steps begin with an approach to translate needs assessment data into learning objectives, and then develop strategies to organize those objectives into modules, units, lessons, and curricula. Along the way, we discuss organizational issues, constraints, and opportunities relevant to successful design, as well as the pros and cons of working with external developers. We conclude the chapter with suggestions on how to create a leader’s guide, an important tool that ensures instructional completeness and consistency for large-scale learning initiatives. 173

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Cognitive and Behavioral Outcomes The first step in the design process is to group what needs to be learned into logically connected clusters. Next, decide which clusters should be linked together to form the goals or outcomes of a particular learning program. Once established, the goals of the program are then, one by one, separated into more specific learning objectives. Learning objectives, introduced in a previous chapter, are the specific things that you want participants to know or be able to do as a result of completing the program. Most programs have multiple objectives. The difference between the terms know and able to do is similar to the important distinction between cognitive and behavioral learning outcomes. In Chapter 1 of this text, we referred to these types of outcomes as informational and operational learning. Whatever the terminology used, the outcomes should reflect legitimate organizational needs. While there are those who argue that learning should concern itself exclusively with behavioral outcomes—with skills for doing—the reality is that an organization often needs its people to know things, without necessarily requiring them to put knowledge into specific behaviors. Moreover, providing a way for people to obtain this knowledge is frequently seen as an instructional responsibility. Awareness or informational programs with cognitive outcomes are the result. Such programs can take many forms and serve many organizational purposes. An example is the organization’s need for employees to understand, know, and be able to articulate its strategic direction. Another example is the need for managers to be able to identify and assess demographic, societal, and industry trends. Still another kind of awareness program, often critical to an organization’s success, is a management overview of a particular product and its potential. The outcome of this last kind of program is precisely one of awareness: a conceptual grasp of the features and power of a product (e.g., a new line of artificially intelligent oil-drilling rigs), as opposed to the ability to apply this awareness. Organizations may view informational programs as the responsibility of its communication department or, in the case of product knowledge, see these programs as the marketing department’s responsibility. However, many organizations believe informational programs belong to the learning and performance department. Thus, cognitive outcomes are often the task of program design. The instructional designer should recognize that learning initiatives offer a great opportunity to contribute to the organization’s operation and bottom line, a chance to add real value. Informational programs can mobilize people’s energies around a new organizational vision. They can galvanize

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motivation in the face of an industry challenge. They can ensure understanding of critical business decisions, and they can orient people to new organizational structures or institutional policies. Providing programs that deliver these kinds of information—all cognitive outcomes—makes a significant organizational contribution. Furthermore, informational programs often provide a big-picture perspective that can be ultimately more important than developing specific behaviors. Informational programs may, in fact, provide an absolutely necessary context for behavior, a context without which the most perfectly sharpened skill is useless. An instructional designer should expect to deal with cognitive as well as behavioral outcomes. An Example Instructional design is a science as well as an art. The designer must take into account the purpose the organization wants the learning initiative to achieve and apply principles from learning theory, along with pragmatic considerations such as cost and organizational sponsorship (the science). The instructional designer provides creative solutions for learning needs (the art). Suppose an organization’s needs assessment indicates that supervisory staff members need to learn the appropriate policies and procedures concerning performance management. The designer’s goal is for supervisors to achieve the following three outcomes in performance management: 1. Supervisors must know the company policy on performance management (cognitive outcome). 2. Supervisors must follow the company rules and procedures in managing employee performance, specifically the following (all performance-based or behavioral outcomes): a. b. c. d.

Set individual performance objectives and measures of success. Monitor performance against objectives, using agreed-upon measures. Coach ongoing performance to ensure alignment with objectives. Communicate the results of performance reviews to employees.

3. Supervisors must be aware of the legal considerations concerning performance management—pitfalls to avoid, risky language, and so on (another cognitive outcome). More specific learning objectives are then developed from these target outcomes.

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The Design Team In this example, a team from the learning and performance department is assigned to design a program to address these identified learning needs. The team’s first step is to seek a wide representation of the organization in this design effort. The team believes this is especially important for this particular program because the outcomes will touch virtually everyone in the organization. Therefore, they want substantial department involvement in the design effort; they do not want the program to be the creation of the learning and performance department alone. Thus, they expand the design team to include representation from all the major departments and hierarchical levels within the organization. They also make a point of including non-management personnel who will be the recipients of the performance appraisal process. Finally, they seek out representation from the Human Resources and Legal departments to ensure proper handling of employee relations and legal technicalities. From Instructional Goals to Program Modules The expanded design team studies the findings of the needs assessment, which includes the three goals previously mentioned. The team makes a preliminary judgment that all three outcomes can be achieved in an instructional program that will be one to two days in length. They group the previously identified outcomes for policy and legalities (#1 and #3) into a single “awareness” module. The “Awareness” Module. This module will be about the organization’s policy on performance management, which consists of four points: 1. All employees will receive a formal appraisal of performance at least once a year, and will sign a written summary of the appraisal discussion as proof that it took place (the actual appraisal itself can be oral or written, at the manager’s discretion). 2. Managers will involve employees in setting performance goals and in defining measures of successful goal attainment. 3. A mutually accepted professional development plan (or a mutually signed explanation of why one is not appropriate) will be one result of every employee’s appraisal.


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4. Part of every manager’s own performance plan will be improving the way he or she conducts performance appraisals for employees, as measured by signed summaries of appraisals filed for all the manager’s staff members (see A, l), and by anonymous feedback from appraisal recipients captured through regularly scheduled company-wide climate surveys. The legalities of dealing with performance appraisal are: 1. Appraising performance against objectives other than those mutually agreed upon is unfair, and this can put the organization at legal risk. 2. Discriminatory language or practices cannot be used. The design team determines that the program will open with a module that explains the details under points A and B above. This will be Module #1 and will serve as a conceptual introduction not only to the subject of performance management, but to the program itself. This introduction will present both the policy aspects of performance appraisal and its legalities as an umbrella set of definitions under which the specific appraisal skills and practices will fit, coupled with multiple examples as appropriate (e.g., unacceptable language and ample opportunity for questions and answers). The introduction will make workers aware of the policy and its legalities, the cognitive learning that the organization considers necessary for its managers. A Skills Module. The design team next turns its attention to the requirement that supervisors learn the actual procedures the company wants followed in managing employee performance, items (a) through (d) under program goal #2. The team spells out very specific behaviors necessary for item 2a, then item 2b, and so forth—the action steps a supervisor must actually take to carry out each of the tasks identified in the list. These actions are specified in the form of terminal behaviors—i.e., what the successful program participant, who has successfully learned the content, will be able to do at the termination of the program. Program goal #2 is “Supervisors must follow the company rules and procedures in managing employee performance.” The design team develops more-specific learning objectives for this program goal. These learning objectives are the items identified as 2a, 2b, 2c, and 2d in the list that follows. The team then defines these learning objectives still further—creating for each objective a statement of what supervisors must do if they are to carry out the organization’s policy regarding performance management. These

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detailed actions are the terminal behaviors for this module of the training program, and follow each learning objective below. 2a. Set individual performance objectives and measures of success. At the end of this program, a supervisor will be able to: •

Identify specific performance goals for individual employees that result in the achievement of assigned job responsibilities.

•

Identify measurable indicators of success for each goal identified.

•

Involve staff members in defining of goals and measures.

•

Establish checkpoints during the planned performance period to review performance objectives, and redefine them as needed.

2b. Monitor performance against objectives, using agreed-upon measures. At the end of this program, a supervisor will be able to: •

Establish reporting mechanisms and/or project milestones to ensure that performance is reviewed in a timely and realistic way.

•

Review interim performance results to ensure that they are on track to achieve planned objectives.

•

Apply mutually agreed upon measures in reporting and reviewing these outcomes.

2c. Coach ongoing performance to ensure alignment with objectives. At the end of this program, a supervisor will be able to: •

Exhibit helping behaviors rather than fault-finding behaviors in reviewing performance outcomes with employees.

•

Assist staff members in finding ways around difficulties they are encountering in achieving desired results, offering perspectives they might not have thought of or resources they might have overlooked.

•

Assist staff members in setting/adjusting/sticking to priorities.


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2d. Communicate performance judgments to employees. At the end of this program, a supervisor will be able to: •

Discuss performance in terms of results and job behaviors, rather than in personal terms such as motivation or attitude.

•

Given a situation of a poorly performing employee, present clearly and directly to that employee that performance results were unacceptable.

The Instructional Design Funnel The design team in our example has now documented the “what” of its proposed program. The careful listing of program modules, with objectives and terminal outcomes for each module, creates a complete, clear outline of what the proposed instruction will cover. This outline serves to document their plans for their own further work in developing the program and for review by other interested parties. (See the later discussion concerning reviews by various stakeholders.) The design team has taken a set of generic learning requirements for supervisors and turned them into learning objectives for an instructional program—terminal knowledge (awareness gained by the end, or terminus, of the program) and terminal behaviors (skills acquired by program end). This design process is one of progressive narrowing, which can be graphically represented as an instructional design funnel, as shown in Figure 6-1.

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Figure 6.1. The Instructional Design Funnel

1. Identify learning requirements with a needs analysis designed for the target population. 2. Group learning needs into logical clusters of training outcomes. 3. Develop program goals from clusters of learning outcomes. 4. Develop learning objectives for each program goal (cognitive and behavioral).

5. Plan for program delivery.

Planning the How The first four layers of the design funnel pictured in Figure 6-1 focus on the “what” of instruction: (1) determining what it is that program participants need to learn; (2) clustering these needs into logical groupings; (3) translating them into program goals; and (4) then turning them into learning objectives that can be used by the design team to develop appropriate program activities and materials. Only when the design team has a clear picture of the program’s what does the team shift its attention to the how phase and begin to plan the ways in which the program will present material to its participants so they will learn the required content. A cautionary word is in order here. We often move too quickly into the fifth layer of the design funnel, the “how,” which is to focus on planning program delivery. For many instructors, this is the most exciting part of the design process. This is perfectly understandable, since program delivery is where the instructor meets the learner—precisely the interaction that most workplace learning professionals like best. Moreover, program delivery is concrete, familiar work with tangible outcomes, which are additional reasons for its appeal. It is important, however, to make sure that the content of an instructional program receives due attention in the design process.

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The Design Worksheet At Step 5, design teams typically use a worksheet something like the one in Figure 6-2. The purpose of the design worksheet is to plan in complete detail how to deliver instruction so that participants will learn what is needed for the successful attainment of a particular learning objective. The team creates a separate worksheet for each goal of the program, clustering these worksheets into modules or program sections. Recall that in the program structure assumed here, each module of the program contains one or more program goals, and each program goal is broken down into one or more terminal objectives. It is at the level of these last items, the learning objectives, where you use the design worksheet to outline specific program activities. Figure 6-2. The Instructional Design Worksheet Program name: ______________________________________ Worksheet date: _________________ Module #: ___________________________________________ Module name: ___________________ Program goal #: _______________________________________________________________________ (statement of goal, cognitive or behavioral) Training Objective 1

Activity

Timing

What will be done in the Length of time planned program to make sure for this activity participants acquire this piece of knowledge or this behavior (e.g., instructor lecture, showing and debriefing a video clip, group work, quiet time, role play with group feedback, etc.)

Materials Costs

Who

Whatever materials are necessary for this activity (a film, flipcharts, handouts, game material, etc.)

The parts played by each actor in the program (the role of the instructor, the participants, guests, etc.)

Costs of developing the materials needed for this activity

2 3 N TOTALS Total time estimated for this module

Hours/minutes

Total cost estimate: $

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The major design focus at this point is on the items in the activity column on the design worksheet. The work involved here is on the creative side of this process. Here is where instructional designers bring their science and art to bear—devising ways for people to learn what they are supposed to learn, and learn it faster, easier, better, and with greater retention than if they were merely left to their own devices. This is where the techniques and tricks of training are employed. Here is where the decisions are made to use live or mediated (self-paced) instruction or some other form of self-study, and whether or not to include pre-work. Here is where the choices are made concerning the use of instructional tools such as feedback instruments, games, role plays, or video to deliver information or for skill-practice.

Design Challenges The challenge of instructional design is heightened here because the design team has to create materials that will be used by others. This makes thoroughness a necessity. You must spell out every step and every nuance for each step. Experienced instructors can sum up a great deal in personal teaching notes using a single word or phrase. However, when others need to use the materials, the design team has to create and describe activities for each learning objective using a lot of detail. The team must always remember that others will be delivering the material. The designers themselves might decide to teach the pilot offering of the program and leave the final fine-tuning until the pilot is completed, but they will eventually have to be exhaustively explicit about every single instructional step, and incorporate all these details in a leader’s guide. The process of creating a leader’s guide will be described later in this chapter. A major responsibility is, of course, to see to it that the activities designed into a program are consistent with solid instructional design principles and adult learning theory. There must be variety in the activities, with more emphasis on interaction and group work than on readings or lecture. The design should draw on the experience and pre-existing knowledge of the learners. The program must accommodate individual differences, while at the same time clearly convey the messages that the organization wants people to hear and learn consistently. The program must reflect awareness that adults are motivated to learn by pragmatic need, rather than by the theoretical value of the material presented to them. The organization and its culture must always be the backdrop for the methods and activities that the program includes.


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Above all, designers must work with one eye always on the goal of the program: participant learning, above all else. The goal is not to create elegant materials or a clever design. It is, again, that our targeted group learns. At the same time, they should design programs that can be suspended when the required learning has taken place. A program’s activities, its instruction, and its very design are all totally geared to participant learning. When the learning has taken place, the astute professional gets out of the way. Good design keeps in mind that the program is a means to an end, not the end itself.

Program Development One way to organize programs into manageable segments is to develop small, self-contained modules that can easily be rearranged. Modules are rolled up and combined into units, and units are rolled up and combined into larger periods of instruction. However, nothing is sacred about the terminology used here; a variety of words and outlining approaches can be and are used by instructional designers to compartmentalize their programs—unit, section, segment, component, module, etc. In the academic realm, the equivalents are syllabus, unit, module, topic, and lesson. The program, having been framed overall in terms of content, must now be segmented so that the design team and ultimately the participants can focus on deliverable/learnable pieces of the content, one piece at a time. The practice we suggest is to divide programs into days, days into units, and units into modules. Modules are the smallest, basic divisions of a learning program. Each module delivers one or several learning objectives—cognitive or behavioral. It is, of course, possible to omit the unit level and just have a number of modules per day, in which case the modules would be numbered 1 through n (n represents an unknown number; in this case, it is the total number of modules) for each day, or 1 through n for the entire program. Whatever the decision as to levels of organization and terminology, one design worksheet per program goal builds the program from the bottom up. Programs can be linked together to form a curriculum or series of courses that lead as a whole to some larger, overall objective. Curricula are perhaps most often established for management development, where the organization has an interest not only in outcomes that can be delivered via individual programs, but also in a planned progression of programs spread over time. A leadership development curriculum, for example, is often a sequence of learning events that intersperses traditional classroom programs

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with developmental job rotations, university courses, etc. Other subject matter also lends itself to being organized into curricula, depending upon the organization and its interests. A good example of a curricular approach is the approach used by corporate universities, which develop extensive curricula based on the organization’s belief in the benefits of an integrated, long-term response to its learning needs. Stakeholders and Sponsorship The design worksheets should be shared across the whole design team and with others. The worksheet is a perfect tool for obtaining reviews from colleagues. It is also a good tool for getting feedback from various stakeholders in the organization concerning what the program is aiming at and how it is going about achieving that objective. Very often, particularly in the development of mission-critical management initiatives, a learning design team will set up some sort of formal sponsorship, often taking the form of a board of reviewers who provide input into the program content and evaluation plan, critique its proposed processes and materials, help select participants for its offerings, and evaluate the program at the pilot stage and thereafter. Sponsors can also play a role in the actual delivery of the program, kicking it off with an opening talk, teaching one or more of its modules, or hosting a reception or dinner as part of the agenda. In general, sponsors help establish the program’s validity for and credibility with its intended target population. Sponsors are almost always valuable resources that a design team should use. The design team and other stakeholders must ultimately review and accept the program as a whole. An ideal vehicle for this review is a module-by-module outline of the program mapped into the time frame the design team recommends. That is, once all learning objectives have been covered and the worksheets have been completed, each module is allocated a time slot in the program. The scheduling process is ongoing, so that the time required for the various instructional activities can fit into the total time available for the program. The ideal, of course, would be to design the activities and let the time requirements be simply a function of the design, but in the real world of instruction, this is not usually possible. There is almost always a requirement that the program take only X amount of time, a constraint the design team must accommodate.


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In any case, the design team produces an overall module-by-module outline of the program in the time allocated to it. Module worksheets should be attached for supporting details, with break times also included in the outline. The final result is the ultimate review and sign-off document, the full statement of what the program in question will deliver: what its topics are, what its participants will learn, what the instructional materials will be, and how the delivery of that material will be accomplished. A program outline for a corporate new-hire orientation program is provided as a sample in Figure 6-3. Program Costs The worksheet shown in Figure 6-2 includes a cost estimate for developing materials for each activity. Development costs are totaled at the end of each worksheet. Such estimates are important, because there is usually a dollar limit at work in the design process. While design should ideally dictate the program’s budget, the reality is that the reverse usually occurs—budgetary limits are often set first. The total cost of developing the program is a major factor in its design; many designs are returned to the team for rework because a budget has not been submitted for the program. The design team must also give consideration to the cost of rolling the program out once it is designed. The costs of developing a program are not limited to design factors such as the cost of making the master of a film or creating a workbook or a set of handouts. There are also implementation costs: expenses related to making participant copies of master documents, the purchase of consumables the program requires, and so on. Implementation costs must be factored into the design team’s choices of materials and activities, and must be included in its estimates. Whether the design team begins with an up-front budgetary limit or is given a free hand to propose a program and accept its associated costs, the budget for development and rollout must be approved before the design team can proceed any further. A major cost consideration is whether the development work will be done in-house or outsourced to outside contract resources. We will discuss internal vs. external development in a later section.

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Figure 6-3. Sample Outline for a Corporate Orientation Program Program:

New-Hire Orientation (one day, no units, module details attached).

Start: 8:30 a.m. (coffee available at 8:00 a.m.)

Minutes

Module 1:

Ice Breaker and introductions (Facilitator-led)

30

Module 2:

“From Today to 2020 – The Company Vision” (Guest Lecture – Management Committee Member)

30

Group Exercise – Implications of Vision/Values (Facilitator-led, group reports/drawings)

60

Out: 10:30 a.m. — BREAK —

15

Back: 10:45 a.m. Module 3:

“How We Make Our Money” (Guest Lecture – Business Development Group)

45

Business Simulation (whole-class exercise); Tracing a customer purchase through the company “What We Look Like This Morning” Facilitator Lecturette on organization at the Corporate level and major staff resources Out: 12:45 p.m. — LUNCH —

15

Back: 2:00 p.m. Module 4:

“Where We Came From” (Video, company history)

Module 5:

“Where We Are and Where We’re Going” Current major business Initiatives: Teams of program participants interview visitors representing each initiative and prepare team presentation to whole class. Visitors present for questions (activity includes break time)

Module 6:

Company Jeopardy (Facilitator-led game as review of the day)

End: 5:00 p.m.

30


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Instructional Materials The program reviews have been received, the original plans have been modified to the satisfaction of the design team and its reviewers/sponsors, and the budget has been approved. Now work can start on the development of activity materials. This is often started earlier, but it is better to wait until the team is certain about the final form of the program and the budget. The design worksheet in Figure 6-2 provides the planning guide for the materials needed for program activities. The next step is to actually create these materials, which can range from the simple to the complex, from the everyday to the unusual. Lectures, games, a vast array of group activities, individual work, simple reading, case studies— both paper and electronic versions—and computer-based and simulation materials are examples of program activities that support learning. Delivery strategies are limited only by the imagination of the designers and such constraints as cost and time. The only other proviso is that participant learning must be the most important consideration of all. There are many good off-the-shelf instructional materials. Two magazines, T+D (the national publication from ASTD) and Training (Lakewood Publications), are filled issue after issue with ideas for a wide variety of instructional materials and approaches. In their articles, regular features, and advertisements, both magazines offer suggestions, samples, experiences (successful and not), and sources for materials. In addition, several annual publications specialize in instructional materials. Among them are The Training and Development Yearbook, edited by Carolyn Nilson and published by Prentice Hall; Annual: Developing Human Resources, edited by J. William Pfeiffer and published by Jossey-Bass/Pfeiffer; and Games Trainers Play, by William Scannell. These particular resources have been published for several years now, and are filled with games, exercises, and ideas to use, as well as articles discussing trends in the field and experiences with various kinds of materials. Internal vs. External Development A learning and performance department can outsource or hire people to help with its workload, especially when time or cost is an issue. Consulting costs will vary, depending upon locale, type of assignment, subject matter, level of the contractor’s experience, length of the consulting relationship, frequency of involvement, and other

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factors. At the time of this book’s publication, consultant costs in New York City range from $1,000 to $1,500 per day for program delivery, and somewhat less for simple design consulting. Consulting help can also be purchased at a fixed price for a stipulated product, rather than for a daily rate. In New York City, hiring a consulting firm to develop a three-day management learning program from initial design through delivery of a pilot offering, complete with a leader’s guide and other materials (with the program then belonging totally to the client), will run in the neighborhood of $180,000 for a generic classroom program and $300,000 for a fully customized classroom program. The cost of other forms of instruction varies. The generic estimate for creating a video or a movie is $3,000 per finished minute for a professional-level, commercial-quality instructional film. Internet- based learning programs can cost $24,000 to $36,000 to develop an hour of instruction, with all the necessary support and ancillary materials included. Computer and Internet-mediated instruction is increasingly being created and used. Multimedia-based modules, which can employ sound, moving and interactive graphics, and/or video modules, can be delivered to learners’ desktops, laptops, notebooks, iPods, and even their cell phones. Cost estimates for state-of-the-art multimedia programs typically run around the $60,000 mark for each finished hour, again including all appropriate support materials. External Design Money is not the only and perhaps not the most important consideration when it comes to deciding on either in-house or outsourced consulting resources. Consider these others: •

Desirability of the task. For some people, design is often the most creative and exciting part of their work; some people even consider design as having a higher status than other learning development tasks. Thus, it might be wise to keep design in-house; if there are unexpected resource shortages, you can always outsource some of the learning and performance department’s delivery responsibilities instead.

•

Credibility. An outside consultant might add to your understanding about what other organizations are doing in similar situations and offer services that are creative and respected. This perception of outside consultants is not always


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correct, but it is no less real for the learners and can be used to good advantage when people pay attention and learn. On the other hand, there are times when only an insider will do. A program on the organization’s strategic direction should not be taught by an outsider, however, no matter how gifted or experienced. •

Skill. It is entirely possible that the learning and performance department’s own staff members won’t have the experience or knowledge to handle the design task. Consulting assistance is absolutely necessary here. A team approach, with insiders learning from outsiders, provides win-win possibilities.

•

Time. It is entirely possible that you will need a program right away. Then outside help is imperative, particularly if the outside contractor already has a program on the shelf that fills the learning need being targeted, even partially.

Evaluation in Instructional Design Evaluation is discussed elsewhere in great detail. However, for emphasis here, consider the following two points about evaluating design: 1. One kind of evaluation examines the learning outcomes during the program design phase. Designers must take the time during the design process to ask themselves over and over, for each objective, “How will we know this particular outcome has been achieved?” Sometimes, design teams even add this question as another column on the design worksheet pictured in Figure 6-2. 2. The second kind of evaluation concerns the quality of the design itself. Instructional design covers the activities planned to deliver the learning objectives: the sequence, the instructional logic, the materials developed for use in the program, and the instructions for their use. These components of design must be evaluated repeatedly in the design process itself to make sure they serve the required learning objectives and meet the criteria of good instruction in general and adult learning principles in particular. The design team itself must constantly evaluate its own work as it proceeds through the design process, but it is important that others assess the design outcomes on these dimensions, too. These individuals can be department colleagues, sponsors, and clients of the program(s) being developed, and particularly potential participants. It is impor-

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tant to involve others in the evaluative process because they will provide fresh and different perspectives. A very productive way to involve key stakeholders in evaluating the design is to test the materials in a pilot offering of the program. Both of these strategies involve getting what has been designed conceptually or in draft form into usable shape, and then actually delivering it to an audience. The resultant reactions are factored back into the design process. Pilot offerings in particular are powerful ways for the design team to test its ideas in a simulation of the real world. And pilot offerings need not necessarily wait until the program is 100 percent complete, either: Pieces of the program (i.e., a particular module or a specific exercise or a new feedback instrument) can be tested with sample participants throughout the design path. Pilots are especially important if there are differing audiences to whom the program must be delivered, such as participants at very different levels within the organization, or people from different geographies or cultures. The most important principle in evaluation is this: It must be planned up-front. It cannot be left to last, treated as an afterthought and left until the program activities have been identified and the materials have been developed. Earlier chapters dealt with evaluation methods and strategies, and that material will obviously not be repeated here. What does bear repeating is that the overriding goal of evaluation itself has to be front-and-center: Does the program help its participants learn what the organization needs them to learn? Do they apply what they have learned at their work? These are the essential questions that the design team must have answered if they are to be sure the learning objectives have been achieved. The answers to these questions will drive the instructional activities, methods, and materials the team develops in the body of its design work. Thus, evaluation cannot be left to the end of the project. It must be considered at every stage in the design process.

The Leader’s Guide A leader’s guide is critical to the design of a program where content will be delivered wholly or in part through live, classroom-oriented instruction (Chapter 7). A leader’s guide might be the same thing as an instructor/facilitator/trainer guide, a teaching outline (as distinct from a content outline), a teaching manual, or a lesson plan. What you call yours is not so important; we use the term “leader’s guide” here, but the point is that


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it is a major design task. The leader’s guide is the ultimate how-to instructional manual: It tells the instructor how to use the program’s activities and materials to enable the participants to achieve the program’s objectives. It is much more than a mere content outline or list of the points to be covered in the program. Such a guide provides detailed instructions on how to deliver the program content, what to say, when to say it, how to say it, and how to make transitions from module to module. It is not a script. It is, rather, a statement of all the talking points the instructor is expected to make; it states what must be said, while allowing the instructor to put it into his or her own words. The two goals underlying the development of a leader’s guide are to ensure consistency of content throughout the program and provide delivery assistance to the instructors. Sometimes the organization needs consistency of message; a leader’s guide can thus be a way to control delivery, where little or no deviation from the guide is allowable. More frequently, a leader’s guide gives the instructor a running start, eliminating the need to do program preparation from scratch, since it provides the bulk of what needs to be said. Good examples are usually found for corporate programs where the same content must be delivered all across its reach, or where vendors certify instructors in its customer companies or on the open market. A guide for the instructor or facilitator should be the design team’s final effort. It is often done in progressive stages of draft versions, each version approximating the final product and fully completed only when the results of program pilot(s), if any, are considered. A practical way of getting the leader’s guide written involves the use of outside consulting resources. Members of the design team can teach the pilot activities and hire a consultant to observe the pilot and use the detailed program outlines and design worksheets to document what the design team instructors did and said. The consultant then uses these documented observations and supplied materials to produce the leader’s guide. When you have purchased an existing external program or have an outside consultant design a new program, the learning and performance department should be given detailed content outlines and a leader’s guide. Use a detailed content outline to see what a program will deliver so you can make reasonable judgments as to the program’s fit with what is organizationally needed. A leader’s guide will specify not only what will be delivered, but how the delivery will be achieved. This information will help you make reasonable judgments concerning the content, quality, methods, and schedule of a program being considered for purchase.

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Use good judgment regarding the what and the how of a program. Demand to see both. Consultants and vendors will sometimes balk at this, especially if you request a copy of their version of a leader’s guide. Fear that one’s intellectual property rights will be infringed upon are part of such resistance, but there are contractual ways to protect such rights. Nondisclosure agreements are a standard feature of research-to-purchase agreements. In some cases, there is no true leader’s guide because it is an enormously demanding task to produce one. However, you should insist on a leader’s guide as well as a content outline. One of the reasons a consultant instructor commands a larger daily fee than a standard consultant is that the instructor must spend time getting ready to teach. A leader’s guide or instructor handbook is essentially the documentation of that preparation, and it ought to be available for review (with the proper professional and legal safeguards). When self-paced instructional materials are to be used outside the classroom (see Chapter 8), you will need learner facilitation guidelines. If you plan to use such solutions, be sure that the support materials are used, and plan to incorporate feedback about their value into the total package.

Summary The process of designing a learning intervention begins with the needs assessment that details what it is that people in the organization need to learn. These learning needs are grouped into logical clusters, which then become the planned outcomes of programs to be created: cognitive skills (knowing content) or behavioral skills (knowing how to do something). Program design, typically done by a team of people, is where you progressively narrow the needed content down to specific goals that can be defined as terminal learning objectives, and delivered in the modules of a program. Module by module, the design team plans the activities that will enable program participants to achieve the learning objectives for that module. The modules are then aggregated to form the program as a whole. One of the key challenges for the design team is to create instructional materials for use by others, not simply for themselves. An important design activity is to have the program plans reviewed by people outside the design team, key stakeholders who bring differing perspectives to the design work and help ensure its applicability across organizational boundaries. Pilot offerings of the program also test its usefulness to learners, all the more so if pilot participants are a representative sample of the program’s target audience. Program


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costs for design and rollout are important factors that must be considered by the design team, but the decision to either develop the program internally or hire an external consultant to do it will also have to be based on such factors as credibility, time, skill, and task status. Evaluation in the design phase of the Instructional Development Cycle focuses (a) on whether or not and how well the identified learning outcomes have been achieved, and (b) on the extent to which the program materials reflect sound instructional practice and the principles of adult learning. The final product of the design effort for a program of live instruction is a leader’s guide, a formidable but essential element.

Think It Through 1. Why can the design process discussed in this chapter be characterized as one of progressive narrowing? Read the short case study about The Imago 1024 that follows—Ideas in Action. Answer this question with regard to the case: What learning initiatives do you think the Eidekon Corporation will need to create in this case? Answer in terms of modules. 2. Explain the meaning of cognitive skills and of behavioral skills. What are three key differences between them as learning outcomes? Which type of skill do you think is easier to prepare for? Why? 3. What are some of the advantages of having the design of a program reviewed by people outside the design team? Who are some of the typical stakeholders in an organization that is sponsoring a learning initiative? 4. What kinds of costs must an instructional design team consider? What are some of the key factors that go into these costs?

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Ideas in Action 1. A blank copy of the instructional design worksheet in Figure 6-2 can be found at the end of this chapter. Use all the columns to: a. Plan the program activities for one of the modules required for Eidekon Corporation’s Imago 1024. or b. Plan the activities for a real-life program at your place of work. 2. Repeat action la or lb in teams of four to five classmates, all working together. 3. Prepare whatever notes you need for a four-minute lecture about any topic you choose—your favorite sport or time of year, the best vacation you’ve ever taken, the best/worst teacher you ever had in school, etc. Do not give the talk; just prepare it. Then create a leader’s guide for the talk you have just prepared that includes whatever notes and materials you think someone else would need in order to present your exact same four-minute talk. Test your leader’s guide: Pair up with a classmate, give your partner your leader’s guide, and see if he or she can, in fact, give your talk from your leader’s guide. Your partner’s experience in using your materials should rule here. Report the results of this exercise to the class. 4. Contact a working instructor in an organization and explore that organization’s use of leader’s guides. Discuss how they are produced and how they are used. Ask to see a sample. 5. Contact a vendor who certifies instructors in its programs, and explore the materials used for certification. Explore with the vendor how important it is for them to manage or control what instructors do with their material in a classroom. What kind of programs might call for the same kind of management/control of instruction inside a company?

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Make a Decision Case Study The Eidekon Corporation manufactures and sells office copying equipment to the business marketplace, and is about to introduce a new model copier, the Imago 1024, to market. Eidekon’s product development department notified the learning and performance department of the imminent release of the new copier, and the learning and performance department people immediately conferred with the company’s sales representatives about what they wanted in the 1024. While the new model is not totally dissimilar to other models in the company line, there is a clear need on the part of the sales reps to learn everything about the 1024. Consultation with sales management and the product development staff (two kinds of relevant subject matter experts here) has made it clear that the sales reps need detailed knowledge of the functions, features, and benefits of this new product. (a) They must be able to identify customer needs and explain the 1024’s features and benefits verbally as solutions to identified needs. (b) They must put together a presentation of the family of products into which the 1024 fits (an important contextual consideration for customers, and an important step in differentiating it from other Eidekon models). (c) They must be able to demo the product completely and flawlessly. (d) Finally, because Eidekon is a small company and has a tradition of its salespeople providing customers with after-sales support, the sales reps must also be able to install the 1024, educate customer personnel in its operation, troubleshoot problems after installation, and make sure customers know how to acquire and deal with the consumable supplies that the 1024 requires—toner, ink, paper, etc. Needs analysis data have also surfaced a need for supervisory training of the managers of the sales reps. These managers need a functional overview of the 1024—not the detailed knowledge necessary to operate and troubleshoot, but sufficient knowledge to allow them to discuss the copier intelligently with potential customers and guide and manage their sales reps in marketing it. The instructional design task is now yours! You can use Figure 6-4 to create your learning initiative.

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Figure 6-4. The Instructional Design Worksheet Program name: ______________________________________ Worksheet date: _________________ Module #: ___________________________________________ Module name: ___________________ Program goal #: _______________________________________________________________________ (statement of goal, cognitive or behavioral) Training Objective

Activity

Timing

Material Costs

1

2

3

N TOTALS Total time estimated for this module

Hours/minutes

Total cost estimate: $

Who


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Additional Resources Eitington, Julius E. 2002. The Winning Trainer. 4th edition. Boston: ButterworthHeinemann. A wide-ranging, easy-to-use collection of training delivery techniques and materials. This paperback handbook provides a wide array of hands-on illustrations and handouts for instructional use. Furjanic, Sheila W., and Laurie A. Trotman. 2000. Turning Training into Learning: How to Design and Deliver Programs That Get Results. New York: American Management Association. An easy-to-read handbook that focuses on learning as well as on instructional methods and practices. Chapter 2, “Designing Learner-Based Training,” is especially helpful. Romiszowski, A. J. 1984. Designing Instructional Systems: Decision Making in Course Planning and Curriculum Design. New York: Nichols Publishing Co. This classic book describes the major areas of decision making that face the instructional designer. The author describes the design process as a heuristic, dynamic problem-solving process. Silberman, Mel. 1990. Active Training: A Handbook of Techniques, Design, Case Examples, and Tips. San Diego: Lexington Books/University Associates, Inc. Case examples make this book a useful resource for instructional designers. Its emphasis is on why training professionals make specific design choices.

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Web sites http://www.astd.org As the home page of the American Society for Training and Development, the site includes a detailed listing of member services, as well as links to a multitude of publications. http://www.trainingmag.com This homepage of Lakewood Publications lists and describes the services and products Lakewood provides. If you can’t find it here, it probably doesn’t exist.

CHAPTER 7

Enabling Learning in the Classroom In this chapter, we will do the following: • • • • • • •

Examine the contributions of teachers who have made a difference. Describe instructional techniques that work for large groups. Discuss instructional techniques that work for small groups. Describe a variety of technologies that can support synchronous distance learning. Discuss situations where distance learning is desirable. Present guidelines for developing instructional materials and learning aids. Summarize the considerations involved in managing live instruction.

The Teacher in a Classroom A teacher in a classroom with a group of students is the picture most of us conjure up when we hear the word “instruction.” Teachers with students are a part of human history, a constant in our universal collective consciousness. From the sensei in snowbound Himalayan monasteries and the griots of storytelling cultures to the academies of ancient Greece and Rome and the books and movies of our own time, it is the teacher who makes a chief difference in people’s lives. The list of teachers from the movies includes Robert Donat in Goodbye Mr. Chips, Glen Ford in Blackboard Jungle, Sandy Duncan in Up the Down Staircase, Sidney Poitier in To Sir with Love, John Voight in The Water is Wide, Robin Williams in The Dead Poets’ Society, and Richard Dreyfuss in Mr. Holland’s Opus. Memorable or forgettable, help or hindrance, a teacher in a classroom is the chief means of instruction for most of us, from kindergarten through graduate school, and there is usually one who stands out above all others. Live instruction is still the most frequently used form of instruction in the support of adult learning. In this chapter, we describe a wide range of instructional methods you can use to enable learning in your classroom. We’ll explore distance learning options that can support live instruction and describe instructional materials 199

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and aids that can be used effectively. This section will cover the use of a leader’s guide and conclude with suggestions for managing live instruction.

Whole Group Methods In many programs, the instructor works with the program participants as a whole. The methods for doing so involve fundamentally using lectures and discovery learning techniques. For a given learning goal, these two strategies can be used individually or in concert. Let’s look at each strategy in turn. The Lecture Method Traditionally, the lecture has been the primary method of classroom instruction; it is a very efficient way to present a great deal of information to large groups. Lectures leverage the expertise of the teacher so that others can share in it and make good use of the teacher’s time. Lectures enable the teacher to be in control and accomplish what is planned for a specific class. Some educators, however, argue that the lecture should be used only sparingly. “If You Must Lecture…” is the title of Julius Eitington’s chapter on the lecture method, and he is not enthusiastic about its use.1 “Problem- laden,” he calls it, and he is not alone in this assessment. It is primarily instructor-centered, not learner-centered. Long stretches of uninterrupted instructor talk, with nothing else going on, is usually a recipe for poor learning. When a Lecture Is Appropriate. Given these cautionary remarks, there are many situations where a lecture, delivered by a knowledgeable instructor, is clearly the best delivery method. A lecture is particularly useful when the learning goal is informational; it is an efficient way to present information about a topic that learners need to hear, see, and have the opportunity to ask questions about. The lecture format can be used effectively in situations ranging from an announcement that the organization is opening a new branch office in Milan to a description of an organization’s policy concerning a new tuition-reimbursement benefits program. Also appropriate for lecture are those points in a program where something needs to be explained more fully. In a workshop on writing skills, for example, a short lecture on how to avoid overuse of the passive voice might be a good way to introduce exercises in

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active/passive sentence construction. Sometimes a procedure to be followed in the next segment of the program needs to be fully explained. In this case, the instructor might say the following: Your group will be responsible for developing a list of appropriate activities to solve the case. Keep in mind that teamwork is vital to your success here, so use the nominal group technique to ensure that everyone’s ideas are included. To use the nominal group technique, you’ll first… Such lecturettes (brief presentations of 2 to 10 minutes) provide information that other program activities process, reinforce, exemplify, and expand upon. If the program’s design calls for interactive, planned activities (e.g. a game or a role play), do not underestimate the importance of properly setting up these activities. The cleverest, bestdesigned exercise will flop if its participants do not understand what they are to do. The lecturette that introduces and explains the activity is crucial to this understanding, even though it is short. Directions and explanations are a critical instructional responsibility. Using the Lecture Method Effectively. In developing a lecture, keep a few major points in mind. First, anticipate your listeners and the relevance of the content to them, as well as their learning styles and motivation. Try to identify essential knowledge or skill outcomes that you can measure. Second, pay attention to preparation. A structured outline of the major points you wish to cover, illustrations, and time segments will be critical. It is often useful to have visual aids in the form of overhead transparencies or PowerPoint slides (see discussion later in this chapter). Learner copies of the slides distributed at the time of presentation also aids in their note-taking. Third, plan the execution or delivery of the lecture. An important aspect of lecturing is encouraging and handling questions from the program participants. Anticipate and welcome questions. A lecture should not be a situation in which the speaker is active and the listeners are passive. Active participation from the listeners is a way of clarifying and expanding on points the speaker has made, as well as a way of enabling the participants to tap into their own knowledge and experiences. The smart lecturer happily handles questions well. Questions that are received gratefully can be an occasion for wider learning; questions that are dismissed or put down suggest that the speaker’s point of view is the only one that counts.

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Questions and the responses to them early in a program will set the tone for the rest of the instruction: shared inquiry and curiosity and a penalty-free opportunity to learn from mistakes. Instructors must always be aware that the way a question is handled is as important as the answer because it is a message that will be heard and heeded by the questioner, as well as by all who are listening. Experienced lecturers suggest these practical techniques for handling questions:2 •

Listen to the learner and be sure you completely understand the question.

•

Maintain eye contact. Wait a second or two before you respond to be sure that the participant has stopped speaking.

•

Vary your reactions. Rephrase the question in your own words; ask for clarification, expansion, or examples; expand on what the participant has said; acknowledge the contribution (but also ask for another view) or nod or look interested, but remain silent.

Whatever its length or purpose, a lecture should engage its listeners as much as possible. Put variety and vitality into the verbal presentation by effectively using tone, volume, pitch, pace, phrasing, and repetition. Pause frequently for questions. Have participants write summaries and create lists. Break for small-group work. Stage a debate to engage learners. A lecturer in a classroom should present information visually, as well as through words. Flipcharts, overhead transparencies, and computer-generated presentations are common forms of visual aids. For the most part, such tools are readily available, inexpensive, straightforward, and capable of adding an important dimension to a verbal presentation. The lecturer’s goal is to get the ideas into the learners’ heads, rather than to simply present prepared materials. Make the presentation attractive and memorable, and pay attention to length. A wise, seasoned speech teacher put it this way: When you think about the length of your speech, plan to leave them hungry. You don’t want them to stop listening before you stop talking. Above all, you want them wishing you hadn’t stopped, rather than wishing you would!3 The final point we wish to make about lecturing is to conduct a follow-up evaluation of your lecture. A video recording of your performance can provide handsome dividends as you reflect on your presentation. You can also use peer reviews and feedback from participant reaction forms to improve your presentations.


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Discovery Methods Another approach to dealing with a class of students as a whole is to use the discovery method, which helps participants find things out for themselves or discover the content they are to learn. Note that the concept of discovery is consistent with adult learning theory. Through questions, cases, and other activities, the instructor draws on the knowledge and experience of the participants, relying on their judgment and involving them not merely as recipients of instruction, but also as generators of it. Unfortunately, discovery methods have the disadvantage of taking longer to get to the point than does a straight lecture. Moreover, discovery works well only when the participants have reasonable levels of knowledge and experience to draw upon. We will briefly explain three variations of the discovery methods: the Socratic method, the case study, and the informational treasure hunt, and will offer suggestions for their effective use. The Socratic Method Socrates, a philosopher–teacher in ancient Greece, made a practice of presenting information to his students by asking them questions rather than telling them what he wanted them to hear. The process drew from them collectively the points they were to learn, an approach that came to be called the Socratic method. This method is not to be confused with open or unstructured discussion in which learners control the direction of a discussion. In open discussion, participants digress (legitimately) into topics the instructor did not predict or perhaps even want. The Socratic method, on the other hand, is a tool the instructor consciously uses to lead learners to a particular answer through an established line of reasoning. The “leading” is accomplished through astute questioning.4 The Case Study The case study, common in professional schools and management training, provides a forum for a discussion of complex issues. Participants read a case or story in which real-world elements and the learning points to be acquired are contained. The reading of the case is often augmented by an assignment to outline the case or prepare written answers to a set of preplanned questions. Through class discussion, a class of experi-

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enced professionals can develop solutions that are far different from what the instructor expects or has heard before. As a result, the instructor usually joins in the learning. Informational Treasure Hunts Still another form of the discovery method is an informational treasure hunt. Participants are asked to make decisions about a carefully selected situation or problem by first finding relevant information in, for example, the organization’s personnel policy or code of ethics. Participants then discuss possible solutions and judgments based upon both their own experience and what they discovered in the policy guide or code. The chief design goal of this kind of exercise is for learners to be able to handle decision situations independently, yet remain aligned with organizational policy. Using Discovery Methods Effectively. Discovery methods can be put to good use by skilled instructors as a productive and engaging alternative or complement to a straight lecture. The instructor who uses the discovery method must prepare very thoroughly in advance by first developing good cases and questions. Some questions elicit the content of the case, to make sure the salient facts are understood by all. Other questions ask for conclusions, decisions, or recommendations. The questions, of course, cover the real instructional points that the session is constructed to deliver. C. Roland Christensen, a professor emeritus at Harvard University and a proponent of the use of case studies, suggests that instructors develop a typology, or inventory, of questions to help lead class discussions. Figure 7-1 shows such a typology of questions adapted from his work that is useful for many situations.5 The discussion leader should obviously know the target audience well. Discovery sessions are typically driven by the instructor, who should ensure that all learners participate over time. The instructor must plan discussions partially around knowledge of particular individuals in a class—those who never volunteer, for example, or those who tend to dominate discussions. Choose in advance how you will address the first question—to the class as a whole or to a specific person. It is the instructor’s responsibility to find a graceful way to make sure that everyone is a part of the discussion.


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Figure 7-1. Typology of Questions for Leading Case Discussions

Open-ended questions: What was your first reaction to the situation? What key points do you recall? Diagnostic questions: Who were the key players in the case? Who had the most to win or lose from the proposed operational changes? What was at the root of the problem? Information-seeking questions: What are the organization’s procedures and rules for backing up data? What part of the copyright law addresses how application software can be archived? Challenge (testing) questions: What are your reasons for saying that? What led you to this conclusion? What might your opposition say? Action questions: What steps should be taken? What procedures should be followed? Questions on priority and sequence: Given the organization’s goals and resources, what should we do first? Second? Third? Prediction questions: If we implement this policy, what might be the outcomes? If nothing is done, which department would be impacted the most? The least? Hypothetical questions: What would have been the results if X had not occurred? What would have happened if Y had been outsourced? Questions of extension: What implications can you draw from the results of this case? What would be the impact if this happens in our organization here and now? Questions of generalization: Based on your study of video conferencing, what do you consider to be the major forces that support the use of this technology?

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Small-Group Methods Another important way to instruct is to divide a class of participants into teams of two to eight people each for activities that bring about the desired learning. Small-group methods can be used to encourage conversations about a lecture or case-study points, or to provide participants with an opportunity to hear their colleagues’ viewpoints on topics. As discussed here, small-group methods—discussions, games, simulations, and role plays—can provide strong vehicles for learning. Small-Group Discussions and Reports Perhaps the most common small-group activity is a group discussion on a topic, followed by group reporting of what it discussed and what it concluded. You can ask each small group to write its discussion points on a flipchart and nominate a teammate or two to present the chart to the entire class. Other options for small-group reporting depend on time and resources and what will work with the participants and their culture. The options range all across the presentation spectrum: •

All members of the small group, rather than just a single spokesperson, are part of the team presentation.

•

Discussion teams are supplied with video equipment and are asked to display their presentations on videotape.

•

The small groups express their findings in a creative way: a short play, a song, a drawing, etc.

Such small-group strategies not only provide variety, but are also excellent ways to tap into the creative, playful sides of the program participants and allow them to use their multiple intelligences (see Chapter 5). Providing a team of adults with crayons or felt-tip markers and asking them to draw a colorful picture of the desired future state of their organization breaks through the formality and discipline with which professionals normally operate. While such techniques offer powerful potential, it is extremely important that the instructor make sure none of the participants are embarrassed or uncomfortable in any way, and that the activities are fundamentally acceptable in the culture of the organization. As always, situational fit is a crucial element of successful learning activities.


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Games and Simulations Games are icebreakers, exercises, illustrations, or activities that support learning. Newstrom and Scannell, co-authors of the series Games Trainers Play, explain that games require the use of props and are typically brief, inexpensive, low-risk, and adaptable to many situations. Simulations, on the other hand, allow students to engage in activities that are akin to realistic situations. While more conventional methods are best used to achieve cognitive objectives, games and simulations can favorably impact learner motivation and participation. For example, the exercise in Figure 7-2 on the following page can be used as an icebreaker or to make an interesting opener for a program on creativity. Content-related games such as the TV quiz shows Jeopardy and Wheel of Fortune can be used as models to create training activities, as can well-known board games such as Trivial Pursuit or Monopoly. The instructor uses the formats of these well-known games, and fits the content of the program into the game’s content. Some simulations have been designed specifically for instructional purposes, such as “The Prisoner’s Dilemma,” in which participants are arrested and charged with a serious crime. This particular simulation introduces learners to plea bargaining and the workings of the criminal justice system. Thick reference binders of ice breakers, games, and exercises are readily available and offer materials suitable for use or adaptation for a wide variety of learning goals.6 Using Games and Simulations Effectively. Games tend to have a competitive aspect when one or more teams compete for points, placement, or prizes. To balance the composition of the teams, consider the personalities, skills, and experiences of team members. Simulations are more often designed to place students in a real-world environment, sometimes containing a competitive aspect. Games and simulations can be expensive to develop, and will typically take several hours or more to run. Essential to their effectiveness is building in time for group discussion about key learning points.

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Figure 7-2. Sample Creativity Exercise

1. By adding one line or stroke, turn the following into a 6: IX 2. What is the ordering in the following numbers? 8, 5, 4, 9, 1, 6, 3, 2 3. What is the next letter in the following sequence? T T F F S 4. What is the pattern that differentiates the following two groups? Group 1:

A E F H I

Group 2:

B C D G J

Source: From a Robert Bostrom workshop presentation at the University of Baltimore. Any number of answers are correct. One set of correct solutions is: (1) place an “S” before the IX; (2) alphabetic; (3) “S” for seven; (4) Group 1 consists of straight-line letters; Group 2 consists of curved letters.

Role Plays We do not develop skills by listening to lectures. When the learning objectives are behavioral, it is imperative that learners have the chance to practice or try out the prescribed methods and get feedback on how well they did. Keyboarding skills and interpersonal communication skills and any other kind of skills needed in the workplace cannot be acquired without practice, practice, practice, as well as opportunities to make mistakes in a safe, penalty-free, environment. The amount of practice required will vary from skill to skill and from individual to individual, but practice is always necessary. Role plays are excellent ways for participants to practice skills they are learning in a program. Role-playing typically takes the form of two or more program participants enacting various roles while the instructor and other program participants observe and offer feedback when the role play concludes. In fact, role plays are sometimes referred to as skill practices. For example, supervisory personnel who need to learn how to conduct staff performance appraisals might use role playing to practice exactly what


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they will be doing later. In exercises where one individual plays the role of supervisor and another plays the role of the staff person, participants have an opportunity to see what might happen when the skill is actually applied. In this example, the point of the role play would be to see how the role player—the supervisor—handles situations where he or she is expected to work with a staff member to settle on mutually agreeable goals or provide coaching for skill improvement. You can also use role plays to practice techniques that help supervisors describe what they have observed in behavioral, nonjudgmental terms calculated not to stir up defensive reactions. Using Role Plays Effectively. Good, useful feedback is important to the success of role plays, and participants can provide excellent feedback to each other. All participants in small-group sessions learn, not just the individuals who are performing. Some people believe that they learn more when they are observers. The instructor should guide participants in how to give feedback and provide them with a template to capture their observations for maximum results. The key is to get observers to focus on specifics rather than on generalities, and this often requires participant coaching. To understand the importance of coaching in peer feedback situations, consider the following responses given by participants about a colleague’s performance in a role play:7 1. Megan did well as supervisor. 2. Megan worked well with Jonathan to identify the objectives. 3. Megan made sure Jonathan understood what he was going to have to do by asking him to repeat the objectives in his own words. The third example provides Megan with the most specific information on what she did well, the tactics she used, and how she involved her partner. The first example is of no use at all, other than to make Megan feel good. Likewise, while the second response is better, it is still too general to be very helpful. Megan—and her observers—will learn only if the feedback is detailed and specific. Role plays and other practice activities can be made more intense and more powerful if you use video. Video-recording a skill practice allows learners to observe their own behaviors. Video recording is very helpful for most people, as learners can view their actions in private and do their role play again until they are pleased with the outcome. Learners are often their own worst critics in such situations. Keep in mind that

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the use of video recording adds a significant dimension of complexity to a program in terms of time, equipment, and physical facilities. Other ways to use role plays include doing the role play in a “fishbowl” style: Role players perform in front of classmates who form a circle around them as though they were observing a fishbowl. The observation group then discusses how well the role players demonstrated the targeted skills and provide feedback to the players. When time permits, invite different participants to perform the role over again. The fishbowl technique is not terribly complex, but it does put pressure on participants to perform for an audience. It can even put the focus on competitiveness, on performing better than the last set of players. These nuances can easily interfere with the role play’s primary learning value.

Distance Learning Distance learning is a form of instruction used when learners are geographically or organizationally dispersed or few qualified instructors are available to reach a large target audience. Communication technology must be available to support interactions with the instructor and with other classmates. Distance learning can be either synchronous (an instructor in real time leads a class session) or asynchronous (a live instructor is not necessarily present at the time a learner is using course materials). Asynchronous learning is considered a form of mediated or self-paced learning and will be discussed in detail in Chapter 8. There are a wide range of communication/conferencing tools that enable instructors and learners in different places to meet in real time for audio conferencing, videoconferencing, and computer conferencing (the use of groupware tools). We’ll look at these options next. Audio Conferencing Audio conferencing refers to voice-only interaction via telephone or speakerphone. Audio conferencing can be used in many different types of learning situations where people need to hear information and have direct communication with the information-giver and one another. Examples of its application include informational announcements about new products or markets or new operational policies and procedures.


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The only hardware needed for an audio conference is an ordinary telephone; however, a speakerphone, which frees the listener’s hands, is useful. When multiple sites are involved, meet-me bridges are needed to tie the communication links together. In such cases, participants either call into a central service, or the central service calls and connects each site at a given time. Facsimile machines and electronic whiteboards can be used to send graphs, charts, or pictures between/among conference sites. Videoconferencing Initially, videoconferencing was heralded as a way to lower instructor and student costs. Today, however, the videoconference’s biggest selling point is the timeliness and convenience it offers: quick communication, with little disruption in normal work patterns. Videoconferencing allows participants to observe facial expressions and body language, which are lost in text-based, audio-only, or chat conferencing. Videoconferencing can be one-way video, two-way audio, or two-way video. One-way videoconferencing systems allow the instructor to be both heard and seen from remote sites connected to each other and the instructor. Usually, a voice connection is also established from the participants back to the instructor, allowing for two-way audio. Two-way videoconferencing systems, on the other hand, allow all participants to see and hear each other. Either form of conferencing has the potential to closely emulate a traditional classroom, because it allows for learner-learner as well as learner-instructor interaction. Marketing departments, for example, find videoconferencing a fast, effective way to disseminate new product information to a diverse sales force. Videoconferencing has also been effectively used at manufacturing sites, where programs in such areas as quality control can be offered without pulling employees off the job for any length of time. In some organizations, specially equipped rooms have been created to support videoconferencing. Such dedicated facilities are designed to account for acoustics, lighting, seating, and technology placement. Increasingly, however, videoconferencing is moving to the desktop computer, a result of compressed digital transmission technology and increasing bandwidth in transmission lines. Small, high-quality desktop systems allow for communication directly to and from the user’s workstation. Room-sized video systems are expensive and complex, but desktop videoconferencing is relatively inexpensive, simple, and readily available in today’s marketplace. Figure 7-3 lists several vendors. The only technology required is a standard computer with sound capability, and software downloaded from the vendor.

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The downloaded software allows a session’s host to replicate the host computer screens on the desktops of all the users logged on, to explain the screens being shown, and to have participants follow instructions and try out the features on their own desktops. All those logged on are also audio-connected so they can interact with each other. The host can enable any of the users present to take over the host screen to show or try something. Participants typically take part at their own desks rather than in a conference room. Video sessions can be set up quickly and conferees may be located anywhere. The constraint is time zones, not geography. Figure 7-3. Sources for Desktop Videoconferencing Products CU-SeeMe (CUseeMe Networks) NetMeeting (Microsoft) MeetingPoint (CUseeMe Networks) PictureTel (PictureTel) PictureTalk (Pixion, Inc.) iChat AV

cuseeme.com Microsoft.com cuseeme.com picturetel.com pixion.com apple.com/ichat

Computer Conferencing and Groupware An increasingly number of learning initiatives rely on software that supports synchronous Internet or Intranet communication, including instant messaging, chat rooms, and other groupware tools. Instant messaging allows users to see who else is online. A user can send a message that instantly pops up on the addressee’s screen, and two or more users can have an interactive discussion. Chat sessions allow larger groups to communicate either publicly or privately just by typing to each other. Some products in this category are akin to instant messaging and chat sessions, with the addition of audio and video. Groupware tools support group communication and problem solving that skilled facilitators can use in classroom settings; these tools are more fully discussed in Chapter 10. Using Distance Learning Tools Effectively Synchronous distance learning has become a very real and viable teaching method, and success stories abound in organizations, as well as in traditional academic institutions. We explore ways to use distance learning tools effectively in this next section.


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Selecting and Presenting the Content. Distance learning that only uses lecture formats is very unpopular. In such situations, the sending camera typically zooms in on the lecturer, who talks or reads from a prepared script. Such “talking heads” instruction is relatively uncommon today; lecturers now know how important it is to give audiences ample opportunity for interaction. When you wish to use conferencing technologies for instruction, pay attention to two key areas. The first is the technical quality of the transmission. Support technicians usually make sure that video and audio transmissions are established. Students at the remote site must be able to see the instructor and any visual aids that are used. Low audio quality, even more than poor video quality, greatly reduces comprehension. The instructor can quickly learn such operation skills as how to operate the camera, the facsimile, and the computer, while staying within the physical limits of the camera and microphones. Such skills come by hands-on experience with the tools, and practice, practice, practice! The second key area to attend to is the adaptation of traditional stand-and-deliver techniques to the medium being used. Instructors must be sure to employ a full range of adult-oriented, learner-centered activities, (e.g., small-group activities and role plays). To keep remote learners interested and motivated, the instructor should encourage learner participation by directing questions to individuals at remote sites by name, and pausing frequently for participant comments or questions. Once again, proficiency comes with practice. Professionals who have evaluated instructors’ use of distance-learning technologies note that technology itself does not make a poor instructor good; it will only allow him or her to reach more people. However, technology can make a good instructor even better. All good instructors know their target audience and stick to their learning objectives, no matter the environment. Using distance-learning technology effectively requires additional planning in these areas. Such preplanning on the part of the instructor makes for a good learning experience for everyone. See Figure 7-4 for a summary of this discussion about live instructional techniques. This table lists situations where a variety of live instructional approaches are used, along with their advantages and disadvantages. Selecting the “right” instructional technique requires that the instructor determine how learners can learn in the most effective and efficient way, given the content to be delivered, the audience, and the time frame available.

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Figure 7-4. Advantages and Disadvantages of Selected Live Instructional Techniques Approach

Commonly used in situations where…

Advantages

Disadvantages

Lecture

The learning goal is informational

Instructor can reach large Speaker is active; learners are numbers of participants at passive. To be effective, must once be coupled with other learning strategies (e.g., small group discussions, games)

Lecturette

Program activities must be explained or content provided through other means (e.g., if a video or small-group exercise needs to be expanded upon)

Provides an opportunity for the instructor to set up learning experiences or expand on the content of exercises

The Socratic Method

Learners have a reasonable amount of knowledge about the topic already

Requires high involvement Requires much planning on the on the part of learners part of the instructor and great confidence to handle things when the Q & A does not go as planned

Case studies

The goal is to teach skills of problem identification and diagnosis

Draws on the knowledge Relevant cases are difficult to and experience of learners create; instructor must be flexible and able to take risks

Informational treasure hunts

The goal is to teach people how to find, use, and apply existing information

Learners learn how to find Time consuming; learner information on their own motivation is key to successful implementation

Small-group discussions

The learning activity is to Offers learners a chance encourage discussion of topics to interact with each other or problem solving

Can be taken over by powerful personalities; reluctant participants may still not contribute

Games and simulations

The instructional goal is to establish interest in a topic, or serve as an icebreaker

Games make learning fun; simulations provide real-life experiences without personal risk

Instructions must be carefully considered; may be too time consuming for desired outcomes

Role plays

Learners need an opportunity for hands-on practice and immediate feedback

Learners are put into a specific role and learn appropriate behaviors

Can be misused; must be taken seriously; a role play is an act, unless its purpose is clear and immediate feedback is given

Learners can access instruction without travel; instructors can reach large numbers of learners

Telecommunication technology can be costly; traditional instructional methods must be adapted

Synchronous Learners and instructors are distance learning geographically dispersed; adequate technology exists to support interaction

Speaker is active and participants are passive, unless questions are encouraged


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Instructional Aids Instructional aids, sometimes referred to as audiovisual aids or materials, are those items that an instructor uses within the class session to help participants understand key points. Pictures, charts, graphics, animation, video—the list goes on and on—can be used to provide structure and add variety in classroom situations. Instructional aids needed to deliver a program are typically created at the program design phase of the Instructional Development Cycle. They are tested in the pilot programs and then made available for instructor use as part of the program rollout. Keep in mind three criteria when you design these materials: •

Professional quality. In these days of desktop publishing, powerful computers, presentation software, and sophisticated copiers, there is no excuse for anything less than high-quality, perfectly legible materials (18-point type or the equivalent on visuals, 4-inch letters on flipcharts, a maximum of half a dozen lines on any one visual). While crisp, clean, readable back-and-white visuals are a perfectly adequate minimum, artistic design and color can add interest to the presentation. For readability, follow the 6x6 rule: No more than six words on a line and no more than six lines on a page.

•

Timeliness. If the organization’s quarterly financial report is part of the program, it should be the most recent report, not a copy of the one used when the program was piloted two years ago. If a video of senior executives discussing ethical issues is part of the program, both the executives and the issues must be reasonably current. However, if this means frequently updating the video, video might not be the right choice of medium here. A slide show with voice-over or printed materials might be more appropriate.

•

Simplicity. The less complicated your materials are, the less likely that there will be problems. This is particularly applicable to those situations in which instructional materials are created in one place and then used elsewhere by others.

Instructors often create real-time materials in the classroom, inspired by the need or opportunity of the moment. Examples of spur-of-the-moment materials include flipchart sheets to sum up a discussion, a chalkboard filled with the afternoon’s brainstorming notes, or an overhead transparency with a scribbled formula that captures an idea

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not previously considered. These are the results of learning in action, and are not at all to be restricted by the criteria set for preplanned materials. Six kinds of preplanned instructional aids will be discussed here: overhead transparencies, handouts, flipcharts, films, presentation software, and the leader’s guide. Overhead Transparencies Overhead transparencies are simple to create, highly portable, readily adaptable to changes, inexpensive, and easily turned into handouts. Once a staple of live instruction, they’ve largely been replaced by PowerPoint presentations; however, there are times when an overhead is the best instructional aid. Indeed, overhead transparencies arguably lend themselves to teaching and interacting, while PowerPoint presentations all too easily can turn into speeches and canned presentations. Transparencies (also called foils) can be mounted on frames or have a cloth strip along one side. Transparencies, which come in colors, can be masked or overlaid so that the masks/overlays are used one step at a time for a reveal technique or the gradual build-up of a concept. Overheads do not need a screen or dimmed lights if you have the right kind of wall. Transparencies can be created by word processing or presentation software, or marked up by hand with a grease pencil or marking pen. The transparency itself is placed on the projector, where a light source is focused through the transparency and bounced back 90 degrees to a wall, screen, or other flat surface. The projected, enlarged result allows the presenter to face the program participants and maintain eye contact as the listeners attend to the image. Using two overhead projectors at once permits an instructor to put an overview up as one visual, then “explode” the components of the overview in a second image, one component at a time. Skilled use of an overhead projector keeps an audience focused on key points and helps maintain interest. Another projection device called an opaque projector is rather cumbersome and not widely used anymore, but it can directly project pages from books and other printed material, as well as project small three-dimensional objects. Tips for Using the Overhead Projector. Overhead projectors must be checked ahead of time. Many are equipped with a second bulb so that if the first bulb goes out in mid-presentation, the show can still go on with a simple flip of a lever. Keep in mind the first law of audiovisual equipment: Take nothing for granted, and always kick the tires—check, check again, and then recheck. Be sure equipment is operable, and be sure


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that whatever backup you have is also in working order. Make sure you have an extra bulb handy and practice installing it. Aim the projector so that the visuals are properly focused and visible from every seat in the room before the session begins. Also, be sure that the projector’s electrical cord is taped down so that no one will trip over it. Perhaps the most important thing to keep in mind when using overheads (the term “overhead” is used to refer to the transparencies as well as the projector) is to face the participants and point at the image on the projector’s glass, rather than point directly at the image on the screen. It is very easy to forget this simple rule and get caught up in looking at the wall or screen, gesturing, and talking to it rather than to the participants. When you remove a transparency, immediately replace it with another or turn the projector off right away before you show the next one because the blank glass will project a blindingly brilliant light that can easily create a major distraction. Slides Traditional picture slides are rarely used in day-to-day instruction, though they are often used for large-scale informational sessions, because they provide stunningly colorful images. Unlike overheads, 35 mm color slides are not very flexible: Once you load them into a projector tray or carousel, you cannot easily change or re-sequence them. They cannot be written on, are somewhat expensive to make, and require a darkened room for full effect. The impact of slides, however, is very effective if you are doing a planned, formal presentation. Slide projectors are also more complicated than overhead projectors and require even more careful checking and backup. If you are going to use a slide projector, be sure to test its mechanics and projection quality thoroughly beforehand. Insist on a remote-control device to change the slides so you are not tied to a podium. Use slides primarily for informational sessions and prepared speeches. (Note: Presentation software that allows us to add pictures as slides is making traditional picture slides obsolete.) Handouts The most basic form of instructional aid is the handout—papers or materials distributed in a class session that capture or summarize the information being conveyed by the instructor. Handouts provide space for note-taking during instruction, and serve as

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memory aids and reference material. While the handout may be basic, it is an extremely useful tool for learners. Instructors frequently provide program participants with a copy of the visuals used in the instruction, often condensing six to nine illustrations on a single page. Participants can flag content areas that they would like more information on and jot down questions. An alternative is to prepare a summary outline of the instructional content that contains the same information as the visuals, without the necessity of duplicating them. Presentation software can help you create handouts that reproduce miniature versions of the visuals with space for notes or comments. Handouts ensure that the participants have the most important information in a useful form. Any handout material developed, of course, must be first-class quality. Flipcharts Flipchart pads of approximately 22 x 42-inch paper fastened together at the top can be placed on an easel or a wall unit. They can be used to present and record ideas. They are inexpensive, travel fairly easily when rolled up in a tube, can include color and graphics, and offer great flexibility in use. Use chart paper that has a pre-gummed top (like a large Post-it note) or put plain sheets up on walls with masking tape. Prepare flipchart pages in advance for information such as agendas for modules or days of the program, summaries of program content, logistics, directions for program activities, and the like. Then organize the pages and tape them onto the pad. Flipchart pages can also be printed on specialized copying equipment. The original visual is drawn or desktop-published on an ordinary sheet of 8½ x 11 inch paper, which is then fed into a special copier to produce a flipchart-sized version. It is also possible to lightly laminate flipchart sheets so they will wear longer and can be written or drawn on, erased, and then reused. Use flipcharts in real-time during discussions or presentations to express certain points in the program, display content, and capture ideas from participants. Participants themselves can use flipcharts, for example, in reporting out on group discussions. Figure 7-5 includes guidelines for their effective use.

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Enabling Learning in the Classroom Figure 7-5. Tips for Effective Flipchart Use

PRINT in big, bold letters Keep the number of items

on each page to a minimum

Use a variety of colored

pens (preferably no more than three colors per sheet)

Talk to your audience, not to your flipchart

If appropriate, prepare the charts in advance

Use masking tape to hang completed charts on the wall

Keep charts in easy

view of participants

Video Recordings Training films have been around a long time, but analog and digital recorders and players have revitalized the medium. Whether shown on classroom TVs or via large-screen projectors, video is a powerful way to present information. A video of a senior executive talking about a new policy gives a certain panache to the material that is hard to match. Consider using a professionally produced video to introduce the features and benefits of, say, a new product; it lends a gloss and graphic excellence that a live presentation usually cannot match. Another important use of video is to model behavior. A demonstration of the proper way to communicate or interact with staff or to give a speech, especially when followed by videotaped skills practice, will enhance the learning experience. “Show me” has always been the cry of learners faced with the need to learn a specific skill. Entire libraries of material in video form are available on the open market. Video raises the bar, showing a whole new dimension of possibility and power. Additionally, seeing oneself on videotape is usually an enormously effective learning experience. A more extensive discussion of video is offered in Chapter 8.

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Presentation Software Presentation software is frequently used to create visuals that are projected directly onto a screen or wall, or printed for use as overhead transparencies (e.g., Microsoft’s PowerPoint). Presentation software produces professional, easy-to-modify instructional aids; the user can add pictures, animation, sound, video, and direct links to the Internet with a simple click of the mouse. The structure of presentation software also has the bonus of helping you keep your presentation on track. Additional features such as speaker note pages allow you to remember key examples or illustrations that make your point. Handouts consisting of miniature slides, with space for note-taking, are easily produced. Figure 7-6. Tips for Using Presentation Software

Choose an appropriate font for your slide. Avoid script and anything too stylistic; what looks good on paper may not translate well to an overhead. For instructional purposes, keep your font consistent throughout, and keep it large enough—18-point or better.

Choose backgrounds and colors that are conducive to getting your point across. Test your presentation on the equipment you’ll be using for the presentation; colors might fade or show up differently if you use a different projection device.

Keep participants’ attention where you want it. Use bullets to keep your audience with you.

Limit the number of transition and animation effects. Use them only for interest or humor.

Limit the length and number of audio and video clips. “Less is more” is a good rule of thumb.

Avoid long, complex quotations. Don’t read your screens aloud to the class. Use them as discussion starters, not as text.


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Presentation software requires a projector connected to the computer (usually the presenter’s laptop) where the visuals reside. Projectors made by several manufacturers continue to drop in both price and size; it is now easy to pack one in a carrying case, along with a notebook or laptop computer, for a complete presentation setup. Ideally, the proper hardware will be available on site, and you can simply carry your presentations on a CD or flash drive.

The Leader’s Guide The main resource for the instructor in preparing and teaching a program is the leader’s guide. The leader’s guide lays out the entire program, module by module, so an instructor knows what to say and what to do throughout. Formats vary, but a good leader’s guide provides an overview of the program as a whole; explains the overall and specific objectives, components, and modules; and states clearly how they all fit together. The leader’s guide must include the following: •

The objectives and learning points of each component, so the instructor knows why the component is part of the program and what its results are to be.

•

The “talking points” for everything the instructor is to say—something less than a script, but more than a mere content outline. The leader’s guide is a teaching outline that tells the instructor what needs to be said or done about each learning point—and sometimes even how to say it—at every major juncture of the program. It is not a script to be memorized, but it does make each and every point the organization and the designers want made in the program.

•

A copy of all participant materials.

•

An explanation of each activity in the program at the point where it is to be used—what the purpose of each is and how it is to be done, together with copies of all materials necessary for the exercise: flipcharts and other visuals, game or discussion materials, handouts, role play directions, feedback forms, and the like.

•

A copy of all visuals to be used in the program—overhead transparencies, PowerPoint slides, flipchart pages, and wall charts. Put them all in the leader’s guide binder, sized for ease of packaging and transport.

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•

A suggested time schedule for each component of the program, organized in 15-minute segments that aggregate the components into larger units.

•

A transition into/from the next/previous component(s) of the program.

The leader’s guide is typically placed into a three-ring binder, with tabs for each component or day of the program and tabs for the handouts, flipcharts, overhead transparencies, and any other program material the instructor should have. The purpose of the leader’s guide is to provide the instructor with everything needed to deliver the program in a quality fashion with the required degree of consistency. Most instructors will prepare some form of teaching notes for themselves—file cards they can tuck into their shirt pockets, sticky notes affixed to the pages of the leader’s guide or participant’s manual, pieces of paper with summary notes, etc. The leader’s guide should contain everything that an experienced instructor will need to teach the program. The leader’s guide tells the instructor what the program sponsors/designers want said and done, and states how to achieve what the program is to deliver. Follow it, but keep in mind that it is a tool with a purpose, not an end in itself: If some part of it no longer works, the instructor should feed the information back to the developer of the leader’s guide for review and modification. Use discretion in deviating from the guide: the instructor is the deliverer of the program, not its designer or its redesigner. Figure 7-7 on the following page shows sample pages from the leader’s guide for a management development program. A final note regarding the instructional aids discussed here: If you purchase a vendor’s packaged program for use in live instruction, make sure it includes a complete set of appropriate instructional aids. It is certainly not essential that every program include video, powerful as the medium may be, but visuals, flipcharts, and handouts (or a master copy of them to be used for their production) should be part of any program package designed for live delivery. Most important of all, the package should include a detailed leader’s guide. Because the development of a leader’s guide is a complex, demanding, and detail-intensive task, don’t be surprised if the vendor does not offer a full-scale guide. The inclusion of a leader’s guide may well have an impact on price. Purchase the program if it is right for you, but be aware of what is and what is not included in the packaged program. Happily, many vendors not only provide a leader’s guide, but also offer reasonable train-the-trainer support to certify instructors for the program under consideration.


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It is worth noting here that the classroom is metamorphosing as technology evolves and new devices are becoming standard instructional equipment. “Smart” classrooms often include a computer and projection system built into an instructor’s podium at the front of the room, as well as a variety of tools available for students themselves to use. Figure 7-7. Sample text from a leader’s guide The following text is based on material in the Leader’s Guide for Managing at Chase, a one-day orientation to management responsibility at Chase Manhattan Bank. The information guides instructors in setting up a team activity in the program. Segment 4.2 Purpose:

Instructor Presentation: Managerial Tools and Resources • To introduce a variety of tools and resources available to the Chase manager in managing human-resource-related issues. • To give participants the opportunity to become familiar with the Chase Human Resources Guide and the Chase Code of Ethical Standards.

Time: Method/Media: Introduce:

9:15 – 9:40 Lecturette, Class discussion Introduce team discussion with ideas such as the following: As managers, we are often called upon to deal with HR situations. Some of these are messy or complicated. How often have you wished you had a guide or specific tools to help you figure out what to do? We want to introduce you to several such tools in this exercise.

Elicit:

Ask: What are some examples of messy or complicated HR situations you have faced?

Capture:

Use blank flipchart paper to capture key words of examples participants provide. Use alternating colors for ease of reading. (Typical responses: poor performance, excessive lateness/ absenteeism complicated by a diversity issue, low motivation, unrealistic expectations, unethical behavior, not living our behavioral values and/or department standards)

(continued)

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Figure 7-7. Sample text from a leader’s guide (continued) HR Guide:

Point out that there are a variety of resources to help managers to help with situations such as the ones we’ve listed on our flipchart here. Among those resources is the Chase HR Guide, the so-called “red book.” Ask how many participants have a copy of the Guide. Mention that you will tell them in a minute how to order a Guide if they don’t have one.

Distribute: Present:

Pass out copies of the Guide to all. Mention that the copies being used in the classroom today must be returned. Using Flip 4.2.2, make the following points regarding the Guide: We have a written HR policy guide chiefly for consistency—becoming familiar with the Guide and its contents is an important managerial responsibility: • Employees need to know what they should expect in the way of HR policies. • Managers need a common policy framework to help ensure fairness and reasonable consistency. Ask participants to look at the Guide’s table of contents. Review categories of policies: Employment, Time Off, Compensation, Staff Development, Employee Services, etc. Tell participants to look in the back pocket of the Guide. There they will find a form they can use to order a copy for themselves if they need it. Tell participants they will do an exercise in a few minutes in which they will have to use the Guide to find the solution to a typical HR problem.

(continued)


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Figure 7-7. Sample text from a leader’s guide (continued) The instructor introduces three additional policy documents, making much the same points: The three Code of Ethical Standards, the Performance Management Policy, and the Vision and Values. Once the class has all four policy documents, the instructor leads the program participants through an exercise designed to get them to use the documents to gain familiarity with them. Segment 4.3 Purpose: Time: Method/Media: Introduce:

Team Activity—Case Analysis To give program participants the opportunity to analyze an HR situation from the perspective of the policy documents provided to them. 9:40 – 10:30 Team discussion and presentation; policy book search You will now have a chance to use the policy documents we’ve been discussing. • Take out the cases handed out for reading last night. • You will work in teams. I’ll assign each team one case. • You individually will analyze the case from the perspective of one of our four policy documents. • You will then analyze the case as a team, each team member bringing to the discussion the policy perspective assigned. Each team will see the case from all four policy points of view. • Each team will then present its case and educate the rest of us on the case, the policies that apply to it, and why you recommend the course of action you’ve decided on.

Activity:

Analysis and presentation by each team

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The Management of Teaching Selecting the right people for teaching responsibility is a key step in ensuring effective live instruction, whether it is for a permanent position in a learning and performance department, a contract instructor, a consultant to be hired to teach on a per-diem basis, or a line person to teach on a visiting basis (the “line on loan” approach.8). Focus your selection on the candidate’s ability to communicate and on instructional skills. Look for: •

Platform skills. Instructors must be able to organize and present material, hold a class’s attention, read and react to participant messages, use the customary teaching aids, facilitate group process (including discovery methods), and ground instruction in the principles of adult learning.

•

The communication mindset. The instructor must believe that communication (and therefore teaching) has not been successful unless and until the listener has received and internalized the message. This is the mindset that understands that it is not enough just to present information, facilitate, and follow a leader’s guide in a planned, systematic way. All these things are important and necessary, but these are not enough. Look for someone who considers that the participants’ acquisition of skill or knowledge is essential and is the single most important measure of instructional success.

In an interview process, classroom platform and communication skills are not always easy to identify. A candidate who has history of successful teaching is likely to possess platform skills. A candidate who has demonstrated familiarity with the literature on adult learning and its principles, perhaps through completion of an advanced degree in education, knows the value of the communications mindset. In the interview itself, you can pick up on just how well a candidate listens, which is at least some indication of the ability to listen in a classroom. It is possible and certainly within the bounds of careful selection to ask a candidate to audition. Requiring a candidate to teach a carefully chosen module of a program, in either a real or artificial setting, is usually a revealing demonstration of platform skills and the individual’s communication mindset. Note that platform skills are far easier to acquire than the communication mindset: While individuals can be trained in presentation and group facilitation skills, the communication mindset is typically the product of a long seasoning process and can seldom be acquired in a brief five-day train-the-trainer program.


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Once selected, instructors should be managed like other professionals, with respect for their dedication, intelligence, and expertise. Provide ample opportunity for growth and creativity, and watch for burnout. Organizational learning initiatives tend to be a world of short workshops offered repeatedly. No instructor should be asked to teach the same workshop too often in too short a time. “Too often” and “too short” are relative, of course, but asking an instructor to teach the same class over and over with little respite or change is a surefire recipe for instructor burnout. Preparation time is important. One rule of thumb is to allow three hours of preparation time for every one hour of teaching time, given a reasonable level of experience on the part of the instructor. Most instructors find the chance to observe someone else teaching a program an enormous help in preparing to teach it themselves. The 3 to 1 rule will obviously vary according to the individual, and will, in any case, change as familiarity with a program grows through experience with it. Unrushed, uninterrupted preparation time, however, is a reasonable expectation on the part of an instructor, as well as a solid principle of good instructor management. To avoid ringing phones and other distractions, prepare your program away from the office—in a library, in a borrowed office or conference room, or at home. The manager of a group of instructors should observe instructors in the classroom from time to time. Feedback from peer observations is useful, too. Observational data can provide the information needed for coaching the instructors, as well as for rewards and recognition. Performance plans for instructors often specify the number and variety of programs to be taught. Such activity measures, however, should not be equated with instructional success. Good instruction leads to learning. For feedback on instructional skills, instructors and managers might agree on an acceptable average rating from participant reaction questionnaires completed at the end of a class or program. Because the use of reaction questionnaires is relatively common, a productive way to handle these data is to focus on management use of such ratings by exception. This means scanning the end-of-class comments and ratings for anything that deviates from the norm. After all, good end-of-class ratings are to be expected. An experienced instructor can and should get good ratings. Instructors themselves appreciate being told what a good job they did in the classroom! However, in a department that relies on management by exception, favorable ratings are taken for granted; the department assumes that instructors should and will get them and thus pays attention only to those that are exceptions. This places responsibility for the evaluation of the teacher’s performance on the learner.

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Finally, the manager of instructors must exercise care to avoid the so-called “shoemaker’s children” problem: learning support specialists who do not receive sufficient learning opportunities themselves. Just as each member of the learning and performance department has a performance plan, so also should each member have a development plan. The focus of this plan should be on a mix of preparation for immediate job responsibilities and longer-term career thinking, as appropriate. Line-on-loan instructors will obviously have job and career needs that are different from staff instructors. The crucial point here is to make sure that plans also address staff needs for professional development.

Summary Classroom teacher-led instruction is a time-honored tradition in our society. Today’s teacher will work to enhance that picture and make certain that the instruction supplied in such a setting is learner-focused and conducive to learning in the classroom. Two categories of live instruction were presented in this chapter: whole-group methods (the lecture and discovery techniques), and small-group methods (such as small-group discussion, games, and role plays). You can use the lecture method as an efficient means of providing information to a large group. When coupled with question-and-answer periods, lectures allow your students to hear, see, and ask questions about the topics presented. However, long periods of lecturing are usually not motivating. Thus, you will want to break up long discourses with other activities that require more active participation on the part of participants, such as making lists or engaging in small-group activities. You can use a lecturette or mini lecture to introduce concepts or provide instructions for group activities. Use discovery methods when you want to challenge participants to learn for themselves. To actively engage workers in discovering concepts for themselves, you must do careful preplanning. You can use the Socratic method, case studies, and informational treasure hunts in situations where individuals will best learn by discovering appropriate responses/behaviors that are based on their own experiences and the materials available. Small-group methods enable learners to be active participants and learn from each other. Ask individuals in small groups to review materials and come to their own conclusions, and then later report out to the larger group on what they come up with.


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Games and role plays are effective small-group activities. Your primary responsibility as an instructor in small-group methods is to plan the activities carefully and to make sure that participants not only get feedback from you, but also learn to give and receive feedback. Undoubtedly, you will also find learning situations in which distance learning is an appropriate way to deliver instruction. When you and your students are not in the same location, use a wide variety of technologies to improve communication: audio conferencing (voice-only communication); videoconferencing (audio plus video); and computer conferencing (the use of special communication software that facilitates group communication in synchronous and asynchronous modes). The effectiveness of these tools requires clear lines of communication, and the use of instructional strategies that take advantage of the technology’s capabilities. In such cases, you might want to talk less, use a lot of small-group work, and direct questions to individuals at the remote site(s) to help them focus on the lesson. Use instructional aids—overheads, handouts, flipcharts, presentation software, and video—to enhance learning and retention. The most important instructional aid is the leader’s guide, which details the objectives, content, methods, and major points of the program to be delivered.

Think It Through 1. Has there been a teacher in your life who has made a difference to you? Describe the teacher and the circumstance. What was the impact of this teacher? What was the result of that impact? From your experience with this teacher, what would you like to bring to your students? 2. “Lecture only if you must.” Do you agree or disagree with this statement? Explain your response. 3. Identify three of the many alternatives for delivering face-to-face instructional programs. Give an appropriate performance gap problem/opportunity for each. 4. Describe some characteristics of effective use of overhead transparencies and PowerPoint visuals. Why is it so important that such visuals be of professional quality? 5. List several pointers to follow when using flipcharts.

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6. Define “distance learning.” What alternatives do organizations have for delivering instruction from afar? Give an appropriate performance gap situation for each alternative. 7. The leader’s guide has been described as a teaching resource, not a teaching script. What does that mean? When is it acceptable for a instructor to deviate from it? 8. Imagine that you have just been hired at the XYZ Company as an instructor. Plan an initial personal development discussion with your manager. What sort of development would you consider appropriate for yourself for your first year? Why?

Ideas in Action Break into pairs. Tell each other about a teacher-led, face-to-face or distance learning experience that you thought was very effective. What was it about the experience that contributed to its success? Next, tell each other about such an experience that was not successful. What caused the experience to be problematic? 1. Attend a computer trade show and try out or observe demonstrations of a variety of presentation graphics packages. Obtain literature from vendors. List key features and compare them across packages. Which seems most appropriate for a training professional? 2. Create a T-chart. On the left-hand side of the “T” write “Good ways to handle student questions.” On the right side, write “Bad ways to handle questions.” Complete the chart based on your own experience. 3. Contact a local learning and performance manager and ask about the issue of instructor burnout. What has been the manager’s experience with it? How/why does it happen? Has the manager developed any telltale signs of its approach? Any methods for handling it? Any ways of preventing it?


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Additional Resources Eitington, J. E. 2002. The Winning Trainer. 4th edition. Boston: ButterworthHeinmann. A comprehensive reference book for instructors. Includes an appendix of valuable resources—forms, checklists, and other practical job aids. Mager, R. E. 1988. Making Instruction Work or Skillbloomers. Belmont, California: Lake Publishing Company. One of Mager’s best, the book is about what he calls the “craft of instruction.” Mager is at the top of his form here, showing how to choose instructional solutions and implement them. Written with a practitioner’s wealth of experience and Mager’s usual dose of puckish humor. McKeachie, W. J. 2006. Teaching Tips: Strategies, Research, and Theories for College and University Teachers. 12th edition. Lexington, Massachusetts: Houghton Mifflin. This very well-written and organized paperback is crammed with helpful information intended for instructors at all adult teaching levels and in a wide range of teaching environments. If you cannot find instructional help here, it probably does not exist anywhere. Powers, B. 1992. Instructor Excellence: Mastering the Delivery of Training. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers. A fine discussion of the issues involved in stand-up teaching. Note the book title’s implicit equation of instruction with training delivery. The book itself is smarter than that. This text is particularly useful for those who evaluate and manage teaching. Staley, D. J. June 7, 2006. Smart Classroom: “Imagining the Multisensory Classroom.” http://www.campustechnology.com/news_article.asp?id=18664&typeid=155. Downloaded November 19, 2006. From a creative mind, a description of where classroom technology might lead us in a few years.

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Chapter 7 Notes 1.

Eitington, Julius. 2002. The Winning Trainer. Houston: Gulf Publishing.

2.

Davis, Barbara Gross. 1991. Tools for Teaching. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, pp. 88–89.

3.

Duncan, O. and C. Quentin, in a 1958 presentation at Whitefriars Hall, Washington, D.C.

4.

Christensen, C. Roland, David A. Garvin, and Ann Sweet. 1991. Education for Judgment: The Artistry of Discussion Leadership. Boston, Massachusetts: Harvard Business School Press. p. 11.

5.

Ibid. pp. 159–160.

6.

Pfeiffer, J. William (ed.). The 1994 Annual: Developing HR. San Diego: Pfeiffer and Company. A three-ring binder published annually, with sections devoted to games and other experiential learning techniques, inventories of surveys and questionnaires, and resources for presentations/ discussions on topics of current interest in the world of human resource development. The binder format makes it easy to use the material.

7.

Regan, Elizabeth A., and Bridget N. O’Connor. 2002. End-User Information Systems: Implementing Individual and Work Group Technologies. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Prentice Hall.

CHAPTER 8

Enabling Learning Outside the Classroom In this chapter, we will do the following: • • • • • •

Explain how adult learning theory drives learning outside the classroom. Offer examples of learning goals that can be supported by self-paced, mediated instruction. Discuss the just-in-time learning potential for e-learning and m-learning strategies. Describe features of Help Desks, on-line help, and performance support systems. Discuss how knowledge-management systems can be used to create, store, and disseminate knowledge. Propose ways in which communities of practice, mentoring, and coaching support individual and organizational learning.

Setting the Stage for Alternative Learning Options When you ask individuals what they have learned in the workplace, they sometimes describe their experiences in classroom-based programs. They might talk about participating in a workshop on communication skills or Microsoft Word. They might describe a three-day course they took on strategic planning. However, they are also likely to talk about what they have learned on their own over the years—how they used the wizard in PowerPoint to create their first sales presentation, or mastered a technical problem using software manuals. They might even describe how they learned on the job as part of a team that worked together to expand the company’s market into Asia. These examples make it clear that the organization’s learning environment is not limited to the classroom, and that instruction does not have to come from a live instructor. Among your key responsibilities as a workplace learning professional is to constantly explore new ways to encourage and support learning, no matter where it needs to happen. You use every conceivable method to ensure that individual workers can do what is necessary for the organization to survive and 233

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prosper. Traditional classroom-based delivery is widespread and popular, and is often the preferred environment. However, you can continually experiment with a whole gamut of other instructional methods and learning support strategies in an attempt to discover the best possible match among organizational expectations, learner needs and abilities, and materials related to what is needed to be learned. As discussed in Chapter 1, these times demand innovative ways to provide the quantity and quality of learning opportunities that workers need to flourish in the learning society. The Internet is an important repository of information and a communication enabler. You can find and share knowledge found in databases, spreadsheets, documents, and the like. You can also use collaborative technologies to connect dispersed individuals in situations where expertise is jointly created and shared. Therefore, learning can occur exactly at the point in time and place it is needed. We begin this chapter with a brief discussion of how and when to choose learning support strategies other than classroom instruction. In this chapter, we will describe media ranging from paper-based materials to podcasts. The digitization of data and information and the ubiquity of the Internet have changed not only where individuals receive instruction, but also how they receive it, what they learn, and whom they learn from and with. In the last part of the chapter, we discuss strategies for workplace learning that meet different types of learning needs—communities of practice, mentoring, and coaching. Here we provide suggestions as to how you can develop and support such programs. Keep in mind, however, that it is the right mix of classroom, mediated tools, and alternative workplace learning strategies that together result in the best solutions for individual and organizational learning.

Choosing Alternative Learning Strategies When we talk about alternative learning strategies, we mean ways in which individuals learn outside the formal classroom. Sometimes the employee initiates the activity, such as calling a Help Desk or using online help. At other times, he or she learns through a flexible, structured training program held at the work site during regular working hours. Individuals learn for many reasons. Some need technical skills to master their current job, obtain a new job, or maintain professional certification. Sometimes the goal is to enhance self-esteem, communication, decision-making, or life-coping strategies. Sometimes we learn for personal enrichment and the joy of mastering new skills and

Enabling Learning Outside the Classroom

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understanding new concepts. Learning has a positive snowball effect: the more one learns, the more one wants to learn. Ideally, in this process, individuals also become more skilled at learning how to learn. This approach has been called self-paced learning, individualized instruction, or self-directed learning. It increasingly involves the use of digital technologies for information or instruction, or as a means of communicating with others. Such methods fit well into what is known about how adults learn (see Chapter 5). Users of self-paced instructional programs take charge of their learning, adjusting the materials to their own learning style and needs and determining when they learn and the pace at which they want to learn. They can review lessons any number of times, they can self-diagnose their progress, and they can more easily fit it all into a busy schedule. They are actively involved in their own learning. When employees learn on the job, sometimes they do it by themselves; other times, they collaborate and learn with and from others in the workplace. Sometimes they find their own learning resources. At other times they are members of a group that helps each other continue to learn to address new problems that are encountered. This inherent participation, combined with control over when learning happens, encourages their feeling of ownership of the learning process, and ultimately leads to the mastery of the content. In such situations, the role of the workplace learning professional becomes that of providing learning support—not necessarily delivering classroom instruction, but doing what we can to foster a culture of learning throughout the organization. We design alternative learning strategies when the target group has a wide range of experiences and/or abilities, when a large audience is spread out geographically, when a small number of workers need to learn a specific skill, or when there is a repeated need for small numbers of new people to learn the same skills. Self-paced instruction is in the mainstream of delivery options. These options may, of course, be used in conjunction with traditional classroom instruction. Clearly, the two approaches to instructional delivery—traditional classroom and learning outside of the classroom—complement rather than replace each other, and thus can be combined quite effectively.

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A Variety of Media In this text, we use the terms self-paced or “mediated” to describe a situation in which workers use any of a variety of media on their own to access information or communicate with someone else in an effort to solve a problem or learn new skills. Media range from paper-based books and manuals to DVDs to e-learning options. As Joseph Lipson noted in a presentation on distance learning: “New technology does not usually diminish the use of old methods; we use a technology when it serves a particular purpose, when it is effective.”1 Choosing the appropriate medium for instruction is a matter of matching the learning objectives, the learning styles of the target audience, the characteristics of the various media, and the media’s ability to support appropriate learning activities. Moreover, expense and time are also major considerations. Developing self-paced instructional materials in-house is a very expensive and time-consuming process; it is almost always cheaper to buy off-the-shelf materials and adapt them to a particular audience if you need to. Self-paced learning materials can be found on a wide range of instructional media: paper, audio and video, and computer- and Internet-enabled systems (e-learning). Mobile learning (m-learning) has emerged as a new category in which learners use their personal digital assistants, cellular phones, and even satellite radio connections to access information and communicate with each other. While we discuss these approaches as separate options, in reality, self-paced instruction is often based on a combination of media. Paper-Based Materials The printed document is an extremely comfortable, familiar, simple, transportable, inexpensive, and easy-to-use learning medium, particularly for informational learning. Company newsletters, bulletins, and simple job aids are now developed internally. Desktop publishing software allows learning and performance departments to internally develop and produce professional-looking and high-quality materials, including entire courses, and distribute them via e-mail.


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Books and Journals. Many organizations maintain large libraries, complete with up-to-date subscriptions to relevant business and industry magazines and journals, as well as a wide range of classic and best-selling books on a number of topics of interest to employees. Reference books such as atlases, statistical abstracts, handbooks, manuals, and writing guides such as Strunk and White’s The Elements of Style also line the shelves. However, simply having print materials available may not be enough. While it is valuable to have a library, if a book is to be part of a specific learning strategy, it should be packaged with other resources, such as study guides or checklists. Here are a few examples of ways to help a reader use print-based materials proactively: •

Document well-articulated learning objectives that are tied to performance goals.

•

Design a study guide that includes exercises such as requiring the reader to outline a chapter, respond to discussion questions, and/or complete related application activities.

•

Require an interactive log, and ask the reader to record reactions that are considered meaningful and to explain why they are meaningful.

•

Provide activity sheets on which learners identify progress in mastering materials and then share these ideas with the facilitator.

Written Tutorials. Another type of paper-based instruction is a written tutorial or “cheat sheet” on how to do something, such as use application software or update databases. Such learning aids are often found as part of a software manual, but they can be difficult for the first-time user to follow. Tutorials are often developed as a part of application systems. When they are computer-based, they are considered a kind of computer-assisted instruction, which is discussed later in this chapter. Audio and Video Audio and video lend a human element to self-directed learning. Books that are recorded on audiotapes or CDs constitute a very popular section of many bookstores, and audio and video libraries are commonly found in learning and performance departments. Such media offer content, discussions, demonstrations, and real-life

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examples that can augment print-based materials. Additionally, learners can use the media at their own convenience and pace. The media for the delivery of audio and video material are clearly changing. While a stock of analog audiotapes and videotapes exists and will be around for a good while, digital media storage, specifically CDs (audio) and DVDs (audio and video) will eventually replace their analog counterparts. As instructional designers use the tools being perfected by the entertainment industry, expect to see more and more information delivered through podcasts and satellite radio. E-Learning and M-Learning E-learning and m-learning are umbrella terms that refer to a variety of ways in which individuals use learning or reference materials stored on or accessed through a computer or other digital device. Lessons stored on CD-ROMs and DVDs can help a learner master everything from computer skills to leadership skills. In e-learning (wired) and mobile or m-learning (wireless), the user accesses the Internet or the airways to find information, to download informational or instructional learning programs, or to communicate with peers or other experts. Beginning in the early 1950s with paper-based programmed instruction (PI) and cumulating today with m-learning, the use of technology to deliver instruction has been constant. What follows is a summary of computer-based instruction and the media that support it (CD-ROMs and DVDs), performance support systems, Help Desks, and knowledge management systems. We will also talk about ways that communication capabilities—e-mail, chat rooms, and audio- and videoconferencing—are used outside the classroom to help individuals learn. Our goal here is not to provide technical expertise on these tools; rather, it is to get you thinking as to how they can be used to enhance individual and organizational learning. Computer-based Instruction (CBI). Initially, computer-based instructional programs were simply mainframe-based versions of linear programmed instruction. This programmed instruction quickly evolved into random-access, multi-branching modules that could be accessed on a variety of computer platforms. CD-ROMs and DVDs are a driving force for CBI multimedia applications, as their enormous storage capabilities allow designers to use graphics, animation, sound, and


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video. The interactive features of CD-ROMs and DVDs enable self-paced and self-directed learning, since the user can navigate among the modules and select topics of interest in whatever order is deemed logical if it fits his or her learning style. Thus, learners can take multiple, alternative routes through information and learning modules, depending on their particular needs and styles. This user control helps learners decide what modules are of interest, skip those that cover material they already know, and go back to modules they want to review. CD-ROM/DVD drives are standard equipment on most personal computer systems. Almost all software vendors offer their software and documentation on CD-ROM instead of on disks or paper. In fact, purchasers can often buy and download software and documentation directly from the vendor via the Internet. One benefit of CD-ROM/ DVD is that a learner using his or her own computer does not have problems accessing remote sites and is not held up by slow data transfer rates. Privacy is an additional advantage. Increasingly, vendors are packaging program content on CD-ROM/ DVD as well as making it accessible through the Internet. A corporate learning and performance department might choose, for example, to purchase an entire learning solution related to core competencies such as supervisory skills or communication skills from any number of vendors. Entire e-learning solutions are available from many traditional universities, including New York University, Columbia University, and Stanford University. E-learning solutions allow a worker using a computer to access information and instructional materials, connect to a wide range of supplementary resources, and have direct communication with their fellow participants, as well as with the instructor. M-learning expands e-learning to wireless connections on mobile technologies. Learning management systems are software products that allow an instructor to deliver a course either synchronously, whereby learners are expected to be online simultaneously with the instructor, or asynchronously, whereby each participant goes online on his or her own schedule. Blended learning combines both synchronous and asynchronous approaches. Learning management systems are instructor-facilitated and can support course registration, discussion boards, chat rooms, multi-point audio and video, whiteboards, class assignments, interactive quizzes, and even course development. Internet streaming using audio and video allows learners to replay educational lectures on demand. A total distance-learning solution can integrate other products that support data and/or video transmissions. Software components can

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include an instructor client, a student client, and a server. Figure 8-1 lists several popular products, along with their vendors. Figure 8-1. A Sampling of Vendors for Internet-based Learning Management Systems PRODUCT

VENDOR

WEBSITE

Course Online

Thomson Course Technology

course.com

IBM Lotus Learning Management System

IBM

ibm.com

BlackBoard

BlackBoard

blackboard.com

Performance Support Systems Performance support systems are tools and technologies for just-in-time learning, accessed through the company’s Intranet via landline or wireless connection. The most effective learning happens when training is imbedded in the work that needs to be done. Noted consultant Gloria Gery pioneered in this area by emphasizing what technology could do, rather than what was being done with it. Performance support tools include computer-based instruction (CBI) course modules, as well as Help Desks, on-line help, knowledge management systems, and expert systems. The ultimate goal is to lessen the need for formal learning programs, particularly the need to memorize information or learn skills that are infrequently used. Performance support can also be based on printed materials, video, classroom instruction, or other more traditional materials. The objectives of performance support are to provide information or assistance at the time the user needs it, rather than to teach some broader set of skills and knowledge for future use. Sometimes all someone needs is information, not training! And when information is needed, increasingly we’re relying on wireless, mobile technologies for performance support: cellular phones, personal digital assistants (PDAs), MP3 players (e.g., iPods), satellite radio, and handheld, notebook, and laptop computers. When such tools are used for learning, they are considered m-learning tools. They allow a user to learn what they need to know at an appropriate time and from


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wherever they are located. The small screens found on many of these devices make it unlikely that they will be used for mainstream course use, but they are important new reference and communication tools. A salesman, for example, can access information about new products via a wireless computer or a PDA. He or she can also download a lecture about these products on an iPod and listen to it while driving to work or walking through a park. In the car, the salesperson can listen to a satellite radio broadcast that announces the new products. And if a program has been saved as a digital file on the company’s Web site, a salesperson in a different time zone would be able to download that broadcast onto an MP3 player and listen to it at an appropriate time. It has been estimated that by 2009, 124 million households will own MP3 players.2 We are just beginning to see the potential of m-learning tools for performance support. The sidebar that follows shows how instructors and students in a university setting use MP3 players; as you read the example, consider how this technology could support similar learning in an organizational setting. E-Learning is Music to Your Ears Researchers in the United Kingdom continue to study the use of “podcasting” as a tool for enhancing the learning experience of students. E-learning experts at the University of Leicester say their pilot program for downloading audio onto personal MP3 players shows that students have embraced the idea of using podcasting to improve their education experience. The researchers developed a podcast model consisting of a current news item that is relevant to their course each week, give-and- take on learning and collaborative team work during the week, and a light-hearted segment such as a joke or rap, with each part lasting 10 minutes. The students listened between lectures, during commutes, and while they performed other tasks, says Gilly Salmon, a professor of e-learning at Leicester. Students added they were able to study at their own pace, rewind whenever they wanted, and contact classmates while they studied. They also lauded podcasting because it made learning informal and prevented them from missing anything. Salmon now heads a 12-month project called “IMPALA: Informal Mobile Podcasting and Learning Adaptation,” which includes researchers from the University of Gloucestershire and Kingston University as participants, to focus more on using such technology to bring learning resources to students. Information, Inc., 2006. Reprinted with permission.

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Help Desks and Online Help. One thing we know about systems is that they sometimes don’t work exactly as expected. Glitches and operator errors are commonplace. And one thing we know about formal training programs is that instructional designers cannot anticipate every application or every problem. Thus ongoing support or just-in-time learning and troubleshooting must be part of the planning process in any workplace learning effort. Help Desks and online help services are distance alternatives to face-to-face coaching. Most Help Desks or hotlines offer centralized tutoring from a person at the other end of the telephone line. Online help is assistance from a computer program at the touch of a key or click of a mouse. Both services are highly interactive, and both offer support just at the time it is needed. Help Desks can be located anywhere—at the organization’s headquarters, at the software vendor’s site, or anyplace in the world, accessed by an 800 number. Help Desk agents who have strong interpersonal skills and are trained in troubleshooting can offer immediate help over the telephone. Alternatively, the learner could initiate an instant messaging or chat session with an agent. In such “blended calls,” agents respond using the most appropriate tool available. The key here is that workers have a variety of communication options to address their just-in-time learning needs. One technology-based aid that helps Help Desk agents is desktop conferencing or screen-sharing software. These tools allow the Help Desk agent to see and operate what is on the user’s desktop, taking over keyboard and mouse controls to type information into dialog boxes, install new programs, open configuration files, transfer or retrieve a file, or use the screen to demonstrate new products. The Help Desk agent’s overriding objective is to increase user satisfaction and morale through personalized coaching. Highly trained agents work to help the perplexed user solve specific, real learning needs or solve software glitches, just when help is needed. On-line help programs, on the other hand, offer computer-based assistance that is built directly into the software application package. When the help function is context-specific, a user having difficulty mastering a mail-merge function, for example, can press the help key to get immediate instruction on how to use this function. Context-specific help, including embedded wizards such as Microsoft Word’s “Office Assistant” (which actually guides the user through a function), is an increasingly important marketing feature of nearly all best-selling software packages.


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Knowledge Management Systems. Knowledge management systems attempt to capture an organization’s collective experience and make it accessible to everyone. One way to think about knowledge management is: Knowledge Management = knowledge + process

Knowledge management systems attempt to gather, codify, and create a dissemination process for knowledge that is explicit (facts), as well as that knowledge that is tacit (in the heads of employees). Explicit knowledge can be objectively documented in manuals, databases, books, and the like. Tacit knowledge, on the other hand, is subjective; it is the how-to, it is the thinking that goes into making complex decisions, and it is difficult to put into words. Users of KM systems are both knowledge creators and users. Most require the personal interaction of experts or advisors or groups of peers who have experiences to share. Thus, KM systems play an important role in innovation and the generation of new knowledge, and as they support the development of new knowledge, they are more than just a database. Hughes Space and Communications is one organization that connects “lessons learned” databases so that designers of new satellites have better and timelier access to technical and regulatory information. Engineers at General Electric Appliances in Louisville, Kentucky use a knowledge-based system to search stored documents and published articles for reference, which they describe as a concept-based document retrieval method (as opposed to a keyword retrieval method). Eli Lily’s Scientific Performance Improvement Network (SPIN) is based on Lotus Notes and includes threaded discussions, a directory of subject-matter experts who can be contacted, links to databases, and entire courses on-line. SPIN is an example of performance support that is designed to impart existing knowledge, as well as to create new knowledge through human interaction. The goal of such databases is not simply to create a warehouse of information, but to keep track of the wide variety of wisdom, experience, and stories that comprise information. A side benefit is that such systems can reduce the need for paper documents and books, which can be hard to search and catalog. Expert systems. When knowledge is rule-based, rules can be automated. An expert system is a computer program that incorporates the knowledge of an expert or group of experts on a particular subject and enables a user to systematically ask questions related to that knowledge. It mimics human reasoning by using facts, rules, and inferences,

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which respond to nonlinear thinking and problem-solving skills. Expert system development requires a computer programmer, known as a knowledge engineer, to work closely with a subject-matter expert or domain expert to ascertain the facts, identify the rules, and then develop an effective user interface. Figure 8-2. Advantages and Disadvantages of Self-Paced, Mediated Instructional Approaches Approach

Commonly Used in Situations Where

Advantages

Disadvantages

Books and Journals

The content to be learned is reflected in excellent concept/skill materials that already exist

Excellent self-paced instruction; materials are extremely portable; inexpensive, familiar

To be effective, must be coupled with quality training activities

Audio and Video recordings

Learning program is continuous; need to reach dispersed audience

Additional sensory input To be effective, recordings (sight and sound) valuable must be of high quality; this is time-consuming, costly to develop, and hard to maintain

Podcasting

Information changes quickly

Ease of distribution and learners have additional options as to where they learn; easy to update

Recordings must be of high quality; this is timeconsuming to develop

Satellite Radio

Information changes quickly

Ease of distribution

If not recorded and saved centrally, learners are bound by time constraints

Computer-based Instruction

The content to be learned is required by a large population; content lends itself to programmed instruction

Learners can use tools on own time; continuous feedback; learners are active participants

Time-consuming and expensive to develop; hard to maintain

Performance Support Systems

Dispersed users need just-in-time assistance

Quick, easy access to expert assistance at the time training is needed; reduces the need to memorize procedures

Development time can be long and costs can be high

E-learning (Groupware and Learning Support Systems)

Content needs frequent updating; learners are geographically dispersed

Easily distributed learning option; communication with instructor and other learners supported

Course development and delivery time can be high

(continued)

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Figure 8-2. Advantages and Disadvantages of Self-Paced, Mediated Instructional Approaches (concluded) M-learning (Wireless— Cellular Phones, PDAs, and the like)

Geographically dispersed learners; need reference materials, updates, or communication capabilities

Easily updated; just-intime performance support

Small device size does not always lend itself to full-scale instructional options

Knowledge Management and Expert Systems

Individuals can share tacit solutions to work-based problems, and the organization needs to capture this information

Can be an invaluable learning resource when workers are dispersed or tackling new problems

The development and use of information requires both technical expertise and personal motivation to share ideas

Using Self-Paced Tools for Instruction Once the choice to use mediated instructional methods is made, you must answer several questions. Should you produce your own materials? Hire an outside vendor to produce custom materials? Find generic products in the open market that meet your needs? What steps are involved in ensuring that the materials get to the targeted audience? How do I make sure that the learners use the resources as planned? How do I deal with problems they encounter in trying to use the materials? How do I evaluate the outcomes of self-paced, mediated learning? Selecting or Developing Courseware Producing original instructional materials is an art as well as a science. To do it well takes time, practice, expertise, and money. The development of study sheets for printbased materials or audiotapes and videotapes that already exist is relatively quick and inexpensive, but developing coordinated self-paced instructional materials or courseware requires high-level instructional design skills and teams of subject-matter experts, artists, technicians, documentation writers, analysts, and programmers. To develop good courseware from scratch requires considerable skill, time, and effort. It has been estimated that instructional design teams can spend 200 to 300 hours to develop one hour of instructional materials. Courseware development or selection always begins with the learning objectives. An extensive variety of self-paced learning materials already exists. Whenever possible

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and appropriate, such materials can be purchased for a given learning outcome. Modifying purchased courseware is an option, but it can be costly and possibly void supplier warranties and support. Printed materials must be of publishable quality, and any multimedia materials must have quality graphics, animation, video, and/or sound. Thus, development is an expensive and time-consuming process. Quality materials are essential, however, if learners are to get the full benefit of the content being described. Learners have little patience with poorly designed and executed materials. But there is more to instruction than having professional-looking materials. Enhancement of presentation and the effectiveness of the learning experience are two different things. In selecting a delivery option, you should keep in mind that excellent media can never compensate for bad writing, poor design, trivial information, repetitive delivery, or mundane feedback. Once we become enamored by the delivery system (and perhaps even dazzled by our own magnificence at mastering its use), we tend to lose sight of our original goal, which should be to deliver useful information and courseware to the learner. Delivering Self-Paced Instruction Self-paced or mediated instruction can take place at a learning center, a specific location for learning resources that has a librarian or technical support person to assist. The learning center can be at a company site or at a vendor’s location. Away from his or her desk, the learner may find going to a center a way to be able to focus on learning and, at the same time, have someone to assist should questions arise. Alternatively, learners can sit at their work desks, in an airport lounge, in an easy chair at home—at any place and at any time they prefer. The instructor’s role in self-paced instruction is to create an implementation plan for the learner, including a rationale for using the media for instruction. The next step is to guide or coach him or her in the effective use of the learning resources. Getting the materials in the hands of the learners is only the first step, but it is an easy step with e-learning and m-learning. You must make sure that instructional materials are useful and that users can effectively use the tools. This might require face-to-face instruction. Careful pre-planning is necessary, especially when the learning effort is extensive and affects a large number of learners. It is extremely important that you pilot-test the materials and provide opportunities for learner feedback.


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A pilot test is a planned and managed test drive or trial of the learning initiative. Trial results are analyzed and fed back to program designers and developers, who then ready the materials for the larger population at multiple locations or within the entire organization. Before you pilot test, ask these kinds of questions: •

Will using these materials achieve the desired learning outcomes?

•

Are the materials useful and easy to use?

•

How long will it take for learners to master the content?

•

What types and levels of live support do we need?

•

How should we provide feedback?

•

What do users think about the usefulness of the materials and their ease of use?

•

How can we modify materials, based on pilot results?

•

How will we collect data on all these things so we can “sell” the package to learners and to the organization?

With classroom-based instruction, participants go to a location and an instructor leads them through a series of planned learning exercises. However, when mediated instruction is involved, implementation means developing a strategy to get materials to learners, maintain the materials, and in some cases, distribute changes or updates. Implementation also means supporting the learning process itself by answering questions, clarifying instructions, and dealing with any glitches in the instructional materials. Ideally, too, learners have opportunities to meet with each other, whether in-person or online. This aspect of implementation is often overlooked in planning. You cannot simply give the materials to the learner and then assume that your work is done—especially when self-paced instruction is being used for the first time. Sometimes coaching—one-on-one help—is required. Be sure the learners and their supervisors understand that quiet time needs to be set aside for learning, even though users won’t be going to a classroom. In one organization, employees actually put up yellow crime scene tape around their work area to discourage colleagues from interrupting their quiet time for learning.

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Evaluating Self-Paced Instruction The use of mediated instruction in no way lessens the necessity of appropriate evaluation. Self-paced learning programs are planned learning experiences, and those involved in the program will want reports. Evaluation strategies and procedures in such cases differ little from those conducted on traditional instructional programs. To apply Kirkpatrick’s learning domains of reaction, learning, behavior, organizational results, and process simply requires re-thinking. For example, reaction questionnaires would gauge the learner’s evaluation of the preparation and organization of materials, the study guide, and any facilitation help. Learning outcomes could be reviewed by using tests, simulations, or role plays. In fact, computer-based instruction is often designed to give learners instantaneous information regarding their mastery of the subject. Three or six months after a self-paced learning event, you could send follow-up surveys to learners and/or their supervisors to find out how and if the knowledge or skills learned were used back on the job. Measuring organizational results of learning initiatives is always a challenge, but you may well be able to make connections between learning support and performance improvements. You might want to ask participants process questions regarding their satisfaction with their personal role in the determining learning objectives and the adequacy of the ways they received or accessed learning materials.

Additional Workplace Learning Strategies In most of this book, we define and discuss learning objectives and the development of learning initiatives that have fairly concrete outcomes. However, individuals are learning continuously, so our role isn’t always going to be to provide classroom or self-paced instruction. Often, we must work with managers to support initiatives whereby individuals have opportunities to share their experiences and learn from and with each other: communities of practice, coaching, and mentoring.


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Communities of Practice The term communities of practice, coined by Etienne Wenger and Jean Lave in their 1991 book Situated Learning, has at its basis the idea that individuals with common expertise and passion for their work learn from and with each other. Communities of practice (CoPs) tend to be naturally occurring groups of people who are passionate about their work and will work together to achieve common goals. Such communities, according to Wenger, work to create a sense of community and their own knowledge management system. Wenger says that learning is the engine of practice. Families struggle to establish a habitable way of life. They develop their own practices, routines, rituals, artifacts, symbols, conventions, stories, and histories. Family members hate each other and they love each other; they agree and they disagree. They do what it takes to keep going. Even when families fall apart, members create ways of dealing with each other. Surviving together is an important enterprise. Religious groups are other CoPs. How many professional organizations do you belong to? Would you classify them as your CoPs? How active are you in the organization? Do you have shared goals? In some CoPs we are core members. In others, our role is more peripheral. Source: Wenger, E. 1999. Communities of Practice: Learning, Meaning, and Identity. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

While we are all members of groups, not all groups are communities of practice. The people we work with, whether they are in the cubicle next door or across the globe, can often be considered communities of practice if they fit the definition of shared passion and goals. Examples can include our families, social groups, choirs, religious groups, and professional organizations. Membership in a CoP is based on a collective commitment to share what we know about how work is done. Learning in a CoP is social. Sharing knowledge and experiences can be done over coffee, via Internet chats, or at planned events such as a brownbag lunch or breakfast meeting. While workplace CoPs are often created from the ground up, members self-select, and leadership is not based on one person. The overall result is a structure to help one another cope on the day-to-day job, solve new problems,

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create new knowledge, bring new employees into a work environment, and grow as professionals. In Cultivating Communities of Practice, Wenger and his colleagues tackled the problem of what learning professionals can do to foster the development and growth of CoPs. The challenge, they say, is designing an intervention for an activity that is by definition spontaneous and self-directed. From their research, they developed seven recommendations: 1. Design for evolution. Develop and nurture preexisting groups. 2. Open a dialogue between inside and outside perspectives. Bring information from experts outside the group, to help the community grow. 3. Invite different levels of participation. Most groups have core members who are the leadership group; active members who participate in events regularly; and peripheral members who rarely participate. Ensure that CoPs have room for all levels of participation. 4. Develop both public and private community spaces. Public places are good locations for meetings, and might have their own Web site. Private spaces are closed locations where members can work more privately. 5. Focus on value. Initially, value evolves around problem solving; as the CoP matures, value may be in developing a system of knowledge. 6. Combine familiarity and excitement. While many events are routine, learning professionals might want to invite members to attend special conferences or attend invited lectures. 7. Create a rhythm for the community. Encourage attendance at regular meetings and chat rooms. Encourage Web site activity. Try to ensure that enough activities are planned, but not too many.3


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Mentoring Like communities of practice, mentoring is yet another means to pass on an organization’s culture. Mentoring is defined here as a process whereby an experienced member of an organization provides problem-solving strategies and career advice to new employees. “Here’s how we do this around here.” In an organization with a learning culture, informal mentoring occurs among its employees continually. Increasingly, though, organizations have benefited from establishing formal mentoring programs in which they assign new hires to senior members of the company, rather than assume that such relationships will evolve on their own. Formal mentoring programs help ensure that everyone who wants a mentor has one. Formal mentoring programs have start and stop dates, although informal mentoring may continue. Key to the ultimate success of any mentoring program are these three things: appropriate assessment and design steps taken prior to roll-out; the support of ongoing activities; and an evaluation plan. The workplace learning professional takes a leadership role in not only making sure that the program is well designed, but also that it is nurtured. Prior to Roll-Out. Like any instructional design effort, you will want to be sure that the expectations of the mentoring program are clear. Why should we do this? What do we want to achieve? How will we measure success? Do we have top-management sponsorship? Additionally, a design team may want to consider the organization’s culture and determine the degree to which potential mentors will welcome an opportunity to participate in the program or will need incentives. Full participation requires time on the part of both the mentor and the mentee, and both will benefit from advice on how to manage the relationship. Be sure that the following questions are answered: What will the scope of the program be? Who and how many individuals are eligible? How will we select mentees? How will we select mentors? Is it important that mentoring teams be in the same location, or can distance mentoring work? During the Mentoring Period. During the mentorship period, you should make sure that mentor-mentee teams are meeting regularly. Schedule regular group events, such as brownbag lunches, and remind participants to meet at a time and place convenient to both parties; this vital follow-up can be done by e-mail. Immediately address any issues that arise if teams are not compatible.

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After the Program. Evaluation is a key step. You must learn what worked and what went wrong. It is possible that a program succeeded because of the attention to detail in the matching of mentor and mentee. Mismatches might be a reason for a program not achieving its goals. Mentors and mentees should be part of any evaluation strategy; reaction questionnaires and focus groups are often used for this purpose. What is learned here becomes input for the development and delivery of the next mentoring program. The sharing of stories of successful mentor–mentee teams through company newsletters is a good way, too, of casting the spotlight on your program. Coaching Coaching is undoubtedly the way most of us would prefer to learn how to do almost anything. Supervisors and managers can be considered coaches when they work one-on-one with someone who needs to learn how to do a job. Peers, such as members of a CoP, can sometimes be labeled coaches. A good coach provides help just at the time that it is needed, and continually encourages team members to do their best. Coaching can be done to improve performance for an existing job, to better develop someone’s potential, or to help an individual get through a difficult personal challenge or master leadership skills. Dialogue and positive reinforcement support effective performance. The coach is someone who can listen to an individual’s problems and can help him or her develop strategies to address or cope with the problem. A good coach can even guide the employee to be more self-assured and comfortable in new roles. Many consultants and consulting firms provide these services. Coaching is a field for which no universally accepted licensing or credential exists, and the search for an effective coach is highly personal. What follows is an example of one coaching experience.


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Coaching Case Study The Situation: A high-potential corporate manager needs to learn to manage time and people more effectively so that she can take on more responsibility and have visibility to executive levels of management. * * * * * Ann was identified as a high-potential corporate manager who needed to improve her time- and employee-management skills in order to be promotable to an executive level. She had a pattern of working excessive hours, not focusing on strategic priorities, and over-reacting emotionally to stressful situations. Ann has an undergraduate engineering degree and an MBA from top schools. She is married, a mother of four children, and the primary wage earner for the family. The coaching process began by helping the client assess career goals, needs, values, strengths, weaknesses, work-style preference, and thought processes that impeded her success, and to find areas for skill development. The most immediate focus of coaching was on developing skills in setting priorities, handling interruptions, and delegating tasks. To accomplish this, Ann had to become aware of her behavior and the ways she was spending time. Ann’s personal challenges were resistance to making requests; saying “no” to interruptions and other requests for time; empowering others with responsibility; letting go of perfectionism and the need to solve other’s problems. Some of the tools used were journaling of accomplishments, self-talk, role-plays of employee-management situations, creation of a time-management chart, and use of creative methods that involved imagery, humor, and gimmicks to “lighten up.” Distinctions about behavior were also used to help Ann shift her mind set to be more productive and confident. After five months of coaching, Ann was exhibiting an even temperament under stress. She was rarely staying late and was maintaining an exercise regimen three times a week. She developed an innovative system for time management that was utilized by others in the company. She had the confidence to request consideration for executive level positions. She is now being given more opportunities to participate in executive level meetings, which will provide access to a promotion to this level. Marcia Grubel, career, life, and business coach, Irvington, New York. Used with permission.

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Summary Self-paced learning strategies are those where instruction is offered through print, audio, video, or computer-based materials, rather than via a classroom-based instructor. Self-paced instruction fits well with what we know about how adults learn. Such learning strategies are often used when participants possess a wide range of experiences and/or abilities; when participants are spread out geographically; when only a small number of individuals need to learn something; or when repetitive, ongoing learning of specific skills needs to take place. In this chapter, we took a developmental approach to describing self-paced or mediated methods, starting with paper-based instruction and tutorials, moving on to audio and video recording, and concluding with computer-supported resources and knowledge management systems. These methods build on each other and are often used in combination. Audio and video generally accompany other materials, such as study guides, books, programmed instruction, tutorials, and manuals. Computer-based instruction (CBI) includes tutorials, drill and practice, instructional games, modeling, simulations, and problem-solving exercises. Learning management systems can help with registration, assessment, record-keeping, and testing—the administrative side of training. CBI products combine text, graphics, animation, sound, and video, and exist in a wide range of formats. Because of their huge storage capability, CD-ROMs and DVDs are important integrating media. In e-learning and m-learning (mobile learning), learners access instructional materials, readings, assignments, interactive quizzes, and the like, as well as informational resources using communication tools such as discussion boards, chat rooms, iPods, satellite radio. E- and m-learning can be used for self-paced instruction, as well as live interaction. Software vendors can provide generic or personalized learning solutions. Because information can be easily updated and accessed independent of geography and is universally available, e- and m-learning are powerful just-in-time learning options. Computers are used for the communication, retrieval, examination, and manipulation of data, which can be accessed when needed. Performance support includes Help Desks, on-line help, and expert systems. Help Desks offer centralized tutoring from a person at the other end of a telephone. On-line help is built directly into a software applications package, available to the user at the click of a mouse. An expert system is a computer program that is developed by a subject matter expert and a knowledge engi-


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neer. It includes a user interface that allows the user to systematically ask questions. Performance support systems can include the entire gamut of instructional media discussed in this chapter, and provide just-in-time learning, which might reduce the need for formal learning. Producing self-paced materials from scratch is sophisticated, costly, and time-consuming. Delivering such instruction requires planning: determining where learning will take place, planning for the delivery and maintenance of needed materials, and creating mechanisms for support and feedback. Evaluation of outcomes is conducted much the same way as for live instruction. The instructor is more of a facilitator who stands behind the scenes, managing the instruction rather than acting as a live teacher. The focus of instruction—whether mediated or live—is always on learning. In the final section of this chapter, we defined and discussed three contemporary approaches to guide learning through an organization: communities of practice, mentoring, and coaching. Communities of practice (CoPs), groups of people who share a common expertise and passion for their work, help newcomers master their jobs and act as sounding boards. CoPs create and share new knowledge. Mentoring programs help create and sustain a relationship between a seasoned member of the organization and a new employee. The goal is to help the new employee learn the organizational culture. Coaching, on the other hand, is a one-on-one approach whereby an individual either learns how to do a current job or is groomed for future positions that will require new skill sets.

Think It Through 1. With the Instructional Development Cycle as a framework, summarize the major differences between classroom and self-paced instruction. 2. Paper-based mediated or self-paced instructional methods remain popular despite the widespread availability of computer-based instruction. Why? 3. Given the following knowledge/skill sets to learn, which self-paced method best fits your own learning style? Why? Are there some instances in which a variety of media (as well as live instruction) would be useful to you? a. The newest version of Word. b. How to write a training proposal.

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c. How to speak Japanese. d. Basic supervisory management skills. 4. Discuss the implications of the following statement: Performance support systems actually decrease the need for learning. 5. Identify a community of practice of which you are member. Describe your participation in that CoP, using terms such as “shared passion” and “common goals.” 6. Have you ever been or had a mentor or a coach? Share your experiences with your classmates.

Ideas in Action 1. Identify a non-fiction book of interest from the New York Times Best Seller List that would be appropriate reading for an executive development program. a. Develop a study guide for the book—exercises that would help a reader retain and learn the content. or b. Summarize the key points of the book on an audiotape or disk. Listen to your recording. What did you learn about the book? What did you learn about creating a recording? 2. Interview someone at your organization or school who has taught a course over the Internet. Ask him or her to describe the content of the course. Also ask how the course was implemented and what evaluation data are available. What, if any, are the time and cost estimates? Report your findings to your classmates. 3. Interview individuals at your institution who have taken a course over the Internet. Ask them to describe the content of the course. What were their reactions to the course? Were their learning goals achieved? Ask them to compare the course to one they might have taken in a traditional classroom environment. Report your findings to your classmates.


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4. Using data from the PHH VMS example below, write a memo to employees describing the new system and why they should sign up for courses. 5. Check out the Web sites of at least three Web-based learning vendors. Make a list of the services each vendor offers. Take advantage of any offer to “test drive” their products. Write a brief report summarizing what you found and how you perceive the relative value of their sites. Featured Case: PHH Vehicle Management Services As you read this case, identify the technical issues and the people-issues related to the introduction of a new learning technology. The introduction of self-paced methods in an organization is a complex challenge. Risks can be high and costs can be great. Learning professionals must have a vision and a tolerance for risk if they intend to encourage innovational approaches to learning. Management must also have effective delivery strategies that not only support learning, but also support the organizational culture. PHH Vehicle Management Services in Hunt Valley, Maryland specializes in fleet leasing and vehicle support services. The 900+ employees obtained their computer skills training through a local vendor who provides full-day courses on the basic use of the computer, MS Word, Excel, PowerPoint, and Windows. Course delivery was coordinated through the company’s small training department. Courses were popular. However, as a service business, employees were concerned that they needed to be close to their customers and often could not devote a full day to learning to use software. Marc Sokol, director of human resource development, was asked to examine computer-based training as a possible alternative to, or additional strategy for, software training. He asked himself if their small training department could support computer-based training (CBT), even if it were an appropriate alternative. Would they need to find an external provider? A study team consisting of Sokol, one trainer, one human resource information specialist, and two people from the information technology unit was set up to explore the idea further. Members visited three very different types of organizations that were heavily involved in developing and using CBT: UPS, GEICO, and Q-E Midlantic.

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First, they visited United Parcel Services (UPS), a large information-intensive organization in New Jersey. At the time of system development, UPS’s CBT development group creates training modules to be shipped with new software. Their CBT is sophisticated, tailored, intensive, and expensive; but because they support a large number of users worldwide, the investment is extremely cost-effective for UPS. Next, Sokol’s team visited a smaller company, Government Employees Insurance Company (GEICO) in Washington, D. C. GEICO has a subgroup of four training professionals who report to the human resources department and are directly involved in CBT development. GEICO’s CBT products are labor-intensive and expensive, but are considered to be extremely effective for their distributed users’ learning needs. The last site visited was a small leasing company named Q-E Midlantic, a value-added reseller that specializes in CBT equipment, software, and training facilitation. Hardware, including state-of-the-art computers, laser disks, CD-ROMs, and sophisticated computer software, was set up in Q-E Midlantic’s learning center. Students from many diverse organizations in Q-E Midlantic’s metropolitan region are able to come in to the center any time between 8:00 a.m. and 5:00 p.m., pop in a program, and watch an instructional video on one of the three chosen levels: beginner, intermediate, or advanced. The learner, using a toggle, can switch between the instructional narrative and the actual software application. The study team was intrigued with this setup because it is not as staff-intensive as the other approaches, and the individual learner has control. PHH VMS’s culture to date had been high-tech/high-touch, and the company employees were used to, and expected, live instruction. Therefore, the study team decided to pilot the CBT in a manner that would also support a change in training delivery (remember this as you read Chapter 10). So, with the assistance of Q-E Midlantic, they developed a three-month, three-stage pilot test. For the first month, everyone in a single department (the HR department), was signed up for two half-day courses. At the end of the month, department members discussed their experiences. Reaction was generally positive, but members of the study team still weren’t sure that CBT was for everyone, particularly for workers with absolutely no computer experience or workers who wanted the feeling of comfort that comes with an instructor-led class.


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During the second month, the study team identified 15 people from throughout the organization who had previously had instructor-led computer training, and invited them to participate in the CBT courses free of charge. This time, individuals could go to the Q-E Midlantic training center when they had time—anytime within the 8 a.m. to 5 p.m. learning center hours. These more experienced users could work at a level appropriate to their needs, and were very enthusiastic about their experiences. However, they reported that the 8 a.m. to 5 p.m. time frame was too restrictive, and that the learning center itself was noisier than they would like. During the third month and final phase of the study, the team leased two complete training systems and set them up in a small room on their own premises. They advertised that the equipment was available on a sign-up basis, and brought in the vendor to demonstrate the equipment in the firm’s cafeteria and in the lobby. They advertised it as “Free training for a month.” Individuals were encouraged to sign up for a trial use of the system, and to the team’s astonishment, more than 100 people signed up. By the middle of the month, the room was booked from 7 a.m. to 7 p.m. during the week, and frequently on weekends. Users reported that the system was easy to navigate and more effective than the live instruction, and it fit more easily into their busy schedules. As the third month wound down, the question changed from “Should we use the system?” to “Should we lease it or buy it?” Given the pace of technological change, did it make sense to buy the system outright, or lease it? Sokol explained that this is a standard dilemma, faced by the computer industry as well as training departments. “It’s a paradox,” he said. “You can’t afford to wait, and yet there’s an inherent risk in buying equipment outright.” Moreover, CBT wasn’t for all learners. Users with little computer experience, for example, needed more-direct support. Scheduling the classroom site and the requisite facilitator support were complex administrative issues, but the team also needed to think about evaluation—how to determine if learning actually took place. For example, are on-line computer-generated evaluation tests useful and valid? For the future, Sokol intends to address the issue of portability—the use of the system at the desktop or at home. “We’ve come a long way from early programmed instruction, which was simply a series of branching screens of text,” said Sokol. “We moved on to graphics and

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colors to display information, then interactive software, and now multimedia applications. The challenge is to move from computer-based learning to computer-based support.” Based on an interview with Marc Sokol, Director of HRD for PHH Fleet America when the interview was conducted. (Note: PHH Fleet America has subsequently become part of Cendant Corporation.)

Additional Resources Rosenberg, M. J. 2006. Beyond E-Learning. San Francisco: Pfeiffer. Rosenberg assesses the current state of e-learning, provides case studies of successful implementations, and includes essays by noted experts in the field, including Elliot Masie and Kevin Oaks. Rudestsam, K. E., and Schoenholtz-Read (eds.). 2002. Handbook of Online Learning: Innovations in Higher Education and Corporate Training. Thousand Oaks, California: Sage. In this book, the authors explore issues related to teaching and learning over electronic networks. Schank, R. 1997. Virtual Learning: A Revolutionary Approach to Building a Highly Skilled Workforce. New York: McGraw-Hill. Schank offers case histories and examples of organizations, including Andersen Consulting, that have used computer simulations and role-playing scenarios in virtual training. Schank’s argument is that virtual training results in better, more-effective learning outcomes. This book is a must-read for all workplace learning professionals. Zachary, Lois J. 2005 Creating a Mentoring Culture. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. This resource is a step-by-step guide to launching an organization-wide mentoring initiative. You’ll find the forms and procedures easy to follow.


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Chapter 8 Notes 1.

Lipson, Joseph. “Learning by Distance: How Effective?” Presentation delivered to the Regional Forum on Distance Learning in Austin, Texas on April 5, 1984.

2.

Podcast Popularity Grows. Training. April 2006. 43(4), p. 14.

VOICES FROM THE FIELD Gloria Gery on Instructional Delivery

Gloria Gery is an internationally recognized training consultant and principal in the Tolland, Massachusetts-based Gery Associates, which specializes in performancecentered software design and implementation of interactive training and performancesupport systems. She is a member of Training magazine’s HRD Hall of Fame. Learning at Work (LAW):

Gloria, your name is synonymous with performance support. Can you describe the types of services you provide organizations as a consultant?

Gloria Gery (GERY):

Basically, Chet, I work with organizations to consider strategies, tactics, and software tools to serve as an alternative to traditional training as the primary means of performance development. Training is working less and less and is “falling of its own weight” in many organizations, due to the volume, complexity, and change in content and task/process requirements. I help my clients understand how they can integrate support for task or work processing with knowledge, data, tools, and communication so they can generate immediate performance by people who do not know how to do the work. I also show them how they can integrate resources to permit learning that is collateral with doing (rather than as a precondition). This work involves making people unhappy with the status quo, demonstrating and describing alternatives, educating people on what it takes to do these new things, and sometimes actually working with them in the design and development of such systems.

LAW:

What business benefits have you seen derived from performance support?

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GERY:

Lots. Mostly, it enables people to reduce or even eliminate training on work process and factual/conceptual content, reduces coaching and supervisory requirements, allows work to be assigned to different people—even directly to customers. Because comprehensive performance support systems build best practice and strategic goals within them, the goals can include such high level outcomes as finally enabling the implementation of strategy. The idea here is to consider efficiency, effectiveness, value-added, and strategy outcomes and see how achieving all of them can be built into the support system. Because performance support is an integrating viewpoint, its success typically requires collaboration with those in the line of business and information systems.

LAW:

What trouble have you seen people get themselves into in trying to implement technology to support learning?

GERY:

There are many pitfalls, but to me, the biggest one is not exploiting the power of the technology. People start and often stop with “automating the past.” They apply technology to old mental models for design and old methods for development. They don’t consider, for example, how learning and the need to learn change when information is ubiquitous and available to all. They continue to “teach” at people rather than present problems or goals and enable people to meet them. They fail to employ collaboration technologies and stick to the model that the “student is a vessel to be filled.” I am a constructivist at heart and believe we can now implement that approach to learning. Getting stuck in the past and failing to adapt point of view, goals, methods, and techniques to the new realities is a shame. But it happens more than not. Misuse of media is another pitfall, Chet. People integrate gratuitous animations, sound, video, and so on because they can. Designers must control and constrain and use only value-added representations of knowledge. The “law of diminishing astonishment” operates overtime here. The things that seduce don’t sustain. Learners quickly tire of cute and trivial elements. They are hungry for relevant and filtered content—not a lot of glitz. This is not to say the quality production values should

Voices—Gloria Gery

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not be achieved, but a little media goes a long way. And the criteria should be “value-added.” That is, does the representation improve time to understanding or performance? That’s the measure. LAW:

So what do you see as major trends concerning mediated instruction of all types?

GERY:

My response depends on who or what I am thinking of. Of course, everyone’s rushing to the Web or the Intranet. This is good in a small way: universal access. But because the Web is based on a “page” metaphor, because the development tools are so limited, and because there’s no local memory, storage, or processing assumed in Web design, it reduces the potential to designing for the lowest technology denominator—the dumb terminal. I find it frightening that we must regress to the early days of CBT in a dumb terminal environment, but the regression is a trend. One of the best things I see is the effort to integrate learning and knowledge resources into the work context. Good designers consider how they can anticipate needs for knowledge, understand the best representation of that knowledge, and provide on-demand, just-in-time, justenough, best-represented content. The moment of need is the teachable moment. We must be there. It is more or less difficult to achieve this integration. But even when it’s difficult, it is our responsibility as those tasked with enabling learning. If we don’t achieve integration, then chance operates and the learner or performer may or may not be motivated or able to search out knowledge, evaluate it, filter it, integrate it, and use it.

LAW:

What impact do you think improved bandwidth and computer capacity will have on Web-based training of all sorts?

GERY:

High bandwidth and fast, cheap, large machines connected in powerful networks are the necessary but not sufficient conditions for achieving good, rich, effective learning environments. Design of good learning resources and performance support systems by knowledgeable people is at least as important. Power without appropriate content is an empty

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vessel. We shouldn’t underestimate the technology’s significance—or depend on it entirely. LAW:

How do you know when WBT has taken place successfully?

GERY:

How do you know when any learning occurs? When people can do things. Performance is the measure. Teaching people the threads (i.e. subjects, systems, etc.) is inadequate. We must help them weave the threads into desired performance.

LAW:

Gloria, what roles do you see instructional design playing over the next few years or so?

GERY:

I see people shifting from developing events to designing learning environments. That means integrating more with others who create knowledge in various forms (e.g. those in documentation and training, help desks, product engineers, and those in knowledge management). I see a shift from learning to performance... and performance consulting will be a part of it.

LAW:

What would you say are the most important tasks that workplace learning professionals must do for their organizations?

GERY:

Focus on outcomes, not on activities or events. Play a significant role in designing software interfaces and linking knowledge to the task context supported by new computer systems. This is in direct contrast to using training to compensate for badly designed or data-driven software. Shift design of learning experiences from information-transfer events to problem solving or simulation-based learning events involving collaboration with others (through technology).

LAW:

What specific advice can you offer our readers to help them make training an organizational investment, rather than an overhead expense—and help them persuade others to see it as an investment, rather than an expense?

Voices—Gloria Gery

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GERY:

Make it work-oriented, not content-focused. Integrate the threads of decomposed knowledge that are in most courses to help learners synthesize. Make learning practical and applied. Stop being focused on our design needs, and focus on the business and performers’ needs. Think of participants as performers, rather than students.

LAW:

Gloria, thank you for sharing your considerable insights and expertise in this area. You've given us much to think about. Chet, you’re very welcome.

GERY:

PART 4

ADDITIONAL COMPETENCIES Prologue to Part 4 Orville and Wilbur Wright were successful because they were systems thinkers. They alone identified three interconnected facts of flight demonstrated by birds without motors. Before you could hang wings on a bicycle and ride it through the sky, you had to figure out how to: 1. Get it in the air 2. Keep it in the air 3. Make it go where you want Part 4 is all about creating environments in which learning initiatives can fly. Even the best solution will flounder if it is not described in such a way that decision-makers will have enough information on which to determine its worth (“get it into the air”). Even the best solution will fail if it is not administered appropriately. For example, instructional support materials must arrive on time and participants should be able to hear a presenter (“keep it in the air”). It will be useless if the outcomes are not consistent with “the way we work around here” and learners or their superiors resist it (“make it go where you want”). This systems approach forces us to consider the many things inside and outside the learning solution itself that determine whether or not instruction will be effective. Systems thinking also makes use of the concept of equifinality, which is another way of saying that there is more than one way to do anything. The chapters that follow do not provide foolproof templates for problem-solving, but are instead ideas and suggestions that will fit some circumstances perfectly, others partially, and some not at all. Part 4 is all about the effective use of a toolkit for communication and leadership skills and tools for writing, speaking, delegating, organizing, facilitating. How you get the instructional program into the air, keep it there, and make sure it does what it is supposed to do depends on many factors related to the individual, the current environment, and the organization that is being served.

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Therefore, in addition to being a purveyor of sound learning support practices, you need additional skills to work successfully within the organizational system and communicate how specific solutions can address a business need, manage the process by which solutions are implemented, and understand how you can participate as a fully functioning member of the organization’s management team. A critical part of making your case for a learning intervention is being adept at crafting a training proposal. The training proposal is a comprehensive planning document. It includes an analysis of the needs assessment data and shows how the solution it offers fills a performance gap or organizational need. Chapter 9, Writing the Training Proposal, suggests structural outlines, writing strategies, and cost/benefit analysis techniques that are frequently used in developing successful proposals. The training proposal itself must offer decision makers the information they need to make the “go or no-go” decision regarding whether or not the program itself is feasible. Chapter 10, Supporting Change in the Workplace, takes you back to Chapter 1, where instruction was described as all about learning, and learning as all about changes in knowledge, skills, and attitudes. Change, and therefore learning, is a constant in all organizations. We begin this chapter with a simple change model— innovation, infusion, and assimilation—and discuss the workplace learning professional’s role in the problem-solving process. To provide a framework for understanding the concept of planned organizational change, we include excerpts from the work of Everett Rogers, Kurt Lewin, and Peter Senge. Also included here is a sampling of techniques for facilitating group processes that emphasize the increasingly important role of the workplace learning professional as a business partner. In Chapter 11, Administering Workplace Learning Programs, we provide a menu of suggestions for operating a learning and performance department and administering the logistics of instructional delivery. Good administrative support consists of ensuring that program descriptions are available, that participant registration is easy and efficient, that materials arrive on time, that the physical facility is set up properly, and that any equipment is in good working order. You’ll find checklists that can be adapted to many situations, as well as a sample program cost worksheet that can help you establish budgets. The Wright Brothers invented their own wing, elevator, rudder, engine, and propeller. They had to think how each part of the system affected the plane’s ability to fly. They had to go beyond solving isolated sets of problems. The workplace learning

Prologue to Part 4

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professional, likewise, must understand how important it is that the right things are learned in the right way, for the right people, at the right time, and in the right priority order. Leadership for this role requires an understanding that organizations need interventions, and that organizations themselves are complex entities. Making sure that learning solutions are understood and administered appropriately and that they are useful interventions requires teamwork and an understanding that learning and performance are business functions. All this, in turn, requires an understanding of the entire organizational system.

CHAPTER 9

Writing the Training Proposal In this chapter, we will do the following: • • • •

List the key components of training proposals and suggest proposal design and structure. Identify variables on which to evaluate training proposals. Determine the benefits and costs of the proposed learning initiative, including return-on-investment figures. Recommend strategies to ensure a winning proposal presentation.

What is a Training Proposal? Instructional program providers, whether internal or external to the organization, must communicate their plans to decision makers. A proposal is a request for action; its purpose is to persuade decision makers that a need exists for action, and that the action described in the document is the best response to that need. It must be thorough and convincing, which means that the individual preparing the proposal must have solid writing skills and perhaps even sharp, creative desktop-publishing skills. Occasionally, a proposal writer is asked to present the proposal in person to a decision-making group; in this case, effective oral presentation skills and skill with presentation software will also be critical. In this chapter we use the term training proposal to refer to the written plan of a solution to a performance gap or learning need. If you are an internal learning support professional, your training proposal will help you compete for scarce resources within the organization. If you are selecting an external provider, you will want to determine if the vendor can provide the services you need in a timely manner. Either way, the goal of a training proposal is to convince organizational decision makers that the identified need deserves priority status, and that the proposal outlines the best solution for that need. The proposal must communicate ideas and plans with such eloquence that it will rise to the top of the requests submitted.

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Communicating Learning Solutions The first prerequisite in planning a proposal is to have a very clear idea of the organization’s learning needs. The second prerequisite is to know who will be reading the proposal. Sometimes written proposals must adhere to strict corporate guidelines. Federal agencies, for example, often provide a boilerplate format that makes it easy for decision makers to compare proposals. Other times, proposal writers use a format that is appropriate to the problem at hand, but leaves room for the individuality of the writer and/or the provider’s organization to come through. You must tailor the proposal’s format to the organization and to the problem. A list of the components of common proposals is presented on the following page. Note that the list follows the four phases of the Instructional Development Cycle— assessment, design, implementation, and evaluation. Not every training proposal will have all of these components or follow this sequence. Many winning proposals are brief—only three to five pages long or presented strictly as a PowerPoint presentation. Senior executives usually want a summary view with few details, whereas middle managers will need much more information. The larger the scope of the project and the more expensive or strategic the solution, the more detailed the proposal needs to be. Therefore, know your audience, your purpose, and your project before you begin, and keep them in mind throughout the process. As you read this chapter, you might want to refer to Appendix A (a sample long training proposal) and Appendix B (a sample short training proposal). Title Page The title page should start off with a descriptive title of the proposal. Avoid picking a name that sounds like the title of a college course, since such course titles tend to be very general in nature. A proposal for a business writing course designed to help managers prepare performance reports, for example, could be called “Writing Techniques for Preparing Performance Reports,” but should not be entitled “Fundamentals of Business Writing.” Put the name of the proposal writer on the title page, as well as relevant contact information, such as address, telephone number, facsimile number, and e-mail address.

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The Components of a Training Proposal Title page Table of contents Executive summary Description of the problem or need* Analysis of the problem* Target population* Rationale and goals of the proposed initiative Learning objectives and topics* Evaluation strategies Overview of the training solution program (outline) Resources required Capabilities of the training providers Development schedule Costs Projected benefits *These elements may be combined or merged under the subhead indicated if a shorter proposal is desired.

Table of Contents A table of contents is not always necessary for short proposals, but is generally provided for lengthy and/or detailed proposals to give the reader a quick overview of what is to come and in what sequence, and serve as an easy reference to the various sections. Executive Summary Time is critical to everyone, so prepare a tightly written executive summary for all proposals. A sample of an executive summary follows: Newly hired inspection employees at the Xanadu Corporation have a much higher product-rejection rate than established employees. The high rejection

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rate costs this corporation a considerable amount of time and money, as the products rejected are often well within the firm’s acceptability range. A needs analysis consisting of employee interviews and observations indicates that new hires are using different acceptance standards than their experienced counterparts. A training program consisting of product information lecturettes, role plays, and small group discussions is recommended to make sure new inspector hires learn and apply the appropriate standards. Description of the Problem Those who will be reviewing the proposal and making decisions on its fate need to know what the problem is that you are trying to address. A full and accurate description begins with some background: how the proposal was initiated, who performed the needs assessment, and what procedures were involved in the process. Then describe the context of the business problem to be solved. One way to make this connection is to list the names of stakeholders who initially raised the issue or who participated in the needs assessment process. An example of this section follows: The trademark of this business is quality. New hires are rejecting too many acceptable products. They seem to be overly cautious in their goal to maintain the highest quality control standards. Thus, excessive numbers of acceptable machine tools are rejected. New hires making judgment calls tend to err on the side of caution, rather than on the side of acceptability. Analysis of the Problem What is the problem to be addressed? In the analysis section, describe why the program is needed—how the learning solution bridges the gap between an identified problem and the learning required. Show how the learning solution solves a specific business problem. If the needs assessment is complete, data from the results will show an understanding of the organization, the individuals to be targeted, and the specific tasks or concepts they are to learn. If the needs assessment has not yet been conducted, this section—the analysis of the problem—could outline how the problem was discovered, by whom, and when. In very brief terms, the writer should describe the needs assessment process—the instruments that were developed, the people who were interviewed or surveyed, and data that were collected. Provide the results of these assessment processes to show how the proposed solution matches the learning need.


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Thus, the analysis section describes the impact of the identified performance gap on the business. Perhaps customers need to be served more efficiently and effectively by sales staff. Managers may need to manage more flexibly as the organization flattens. Insurance agents may need a new, more efficient way to track prospects. Support staff may need better customer relations skills. The warehouse crew may need new strategies to decrease reports of back-strain problems. In other words, use this section to address how the problem will be solved by the program. Oftentimes, the proposal writer is the same person who conducted the needs analysis and is proposing a solution. However, sometimes providers use data from a request for proposal (RFP), in which case the problem has already been outlined. Either way, describing the problem is what this section is all about. The length and comprehensiveness of the analysis component is situation-specific. An excerpt of a narrative of this section follows: Interviews were conducted with three (3) first-line supervisors in the Quality Control Department (here their names and/or titles would be added) to explore the perceived gap between the quality of machine parts produced and rejection rates from newly hired employees. Observations conducted of both new and long-time employees over a two-day period show that a higher percentage of rejections came from the new hires than from the established group. This suggests that different standards are being applied by these two groups. Target Population You should be very clear about who will participate in your learning initiative. As we stated in Chapter 2, the target population is made up of those individuals in the center of the needs assessment bull’s-eye who will directly benefit from involvement in your proposed program. Examples of target populations might include newly promoted supervisors in a specific department, all local-area network managers, all production managers, or even everyone in the organization. The target population section should describe as accurately as possible the number of potential participants and their functions. A sample narrative follows:

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The target population includes all supervisors in the Quality Control Department. We recommend that all supervisors participate in this learning initiative at the same time to make the best use of their individual and collective experience. Rationale and Goals of the Proposed Training Rationale and goals are the heart of the training proposal. This section should be tied back to the analysis of the problem and the impact of the problem on the organization. Here, the writer explains why the program is needed, its goals, and its anticipated outcomes. This section should answer the question: “What is the purpose of the proposed learning intervention and what are the anticipated benefits to be derived from it?” It includes an overview of the course goals and objectives, the scope of its content, and assumed qualifications of the participants to undertake the proposed training. A sample narrative follows: The needs assessment conducted (date/location) indicated that additional training is needed for new hires (less than three months). These new hires have been responsible for excessive recalls. The proposed training will focus on establishing the best way to install and check to ensure complete compliance with the firm’s existing standards. Since a number of new hires are Spanishspeaking, trainers will be proficient in both English and Spanish. Course goals and objectives are to conduct a review of the overall wiring installation procedures used for the product, as well as explaining specific and newly developed methods for update modifications. New manuals will be developed, color-coded, and pilot-tested for this audience. Learning Objectives and Topics In describing the proposed learning solution, match learning objectives with program topics. These objectives can be stated either in broad, general terms or in performance terms. For cognitive and skill-oriented outcomes, performance objectives are preferred; for attitudinal changes or outcomes in the affective domain, more-general learning objectives are acceptable. Examples of objectives in a proposed learning initiative to improve or develop computer skills follow.


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Sample Program Objectives Skill Block 1 – Document Management Upon completion of Skill Block 1, participants will be able to complete the following tasks with 100 percent accuracy: • • • •

Create directories. Move and copy files from different directories. Save files on the network. Transfer files to distant locations.

Skill Block 2 – Advanced Functions and What-lf Analysis Upon completion of Skill Block 2, participants will be able to complete the following tasks with 100 percent accuracy: • • • • • •

Use the IF and VLOOKUP functions. Use various financial functions, including PMT, IRR, NVR, and FV. Use data tables. Use the scenario manager. Use “goal” seek. Create pivot tables.

Skill Block 3 – Graphing Worksheet Data Upon completion of Skill Block 3, participants will be able to complete the following tasks with 100 percent accuracy: • • • • • •

Chart continuous and noncontinuous worksheet data. Create a chart using the ChartPrep function. Create a chart in a separate document. Change the chart type. Change formatting options. Add text to a chart.

Objectives create the framework for specific topics to be covered. Learning objectives always drive the topics—not the other way around.

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Evaluation Strategies A good training proposal outlines how the organization will know that the proposed learning initiative has achieved its designed outcomes. Learning and performance professionals, as business partners, are accountable for results, and in this section the writer should describe how the planned learning objectives and consequent business results are to be measured. Review the entire gamut of evaluation options described in Chapter 3—participant reactions, tests, attitude questionnaires, observations, performance reports, and the like; choose the strategy (or strategies) you will use, and describe it in this section. Also describe any follow-up activities you will use to determine if the training met the goals that learning set out to achieve. By presenting the goals and the evaluation strategies sequentially, your reader can see both the starting and ending points for the proposed learning intervention. In some instances, evaluation at the end of the program may be appropriate, but evaluation can be continued over a period of weeks or even months. Here is an example of what this section could look like: Goals: To introduce new product line X to the sales staff so that learners can: • • • • •

Describe the product line. Show how the line will mesh with existing products currently in use. Identify strengths and weaknesses of the line and individual units. Enforce selling points and objection responses. Detail implementation strategies and methods.

Evaluation: Effectiveness of this intervention will be measured by: •

• •

Instructor’s use of checklists to assess performance in role plays with members of sales staff and supervisors/managers at the completion of the training program. Learners’ self-evaluations of three videotaped sales demonstrations during the training. Instructor’s review of each participant’s performance three months and six months after the training.


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Overview of the Training Solution The overview broadly describes the learning solution being proposed for the identified problem. This description should include the specific types of activities proposed, where they will take place, and who will be involved. Describing the nature and type of activities that will occur over a designated period of time provides the decision maker(s) with a picture of the entire learning experience. Examples of this might include the following: The two-day sales presentation skills workshop will include group presentations and role plays, and culminate with participants developing videotaped sales presentations. or The hands-on safety training program will focus on the operation and safety features of the new equipment, Model 43, by use of a series of simulations and models. The program will take approximately two hours. or In two half-day sessions, we will make extensive use of role play in conflict resolution scenarios. Scenarios will depict common stress points between peers, as well as between staff members and supervisors. Program Outline A program outline should be included in every program proposal. It consists of the topics placed in a logical order that detail the content, organization, and component sequence of the proposed program. The outline also provides the basis for a leader’s guide. The program outline must be as complete as possible. Here is an example of a program outline to train new air-conditioning installers: • • • • •

Description of air-conditioning unit (with full and cutaway views). Identification of major components and functions. Overview of installation process. Presentation of installation procedures—sequential elements and steps (from “make-ready” to clean up). Description of safety considerations.

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Illustration of checkout operation. Examples of adjustment and tuning activities. Description of customer materials and service options. Post-installation self-evaluation.

Resources Required Identifying the materials needed is the next part of the proposal: the instructional materials, the hardware and software, and the personnel. Any pre-work to be completed by participants before the program starts should be described here. Be sure to list handouts and other related materials that will be needed. •

Instructional materials: prework, binders, leader and participant guides, manuals, handouts, models, transparencies, flipcharts, whiteboards, reference guides, etc.

•

Hardware and software: computers, application packages, video cameras, multimedia setups, etc.

•

Personnel: names and/or job titles of individuals who will be required for the assessment, design, implementation, and evaluation stages.

Capabilities of the Training Providers This section is an essential component when the proposal is in competition for a training contract. In this section, the outside vendor describes his or her company’s ability or qualifications to produce an effective learning solution and to deliver it in a timely manner. Decision makers will want to know the vendor’s capabilities and track record on similar projects competed. This could include short biographies on individual staff members or a list of satisfied clients. When the proposal writer is an internal learning and performance department staff member, this section is probably not needed. Knowing the capabilities of external providers is important. For example, if a video recording will need to be developed as part of the program, what evidence exists that the vendor can do this? How many staff members can be dedicated to this project? Does the provider have access to special facilities or equipment (e.g., graphic designers, special cameras, software)? As an evaluator, you’ll want to match the individual’s ability and experience with the needs identified earlier. A brief description may be all


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that is necessary for a short proposal; however, for a more complex, costly, or strategic training effort, résumés should be attached. A sample qualification narrative follows: The proposed program will be developed and delivered by an organization with more than 30 years of extensive experience in production and quality-control areas. With headquarters in Chicago and offices in 11 major metropolitan areas throughout the U.S., Canada, and Mexico, the company’s 220 learning and performance professionals and support staff speak multiple languages. All our professionals are required to hold a minimum of a four-year business degree, and most hold graduate degrees in their specialty. They are fully certified through a rigorous development process. Satisfied clients include General Electric, IBM, and PepsiCo. Development Schedule The development schedule is another necessary part of a training proposal. It is an outline of the sequence of planning events in a step-by-step process, covering blocks of time. Describe what needs to be done, when it will be done, how long it will take, and in what sequence. The development schedule takes the form of a Gantt Chart, such as the one shown in Figure 9-1. In your development schedule, describe the stages necessary to complete specific and separate phases of the needs assessment and design of the learning solution. This provides an overview of the specific tasks to be done. It shows which tasks will be done sequentially and which tasks will be done concurrently with another activity. Figure 9-1 numbers the major tasks in a sample schedule and plots them according to when they should begin and end. Task 1, for example, is the needs assessment analysis; Task 2, the client review, is a detailed discussion with decision makers or the target audience. (Note the overlap with other tasks.) The task list continues, culminating in the final project ready for pilot-testing.

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Figure 9-1. Training Development Schedule Development Schedule (January through March) Task 1.

Period 1

Period 2

Period 3

Period 4

Needs assessment, interviews, and observations

2. 3.

Client review Validation of needs assessment data (and possible extension)

4.

Program development

5.

Leader’s Guide (Draft)

6.

Instructor preparation for pilot testing

Delivery Schedule Develop a second schedule for the testing of the materials and procedures designed earlier. Outline when the pilot tests will occur, when any needed revisions will be done, and when the product should be available for rollout for the entire organization. Figure 9-2 is a sample delivery schedule. The schedule can cover a period as short as a few days, or it can cover a year or more, depending on the nature and strategic importance of the project. The delivery schedule, thus, provides a time line of when major tests and revisions will be done and when the project will be ready for full implementation. (Note: If a leader’s guide was not developed earlier, it can be done as part of delivery.) Watching how a skilled instructor uses the leader’s guide in pilot-test situations is an excellent way to make sure that it provides useful teaching strategies and suggestions for easy transition from topic to topic.

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Writing the Training Proposal Figure 9-2. Delivery Schedule Delivery Schedule Quarter 1

Quarter 2

Quarter 3

Quarter 4

Available

Jan.–March

Apr.–June

July–Sept.

Oct.–Dec.

January 1

Pilot 1 revised

Pilot 2 revised

Pilot 3 revised

Rollout

Program Title: TFX Training Materialsdevelopment period

Leader’s Guide developed/revised

Costs The cost section of the training proposal details the expenses involved in doing what is proposed. Because proposals are written to sell decision-makers on a proposed solution to an identified problem, it is extremely important that costs be fully explained and well-documented. Training proposals compete for the organization’s scarce resources, so they must provide sound estimates of costs. See Chapter 11 for worksheets that will help you develop cost figures. Projected Benefits A learning initiative is designed to close a learning gap, a performance gap, or a lack of knowledge. Rather than leave expected gains to speculation, identify the benefits accruing to the organization. Many productivity benefits can be easily documented and can help to cost-justify the expenses of the training program, but there are a number of “soft” benefits that are not as easy to identify, such as enhanced morale and greater team spirit. Typically, however, benefits fall into one of the following three categories: •

Productivity improvements. (Individuals can do more.) For example, assume that your needs assessment showed that supervisors were having trouble getting their monthly reports in on time. Observational and interview data showed that they were often late because they were juggling too

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many tasks at once. Your time management learning initiative, you suggest, could save these managers at least 4 hours a week, giving them additional time to complete this (and other) tasks. There are 100 supervisors targeted, earning an average of $60,000/year ($5,000/month or $1,250/week or $31.25 an hour). You could suggest that total benefits could be $625,000 ($31.25 x 4 x 100 x 50 [weeks worked in a year]). Moreover, if only half of the attendees gained such productivity, it would still result in a benefit of $312,500 to your firm. •

Quality improvements. (Individuals do what they do better, and products or services will be enhanced.) For example, assume you are suggesting that if the targeted group effectively learns safety guidelines, the total number of accidents could be reduced by at least 50 percent. Last year, there were 100 accidents, each costing the organization an average of $2,000. So last year’s safety infraction costs totaled $200,000; you might determine that the value of the learning initiative could be 50 percent of that cost figure, or $100,000.

•

Workplace improvements. (The workplace environment is better for individuals and their work, thus enhancing the overall quality of work life.) For example, assume that the organization has been experiencing high turnover. Data from your needs analysis suggests that the mentoring program you want to establish could possibly cut the new-hire turnover rate by 30%. Last year, 12 new hires left, and replacing them costs $20,000 each. So if the mentoring program helped the firm to retain even two of those employees, the total benefit could be $40,000.

Placing realistic hard dollar figures on all the soft benefits identified is a difficult task, one that has been referred to as “creative accounting.” However, doing so allows you to create a return on investment (ROI) figure that will be very important to the individual charged with making the “go or no-go” decision regarding the proposal. ROI is a ratio that represents the anticipated value the training program is expected to offer. The formula used for ROI is to take the projected lifetime benefits and subtract the projected lifetime costs, and then divide this number by the projected lifetime costs. Multiplying the results by 100 provides a percentage value that can be easily compared with other proposals and their ROI results. The formula can be used to cost-justify one solution, or to contrast various solutions.

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Projected Lifetime Benefits - Projected Lifetime Costs Projected Lifetime Costs

x 100 = ROI

For example, assume that you have projected lifetime benefits of $300,000, and lifetime costs of $100,000. Here’s how you would calculate ROI: $300,000 - $100,000 $100,000

x 100 = 200%

Appendices Sometimes a proposal requires reference material that should be placed in an appendix: statistical data, sample data collection instruments, provider résumés, reference lists, and/or any other supporting materials that will help management make an informed (and favorable!) decision on your behalf. Other Proposal Designs Keep in mind that our list of components and its sequencing represents only one model. In certain circumstances, it might be more logical to describe the abilities of providers at the end, allowing the proposal itself to support the provider’s qualifications. When it is desirable to get the reader’s attention quickly, the projected benefits can then be the first item discussed.

Proposal Presentation The most carefully crafted proposal in the world will never gain approval unless its presentation looks professional. This means, first of all, that the proposed learning solution has to fit the identified problem. However, it is also very important that the document itself be mechanically perfect, grammatically correct, and physically attractive. Layout and design features must be carefully considered, and any graphics involved must be skillfully used. Knowing the reader and presenting a quality document contributes to a positive reaction.

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Identify Your Audience Depending on the magnitude of the proposal, readers will probably consist of middle managers (for operational proposals) and more-senior management (for informational or strategic training proposals). Middle managers will probably dwell on the specifics, while people at higher levels will likely concentrate on larger issues of policy and strategy. Present the Proposal Live In most cases, the written proposal will probably be evaluated on the basis of the document itself. In some cases, however, the writer might have an opportunity to present the proposal live. In this situation, the presenter should practice so that he or she is sure that the presentation will fit within the time allotted for it, with time for questions and interruptions. Some presenters are allotted 30 to 45 minutes and about 15 minutes for questions, while others are given only 5 to 10 minutes total. Most everything takes longer than one thinks it will, so careful planning is essential. Being prompt, outlining and developing the major issues, and highlighting key elements in the proposal will focus attention on the primary points of the meeting. Some presentations will be more formal than others, and this will likely depend on the experience the decision makers and the proposal writers have had with each other. In some cases, decision makers will ask for a presentation of one unit of instruction in order to see if the individual can deliver instruction, or ask for a demonstration video that can be viewed at the convenience of the decision-making panel members. In all cases, the proposal presenter should be well-prepared, efficient, and precise.

Summary In this chapter, we described the training proposal—its function, content, and organization. It should be based on the needs analysis and include a rationale and description of the learning solution to be developed, as well as an outline of its goals within the context of the organization. It should clearly address the skills and knowledge gaps identified and show how the proposal will fill these gaps. Training proposals should identify the scope of the project to be undertaken; describe the targeted audience; and outline specific learning objectives and the major topics to meet these objectives. Proposals should also describe the resources that will be


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needed to support the program. Proposed time frames for both development and delivery are useful, and should include the sequencing and time required. The program’s costs and benefits are very critical components. Organizational decision-makers carefully scrutinize these financial numbers and will question how they were determined. Putting dollar figures on benefits is difficult, but when benefit figures and cost figures are used to measure return on investment, the results provide an extremely powerful argument for saying “yes” to the proposal. The physical document—the proposal itself—should be clear, concise, and attractive. Knowing what readers expect dictates the length and format of the document. Sometimes a proposal developer will do a live presentation of the proposal; in this instance, good oral presentation skills are critical. Materials that are well-presented verbally or in writing have a competitive edge.

Think It Through 1. Of the many elements of a training proposal, which three do you consider to be the most critical ones? Why? 2. Writing effective training proposals is both an art and a science. What are some rules of thumb to consider when beginning the writing process? 3. Two timetables were described in this chapter: a delivery schedule and a training development schedule. What tools exist to help the proposal writer present these figures? 4. What is meant by return on investment (ROI)? Why are ROI figures difficult to develop? 5. What advice do you have for the individual who is to present a proposal live to a decision team? Offer specific suggestions for an effective presentation.

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Ideas in Action 1. Draft a sample proposal for delivering training on the following topic, with members of your class as the learners: Developing and writing a training proposal Assume that your instructor will be the management decision maker. Limit your written proposal to three (3) pages. 2. Make a brief, five-minute oral presentation to a small group of classmates on the proposal identified above. If possible, have someone in your group videotape the presentation. By yourself, critique the presentation. Make a list of “what I did well” and “what I need to improve.”

Additional Resources Nilson, Carolyn. 1989. Training Program Workbook and Kit. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice Hall. A major volume of worksheets, hints, checklists, and guides for the workplace learning professional at every level—designer, instructor, manager. This how-to workbook provides guidance for everyone in the field, and is a valuable reference for every learning and performance professional’s library. Phillips, Jack J. 1999. Return on Investment in Training and Performance Improvement Programs: A Step-by-Step Manual for Calculating the Financial Return on Investment. Houston: Gulf Publishing Company. For creative ways to develop ROI figures, check out this guide. It includes methods and worksheets for developing both hard and soft dollar figures for ROI calculations. Phillips includes a case study where you are taken step-by-step through the process.


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Zemke, R., L. Standke, and P. Jones, eds. 1983. Designing and Delivering CostEffective Training—and Measuring the Results. Minneapolis, Minnesota: Training Books. This 11-chapter reference book contains the best articles from 250 issues of Training magazine since 1964, featuring the best ideas on the design, development, and evaluation of cost-effective training. While this book has been around awhile, its contents are as current today as they were in 1983. Web sites www.m-w.com This is Merriam-Webster’s online site, where you can access the Merriam-Webster dictionary and thesaurus free of charge. Use these tools as you develop your training proposals! The site also includes word games and puzzles. www.clomedia.com This site furnishes a contrarian opinion concerning training ROI, and offers several interesting alternatives to ROI determination.

CHAPTER 10

Supporting Change in the Workplace In this chapter, we will do the following: • • • • •

Explain the role learning and performance professionals play in supporting planned organizational change efforts. List major factors that impact the rate of change in organizations. Apply force-field analysis as a means to identify pressures and resistance to change. Appraise techniques that are helpful in facilitating group processes. Emphasize the importance of the workplace learning professional to operate as a full business partner.

The Importance of Planned Organizational Change Organizations are in a continual state of change. Competitive organizations initiate new strategies and reorganize regularly. Critical issues such as mergers and acquisitions, global competition, new information, communication technologies, the changing demographics of the workforce, and shifting value systems all drive organizational changes. These issues give new meaning and urgency to continuous learning. “Radical change in how work is done inevitably leads to the definition of new jobs with new skill requirements, which in turn demands new kinds of people,” explained Michael Hammer at the World Economic Forum in 1994. Noted management expert Peter Senge believes that in the long run, the only sustainable source of competitive advantage is an organization’s ability to learn faster than its competition.1 “How [organizational] development people respond to such issues will depend upon their ability to understand the business, to understand and help manage change, and to master educational and learning processes.”2 The field of organizational development (OD) is all about helping an organization get to where it wants to go, and learning professionals are often called upon to play a role in OD efforts. Numerous strategies are available, including temporary structures and methods to improve communication processes. OD specialists call planned changes interventions. 293

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An individual or a team responsible for designing and implementing an innovation, such as a new managerial process or a new technology, is referred to as the change agent. A change agent must help translate the vision of how new ideas, new skills, and new techniques can be translated into step-by-step plans to achieve desired goals. As a change agent, the workplace learning professional is an important resource when needed changes deal with modifying the skills, knowledge, and abilities of the workforce. To adapt to new managerial processes, for example, the organization’s leaders must be willing to put aside management approaches used in the past and learn new techniques. It is likewise important that individuals who are expected to use new technologies be skilled in their use. In this regard, the workplace learning professional works with organizational sponsors and OD specialists to help ensure that the right people learn the right things in the right way, at the right time and in the right priority order. In Chapter 1, we used the terms strategic, informational, and operational to describe the linkages of learning initiatives to organizational goals. The focus of this chapter is to describe how the workplace learning professional uses instructional interventions to ensure that the learning needed for targeted change takes place. Planning, therefore, requires a keen understanding of the content you need people to know, the individual learners, and the organization. Not surprisingly, workplace learning professionals are usually more adept at program development and delivery (this is what they are specifically prepared to do) than they are at the special managerial skills needed to apply new learning at work. Even the best learning solutions will not succeed if organizational and environmental factors are not considered and understood. Thus, workplace learning professionals have an organizational role that goes far beyond that of simply providing instruction. To help understand this role, we describe some important thinking about systematic planned change efforts and strategies for forming collaborative relationships within the organization. The premise is that learning and performance is a business function. Workplace learning professionals need to consider themselves key organizational players, as well as adult learning and instructional design specialists.

Factors Influencing Planned Organizational Change In a planned change effort, individuals, groups, and the entire organization must learn to do what they have been doing differently. Research shows that individuals and organizations typically progress through a number of phases in integrating new ideas—

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knowledge, skills, and abilities—into their work. Various models have been developed to describe the change process, and most are variations on the basic model: innovation (the new idea), infusion (learning to use the innovation), and assimilation (integration/use of the new innovation). The innovation model serves as a reminder of the need for systematic change. Progression through the stages of the innovation model is not automatic. Therefore, we offer some useful ways to think about the major issues related to assimilating new ideas: the innovation itself, the individuals who are asked to use it, and the organizational culture. Understanding these components helps explain why some change efforts are more complex than others. In this section we rely on Everett Rogers’s characteristics of innovations and their adopters, as well as N. Dean Meyer’s categories of organizational culture, to explain the environment and the rate at which change occurs. Characteristics of an Innovation In his 1983 book Diffusion of Innovation, Everett Rogers explained that characteristics of both the innovation itself and the adopter (user) influence the infusion of an innovation. Rogers argued that the rate of adoption depends on the five characteristics of the innovation itself.3 They are: •

Relative advantage: the degree to which the innovation is perceived as better than the idea it supersedes

•

Compatibility: the degree to which the innovation is perceived as being consistent with existing values and past experiences

•

Complexity: the degree to which the innovation is considered easy to use and understand

•

Trialability: the degree to which an innovation may be experimented with

•

Observability: the degree to which the results of an innovation are visible to others

The higher any innovation scores on these five characteristics, the faster it will be adopted. Likewise, the lower any innovation scores on these characteristics, the more difficult its adoption will be.

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Rogers compared two innovations, blue jeans (quick adoption) and the metric system (slow adoption). Describing these innovations by their characteristics, it is easy to see why nearly everyone wears blue jeans, and why few people in the United States completely adopted the metric system. Blue jeans offer a clear advantage over other attire in that they are more comfortable and rugged than other pants. Blue jeans can be worn with almost anything, so they are compatible with the way we dress. Because blue jeans are simple to care for, they are not complex. Blue jeans are trialable because they are inexpensive (at least until designer jeans came along). They are also observable, since nearly everyone wears them. The metric system, on the other hand, replaces a system that is still functional, so the system offers little relative advantage and is not necessarily compatible with the way we have always measured weights, distance, and volume. Learning the metric system is complex, and requires study and practice. The metric system is also difficult to experiment with (trialability), as it requires a major conversion effort. Finally, the metric system does not physically change objects, only the way they are measured, so its benefits are not easily observable. Using these characteristics to describe organizational innovations, it is easy to see why learning how to search the Internet caught on so quickly. There was a time when only innovators or so-called early adopters used the Internet, but today the benefits of its use are so readily observable, nearly everyone uses it as a research and learning tool. Internet access is faster than going through reams of documents or physically visiting a library. Using a search engine such as Google does not change the need for search skills (skills are compatible), but does require us to adapt those skills. Because it is not a complex skill, most people master basic searching easily. Often, they browse for enjoyment, effectively trying out the tool before they move to using it for work purposes. On the other hand, outcomes of learning initiatives designed to alter management skills are not necessarily perceived as better than the current skill set (little relative advantage). Moreover, new managerial skills may not be compatible with the way managers believe people are managed or should be managed, or compatible with the existing organizational culture. Management skills are complex. Trying out new skills can be very risky, and managerial skills are often difficult to observe. If a manager starts to delegate closely held duties and the duties are not performed as expected, for example, the rest of the management team might not be aware that someone else was responsible for the poor performance.


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Characteristics of the Adopters Just as the characteristics of an innovation impact its assimilation, so do characteristics of the individuals who are to use the innovation. Understanding differences among adopters can help you target individuals for pilot programs and help you understand concerns of the larger targeted learning group. Some people are quick to change; others have to be pushed. Rogers’s description of the overall population, which follows, categorizes people as to their willingness to change:4 •

Innovators. Innovators are risk takers. They want to learn everything and they are the first to try something new. Innovators make up 2.5 percent of the population.

•

Early Adopters. Early adopters are hedgers. They wait until the innovators have proven that the learning is useful. Once its usefulness is shown, they are quick to implement it. Early adopters make up 13.5 percent of the population.

•

Early Majority. These people seem to wait until 16 percent of their peers exhibit the new behavior before they try it out. They make up 34 percent of the population.

•

Late Majority. People in this group are skeptics. They change their behavior only when it is well accepted by others. They make up about 34 percent of the population.

•

Laggards. These are slowpokes. They change their behavior only when their resistance gets them nowhere. They are set in their ways, and will change only under duress. They make up 16 percent of the population.

You can use these categorical terms to describe yourself and people you know with regard to how quickly they upgrade software programs, begin to use e-learning, or follow current fashion. Consider how long it took bank customers to use automatic teller machines. When ATMs were first introduced, few people would use them. It took banks years to win their widespread acceptance. Even today there are people (laggards) who will stand in line to talk to a teller rather than use an ATM, despite the fact that ATMs are almost always faster.

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Characteristics of the Organization The rate at which change is assimilated into an organization has also been described in relationship to characteristics of the organization itself. The way an organization adopts an innovation reflects the organization’s culture as it relates to jobs, lines of authority, responsibility, accountability, and control of the flow of information. Meyer has researched the impact of corporate culture on change interventions.5 Following are Meyer’s definitions and findings: Traditional culture: The organization’s structure is vertical (top-down decision making) with large organizational groupings (usually departments) structured around functions. Communication goes up and down. The central staff is powerful. Decisions are made high up in the organization. Such organizations are often reluctant to recognize the need for change. Changes are made slowly. There is active resistance to change. The military offers a good example of a traditional culture. Consensus-driven culture: The structure is wide, rather than vertical. Decisions are made by a consensus of middle managers. Staff groups are large, but do not carry as much authority as line management. A matrix organization is common. Innovations are assigned to task forces or committees. New ideas sometimes get lost in the bureaucracy. Risk taking is limited to senior management and committees. High-tech aerospace industries such as Boeing exemplify a consensus-driven culture. Profit-centered culture. The organization exhibits a cluster structure—small, autonomous modules with clearly stated goals. There is a small central staff. If the innovation is not related to business goals, they reject it, even if the return on investment is good. Overall, the organization is favorable toward innovations—payoffs of success are high. Payoffs could include profits and/or promotions. Consumer goods manufacturers, such as Procter and Gamble, illustrate a profit-centered culture. Futurist culture. The organization has a small, flat, fluid structure headed by a charismatic executive, and is organized around a mission or a new idea. Decision making occurs at the lowest possible level. It is positive toward innovations, but few are implemented successfully; each person has his or her own pet project. These are small, leading-edge, creative organizations. Organizations that are entrepreneurial, such as Apple Computer in its early years, fit into this classification.


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Understanding the impact that culture has on acceptance or resistance to innovation can help the learning and performance department plan interventions that better ensure infusion. For example, a highly traditional organization may have work rules or policies that actually work against new management practices. To simply provide learning initiatives without taking steps to ensure that individuals will be able to use the new skills back on the job would be a fruitless activity.6 Therefore, regardless of the type of change and culture of the organization, try to work closely with all stakeholders in a discovery process regarding the need for change and how to achieve it. This will significantly increase the rate of the change’s acceptance and the likelihood of its long-term success. Moreover, stakeholders play a key role in the process by reinforcing and even modeling the desired new behaviors.

Bringing Change to the Workplace Legendary social scientist Kurt Lewin provided conceptual tools to bring change to the workplace. His action research model—assessment, design, implementation, and evaluation—is the basis for the Instructional Design Cycle first described in Chapter 1. Action research has at its heart the notion that we learn from our experiences, and that problems are best solved by those who are impacted by the problem. Lewin also described organizations as a sea of forces in motion that continually push for and resist change. Therefore, to understand the organization’s learning needs and your stakeholders, you must identify those relevant forces—both negative and positive—that are at constant odds with each other. The approach Lewin developed for identifying those elements is known as force-field analysis. The three phases of change describe how change actually takes place. We will discuss these phases in this section of the chapter. Force-Field Analysis Force-field analysis is a group facilitation tool to help those who are impacted by a problem identify ways to solve it. For example, assume that the problem is how to implement a 360-degree performance appraisal system. Draw a T-chart. At the top, identify the problem. On the left side, as shown in Figure 10-1, have the group identify the driving forces, such as “provides more detailed feedback.” Then, on the right side, list the restraining forces, such as “will take more time.” These driving and restraining forces work against each other to reach equilibrium. Armed with a listing of these

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driving and restraining forces, our natural tendency is to increase driving pressures (promote the advantages of the new system). However, simply proclaiming the benefits of the process will rarely result in people buying into the change. Rather, the best approach is to work with the group to develop interventions to reduce the restraining forces. In this particular example, coming up with ways to give evaluators extra time to provide feedback would be appropriate. Identifying the driving and restraining forces is the first step to any planned change effort. Of course, once the forces are identified, they are themselves apt to change as new drivers and restraints emerge. Because of this flux, the concept of a workplace in equilibrium is at best a very temporary phenomenon. Force-field analysis provides only a snapshot of an organization at one given point in time. Figure 10-1. Forces Driving and Resisting Changes in Organizations Problem: Implement the 360-degree Performance Appraisal System Driving Forces Provides more feedback Gets more people involved in the process Has been successfully used in other companies

Equilibrium

Restraining Forces Will take more time Individuals' fear of subjective results Our HR department has never done this


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The Three Phases of Change While identifying the pressures for change is important, we know that individuals change their behavior only when they are ready to change, and they go through specific phases. Lewin suggested three phases: unfreezing, changing (or moving), and refreezing. As Figure 10-2 shows, unfreezing is the phase where a readiness for learning is created. Changing is the period where new skills are actually acquired, and refreezing is the time when new skills are assimilated into the way work is done. Figure 10-2. Lewin’s Three Phases of Change Phase I: Unfreezing

Phase II: Changing

Phase III: Refreezing

Creating a felt need for change; minimizing resistance to change

Changing people (individuals and groups); tasks; structure; technology

Reinforcing outcomes; evaluating results; making constructive modifications

In each of these phases, specific learning interventions are called for. Figure 10-3 shows interventions that are suitable for use at the unfreezing, changing, and refreezing phases. Depending upon the situation, the intervention listed can serve double- or triple-duty; a book, for example, can provide an incentive to learn or the learning itself, or reinforce learning that has already occurred. Instructional interventions (the change phase) can have definite start and stop dates, but your support interventions need to be ongoing if you want to be sure the innovation is assimilated into the organization. It is not always easy to determine where the unfreezing stops and the change begins or when the change phase stops and refreezing begins.

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Figure 10-3. Interventions to Support Planned Change by Phase

Phase

Interventions

Unfreezing

Promotional pieces Books, brochures, and journals Demonstrations

Changing

Instructional interventions: Print-based materials Audio/video/multimedia tools Computer-based instruction Web-based training Classroom-based activities (e.g., lectures, role plays) On-line help Help desks and coaching Manuals and job aids

Refreezing

Seminars, conferences Books and journals User groups Employee councils

Unfreezing Interventions At the unfreezing phase, the change agent establishes and defines the problem and assesses the client’s needs, ability, and readiness to change. Attempts are made to change attitudes and mindsets by reducing the negative restraining forces with new information. The need for the change can come from within the organization itself or be caused by environmental forces. The learner must see the need for change. Unfreezing interventions get people ready and willing to learn before actual instruction (changing) takes place. At this stage, the change agent provides information that explains why the status quo needs to be reconsidered, and introduces the client to new opportunities to improve work, such as adopting innovative technologies. Many different ways to disseminate information exist, ranging from simple newsletter items or descriptive brochures to corporate television spots. When innovations are completely new, provide demonstrations in non-threatening ways. The goal of disseminating information is to give people an opportunity to begin considering that there might be a better way to do something.


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Again, in any change effort, stakeholder participation in the needs assessment and design stages actually serves as a means to ensure acceptance of the program at a later date. This is because people who were consulted or even just kept aware of the development of a learning/change effort tend to be receptive to its implementation. Moreover, awareness and participation can help promote the change, and organizational support is critical for true assimilation. Changing Interventions Interventions at the change phase are basically approaches that get employees to actually use an innovation or new idea in order to carry out existing work more efficiently or effectively. They go well beyond mere instruction. To learn new skills or knowledge fully, employees should have access to ongoing support, such as job aids, coaching, and performance support tools. During this phase, the employee actually learns to change his or her behavior. Therefore, it is the workplace learning professional’s role to design, develop, and implement an instructional intervention, classroom-based or self-paced, and to develop ways to provide support at the time it is needed. In developing instructional plans, use the needs assessment data and ongoing evaluation data, and share plans with all interested parties along the way. This way, learning initiatives that specify exactly what is to be done, when, and by whom do not come as a surprise. Participation in planning also means discussing scheduling and introducing the learning initiative an appropriate time. An important consideration during the change phase is the reality that job performance may slide with new learning until the individual is able to take full advantage of the new way of working. Behavior changes are seldom easy; success in the classroom does not always translate into the assimilation of new skills on the job. However, workplace learning professionals can work with managers and take joint responsibility for assimilation. Such partnering (discussed later) helps ensure desired outcomes. Refreezing Interventions Refreezing interventions allow learners to take better advantage of new skills. What was learned is assimilated into the organization and stabilized as the new and only way to work. Learners often leave the classroom with new enthusiasm and excitement about what they are learning. However, no good idea succeeds simply on its own merit; take

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care to reinforce what was learned, and makes sure that employees have an opportunity to practice and develop their new skills. Again, assume that the innovation is a 360-degree performance appraisal system, which will provide feedback to employees from their supervisor, their peers, their subordinates, and in some instances, their customers or suppliers. To prepare people for this new concept/practice, you can distribute books and journal articles describing the system and its use in other institutions (unfreezing, changing) prior to classroom experiences. Once the system is actually used, you can invite employees to attend special seminars where everyone shares experiences and offers suggestions (“Here’s what I’ve done!”) to others who are going to use the system. You can also organize special discussion groups (computer conferences, listservs, bag lunches) to discuss the application of the performance review process (refreezing). Applying what was learned in the organizational context is itself a learning experience. And what better teachers are there than the individuals who are actually using the innovation? The refreezing phase lasts only as long as it takes to realize that change is needed again. Evaluation asks if the innovation did what we expected it to do. One way to determine the success of an innovation is to compare productivity numbers for costs, profits, quality, and quantity before and after the changing stage. Then the cycle starts all over: The solution just implemented becomes the target of the next inquiry into whether or not we are doing the right things. You should not only provide a solution to a specific organizational need, but also learn from mistakes and successes at all stages. This way, you will be better prepared to address future problems.

Forming Collaborative Relationships Your relationship with the target audience will depend on the philosophy of your department, the needs of your organization, and your own personal style. The workplace learning professional’s organizational role has traditionally been that of a live instructor or trainer. This role has subsequently evolved into that of an internal consultant who is a learning and performance specialist possessing skills in problem assessment, instructional design, implementation, and evaluation. As a consultant, you provide advice or services and are the conveyer of best practices. To consult is to advise; consultants are expected to bring new ideas or best interventions to the problem-solving table, and it is the consultant’s responsibility to keep


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up-to-date on the organization, specific content areas, and problem-solving approaches. A consultant needs to know up front what clients expect, and must be aware of specific anticipated results. To perform your role as a consultant, you must often be a group process facilitator, helping groups throughout the organization define problems and develop solutions. Your organizational role should evolve to that of a full business partner who is credible, knowledgeable, and results-focused, who can add value to the organization. This section discusses skills related to leading group communication and problem solving. The Workplace Learning Professional as Group Process Facilitator Today’s workplace learning professionals work with the most-informed people— policy managers, line managers, organizational development specialists, and the target population itself—to define needs in terms that everyone understands and solutions that everyone buys into. People must feel a need for change (unfreeze) before they will learn new ways to work; if you are skilled in facilitating group communication and decisionmaking, you will be able to help your target group be motivated to learn to do new things. All business relationships require process facilitation, whether the relationship involves interpersonal relations, long-term teamwork, or organization-wide change efforts. The techniques vary, but process facilitation is basically about clarifying purposes and goals, and building trust. It is an art as well as a science. “Two heads are better than one,” and “Many hands make light work” are maxims that illustrate the value of group problem solving. Arthur VanGundy identified and classified more than 100 different structured problem-solving techniques that can be used to ensure that all possible solutions are on the table and that there is no groupthink—the tendency for some groups to agree just to agree. Structured problem-solving techniques can assist the facilitator at all stages of problem solving. Some techniques help groups orient themselves to the problem at hand, while others help the group define a problem so that all agree on what the problem is. Still other techniques are used to help a group develop alternative solutions and assess the viability of options. In this discussion, we’ll present a sampling of frequently used techniques that support problem analysis and definition, decision making, and evaluation.

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Analyzing and Defining Problems There are many ways to identify organizational problems and opportunities. A line manager can identify workforce performance problems. Workers can identify new software application skills they believe will help them with their individual or group productivity. The organization can change the way inquiries or shortages are handled. The Information Systems manager can put interactive video teleconferencing systems in the branch offices. Any number of individuals and operating units might want help from the learning and performance department at any one given time. Good workplace learning professionals focus heavily on ongoing needs analysis to ensure that the right people learn the right things at the right time and in the right priority order. Less skilled professionals jump into solutions before they determine whether or not there is a problem that needs a solution. The physical tools of the trade for structured problem solving in teams are flipcharts, whiteboards, and increasingly, computer-based group process tool kits. The first objective of the facilitator is to establish and manage the meeting process. This does not mean ignoring the content of a meeting; you must first understand the issue or problem, create an agenda, make sure you have relevant information, and give priority items the most consideration. Structured techniques can help ensure that everyone has an opportunity to participate and that you have consensus. A well-articulated organizational need or problem definition, agreed upon by those concerned, is the first step in developing a useful solution. An overview of four techniques that can support problem analysis and definition follows. Brainstorming. Brainstorming is a method of idea generation where everyone is encouraged to contribute ideas (usually orally) without regard to criticism. The concept is to produce as many ideas, one stemming from another, in a no-holds-barred environment. In some instances, a facilitator records ideas on flipcharts. In other instances, brainstorming sessions are audio recorded and later transcribed to ensure that no ideas are lost. Large Post-it notes are also often used, one idea per note, to capture ideas, which allows for ease of grouping the ideas once captured. This is a very popular and effective method to generate ideas and involve everyone.


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Storybook Technique. The storybook technique goes like this: A facilitator presents a problem, and participants verbally generate solution categories. The facilitator asks idea-prompting questions about each category, and participants write their responses down on cards. With the agreed-upon categories as headings pinned to a corkboard, the facilitator then uses thumbtacks to post the cards under the appropriate category. After an appropriate number of “rounds,” the group ranks ideas under each of the categories. Again, Post-it notes offer an alternative tool to the corkboard. Nominal Group Technique. The nominal group technique is a “silent” generation of ideas. In a round-robin fashion where everyone gets a turn, each participant offers one idea, until all ideas are recorded and exhausted. Then, the ideas are discussed, clarified, and voted upon. Charting. Any number of techniques can graphically depict processes. You can use flow charts to break down processes into discrete steps and identify bottlenecks or locations for productivity improvement that would not be otherwise apparent. You can use histograms, or bar charts and pie charts to show how often or to what degree something happens (a picture is worth a thousand words). Graphically charting data can help a group focus on the problem at hand. Computer Support for Group Processes Figure 10-4 shows how one software vendor, GroupSystems, tapped the power of computers and networks to support group processes. Of special interest is the system’s ability to support dispersed groups. Increasingly, group work involves interaction with people who are not in the same place at the same time. Elements of GroupSystems include electronic brainstorming, rank order voting, topic commenter, policy formation, and survey tools.

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Figure 10-4. Sampling of computer-based tools that augment group process (Courtesy of GroupSystems, 2006, www.groupsystems.com)

Electronic Brainstorming

Participants contribute simultaneously and anonymously to a brainstorming “discussion” that can later be used as is or sorted by keywords. Comments can be imported into other tools, where they can be categorized and evaluated.

Rank-Order Vote

Participants can be polled in seven quantifiable ways: rank order, multiple choice, agree/disagree, yes/no, true/false, a ten-point scale, and allocation. Results tabulated electronically can be displayed graphically or in text so participants can “stack rank” ideas in order of preference and then view the entire team’s opinions and the degree of consensus. Uses intuitive graphs.

Topic Commenter

Participants use multiple windows that resemble file folders. They open each window, write relevant comments privately, and then submit them to the group for review.

Policy Formation

Groups can develop and edit a statement through an iterative process of review and revision.

Survey Tool

A prepared questionnaire to be distributed to participant workstations. Collected data can be compiled into a single report.

Selecting the Best Solution The best solution is the one agreed upon by all those who will be impacted by it. Try to involve as many stakeholders as possible, and make sure that the pros and cons of each proposed solution is fully understood by all concerned. Use a formal procedure to ensure that minority opinions are heard and that the power or influence of one individual does not sway or dominate. The same techniques for idea generation (such as brainstorming and the nominal group technique) can be used. Other systems of voting and analysis are useful, such as determining how far apart group members are in discussing specific aspects of solutions they like/dislike. Do not rush for closure. When groups cannot agree, postpone making decisions or obtain more data that will help the group come to a decision together. Make it clear that each group member will be equally responsible for the decision.


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Evaluating Results Decision-making groups should not disband after they have made the decision. The life of a decision-making group extends into the evaluation phase as well. Evaluation means looking back at the original problem and determining whether or not the solution solved the problem as measured by the agreed-upon criteria for success. If not, closure has not been achieved.

The Learning and Performance Professional as Business Partner As a workplace learning professional, you are a business partner when you work with clients, rather than for clients, to improve workplace performance. As a partner, you bring a unique set of skills to the table—knowledge of workplace demographics, organizational culture, assessment and evaluation, instructional design, and teaching and learning theory and instructional techniques. You, the line manager, and the OD specialist are accountable for the introduction of new behaviors (as a result of learning) into the organization. In this role, you are part of a management team, helping make decisions that positively impact the organization in the larger sense. As we discussed in Chapter 1, many organizations are promoting the idea of a chief learning officer or chief knowledge officer, the learning and performance equivalent of an executive in finance or marketing. In fact, knowledge management has been referred to as learning’s “new umbrella.”7 There is a wealth of information in organizations that needs to be harnessed—knowledge scattered all across the firm. As James Quinn said, “Knowledge doesn’t happen in a vacuum. It’s all about relationships and trust— people’s willingness to share what they know for the greater good of a group.” 8 Developing such trust requires planned change, as organizations must develop an environment that supports and rewards those who share what they know.

Summary The learning and performance change agent is a mix of instructor, instructional designer, process facilitator, and business partner. In these roles, you often learn what works and what does not work through trial and error. Today, organizations are moving away from simply solving problems toward helping create the future. By involving as many stakeholders as possible in creating this future, we help everyone learn.

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To ensure that organizational learning takes place, change agents must think carefully about how innovations fit into and with organizational goals. Once a decision is made, they must work with key players to make sure that needed resources are available that will fully implement the innovation. They know that major innovations are usually best managed as an incremental, goal-oriented, interactive learning process, depending upon the characteristics of the innovation, the adopters, and the organization itself. As a successful change agent, you attack a problem from several angles simultaneously. You use multiple instructional interventions to address learning needs at each phase of the planned change effort. Moreover, as the organization learns to use and assimilate the innovation involved, you are able to take advantage of this new organizational learning. The need for group or team participation in problem identification, solution development, and implementation cannot be too strongly reinforced. Moreover, when changes are large-scale, time needs to be built in for line managers to get involved with their employees’ learning initiatives so that new skills are not a threat. The manager also learns with the targeted group how best to assimilate the skills into work. It may also be useful to develop additional instruction for managers if employee learning changes their roles. Previous chapters described specific job skills related to designing and supporting individual and organizational learning. In this chapter, we go full circle back to Chapter 1, reminding you that the overall goal is learning, and that you have an organizational role that goes far beyond that of simply being the provider of instruction. Making sure that learning takes place—that new skills are assimilated into an organization—requires a new skill set. The learning and performance professional must be a change agent, working with others in the organization to help ensure that what employees have learned is actually applied in their jobs. Everett Rogers described characteristics of innovations, explaining that the higher an innovation is scored on each of five adoption factors, the more readily it will be accepted: its relative advantage, compatibility, complexity, trialability, and observability. Rogers described adopters based on their response to the innovation going from the most receptive (innovators) to the least acceptive (laggards). The ultimate goal of learning is its application in the workplace, and individuals react to change at different rates. In addition, organizational culture is a determinant of the rate of change. Knowing that an organization is traditional, consensus-driven, profit-centered,


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or futuristic may help you determine change interventions appropriate for your organization. Kurt Lewin explained that an organization is a sea of forces in motion. Force-field analysis provides a means to identify those forces. Lewin also suggested that planned change efforts go through three phases: unfreezing, changing, and refreezing. At the unfreezing phase, specific interventions can be used to create a felt need for change. These interventions include brochures, informational pieces, and demonstrations. At the changing phase, learners learn new ways to work. In this phase, instruction takes place. At the refreezing phase, you work to reinforce outcomes, ensuring that the innovation is assimilated into the organization. Learning initiatives that support refreezing of the innovation include coaching and hotlines, books and journals, seminars, user groups, and management councils. In supporting planned change efforts, the workplace learning professional forms collaborative relationships within the organization. You can be viewed as a specialist with instructional design expertise, and as a facilitator who is skilled at helping groups solve problems. Solving problems means leading a group to come to agreement on the definition of the problem, generating ideas for problem solving, selecting the best solution option, and (eventually) evaluating results. A sampling of facilitation tools— brainstorming, the storybook technique, the nominal group technique, and charting— were described. You are most visibly viewed as a change agent when you are seen as a fully functioning member of a management team, with shared responsibilities for learning outcomes: a true business partner. We concluded this chapter with some guidelines for you to consider as you change from a provider of instructional services to a fully functioning member of the management team. To quote Peter Senge a final time: “If any one idea about leadership has inspired organizations for thousands of years, it’s the capacity to hold a shared picture of the future we seek to create.9

Think It Through 1. What is the workplace learning professional’s role in supporting planned organizational change? 2. Using Rogers’s characteristics of innovators, categorize your own position. Offer specific examples of times where you have shown each of these characteristics.

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3. Recall an occasion when someone tried to force some help on you. How did you feel? How did you react? What did you learn from this exercise that you can apply to the delivery of learning initiatives? 4. Think about the last time a group you were in made a decision. Did everyone have a chance to share their ideas, or did one or two individuals dominate the group? What did you learn from your experience? 5. Why is the workplace learning professional a mix of instructor, group process facilitator, and business partner? Do you have the competencies required for each role? If not, which skills do you need to develop? How will you go about developing them?

Ideas in Action 1. Reread the example in Chapter 8 about the PHH Vehicle Management Services. Using force-field analysis, identify the drivers and resisters to changing the way training was done in that organization. Then, identify the interventions employed, and categorize them as unfreezing, changing, or refreezing. What did you learn from this exercise? Ask a learning and performance director for examples of two successful and two unsuccessful interventions. Using characteristics of the innovation, the adopters, the organization itself, and/or the three phases of planned change, analyze why the intervention worked or did not work. 2. As a group project, search the Internet for information regarding the contributions of Kurt Lewin to the field of modern social psychology. One link to get you started on your search is http://www.pathmaker.com/resources/ leaders/lewin.htm. Write a brief report on his contributions and share it with others in your group.

Additional Resources Galagan, Patricia A. and Jennifer J. Salopek. 2000. “Learning’s New Guard,” in Learning and Development. Vol. 54, No. 5 (May); pp. 34-56. The authors discuss new roles for trainees, presented as a series of short profiles of business professionals at work in a wide variety of settings that demand and support learning. A common thread is a focus on business results and self-assessment.


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O’Hara-Devereaux, Mary, and Robert Johansen. 1994. Global Work: Bridging Distance, Culture, and Time. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. The authors identify key competencies that managers need if they want to succeed in a global workplace, and include a model of team-building for face-to-face or electronic meetings. A must for anyone interested in the global workplace and communication technologies. VanGundy, Arthur B. Jr. 1988. Techniques of Structured Problem Solving, 2nd ed. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold. VanGundy explains, demonstrates, and evaluates 105 tested problem-solving techniques. Flow charts and guidelines help you understand which one is best for addressing a particular problem. This book is a classic reference book for any group-process facilitator. Weisbord, Marvin R. 2004. Productive Workplaces Revisited. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Weisbord offers an excellent summary of management and organizational development theory not to be missed!

Chapter 10 Notes 1.

Hammer, Michael. 1994. “Reengineering: The Mistakes and Misunderstandings.” A presentation for the World Economic Forum held in Davos, Switzerland in January–February, 1994. Cited in Peter Senge’s The Fifth Discipline.

2.

Senge, Peter. The Fifth Discipline. New York: Currency Doubleday (paperback edition, 1994). p. 6, 585.

3.

Rogers, Everett. 1983. Diffusion of Innovations. 3rd ed. New York: Free Press. p. 11.

4.

Ibid, pp. 248–251.

5.

“GamePlan,” a microcomputer-based simulation and guidebook.

6.

Ibid, p. 233.

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7.

Masie, Elliott. “Knowledge Management: Learning’s New Umbrella,” at http://www. masie.com/ articles/knowl.htm (spring 2000).

8.

Quinn, James Brian. 1985. “Managing Innovation: Controlled Chaos.” Harvard Business Review. May–June 1985, pp. 73–84.

9.

Senge, op. cit., p. 9

CHAPTER 11

Administering Workplace Learning Programs In this chapter, we will do the following: • • • • • • • • • •

List the steps in the program administration sequence. Discuss the importance of proper administration to program effectiveness. Weigh the pros and cons of developing and distributing course catalogs. Discuss ways in which administration software and the Internet/Intranet can support administration tasks. Offer examples of prework activities that must be implemented and monitored by learning and performance department administrators. Develop checklists to support the successful rollout of learning programs. Configure a classroom and its equipment to support a particular learning program. Compare and contrast centralized vs. decentralized approaches to developing budgets. Develop a costing worksheet. Identify reports useful to the organization.

The Importance of Administrative Support The administrative support of planned learning initiatives, while not the most glamorous of responsibilities, is nevertheless crucial to success. If program administration is not done properly, the most elegant design and most compelling delivery will, at best, be only marginally successful and will more than likely be simply wasted. Good administrative support provides for learner needs, such as the following:

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•

Informative and easy-to-access program descriptions.

•

Customer-focused registration procedures.

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•

Well-organized and appealingly presented participant materials that are available when and where they are needed.

•

High-quality visuals and copies.

•

Properly prepared physical facilities.

•

All required equipment in good working order.

These kinds of logistical details are the foundation on which program implementation rests. They provide a sort of infrastructure, a necessary condition that enables participants to attend to program content and allows instructors to focus on smooth, crisp delivery of that content.

The Program Administration Sequence The administration of instructor-led or self-paced learning programs involves a number of tasks, reduced here to seven steps. You can modify the sequence, tailor the steps, combine or add steps, or outline them differently. You can also restructure the steps to meet the specific needs of a particular initiative. No matter how they are defined or structured, however, the support issues we discuss in this section—called here the “program administration sequence”—must be properly handled if the learning initiative is to be successful. Some of these administrative tasks can be done concurrently, rather than in a linear sequence. Indeed, efficient, effective, and responsive program administration often requires multitasking. This program administration sequence consists of the following steps: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

Inform interested parties of program availability. Register participants. Distribute and process prework. Prepare instructional materials. Prepare the physical facilities—site and equipment. Support the actual delivery of instruction. Support evaluation.

These administrative responsibilities are typically carried out by support staff working in the learning and performance department. A small department might have an administrative assistant or two and perhaps a few part-time employees. A larger department might have an operations or support team with its own division of labor.

Administering Workplace Learning Programs

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One person, ideally with a backup, generally serves as registrar, handling all the registration tasks. Other support requirements are dealt with in two basic ways: You can assign an individual to a specific program to take care of all the logistical needs of that program. Alternatively, you can have a central support group working as a team that shares and rotates responsibilities. These two approaches offer the classic trade-offs of individualized, in-depth knowledge of product and programs vs. the efficiencies of leveraging expertise centrally. There is clearly no hard and fast rule to follow in how to choose between these basic options for organizing and managing learning support resources. In fact, support work can be deliberately alternated between the two approaches over time just for the sake of variety or for cross-training. No matter how support work is organized, however, three key realities flow from our experience: •

Repetitive administrative tasks can easily become routine and even boring, and thus susceptible to error. Take care to build in reasonable variety for those carrying out such tasks.

•

It is critical to seize the routine nature of logistical work and turn it into a strength. Support must be provided and controlled in a highly disciplined, systematic way, checked and double-checked by routine procedures. It is the kind of responsibility that should be managed by checklists, buddy systems, and any other means of verifying accuracy in routine, repetitive work.

•

In a department made up of professional and clerical staff, a hierarchy of roles/status almost invariably emerges. Predictable and legitimate as this may be, given the nature and purpose of the department, it is also important for both groups in this situation to keep in mind the contribution each makes to the department’s success. It is particularly important for professionals to recognize the critical role played by clerical support members and to try not to take them for granted.

Each of the seven steps in the sequence will be explained in this section, along with tools typically used in program administration. A discussion of finances will conclude the chapter.

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Step 1: Inform interested parties of program availability. Potential participants, their managers, the organization’s Human Resource professionals—indeed, the organization as a whole—need to know of the programs that are available. Interested parties need a description of each program with enough detail to enable them to understand its learning objectives, its target audience, its fit within a larger curriculum, prerequisites and prework, length, and costs. Also of importance is information on how to access the program: where and when it will be offered, registration requirements, and its cancellation policy. Some of these things will be the same from program to program and need not be repeated as part of each program’s description. Catalogs and Schedules Your learning and performance department might want to distribute a catalog of programs that contains descriptive information on their content in some sort of logical order: grouped by subject matter, by location, or by offering department. A catalog’s length can range from a few to many pages, depending on the size of the organization and the number of programs it supports. Producing a catalog of significant size— particularly one that will be shared by more than one department—is a major task typically done only annually or infrequently. You will need to draw up a schedule of offerings containing the basic administrative information necessary to register for the programs (dates, locations, and times). Note the difference between the course catalog and program schedule: •

The purpose of the catalog is to help people select the right program.

•

The purpose of the schedule is to let people know when the program will be held. The schedule may, of course, be for the organization as a whole, or may be for a single department, a particular site, or any organizational component that makes sense.

The two documents—catalog and schedule—are often combined into a single publication that contains both descriptive and administrative information. The decision to produce them separately or combined depends on size and resources. A single catalog combining program descriptions and schedules requires more frequent updating every time the schedule runs out, which is fine if the catalog is small and updating it is not too onerous. Splitting the catalog and the schedule, on the other hand, lets you make scheduling changes regarding time or location when your program descriptions


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remain the same. In either case, commercially available software is available to help you organize and publish your catalog/schedule. Figures 11-lA and 11-lB show sample pages from catalogs published by a business organization. Figure 11-1A.

Sample program description from an organization’s catalog

Program Title Business Writing Skills Objectives To help participants write memos, letters, and reports that are clear, direct, and easy to read. Description Using case studies and exercises, this program focuses on guidelines for making business writing more persuasive and dynamic. Participants have opportunities to practice and critique business correspondence. Topics include the following: • • • •

How to make your writing easier for others to read, understand, and act on How to organize your ideas How to select appropriate language and tone How to edit and proofread text

Format Instructor-led Length Two days Target Audience Professionals within the organization Prerequisites Participants should be proficient in English vocabulary, grammar, and syntax Program Dates (2-day program) March April June September October December

3 28 16 19 24 8

– – – – – –

4 29 17 20 25 9

Contact Person Registrar, Corporate Education (continued)

320 Figure 11-1B.

Learning at Work Sample program description from a bank’s training catalog

Program title Performance Management at Chase Objectives To develop skills in managing the performance of staff to achieve business goals consistent with the Chase vision. Description With a focus on business results and company values, participants learn and use communication skills in the areas of performance planning, coaching, performance appraisals, development planning, and career coaching. Methods include management techniques, feedback from staff, manager, and self; extensive skill practice using own situations; small-group activities, and videotaping. The program is conducted in three parts offered over time. In order to stay with the same group of people, participants should pick a cluster of dates for Parts One, Two, and Three from the schedule below. If scheduling conflicts arise, other dates may be substituted. Participants should pick their preferred cluster and register for all three parts upon initial registration. Part One must be completed before attending Part Two and/or Three. Content of the three parts follows: Part One:

Overview, Communication Skills, Performance Planning/ Objective Setting

Part Two:

Development Planning, Coaching, Career Discussions

Part Three:

Performance Appraisal; Recognition and Rewards

In addition, there will be two four-day offerings of the program in its entirety. Format Instructor-led; feedback instrument Length Parts One and Two: one and one-half days each; Part Three: one day, if taken in cluster format; program is four days if taken in its entirety. Target audience Those who have direct performance-management responsibilities for others. Prerequisites Must complete Part One before attending Parts Two and/or Three. Must have directly managed at least one person for at least six months prior to attending Part One.

(continued)

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Administering Workplace Learning Programs Figure 11-1B. (concluded)

Sample program description from a bank’s training catalog

Offering dates Cluster A B C D E F G H I J

Part One

Part Two

Part Three

Entire Program

Feb 24–25 March 10–11 March 10–11 May 5–6 June 2–3 June 27–28 July 11–12 Sept 8–9 Oct 20–21 Nov 1–2

April 21–22 April 21–22 May 23–24 June 13–14 July 14–15 Sept 12–13 Sept 22–23 Oct 24–25 Nov 14–15

June 10 June 10 July 11 Sept 30 October 27 November 4 November 17 December 8

April 19–22 November 1–4

Contact person Registrar, Corporate Education

Consider putting the catalog and schedule on the Internet or on an internal company network to simplify things. In fact, the learning and performance department might want to get out of the distribution business altogether. Once on the Internet or Intranet, the catalog and schedule can be accessed by anyone with authorization. This single network location becomes the only place where you need to update training information. Using a network for this kind of information publishing is but one example of the way technology can help an organization address its learning support needs. The Risks Involved in Publishing a Catalog You must be vigilant in not allowing a catalog or schedule to substitute for needs analysis. Your clients who conclude that they or their staffs need to learn something will automatically reach for your catalog to see what program they should attend or send people to. This is not entirely unreasonable, since the catalog presumably contains quality programs known to be needed and programs already approved by the organization. It is, in fact, one of the dangers of publishing a catalog: It is all too easy for people to unthinkingly confine their consideration to program offerings listed in a

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catalog. You should instead help clients think through what the problem really is. Will having their employees learn “x” actually fix the problem? Or is the problem really a performance need that learning to do “x” will not address? Only if the pre-developed program will actually solve the problem at hand should you help your client choose a program (although the program might not be among those already scheduled and in the catalog). Other Ways of Publishing Learning and Performance Department and Course Information While catalogs and schedules can be provided in either paper or electronic form, or both, as an astute professional, you will want to ensure that programs and times/locations are publicized in other ways that make good sense in the organization’s culture. Part of the task is simply advertising and marketing. Internal flyers, desk drops, articles, or interviews published in the organization’s internal newspaper are good ways to get the word out. Bulletin boards (physical and electronic) are another means of letting clients know about program offerings, as well as when/where they are offered and how to register. A cautionary note: Bulletin boards must be kept up-to-date. Events that have already gone by should be removed systematically and replaced with new material. Failure to do so makes more than the bulletin board look tacky! Sign-on news flashes, often a feature of electronic networks, are another method of furnishing information. Live presentations at client department staff meetings or other employee gatherings are good ways to discuss programs in depth, handle questions, and even surface issues and learning requirements that need to be addressed. Sometimes the learning and performance department can take part in other employee events (benefits or development fairs, for example). Still another possibility might be to periodically set up a booth or desk at the entrance to the employee cafeteria or lounge or in a building’s main lobby. Finally, if the organization uses business television to keep employees informed, this medium can be used to broadcast information about programs and schedules. The ways of providing people with information are many. The point is to use the methods that make sense, to do so in a systematic way, and to be certain to use them in a manner that supports the learning and performance department’s mission: helping the right people learn the right things. The primary emphasis should be on enabling


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both employees and the organization to achieve legitimate business goals. Getting people into your programs is a worthy and even necessary administrative task, but it is not an end in itself. In fact, doing so can be problematic if it is not kept in proper perspective. If a learning and performance department often finds itself in the position of having to drum up participation in its programs or else cancel them for lack of it, there is something more fundamentally wrong than faulty internal advertising and information processes. Having to beat the bushes for participants is usually a sign that the program offered is not the right program, is not correctly targeted, or is not properly positioned within the organization. Doing a better job of advertising will not address these larger, more important problems. Finally, the members of the learning and performance department, particularly the support staff, must learn to handle information inquiries properly. Telephone calls, faxes, e-mail, and even lunchroom or water cooler encounters are usually the department’s front-line contacts with its internal customers. It is important that the individuals who answer inquiries be familiar with the programs the department offers and knowledgeable about program policies and procedures, especially registration, so they can quickly give callers the information they seek or refer them to the proper source. Step 2: Register participants. Once people know what programs they wish to take and how to register for them, the next step is to handle their registration. This means that you: • • • • • • •

Register or wait-list participants for the programs they desire. Send confirmation letters and notify people of their enrollment status on an ongoing basis. Send reminder/prework letters as tickler dates arrive. Handle cancellations. Create class rosters. Prepare management reports before and after actual offerings. Maintain a database of training accomplished and/or provide links to the organization’s employee database.

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Software Registration Systems You can use powerful registration systems to assist you in registering program participants. You have the same three choices faced by any organizational unit that wishes to automate part of its work: design the system in-house; purchase a system that is already on the market; or purchase a system and modify it. Designing a registration program from scratch can be time-consuming and expensive, but if it is designed correctly, the result can be a perfect fit with organizational needs, and there may well be situations where this approach is necessary. On the other hand, there are a plethora of off-the-shelf registration systems available for purchase at a relatively modest cost. These systems quite successfully handle standard registration needs—so well, in fact, that it is wise to proceed cautiously if you are leaning in the direction of developing an in-house, custom-built system. Purchased software typically comes with vendor support, including some form of training in the system’s use. Purchased systems can, of course, also be modified to fit particular needs; the organization can purchase the source code and then have its own systems professionals make the changes necessary to modify the package for internal use. Such modifications with the collaboration of the software vendor, sometimes even on a shared-cost basis, can be cost-effective and efficient. Anyone considering the modification of a purchased system should pay particularly careful attention to the issue of post-modification support. Four training registration packages advertised in a recent issue of the magazine T+D are listed here as examples of the kinds of registration software available on the open market: element k (800) 434-3466. www.elementk.com MicroTek (800) 207-9620 www.mclabs.com NetDimensions www.NetDimensions.com SumTotal Systems (650) 934-9500 www.sumtotalsystems.com Registration systems, whether purchased off the shelf or custom-written, must support all the registration steps: participant sign-up, confirmation, wait-list letters, cancellations, program rosters, room assignments, and participant transcripts. The Registration Form. A paper form of some sort is typically the trigger for the start of the registration process. Figure 11-2 on the following page is one example of a detailed form.

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Administering Workplace Learning Programs Figure 11-2. Sample Registration Form Course Title:

Course Date/Reference: (Ref. # for Self-Guided Learning Resources)

Registrant Last Name:

Corporate Title:

Registrant First Name:

Job Function:

Employee ID #:

Department Phone #:

Department:

Personal Extension:

Expense Code:

Location:

Fax #:

Circle the number next to the business or function in which you work: Ethnic Code* 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11.

Business Development Capital Markets Case InfoServe International Chief Financial Officer Consumer Financial Services Corporate Communications Corporate Compliance Corporate Human Resources Corporate O and S Economics Customer Planning and Development Office

Do you have a development plan? Yes R No R

12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22.

Global Asia/Pacific Global Corporate Finance Global Europe, Middle East and Africa Global Latin America Global Private Banking Global Risk Management Global United States Global United States Legal Regional Banking Other

1 Black 2 American Indian 3 Asian 4 Hispanic 5 White 6 Other *For Corp. HR Affirmative Action

Gender Code F M

Female Male

If yes, is this course on the plan? Yes R No R

Do you require any special accommodations? Yes R No R If yes, please specify: _____________________________________ Before submitting your registration form, please obtain signatures from both your manager/supervisor and HR representative (not required for self-guided learning). Employee signature:

Date:

Required approvals: MANAGER/SUPERVISOR Name (print): Signature: Date: Phone: Location:

HR REPRESENTATIVE Name (print): Signature: Date: Phone: Location:

Note: You are not confirmed for a program until you receive a confirmation letter.

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One administrative person in the department should be given responsibility for registration and its associated tasks, particularly if registrations are handled electronically. The software is fairly straightforward, but there is nonetheless a learning curve. The registrar should have a cross-trained backup, but the lead person should handle all inquiries concerning registrations, wait lists, cancellations, and registrant status. The department must make sure that the registrar has the information and procedures to deal with the potentially large number of inquiries, but it is important that others in the department also know how to handle such inquiries. Wait Lists and Cancellations. A key registration responsibility is deciding how to deal with a participant who wishes to withdraw from a program. Responding to this kind of request involves issues like wait lists and substitutions, the timing of the cancellation (what if it’s too late to get a substitute?), program costs and charges, prework returns and/or costs, and minimums established for the number of participants necessary to run the course. The question of whether or not the program is mandatory can enter the picture as well; it is one thing for an employee to cancel out of a businesswriting class, but quite another for a newly promoted supervisor to want to withdraw from an orientation to management. The registrar will have to keep track of who has attended the mandatory program and who has not, and will probably be required to report the status of registrations and cancellations. Step 3. Distribute and process prework. Many face-to-face learning initiatives require participants to do some work in advance. These requirements range from the simple to the complex. Examples of simple prework assignments include writing a memo on a designated or a self-selected topic for a writing class; an assignment to read an article, a case study, or an organizational policy; or an assignment to answer a set of questions concerning the material participants have read for the class. Administrative staff members must also make sure that copyright laws are followed and copy permissions are obtained where necessary. Advance Submission of Prework. More complex prework requirements involve asking participants not only to do something in preparation for a program, but also to submit it before the program begins, such as writing a sample memo on some topic and sending it to the learning and performance department in advance so the instructor can review it and make suggestions ahead of time. Any prework that must be submit-


327

ted prior to the class increases the administrative burden significantly because participants must be informed of what they need to do, by when, and be provided with the wherewithal for doing it. The administrative staff tracks participant compliance with requirements, establishes deadlines for the prework submissions, keeps track of who has submitted the prework and who hasn’t (and remind the delinquents once or twice), and makes sure any prework is processed. This processing depends, of course, on what the prework is. It may involve, at a minimum, giving the prework submissions to the instructor (e.g., the writing sample mentioned earlier), perhaps even aggregating or summarizing participant submissions, or getting the prework submissions to a vendor on time for processing (e.g., a negotiations style survey). Feedback on Participants. An increasingly common prework task is to ask program participants to obtain feedback from anyone whose input can help them on issues that the organization deems important, such as their managerial style, their ability to work in a team, and even their own career aspirations within the organization. Feedback can also be gathered on project or performance management and other general or specialized management skills such as communication or sales skills. Many learning initiatives have components built around feedback from others regarding how well that person carries out a task or meets specific responsibilities. Asking participants to get feedback from others imposes significant demands on administrative personnel, however: •

Program participants must be supplied with the instructions and the materials needed to ask others for the feedback the program requires (paper feedback forms, disks, or Web site addresses, and instructions on what to do with the input).

•

The learning and performance department’s support staff must be prepared to handle questions about these data-gathering processes and deal with glitches (e.g., “I can’t download this form”).

•

The staff must also be prepared to deal with submission deadlines, late or lost data, participant additions to or changes in feedback sources, and what to do if a participant cancels out of a feedback-based course at the last minute.

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These kinds of complexities have to be addressed during the planning stage. It is crucial that support staff members work closely with the department’s instructors (usually one instructor who is designated as the program manager) to establish that the support documentation and processes for feedback-based programs are accurate, complete, and up-to-date. The actual processing of feedback—entering the data, crunching the numbers, and producing the feedback reports that will be used in the program—is a significant task all by itself. The job is often outsourced for reasons of confidentiality; if so, the learning and performance department must be in close contact with any external processor of the feedback to confirm that all is going smoothly. All the required input must be received by the due date, and feedback reports for the program must be received on time. The Confidentiality of Feedback Data. No matter where the feedback data are processed, in-house or out, we cannot overemphasize the importance of confidentiality. Do not leave such data lying around on desks or worktables, discuss it over coffee, or make remarks about it. It must only be shared with people who have been scrupulously identified (it is usually shared only with the recipient). Take great care, to the point of obsessiveness, about the confidentiality of feedback, because maintaining confidentiality is regarded as a mark of true professionalism. If you lose trust inside the organization, it will be extremely difficult to win it back, making feedback virtually impossible to obtain in the future. A Sample Prework Checklist Figure 11-3 on the following page shows a checklist used for the complex prework necessary for a management-development program designed for senior managers in which 360-degree feedback is required. We offer it here to show the level of detail necessary for competent administrative support of a program. (Note that the list is incomplete, dealing as it does only with the prework aspects of the program.)

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Administering Workplace Learning Programs Figure 11-3. Prework Checklist for a Management Training Program Prework Administration Checklist There are three phases for the prework: confirmation, prework, and feedback tracking. Phase 1. Confirmation Memo

Send a confirmation memo to each participant ten weeks prior to the program date for U.S. delivery, and twelve weeks ahead for international delivery. (See the sample memo in our master file.) Reiterate program dates and times. Include a list of participants and a copy of our cancellation policy. Send a copy of the memo to each participant’s manager. Phase II. Prework Package Send the following to each participant eight weeks prior to program date. Follow directions provided with items: A. Blue program folder with two pockets; “Prework Memo” clipped to outside of folder. (Sample memo in master file.) 1.

In the left pocket, place the Participant Instructions memo. (Sample memo in master file.)

2.

In the right pocket, place the pre-program workbook.

3.

Three-hole-punch, and include copies of the following materials in the right pocket: a. b.

“The New Manager” “Dealing with Turbulence”

B. Also in the right pocket, place directions for reporting self-generated data, as well as how to collect other feedback data. Include a mailer that the participant can use to return the self- questionnaire. C. Send out “Pre-Program Discussion Memo” to participants’ managers. (See the sample on file. Note that there are two versions, one for men, one for women so the pronouns are correct.) The memo tells managers about the program requirement of a discussion with participants on their staff. Call the manager to confirm receipt of the memo. Advise that the participant will schedule the meeting, and explain the purpose of the discussion. (Read preprogram workbook for information, and be prepared to discuss the program’s feedback features.)

(continued)

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Figure 11-3. Prework Checklist for a Management Training Program (concluded) Phase III. Feedback Tracking At least three weeks before the program: A. Verify that each participant received feedback from at least four people. Call those who are lacking the requisite number on due date. Make clear that participants may not attend class if insufficient feedback is received and cancellation charges will apply. Starting three weeks before program, inform Program Manager of status of report generation every other day. B. Be prepared to talk with participants and their feedback sources concerning questions and problems with disks and/or the feedback process. Be sure to read feedback instruction sheets so you can be helpful. Consider preparing a feedback report. C. Two days before program: Verify final participant list with Registrar, based upon feedback on hand. Obtain class roster and give copy to Program Manager and instructor(s). Let the Program Manager know if any participant hasn’t reported back.

Step 4: Prepare instructional materials. Make sure materials are prepared in advance, ready for use when the program begins. The phrase “Instructional materials” refers to all the items that will be used in the program, whether for instruction or as materials to be given to program participants. Getting these items ready in advance means different things, depending on whether or not the materials in question are purchased or have been created internally. Using commercially published workbooks or reference books (often the case in both live and mediated instruction, especially the latter) means making sure that enough copies are on hand. Items that have been developed in-house, on the other hand, must be created. If a program of live instruction calls for PowerPoint visuals, overhead transparencies, or prepared flipcharts, create and arrange them in the proper sequence, as specified in the leader’s guide. Handouts must be photocopied, participant binders must be stuffed, instructions for role plays and simulation exercises must be readied in sufficient number, and so on.


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The Use of Checklists The preparation of all these materials goes much easier if you use checklists. Figure 11-4 shows a sample checklist for the preparation of material for a live-instruction course. One person can use such a list to prepare the materials, and a second can use the same list to double-check for full and accurate completion of all items. Many program administrators use a cardboard file box designed to hold hanging file folders. One hanging folder is placed in the box for each item the course calls for and then filed in the correct sequence, day by day, over the program’s entire length. The box is then delivered to the classroom as part of the program setup. The checklist is a perfect vehicle for communicating to another department what is administratively necessary to run this particular program. Clearly identify each item on the checklist and safely archive master copies of its contents. Figure 11-4. Program Administration Packing and Materials Checklist PROGRAM PACKING

R R R

Binders—One per participant, plus 4 (See Binder Assembly List, if necessary) ACUMEN feedback envelopes (4 per person, sorted into alphabetical sets) R Self R Individual vs. group R Feedback on Practices A–F R Feedback on Practices G–N

R

Handouts: Day 1 (NOTE: All handouts are three-hole-punched.) R Extra prework articles R Extra pre-program workbooks (5) R Participant’s list (from ops coordinator—30) R Maximizing Profitability exercise sheets R 4-member team (30) R 5-member team (30) R 6-member team (30)

R

Blank ACUMEN targets (30) (continued)

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Figure 11-4. Program Administration (continued)

R

Handouts: Day 2 (NOTE: All handouts are three-hole-punched.) R Managing Individual Performance role play instructions for: R R.I. (2pp, 2-sided) (6) R P.F. (3pp, 2-sided, stapled) (6) R T.T. (2pp, 2-sided) (6) R S.P. (2pp, 2-sided) (6) R N.O. (2pp, 2-sided) (6) NOTE: Initials represent role-play characters.

R R R

Managing Individual Performance observer forms (30) Managing Individual Performance feedback forms (5 per person—130) Managing Business Performance case (1 of 2 needed) R For N.Y. and domestic: “Big Shoulders” (39pp booklet—30) OR R For London/HK/TKO: “Star Wars” (20pp booklet—30)

R

Handouts: Day 3 (NOTE: All handouts are three-hole-punched.) R Managing Business Performance team assignments (1pp—30) R Managing Business Performance team rating sheets (1pp—30)

R

Handouts: Day 4 (NOTE: All handouts are three-hole-punched) R Managing Across the Organization individual assessment forms (2pp, 2-sided; 6 per person—150) R Program Evaluation forms (2pp, 2-sided; Change dates and instructors—150)

R

Materials R History slides (14, in carousel) R S-Curve overheads (set of 11 in labeled Tyvek) R ACUMEN overheads (set of 10 in labeled Tyvek) R Flipcharts, 1 pad R Day 1 #’s 1.1–1.16 (NOTE: Instructors create other flipchart pages during class)

R

Videotapes include these titles: – ACUMEN Illustrations – Nine to Five – Broadcast News – Managing Individual Performance – King (I Have a Dream) – L.A. Law – It’s a Wonderful Life (continued)


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Figure 11-4. Program Administration (continued)

R R R R R R R R R

Name tags for role plays (sets of 5—R.I., P.F., T.T., S.P., and N.O.) 6 wood slabs (1” x 12” x 12”, clear pine) Safety glasses (3) Prizes for winning team (Gotham T-Shirts; 6L and 6XL) Name tags for Day 3 Cocktail Party (real names, typed tags—CDC) Parting gift (in N.Y., deliver on Day 4; other locations, ship with program supplies) Large Tyvek envelopes with mailing labels (to mail participants’ binders, etc., if needed—20) ½” blank videotape, one per team (4)

Instructor’s Kit R 5 rolls 1” masking tape R 6 sets of 5 magic markers (red, blue, purple, green, black) R Pens/pencils (sharpened) R Post-it Notes—5 tiny (1” x 1”) and 5 small (2” x 3”) R Stapler R Scissors R Extra peel-off name tags

EQUIPMENT

R R R R R R

Slide projector (Day 1) Overhead projector (Days 1 and 3) Video monitor Videotapes Video camera and playback (one per team) in each breakout room (Day 3) Flipchart stands and pads (4 in main classroom, 1 in each breakout room)

BINDER ASSEMBLY

R R R

Planning Guide (40pp booklet, saddle-stitch, three-hole-punched—inside front cover) Cover sheet Day 1 Tab R Program Agenda (1pp) R S-Curve Growth Model (11pp, 2-sided, stapled upper left) R Article: “Bringing Spirit Back to the Workplace” by W. Matthew Jeuchter (5pp, 2-sided, stapled) (continued)

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Figure 11-4. Program Administration (concluded)

R R R R

ACUMEN Clockstyle Descriptors (1pp) Handbook for using ACUMEN (57pp booklet, saddle-stitched) Ideal Manager profile (Blank ACUMEN target) Managing Individual Performance team role play R Team instructions (6pp, 2-sided, stapled) R Instructions for B. Smith, Observer (7pp, 2-sided, stapled)

R

Day 2 Tab R Managing Individual Performance Improvement Model (1pp) R Managing Individual Performance Reference Guide (7pp booklet, saddlestitched) R Managing Practices “placemat” (2pp, 2-sided, card stock, 4-color)

R

Day 3 Tab R Performance Analysis form (2pp, 2-sided) R Managing Business Performance Model (1pp) R Managing Business Performance Tools and Techniques (19pp booklet, saddlestitched, three-hole punched) R Managing Business Performance team exercise (1pp) R Managing Across the Organization case: “A Rock and a Hard Place” (13pp booklet, saddle-stitched)

R

Day 4 Tab R Managing Across the Organization team exercise (2pp, one-sided, stapled) R Bibliography (13pp, two-sided, stapled)

Backups and Archives. Providing adequate backup for program materials is an important administrative responsibility. The administrator should be working from not only a checklist, but also from master copies of all the items that appear on the list. These working masters are part of the program’s documentation and are needed to make the copies of material each time a program is run. The working masters should themselves be duplicates of a set of materials kept in an archive as ultimate backup copies of all materials. Both the working and archive masters should consist of clean and complete copies of all items on the program checklist, whether they are in-house creations or are commercially purchased. Electronic copies of in-house material should, of course, also be backed up and archived. This is sometimes even possible with commercially purchased material, an issue to be negotiated with the vendor of the material.


335

Take care of the master copies, as they serve as a base for the production of highquality program materials—clean, crisp copies, fully legible, appealingly packaged, and pleasing to the eye. This tells participants that you respect them and their desire to learn. (Consider the effect of smudged, skewed pages in a participant binder, or the impact of sloppy visuals). Masters and backup copies are your contingency in the event of a disaster. Good program administrators make sure they can always recover from any loss of materials in the mail or due to disaster or ordinary human error. (A runaway sprinkler system in a building can wreak havoc on a supply room’s contents.) Once program materials are ready, you have another logistical responsibility: to make sure the materials get to the physical location of the program and are returned at its end. The materials must then be checked and restored to inventory, if possible, or reordered or remade as needed. Replenish supplies when materials are returned at program-end, rather than waiting until the start date of a new program approaches. This is not essential, but it prevents supplies from being part of the last-minute crunch at program-start. Preparing Program Materials Materials vary enormously from program to program. The administrator is responsible for supplying them as called for in the leader’s guide, on time and with a high-quality appearance. Creating the master copies is a design and development task, not an administrative task. In this section, we will look at a few of the most commonly used materials from the perspective of the administrator who must prepare them. •

Visuals. Visuals needed for the instructor should be included with the leader’s guide. Typically, slides are created with presentation software such as PowerPoint. At other times, an instructor might rely on overhead transparencies. If you opt for transparencies, you should make them on clear or colored transparency sheets; they can be created as overlays or mounted on cardboard frames for the overhead projector. Frames give the slide a finished look, make them a bit easier to handle, and provide a convenient space for speaking notes. Unframed overheads, on the other hand, are much easier to pack for travel—they can be three-hole-punched for placing in a binder or can be slipped into clear plastic sleeves that come pre-punched. Of course, PowerPoint slides are even easier to transport; they can be carried in a lap-

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top’s hard drive or on a flash drive that will fit in a shirt pocket. PowerPoint slides are much easier to change than transparencies. •

Flipcharts. You can draw flipchart pages by hand directly on a flipchart pad or you can create them by using special copiers. You can also laminate them to give the instructor a washable writing surface.

•

Participant binders. Three-ring binders containing all the material participants will need for the program are standard. Custom binders with printed logos are nice, but more generic binders with clear slipcovers on the front and the spine are more common. Very often a learning and performance department will want to give all its programs (or a particular curriculum within its offerings) a special “look” for identification and marketing purposes. The availability of desktop publishing and presentation software provides powerful and exciting visual opportunities for logos and print design. The participant binder is typically divided by tabs for each day or section of the program. It should contain the program evaluation form in a prominent place so participants can fill it out before leaving. Oftentimes, all participant materials are placed in the participant binder, reducing handouts to a bare minimum or eliminating them altogether. This simplifies both program support and instruction.

•

Giveaways. Instructional programs often include some memento of the program that reinforces and supports the skills/knowledge it has delivered. A handy pocket calculator, perhaps with an appropriate slogan or logo, can be used for a program on budget procedures. A clear plastic paperweight with a computer chip embedded in it might remind people of a technology program. Canvas carrying bags, writing pad folders, photographs or certificates, pens— the possibilities are limited only by the imagination and creativity of the program’s designers and the funds at their disposal. Program administrators must make certain that there are enough giveaways available when needed.

•

Consumable supplies. Be sure to have paper, pads, pens and pencils, erasers, colored markers, paper clips, rubber bands, Post-it Notes, and other necessary supplies for specific exercises or games within the program, as well as general instructional supplies. Put consumable supplies on your administrative checklist and be sure you have enough on hand.


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One final note about program supplies: Consider bulk purchasing to keep the overall program costs as low as possible, especially generic materials. Every effort should be made during program design to specify materials and tools that are generically available. Step 5: Prepare the physical facilities. Appropriate, comfortable physical facilities and working equipment are all important considerations. People learn best in settings that are conducive to the task. Learners should be able to concentrate on program content without being distracted by a lack of ventilation, missing chairs, or malfunctioning projectors. Instructional activities such as lectures, role plays, or small-group work dictate appropriate room arrangements and seating. Careful attention to these sorts of details results in comfortable facilities and equipment that will perform as expected. The administrative task here is to ensure that the physical facilities are set up as called for in the leader’s guide and in the facility layout plan and equipment list (both of which should be placed in the leader’s guide). Kicking the Tires. The program administrator should not only see to it that the equipment is provided as called for, but also that it is in good working order. On the program’s first day, the administrator should test the projectors and the computers, check that the right pads are on the flipchart easels, and make sure the magic markers actually write. He or she should verify that the correct handouts, visuals, and films are in the room and that the proper binders are placed at participants’ seats. He or she must also check the name tags and table tents, if supplied, and check the ventilation and the lighting. All of these steps—the training version of kicking the tires on a used car—are something all experienced instructors and administrators follow. It may well be that the administrator will leave them entirely to the instructor; just be sure everything is checked on the spot and in detail, so that participants can learn as effortlessly as possible and the instructor can instruct as planned. Principles and Issues. Facility plans are offered here for common program formats and delivery approaches. Decisions about facilities are part of program design and development. Place a layout similar to one of these examples in the leader’s guide. Review the facility choices and ask yourself these questions:

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•

Tables or no tables? A table is useful for reading or writing, but it can act as a barrier between the instructor and participants and/or among the participants themselves. Consider how you feel in a group where tables (or desks) are available—and when they are not.

•

Should the instructor sit or stand? Is a lectern needed? Should the instructor be in front of the group, or behind it? Is the instructor part of the group, or its leader? Can everyone see the instructor? Can everyone see the audiovisual materials?

•

How will you provide for break-out groups? Large groups often need to break into small discussion or task groups. Depending upon the size of the main facility, these small groups can meet in specified corners or move as a group to another nearby room to perform a task.

•

Who sits where? Make sure that participants know that they are expected and welcome by providing name tags and/or tent cards as name-plates. This I.D. material can be preprinted or left blank for participants to fill in with markers. Name tags and tent cards are particularly valuable when participants do not know each other, and are usually a great help to the program facilitator. They ease introductions, help break the ice, and make it easier to mingle. Tent cards can be used for table assignments only (thus allowing participants to pick their own seats), or they can be pre-placed at specified seats to manage who sits where and with whom.

Room Arrangements for Lectures By definition, learners in a lecture setting have little involvement with each other. Contact with the instructor is often limited to a question-and-answer period. It is important that learners be able to see and hear the instructor; flipcharts, overhead projectors, DVD players, and other equipment should likewise be easily accessed. There are many different seating arrangements to choose from. Figure 11-5A shows sample seating arrangements for lectures for different size groups and various support technologies. Figure 11-5B shows a sample seating arrangement for panel discussions.

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Administering Workplace Learning Programs Figure 11-5A. Seating options for lecture groups

p Fli

c

Ov Sc erhe re ad en

rt ha

Facilitator

p Fli

a ch

rt

Overhead Screen Facilitator

h pc Fli

ar

t

Overhead Screen

Facilitator

Figure 11-5B. Seating options for panel discussions

Fli pc

ha

rt

Fli pc

ha

rt

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Room Arrangements for Small-Group Work Small-group work can be used to break up lecture periods or as the primary instructional method. In small groups, instructor contact will vary, depending upon the task at hand. As Figure 11-6 shows, the instructor takes a strong leadership role in some situations, thus needing easy access to his or her support tools. In other instances, the instructor becomes part of the group, and line of sight is not an important issue. Figure 11-6. Seating options for small-group work

A. Work Table

Work Table

Flipchart

Facilitator

Fl ip

Facilitator Work Table

t ar ch ip Fl

ch ar t

B.

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Room Arrangements for Problem-Solving Sessions Problem-solving sessions require high involvement on the part of participants. Placement of tables and chairs will vary, depending in part on who will be doing the facilitation—an external facilitator or a team member. Figure 11-7 shows seating arrangements illustrating these points. FIGURE 11-7. Seating options for problem-solving sessions

A. Facilitator's Work Table

Flipchart

Facilitator

B. Facilitator's Work Table

Flipchart

Facilitator

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Room Arrangements When Computers Are Used When participants each use a computer either as the basis of what they are learning or as the basis for group processes, be sure to provide sufficient space for the equipment. Figure 11-8 illustrates arrangement options. When designing computer training rooms, consider whether or not the instructor needs to see participant computer screens. If the session is part of a course on desktop publishing, the instructor will want a full view, but if the group is using a group-support system, an instructor’s ability to see individual screens might compromise participant anonymity. Figure 11-8. Seating arrangements when computers are being used

A.

B.

C.

A Facilities Checklist. One way to be sure that facilities are set up correctly is to develop a checklist such as the one in Figure 11-9. Checklists serve as reminder lists as well as completion check-off sheets.

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Administering Workplace Learning Programs Figure 11-9. Sample facility and equipment checklist Client:

Contact:

Program title:

Date:

Location: Number of participants:

Number of instructors:

Facilities Checklist

R R R

Main Conference Room

R R R

Instructor office

Lounge(s) Breakout room(s) (BR 1…2…3) to accommodate _____ teams of _____ people each Telephone in instructor office Wall clock in main conference room

Equipment Checklist Main Conference Room

Breakout Room #1

Breakout Room #2

Breakout Room #3

Flipchart easel

________

________

________

________

Flipchart paper: Blank Grid

________

________

________

________

________ ________

________ ________

________ ________

________ ________

R R R R R

VCR

________

________

________

________

DVD player

________

________

________

________

Camera

________

________

________

________

Table/floor microphone

________

________

________

________

Lavaliere microphone

________

________

________

________

R

Blank videotape cassette (90 minutes)

________

________

________

________

R R

(continued)

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Figure 11-9. Sample facility and equipment checklist (continued) Main Conference Room

Breakout Room #1

Breakout Room #2

Breakout Room #3

R R

Audiotape recorder

________

________

________

________

Blank audiotapes (90 min.)

________

________

________

________

R

35 mm slide projector and screen

________

________

________

________

R

Remote control

________

________

________

________

R

Overhead projector and screen

R R R R R

Blank transparencies

________ ________

________ ________

________ ________

________ ________

Transparency markers

________

________

________

________

Data projection device

________ ________

________ ________

________ ________

________ ________

Printer

________

________

________

________

Computer

Standard Materials

R R R R R R R R R R R R R R

Pens/pencils Writing pads Participant binders Participant registration forms Felt tip markers Masking tape Pencil sharpener Stapler/staples Post-it Notes Thumb tacks Paper clips Scissors Rubber cement Ruler

Number

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Administering Workplace Learning Programs Figure 11-9. Sample facility and equipment checklist (concluded) Special Materials

R R R R R R R

Prepared flipcharts Timer Instructional game files Shoelaces (#

)

Popsicle sticks, bunches (#

)

___________________________________

Videotape(s) titles:

___________________________________

Case(s) titles:

___________________________________ ___________________________________ ___________________________________

Room set-up diagram (provide separate sheet)

Step 6: Support the actual delivery of instruction. Logistical responsibilities are usually completed as soon as a program gets underway. There are times, however, when you will need to provide a certain amount of light but ongoing support. With mediated or self-paced learning materials, the administrator makes sure all the study materials are available on schedule—the text. the DVD, the next workbook, or the next reading assignment. Indeed, it is often an administrator who schedules self-study facilities, equipment, and materials. Additionally, individuals who are working in a self-paced program sometimes need an administrator’s assistance to operate a handheld video, set up a movie, or provide specific materials just at the right time. With live instruction, administrators often arrange for refreshments. This is usually not a requirement for mediated or self-paced instructional programs, but most live programs offer participants coffee and pastry, refreshments at breaks, a light lunch, and perhaps even a cocktail hour or formal dinner on an evening or two. This will vary from program to program and organization to organization. Many organizations have a cafeteria or food service of some kind that can at least provide the basics. Once again, make sure adequate planning is done, and that what has been planned is implemented efficiently.

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Step 7: Support evaluation. We’ve gone over a wide variety of tools and techniques for conducting evaluations of instruction and ensuring that those who can benefit from evaluation data have access to it. Some administration is necessary during evaluation, as well. If program participants are being asked for their reactions to a program they have just completed, the administrator must be sure the appropriate evaluation form is put into the participant binder. The form itself, if it is program-specific, will have been created along with other program materials. Sometimes a learning and performance department will want participant evaluations summarized in a report. The same can be said of follow-up evaluations collected from program graduates after they have returned to their jobs and have had some time to use the knowledge or skills acquired in instruction. Figure 11-10, beginning on the following page, demonstrates how numerical evaluation ratings are compiled, as well as how participant comments are reported verbatim. You cannot use summaries of reaction data as hard, statistical data because they are not scientifically valid. The ratings reflect participant reactions, and are only as objectively valid as those reactions. On the other hand, compiling program evaluations is a good way to identify consistently negative participant reactions with regard to either program design or instructor delivery. A pattern of such negative findings may well indicate areas where learning and performance department managers need to make some changes. When feedback data are exceptionally helpful, consider sending a memo to participants, thanking them for their feedback and explaining the changes you made in the program because of their feedback. Reports of other program evaluations deal with learning outcomes, job behavior, organizational results, and learning and performance department process, and are typically conducted by professionals in the learning and performance department. Reports of this nature are more complex and more formal. Review the discussion on this topic in Chapter 3. You’ll want the support of administrative staff to help you collect, compile, analyze, and report evaluation data of all types.

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Administering Workplace Learning Programs Figure 11-10. Evaluation Summary Sheet PROGRAM EVALUATION SUMMARY SHEET

Note: Twelve individuals participated in this program that was delivered by two different instructors. Items 1, 2, 5, 6, and 7 summarize overall program reaction as stated on the reaction questionnaire; items 3 and 4 summarize participants' reactions to individual instructors. 1.

Please rate each of the following items as part of your reaction to the session. If rank is less than average, please comment on the back of the form. Poor

Adequate

Average

Good

Excellent

Program content (concepts, facts, skills, procedures)

7

5

Applicability to your job, responsibilities, and needs

10

2

Enough examples and chances to practice, in order to be able to apply new skills or knowledge

2

9

1

Use of activities and materials so that learning is easy and enjoyable

1

9

2

Opportunity for discussion with other participants (to exchange experiences and ideas)

3

5

4

3

7

1

9

3

Length of the program relative to its objectives and the needs of the group Appropriateness of pre-session information, materials, directions. Did you know what to expect?

1

(continued)

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Figure 11-10. Evaluation Summary Sheet (continued) 2.

Which part of the program was of most value to you? Why? Qualitative responses with regard to feedback: •

The feedback gave insight into what I do and what my subordinates expect.

•

Lots of interesting comments and solutions were thrown out.

•

I learned what staff expects and how to find areas to improve.

•

I am not able to start to refocus and address relevant issues.

•

Now, I understand my perceived weaknesses so that I can identify areas for improvement.

•

The data discussion was useful to analyze our skill.

•

Feedback was important, as it gave me a chance to look into myself and understand what my people think about me.

Qualitative responses to the use of the role plays:

3.

•

The role play activity helped me to better understand the organizational issues.

•

Role plays stimulate interaction and prompt new practice.

•

The various role plays were interesting, provocative, and relevant.

•

Case study and role play are valuable because I understand better.

•

The role plays gave me a chance to see how others use different approaches.

•

I appreciated the group discussion about our observations of each other, because everyone listened with really open minds.

Which part of the program was of the least value to you? Why? Case Studies: Gotham/Star Wars – Too hypothetical; comments from participants are easier said than done Managing Individual Performance: Too little time Skill Model/Visioning: No clear objective/instruction (continued)

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Administering Workplace Learning Programs Figure 11-10. Sample Participant Feedback Evaluation (continued)

Managing Business Performance: Although I found it very interesting, I’m on the Ops & Sys side and don’t really manage a business for revenue generation. On the other hand, I do manage a unit within expense targets and productivity levels. Growth Model by different phases: A simplistic way to make complicated comparisons. Team exercise to act out solutions for Chapman case: Don’t see the value in it. History and goals: When we discussed our history and goals, the time was too short (understandable) and it was difficult to put across your thoughts, visions, and ideas with a person whom you met just three days back Managing co-workers: We were a well-known team with the same goals and customer focus. 4a. Please use the following scale to comment on each instructor’s ability to lead the program. 1 = Needs Improvement

2 = Adequate

3 = Good

4 = Excellent

Instructor #1 Item

1

(A) Organization/preparation of subject matter (B) Presentation of subject matter

1

(C) Clarity of instructions

1

2

3

4

Avg.

2

2

8

3.50

1

2

8

3.42

5

6

3.33

4

8

3.67

9

2

3.00

7

5

3.42

5

6

3.42

(D) Ability to control time (E) Ability to link content to your business

1

(F) Ability to stimulate productive discussion (G) Ability to create a productive learning environment

1

2

(continued)

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Figure 11-10. Sample Participant Feedback Evaluation (continued) Instructor #2 Item

1

2

3

4

Avg.

(A) Organization/preparation of subject matter

3

9

3.75

(B) Presentation of subject matter

3

9

3.75

(C) Clarity of instructions

4

8

3.67

(D) Ability to control time

3

10

3.77

(E) Ability to link content to your business

9

3

3.25

(F) Ability to stimulate productive discussion

6

6

3.50

(G) Ability to create a productive learning environment

5

7

3.58

4b. Please add your comments on the instructor’s ability to lead the program. •

“I was skeptical coming in, and enlightened going out! Both instructors did well in helping me overcome my skepticism.”

•

“Generally, both instructors are very experienced.”

•

“Both the instructors led the program well and as a team.”

•

“They are really professional on managing this seminar. Really, thanks for the things I’ve learned during this seminar.”

•

“I learned a lot about the good way to facilitate/lead a meeting or class from the two instructors.”

•

“Both instructors are excellent facilitators.”

•

“No comment.”

(continued)

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Administering Workplace Learning Programs Figure 11-10. Sample Participant Feedback Evaluation (concluded) 1

7.

5.

How would you rate the overall reaction to the program?

6.

How would you rate your level of skill or knowledge? a.

Before the program

b.

After the program

2

10

3

4

Avg.

8

4

3.33

2 10

2.17 2

3.17

Other Comments: •

“This program was a very good learning experience, especially productive for the group discussion.”

•

“It was an excellent experience. A great and rewarding experience.”

•

“Each country has different cultures and objectives. Due to the limited time, I think these differences in managing people/business are not well instructed.”

•

“Somewhat insufficient time period for the class.”

•

“Can the program be shortened to 3 days? It lasts too long; 4 days is too long.”

•

“I need to modify to cope with the new vision. Unfortunately, I am very tied up by my office work and have not had much time to prepare for the case studies. Prefer to attend the course out of town and with more participants from my line of business, to share more-relevant experience.”

Creating a Budget Controlling a departmental budget is a major administrative responsibility. The budget must cover all the phases of the Instructional Development Cycle, with funds requested to carry out the cycle in a particular budget year. The actual budget—the funds granted in response to this request—reflects the organization’s appetite for your department’s services and how much of its resources it is prepared to allocate. It is very important that you work hard and continuously to position your department’s services in the minds of your internal customers as support for learning, and the

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management resource that helps employees learn what the organization needs them to learn, and helps them to perform faster, cheaper, easier, and better. When budget cutbacks occur, the learning and performance department is often the first department to get cut. Cuts to the departmental budget are frequently followed by another phenomenon, however. Later on, when the organization needs people to learn something and there is a clear need for learning initiatives, the dollars for it will somehow be found. They might come out of the supplies budget, contingency funds, or even a manager’s discretionary funds, but the dollars will be found! The unmistakable lesson in this is that when people see a clear need for learning services, the services will be funded. Needless to say, the time for learning and performance managers to argue that their job is to enable and maximize learning is not when the axe falls! The point should be made constantly when there is no crisis. Above all, back it up with documentation and numbers that make the argument more strongly than any words can. Centralized and Decentralized Approaches Organizations generally allocate funds for learning services in two different ways. Sometimes all the dollars are placed in a central budget, to be dispersed in the most efficient way possible by learning and performance department managers for the organization as a whole. Sometimes an organization decentralizes its learning and performance funds. In this case, the department is allocated enough money to run itself, pay its people and its overhead, and buy supplies, services, and space. The money necessary to pay for actual programs is put in the budgets of line departments, which then pay for programs as needed. In this latter scenario, the learning and performance department typically charges internally for its service, a process called a chargeback. The chargeback can be simply a proportionate per-participant share of the cost of running a particular program, or it can be a fixed cost the learning and performance department establishes as a type of tuition. The centralized approach to the budget is generally more efficient in terms of program planning, rollout, and resource planning/usage, and is certainly the approach to be used when the learning and performance department is organized as a teaching faculty. The focus of the decentralized approach is on effectiveness, rather than on efficiency. It has the advantage of putting the money where the learning need is. This helps ensure that what the learning and performance department does is what the line


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departments need. They, after all, have the money! In the decentralized approach, the learning and performance department tends to be organized as a staff of internal consultants, performance analysts, and brokers. Strategic Funding. In either case, especially in the decentralized approach where a short-term focus can all too easily prevail, the learning and performance department managers should set aside money for strategic learning initiatives. (See Chapter 1 for a full discussion of strategic learning). There are things people need to learn that offer no immediate, short-term payback: entry-level training to feed the talent pipeline, orientation to the organization’s culture, information about other departments and projects, and the learning necessary for infrastructural programs that lay the groundwork for future organizational growth (e.g., new buildings, new technologies, new products). This kind of learning is most effectively funded by a budget under the control of senior managers who appreciate the need for and value of strategic initiatives. The learning demanded by these kinds of organizational requirements will be supported by a strategic perspective, not the short-term, business results-oriented focus of operational line management. Thus, budget authority for strategic learning initiatives should be lodged with strategic management. Budget Categories No hard and fast rules concerning proper budget categories exist. Organizations define and set up their own categories in a wide variety of ways. Every organization has its own terminology for budgeted items and its own way of categorizing items, and the categories themselves can change over time. However, the list that follows is a representative sample of the types of expenses a learning and performance department manager usually needs to include in the department’s budget. Typical Budget Categories 1. Salaries. This budget category is often subdivided into professional staff and clerical support staff. Sometimes managers are split out from the whole, also. Full-time and part-time workers are listed separately. Funds for temporary workers can be included here or put in the consultant category.

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2. Benefits. Paid vacation, health insurance, and life insurance provided to employees is typically a percentage of salary determined by the organization’s financial controllers or its benefits staff. 3. Staff Development. Money is also often added for professional development deemed necessary by management that will not fall under individual development. Funding for the instruction that will be necessary to put new desktop software into all the department’s workstations would have to be budgeted, for example, because everyone will need to switch from old software to new. This category also includes memberships in professional associations, subscriptions to professional journals, and attendance at conferences. 4. Recruiting. Agency fees and any other costs associated with hiring new people. Travel for candidates or recruiters, as well as recruiting brochures and other marketing materials fall into this category, also. 5. Consultants. Fees paid to consultants for work in the department, plus their applicable travel expenses. These costs are often put into subcategories that reflect the purpose for which consultants are hired: instructional design, delivery, evaluation, a specific project or program, etc. 6. Furniture and Equipment. The cost of adding, replacing, repairing, or renting furniture or equipment for use in the learning and performance department or its programs falls into this budget category. When an organization has rules and procedures regarding what is and what is not to be considered a capital expense (e.g., a large-scale, sophisticated copier), the annual depreciation for it is often included here. Computers are included here as well. Software is sometimes here, sometimes in a separate category. Hardware and software also can be treated as capital expenditures. 7. Occupancy. The cost of the building space occupied by the learning and performance department, as well as expenses for heat, light, and ventilation, are nondiscretionary items. 8. Marketing. The cost to market the learning and performance department and its programs falls into this category. An example is a brochure used for a “desk drop” or given out as part of new-hire orientation.


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9. Communication. The cost of telephones (equipment, repairs, calls) as well as costs for fax equipment and supplies, e-mail, memberships in public networks or news wires, and other related usage charges are put into this category. 10. Office Supplies. The department needs supplies for members to function. Supplies for programs and supplies for staff are often divided into separate subcategories. 11. Postage. Expenses related to the department’s outgoing mail, including express-courier costs and the shipping of program materials, belong in their own category. 12. Travel. Travel expenses incurred by department members in the conduct of business belong in their own category. 13. Entertainment. The costs involved in providing food and refreshment for program attendees, hosting guests of the department, or perhaps interviewing job candidates or potential consultants are considered entertainment costs. Once budgeted funds are allocated to the appropriate categories, the learning and performance department uses these same categories to track spending across the year. A spreadsheet report is typically generated each month that lists the categories and shows the annual budget amount for each, the spending in the category done in the current month, plus the year-to-date aggregate and the balance left for the remainder of the year. Final columns in the spreadsheet are often a calculation of whether the year-to-date figures are over or under what was budgeted, plus a forecast of what the final spending in the category will be. All organizations have policies, methods, formats, and forms established for tracking and reporting financial data. The learning and performance department manager should simply follow the organization’s lead in these areas. Reported financial information is a tool for the customary management decisions: slow down spending or speed it up, reallocate funds from one category to another, analyze the reasons for the spending level in a category of particular interest. Most organizations, for example, keep a very watchful eye on consultant costs.

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Estimating Costs One final budget task is to estimate the cost of each specific program. Figure 11-11 shows a blank program cost estimation spreadsheet. Note that the categories of program expense provided here form a generic template. Not all costs are necessarily used for every program. Note also how the estimation sheet aggregates expenses in the larger categories of variable, fixed, and total costs, and provides an estimate of cost per offering on the work sheet. Actual dollar figures must be plugged into this work sheet. The data on the costing spreadsheet will also vary, depending on program type. Figure 11-11. A Sample Program Costing Worksheet PROGRAM TITLE Length in days: __________ Number of sessions: __________ Number of participants desired per session: ___________ Number of participants expected in the year: __________ Item Cost VARIABLE COSTS Consultant fee Instructor fee T&E costs Video assistant Other

Total Estimated Costs for Year

$ $ $ $ $

Total Consultant Costs Supplies Binder/Repro Giveaways Vendor package Videotapes Other

Number for Year

$

$ $ $ $ $

$ $ $ $ $

$ $ $ $ $

$ $ $ $ $

Total Supplies Postage/Shipping Follow-up/reinforcement Evaluation Other Contingency Total Miscellaneous Costs

$

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Administering Workplace Learning Programs Figure 11-11. A Sample Program Costing Worksheet (concluded) TOTAL VARIABLE COSTS

$

$

FIXED COSTS Video/Film Software License New Binders/Packaging Other

$ $ $ $ $

Total Fixed Costs

$

TOTAL YEAR ESTIMATED COSTS FOR THE YEAR

$

Total number of participants expected this year: __________ COST PER PERSON (Total estimated costs divided by the number of participants)

$

TOTAL PROGRAM COST

$

Note finally that this template does not include learner salaries as part of the cost of a program. Some organizations add participant salaries to program costs, arguing that including their salaries gives a true and complete picture of what the program actually costs. Other organizations ignore learner salaries on the grounds that they would be paid anyway, whether they are in a training program or not, and thus their pay should not be viewed as a true cost. The important thing is that a cost estimation worksheet reflects the particular organization’s decisions on costing issues. The worksheet then can put structure and consistency into the establishment of costs for budget requests. The cost estimations will be more accurate with time and experience, and they will clearly benefit from the structure of a common cost estimation template.

Learning and Performance Department Reports On some regular basis, usually monthly, learning and performance departments report their program activity. In the report, list the programs delivered, perhaps in appropriate categories, with total numbers shown for each category and for the department as a

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whole. The report typically details the number of programs and participants for each program and category listed. Cancellations and costs are also sometimes included. Figure 11-12 shows a sample of a one-month activity report against the year’s plan as a whole, including program activity where none was planned. The report also shows the current estimate for program activity through the end of the year (e.g., current year forecast). Figure 11-12. Learning and Performance Department Activity Report (as of September 30) This Year’s Plans

Year-to-Date 9/30

Current Year Forecast 12/31

# of Programs

# of Participants

# of Programs

# of Participants

# of Programs

# of Participants

1. Presentation skills

22

176

17

121

23

169

2. Instructional skills

6

48

8

66

9

80

3. Writing skills

4

96

5

95

7

131

4. Managing personal growth

6

144

4

81

6

114

5. Negotiation skills

6

108

5

80

7

112

6. Influence skills

6

96

5

75

8

127

7. Responsible decision making

0

0

3

48

3

48

6

100

6

99

6

99

56

668

53

665

69

880

8. Equity at work

Projected Programs and Participants

Actual Number of Programs (year-to-date)

End-of-Year Forecasts

This kind of report is a tracking tool that allows managers to look at instructional efforts against plans and against the expected future. Are programs going as planned? If not, why not? The report can be used to map activities against priorities and adjust resources accordingly. It permits a manager to calculate ratios like cost-per-program day or participants-per-staff member. These kinds of ratios serve as useful measures of efficiency and productivity, especially when measured consistently against data from previous calendar periods. It is important to remember that these reports have to do with activities, not results. While activity must be tracked and controlled, the real issue is always the impact of the programs on the organization. How has the learning initiative affected the organization’s operation? Has it helped people do their jobs better and grow their careers? Has it helped move the organization in planned or desired directions?


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Another category of useful reports is the individual transcript. Individuals should have a running record of the programs they have completed. An individual and his/her supervisor can use such information for career planning and tracking. The production of a transcript is a simple matter for registration systems. Such systems can also provide records for input to a central employee file. When the organization has more than a single learning and performance division, the matter of centralizing data must be given careful thought. The issue is one of values and priorities—a cultural and organizational decision, not a technical one. Does the organization want data to be kept centrally? The benefit of doing so is that information about an individual’s participation in learning programs is readily available. The increased interest in knowledge management and corporate universities highlight the value of capturing data about skills and knowledge all across the organization. If data are left decentralized, it will be harder to get an organization-wide picture of what the business and its employees are doing with regard to planned instructional efforts. However, some organizations decide that it is simply not worth the collective effort necessary to create and maintain a centralized database on an ongoing basis. Another dimension of reports has to do with business results. Have sales gone up as a result of what the sales force learned? Is the product-development process faster or more efficient, now that we are using automated design tools and people know how to use them? Has the number of customer complaints dropped since the staff completed the program in customer service? These are ultimately the kinds of questions to which learning and performance department managers will want to respond. Make sure that these outcomes are specified up front, at the planning and design stages, and look for these kinds of results only where you understand the factors that can contribute to an increase in sales or a decrease in defects. While a results-orientation is the ultimate bottom line, be sure claims are realistic. Reports concerning business results based on learning programs are best done by gathering impact data from participants and their managers a month or two after program completion. These reports are not usually statistical worksheets of numbers in columns; they are the thoughtful gathering and analysis of best judgments from learners, their managers, and their clients concerning the effect of participants learning to do something new or do something better. (See Chapter 3 for a fuller discussion of follow-up evaluation strategies.)

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Summary The administration of a learning initiative, referred to here as a program, is an important responsibility and is essential to its success. Use the set of steps outlined in this chapter to make sure that the administrative side of the learning and performance department is handled efficiently and effectively. Registration and all that is involved with it is part of the program administrator’s responsibility (wait lists, cancellations, participant communication, and the use of registration software systems). Learning program prework, which comes in a wide variety of types and differing levels of complexity, requires intense, detailed attention. The program administrator must also prepare instructional materials, prepare the physical facilities, and provide necessary support as instruction is actually delivered. The final step in the administrative sequence is to handle program evaluation. Use checklists to manage the level of detail necessary for most administrative tasks. The budget, an important administrative issue, is typically the responsibility of the learning and performance department manager. Tracking and reporting are tasks taken on by support personnel. Budgeting can be centralized or decentralized, but representative budget categories must be worked out by the administrator. Reports such as participant transcripts can provide information that is useful to many departments within the organization.

Think It Through 1. What experiences have you had where physical surroundings played a major part in the success or failure of the experience itself (e.g., a party, a job, a restaurant dinner, a class)? How did the physical facilities impact the outcome? 2. What benefits to the learner does good program administration provide? 3. Describe how the logistical needs of self-paced instruction differ from live instruction. Which is generally more complex? Why? 4. Why do you think people involved in program design and development should give thought to its administration? What sort of implications for design are there in the logistical support that will realistically be available once a program begins to roll out?


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5. Give some thought to the benefits of using a centralized budget vs. decentralized budget. What do you see as the major difference between the two approaches? Which appeals to you? Why?

Ideas in Action 1. Identify an administrator in a learning and performance department and invite him or her to speak to your class concerning the work that goes into the logistical support of programs. Ask to see reports the administrator is responsible for preparing, and discuss how these reports are used. 2. Consider the impact the following have on your classes in school: janitorial or cleaning services, food service, security, and housing. Talk with a teacher of your choice, and ask that teacher to tell you of any experience he or she has had in which administrative services affected their teaching, for good or ill. Prepare a report on your discussion for class. Draw an analogy with the support services discussed in this chapter that is typically made available to a learning and performance department. 3. Research current literature to identify the computer software available to automate registration. Contact a sample of the vendors of this software to obtain demonstration packages, and share them with the class. 4. Identify in the literature any other administrative software that appears interesting, and prepare a report on its benefits for class discussion. (Do not include authoring or presentation software—confine your focus to software that an administrator would use.)

Additional Resources Greer, Michael. 2000. The Manager’s Pocket Guide to Project Management. Amherst, Massachusetts: HRD Press. This inexpensive paperback book includes a set of useful worksheets, guidelines, and checklists for project management tasks.

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Nilson, Carolyn. 1989. Training Workbook and Kit. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice Hall. An excellent source of generic forms and checklists, with intelligent discussions of the procedures that go with them. A bit dated, but a first-rate source book.

Chapter 11 Note 1.

The term administration in this chapter refers to the routine back-office work done in support of learning programs, distinguished from front-end delivery, the actual instruction. As used here, administration does not mean—as it often does in academic circles—the leadership or executive management of an institution.

VOICES FROM THE FIELD Rom Zemke on Professional Competencies

Ron Zemke, a former senior editor for Training Magazine and a principal in Performance Research Associates in Bloomington, Minnesota, was among a select few outstanding writers and speakers focusing on corporate learning, issues, and events. Ron passed away in late 2004; however, his many publications, wry humor, and great professionalism continue to inspire. Ron’s contribution to “Voices” in the previous edition of this text is as noteworthy today as it was then, and it is with great respect that we reprint his earlier thoughts (with permission from Training magazine) to appear in this edition. Learning at Work (LAW):

Ron, thanks for agreeing to this interview and sharing your experiences with us. What experience have you had in creating and evaluating training proposals?

Ron Zemke (ZEMKE):

Early on in my career, Michael, I ran a training department and we did all that. Now, as a consultant, I write proposals all the time—and we administer them when we are successful bidders. Proposal development is just a step in the business process. A good proposal should be 20 percent about you, 30 percent about the client’s problem/request/need/opportunity, and 50 percent about what will be done, how it will be done, and what the responsibilities are on both sides of the table, and a specification of deliverables.

LAW:

What business benefits have you seen when a trainer works to support organizational change efforts?

ZEMKE:

I see training as one change strategy—or a tactical part of a change strategy. Training professionals themselves as “change agents” is a bit of a nonsequitor. It is the information and skills delivered and acted on

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that bring about change. The training professional as an agent of that process is fulfilling an important and critical function. His or her job is to create enthusiasm for and understanding of what must take place for the organization to be successful in the days, weeks, and months ahead, as well as deliver information and train people in new skills. LAW:

What troubles have you seen people get themselves into in trying to actually conduct training?

ZEMKE:

The list is a long one. Lecturing rather than facilitating, being too domineering or too passive; not being prepared to deal with day-to-day issues, not knowing the information, or not having personal mastery of the skills involved. Using learning as a platform for one’s own ego or the practice of rhetoric rather than the passing along of knowledge or skill. Not understanding the difference between problem-oriented instruction and a survey course. I’m continually amazed at the creativity people bring to “getting it wrong.”

LAW:

So, to help us get it right, what do you suggest?

ZEMKE:

There is great unrest around the role of Internet and computer-based instruction among those who see the value of instructor-led learning. Enthusiastic advocates of the former tout these “new”—though they are not really that new—media and make it seem that the classroom instruction is a dinosaur headed for extinction. It is a fear that has surfaced regularly and periodically since the invention of the first teaching machines in the 1930s. In fact, the advent of radio and later television were both forecast as media that would end classroom instruction. Yet classroom instruction, this very simple and humble way of transferring information and skills between people, endures.

LAW:

What sort of impact do you think training will have on future corporate outcomes?

ZEMKE:

In periods of rapid change and massive relocation of competence, formal organizational learning programs are a reasonable and appropriate way of equipping a large number of people to master new skills and come to grips with new processes and ideas quickly and with fidelity.

Voices—Ron Zemke

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Training is a “for want of a nail” role; training doesn’t drive an organization’s success, but without it, success is much harder to achieve. LAW:

Ah, success. How do you know when effective training has taken place?

ZEMKE:

It is the sponsor’s role—facilitated by the learning professional or executives or evaluator—to decide what constitutes success. It is never the trainer’s job to decide this indecently or unilaterally. For instance, if the job is to change an attitude or transmit a new organizational direction, it is the trainer’s job to lead the client through a discussion that will end with agreement on what constitutes a measurable outcome that can be independently verified and agreed upon.

LAW:

Nicely said, Ron… You support our premise that a trainer should be a business partner, not an independent agent. Partners work together to set acceptable outcomes.

ZEMKE:

Yes, agreement on what constitutes proof is critical, since achieving a state that will generate that proof drives much of the design of effective learning programs.

LAW:

Who would you consider to be the leaders in today’s learning enterprises? Who stands out as an exemplar?

ZEMKE:

This is a tricky and difficult question. There are any number of organizations—companies, universities, government agencies, not-forprofits—who appear to be doing great work. They have impressive facilities, big staffs, and up-to-the-minute technology dedicated to learning. But those implied criteria of “excellence” belie the only thing that matters—results. And those we are never privy to. My cynical and suspicious nature—developed from my years of playing journalist as well as trainer—suggests that the higher the public visibility of an organizational learning team, the less likely that unit is to be delivering a strategic impact.

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LAW:

Perhaps, then, many unsung organizations are reaping big dividends from their training efforts! What sorts of roles do you see trainers playing over the next few years or so? How do you see the trainer’s role changing within organizations?

ZEMKE:

Trainers need to associate themselves more with line operations and less with corporate human resources in for-profit organizations. Credibility today comes from effecting local results, not from being associated with massive organization-wide endeavors. In addition, learning professionals will increasingly be split in two camps: in-house gatekeepers and purchasers of service, and external vendors of products and productions. Yes, internal people will do some teaching, but a better use of their time will be in needs assessment and results evaluation, and managing external resources.

LAW:

What would you say are the three most important tasks trainers must do for their organization?

ZEMKE:

Assess needs and evaluate results. Separate training from non-training tactical problems and issues. Say “no” to management when a problem isn’t most effectively addressed by instruction.

LAW:

What would you say are the key skills needed to carry out these tasks?

ZEMKE:

Assessment and evaluation are different sides of the same coin. Learning to be both an evaluator and a problem analyst covers both glories. A good understanding of the tools of both qualitative and quantitative research is essential. General business skills, from accounting and finance through sales and marketing and operations, are important. Too many trainers become isolated—or worse, pariahs in the organization—because they don’t know the business of the business and have no general business skills.

LAW:

Good point. So, what specific advice can you offer our readers to help them make learning an organizational investment, rather than an overhead expense? And help them persuade others to see it as an investment, rather than an expense?

Voices—Ron Zemke

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ZEMKE:

Stay away from corporate functions where learning programs have a tendency to be over-generic and personnel or HR related. Diversity, employee orientation, and so on may be—are—important, but they are seen by line managers as legal imperatives and adherence-driven, not production enhancing. Attach your efforts where the organization’s main profit thrust is focused. If the organization is sales- and marketingdriven, that’s where to cast your allegiance. That’s also where the best scorekeepers are and where you can collect data that relate outcomes to efforts. It’s also where the organization is most likely to be willing to invest in measurement and spend money to get it right.

LAW:

What is the most successful training effort you have ever seen in an organization? What did it accomplish? What was the key to its success?

ZEMKE:

I’ve seen many successful training efforts. One comes easily to mind. A company was spending six weeks training repair technicians to fix a certain piece of office equipment. But even the best techs were experiencing high service recall rates after leaving the training program. A careful analysis revealed that (a) most of the recalls (80 to 90 percent) came from a body of fewer than 20 faults, and (b) sixty percent of the training was focused on theory and operations that never generated a repair call. The training was revised to focus primarily on the common faults, and extensive job aids were developed to handle the most frequent exotic repair problems. The course was reduced to two weeks in length, and repeat repairs dropped by 90 percent.

LAW:

What is the worst or most unproductive training effort you have ever seen? Why was it a disaster? What lessons can be learned from it?

ZEMKE:

A different office equipment manufacturer, in a vain effort to improve sales, bought hundreds of reps from the field to a big conference. There they exchanged sales ideas and were given extensive new-product and sales-technique training. Sales did indeed improve for a quarter, then slowly drifted back to former levels. An extensive observational assessment found that the most successful salespeople made five more

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contacts a week and asked for the order three times as frequently. Hundreds of thousands of dollars had been spent on boosting morale and doing training that didn’t address the real problems and opportunities. Morale building is fine, even necessary in sales and marketing, but having a clear understanding of the dynamics of the problems of performers in the organization is much more important and a more productive use of scarce resources. LAW:

Anything else you’d like to say to our readers?

ZEMKE:

Michael, training is a fun and easily seductive craft to take up. It can seem to be second cousin to a performing art and often tugs individuals in that direction. This is favoring process over outcome. It is critical to always be concerned with outcomes over processes. To not do so places you at risk of becoming an entertaining irrelevancy in your organization.

LAW:

Ron, many thanks for your insights, thoughtful comments, and suggestions.

PART 5

FUTURE DIRECTION Epilogue In this book, we have described current practices, issues, and trends related to learning and training within and for organizations. The Instructional Development Cycle—needs assessment, design, implementation (delivery), and evaluation—was discussed in detail, with how-to’s offered for each step of the cycle. We described specific job skills such as writing proposals, providing administrative support for instructional programs, and facilitating change efforts. Armed with this understanding, you are now in a position to sit back and think about your future as a learning and performance professional and consider how the field will evolve as you grow in your career. Trends impacting the workplace include the flattening of the organizational structure, evolving demographics, and the globalization of business, culture, and the world at large—globalization coupled with a paradoxical insistence on keeping things local and manageable. Moreover, despite all that has happened in the world of information technology, we have only begun to see its possibilities and implications. Computer experts repeatedly tell us that we are in the midst of a continuing information revolution. They tell us this so often that it has become a cliché. It behooves us to remember that clichés get that way precisely because they are so true! We have indeed gone through a revolution in information technology, with computing power roughly doubling approximately every two years. Computer chips have in truth become smaller, vastly more powerful, and above all much cheaper, and they are everywhere, including inside your watch, your camera, and your car. The better, faster chips have been coupled with new chip materials, new manufacturing methods, and whole new computer architectures. The net result has been faster, less expensive, more functional, and more portable computing devices. These advancements, combined with new input/output technologies—voice, image, and video—absolutely guarantee more of the same continued hardware and software development, faster and cheaper computing, a continuation of now-familiar trends. 369

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There is, however, something more. Information technology is undergoing a transformational change because we are in the middle of a second revolution in networks—the technologies that connect all those revolutionized computers. Massive copper cables used to be what linked the computers; now it’s combinations of fiber optics and video cables and wireless connections. The enormously more-powerful and speedier connections have spawned the Internet, a virtual ocean of information and contacts available 24/7, with virtually instantaneous access to it all. A computing device such as a notebook computer, Palm Pilot, iPod, or Blackberry can sink its blue teeth into the Internet from almost anywhere. The bottom-line result of all of this is not just more of the same, but a true transformation of information technology, of how work is done through the technology, and a transformation of the world itself. This is perhaps best summed up in Thomas Friedman’s eloquent and compelling book The World is Flat, discussed in Chapter 1. Consider the societal and workplace trends we all face. Consider the changes that have been discussed here and elsewhere. Think of trends such as the outsourcing of staff functions, the emphasis on wellness and the control of health costs, and the aging and shrinking of our workforce. Cluster them together with the expected information technology transformation. Consider the resultant impact on information workers. Finally, consider how the combination of computer, societal, and workplace trends will affect the world of organizational learning. The impact of all this on you, the learning and performance professional, is profound. The traditional trainer in the workplace must be transformed into the learning specialist of the 21st century. Throughout this book, you have learned that while your organizational role might change, your overall goal of guiding, supporting, and enabling learning in the organization remains constant. Given that fixed North Star, what are you to do? We answer that question in our final chapter, “Maintaining Your Professional Edge.”

CHAPTER 12

Maintaining Your Professional Edge Given the new world emerging, what does today’s workplace learning and performance professional need to do? The one thing you simply cannot afford to do is ignore the massive and continuing changes taking place in the world of work and the world in general. For starters, you will want to be computer literate. Georges Clemenceau, a French government official at the end of World War I, remarked that war had become too important to leave to the generals. Similarly, technology has become too important to leave to the technicians, and computer literacy is a genuine must. On the other hand, this does not mean you need to become a computer scientist. Computer literacy should mean what literacy has always meant—an appropriate degree of fluency in a particular medium. Consider the level of literacy you have concerning home appliances: Most of us simply know how to use them. We do not design or repair them, and know little or nothing about what makes them work. The same thing holds for computers and networks. The degree of literacy necessary, of course, will be dictated by your work: some settings will require more of it than others. However, we can all expect work to be significantly more information-technology-centered than it is today. University professor Rosabeth Moss Kanter wrote a book with the evocative title The Changemasters in which she stresses that we professionals must become masters of change. Change is indeed a constant, another cliché that cannot be ignored. Furthermore, its frequency curve continues to climb and its impact continues to widen. Technology is but one cause, and may not even be the most important. None of us can escape the inevitability of having to deal with change. The workplace learning professional should expect to be called on to help others deal with change, and should actually be fluent in the subject to the point of mastery. The American Society for Training and Development (ASTD) regularly publishes information on training trends and best practices. The fiftieth anniversary of ASTD’s magazine T&D covered the past, present, and future of training in the workplace. This special issue included survey data on 36 trends affecting workplace learning and predictions from noted experts on the future 371

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of training. ASTD keeps this sort of information current and in a research data base. Its magazine and Web site are filled with ideas and suggestions that you can use to measure your own work, plan your own development, and keep yourself up to date and well positioned for the future. ASTD is a national organization that has local chapters in most metropolitan areas; for contact information, check Appendix C. John Humphrey, a former chairman of ASTD’s Board of Directors, was CEO of one of the world’s premier training companies, The Forum Corporation. In a previous edition of this book, John suggested five things that we should do to prepare for and take part in the business world of the 21st century: Become “techno literate.” Get comfortable with the use and prevalence of computers. Be intentional about your future. Don’t just get carried along by the flow of things. Make decisions and make conscious choices. Build a skill portfolio. Don’t think “career ladders.” Think tool boxes. Focus on building results-oriented skills. Be adept at being connected. Build and expand your network of colleagues and customers. Use technology to stay connected. Work with the power of the periphery. Realize that impressive work, often the creative work, gets done on the edges of organizations. Don’t hesitate to work out there. If you want to succeed in the 21st century, you’ll need to add a fourth “R” to the traditional three R’s of Reading, Writing, and Arithmetic: Re-learning: Unlearning the old and learning the new, as often as needed. As a workplace learning professional, you will be expected to develop your own re-learning strategies, while at the same time facilitating learning, un-learning, and re-learning throughout your organization. A final thought about how to achieve and maintain the professional edge that all of the above calls for you to do. Attend conferences. Take classes. Participate in self-study programs. Join associations. This is a valid list, but we wish to add a simple but powerful strategy for keeping up with the times: Read. Not just any kind of reading, but reading that is intentional, systematic, and goal-driven.

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Imagine another target like the one we talked about in discussing needs assessment. This time, put yourself and your work in the bull’s-eye target. Read every issue of T & D and Training, as well as specialized publications that deal with a specific kind of content related to your area (sales training, technology training, etc.). Pick out one or two of these magazines and read them each month to focus on your specific job. If your work is not in this field, read the publications that focus on your work. Read your job-related publications carefully and attentively. Notice the ads and the products and the trends. Also read regularly in the rings around the bull’s-eye, making each ring represent some additional aspect of you and your world. One ring might represent the industry within which your job resides; another, the business world in general. Yet another might represent the world at large; and the outermost ring might represent your personal interests, such as sports, quilting, ballet, Van Gogh, or honey bees. The point is to read a reputable publication in each of those rings systematically—month by month, week by week. Figure 12-1 shows how this strategy might look: Figure 12-1. Sample Target Reading Plan for a Workplace Learning Professional

YOU

WORKPLACE LEARNING

Sports Illustrated; Elle; Skiing; The New Yorker

T & D; Training INDUSTRY

WORLD

Advertising Age Banking Strategies

U.S. News and World Report Time BUSINESS Business Week The Wall Street Journal Fortune

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If you do so, you will stay reasonably up to date in your field, keep in touch with more than your job, and maintain your interests and your sanity. Best of all, when compared to other ways to keep abreast of what is going on in the world, reading systematically has significant advantages: it is cheap (a lot of professional publications are even free); it can be done at any time; and it is entirely at your own convenience.

Summary As has always been the case, the knowledge worker of our time, learning specialist or otherwise, will have an inquiring mind, will be ready to learn continually, and will adapt constantly to new knowledge and new ways of doing things. While specific skills and tools will be important, knowing what to do and why to do it will, as always, be far more important than knowing how. The old saying about change still holds true: The more things change, the more they stay the same. The work of the learning specialist in the 21st century will be performed with new tools, in new contexts, and under new assumptions. It will nevertheless continue to consist of making sure that the right people learn the right things at the right time and in the right priority order. This is what workplace learning professionals do for their organizations.

Think It Through 1. Assume that you are a technical trainer at a large insurance company and a member of the American Society for Training and Development. An upcoming evening program sponsored by your local ASTD chapter will feature a roundtable discussion of trends in information technology. Because of your expertise, you have been asked to lead this discussion on technological trends. a. What are the major trends expected? b. What issues might you face as organizations implement these new technologies? c. Which of the technology trends do you believe will have the greatest impact on you, as a professional, in the future? 2. Comment on the statement that knowing what to do and why it should be done will be far more important than knowing how to do it.


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Ideas in Action 1. Draw a picture of yourself sitting at your work desk today, and another representing you at work in the year 2020. Share and compare your pictures with your classmates in small groups. What technologies did individuals in your group put into your pictures that went beyond the scope of this chapter? 2. Search the last 12 issues of either Training magazine or T+D for articles related to the future of learning in the workplace. Summarize the information you read, and bring your summary to class for discussion. Focus on how workplace learning professionals should prepare for the future. 3. Create your own “reading bull’s-eye,” as defined in this chapter. In addition to Training and T+D, what journals do you read that are related to your profession, industry, business, and content expertise? What do you read to stay abreast of current events? What do you like to read for fun? Share your bull’s-eye with others in the class. Why is systematic reading important?

Additional Resources Buckingham, Marcus, and Donald O. Clifton. 2001. Now Discover Your Strengths: How to Identify and Develop Your Talents and Those of Your Employees. New York: Simon & Schuster Trade Press. Stories of famous people lead to a larger discussion of personal strength-building. Covey, Stephen R. 2004. The 8th Habit: From Effectiveness to Greatness in the Era of the New Knowledge Worker. New York: The Free Press.

New and updated strategies for planning your life from an expert planner. Also check out The 7 Habits of Highly Effective People, in which Covey explains his principles for solving personal and professional problems (updated in 2004).

Friedman, Thomas. The World Is Flat. 2005. New York: Farrar, Straus, and Giroux. A rich, engaging description of the impact that networks of computer technology have had on business and societies. A must read.

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O’Hara-Devereaux, Mary, and Robert Johansen. 1994. Global Work: Bridging Distance, Culture, and Time. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Two researchers from the Institute for the Future describe innovative practices found in such global organizations as American Express, Apple Computer, and AT&T. The authors identified key competencies that managers will need if they want to succeed in a global workplace. Of special interest to training professionals is the section on process facilitation of groups in remote locations. Katzenbach, J. R., and D. K. Smith. 1993. The Wisdom of Teams: Creating the HighPerformance Organization. Boston: Harvard Business School Press. The premise of this book is that companies are increasingly relying on teamwork. The book is full of stories and case examples involving real people in team situations. Team members describe accomplishments and insights that give evidence to the power of teams. Schrage, Michael. 1990. Shared Minds: The New Technologies of Collaboration. New York: Random House. The author believes that two heads are indeed better than one, and that in virtually every creative endeavor, from art to entertainment to writing a textbook, collaboration is a fundamental force. Schrage explores the role of tools and technology in shaping the collaborative process. Highly recommended for 21st century knowledge workers. Kanter, Rosabeth M. 1983. The Changemasters: Innovation for Productivity in American Corporations. New York: Simon and Schuster. Kanter argues compellingly that the single most important skill organizations need to master now is how to manage change. Otherwise, she insists, the productivity gains necessary to be effective and competitive in the global marketplace will not be attainable or sustainable.


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“2000. The Power of Invention.” 1998. Newsweek, (Winter). This special issue of the weekly news magazine is devoted to a discussion of how a vast array of inventions have changed human life, from zeppelins and paper clips in 1900 to baboon-to-human liver transplants at the end of the century. This issue describes how 20th century inventions have changed our lives, and looks ahead to what the 21st century will hold for each major aspect of our world. The banner subtitle for the section on work is a summary of the trends highlighted in this chapter: “Good jobs will require more training than ever, and full-time positions will give way to freelance talent-for-hire.” ASTD Trends Watch: The Forces That Shape Workplace Performance and Improvement. Alexandria, Virginia: The American Society for Training and Development. A series of short, focused, periodic reports on trends impacting work and issues that deserve the attention of workplace learning professionals.

VOICES FROM THE FIELD Rebecca Ray on Keeping Your Professional Edge

Rebecca L. Ray is a senior vice president at MasterCard International, leading the Global Learning and Organizational Development function. She and her team are responsible not only for the instructor-led and eLearning offerings of MasterCard University, but also for employee engagement, performance management, succession planning, and academic partnerships. Prior to joining MasterCard, she held leadership positions at Merrill Lynch, Prudential Securities, American Skandia, and Comcast. Before joining the corporate arena, Rebecca served as a consultant to a variety of financial, accounting, and publishing industry leaders. She and her teams are known for innovation and excellence and have received awards and recognition from Accenture, The Financial Times, The Corporate University Xchange, and Corporate University Week (Corporate University Best In Class). Rebecca has also been named to the Training Top 100 lists. Learning at Work (LAW):

Rebecca, thank you for giving me the time for this interview. My coauthors and I wanted to interview you as someone who can comment on the section of our book that looks to the future of corporate learning and ways professionals can keep their professional edge.

Rebecca L. Ray (RLR):

It’s always good to talk with an old friend, Bridget. In preparation for this interview, I asked myself what I can share with you that will be of value in an era when information is everywhere, where all of us carry a remote control in our minds (and all too often “change the channel” on the speaker), where our attention spans are short, and with lives that are so full that we live at a pace unimagined…

LAW:

As you’ve been in the field for some time, you’ve seen many changes. What have you learned through your experiences in corporate America? 379

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RLR:

I learned a lot. I learned that many thoughtful, caring people can have both a soul and a drive to deliver business results. That the great managers strike a balance between what their employees need to have in the workplace to grow personally and professionally and the business-related accomplishments that allow them to stay in business so that those same employees remain employed and can provide for themselves and their families. I learned that employees, much more often than not, want to be part of a winning team, want to create excellence, and want to be proud of what they do. I learned that successful corporations, much more often than not, use their power and their profits to make a decided difference in America for millions of Americans and for millions more around the world.

LAW:

And how has this philosophy impacted your practice?

RLR:

In America today, corporate learning is both formal and informal—continual to be sure, but spiked with moments of absolute clarity and perspective, usually precipitated (at least in my case) by a humbling experience, what I prefer to think of as yet another growth opportunity.

LAW:

And how have you, personally, kept up this growth?

RLR:

I remain active with several organizations that focus on the challenges, facing chief learning officers as well as those of us whose responsibilities have expanded to include the talent management end of the spectrum. I am a member of the editorial board of Training magazine; The Conference Board’s Council on Learning, Development, and Organizational Performance; the Learning and Development Roundtable of the Corporate Executive Board; and the ASTD’s Global Executive Learning Network, and I am on the Board of Advisors for the American Bankers Association School of Bank Card Management. The “best practices” sharing is invaluable, and I so appreciate the forums in which to learn. I read as much as I can.

LAW:

How would you characterize the corporate learning space today?

Voices—Rebecca Ray

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RLR:

As the competitive market demands companies that can be faster, smarter and better at delivering results, the emphasis on skilled workers will only increase.

LAW:

So it sounds like it benefits the corporation to develop its workers. Is that right?

RLR:

Sure. Although corporations can offer greater quality and quantity, it is up to each corporate employee to decide whether or not to make the most of it. So, if I had any pearls of wisdom to share, I think it would be that whatever your job is, it is really to support the boss and to learn whatever you need to deliver outstanding results. These are, hopefully, not mutually exclusive goals. That’s the way to get ahead—not office politics, not schmoozing, not gamesmanship or finding the magic shortcut. Deliver results. Be excellent. Learn and grow. Look for what is next on the horizon. Make yourself indispensable. Take on more responsibility and volunteer whenever it makes sense and you can handle the workload. You will learn a lot and you will build a network of grateful colleagues who can be of help to you. And then take what you know and share it. Information is not to be hoarded, but shared. Set yourself apart by sharing not only information but wisdom.

LAW:

Can you give us an example of a time when this strategy paid off for you?

RLR:

With every job I had, I tried to add value and make a difference. In some roles I was more successful than others, but no matter what the challenges or politics, I know that I threw my heart and soul into the job. I don’t know another way to work.

LAW:

What advice do you have for someone just starting out in the field?

RLR:

I think when we’ve achieved a milestone, like finishing formal education and receiving a degree, we want to “check the box” and have it be done. But what you know now will not carry you forever, so figure out what you need to learn next and how quickly you can master that new information. New discoveries and research change what we believe to be true. I was

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taught as a child that reptiles were the direct descendants of the dinosaurs. My sixth grade science project was to build a replica of the La Brea tar pits. It took me months. Now I find out that the chickens are really the closest descendants to the dinosaurs. I could have built a hen house. It would have taken a lot less time. But things change rapidly. The shelf-life of a college degree is about six years, maybe four, depending on who you talk to. How do you learn where the puck will be next? And what motivates you to skate out to that point on the ice, even though no one else is there yet? There are those who believe that the person entering the workforce today will have four to six careers before their working years are over. Some of those careers have not been invented yet. LAW:

Sounds like perpetual motion…

RLR:

You are likely to work for many corporations and many bosses. Continually upgrade your skills. Make sure that other opportunities at other companies or greater ones at your current company present themselves, because you have done the hard work at the current job and made yourself more valuable. Be fully present where you are for as long as you are. Learn from the mistakes of others; gather their wisdom. It’s much less painful than making every mistake yourself in order to learn from it. If you aspire to manage others, look for the great managers you may be fortunate enough to work for. Keep a list of what they did that inspired you or helped you find the hidden talent within yourself that only they could see. These are the greatest teachers, for they have learned the secret of servant leadership.

LAW:

So what does good leadership look like? Have you experienced it? Have you attained it?

RLR:

I think that leadership (versus management) is about helping people realize the potential to build or do something greater than themselves, or to accomplish more than even they thought possible. It’s other-centeredness. It’s being comfortable in your own skin and allowing others to blossom. I always remember a branch manager on Wall Street who described leadership to be this way: True leaders always ask the question: How willing are you to make yourself the lesser to make someone else the greater?

Voices—Rebecca Ray

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LAW:

So what can a person just starting out in this world do?

RLR:

Think of yourself as a growth stock: YOU, Incorporated, and invest in yourself. Ask yourself, Are the fundamentals of YOU, Inc. sound? In your annual report, are there great accomplishments to highlight each and every year? What do you believe is the next wave of the future for You, Inc., and what are you doing to prepare yourself for it? Strong companies always invest in ongoing research and development. Have you? Since content knowledge is fleeting, have you learned the things that never change—to think critically, to question intelligently, to research purely, to write clearly, to argue passionately? Have you made technology your friend? Do you use it to remain in control of the increasing tsunami of information and business demands? Have you taken advantage of every opportunity that the corporation offers to learn new skills? Do you have a group of people whose counsel you seek, a board of directors, to guide your decisions? Do you think of yourself as something to invest in—investing your time and energy and resources? If you were truly a stock, would you buy you? Would you believe that a dollar invested in you will result in several dollars in return? When was the last time you purposely took yourself out of your comfort zone and stood confidently in the transition between who you were and who you would become?

LAW:

Suppose you are in an environment that is not, shall we say, enlightened?

RLR:

Make the corporate setting the place where you want to spend the vast majority of your waking hours. Be the good corporate citizen you hope others will admire and emulate. Be the change you desire in the world.

LAW:

You refer to yourself as the perpetual learner. What is next for you?

RLR:

I am still learning. About life and my role of service in corporate America. About how we continually move the needle forward to help people grow and excel. About who I am and who I can help others to become.

LAW:

Anything else?

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RLR:

William Shakespeare wrote, “We know what we are but we know not what we may become.” All of us are but a work in progress, as are those whose lives we touch in the course of our professional responsibilities. When I think about what we in education, either corporate or academic, do to help people reach their potential, I consider myself exceptionally fortunate to be able to do what I do for a living. I believe that there is no more noble calling, no matter where we labor, than to help others to become what they dream.

LAW:

Rebecca, thank you so much for all your insights and the lessons of your experiences. We wish you well as you continue this high calling of being a leader in the workplace learning profession!

Appendix A Long Training/Learning Proposal

Learning to Use the Lotus Notes Knowledge Management System Proposal for E.C. Inc. January, 2XXX

Proposed by United Journey Incorporated Sa-Qwona Clark Melissa King Shabnam Slatewala Angela Zachary 25 W. 4th Street New York, NY 10003 (212) 995-xxxx (Tel.) (212) 995-xxxx (Fax) www.unitedjourney.com

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Table of Contents Executive Summary .................................................................................................... 1 Background of the Problem ........................................................................................ 1 Analysis of the Problem.............................................................................................. 1 Structure and Skills of Casualty Practice.................................................................... 2 Rationale and Goals of the Proposed Training Solution ............................................ 6 Overview of the Training Solutions............................................................................ 7 Program Outline.......................................................................................................... 8 Learning Objectives and Topics ................................................................................. 9 Evaluation Strategies .................................................................................................. 12 Resources Required .................................................................................................... 14 Development and Delivery Schedule ......................................................................... 15 Costs............................................................................................................................ 16 Projected Benefits ....................................................................................................... 18

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Executive Summary The solution outlined in this proposal will help your employees learn how to use the Lotus Notes Knowledge Management System. Feedback received through the surveys and interviews found that employees were unable to contribute to the Lotus Notes Knowledge Management System and were unable to find pertinent information in the current database system. Our solution provides modules for different groups, depending on their need to use the system and their knowledge of the Lotus Notes Knowledge Management System. We will follow up after one month and after four months to ensure that learning transfer to the job occurred. Program reports will be sent to the practice leader and director of learning and performance detailing the feedback. All four levels of Kirkpatrick’s evaluation model will be used to assess program effectiveness.

Background of the Problem In early January, Bob Alder and Eileen Smith contacted us to discuss how we might help them help your employees learn how to use the Lotus Notes Knowledge Management System. Your system makes information and knowledge about the company and its services accessible to employees. Knowing how to use the system is of utmost importance, since intellectual capital is one advantage E.C. has over its competitors. For this reason, Mr. Alder and Ms. Smith asked us if we could develop and deliver an instructional program. In this document, we will describe the findings of our needs assessment and outline the proposed learning solution and implementation plan we believe will address the company’s needs. The program we recommend is aligned with the business goals and strategic direction of E.C.

Analysis of the Problem We conducted a needs assessment, defined structure and skills, defined the target population, and outlined the areas to be covered in instructional modules. This information led us to the design and development of the proposed solution.

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Needs Assessment To understand our audience, we performed a needs assessment to identify gaps or discrepancies in performance that exist between what people are capable of doing now, what they should be capable of doing, and what they will be required to do in the future. The methods and findings of the needs assessment are outlined in this table. Needs Assessment Method

Needs Assessment Findings •

“Lack of knowledge” was cited as one of the main reasons why 80% of colleagues do NOT use Lotus Notes to share information.

•

“Don’t know how/where to contribute” was cited by 19% of employees as the reason why they don’t contribute content more often.

•

Only 18% can find what they’re looking for in Lotus Notes in less than 5 minutes (15% of colleagues employed less than a year say they “wouldn’t know where to start”).

Interviews with knowledge managers, the “gatekeepers” of the new system.

•

The knowledge managers want more contribution to the database.

•

Knowledge managers have noticed poor etiquette on the system.

Interviews with Bob Alder, the HR director at E.C.

•

Employees were taking longer than expected to find information for clients.

•

Two databases are underused: Request for Assistance database (RAD) and the Casualty database.

Employee surveys (participants selected randomly)

Structure and Skills of Casualty Practice To further understand our audience, we reviewed their current functions and skills. Outlined in the following table are information regarding the four groups of targeted participants, their functions, and their relevant skills.

2

Client Rep

Insurance Assistant

Title Prepares invoices for conformance with E.C. standards to enhance working capital Maintains client files Issues timely, error-free certificates Follows established corporate office processes and checklists Helps CA/CE achieve book growth goals Reviews current policies and identified exposures Helps create proposals Responds promptly to client’s questions regarding coverage Streamlines certificate and invoice processing by updating checklists as enhancements are made to office resources

•

• • •

• • • • •

Function

3

• Awareness of what is happening in the organization

• Good delegation and timemanagement skills

• Strong interpersonal skills

• Good communication skills

• Is a team player

• Ability to analyze finances

• Computer basics (including ability to use Microsoft Office, Internet, and E.C. application basics)

• Compliance with procedures and requirements

• Technical insurance basics

• Organizational awareness






Skills

60

75

No. of Employees

Appendix A 389

Client Executive

Client Advisor

Title Identifies need for new products and suggests solutions to improve renewal rates and expand revenue Ensures consistent customer service by updating policies as needed and implementing timely plans Utilizes resources more efficiently by identifying, documenting, and training team on better ways to generate outputs Works across office departments to identify ideal workflow based on resources/outputs

Achieves growth goals (including increasing renewal fees and commissions by providing the right resources at the right time)

•

•

•

•

•

Function

4

• Ensures compliance with procedures and requirements

• Risk identification and analysis basics



• Good time-management and delegation skills





• Office workflow mapping skills

• Advanced information processing skills


• Decision-making ability

• Ensures compliance with procedures and requirements


Skills

25

40

No. of Employees

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Client Executive (continued)

Title Empowers team to improve renewal rates and increase revenues Implements timely insurance placement plans Makes sure that team invoices conform with E.C. excellence standards to enhance working capital Provides team with proper resources and tools to complete their jobs

•

• •

•

Function

5


• Strong negotiation and presentation skills

• Team development skills

• Goal setting skills

• Resource allocation skills

• Strategic planning ability

• Good time-management and delegation skills





• Office workflow mapping

• Advanced information processing

• Computer basics (including Microsoft Office, Internet, and E.C. application basics)

• Decision-making ability

Skills

No. of Employees

Appendix A 391

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Target Population The employees targeted for this program are insurance assistants, client representatives, client advisors, and client executives—a group of two hundred individuals, located in New York, Atlanta, San Francisco, and Chicago. Since all members of this group possess intellectual capital and benefit from knowledge sharing, it is expected that all of them will be involved. Specific skills and functions have been previously outlined. Content Areas The following areas will be covered during the program: 1. The participants will begin by learning the basics of Lotus Notes, dependent on their skill level. 2. Two databases will be part of the content: •

Request for assistance – This database allows our people to post/respond to questions that come from around the globe. They will be more efficient and effective if they use this database.

•

Casualty database – This database stores the forms needed to perform everyday tasks within the company. By having all forms stored in one place, employees can search for information and will not need to re-key or re-create forms from memory.

3. The participants will also learn “best practices” for both databases: management practices and work processes that lead to superior performance.

Rationale and Goals of the Proposed Training Solution Data from the needs assessment conducted in January at E.C. indicated that employees are not using the current Lotus Notes Knowledge Management System to its fullest potential. The proposed solution will focus on establishing the most effective ways to contribute and use the system. Since employees have varying familiarity with Lotus Notes, classes will be divided by skill level.

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Appendix A

Two Lotus Notes databases were identified as being crucial (Request for Assistance database and the Casualty database). Within these two databases, we identified the most-important skills, organized into the following topics: 1. 2. 3. 4.

Lotus Notes database (basic navigation) Search Functionality Specifics regarding the Request for Assistance database Specifics regarding the Casualty database

Overview of the Training Solutions The targeted individuals and groups will learn to contribute to and use the KM databases. This will enable them to work more efficiently by reducing response time to clients and utilizing the knowledge of employees worldwide. Our four mostexperienced instructors will work with Casualty employees. Prior to instruction, all learners will have already completed our online pre-test. We will use the data collected from the on-line pre-test to determine appropriate class placement: Level 1 – Skill Blocks 1 to 4 Level 2 – Skill Blocks 2 to 4 To accomplish learning goals, the instructors will use problems, case studies, and role plays. We will work with your management to identify common applications and uses of the system. We will begin the sessions with short demonstrations that show specific skill sets, and then learners will have opportunities to explore the system in small groups, which are facilitated by our instructors. We will work to ensure that “real problems and applications” are used for demonstrations and problem-solving sessions. At the end of the program, we will administer a post-test, and include results in the program report. Additionally, we will send follow-up surveys to participants and their managers one and four months after the training. If learners find that they are having difficulty navigating the system, we will return for a complimentary half-day workshop.

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Program Outline The diagram below shows the process flow of the program. Each step will be further explained. Lotus Notes database (basic navigation)

Search functionality of the databases

Step 1: Participants take an online Pre-test

Step 2: United Journey analyzes pre-tests

Level 1 Class: Participants begin by learning more about Lotus Notes functionality

Step 3: Participants attend training according to their level of current understanding

Step 4: Participants participate in a class activity where gaps in knowledge are addressed

Level 2 Class: Participants focus more on the databases

Specifics regarding the Request for Assistance database

Specifics regarding the Casualty database

Search functionality of the databases

Specifics regarding the Request for Assistance database

Step 5: Online Posttest given at the end of class

Specifics regarding the Casualty database

Step 6: Participants fill out reaction sheets in class

Step 7: Trainers provide a program report of what we did and how it went

Step 8: One-month evaluation/interviews

Step 9: Four-month followup with Tim Brady and KMs

Step 10: Report of longterm effects of training

END

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Appendix A

Learning Objectives and Topics Level One Objectives Skill Block One: Lotus Notes Database: Basic Navigation Given a Lotus Notes database with previously entered data, participants will be able to complete the following tasks within ten minutes, with 85 percent accuracy: •

Read documents using the Navigate Next button on the toolbar.

•

Expand and collapse documents using the Expand and Collapse buttons on the toolbar.

•

Add a database from the database catalog.

•

Remove a database from the workspace.

•

Set “read” marks to “unread” marks.

•

Forward a document using the Actions/Forward menu option.

•

Identify how to find the knowledge manager for each database.

Skill Block Two: Search Functionality Given a sample scenario with previously entered data and accompanying problemsolving exercises, participants will be able to complete the following searches within ten minutes, with 80 percent accuracy: •

Perform a Full Text Indexed search using the search bar.

•

Perform a Full Text Indexed search with conditions by using the search bar.

•

Perform a search on multiple databases simultaneously.

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Skill Block Three: Specifics Regarding the Request for Assistance Database Given a sample Request for Assistance database with previously entered data and accompanying problem-solving exercises, participants will be able to complete the following tasks within ten minutes, with 75 percent accuracy: •

Create a Request for Assistance in the Request for Assistance database.

•

Create a response to a request in the Request for Assistance database.

•

Demonstrate the ability to first search for a request before posting in the Request for Assistance database.

•

Avoid naming a specific firm when putting a note into the Request for Assistance database.

•

Use good etiquette when posting and replying.

Skill Block Four: Specifics regarding the Casualty Database Given a sample Casualty database with previously entered data and accompanying problem-solving exercises, participants will be able to complete the following tasks within twelve minutes, with 75 percent accuracy: •

Identify five Casualty Best Practices within Lotus Notes.

•

Launch a Microsoft Word document from the Casualty practice database.

•

Complete a Loss Flow Forecasting Model.

•

Search for Casualty professionals in different offices around the world.

•

Register for an insurance-related class offered at their site.

•

Identify key points made in last month’s casualty conference.

•

Check the database once a week for new information.

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Level Two Training Objectives Skill Block Two: Search Functionality Given a sample scenario with previously entered data and accompanying problemsolving exercises, participants will be able to complete the following searches within ten minutes, with 80 percent accuracy: •

Perform a Full Text Indexed search using the search bar.

•

Perform a Full Text Indexed search with conditions by using the search bar.

•

Perform a search on multiple databases simultaneously.

Skill Block Three: Specifics Regarding the Request for Assistance Database Given a sample Request for Assistance database with previously entered data and accompanying problem-solving exercises, participants will be able to complete the following tasks within ten minutes, with 75 percent accuracy: •

Create a Request for Assistance in the Request for Assistance database.

•

Create a Response to a Request in the Request for Assistance database.

•

Demonstrate ability to first search for a request before posting in the Request for Assistance database.

•

Avoid naming a specific firm when putting a note in the Knowledge Base.

•

Assess good database base etiquette when posting and replying.

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Skill Block Four: Specifics Regarding the Casualty Database Given a sample Casualty Database with previously entered data and accompanying problem-solving exercises, participants will be able to complete the following tasks within twelve minutes, with 75 percent accuracy: •

Identify five Casualty Best Practices within Lotus Notes.

•

Launch a Microsoft Word document from the Casualty practice database.

•

Complete a Loss Flow Forecasting Model.

•

Search for Casualty professionals in different offices around the world.

• •

Register for an insurance-related class offered at their worksite. Identify key points made at last month’s Casualty conference.

•

Check the database once a week for new information.

Evaluation Strategies We will collect learner reactions to our courses, measure their beginning skills and their skill improvement in using the system, follow up to ensure that learners can apply what they learned on the job, and work to determine organizational benefits of the program (see table on the following page). During the evaluation period, we will submit two reports for Eileen Smith and Bob Alder. The first report will be submitted after the sessions have been completed, and will detail the feedback from the reaction questionnaires and from the instructors. The second report will be compiled after a survey is sent to participants and their managers.

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Appendix A Level

Evaluation Method

Level One: Reaction (What were the participants’ overall reactions to the class?)

•

A questionnaire will be given to each participant at the end of the session to assess whether or not they liked the class, how the instructors performed, and whether or not they consider the information from the class to be useful.

Level Two: Learning (Did the participants gain information from the program?)

•

An online pre-test will be sent to Casualty participants prior to the program. Each participant will be asked to fill out the test in a week’s time, using the database. The tests will be scored and participants will be placed into appropriate sections. Each participant will be emailed the class date and time for their section.

•

In-class activities will assess participants’ understanding of the material presented. This will allow instructors to fill any knowledge gaps immediately.

•

An online post-test will be given to participants at the end of the class. This will be identical to the pre-test, and will allow us to assess the degree to which participants gained from the program.

Level Three: Behavior (Was the gained knowledge transferred to the job? This is a behavior change.)

•

One-month follow-up interviews with participants and their managers will help us assess if the Casualty employees transferred what they learned to the job, and if the new learning helped reduce response time to clients.

Level Four: Results (the results that training brought to the organization’s bottom line)

•

We will meet with Bob Alder and the knowledge managers four months after the training program concludes in order to assess the overall impact of our program on the organization’s bottom line.

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Resources Required A number of resources will be required if the program takes place at E.C. facilities. We will provide the following: Instructional Materials • Online Pre-test and Post-test completed by each participant • Manuals • Quick-Reference Cards Personnel • Four instructors Miscellaneous • Refreshments E.C. will need to provide the following: Instructional Materials • Flipcharts • Markers Hardware and Software • LCD projectors • Microsoft Windows software • Windows XP • Lotus Notes software for creation of a learning environment • Ten networked computers with software installed • TV/VCR/DVD

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Personnel • Point-of-contact individual • Technical support personnel Miscellaneous • We will ask that you send an introductory e-mail to all participants notifying them that they need to complete the online pre-test.

Development and Delivery Schedule Here is a development time schedule required to ensure a high-quality, cost-effective program: Week 1 Task Analysis Week 2 Instructional Design Weeks 3 – 5

We will work with Bob Alder and knowledge managers to determine what your employees need to learn.

We will work on the details of the design of the learning intervention.

We will pilot test the program.

Pilot Test Weeks 5 – 6 Instructor Material Preparation

We will develop the Leader’s Guide, the learner’s quick reference cards, and the program manuals.

15

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Learning at Work

Costs The following table outlines the various components and costs of the Casualty program. (Note that each development day costs $1,500.) TASK

TIME

Needs Assessment Materials Pre-test/Post-test Pilot Testing Refine Materials

5 days 5 days 2 days 1 day 4 days

TOTAL DEVELOPMENT COSTS

COST $ $ $ $ $

7,500 7,500 3,000 1,500 6,000

$

25,500

Delivery Costs The table that follows details the implementation costs for delivering a one-week program at four locations. Because participants are located in different geographic areas, the program will be delivered as follows: •

There will be a total of 200 Casualty participants in four United States locations: New York, San Francisco, Chicago, and Atlanta (approximately fifty participants at each location). Therefore, four trainers (one for each location) will hold two three-hour sessions per day for five days, with approximately ten participants in each class.

We offer two options for the delivery of the program: •

Option 1: Program delivery at our office in each one of E.C.’s targeted locations.

•

Option 2: Program delivery at E.C. headquarters.

16

403

Appendix A

Projected Implementation Costs for a One-Week Program Delivery Cost: Option 1 Instructors

$250 x 4 trainers = $1,000/hour x 3 hours = $3,000/session x 40 sessions (10 sessions/ trainer)

$

120,000

Materials

$8/person/class/student

$

12,800

Facility Rental

$550/session x 40 sessions

$

22,000

$

154,800

$8 x 200 = $1,600 x 8 classes Total Implementation Cost

Delivery Cost: Option 2 Instructors

$250/hour x 4 trainers = $1,000/hour x 3 hours = $3,000/session x 40 sessions (10 sessions/ trainer)

$

120,000

Materials

$8 x 200 = $1,600 x 8 classes

$

12,800

Room Prep

$100 x 40 sessions

$

4,000

$

136,800

Total Implementation Cost

Total Cost of Program The following table details the total development and delivery costs for a one-week Casualty training program per location.

Total Cost, Option 1 Development Cost Delivery Cost, Option 1

$ $

25,500 154,800

Total, Option 1

$

180,300

Cost per session: Cost per participant:

$180,300 spread over 40 sessions = $4,507.50 $180,300 spread over 200 participants = $901.50

$ $

1,126.88/loc 225.38/loc

$ $

1,014.38/loc 202.88/loc

Total Cost, Option 2 Development Cost Delivery Cost, Option 2

$ $

25,500 136,800

Total, Option 2

$

162,300

Cost per session: Cost per participant:

$162,300 spread over 40 sessions = $4,057.50 $162,300 spread over 200 participants = $811.50

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Learning at Work

Projected Benefits Our ultimate goal is to increase the productivity of your workforce. Let’s assume that your employees are paid an average of $33,000 per year (this is probably low) and spend most of their time on the computer. We estimate that they could achieve an eight-percent savings in time, which translates into $2,640 per employee. If you multiply that number by the number of participants (200), the savings would amount to $528,000 per year. This amount is much higher than both delivery options combined. E.C.’s Return on Investment would be as follows: ROI =

Projected Lifetime Benefits minus Projected Lifetime Costs Projected Lifetime Costs

ROI =

$528,000 minus $180,300 $180,300

= 1.93 x 100 = 193% Return on Investment

ROI =

$528,000 minus $162,300 $162,300

= 2.25 x 100 = 225% Return on Investment

Capabilities of the Learning Providers We are a learning services firm serving the following industries: finance, healthcare, telecommunications, and insurance. We are headquartered in New York City, with branches in Chicago, San Francisco, Atlanta, Boston, and London. We employ over 100 workplace learning professionals. Our designers and instructors are highly skilled and all have undergone a rigorous in-house certification process. Each of our professionals has a background in adult learning; many hold advanced degrees and/or technical qualifications.

18

405

Appendix A

We can provide you with the following: •

Vendor-independent instruction that is objective and unbiased.

•

Knowledgeable instructors who are vendor-certified and who possess realworld product experience.

•

Small class sizes and increased participant-instructor interaction.

•

Curriculum that incorporates various media for the most-effective learning experiences.

•

Hands-on/interactive activities for increased learning efficiency.

•

An up-to-date learning environment, with 15 networked computers at our own facilities.

•

Morning and afternoon refreshment breaks, and lunch.

•

A favorable and positive return on your training investment.

19

Appendix B Short Training Proposal

Proposal for OBD Performax Training Submitted to

OBD Management Team

Phillip Elwood, Jr. Director, Learning and Performance Department OBD, Inc. (xxx) 888-4455 [email protected]

407

408

Learning at Work

Background OBD, Inc. is in the process of introducing to each of our 320 employees a newly crafted performance management approach we call “OBD Performax.” OBD employees must learn to use this tool. To this end, our Learning and Performance Department has formed an alliance with our Human Resource Department to ensure that all of our employees have the skills they will need to use Performax to its maximum benefit.

Current Need To date, several key decisions have been made: •

The target population has been identified.

•

The program goals and objectives have been defined.

•

Program requirements and constraints have been set.

•

An OBD Performax Model has been developed. The components of the model will drive the design of the program (i.e., a module will be designed around each major component of the model, eight in total).

•

Objectives and learning points for each module have been identified and described.

•

Content for each module has been established.

•

Methods and time frames for three modules have been drafted.

Because of the scope of the project and the tight deadline for its implementation, we want to begin immediately to create an annotated outline and design program materials that will support and build upon the work that has already been done.

Appendix B

409

We anticipate that the content of the Peformax Training Program can be delivered over three days: Day 1 Module I: Introduction/Overview Module II: The OBD Performax Approach Module III: Establishing Performance Expectations Day 2 Module IV: Monitoring and Supporting Module V: Conducting Performance Appraisals Module VI: Recognitions and Rewards Day 3 Module VII: Development Planning Module VIII: Making Career Decisions •

A design document (annotated outline) will be created for each day.

•

Decisions already made regarding program content and flow will guide the design process.

•

Much of the program content exists as parts of the other programs. Whenever possible, existing content will be modified for this use.

•

Materials for each day will be consistent in style, depth, and layout.

•

Program content and materials will be designed to reflect the overall vision.

•

Exercises will draw upon participants’ own work experiences.

•

Materials will be revised, if necessary, after the pilot program for each day.

410

Learning at Work

Target Dates The following target dates have been set for each stage of the project:

Design meeting Annotated outline Prework Materials review Final materials ready Pilot program

Day 1

Day 2

Day 3

3/11 3/18 4/1 4/8 4/15 4/25–26

4/1 5/30 6/30 7/8 7/15 7/25–26

7/1 8/31 9/15 9/22 9/30 10/15

Costs and Additional Considerations We recommend that we either create a leader’s guide for the program in-house or have a consultant prepare one. A leader’s guide is especially important as we roll the program out to our regional learning centers. We must be sure that the staff at each center has sufficient guidance and support to run the program successfully. Because of the number of staff members required to design and implement the program, its company-wide scope, and its strategic importance, we anticipate costs to be in the $320,000 range. This translates to $1,000 per employee.

Appendix C Selected Workplace Learning-Related Resources American Association for Adult and Continuing Education 10111 Martin Luther King, Jr. Highway, Suite 200C Bowie, Maryland 20720 (301) 459-6261 (301) 459-6241 (fax) www.aaace.org American Educational Research Association Special Interest Group (SIG) Workplace Learning 1230 17th Street NW Washington, D.C. 20036 (202) 223-9485 (202) 775-1824 fax www.aera.net American Society for Training and Development (ASTD) 1640 King Street, Box 1443 Alexandria, Virginia 22313-2043 (703) 683-8100 (800) 628-2783 (domestic) (703) 683-8103 (fax) www.astd.org Association for Educational Communications and Technology (AECT) 1800 N. Stonelake Drive, Suite 2 Bloomington, Indiana 47404 (877) 677-AECT (domestic) (812) 335-7675 www.aect.org

411

412

National Business Education Association (NBEA) 1914 Association Drive Reston, Virginia 20191-1596 (703) 860-8300 (703) 620-4483 (fax) www.nbea.org International Society for Performance Improvement 1400 Spring Street, Suite 260 Silver Spring, Maryland 20910 (301) 587-8570 (301) 587-8573 (fax) www.ispi.org Organizational Systems Research Association Attention: Donna R. Everett, Executive Director Morehead State University, UPO 2478 Morehead, Kentucky 40351-1689 (606) 783-2718 (606) 783-5025 (fax) [email protected] www.osra.org Society for Human Resource Management 1800 Duke Street Alexandria, Virginia 22314 (800) 283-SHRM (domestic) (703) 548-3440 (703) 535-6490 (fax) (703) 548-6999 (TTY/TDD) www.shrm.org

Learning at Work

Appendix C

413

Selected Publications Please note that those publications marked with an asterisk are currently free to those who meet their occupational criteria. The American Journal of Distance Education Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc. 10 Industrial Avenue Mahwah, New Jersey 07430-2262 (800)-9-BOOKS-9 (201) 258-2200 (201) 236-0072 (fax) www.ajde.com Career Development Quarterly National Career Development Association 305 N. Beech Circle Broken Arrow, Oklahoma 74012 (918) 663-7060 (918) 663-7058 (fax) (866) FOR-NDCA www.ncda.org Education Technology Publications, Inc. 700 East Palisade Avenue Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey 07632 (201)871-4007 Educational Technology Research and Development Association for Educational Communications and Technology 1800 North Stonelake Drive, Suite 2 Bloomington, Indiana 47404 (877) 677-AECT (812) 335-7675 www.aect.org

414

Fast Company 375 Lexington Avenue New York, New York 10017 www.fastcompany.com/magazine Human Resource Development Quarterly Jossey-Bass, Inc. 989 Market Street San Francisco, California 94103-1741 (415) 433-1740 (415) 433-0499 (fax) www.josseybass.com Human Resource Management John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 111 River Street Hoboken, New Jersey 07030 (201) 748-6000 (201) 748-6088 (fax) www.wiley.com Information Technology, Learning, and Performance Journal Organizational Systems Research Association Attention: Donna R. Everett, Executive Director Morehead State University, UPO 2478 Morehead, Kentucky 40351-1689 (606) 783-2718 (606) 783-5025 (fax) [email protected] www.osra.org

Learning at Work

Appendix C

INFO-LINE American Society for Training and Development 1640 King Street, P.O. Box 1443 Alexandria, Virginia 22313-1443 (703) 683-8100 (703) 583-8103 (fax) www.astd.org Learning and Training Innovations (LTI) e-newsletter (781) 239-7510 www.ltinewsline.com *Presentations Magazine 50 S. Ninth Street Minneapolis, Minnesota 55402 (800) 255-2824 (847) 763-9050 (612) 333-6526 (fax) www.presentations.com [email protected] *T.H.E. Journal (Technical Horizons in Education) 17501 East 17th Street, Suite 230 Tustin, California 92780 (714) 730-4011 (818) 730-3739 www.thejournal.com Technology and Learning P.O. Box 5052 Vandalia, Ohio 45377 (800) 607-4410 www.techlearning.com

415

416

TechTrends Association for Educational Communications and Technology 1800 N. Stonelake Drive, Suite 2 Bloomington, Indiana 47404 (877) 677-AECT (812) 335-7675 www.aect.org T & D magazine American Society for Training and Development 1640 King Street, Box 1443 Alexandria, Virginia 22313-2043 (703) 683-8100 (703) 683-8103 (fax) www.astd.org ASTD runs a blog called “Learning Circuits” at http://learningcircuits.blogspot.com *Training Director’s Forum e-net 50 South Ninth Street Minneapolis, Minnesota 55402 (612) 333-0471 (800) 328-4329 (612) 333-6526 www/trainingdirectorsforum.com TRAINING Magazine 770 Broadway New York, New York 10003 (800) 328-4329 (612) 333-6526 (fax) www.trainingmag.com

Learning at Work

About the Authors Bridget N. O’Connor is professor of higher education and business education at The Steinhardt School of Culture, Education, and Human Development, New York University. Her research and writing activities have focused on the effective application of technologies to support a wide range of individual and group processes in the workplace and in postgraduate educational programs. She is co-author of EndUser Information Systems: Implementing Individual and Work Group Technologies, and has been editor of the Information Technology, Learning, and Performance Journal. She has served as president of the Organizational Systems Research Association (OSRA) and as chair of the Special Interest Group Workplace Learning of the American Educational Research Association (AERA), and is on the Advisory Committee of the New York Metropolitan Chapter of ASTD. She has won numerous awards for her teaching and scholarship, including “Professor of the Year” at Steinhardt, the ASTD “LEAP” Award for leadership, excellence, achievement, and performance in the field of workplace learning, and the national John Robert Gregg Award for outstanding contributions to business education. Michael Bronner is professor of business education at The Steinhardt School of Culture, Education, and Human Development, New York University. His research and writing activities center on effective teaching and learning. He is author or co-author of more than 60 publications, articles, and yearbook chapters and speaks widely on issues related to business education. He is a former president of the New York Academy of Public Education and has been president of the Organizational Systems Research Association (OSRA). He served two terms as the national research coordinator for the National Association for Business Teacher Education (NABTE) and two terms on the Eastern Region’s board of the International Society for Business Education (ISBE). He was named “Professor of the Year” at Steinhardt, and was recipient of the ASTD “LEAP” Award for leadership, excellence, achievement, and performance in the field of workplace learning and the national John Robert Gregg Award for outstanding contributions to business education.

417

418

Learning at Work

Chester (Chet) Delaney is an independent consultant and writer with experience in corporate and academic settings. He worked for 24 years in New York’s financial district—eight years at the Federal Reserve Bank, and 16 years with Chase Manhattan. He has been a programmer, systems analyst, programming manager, trainer, and manager in information technology and management development departments. He became the Human Resource generalist for Chase’s Corporate Systems department and the manager of the division that provided HR services for the bank’s decentralized computer population. He twice won the Glass Apple, a performance award within the Systems function at Chase. He is the author of numerous articles and book contributions and was a regular contributor to Data Training Magazine, as well as The Trainers Forum, a bimonthly journal for the Interpersonal Technology Group. He has been an adjunct associate professor at New York University, and is a frequent speaker to professional and community groups on technology, human resources, and educational issues.

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Learning Work: Turning Work and Lifelong Learning Inside Out

Blended Learning: How to Integrate Online and Traditional Learning

Organizational Learning: How Companies and Institutions Manage and Apply Knowledge

Authentic Professional Learning: Making a Difference Through Learning at Work (Professional and Practice-based Learning)

The Manager's Pocket Guide to Organizational Learning

Organizational Cognition and Learning: Building Systems for the Learning Organization

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Tacit Knowledge in Organizational Learning

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Learning Support Systems for Organizational Learning (Series on Innovative Intelligence, Vol. 8)

Stakeholder Power and Organizational Learning in CER

Blended Learning: How To Integrate Online & Traditional Learning

Work, Subjectivity and Learning: Understanding Learning through Working Life

Work and Life Integration Organizational, Cultural, and Individual Perspectives

Social Work: A Companion to Learning

Social Work: A Companion to Learning

Informal Learning in Youth Work

Dynamics of Organizational Change and Learning (Wiley Handbooks in Work & Organizational Psychology)

Learning to Work: Students' Experiences During Work Placements

Gendered Choices: Learning, Work, Identities in Lifelong Learning

Japanese Multinationals Abroad: Individual and Organizational Learning (Japan Business and Economics Series)

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Learning At Work: How to Support Individual and Organizational Learning

Understanding Learning at Work

Organizational Learning and Competitive Advantage

Leading Organizational Learning

Leading Organizational Learning

Demystifying Organizational Learning

Learning Work: Turning Work and Lifelong Learning Inside Out

Blended Learning: How to Integrate Online and Traditional Learning

Organizational Learning: How Companies and Institutions Manage and Apply Knowledge

Authentic Professional Learning: Making a Difference Through Learning at Work (Professional and Practice-based Learning)

The Manager's Pocket Guide to Organizational Learning

Organizational Cognition and Learning: Building Systems for the Learning Organization

Work-Related Learning

Tacit Knowledge in Organizational Learning

Tacit Knowledge in Organizational Learning

Learning Support Systems for Organizational Learning (Series on Innovative Intelligence, Vol. 8)

Stakeholder Power and Organizational Learning in CER

Blended Learning: How To Integrate Online & Traditional Learning

Work, Subjectivity and Learning: Understanding Learning through Working Life

Work and Life Integration Organizational, Cultural, and Individual Perspectives

Social Work: A Companion to Learning

Social Work: A Companion to Learning

Informal Learning in Youth Work

Dynamics of Organizational Change and Learning (Wiley Handbooks in Work & Organizational Psychology)

Learning to Work: Students' Experiences During Work Placements

Gendered Choices: Learning, Work, Identities in Lifelong Learning

Japanese Multinationals Abroad: Individual and Organizational Learning (Japan Business and Economics Series)

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