Jewish Identities in Iran: Resistance and Conversion to Islam and the Baha'i Faith

Mehrdad Amanat is an independent scholar with a PhD in History from UCLA. He is a regular contributor to the Encyclopaedia Iranica.

Amanat_Identities_FM_x.indd 1

3/11/11 10:59:08 AM

P1: PHB

Trim: 138mm × 216mm

IBBK042-01

IBBK042-Serieslist-Demis

Top: 1in

Gutter: 1in

ISBN: 978 1 84885 244 0

August 20, 2010

LIBRARY OF MODERN RELIGION Series ISBN: 978 1 84885 244 0 See www.ibtauris.com/LMR for a full list of titles 6. Dying for Faith: Religiously Motivated Violence in the Contemporary World Madawi Al-Rasheed and Marat Shterin (Eds)

12. Lonesome: The Spiritual Meanings of American Solitude Kevin Lewis 978 1 84885 075 0

13. A Short History of Atheism Gavin Hyman

978 1 84511 686 6

7. The Hindu Erotic: Exploring Hinduism and Sexuality David Smith

978 1 84885 136 8

14. Perceptions of Islam in Europe: Culture, Identity and the Muslim ‘Other’ Hakan Yilmaz and C¸agla E. Aykac¸ (Eds)

978 1 84511 361 2

8. The Power of Tantra: Religion, Sexuality and the Politics of South Asian Studies Hugh B. Urban

978 1 84885 164 1

15. Summoning the Spirits: Possession and Invocation in Contemporary Religion Andrew Dawson (Ed)

978 1 84511 873 0

9. Jewish Identities in Iran: Resistance and Conversion to Islam and the Baha’i Faith Mehrdad Amanat

978 1 84885 161 0

16. Shamanism: The Western Quest for an Esoteric Spirituality Charlotte E Hardman

978 1 84511 891 4

10. Islamic Reform and Conservatism: Al-Azhar and the Evolution of Modern Sunni Islam Indira Falk Gesink

978 1 84885 398 0

17. The Yezidis: The History of a Community, Culture and Religion Birg¨ul Ac¸ikyildiz

978 1 84511 936 2

11. Muslim Women’s Rituals: Authority and Gender in the Islamic World Catharina Raudvere and Margaret Rausch

978 1 84885 274 7

18. Religion and Popular Music in Europe: New Expressions of Sacred and Secular Identity Thomas Bossius, Andreas H¨ager and Keith Kahn-Harris (Eds)

978 1 84511 643 9

978 1 84885 809 1

ii

19:25

JEWISH IDENTITIES IN IRAN Resistance and Conversion to Islam and the Baha’i Faith MEHRDAD AMANAT

Amanat_Identities_FM_x.indd 3

3/11/11 10:59:10 AM

Published in 2011 by I.B.Tauris & Co Ltd 6 Salem Road, London W2 4BU 175 Fifth Avenue, New York NY 10010 www.ibtauris.com Distributed in the United States and Canada Exclusively by Palgrave Macmillan 175 Fifth Avenue, New York NY 10010 Copyright © 2011 Mehrdad Amanat The right of Mehrdad Amanat \WJMQLMV\QÅMLI[\PMI]\PWZWN \PQ[_WZSPI[JMMV asserted by the author in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patent Act 1988. All rights reserved. Except for brief quotations in a review, this book, or any part thereof, may not be reproduced, stored in or introduced into a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the publisher. Library of Modern Religion 9 ISBN 978 1 84511 891 4 A full CIP record for this book is available from the British Library A full CIP record for this book is available from the Library of Congress Library of Congress catalog card: available Printed and bound in the UK by CPI Antony Rowe, Chippenham Camera-ready copy edited and supplied by the author

Amanat_Identities_FM_x.indd 4

3/11/11 10:59:10 AM

To the Memory of Mousa Amanat

Amanat_Identities_FM_x.indd 5

3/11/11 10:59:10 AM

Amanat_Identities_FM_x.indd 6

3/11/11 10:59:10 AM

CONTENTS

Foreword

ix

Introduction

1

1. The Jewish Presence in Pre-Islamic and Medieval Iran

17

2. Jewish Conversions in the Safavid and Early Qajar Periods

37

3. Emergence of the Baha’i Alternative

61

4. New Forms of Conversion

77

5. Uncertainty and Conviction: Early Examples of Conversion

95

6. Rayhan Rayhani: A Peddler Living Through Critical Times

119

7. Aqajan Shakeri: Miseries of a Jewish Life

147

8. The Hafez al-Sehheh Family: Privileges and Perils of Conversion

173

Epilogue

207

Notes

211

Bibliography

259

Index

273

Amanat_Identities_FM_x.indd 7

3/11/11 10:59:10 AM

Amanat_Identities_FM_x.indd 8

3/11/11 10:59:10 AM

FOREWORD

T

his book is an attempt to examine the roots of conversion to Islam and the Baha’i faith among Iran’s Jews during the past two centuries, and the related question of the changing nature of religious identity during this period. Despite its continuing relevance, conversion is marked with shame and its mention is even considered “impolite” among both converts and the loyal faithful. Converts generally wish to present a homogeneous community free of past differences, while defenders of tradition see conversion as apostasy and a betrayal of age-old traditions which causes harm to their ancestral faith. Losing members to a new religion carries a negative weight and shaming nonconformists is a potent means of protecting conventions. MZVIK]TIZ+W[UWXWTQ\IVQ[Uº Text and Nation: Cross-Disciplinary Essays on Cultural and National Identities, Laura Garcia-Moreno and Peter C. Pfeiffer, eds. (Columbia, SC, 1996) pp. 191–207 and idem., “Unpacking my library…again,” in The Post-colonial Question: Common Skies, Divided Horizons, Iain Chambers, Lidia Curti, eds. (New York, 1996) p. 210. 35 For a case of nominal conversion to protect family assets, see the account of the Nur-Mahmud family in Chapter 5. 36 One indication of tensions between Jews and Mashhad’s Jewish nominalconverts who later reverted to Judaism is the fact that the latter still do not intermarry with Jews from other communities, even when they live outside of Mashhad. See Raphael Patai, Jadid al-Islam, p. 104. 37 For a letter by ‘Abdu’l-Baha warning the Baha’is against racial prejudice among Baha’is, see Eshraq-Khavari, Ma’edeh-ye Asmani, vol. 3, p. 96.   .WZIVW\PMZM`IUXTMWN KWV^MZ[QWV\W1[TIUQV^WT^QVOIÅVIVKQITLQ[X]\M

Amanat_Identities_Notes_X.indd 21

3/11/11 11:32:34 AM

232

NOTES TO PAGES 91–93

and leading in turn to a Baha’i conversion, see ‘Ata’ullah Eqrari, Panjah va haft bahar (Los Angeles, 2004) p. 22. 39 Shofet, Khaterat, pp. 62–104. 40 The famous Mongol statesman, physician, and historian Rashid al-Din Fazlullah, was killed on the order of the monarch in 1318. Several decades later, his body was exhumed, burned and reburied in the Jewish cemetery (see Chapter 1). 41 ‘Abbas Amir-Entezam, An su-ye etteham, vol. 2 (Tehran, 2002) p. 423. Kayhan (daily paper), Nimeh-ye penhan, sima-ye kargozaran-e farhang va siyasat (Tehran, 1378 SH [1999]), vol. 4. I am grateful to Dr. Jalal Jalali for bringing these sources to my attention. For a discussion of this relatively new obsession with ÅVLQVOI2M_Q[PVM_5][TQUMVMUaWN 1[TIUWVM¼[XWTQ\QKITWXXWVMV\[WZ KWUXM\Q\WZ[IVLIZMTMV\TM[[TaOZW_QVOTQ[\WN ¹IKK][MLºWNÅKQIT[[MM5MPZdad Amanat, “Set in Stone: Religious Ambiguity and Postmortem Identity in Iran” (forthcoming). 42 Rayhani Memoirs, p. 214.  MZVIK]TIZ+W[UWXWTQ\IVQ[U1VText and Nation: Cross-Disciplinary Essays on Cultural and National Identities. Ed. Laura GarciaMoreno and Peter C. Pfeiffer. Columbia, SC, 1996. *PIZI\Q)OMPIVIVLI*IPI¼Q;\I\Q[\QK[IVL;MTN,MÅVQVO,M[QOVJournal for the ;KQMV\QÅK;\]LaWN :MTQOQWV 7/2 (1968). Bird, Isabella L. Journeys in Persia and Kurdistan, 2 vols. London, 1891. Boyce, Mary. History of Zoroastrianism, vol. 3. Leiden, 1991. –——. Zoroastrianism: A Shadowy But Powerful Presence in the Judaeo-Christian World. London, 1987. Boyle, J. A. Dynastic and Political History of the Ilkhans. In Cambridge History of Iran, vol. 5. Ed. J. A. Boyle. Cambridge, 1968. Bozorgmehr, Mehdi, et al. Beyond Nationality: Religio-ethnic Diversity. In Irangeles: Iranians in Los Angeles. Ed. Ron Kelley. Los Angeles, 1993. Brower, Abraham J. Avak darakhim (Dust of roads). Tel Aviv, 1944–46. –——. Mi-Parashat Mas‘otay be-Paras. Jerusalem, 1937–38. Browne, Edward Granville. Materials for the Study of the Babi Religion. Cambridge, 1918. Reprint, 1961. –——. The Persian Revolution of 1905–1909. Cambridge, 1910. –——. The Press and Poetry of Modern Persia. Cambridge, 1914. Reprint, Los Angeles, 1983 Bulliet, Richard W. Conversion to Islam in the Medieval Period: An Essay in Quantitative History. Cambridge, MA, 1979. –——. Conversion Stories in Early Islam. In Conversion and Continuity: Indigenous Christian Communities in Islamic Lands, Eighth to Eighteenth Centuries. Papers in Medieval Studies 9. Ed. Michael Gervers and Ramzi Jibran Bikhazi. Toronto, 1990. Cahen, Claude. Tribes, Cities and Social Organization. In Cambridge History of Iran, vol. 4. Ed. R. N. Frye. Cambridge, 1975. +I\WV 5IZOIZM\ 4 *IPI¼Q 1VÆ]MVKM[ WV 5QZbI »)JL]¼TTIP 9IRIZ +W]Z\ Musician and Master of the Radif. In From Iran East and West, Studies in Babi and Baha’i History, vol. 3. Ed. Moojan Momen. Los Angeles, 1984. +PMPIJQ0-)VI\WUaWN 8ZMR]LQKM":MÆMK\QWV[WV;MK]TIZ)V\Q*IPI¼Q[U in Iran. In Baha’is of Iran: Socio-historical Studies. Ed. Dominic Parviz Brookshaw and Seena B. Fazel. London and New York, 2008. Churchill, George Percy. Farhang-e Rejal-e Qajar. Trans. Gholam Hosein Mirza Saleh. Tehran, 1990. Originally published as Biographical Notices of Persian Statesmen and Notables August 1905 (London, 1906).

Amanat_Identities_Biblio_Index_x5 5

3/14/11 6:28:30 PM

BIBLIOGRAPHY

263

Cohen, A. Qol Qara va-Elekh. Tel Aviv, 2000. Cohen, Hayyim J. The Jews of the Middle East: 1860–1972. New York and Jerusalem, 1973. Cohen, Yousef. Gozaresh va khaterat: Fa‘aliyyatha-ye siasi va ejetma‘i. Los Angeles, 1995. Cohn, Norman. Cosmos, Chaos and the World to Come: The Ancient Roots of Apocalyptic Faith. New Haven, 1993. +WTM2]IV:1*IPI¼]¼TTIPIVL\PM6IY[PJIVLQ;]Å[QV1ZIY · 1V From Iran East and West. Ed. Moojan Momen. Los Angeles, 1984. –——. The Concept of Manifestation in the Bahá’i Writings. Baha’i Studies 9. Ottawa, 1982. Also available at http://www-personal.umich.edu/~jrcole/ bhmanif.htm. –——. Modernity and the Millennium: The Genesis of the Baha’i Faith in the Nineteenthcentury Middle East. New York, 1998. –——. The Provincial Politics of Heresy and Reform in Qajar Iran: Shaykh al-Rais in Shiraz, 1895–1902. Comparative Studies of South Asia, Africa and the Middle East 22/1–2 (2002 [2003]). –——. Religious Dissidence and Urban Leadership: Baha’is in Qajar Iran. Journal of the British Institute of Persian Studies 37 (1999). Conolly, Arthur. Journey to the North of India: Overland from England, through Russia, Persia, and Affghaunistaun, 2 vols. London, 1838. Curzon, George N. Persia and the Persian Question. London, 1892. Ehteshami, Nurullah (?). Sharh-e ahval-e marhum hazrat-e Hajji Mirza ‘Abdal Rahim Khan-e Hafez al-sehheh. Photocopy of autograph manuscript, 20 pp. (incomplete?), n.d., MAP. Ekhvan al-Safa, Mirza Mehdi. Khaterat. Manuscript, n.d., MAP. Elwell-Sutton, L. P., ed. Bibliographical Guide to Iran. Suffolk, 1983. –——. Review of Balyuzi, ‘Abdu’l-Baha, 1971. Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society (1973). The Encyclopaedia of Islam (EI2). New ed., Leiden and London, 1960–. Encyclopaedia Judaica (EJ). Jerusalem and New York, 1971–72. 2nd ed., Detroit, 2007. Eqbal, ‘Abbas. Tarikh-e Moghol. 3rd ed., Tehran, 1347 SH (1968). Rev. ed., Tehran, 1997. Eqrari, Ata‘ullah. Panjah va haft bahar. Los Angeles, 2004. Eshraq-Khavari, ‘Abd ul-Hamid. Ganjineh-ye hodud va ahkam. Reprint, New Delhi, 1980. –——. Ma’edeh-ye Asmani. Reprint, 9 vols. in 3, New Delhi, 1984. –——. Tarikh-e Hamadan. Hofheim, 2004 Esslemont, J. E. Bahá’u’lláh and the New Era. London,1923. Estepanian, Arman, ed. Aqa Reza ‘Akkasbashi. Tehran, 2007. E‘temad al-Saltaneh, Mohammad Hasan Khan. Matla‘ al-shams, 3 vols. Tehran, 1884–86. Reprint, 3 vols. in 2, Tehran, 1983.

Amanat_Identities_Biblio_Index_x6 6

3/14/11 6:28:30 PM

264

JEWISH IDENTITIES IN IRAN

–——. Ruznameh-ye khaterat-e E‘temad al-Saltaneh. Ed. Iraj Afshar. Tehran, 1966. Farahvashi, Muhammad ‘Ali. Introduction. In Dinha-ye Asiya’i (?), n.p., n.d., Persian translation of Comte Joseph de Gobineau, Les Religions et philosophies dans l’asie centrale (Paris, 1865), by M. F. Farid al-Molk Hamadani, Mohammad ‘Ali Khan. Khaterat-e Farid. Tehran, 1354 SH (1975/6). Farivar, Mashalah. Hadis-e yek farhang. Ed. Goel Cohen. Los Angeles, 2007. Fazel Mazandarani, Asadullah. Amr va khalq, vol. 3. Reprint, Langenhain, 1986. –——. Asrar ul-asar, 3 vols. Tehran, 1973. –——. Tarikh-e zohur ul-haqq, vols. 1–2, 4–7, 9. http://www.h-net.msu.edu/ ~bahai/index/diglib/mazand1.htm. –——. Tarikh-e zohur ul-haqq, vol. 3. Tehran, n.d. (1323 SH [1944] [?]). Reprint, Hofheim, 2008. –——. Tarikh-e zohur ul-haqq, vol. 8. Tehran, 1976. Ferraby, John. All Things Made New: A Comparative Outline of the Baha’i Faith. London, 1957. Ferrier, Joseph Pierre. Caravan Journeys and Wanderings in Persia, Afghanistan, Turkistan, and Beloochistan. London, 1857. Reprint, Karachi, 1976. Fischel, Walter J. The Baha’i Movement and Persian Jewry. Jewish Review 7 (December–March 1934). –——. Jews in the Economic and Political Life of Mediaeval Islam. London, 1937. –——. The Jews of Persia, 1795–1940. Jewish Social Studies 12/2 (April 1950). –——. Secret Jews of Persia. Commentary 7 (1949). Fischer, Michael M. J., and Mehdi Abedi. Debating Muslims: Cultural Dialogues in Postmodernity and Tradition. Madison, 1990. Foltz, Richard C. Spirituality in the Land of the Noble: How Iran Shaped the World’s Religions. Oxford, 2004. Fragner, Bert G. Khaterat nevisi Iranian. Trans. Majid Jalilvand Reza’i. Tehran, 1377 SH (1998). Originally published as Persische Memoirenliteratur als Quelle zur neueren Geschichte Irans (Wiesbaden, 1979). Fraser, James Baillie. A Winter’s Journey from Constantinople to Tehran. London, 1838. Frye, R. N. Iran und Israel. In Festschrift für Wilhelm Eilers. Wiesbaden, 1967. Gail, Marzieh. Arches of the Years. Oxford, 1991. –——. Summon Up Remembrance. Oxford, 1987. Garcia-Arenal, Mercedes. Jewish Converts to Islam in the Muslim West. In Dhimmis and Others: Jews and Christians and the World of Classical Islam. Israel Oriental Studies 17. Ed. Uri Rubin and David J. Wasserstein. Tel Aviv, 1997. Garcia-Arenal, Mercedes, and Gerard Wiegers. A Man of Three Worlds: Samuel

Amanat_Identities_Biblio_Index_x7 7

3/14/11 6:28:30 PM

BIBLIOGRAPHY

265

Pallache, a Moroccan Jew in Catholic and Protestant Europe. Trans. Martin Beagles. Baltimore and London, 2003. Garlington, William. The Baha’i Faith in America. Westport, CT, 2005. Garsoian, Nina. The Aršakuni Dynasty. In The Armenian People from Ancient to Modern Times, vol. 1. Ed. Richard G. Hovannisian. New York, 1997. Ghaffari, Muhammad ‘Ali. Khaterat va asnad-e Muhammad ‘Ali Ghaffari (Tarikh-e Ghaffari). Ed. Mansureh Etehadiyyeh. Tehran, 1361 SH (1982/3). Gidney, William Thomas. The History of the London Society for Promoting Christianity Amongst the Jews. London, 1908. Gobineau, Comte Joseph de. Les Religions et philosophies dans l’asie centrale. Paris, 1865. Goitein, S. D. A Mediterranean Society: The Jewish Communities of the Arab World as Portrayed in the Documents of the Cairo Geniza. Berkeley, 1967–88. Golpaygani, Abul-Faza’el. Dala’il al-Bahiyya. Cairo, 1898. –——. Kashf ul-gheta’. Tashkent, 1919 (?). Hafezi, Yuhanna Khan. Tarikh-e zendegani-ye Haj Yuhanna Khan Hafezi (Hafez ul-Sehheh). Photocopy of typed manuscript, 1950–61 (?), MAP. Al-Hakim, Mohsen al-Tabatab’i. Mustamsak al-‘urwat al-wuthqa, vol. 1. Qom, 1404 SH (1983/4). Hakimian, Hassan. Wage Labor and Migration: Persian Workers in Southern Russia, 1880–1914. International Journal of Middle East Studies 17/4 (November 1985). Hakim-Samandari, Christine. Les Baha’is ou victoire sur la violence. Paris, 1982. Hatcher, William S., and J. Douglas Martin. The Baha’i Faith: The Emerging Global Religion. San Francisco, 1984. Hawkes, James. Qamus-i kitab-i muqaddas. Beirut, 1928. Reprint, Tehran, 1998. –——. Religious Conditions in Hamadan Field. The Church at Home and Abroad 16 (1894). Hedayat, Mokhber al-Saltaneh Mehdi Qoli. Khaterat va khatarat. Tehran, 1965. Hedayat, Reza Qoli Khan-e. Tarikh-e rowzat al-safa-ye Naseri. 3rd ed., Tehran and Qom, 1959/60. Hekmat, ‘Ali-Asghar. Rahamuz-e hekmat. Tehran, 2003. Honarfar, L. Ganjineh-ye asar-e tarikhi-ye Isfahan. 2nd ed., Tehran, 1971. Huddleston, John. The Earth Is But One Country. London, 1976. Ibn-e Asdaq, Mirza ‘Ali-Muhammad. Payk-e rastan-L>IPQL:INI\Q,IZUstadt, 2005. Ioannesyan, Youli A. Baron Victor Rosen and the Baha’i Faith. Studies in the Babi and Baha’i Religions 23. Forthcoming. Irani, K. D. The Conceptual Basis for the Interaction between the Ancient Traditions of the Jews and the Iranians. Irano-Judaica 3 (1994). Irshai, Oded. Dating the Eschation: Jewish and Christian Apocalyptic Cal-

Amanat_Identities_Biblio_Index_x8 8

3/14/11 6:28:31 PM

266

JEWISH IDENTITIES IN IRAN

culations in Late Antiquity. In Apocalyptic Time. Ed. Albert I. Baumgarten. Leiden, 2000. Isfahani, Mirza Haydar ‘Ali. Behjat al-sodur. Bombay, 1331 SH (1913). Also published in abridged English translation by A. Q. Faizi as Stories from the Delights of Hearts (Los Angeles, 1980). Issawi, Charles, ed. The Economic History of Iran, 1800–1914. Chicago, 1971. Jazzab, Mirza ‘Azizullah. Tafsil-e fowz beh iman hazrat-e abawi (known as Khaterat-e Jazzab). Photocopy of manuscript, n.d., MAP. Kashani, Khavari. Ketab-e Mahmud. Tehran, 1329 SH (1911). Kasravi, Ahmad. Baha’igari. Tehran, 1956. –——. Zendegani-ye man. Tehran, 1323 SH (1944). Kayhan (publisher of the daily paper). Nimeh-ye penhan, sima-ye karkozaran-e farhang va siyasat, vol. 4. Tehran, 1378 SH (1999). Keddie, Nikki R. Modern Iran: Roots and Results of Revolution. New Haven, 2003. –——. Religion and Irreligion. In Iran, Religion, Politics and Society: Collected Essays. Ed. Nikki R. Keddie. London, 1980. –——. Sayyid Jamal ad-Din “al-Afghani”: A Political Biography. Berkeley, 1972. Kedourie, Elie, and H. D. S. The Jews of Baghdad in 1910. Middle Eastern Studies 7/3 (October 1971). 3MMV 2IUM[ 2 *IPI¼Q ?WZTL .IQ\P" :MLMÅVQ\QWV WN  :MTQOQWV Journal for the ;KQMV\QÅK;\]LaWN :MTQOQWV 6/2 (1967). Kermani, Aqakhan. Seh maktub. Reprint, n.p., 1991. Kermanshahchi, Heshmatullah. Tahavvolat-e ejtemai-ye yahudiyan-e Iran dar qarn-e bistom. Los Angeles, 2007. Khakshuri, R. S. Yahoudiyan-e Urumiyeh. In Yahoudiyan-e Irani da tarikh-e mo‘aser, vol. 4. Ed. Homa Sarshar et al. Beverly Hills, 2000. Khaleqi, Golnush. Pasokh-e khanevadeh-ye Ruhullah Khaleqi beh maqaleh-ye vahi va takhribi-ye tohmat-e baha’igari. Honar-e Musiqi 9/78 (January–February 2007). Khaleqi, Ruhullah. Sargozasht-e musiqi-ye Iran. Tehran, 1335 SH (1956). Khalili, Elyeh. Yahudiyan-e Kurd-e Iran. Los Angeles, 2004. 3PI^IZQ3I[PIVQ;IaaML)PUIL.ISPZIT>I»MbQVKetab-e Mahmud. Tehran, 1329 SH (1911). Khurasani al-Qa’eni, Muhammad-Baqir. Tarikh-i i‘brat-ee leman i’tabara: Dar vaqay‘e-e 1315 Hijri dar Hamadan. Tehran, 1946. Labaree, Benjamin. Conversion of a Persian Jew. The Gospel in All Lands 3 (January–June 1881), pp. 175–176. Lambton, Ann K. S. Qajar Persia: Eleven Studies. Reprint, Austin, 1988. Lee, Anthony A. Choice Wine: The Kitab-i Aqdas and the Development of Baha’i Law. http://www.bahai-library.org/conferences/wine.html, n.d.

Amanat_Identities_Biblio_Index_x9 9

3/14/11 6:28:31 PM

BIBLIOGRAPHY

267

Lenowitz, Harris. The Jewish Messiahs: From the Galilee to Crown Heights. Oxford, 1998. Levy, Azaria. The Jews of Mashhad. Jerusalem, 1998. Levy, Habib. Khaterat-e man. Los Angeles, 2002. –——. Tarikh-e Yahud-e Iran, 3 vols. Tehran, 1334 SH (1956). Reprint in 2 vols., Los Angeles, 1984. Levy, Nissim. Letter to the President. Tehran, November 27, 1901. Archives of the Alliance Israélite Universelle, Paris. Lewis, Bernard. The Jews of Islam. Princeton, 1984. Loeb, Laurence D. The Jewish Musician and the Music of Fars. Asian Music 4 (1972). Ma‘ani, Baharieh Rouhani. The Interdependence of Baha’i Communities: Services of North American Baha’i Women to Iran. Journal of Baha’i Studies 4/1 (March–June 1991). MacEoin, D. M. From Shaykhism to Babism: A Study in Charismatic Renewal in Shi‘i Islam. Ph.D. dissertation, Cambridge University, 1979. –——. The Messiah of Shiraz: Studies in Early and Middle Babism. Leiden, 2009. Mahdavi, Mo‘ez al-Din. Dastanha’i az panjah sal. Tehran, 1969. Malmiri, Mohammad Taher. Tarikh-e shohad-ye Yazd, 2 vols. Cairo, 1922. Ma‘sum ‘Ali Shah, Muhammad Ma‘sum Shirazi. Tarae’q al-Haqae’q. Tehran, n.d. Matin, Afshin. Both Eastern and Western: The Construction of Modern Iran’s National and Islamic Identities. Forthcoming. Matthee, Rudolph P. Merchants in Safavid Iran: Participants and Perceptions. Journal of Early Modern History 3–4 (1999–2000). –——. The Politics of Trade in Safavid Iran: Silk for Silver, 1600–1730. Cambridge, 1999. Mehrabkhani, Ruhullah. Sharh-e ahval-e jenab-e Mirza Abulfazl Golpaygani. Tehran, 1975. Misaqiyyeh, ‘Abd ul-Misaq. Kholaseh-i az khaterat-e jenab-e Misaqiyyeh va nemuneh-i az nikugariha-ye ishan. Photocopy of manuscript edited and transcribed by Muhammad ‘Ali Fayzi, 199 pp., Tehran, 1977, MAP. Modarres, ‘Abd al-Rahman. Tarikh-e ulama-ye Khorasan. Mashhad, 1962. Modarres, Fathullah. Tarikh-e amr-e Baha’i dar Najaf-abad. Darmstadt, 2004. Mo’men Hoseini. Tohfeh-ye hakim-e mo’men. N.p., 1670. Momen, Moojan. The Bahá’í Faith 1957–1988: A Survey of Contemporary Developments. Religion 19 (January 1989). –——. Early Relations between Christian Missionaries and the Babi and Baha’i Communities. In Studies in Babi and Baha’i History. Ed. Moojan Momen. Los Angeles, 1982. –——. A Short Introduction to the Bahá’í Faith. Oxford, 1997. –——. The Social Bases of the Babi Upheavals in Iran (1843–53): A Preliminary Analysis. International Journal of Middle East Studies 14 (1983).

Amanat_Identities_Biblio_Index_x10 10

3/14/11 6:28:31 PM

268

JEWISH IDENTITIES IN IRAN

Montazeri, Ayatollah. Khaterat-e Ayatollah Hosein-‘Ali Montazeri. Los Angeles, 2001. Moradinia, Mohammad Javad, ed. Khaterat-e Ayatollah Pasandideh. Tehran, 1997. 5WZMMV>MZI*I[KPIranian Jewry’s Hour of Peril and Heroism: A Study of Babai ibn Lutf ’s Chronicle, 1617–1662. New York, 1987. –——. The “Iranization” of Biblical Heroes in Judeo-Persian Epics: Shahin’s Ardashir-Namah and Ezra Nameh. Iranian Studies 29/3–4 (1996). 5WZMMV>MZI*I[KP\ZIV[In Queen Esther’s Garden: An Anthology of Judeo-Persian Literature. New Haven, 2000. Moshar, Khanbaba. Fehrest-e Ketabha-ye Chappi-ye Farsi. Tehran, 1973. Mudaress, ‘Abd al-Rahman. Tarikh-e ulama-ye Khorasan. Mashhad, 1962. 6IÅ[a;I¼QL Babak khurram-din, delavar-e Azarbayja. Tehran, 1342 SH (1963). 6IRIÅ5WPIUUIL*IYMZBahaiyan. Tehran, 1979. Najm-e bakhtar = Star of the West 2/4 (May 1911). Naraqi, Hasan. Kashan dar jonbesh-e mashruteh-ye Iran. Tehran, 2535 (1976/7). –——. Tarikh-e ejtema‘i-ye Kashan. Tehran, 1345 SH (1967). –——. Zendegi nameh-ye Khavari-ye Kashani. Tehran, 1977. Nateq, Homa. Tarikhcheh-ye Alians-e esra’ili dar Iran. In Yahudian-e Irani dar tarikh-e mo‘aser, vol. 2. Los Angeles, 1997. Nateq-e Isfahani, Mohammad. Tarikh-e amri-ye Kashan va qora’-e tavabe‘. INBA Library, ms no. 2016D, 1309 SH (1930). Nava’i, ‘Abdulhosein, et al., eds. Nayebiyan-e Kashan. Tehran, 2000. Nemoy, Leon. Karaite Anthology: Excerpts from the Early Literature. Yale Judaica Series 7. New Haven, 1952. Netzer, Amnon. Conversion of Jews to the Baha’i Faith. Irano-Judaica 6 (2008). ·¸¸7ZW\IV][M5M[PPMLT¼ÅAI¼IYW^,QTUIVQIVIPQLQIJQTity of a Sociological Interpretation. Irano-Judaica 3 (1994). Wills, C. J. In the Land of the Lion and Sun. London, 1883, 1891. Reprint, Washington, DC, 2004. Wilson, J. Christy. A Persian Apostate: Benjamin Badal. Muslim World 21/3 (1931). Wilson, Robert. The Biblical Roots of the Apocalyptic. In Imagining the End: Visions of Apocalypse from the Ancient Middle East to Modern America. Ed. Abbas Amanat and Magnus Bernhardsson. London, 2002. Wolff, Joseph. Researches and Missionary Labours among the Jews, Mohammedans, and Other Sects. Philadelphia, 1837. Yarshater, Ehsan, ed. Encyclopaedia Iranica (EIr). London and Boston, 1982–. Yerushalaymi, Yazghel. Sharh-e qesmi az Yahudot-e Kashan va sayer-e shahrestanha-ye keshvar-e Iran. Photocopy of manuscript, 1985, MAP. Za‘im, Kurosh. Mardan-e bozorg-e Kashan. Tehran, 1336 SH (1957). Zanjani, Ebrahim. Sargozasht-e zendegani-ye man, khaterat-e shaykh Ebrahim Zanjani. Ed. Gholam-Hosein Mirza-Saleh. Tehran, 2000, 2001. Reprint, Los Angeles, 2009. Zarandi, Shaykh Mohammad Nabil. The Dawn-breakers: Nabil’s Narrative of the Early Days of the Baha’i Revelation. Trans. and ed. Shoghi Effendi. Wilmette, IL, 1932. Zarrabi, ‘Abd ul-Rahim Kalantar. Mer’at ul-Qasan (Tarikh-e Kashan). Ed. Iraj Afshar. Tehran, 1335 SH (1956/7).

Amanat_Identities_Biblio_Index_x15 15

3/14/11 6:28:32 PM

BIBLIOGRAPHY

273

INDEX ‘Abbas, Shah I, 39, 40, 42, 43,48 ‘Abbas, Shah II, 40, 42, 43 ‘Abbas Mirza, 51, 53, 54, 58, 175 ‘Abdu’l-Baha, 65–67, 68, 70, 72, 92, 95, 103, 116, 127, 142, ‘Abdullah, Mirza Farahani, 72 ‘Abdullah, Mulla see Borujerdi, Mulla ‘Abdullah Abu, ‘Isa, 27 Achaemenid Empire, 18 Adamiyat, Fereydun, 10 Ahmad, (Ilkhanid ruller) see Tagdur. ‘Akkasbashi, Aqa Reza, 46 ‘Akkas-bashi, Mirza Ebrahim Khan, 71 Alliance Israélite Universelle, 84, 104, 115, 154, 185, 200, 202, 203 Amin al-Sultan, 197–198 Aminullah Hosayn, 72–73 Amir-Entezam, ‘Abbas, 91 Aqajan, Hakim 97, 106, 108–110, 123–124, 177,178, 179 Arab invasion of, 25–26 Arak, 9; Baha’is of, 137; countryside, 156,165; rebels of, 128–131; trade in, 83, 85, 130; conversion in, 85 Aran, 134, 136, 139 Arj Industries, 117 Arjomand, Mirza Khalil ‘Aqiba, 97, 99–100, 123,131, 134–135 Arjmand, Khalil (Grandson of Mirza Khalil), 117

Amanat_Identities_Biblio_Index_x16 16

Arjomand, Mirza Mehdi, 14, 102, 111, 161, 192 Armenians, 20, 39–40, 43, 49, 53, 78, 107; forced conversions of, 41–42 Artaxerxes II, 18–19 Asef,al-Dowleh, Allahyar Khan 53, 54 Askari, Hedayatullah, 58–59 Askari, Mirza-ye, 53–54, 58 ‘Ata’i, Mirza ‘Ataullah Khan, 71–72; autobiographical accounts, of Aqajan Shakeri, 148–172; of Hafezi family, 173–205; of Rayhan Rayhani, 86, 119–121, 86 Ayyub, Hakim son of Hakim Nur Mahmud 98–101 Azal, Mirza Yahya Nuri, 63 ‘Aziz Mirza (Dallal),186 ‘Azizullah (son of Da’i Rbin),103– 104 ‘Azizi, ‘Azizullah (Eshaq), 103–105 ‘Azizi, Jalal, 117 The Bab Sayyed ‘Ali Mohammad Shirazi, 1, 61–65, 68 Baba Khan, 194–195 Babi movement, 1, 11, 45, 61–66, 73, 78, 95–96, 105, 175–176 Babi Persecutions, 125, 140 Babi women, 84, 105, 179 Babis/Baha’is omitted in historiography, 137, 208–209

3/14/11 6:28:33 PM

274

JEWISH IDENTITIES IN IRAN

Babis of Baghdad, 180 Babylonian Jews, 18, 19 Baghdad/Basra trade, 23, 79, 83, 161, 164 Baha’i cultural language, 86–87 Baha’i faith, appeal of, 12, 85–89; artists and musicians, 71–73; charitable organizations, 70; conversions to, 1, 2–6, 77–78, 85–91, 95–117, 158–159; discrimination against, 209; emergence of, 1, 61–76; expansion in post-constitutional period, 73–76; in Hamadan, 105– 112, 169–170, 174, 200–203; in Iran, 68–76, 66; in Kashan, 124, 136, 138; in Malayer, 164–168, 169; message of, 87–89; multiple identities within, 92–93; music and leisure in, 87, 110,169– 170,188; opposition to, 10, 75–76, 89, 133–134, 139–140, 209; organization of, 69–70 see also below Spiritual Assemblies; under Pahlavis, 208–209; persecutions of, 3–4, 89–91, 125, 133–136, 139–142, 143; political non-participation doctrine, 67; schools, 69–70, 86, 116–117, 137, 201–203; and social advantage, 136–139; Spiritual Assemblies, 69, 92,116, 138, 200 Baha’u’llah, 1, 11, 63–66, 68, 88, 89, 99, 101, 106, 126–127,138, 167, 185, 186 Bahiyyeh Khanom, 9 Baqer, Hajji Shaykh [Hamadani], 193 Berjis, Muzafaar, 8 Bird, Isabella, 84 Book of Daniel, 24 Borujerdi, Mulla ‘Abdullah, see ‘Abdullah, Mulla Borujerdi

Amanat_Identities_Biblio_Index_x17 17

Boroujerdi, Ayatollah, 75–76 Borujerdi, Jamal, 124, 211, 226n., 236n., 239n. British, military dominance of 45, 51, 82; help in 1871 famine 122; ties to Jews 49, 50, 54 British Church Missionary Society, 114 British & Foreign Bible Society, 23 Brower, Abraham J., 4, 77 Buddhism, 30–32, 44 burial rites, 30, 101, 109, 150, 166, 192–193 Chehreh-negar, Mirza Hasan, 71 Christianity, 2, 6, 13, 31, 82, 85–86, 107–112 Christians, 38, 40 Cohen, Hayyim J., 12 Cohen, Yousef, 10 Constitutional Revolution, 7, 63–64, 66, 67, 73–75, 83, 121, 132, 139, 142–144, 198, 201 conversion(s), 207; and assimilation, 14, 29, 77, 119–120, 182; to Baha’i faith, 1–6, 77–78, 85–91, 95–117, 158–159; to Christianity, 2, 6, 13, 31, 77, 78, 81, 82, 85–86, 96, 107–112, 114, 188; communal ties and, 83–84; cultural dimension of, 86–87; discrimination and, 91; empowerment and, 168–169; forced, 2, 7, 38, 41–44, 52–58, 59, 184–188 see also below Mashhad episode; inheritance and, 97–102; to Islam, 2–3, 5–6, 28–30, 45–47, 90–91, 181–183, 186–188; to Judaism, 78–79; Mashhad episode, 47–50, 52–58, 59, 90; mass, 1, 5, 29, 39–43, 47–50, 183–188; messianism and, 79–82; migration and,

3/14/11 6:28:33 PM

BIBLIOGRAPHY INDEX

83–84; multiple identities and, 78–79, 92–93; new forms of, 77–93; opposition to, 112–116; during post-constitutional period, 74; during Qajar period, 45–47; in Safavid period, 37–44; secret, 57–59; social change and, 82–83; trade and, 83–84; converts, see also conversion(s); autobiographical accounts of, 6– 12; discrimination against, 192– 193; new, 42, 55–57, 84, 89–91, 100, 169; number of, 4–5, 77–78; social position of, 101–104 Councils of Deliberation, 69 cultural sphere, 20–23, 86–87 Curzon, Lord, 4, 77–78, 96 Cyrus (Achamanian monarch), 18 Darius the Great, 18 Day of Judgment, 24 domestic violence, 151, 156–157 education, see schools Ehsanullah Khan Dustdar, 67 Ehtesham al-Dowleh, Gholam Reza Khan Qaragozlu, 168 Ekhvan al-Safa, Mirza Mehdi, 92 Elezar (El‘azar, Lalehzar), 95–96, 175–177 Elyahu, Hajji (Kashani), 126–127 Elyahu, Mulla (Rahamim’s grandfather), 175 Elyahu, Hakim (Rahamim’s father), 175 E’temad al-Saltaneh, 7 Enoch, Book of Secrets, 24 Farahabad, 39, 43, 48 Farivar, Marsh’allah, 8 Fazlullah, Rashid al-Din, see Rashid al-Din Fazlullah Fischel, Walter J., 1, 12, 14, 15

Amanat_Identities_Biblio_Index_x18 18

275

forced conversions, see conversion Garcia-Arenal, Mercedes, 13 Garrusi, Amir Nezam, 195–196, 197 Garrusi, Fazel Khan, 23 gender, see women Genghis Khan, 33 Ghaffari, Mehdi Khan, 137–138, 168 Ghaffari, Muhammad ‘Ali, 7 Ghazan (Ilkhanid monarch), 32 Gobineau, Joseph Arthur, 176–77 Golpaygani, Abul-Fazl, 68–69, 111– 112, 114, 133–134 Green Movement, 209 Hafez al-Sehheh, see Hafezi, Hakim Rahamim Hafezi family, 173–205 Hafezi family, social position, 203– 205 Hafezi, Hakim Rahamim (Rahim) Hafez al-Sehheh, 108, 110, 113, 115, 123, 173, 174, 198; advancement of, 179–181; conversion to Islam, 181–183; early career of, 177–179 Hafezi, Mirza Ya’qub, 192, 193–200 Hafezi, Yuhanna Khan (Yahya), 7, 173–174, 185–187, 190–193, 203 Haim, Hezjiel, 108 Hakim Aqjan, see Aqajan, Hakim Hakim, (professor) Manuchehr, 116–117 Hakim ul-Mamalek, ‘Ali Naqi, 46 Hamadan, 7, 81, 174, 183–190; Baha’i community of, 70, 169–170, 200–203; Baha’i public library (Ta’id public library) in, 70; communal tensions in, 112–116, 201–202; conversion to Christianity and the Baha’i faith in, 105–112; conversion to Islam

3/14/11 6:28:33 PM

276

JEWISH IDENTITIES IN IRAN

in, 42–43, 102–103; converts in, ·#K]T\]ZIT[QOVQÅKIVKMWN 23, 34; economy of, 79, 83, 95, 148, 150, 161, 164; Jews of, 148, 155; Jewish heterodox in, 27; Jewish merchants of, 199–200; persecution of Jews in, 184–188 Hands of the Cause of God, 66, 69 Harun, Hakim Kashani, 80, 96–97, 101 Herat campaign, 45, 50–52 Hidden Imam, 61–62, 80 Holmes, George W., 111 Hosein Shah Sultan, 44 Howkes, James, 107, 111, 188 identities, multiple, 5, 32, 68, 78–79, 89, 92–93, 97, 100, 169, 174, 181, 203, 207; national/ nationalist, 3, 11, 63, 74–75, 87, 161, 207 Ilkhanid rule, 2, 30–36 Impurity (nejasat), 3, 12, 38–39, 50, 58, 65, 97, 100, 104, 129, 131, 137, 153, 155–156, 175, 182 inheritance, 65, 97–102 interfaith relations, 2, 23–26, 57–59, 80–81, 107–108, 111, 127–129, 155–157, 165–166 ‘Isawiyya, 27 Isfahan, 26–28 Islam, see conversion to Islam Islamic period, early, 25–26 Islamic revivalism, 208–209 Islamic Revolution, 209 Islamic sciences, 22 Israel, 15, 208 jadid ul-islam, 3, 55–57, 89–91, 100 Jazzab, ‘Azizullah, 57 Jews, 12–13, 17; artisans, 21; KWVÆQK\IVL[WKQWMKWVWUQK divisions among, 112–116, 148;

Amanat_Identities_Biblio_Index_x19 19

conversions, see conversion(s); cultural contribution of, 21–25; discrimination against, 3, 30, 89–91, 155–157; in early Islamic period, 25–26, 30; economic presence of, 20–21, 41, 43, 49, 83, 95–96, 161, 164; exclusion of, 155–157; “ignorance” of, 12–14; integration of, 2 14, 29, 77, 119,–120, 182; during Mongol rule, 30–36; under Pahlavis, 9, 208; persecution of, 24, 39, 43, 89, 95, 128, 129, 141–142, 178, 183–188, 190, see also forced conversion; in preIslamic period, 18–20; in Safavid period, 37–44; social exclusion WN·#IVL;]Å[ 57–59, 104, 122–123, 134, 141, 168, 174–175 Jewish notables, 32–36 Jewish-Muslim relations, see interfaith relations Judeo-Persian, 22, 58, 59, 99 Karaite movement, 13, 27–28, 88 Karvansara, Mohammad of Kashan, 135 Kashan, 7–8, 95, 121–123, 126– 127; Baha’i activism in, 142; Baha’i notables, 136–139, 143; Baha’i persecutions in, 125, 133– 136, 139–141, 143; communal KWVÆQK\[QV #KWV[\Q\]\QWVIT period in, 143–145; converts in, 42, 124, 132–133; emigration from, 95, 121–122; history, 7–8; Jewish community, 4–5, 127; Jewish persecution in, 129; lutis of, 143–145; merchants of, 138– 139; women in, 121, 129, 150 Kashani, Hajji Mohammad Hosein Lotf, 138–139

3/14/11 6:28:33 PM

INDEX BIBLIOGRAPHY

Kashani, Khavari, see Khavari Kashani Kasravi, Ahmad, 8 Kermanshahchi, Heshmatullah, 9 Ketab-e Aqdas, 65, 104 Khadem-Misaq, ‘Ali Muhammad, 72 Khalil, see Arjomand, Khavari Kashani Fakhr al-va‘ezin, 142 Khorramdin, Babak, 26 Khurramiya crypto-Mazdakite movement, 26 Khusrow I (Sassanid monarch), 20 Lalezar, Aqa Hayyem, 106 Lari, Abu’l-Hasan, 40 Latka, Jacob, 107 Levy, Habib, 12–13, 15 Mahdavi, Mo‘ez al-Din, 8 Malayer, 163; Baha’is, 164–168, 169; Jews, 156–157 Manifestation of God, see Baha’i deity Mashhad episode, 7, 47–50, 52–58, 59, 90 Masih, Hakim, 96 Matla‘ al-shams, 7 Mazandarani, Fazel, 9, 120 Mazdakis, 31 Mehdi, Mulla of Mashhad, 50 Mer’at ul-Qasan, 7 Messiah, 20, 23, 27, 62, 80–82, 89, 107, 122, 126, 133, 154, 159 messianism, 26, 62–63, 79–82, 88, 93, 95, 122, 208 Mizrahi, Mosheh, 81 Mohammad ‘Ali Shah, 67, 137, 163 Mohammad Shah, 51, Mo’azed ul-Molk, Esma’il Khan, 46–47 Mongol rule, 30–36; Jewish notables

Amanat_Identities_Biblio_Index_x20 20

277

during, 32–36; religious diversity under, 30–32 Moses, 12, 18, 131 Mozaffar al-Din Shah, 69, 135–136, 138, 168, 177, 195 Mu’ayyad al-Saltaneh, Mohammad Mehdi Mirza, 111–112 Musa, Hakim, 82 Musa, Mulla, 133–134 Musa Khan, Hajji Mirza, 55–56 Mushe, Hakim174–175 music, Baha’is and, 72–73, 86–87, 188; Jews and, 21, 121, 140 Muslim-Jewish relations, see interfaith relations Nader Shah Afshar, 48–50 Naraqi, Hasan, 7 Naraqi family, 71, 84, 106 Naser al-Din Shah, 46, 63, 71, 138, 176 Nasir, Hakim, 46–47, 186 Nasir, Mirza, 101 Nateq Isfahani, Mohammad, 8–9 Nayeb Hosein, 143–144 Nayeb Mirza, 168–169 nejasat, see impurities Netzer, Amnon, 14–15 Neumark, Ephraim, 4, 77 new converts, see jadid al-islam New Testament, 23, 84 nonconformity, 25–26, 71, 104–105, 177 Nur Mahmud family, 96–101 Nuri, Mirza Hosein ‘Ali, see Baha’u’llah Nuri, Mirza Yahya, see Azal Nuri, Shaykh Fazlullah, 64 Old Testament, 23, 24 Pahlavi, Reza Shah, see Reza Shah Pahlavis, 15, 73, 102, 207–208

3/14/11 6:28:33 PM

278

JEWISH IDENTITIES IN IRAN

Palestine, 19 Partian era, 19 peddlers (Jewish), 21, 128, 130, 155–156, 160, 165 Persian language and literature, 22, 29, 175 Persian-American Educational Society, 70 Perso-Islamic culture, 26 photography, 46, 71 Pishkhedmatbashi, Aqa Esma’il Jadid al-Islam, 46 post-constitutional period, 73–76, 142–145, 161–162 Presbyterians, 107, 109–112 progressive revelation, 3 Qara’i, Mohammad Khan, 54 Qazi, Hajji Aqa Muhammad, 196 Qom, 72, 144 9]KPIVQ)YI6IRIÅ Qurrat al-’Ayn, Tahereh, see Tahereh Qurrat al‘Ayn rabbinic orthodoxy, 27–28 Rahamim, Hakim, see Hafezi, Hakim Rahamim, Hafez alsehheh Ra‘in, Esma’il, 10 Rashid al-Din Fazl ullah (Rashid alDowleh), 22, 33–36 Rayhani, Rayhan, 6, 68–69, 79, 81–82, 86, 89, 97, 99, 119–145; in Arak, 129–131; childhood and early life, 121–123; conversion, 82, 123–126; debates and confrontations experienced by, 131–136; post-constitutional period and, 142–145; social status of, 136–139; violence experienced by, 139–142 Reform Judaism, 14 Refu’a, Aqa, 102

Amanat_Identities_Biblio_Index_x21 21

Reza Shah, 75, 145 Roman Empire, 19 Russia, 49, 53–54, 70–71, 78–79, 153 Sabet, Habib, 117 Sadr al-Sodur, Hajji Sayyed Ahmad Hamadani Sadr ul-’Ulama, 100, 116 Sadr al-Ulama, Sayyed Ja‘far, 141–142 Safavid period, 2, 37–44 Sa‘d al-Dowleh, 32–33, 36 ;IÅ;INI^QLUWVIZKP Sakineh Khanom, 105 Salar al-Dowleh, 201 Salar rebellion, 54 Sam Khan Ilkhani (Urus), 53–54 San’atizadeh-Kermani, ‘AbdulHosein, 8 Sanjari, Heshmat, 72 Sanjari, Hosayn, 72 Sardar Lashkar, ‘Abbas Mirza, 193 Sassanid rulers, 19, 25 schools, Baha’i, 69–70, 86, 116–117, 137, 201–203; Jewish, 28, 79, 154–155; missionary, 6, 107–109, 111, 113, 158, 173, 191 sectarian movements, 2, 25–28, 31 secularism, 15, 204, 207–208 Shahbazi, ‘Abdullah, 10–11 Shakeri, Aqajan, 6–7, 79, 148–172; Baha’i community and, 169–170; business and work life of, 160– 164; childhood and early life, 149–153; as community arbiter, 166–167; conversion of, 158–159; education of, 154–155; faith of, 164–168; marriage of, 170–172; in post-constitutional period, 161–162; social status of, 168– 169; tradition and, 162–163, 166; violence experienced by, 155–157

3/14/11 6:28:34 PM

INDEX BIBLIOGRAPHY

Shapur I, 19 Shapur II, 20 Shaykhi School, 62, 183–184, 186 Shi‘ism, 2, 14, 34, 37–38, 44–45, 59, 207, 209–210 Shiraz Jews, 8, 82, 127 Shofet, Yedidia, 9, 85 Shoghi Effendi Rabbani, 9, 67–68, 167 Simantub, Malamed, 59 slavery, 49–50, 55, 180–181 Solayman, Aqa, 163–164 Solayman, Mulla, 133 Sorush, ‘Abd ul-Karim, 11 Spanish Jesuits, 43 Spanish Jews, 13 Stern, Henry, 80 subalterns, 90, 102, 177 ;]ÅWZLMZ[·!  104, 122, 144 ;]Å[U   · !· see also Jews Sunni Islam, 38

279

conversion, domestic violence, Tahereh; Babi women, 84, 105, 179; Baha’i women, 70, 105; Jewish women, 21, 55, 84, 157, 187 Yazdgird I, 19 Yazdi Jews, 59 Yerushalaymi, Yazghel, 9 Young Turk Revolution, 66 Yudghan, 27 Zafar al-Saltaneh, Mirza ‘Azizullah, 202 Zanjani, Ebrahim, 8 Zarrabi, ‘Abd al-Rahim Kalantar, 7 Zionism, 15, 74 Zoroastrianism, 2, 4, 19, 23–25, 88 Zoroastrian community, 30, 38, 41, 48–49 Zurvanism, 24

Tagdur, Ahmad, (Ilkhanid ruler) 31–32 Tahereh Qurrat ul-‘Ayn, 61, 84–86, 95, 105, 176 Taleqani, Adib, 69 Talmudic law, 19 Torah, 23, 28 Tusi, Khawjeh Nasir al-Din, 34–35 Universal House of Justice, 68 >IPQLVQI;IaN]TTIP violence, 128, 133–134, 139–142, 155–157, 183–188 >WTWOM[M[1! Wolff, Joseph, 49–50, 51, 58, 59, 107 women, 31, 86, 98–99, 100, 102, 129–131, 149, 150, 157, see also

Amanat_Identities_Biblio_Index_x22 22

3/14/11 6:28:34 PM