Isomonodromic Deformations and Frobenius Manifolds: An Introduction

Claude Sabbah Isomonodromic Deformations and Frobenius Manifolds An Introduction With 10 Figures Professor Claude Sa...

Author: Sabbah C.

5 downloads 409 Views 5MB Size Report

This content was uploaded by our users and we assume good faith they have the permission to share this book. If you own the copyright to this book and it is wrongfully on our website, we offer a simple DMCA procedure to remove your content from our site. Start by pressing the button below!
Report copyright / DMCA form

DOWNLOAD PDF

Claude Sabbah

Isomonodromic Deformations and Frobenius Manifolds An Introduction With 10 Figures

Professor Claude Sabbah CNRS, Centre de Mathématiques Laurent Schwartz École Polytechnique F-91128 Palaiseau Cedex France

Mathematics Subject Classification (2000): 14F05, 32A10, 32G20, 32G34, 32S40, 34M25, 34M35, 34M50, 53D45, 33E30, 34E05

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Control Number: 2007939825 Springer ISBN-13: 978-1-84800-053-7

e-ISBN-13: 978-1-84800-054-4

EDP Sciences ISBN 978-2-7598-0047-6 Translation from the French language edition: Déformations isomonodromiques et variétés de Frobenius by Claude Sabbah Copyright 2007 EDP Sciences, CNRS Editions, France. http://www.edpsciences.org/ http://www.cnrseditions.fr/ All Rights Reserved Apart from any fair dealing for the purposes of research or private study, or criticism or review, as permitted under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, this publication may only be reproduced, stored or transmitted, in any form or by any means, with the prior permission in writing of the publishers, or in the case of reprographic reproduction in accordance with the terms of licences issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside those terms should be sent to the publishers. The use of registered names, trademarks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher makes no representation, express or implied, with regard to the accuracy of the information contained in this book and cannot accept any legal responsibility or liability for any errors or omissions that may be made. Printed on acid-free paper 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 springer.com

To Andrey Bolibrukh

Contents

Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IX Terminology and notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . XIII 0

The language of fibre bundles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Holomorphic functions on an open set of Cn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 Complex analytic manifolds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 Holomorphic vector bundle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 Locally free sheaves of OM -modules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 Nonabelian cohomology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ˇ 6 Cech cohomology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 Line bundles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 Meromorphic bundles, lattices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 Examples of holomorphic and meromorphic bundles . . . . . . . 10 Affine varieties, analytization, algebraic differential forms . . . 11 Holomorphic connections on a vector bundle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 Holomorphic integrable connections and Higgs fields . . . . . . . 13 Geometry of the tangent bundle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 Meromorphic connections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 Locally constant sheaves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 Integrable deformations and isomonodromic deformations . . . 17 Appendix: the language of categories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1 1 2 5 7 10 14 16 17 19 25 27 32 37 44 48 53 57

I

Holomorphic vector bundles on the Riemann sphere . . . . . 1 Cohomology of C, C∗ and P1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 Line bundles on P1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 A finiteness theorem and some consequences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 Structure of vector bundles on P1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 Families of vector bundles on P1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

61 61 63 68 69 76

VIII

Contents

II

The Riemann-Hilbert correspondence on a Riemann surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83 1 Statement of the problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83 2 Local study of regular singularities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85 3 Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97 4 Complements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100 5 Irregular singularities: local study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102 6 The Riemann-Hilbert correspondence in the irregular case . . 109

III

Lattices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121 1 Lattices of (k, ∇)-vector spaces with regular singularity . . . . 122 2 Lattices of (k, ∇)-vector spaces with an irregular singularity 133

IV

The Riemann-Hilbert problem and Birkhoff ’s problem . . 145 1 The Riemann-Hilbert problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146 2 Meromorphic bundles with irreducible connection . . . . . . . . . . 152 3 Application to the Riemann-Hilbert problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155 4 Complements on irreducibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158 5 Birkhoff’s problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159

V

Fourier-Laplace duality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167 1 Modules over the Weyl algebra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168 2 Fourier transform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176 3 Fourier transform and microlocalization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183

VI

Integrable deformations of bundles with connection on the Riemann sphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191 1 The Riemann-Hilbert problem in a family . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192 2 Birkhoff’s problem in a family . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200 3 Universal integrable deformation for Birkhoff’s problem . . . . 208

VII

Saito structures and Frobenius structures on a complex analytic manifold . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223 1 Saito structure on a manifold . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224 2 Frobenius structure on a manifold . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233 3 Infinitesimal period mapping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237 4 Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242 5 Frobenius-Saito structure associated to a singularity . . . . . . . 254

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263 Index of Notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273 Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275

Preface

Despite a somewhat esoteric title, this book deals with a classic subject, namely that of linear differential equations in the complex domain. The prototypes of such equations are the linear homogeneous equations (with respect to the complex variable t and the unknown function u(t)) α du = u(t) dt t

(α ∈ C),

du 1 = 2 u(t). dt t

The solutions of the first equation are the “multivalued” functions t → ctα (α ∈ C, c ∈ C) and those of the second equation are the functions t → c exp(−1/t). On the other hand, the “multivalued” function log is a solution of the inhomogeneous linear equation 1 du = , dt t or, if one wants to continue with homogeneous equations as we do in this book, of the equation of order 2: t

d2 u du = 0. + dt2 dt

Thus, the solutions of a differential equation with respect to the variable t, having polynomial or rational fractions as coefficients, are, in general, transcendental functions. Needless to say, other families of equations, such as the hypergeometric equations or the Bessel equations, are also celebrated. Once these facts are understood, the question of knowing if it is necessary to explicitly solve the equations to obtain interesting properties of their solutions can be stated. In other words, one wants to know which properties of the solutions only depend in an algebraic way on (hence are in principle computable from) the coefficients of the equation, and which are those which need transcendental manipulations. Following this reasoning to its end leads one to develop the theory of differential equations in the complex domain with the tools of algebraic or

X

Preface

complex analytic geometry (i.e., the theory of complex algebraic equations). One is thus led to treat systems of linear differential equations, which depend on many variables. The algebraic geometry also invites us to consider the global properties of such systems, that is, to consider systems defined on algebraic or complex analytic manifolds. The differential equations that we will consider in this book will be named integrable connections on a vector bundle. Our Drosophila melanogaster (fruit fly) will be the complex projective line, more commonly called the “Riemann sphere” and denoted by P1 (C) or P1 , and will be the subject of some experiments concerning connections: analysis of singularities and deformations. The theory of isomonodromic deformations serves as a machine to produce systems of nonlinear (partial) differential equations in the complex domain, starting from an equation or from a system of linear differential equations of one complex variable. It provides at the same time a procedure (far from being explicit in general) to solve them, as well as remarkable properties of the solutions of these systems (among others, the property usually called the “Painlevé property”). If, at the beginning, the main object of interest was the deformation of linear differential equations of a complex variable with polynomial coefficients, it has now been realized that the deformation theory of linear systems of many differential equations can shed light on this question, thanks to the use of tools coming from algebraic or differential geometry, such as vector bundles, connections, and the like. For a long time (and such remains the case), this method serve specialists in dynamical systems and physicists who analyze the nonlinear equations produced by integrable dynamical systems; to exhibit these equations as isomonodromy equations is, in a way, a linearization of the initial problem. From this point of view, the Painlevé equations have played a prototypic role, beginning with the article by R. Fuchs [Fuc07] (followed by those of R. Garnier) who showed how the sixth one can be written as an isomonodromy equation, thus avoiding the strict framework of the search for new transcendental functions. A nice application of this theory is the introduction of the notion of a Frobenius structure on a manifold. If this notion had clearly emerged from the articles of Kyoji Saito on the unfoldings of singularities of holomorphic functions, it has been extensively developed by Boris Dubrovin, who used motivations coming from physics, opening new perspectives on, and establishing a new link between, mathematical domains which are apparently not related (singularities, quantum cohomology, mirror symmetry). My aim to keep this text a moderate length and level of complexity, as well as my lack of knowledge on more recent advances, led me to limit the number of themes, and to refer to the foundational article of B. Dubrovin [Dub96], or to the book of Y. Manin [Man99a], for further investigation of other topics. Chapter 0, although slightly long, can be skipped by any reader having a basic knowledge of complex algebraic geometry; it can serve as a reference for notation. It presents the concepts referred to in the book concerning sheaf

Preface

XI

theory, vector bundles, holomorphic and meromorphic connections, and locally constant sheaves. The results are classic and exist, although scattered, in the literature. The same considerations apply to Chapter I, although it can be more difficult to find a reference for the rigidity theorem of trivial vector bundles in elementary books on algebraic geometry. We restrict ourselves to bundles on the Riemann sphere, minimizing the knowledge needed of algebraic geometry. In this chapter, we do not give the proof of the finiteness theorem for the cohomology of a vector bundle on a compact Riemann surface, for which good references exist; we only need it for the Riemann sphere. With Chapters II and III begins the study of linear systems of differential equations of a complex variable and their deformations. The type of singular points is analyzed there. Here also we do not give the proof of two theorems of analysis, inasmuch as the techniques needed, although very accessible, go too much beyond the scope of this book. One of the fundamental objects attached to a differential equation or, more generally, to an integrable connection on a vector bundle, is the group of monodromy transformations in its natural representation, reflecting the “multivaluedness” of the solutions of this equation or connection. The RiemannHilbert correspondence—at least when the singularities of the equation are regular—expresses that this group contains the complete information on the differential equation. Thus, one of the classic problems of the theory consists of, given a differential equation, computing its monodromy group. Let us also mention another object, the differential Galois group—which we will not use in this book—that has the advantage of being defined algebraically from the equation. We will not deal with this problem in this book, and one will not find explicit computations of such groups. As indicated above, we rather try to express the properties of the solutions of the equation in terms of algebraic objects, here the (meromorphic) vector bundle with connection. In this meromorphic bundle exist lattices (i.e., holomorphic bundles), which correspond to the various equivalent ways to write the differential system. To find the simplest way to present a differential system up to meromorphic equivalence is the subject of the Riemann-Hilbert problem (in the case of regular singularities) or of Birkhoff ’s problem. In all cases, it is a matter of writing the system as a connection on the trivial bundle. Chapter IV expounds on some techniques used in the resolution of the Riemann-Hilbert or Birkhoff’s problem. One will find in the works of A. Bolibrukh [AB94] and [Bol95] many more results. Chapter V introduces the Fourier transform (which should possibly more accurately be called the Laplace transform) for systems of differential equations of one variable. It helps one in understanding the link between Schlesinger equations and the deformation equations for Birkhoff’s problem, analyzed in Chapter VI. In the latter, the notion of isomonodromic deformation is explained in detail.

XII

Preface

Chapter VII gives an axiomatic presentation of the notion of a Saito structure (as introduced by K. Saito) as well as that of a Frobenius structure (as introduced by B. Dubrovin, with its terminology). We show the equivalence between these notions, using the term “Frobenius-Saito structure”. Many examples are given in order to exhibit various aspects of these structures. This chapter can serve as an introduction to the theory of K. Saito on the FrobeniusSaito structure associated with unfoldings of holomorphic functions with isolated singularities. The proofs of many results of this theory require techniques of algebraic geometry in dimension 1, techniques which go beyond the scope of this book and would need another book (Hodge theory for the Gauss-Manin system). This text, a much expanded version of my article [Sab98] on the same topic, stemmed from a series of graduate lectures that I gave at the universities of Paris VI, Bordeaux I and Strasbourg, and during a summer school on Frobenius manifolds at the CIRM (Luminy). Michèle Audin, Alexandru Dimca, Claudine Mitschi and Pierre Schapira gave me the opportunity to lecture on various parts of this text. Many ideas, as well as their presentation, come directly from the articles of Bernard Malgrange, as well as from numerous conversations that we had. Many aspects of Frobenius manifolds would have remained obscure to me without the multiple discussions with Michèle Audin. I also had the pleasure of long discussions with Andrey Bolibrukh, who explained to me his work, particularly concerning the Riemann-Hilbert problem. Joseph Le Potier answered my electronic questions on bundles with good grace. Various people helped me to improve the text, or pointed out a few mistakes: Gilles Bailly-Maitre, Alexandru Dimca, Antoine Douai, Claus Hertling, Adelino Paiva, Mathias Schulze and the anonymous referees. I thank all of them. The original (French) version of this book has been written within INTAS program no. 97-1644. The English translation differs from the original French version only in the correction of various mistakes or inaccuracies, a list of which can be found on the author’s web page math.polytechnique.fr/~sabbah.

Terminology and notation

Some words used in this book may have various meanings, depending on the context in which they appear. For instance: •

•

the flatness property (in differential geometry), the absence of curvature (for a metric, a connection...) is synonymous with integrability; on the other hand, in commutative algebra, it expresses good behaviour with respect to the tensor product; torsion is a geometric notion (for a connection on the tangent bundle), but is also an algebraic notion (for a module on a ring); one can consider the torsion of a flat connection, but a flat module on a integral ring has no torsion.

Analogously, the name “Frobenius” can refer to various distinct properties: Pfaff systems which share the integrability property in the sense of Frobenius are called foliations, although the notion of Frobenius manifold (or of Frobenius structure on a manifold) refers to the structure of Frobenius algebra on the tangent bundle of this manifold; nevertheless, the notion of integrability comes in the construction of such structures. Make note of the distinction between the mathematicians L. Fuchs (Fuchs condition, Fuchsian equation, etc.) and R. Fuchs (isomonodromy and Painlevé equations), as well as K. Saito and M. Saito. Regarding notation, I have tried to use and maintain throughout the text a simple rule. The letters M, N, X only serve (in principle) for manifolds, the letter X often denoting the parameter space of a deformation, while the letter M rather denotes the space on which the deformed object lives. The letters E , F , G serve for sheaves on a manifold, the letters E, F, G for the corresponding bundles, when meaningful, and the letters E, F, G for their germ at some point. The “meromorphic bundles” are denoted in general by the letter M (and sometimes N ), their germ at some point by M or N. Lastly, in the algebraic framework, the module of global sections of a sheaf E , F , G , M is denoted by E, F, G, M.

XIV

Terminology and notation

In a family parametrized by a space, the restriction of an object A for the value xo of the parameter is denoted by Ao . Finally, a white square on a white background means the end of a proof, or its absence.

0 The language of fibre bundles

This chapter assembles the main concepts referred to in this book. It also establishes the notation used throughout the text. We assume some familiarity with the language of sheaf theory. The notion of vector bundle and of connection enables one to take up global problems of the theory of linear differential systems and of their singularities. We consider here only the holomorphic or meromorphic setting. We have tried to provide intrinsic statements, independent of the choices of coordinates or of basis. Therefore, the reader will not be surprised not to find the notion of fundamental matrix of solutions, of the Wronskian, etc. On the other hand, we do insist on the difference between the notion of a meromorphic differential system (where meromorphic base changes are allowed) and that of a lattice of such a system (where only holomorphic base changes are allowed).

1 Holomorphic functions on an open set of Cn The reader can refer to [GR65, Chap. I], [GH78, Chap. 0], [Kod86, Chap. 1] (and also to [H¨ or73, Chap. 1] or [LT97, Chap. 1]) for the elementary properties of holomorphic functions. Let n be an integer 1 and U be an open set of Cn . The coordinates are denoted by z1 , . . . , zn , where zj = xj + iyj is the decomposition into real and imaginary parts. Let f : U → C be a function of class C 1 . We put ∂f 1 ∂f ∂f 1 ∂f ∂f ∂f = −i = +i , . ∂zj 2 ∂xj ∂yj ∂z j 2 ∂xj ∂yj A function f of class C 1 on U is said to be holomorphic if, for any z ∈ U , the Cauchy-Riemann equations ∂f (z) = 0, ∂z j

j = 1, . . . , n,

2


are satisfied. We denote by O(U ) the ring of holomorphic functions on U and by OU the sheaf of holomorphic functions on U . 1.1 Theorem (The holomorphic functions are the analytic functions). A function f : U → C is holomorphic if and only if it is analytic, that is, can be expanded as a converging series of (z1 − z1o , . . . , zn − zno ) in the neighbourhood of any point z o ∈ U . Proof. Analogous to the proof for functions of one variable. Let Δ(z o , r) =

n

D(zjo , rj )

j=1

be an open polydisc of polyradius r = (r1 , . . . , rn ) ∈ (R∗+ )n , centered at z o ∈ U and contained in U . The result follows from the “Cauchy polyformula”, that one shows by induction on n: for any z ∈ Δ(z o , r) we have f (w) 1 dz1 ∧ · · · ∧ dzn . · · · f (z) = o n o (2iπ) C(z1o ,r1 ) o ,r ) (z1 − z1 ) · · · (zn − zn ) C(zn n Let us fix z o ∈ U . The germ of the sheaf OU at z o , denoted by OU,zo , can thus be identified with the ring of converging series with n variables, denoted by C{z1 − z1o , . . . , zn − zno }. 1.2 Some properties. • • • • •

Any holomorphic mapping from an open set of Cn with values in Cp is a C ∞ mapping. Any bijective holomorphic mapping between two open sets of Cn is biholomorphic. Any nonconstant holomorphic function on a connected open set of Cn is an open mapping. We have at our disposal the implicit function theorem and the inverse function theorem for holomorphic mappings. Let U be an open set of Cn , let ϕ : U → C be a holomorphic function ≡ 0 and let Z ⊂ U be the set defined by the equation ϕ(z1 , . . . , zn ) = 0 in U . If f is any holomorphic function on U Z which is bounded in the neighbourhood of any point of Z, then f can be extended as a holomorphic function on U .

2 Complex analytic manifolds The reader can refer to [GH78, Chap. 0] or [Kod86, Chap. 2] for more details or examples. Let M be a topological space. An open covering U ofM is a family (Ui )i∈I of open sets of M indexed by a finite set I, such that i Ui = M .

2 Complex analytic manifolds

3

A topological space M is said to be paracompact if it is Hausdorff and if, for any open covering U of M , there exists an open covering V of M which is locally finite and finer than U, that is, any compact set cuts only a finite number of open sets of V and any open set Vj of V is contained in at least one open set Ui of U. A complex analytic manifold M of dimension n is a paracompact topological space which admits an open covering (Ui )i∈I and charts ϕi : Ui → Cn , where each ϕi induces a homeomorphism from Ui to some open set Ωi of Cn , such that, for any i, j ∈ I, the change of chart ϕj ◦ ϕ−1 ϕi (Ui ∩ Uj ) −−−−−−−i−−→ ϕj (Ui ∩ Uj ) is a biholomorphism. A holomorphic function on a complex analytic manifold is a function of class C 1 such that each f ◦ ϕ−1 is a holomorphic function on the open set i ϕi (Ui ) of Cn . Any chart Ui admits then coordinates systems (z1 , . . . , zn ) coming from those of Ωi . A mapping between two complex analytic manifolds is said to be holomorphic if, for one (or any) choice of holomorphic local coordinates of the source and the target, the components of the mapping are holomorphic functions of coordinates. A complex analytic submanifold N of M is a locally closed subset of M for which, in the neighbourhood of any point of N in M , there exist local coordinates z1 , . . . , zn such that N is defined by the equations z1 = · · · = zp = 0; one then says that p is the (complex) codimension of N in M . A smooth hypersurface is a closed submanifold of codimension 1. A closed analytic subset M is a closed subset, which is locally defined as the set of zeroes of a family of analytic functions. We will have to use the following result (the reader can consult [GR65, Chap. II and III] for more details on analytic subsets): 2.1 Lemma (connectedness, see [GR65, Th. 2, p. 86]). Let M be a connected complex analytic manifold. Then the complement in M of a closed analytic subset distinct from M is connected. 2.2 Examples. (1) Any open set of Cn is a complex analytic manifold. (2) Any covering space (cf. for instance [God71]) of a complex analytic manifold is equipped with a unique structure of complex analytic manifold for which the covering map is holomorphic. For this structure, any local section of the covering is a holomorphic mapping. (3) The complex projective space Pn is the space of lines of Cn+1 : it is the quotient space of Cn+1 {0} by the equivalence relation v ∼ λv (λ ∈ C∗ ). We denote by [v] ∈ Pn the line generated by the vector v ∈ Cn+1 {0}.

4


If (Z0 , . . . , Zn ) are the coordinates on Cn+1 , one covers Pn with the n + 1 open sets Uj = {[v] | vj = 0} (j = 0, . . . , n). We set ∼ ϕj : Uj −−−→ Cn Z0 Zn [Z] −→ ,..., . Zj Zj We then get a structure of complex analytic manifold on Pn : for j = k, let us denote by (z0 , . . . , zj , . . . , zn ) the coordinates on ϕj (Uj ) (the j-th k , . . . , wn ) the coorcoordinate does not appear) and similarly (w0 , . . . , w dinates on ϕk (Uk ); then ϕj (Uj ∩ Uk ) is the open set zk = 0 in Cn and ϕk (Uj ∩Uk ) is the open set wj = 0; the change of chart is the isomorphism z0 1 zn (z0 , . . . , zj , . . . , zk , . . . , zn ) −→ ,..., ,..., 1, . . . , . zk zk zk (4) A complex analytic manifold of dimension one is called a Riemann surface. Let us mention for instance: • the projective line P1 , covered by two charts U0 and U∞ ; the change of chart ϕ−1 ϕ∞ 0 C∗ −−− −→ U0 ∩ U∞ −−−−→ C∗ •

is defined by z → 1/z; the quotient space of C by a lattice L = Z ⊕ Zτ , with τ ∈ C R, naturally equipped with a structure of Riemann surface (elliptic curve).

2.3 Exercise (The Grassmannian, cf. [GH78, p. 193–194]). Show that the set of vector subspaces of dimension r + 1 of Cn+1 admits a structure of complex analytic manifold (called the Grassmannian of r + 1-planes in Cn+1 ). Remark that it is also the set of projective subspaces of dimension r of Pn . 2.4 Remarks. (1) The notion of C ∞ manifold is defined in the same way as above, by changing “holomorphic” with “C ∞ ”. As any holomorphic mapping is C ∞ , an analytic manifold can be equipped with a natural structure of C ∞ manifold and the notion of C ∞ function has a meaning on a complex analytic ∞ the sheaf of germs of C ∞ functions on M . manifold. We denote by CM (2) It will be convenient to generalize the notion of a chart of an analytic manifold. An étale chart ϕ : U → Cn is a holomorphic mapping from an open set M to an open set in Cn , which has maximal rank everywhere. The components (ϕ1 , . . . , ϕn ) of ϕ form a coordinate system in the neighbourhood of any point of U . When there can be no confusion, we will also say that (ϕ1 , . . . , ϕn ) is a coordinate system on U . 2.5 The structure sheaf. Let U be an open set of a complex analytic manifold and let OM (U ) denote the ring of holomorphic functions on U . For

3 Holomorphic vector bundle

5

V ⊂ U there is a restriction morphism OM (U ) → OM (V ), which makes OM a presheaf. This presheaf is in fact a sheaf of commutative algebras with unit: this is the structure sheaf of M . Let ϕ : M → N be a holomorphic mapping. By composition, any holomorphic function g on an open set V of N induces a holomorphic function g ◦ ϕ on the open set ϕ−1 (V ). Whence a morphism of sheaves of algebras ϕ−1 ON −→ OM which makes OM a sheaf of modules on ϕ−1 ON . be the presheaf on M 2.6 The constant sheaf. Let G be a group and let G ) = G for any open set U of M , all the restriction mappings defined by G(U ρV U being equal to the identity IdG : G → G. This presheaf is not a sheaf: if U ) = G(U 1 ) × G(U 2 ). has two connected components U1 and U2 , we have G(U The associated sheaf is the constant sheaf with fibre G, that we denote by GM . 2.7 Exercise (The sections of the constant sheaf ). Check that, if U is connected, we have Γ (U, GM ) = G and that, in general, Γ (U, GM ) = GI if I is the set of connected components of U . Show that the restriction mappings are the identity on each factor of the product.

3 Holomorphic vector bundle Let π : E → M be a holomorphic mapping between two complex analytic manifolds. We will say that π is a vector fibration of rank d, or also that π makes E a vector bundle of rank d on M if there exist an open covering U of M (called trivializing covering for E) and, for any open set U of U, a linear chart ϕU which is biholomorphic, which makes the diagram ϕU ∼

π −1 (U )

U × Cd p1

π U

commute (p1 denotes the first projection) and which satisfies the linearity property: for any pair (U, V ) of open sets of the covering, the change of charts d d ϕU ◦ ϕ−1 V : (U ∩ V ) × C −→ (U ∩ V ) × C

is linear in the fibres of the first projection, that is, is defined by a holomorphic mapping ψU,V : U ∩ V → GLd (C), or also by a holomorphic section of the sheaf GLd (OM ) of germs of invertible matrices with holomorphic entries.

6


3.1 Exercise (The cocycle condition). Show that the mappings ψU,V constructed in this way satisfy the following property (called the cocycle condition): for any triple U, V, W of open sets in U and any m ∈ U ∩ V ∩ W , ψU,V (m) · ψV,W (m) · ψW,U (m) = IdCd .

(3.1)(∗)

A morphism ϕ between two vector bundles E, E on M is a holomorphic mapping from E to E making the diagram ϕ

E

E π

π M

commute and inducing for any m ∈ M a linear mapping ϕm : π −1 (m) → π −1 (m). For instance, on a trivializing open set U for E, the linear chart ϕU considered above is an isomorphism from the restriction E|U to the trivial bundle of rank d. We denote by L(E, E ) the space of morphisms from E to E . It is a module over the ring Γ (M, OM ) of holomorphic functions on M . 3.2 Remark. The kernel and the cokernel of a morphism between vector bundles ϕ : E → E are themselves vector bundles if and only if ϕ has constant rank. Therefore, the category of vector bundles on a manifold of dimension 1 is not abelian1 . Interpreting a vector bundle as a locally free sheaf of OM modules, as we will do in paragraph 4, enables one to consider this category as a subcategory of the category of sheaves of OM -modules which is abelian: the kernel and the cokernel of ϕ do exist as sheaves of OM -modules, but these sheaves are possibly not be locally free. 3.3 Operations on vector bundles. •

Let f : M → N be a holomorphic mapping between two complex analytic manifolds and let π : E → N be a holomorphic vector bundle of rank d. The fibre product E × M = {(e, m) ∈ E × M | π(e) = f (m)} ⊂ E × M N

equipped with the restriction of the projection to M is a vector bundle of rank d on M , denoted by f ∗ E, and called the pullback of E by f (consider the pullback of a covering of N trivializing for E and the corresponding linear charts). When f is the inclusion of a point n in N , the pullback f ∗ E is a C-vector space, called the fibre of E at n ∈ N . When f is the inclusion of an open set U of N , the pullback of E to U is denoted by E|U , as above. 1

See §17 for elementary notions on categories.

4 Locally free sheaves of OM -modules

•

•

7

Let E (resp. E ) be a vector bundle on an open set U (resp. U ) of M . Giving an isomorphism of vector bundles ϕ : E|U ∩U → E|U ∩U enables us to define a vector bundle F on U ∪ U such that F|U E and F|U E : the set F is that of equivalence classes with respect to the relation ∼ on

the disjoint union E E such that e ∼ e if e = ϕ(e) (the reader will check as an exercise that the projection to M makes F a holomorphic vector bundle). The usual operations on vector spaces can be extended to vector bundles: direct sum, tensor product, homomorphisms. Given two vector bundles E, E of rank d, d on M , define (exercise) the vector bundles E ⊕ E (of rank d + d ), E ⊗ E (of rank dd ), L(E, E ) (of rank dd ), satisfying, for any m ∈ M , (E ⊕ E )m = Em ⊕ Em (E ⊗ E )m = Em ⊗ Em L(E, E )m = L(Em , Em )

(linear mappings).

4 Locally free sheaves of OM -modules Let E be a vector bundle on M and let U be an open set of M . A holomorphic section of E on U is a holomorphic mapping σ : U → E which is a section of the projection π, i.e., which satisfies π ◦σ = IdU . The set E (U ) of holomorphic sections is a module over OM (U ). The natural restriction mappings to open sets enables one to define a presheaf E on M , which is in fact a sheaf (exercise). It is a sheaf of OM -modules. Moreover, as E is locally isomorphic to a trivial bundle, this sheaf is locally isomorphic to the sheaf of holomorphic sections d : one says that E is locally free of the trivial bundle, which is nothing but OM of rank d on OM . We define in this way a functor from the category of vector bundles (the morphisms are the morphisms of vector bundles) to the category of locally free sheaves of OM -modules (a morphism between vector bundles gives rise, by composition, to a morphism between the sheaves of their holomorphic local sections). 4.1 Proposition (Equivalence between vector bundles and locally free sheaves). The functor defined in this way is an equivalence2 between the category of holomorphic vector bundles of rank d and that of locally free sheaves of OM -modules of rank d. Proof. Let us recall that a morphism ϕ : F → G of sheaves of OM modules consists in giving, for any open set U of M , a OM (U )-linear mapping 2

See §17 for elementary notions on categories.

8


Γ (U, F ) → Γ (U, G ) such that, for any pair of open sets V ⊂ U , the restriction diagram commutes: Γ (U, F )

Γ (V, F )

ϕ(U )

Γ (U, G )

Γ (V, G )

ϕ(V )

We denote by HomOM (F , G ) the space of OM -linear morphisms from F to G . This is a module over the ring Γ (M, OM ) of holomorphic functions on M (multiplication by a holomorphic function). 4.2 Remark. If F is a sheaf of OM -modules, a section σ ∈ Γ (U, F ) of F on an open set U is nothing but a homomorphism ϕ : OU → F|U ; as such a homomorphism is determined by the value σ = ϕ(1) ∈ Γ (U, F ) of the section ∼ 1 ∈ Γ (U, OM ). We thus have a canonical isomorphism HomOU (OU , F|U ) −→ Γ (U, F ). Let us come back to the proposition. So, let E and E be two holomorphic vector bundles on M and let E , E be the associated sheaves. Let us first show that the natural mapping L(E, E ) −→ HomOM (E , E )

(4.3)

is an isomorphism of Γ (M, OM )-modules. Injectivity. Let f : E → E be a morphism of vector bundles, whose image in HomOM (E , E ) is zero. Let us pick m ∈ M and let U be an open neighbourhood of m, which is trivializing for E and E . We thus have E|U U × Cd and E|U U × Cd . For any section σ : U → U × Cd , the composition

f ◦ σ : U → U × Cd vanishes. We deduce that the image by f (m) of each is the zero vector of the canonical basis of Cd is zero, hence f (m) : Em → Em linear map. Surjectivity. Assume first that E and E are trivializable, hence that E and E d d d d are free (E OM and E OM ). A morphism ϕ : OM → OM can be expressed, in the canonical bases, as a matrix (ϕij ) of size d × d, where ϕij : OM → OM is a morphism. The sheaf OM admits a canonical section, namely, the unit section 1, and ϕij (1) is a holomorphic function on M . Conversely, it is clear by linearity that ϕij (1) completely determines ϕij . Therefore, giving the matrix (ϕij (1)) is equivalent to giving ϕ. This matrix defines a morphism between the trivial bundles

M × Cd −→ M × Cd

(m, v) −→ (m, ϕ(1)(m) · v).

4 Locally free sheaves of OM -modules

9

In general, E and E are locally free. If ϕ : E → E is a morphism, one after restricting to any trivialconstructs a morphism of bundles E|U → E|U izing open set. The injectivity shown above implies that these morphisms can be glued in a morphism E → E . Essential surjectivity of the functor. It is a matter of verifying that any locally free OM -module E is isomorphic to the image of a bundle E by the functor. One first reconstructs the bundle E fibre by fibre from the sheaf E , then one equips the disjoint union of fibres with the structure of an analytic manifold. So, pick m ∈ M and let OM,m be the ring of germs at m of holomorphic functions on M . If (z1 , . . . , zn ) are holomorphic local coordinates for which m is the origin of coordinates, this ring is nothing but the ring of converging series C{z1 , . . . , zn }. Let m be the ideal of germs which vanish at m. If Em denotes the germ of E at m, we set Em = Em /mEm . This is a vector space of dimension d. We take for E the disjoint union of Em , equipped with its natural projection to M . One can endow E with the structure of a complex analytic manifold by considering a trivializing covering for E (exercise: give details). 4.4 Operations on locally free OM -modules. We describe below the operations corresponding to that on vector bundles, seen in §3.3. These operations are more generally defined for sheaves of (not necessarily locally free) OM -modules. When the data are locally free, the result is so. The reader will check as an exercise the correspondence with §3.3. •

Let f : M → N be a holomorphic mapping and let F be a sheaf of ON modules. Let f −1 F be the pullback sheaf (in the topological sense of sheaf theory; see for instance [God64, p. 121], where this operation is denoted by f ∗ ). We see in particular that f −1 ON is a sheaf of rings on M and that OM is also a sheaf of f −1 ON -modules. The pullback as sheaf of O-modules is f ∗ F := OM ⊗ f −1 F f −1 ON

∗

•

• •

so that, by definition, we have f ON = OM . The operation f ∗ transforms a sheaf of ON -modules into a sheaf of OM -modules. Let E (resp. E ) be a sheaf on an open set U (resp. U ) of M . Giving ∼ an isomorphism of sheaves ϕ : E|U ∩U −→ E|U ∩U enables one to define a sheaf F on U ∪U such that F|U E and F|U E . Hence, if E (resp. E ) is locally free on OU (resp. OU ), the sheaf F is also OU ∪U -locally free. The natural operations on modules can be extended to sheaves of OM modules: direct sum, tensor product, homomorphisms. Let us recall the construction of the sheaf H omOM (F , G ): we set, for any open set U of M , Γ (U, H omOM (F , G )) := HomOU (F|U , G|U ) where Hom has been defined in the proof of Proposition 4.1. One can check that there exist restriction mappings and that the presheaf obtained

10


in this way is a sheaf. When F and G are locally free of ranks d and d respectively, the sheaf H omOM (F , G ) is locally free of rank dd . One should be careful (see for instance [GM93, p. 104]) that in general the construction H om does not commute with taking germs in sheaf theory, but that, if F , G are locally free sheaves of OM -modules, we have, for any m ∈ M, H omOM (F , G )m = H omOM,m (Fm , Gm ) d and (this is a local property, so that, to prove it, one can assume F = OM d G = OM , where the result is clear).

4.5 Exercise (Subsheaves and subbundles). Prove that a homomorphism ϕ : F −→ G of locally free sheaves comes from an injective homomorphism between the corresponding bundles if and only if it is injective and if the quotient sheaf G /ϕ(F ) is also locally free. We will then say that F is a subbundle of the locally free sheaf G . Check that the homomorphism “multiplication by z” from OC into itself does not come from an injective morphism from the trivial bundle of rank one to itself.

5 Nonabelian cohomology We refer to [Fre57] for the elementary properties of nonabelian cohomology (see also, for instance, [BV89a, Chap. II.1, p. 110–123]). Let G be a sheaf of groups (not necessarily commutative). For instance, we will have to consider the sheaf GLd (OM ) whose sections on an open set of M are the invertible matrices of holomorphic functions on this open set. Let U be an open covering of M . A 1-cocycle of U with values in G consists in giving, for any pair (U, V ) of open sets of U, of an element ψU,V of G (U ∩ V ) (for instance, in the case of GLd (OM ), of a holomorphic mapping ψU,V : U ∩ V → GLd (C)) satisfying the cocycle condition (3.1)(∗). The set of 1-cocycles is denoted by Z 1 (U, G ). Exercise. Prove that, if ψ is a 1-cocycle, then ψV,U = (ψU,V )−1 . A coboundary is a 1-cocycle ψ for which there exists, for any U ∈ U, an element ηU ∈ G (U ) satisfying ψU,V = ηU · ηV−1 for all U, V ∈ U (one checks in a straightforward way that ψ so defined satisfies the cocycle condition). We say that η is a 0-cochain of U. Let us note that, if ψ is a coboundary, then so −1 (m) = (ψU,V (m))−1 for any m ∈ M . is the 1-cocycle ψ −1 defined by ψU,V Two cocycles ψ and ψ of U with values in G are equivalent 3 if there exists = ηU · ψU,V · ηV−1 for any pair (U, V ) of open a coboundary η such that ψU,V sets of U. 3

Check that this defines an equivalence relation.

5 Nonabelian cohomology

11

The first set of nonabelian cohomology H 1 (U, G ) is the quotient set of the set of cocycles by this equivalence relation. It is a set equipped with a distinguished element: the class of the “identity” cocycle. Nevertheless, it has no other structure in general, due to the possible noncommutativity of the sheaf G . 5.1 Exercise (Some properties of H 1 (U, G )). (1) When d = 1, prove that GL1 (O) = O ∗ (the sheaf of holomorphic functions which do not vanish) and that H 1 (U, O ∗ ) is an abelian group (with respect to multiplication). (2) A refinement V of U is an open covering (Vj )j∈J finer than U, i.e., such that any Vj is contained in some Ui . Then there exists at least one mapping α : J → I such that, for any j ∈ J, we have Vj ⊂ Uα(j) . Show that, if ψ = (ψUi ,Ui ), also denoted by (ψi,i ), is a 1-cocycle of U with values in G , α then ψ α defined by ψj,j = ψα(j),α(j )|Vj ∩V is a 1-cocycle of V. j (3) Prove that, if α, β : J → I are two such mappings, the cocycles ψ α and ψ β are equivalent via the 0-cochain η defined by ηj = ψβ(j),α(j) . (4) Conclude that there exists a refinement mapping independent of the choice of α ρ : H 1 (U, G ) −→ H 1 (V, G ). (5) Let ψ, ψ ∈ Z 1 (U, G ) be two 1-cocycles whose refinements ψ α and ψ are equivalent via some 0-cochain of V. Show that ψ and ψ are equivalent via some 0-cochain of U. (6) Conclude that the refinement mapping ρ is injective. (7) Denote by H 1 (M, G ) the limit of the inductive system H 1 (U, G ) constructed in such a way, indexed by all the open coverings of M . Prove that the natural mappings α

H 1 (U, G ) −→ H 1 (M, G ) are injective and deduce that, if one identifies the set H 1 (U, G ) to its image in H 1 (M, G ), the latter set is nothing but the union of the H 1 (U, G ). 5.2 Example (Pullback and cohomology). i be an increasing sequence of presheaves on a topological space X (1) Let F = F i . If Fi denotes the sheaf associated to F i and F and let us set F i is increasing and that associated to F , then the sequence of sheaves F i F = i Fi (in other words, for any x ∈ X, Fx = i Fi,x ). Indeed, let us pick x ∈ X. It is a matter of showing that (V ). (V ) = lim F lim F −→ i −→ i i i V x

V x

x , then s consists of a compatible family The inclusion ⊃ is clear. If s ∈ F sW ∈ F (W ) for any W contained in a sufficiently small open set V . There

12


j (V ). As a consequence, for any W ⊂ V , exists thus j such that sV ∈ F j (V ). sW = ρV,W (sV ) ∈ Fj (W ), and thus s ∈ limV x F −→ (2) Let X and S be two topological spaces, X being locally compact, and let H be a sheaf on S × X. Then, both presheaves 1 : U −→ H 1 (S × U, H ) and F 2 : U −→ H 1 (X|S×U , H ) F X

(where the union is taken over all open coverings X of S × X) have the 2 (U ) ⊂ F 1 (U ) is clear. If s is a section of same associated sheaf. Indeed, F 1 F1,x , then s comes from sU ∈ H (U , H ) for some open covering U of some open set S × U with U small enough containing x. If V is relatively compact in U and contains x, there exists X such that X|S×V = U|S×V . As a consequence, for any W ⊂ V , sW ∈ H 1 (X|S×W , H ), and thus s ∈ F2,x . (3) Let G be a sheaf on S and let p−1 1 G be its pullback by the projection p1 : S × X → S. Let us assume that X is connected. Then there is a bijection ∼ Γ (S, G ) −→ Γ (S × X, p−1 1 G) −1 (one can use that the étale cover q : p 1 G → S × X is the product p × Id : G × X → S × X; see §15.a for the notion of étale cover). (4) Let us now assume that S is compact and X is locally compact and locally connected (for instance, an open set in Cn ). Then, for any xo ∈ X, the germ at xo of the sheaf F associated to the presheaf U → H 1 (S×U, p−1 1 G) is equal to H 1 (S, G ). In order to prove this statement, one first shows that, for any open covering X of S ×X, there exists a finite open covering S of S, a refinement V of X and an open neighbourhood V of xo in X such that V|S×V = S ×V . Indeed, by compactness of S, if K is a compact neighbourhood of xo , there exists a refinement X of X which is finite when restricted to S × K and such that each open set in X which cuts S × K takes the form Sj × Vi . Let us denote by V the intersection of the Vi ’s which contain xo , and let us choose as V an open neighbourhood of xo relatively compact in V . One now refines X by taking the Sj × V ’s if i is such that Vi cuts S × V , and by taking the open sets in X which do not cut S × V . According to (2), the sheaf F is the sheaf associated to the presheaf X F X and thus to the presheaf V FV , with FV (U ) = −1 1 ˇ H (V|S×U , p1 G ). On the other hand, by considering the Cech complexes V (W ) = H 1 (S , G ) for any W ⊂ V , and the and according to (3), F restriction morphisms are reduced to identity. In particular, the sheaf V is constant with fibre H 1 (S , G ) when restricted FV associated to F V gives the assertion. to V . Applying (1) to the increasing sequence F (5) With the same assumptions (S compact and X open in Cn ), we moreover assume that there exists a finite open covering S such that H 1 (S , G ) =

5 Nonabelian cohomology

13

H 1 (S, G ) (we will say that such an open covering is good ; any refinement of a good open covering is still good). Then the sheaf F associated to the 1 presheaf U → H 1 (S × U, p−1 1 G ) is locally constant, with germ H (S, G ). One can indeed adapt the previous reasoning with any compact set K instead of xo . For any X , one can find a refinement V such that the open sets in V which cut S × K take the form Sj × Vi , where the finite family of Vi covers K and the family Sj is finite, covers S and is a good covering relative to G . Any x in K has then an open neighbourhood V (intersection of the Vi ’s which contain x) such that FV |V is the constant sheaf with germ H 1 (S , G ) = H 1 (S, G ). We get the assertion by applying (1). 5.3 Proposition (The cocycle of a vector bundle). (1) Let E be a vector bundle on M . If U is a covering of M trivializing for E and ψ is the corresponding cocycle, the image of the class [ψ] ∈ H 1 (U, GLd (OM )) in H 1 (M, GLd (OM )) only depends on E (and not on the choice of U and of ψ), and two bundles are isomorphic if and only if they define the same element. (2) Conversely, any element of H 1 (M, GLd (OM )) can be obtained in this way from a holomorphic bundle of rank d on M , unique up to isomorphism. Proof. Let us first show that two cocycles ψ, ψ defined by two bundles E, E for the same trivializing covering U are equivalent if and only if the bundles are isomorphic. Assume that there exists some 0-cochain η such that, for = ηU ψU,V ηV−1 . In particular, η defines, for any U ∈ U, an all U, V ∈ U, ψU,V d isomorphism U ×C → U ×Cd . By restricting to U , one defines an isomorphism σU by asking that the diagram below commutes: π −1 (U )

σU

ϕU U × Cd

∼ ηU

π −1 (U )

ϕU U × Cd

On U ∩ V we have −1 −1 −1 ϕV ϕ−1 U = ψU,V = ηU ψU,V ηV = ηU ϕV ϕU ηV

and hence σU and σV coincide. These isomorphisms can then be glued together ∼ to produce an isomorphism E −→ E . ∼ Conversely, if an isomorphism E −→ E is given, one constructs, with the same formulas, a 0-cochain η which makes ψ and ψ equivalent. The reader will check as an exercise the independence with respect to the covering. Let us now show the second point. Any cohomology class in the set H 1 (M, GLd (OM )) also belongs to H 1 (U, GLd (OM )) for a suitable covering U

14


(“injectivity” in Exercise 5.1). Let us choose a cocycle ψ which represents it. We then construct a bundle E as the quotient space of the disjoint union (U × Cd ) U ∈U

by the equivalence relation which identifies (m, v) ∈ U × Cd with (n, w) ∈ V × Cd if m = n ∈ U ∩ V and w = ψU,V (v). One can check that the set obtained in this way comes equipped with a projection to M (induced by the first projection on each term U × Cd ) which makes it a holomorphic bundle with ψ as an associated cocycle. 5.4 Remark. The isomorphism class of the bundles corresponding to the element Id of the set H 1 (M, GLd (OM )) is that of the trivial bundle π : M × Cd −→ M. 5.5 Exercise (Operations on cocycles). •

Prove that a holomorphic mapping f : M → N gives rise to mappings f ∗ : H 1 (U, GLd (ON )) −→ H 1 (f −1 U, GLd (OM )) (here, U is a covering of N and f −1 U is the covering of M consisting of the f −1 (U ), for U ∈ U), and f ∗ : H 1 (N, GLd (ON )) −→ H 1 (M, GLd (OM ))

•

passing to the limit. Define the operations analogous to that of “direct sum”, “tensor product” and “linear mappings” on the 1-nonabelian cohomology.

5.6 Remark. The reader will check as an exercise that the statements of Sections 3, 4 and 5 can be transposed word for word to the case of C ∞ vector bundles.

ˇ 6 Cech cohomology Let F be a sheaf of abelian groups (additive notation), for instance a sheaf of OM -modules. The construction of 1-cocycles can be generalized, as well ˇ as that of coboundaries, and enables one to construct the Cech cohomology groups with coefficients in the sheaf F . Let then U = (Ui )i∈I be an open covering of M . The group C k (U, F ) of k-cochains is the product of the groups Γ (Ui0 ∩ · · · ∩ Uik , F ) taken over all the families of elements of U indexed by an ordered subset of I having cardinal k + 1. A k-cochain can thus be written as σ = (σ

J)J≺I, #J=k+1 (here, J ≺ I U , F . means that J is an ordered subset) with σJ ∈ Γ i∈J i

ˇ 6 Cech cohomology

15

The coboundary operator δk : C k (U, F ) → C k+1 (U, F ) is defined by the formula below: for K ≺ I having cardinal k + 2, we set UK = j∈K Uj and (δk σ)K =

k+1

(−1) σK{i } |U . K

=0

One checks that δk+1 ◦ δk : C k (U, F ) → C k+2 (U, F ) is the zero mapping. We set H k (U, F ) := Ker δk / Im δk−1 . When V is a refinement of U, we have a natural mapping H k (V, F ) → H k (U, F ). The group H k (M, F ) is defined as the limit of the inductive system above, indexed by all the open coverings of M . One can readily verify that H 0 (U, F ) = Γ (M, F ) for any open covering U: this is another way to express the property of unique gluing of sections for a sheaf. The reader should take care that, for k 2, the refinement mappings are not necessarily injective. Nevertheless, we have: 6.1 Leray Theorem. If U is an acyclic covering for the sheaf F , that is, if H k (UJ , F ) = 0 for any k 1 and any J ⊂ I having a finite cardinal, then the natural mapping H k (U, F ) → H k (M, F ) is an isomorphism for any k 0. Proof. See for instance [GR65, p. 189], [GH78, p. 40] or [KS90, p. 125].

It is much more convenient to use the formalism of homological algebra, in particular the existence of a canonical flabby resolution, to define sheaf cohomology (see [God64, p. 164] or [KS90, Chap. 2]). The isomorphism theoˇ rem between the cohomology groups and the corresponding Cech cohomology groups (see for instance [God64, p. 228]) enables one to identify both kinds of cohomology. For the computations, the following is very useful: 6.2 Theorem (The long exact sequence). A short exact sequence of sheaves 0 −→ F −→ F −→ F −→ 0 gives rise to a long exact sequence in cohomology 0 → H 0 (M, F ) → H 0 (M, F ) → H 0 (M, F ) → H 1 (M, F ) → · · · · · · → H k (M, F ) → H k (M, F ) → H k (M, F ) → H k+1 (M, F ) → · · · Proof. See for instance [GH78, p. 40] or [God64, p. 224].

∞

The existence of C partitions of unity adapted to a locally finite open covering enables one to obtain, for the sheaf of C ∞ functions on a manifold: 6.3 Theorem (The C ∞ sheaf has no cohomology). For any k 1, the ∞ ) are zero. cohomology spaces H k (M, CM Proof. See for instance [GH78, p. 42].

16


7 Line bundles According to §5, the isomorphism classes of holomorphic bundles of rank one on an analytic manifold M are in one-to-one correspondence with the ∗ (the sections elements of H 1 (M, GL1 (OM )). As the group GL1 (OM ) = OM on an open set are the holomorphic functions nowhere vanishing on this open set) is abelian, this set is a (abelian) group. The product corresponds to the tensor product of line bundles (or of locally free sheaves of rank one). Any such sheaf L admits then an inverse element for the tensor product: if ψ is a 1-cocycle associated to this line bundle, ψU,V is a holomorphic function nowhere vanishing on U ∩ V , and the function 1/ψU,V gives the 1-cocycle for the inverse bundle. 7.1 Exercise. Show that the inverse element of the sheaf L is isomorphic to its dual sheaf, namely H omOM (L , OM ). 7.a The exponential as a sheaf morphism The mapping z → exp(2iπz) enables one to define, by composition, a surjective homomorphism of sheaves (7.2)

∗ OM −→ OM f −→ exp(2iπf )

∗ Indeed, let us recall that Γ (U, OM ) is the set of holomorphic functions on U ∗ is the set of germs at m of which vanish nowhere on U and the germ OM,m holomorphic functions which do not vanish at m. Saying that the morphism above is onto is equivalent to saying that, for any m, the morphism OM,m → ∗ ∗ is so. Therefore, let us pick mo ∈ M and g ∈ OM,m OM,m o . There exists a neighbourhood U of mo on which g is defined and the image of which is contained in C Δ, where Δ is the real half-line starting from 0 and passing by ig(mo ). There exists on this domain a function “logarithm” and one defines log g(m) f : U → C by f (m) = . The germ of f at mo is a preimage of g. 2iπ

7.b Exact sequence of the exponential and Chern class If U is an open set of M , a holomorphic function f : U → C satisfies exp 2iπf ≡ 1 if and only if f is locally constant with integral values on U , in other words, if and only if f is a section of the constant sheaf ZM on U . We deduce that there is an exact sequence of sheaves of abelian groups (where one ∗ ): uses additive notation for ZM and OM , and multiplicative notation for OM exp 2iπ · ∗ 0 −→ ZM −→ OM −−−−−−−−→ OM −→ 1.

8 Meromorphic bundles, lattices

17

Theorem 6.2 shows the existence of a homomorphism of abelian groups ∗ H 1 (M, OM ) −→ H 2 (M, ZM ). ∗ If L is a holomorphic line bundle on M and if [ψ] ∈ H 1 (M, OM ) denotes the class of a cocycle associated to L, we denote by c1 (L) the image of [ψ] in H 2 (M, ZM ): this is the Chern class of the bundle L. Two isomorphic line bundles have the same Chern class, but the converse can be wrong (however we shall see in §I.2 that it is true when M is the Riemann sphere P1 (C)).

7.3 Exercise (The Chern class is functorial). (1) Let L and L be two line bundles on M . Prove that c1 (L ⊗ L ) = c1 (L) + c1 (L ). (2) Show that, if f : M → N is a holomorphic mapping and L is a line bundle on N , we have c1 (f ∗ L) = f ∗ c1 (L). 7.4 Exercise (Chern class of a C ∞ bundle). (1) Show that we have an exact sequence ∞ exp 2iπ· ∞∗ 0 −→ ZM −→ CM −−−−−−−→ CM −→ 0.

(2) Prove that a C ∞ line bundle on M is determined (up to isomorphism) by its Chern class. (3) Show that the Chern class of a holomorphic line bundle is equal to that of the underlying C ∞ bundle.

8 Meromorphic bundles, lattices Let Z be a smooth hypersurface in a complex analytic manifold M (see §2). If U is an open set of M , the intersection Z ∩ U is still a smooth hypersurface of U . A holomorphic function on U Z ∩ U is said to be meromorphic along Z ∩U if, for any chart V of M contained in U , in which Z ∩V is defined by the vanishing of some coordinate, z1 for instance, there exists an integer m such that z1m f (z1 , . . . , zn ) is locally bounded in the neighbourhood of any point of Z ∩ V , that is, can be extended as a holomorphic function on V . One defines in this way a presheaf on M , which is a sheaf indeed, denoted by OM (∗Z). It contains OM as a subsheaf. It also contains the subsheaf OM (kZ) (k ∈ Z), locally written in a chart as above as the subsheaf of meromorphic functions f such that z1k f is holomorphic (i.e., f has a pole of order at most k if k > 0 and f has a zero of order at least −k, if k 0, along Z). 8.1 Lemma. The subsheaves OM (kZ) are locally free of rank one on OM .

18


8.2 Remark. If Z has many connected components Z1 , . . . , Zp , one can, in an analogous way, define the subsheaves OM (k1 Z1 +· · ·+kp Zp ), which are also locally free of rank one. If E is a bundle, one sets E (kZ) = E ⊗OM OM (kZ) and one defines similarly E (k1 Z1 + · · · + kp Zp ). 8.3 Definition (Meromorphic bundles, lattices). A meromorphic bundle on M with poles along Z is a locally free sheaf of OM (∗Z)-modules of finite rank. A lattice of this meromorphic bundle is a locally free OM -submodule of this meromorphic bundle, which has the same rank. In particular, a lattice E of a meromorphic bundle M coincides with M when restricted to M Z. Moreover, we have M = OM (∗Z) ⊗ E . OM

A meromorphic bundle M can contain nonisomorphic lattices. It can also contain no lattice at all (see for instance [Mal94, Mal96] where a criterion for the existence of lattices in a meromorphic bundle is also given). Nevertheless, we have: 8.4 Proposition (The lattices do exist). Let M be a Riemann surface and let Z ⊂ M be a discrete set of points. Then any meromorphic bundle on M with poles at the points of Z contains at least a lattice. Proof. One constructs such a lattice by a gluing procedure. One chooses a covering of M by open sets U = M Z and Um (m ∈ Z) in such a way that Um ∩ Un = ∅ if m = n and that, for any m ∈ Z, there is a trivialization of the restriction of M to Um . One chooses, for any m ∈ Z, a lattice E(m) of M|Um (it is enough to choose a lattice of OUm (∗m)d and to carry it with the trivializing isomorphism) and one takes the bundle M|U itself as lattice on U . As M|U and E(m) coincide on U ∩ Um = Um {m}, one can define a lattice of M by gluing the local lattices defined in this way. On the other hand, any vector bundle E gives rise to a meromorphic bundle for which it is a lattice, namely M = OM (∗Z) ⊗OM E . One shows as in Proposition 5.3 that there is a one-to-one correspondence between the set of isomorphism classes of meromorphic bundles of rank d and the set H 1 (M, GLd (OM (∗Z))). Therefore, a meromorphic bundle can be defined, up to isomorphism, by a cocycle made with matrices having meromorphic entries with poles along Z. The natural mapping H 1 (M, GLd (OM )) −→ H 1 (M, GLd (OM (∗Z))) is in general neither injective nor surjective. Proposition 8.4 above shows that, when M is a Riemann surface, it is surjective.

9 Examples of holomorphic and meromorphic bundles

19

9 Examples of holomorphic and meromorphic bundles 9.a The cotangent bundle and the sheaves of holomorphic forms Let U be an open set of M . A holomorphic vector field on U is by definition a C-linear endomorphism of the sheaf OU which is a derivation, that is, which satisfies the “Leibniz rule”: ξ(f g) = gξ(f ) + f ξ(g) for any open set V ⊂ U and all f, g ∈ O(V ). We define in this way a presheaf on M , which is in fact a sheaf (the reader should check this), that we denote by ΘM : this is the sheaf of holomorphic vector fields on M . The dual 1 : this is the sheaf of holomorphic sheaf H omOM (ΘM , OM ) is denoted by ΩM differential 1-forms. 1 1 9.1 Proposition (The bundles ΘM and ΩM ). The sheaves ΘM and ΩM are locally free sheaves of rank n of OM -modules.

Proof. As the statement is of a local nature, it is enough to check it for open 1 sets of Cn . Moreover, if it is true for ΘM , it is also true for ΩM . One verifies n then that on an open set of C with coordinates z1 , . . . , zn , the sheaf Θ is isomorphic to O n having as a basis the derivations ∂/∂z1 , . . . , ∂/∂zn . The dual basis of 1-forms is denoted by dz1 , . . . , dzn . Any holomorphic function on an open set U of M gives rise to a section df 1 of ΩM on U , defined by the property that, for any open set4 V ⊂ U and any holomorphic vector field ξ on V , df|V (ξ) = ξ(f|V ). The bundle corresponding to the sheaf ΘM is the tangent bundle T M → M 1 is the cotangent bundle T ∗ M → M . and that corresponding to ΩM In a chart of M with coordinates z1 , . . . , zn , a holomorphic 1-form can thus be written in a unique way as ω=

n

ϕj (z1 , . . . , zn )dzj ,

j=1

where the ϕj are holomorphic functions and, in particular, df =

n ∂f dzj . ∂z j j=1

Let V be an analytic submanifold of M and let iV : V → M denote the inclusion. The restriction to V of the sheaf ΘM (in the sense given in §4.4) 4

Why can’t we only use the open set U ?

20


is locally free of rank dim M on V . This sheaf contains the subsheaf ΘV of vector fields tangent to V , i.e., there exists a canonical inclusion (9.2)

ΘV −→ i∗V ΘM = OV

⊗

i−1 V OM

i−1 V ΘM .

In a dual way, there exists a canonical surjection (9.3)

1 i∗V ΩM = OV

⊗

i−1 V OM

1 1 i−1 V ΩM −→ ΩV .

If the manifold V is locally defined by the equations zp+1 = · · · = zn = 0, so coordinates on V , the sheaf ΩV1 admits that (z1 , . . . , zp ) is a system of local p as local sections the combinations i=1 ϕi (z1 , . . . , zp )dzi where the ϕi are ∗ 1 holomorphic, while the sheaf i Ω admits as local sections the combinations V M n ϕ (z , . . . , z )dz , where the ϕ are holomorphic. The surjection (9.3) p j j j=1 j 1 consists in forgetting the n − p last terms dzj . More generally, if f : M → M is a holomorphic mapping between two manifolds, the associated tangent morphism T f is a morphism of OM modules (9.4)

T f : ΘM −→ f ∗ ΘM

and the cotangent morphism is a morphism (9.5)

1 1 T ∗f : f ∗ ΩM −→ ΩM .

We let the reader define them with coordinates. One can apply the natural operations on vector bundles to these bun1 1 dles. In particular, the exterior product ΩM ∧ ΩM is the sheaf of holomor2 phic 2-forms, denoted by ΩM or, equivalently, that of alternate bilinear forms on ΘM . There is a C-linear homomorphism 1 2 d : ΩM −→ ΩM .

In a local chart as above, any 2-form η can be written in a unique way ψij (z1 , . . . , zn )dzi ∧ dzj , η= 1i<jn

where ψj are holomorphic functions and, in particular, ∂ϕj ∂ϕi − dω = dzi ∧ dzj . ∂zi ∂zj 1i<jn

9.6 Exercise (Properties of the differential). (1) Check that, for any germ f of holomorphic function, d(df ) = 0 and that (cf. [GHL87, p. 45]), for any 1-form ω and any pair (ξ, η) of vector fields, dω(ξ, η) = ξ(ω(η)) − η(ω(ξ)) − ω([ξ, η]).


21

(2) Show that, if f : M → M is a holomorphic mapping, the cotangent mapping T ∗f is compatible with the differential, i.e., d(ϕ ◦ f ) = T ∗f (dϕ) for any germ of holomorphic function ϕ on M . 9.7 Lemma (Holomorphic Poincar´ e Lemma). The sequence d d 1 2 0 −→ C −→ OM −−→ ΩM −−→ ΩM is exact, that is, for any m ∈ M , (1) if f is a germ of holomorphic function at m such that df = 0, then f is the germ of a constant function; (2) if ω is a germ at m of a holomorphic 1-form such that dω = 0, then there exists a germ at m of holomorphic function f such that ω = df . Proof. Easy by considering the Taylor expansion of f or of the ϕi .

9.8 Exercise (A case where the closed 1-forms are exact). Let M be a complex analytic manifold which satisfies H 1 (M, CM ) = 0, where CM denotes the constant sheaf. Show that any closed holomorphic 1-form ω, i.e., such that dω = 0, is exact, i.e., of the form ω = df with f holomorphic on M (show that the short sequence of sheaves d 1 −→ 0, 0 −→ CM −→ OM −−→ ZM 1 1 where ZM denotes the subsheaf of ΩM of closed 1-forms, is exact, and then consider the associated long exact sequence in cohomology).

9.9 Exercise (The de Rham complex is exact). Define, for any k 1, k 1 the sheaf of holomorphic k-forms ΩM as ∧k ΩM , extend definition of the difk+1 k ferential d : ΩM → ΩM and show that the sequence d d d d 1 k −−→ · · · −−→ ΩM −−→ · · · 0 −→ CM −→ OM −−→ ΩM is exact. 9.b Meromorphic and logarithmic differential forms We assume as in §8 that Z is a smooth hypersurface of M . Let k k ΩM (∗Z) := OM (∗Z) ⊗ ΩM OM

be the sheaf of meromorphic differential k-forms. This is a meromorphic bundle. The differential d defined in §9.a can be extended as a C-linear homomork+1 k (∗Z) → ΩM (∗Z), that is, the meromorphy property along Z phism d : ΩM is preserved by differentiation (this is obvious by a local computation in the charts).

22


1 1 The meromorphic bundle ΩM (∗Z) contains ΩM as a lattice. It also contains another lattice which is often more useful, namely the lattice of loga1 log Z. Let us pick rithmic differential 1-forms along Z. We denote it by ΩM o z ∈ Z and let U be a chart of M equipped with a system of local coordinates z1 , . . . , zn such that z o is the origin of coordinates and Z is defined by z1 = 0. We say that a meromorphic form ω = ϕ1 dz1 + · · · + ϕn dzn is logarithmic along Z if ϕ2 , . . . , ϕn are holomorphic and ϕ1 has a pole of order at most 1 along Z; in other words, the form can be written as

dz1 + ψi dzi , z1 i=2 n

(9.10)

ω = ψ1

where ψ1 , . . . , ψn are holomorphic on U . 9.11 Example (Logarithmic and nonlogarithmic forms). The form dz2 /z1 is not logarithmic along {z1 = 0} while dz2 and dz1 /z1 are logarithmic. 1 log Z Nevertheless, on a Riemann surface, there is no difference between ΩM 1 1 and ΩM (Z) = ΩM (1 · Z). 9.12 Proposition (The residue). (1) The notion of logarithmic form does not depend on the choice of local coordinates adapted to Z. (2) There exists a homomorphism, called residue and denoted by 1 res : ΩX log Z −→ OZ ,

which associates to the form ω = ψ1 dz1 /z1 + ψ1 (0, z2 , . . . , zn ).

n i=2

ψi dzi the function

Proof. Let (z1 , . . . , zn ) and ( z1 , . . . , z n ) be two systems of local coordinates adapted to Z. The coordinate change can be written as z i = fi (z1 , . . . , zn ),

i = 1, . . . , n

and the set of zeroes of f1 is equal to {z1 = 0}, hence f1 = z1 g1 (z1 , . . . , zn ) with g1 holomorphic. Moreover, the Jacobian matrix ((∂fi /∂zj )i,j ) is invertible at the origin, which implies that g1 (0, . . . , 0) = 0 and that the submatrix ((∂fi /∂zj )i,j=1 ) is also invertible. If ω is logarithmic in the coordinate system ( z1 , . . . , z n ), one can write n d z1 ω = ψ 1 + zi ψi d z 1 i=2

where the ψ i ( z1 , . . . , z n ) are holomorphic. Therefore, n dz1 dg1 ω = ψ 1 ◦ f · + ψ i ◦ f · dfi . + z1 g1 i=2


23

One can see on this expression that the form ω is also logarithmic in the coordinate system (z1 , . . . , zn ) in a neighbourhood of the origin as the function 1/g1 is holomorphic there. Moreover, in these coordinates, the residue can be written as ψ 1 ◦ f|z1 =0 = ψ 1 (0, f2 (0, z2 , . . . , zn ), . . . , fn (0, z2 , . . . , zn )), in other words, it is the residue of ω in the system ( z1 , . . . , z n ) written in the coordinates z2 , . . . , zn of Z. 1 log Z, the local One can then define in an obvious way the sheaf ΩM sections of which are the logarithmic forms along Z, and the reader will show as an exercise:

9.13 Proposition (Freeness of logarithmic forms). The sheaf of logarithmic 1-forms along Z is a locally free sheaf of rank n of OM -modules. It is 1 (∗Z). a lattice of ΩM One can also define a new notion of order of the pole along Z: a meromorphic 1-form ω with poles along Z has order r 0 if in any local chart where Z is defined by z1 = 0, the form z1r ω is logarithmic. We define in 1 1 (r + 1) log Z of ΩM (∗Z). If Z has many connected this way a lattice ΩM components Z1 , . . . , Zp , one can also define the sheaves of differential forms 1 (r1 + 1) log Z1 + · · · + (rp + 1) log Zp . ΩM

When M is a Riemann surface, these sheaves are identical to the sheaves 1 ((r + 1)Z) ΩM

and

1 ΩM ((r1 + 1)Z1 + · · · + (rp + 1)Zp )

introduced in Remark 8.2. 9.14 Exercise (Order of a meromorphic form). (1) Compute, for r 0, the order of the forms dz1 /z1r and dz2 /z1r . (2) Let f be a meromorphic function on an open set U of M , with poles along Z ∩ U . Show that the logarithmic differential ω = df /f is a section of ΩU1 log Z. 9.15 Remark (The residue and the “residue”). If ω is a meromorphic form with pole of order r along a hypersurface Z having z1 = 0 as its local equation, one can write r z1−k ωk ω= k=0

where the ωk are logarithmic. Let us set, in local coordinates, (k) dz1

ω k = ψ1

z1

+

n i=2

(k)

ψi dzi .

24


The decomposition of ω above is not unique, but it becomes so if one more(k) over asks that, for any k 1, the functions ψi (i = 1, . . . , n) depend only on z2 , . . . , zn . The dependence of the coefficients on z1 only appears in the logarithmic term ω0 . Assume now that M is the product of a disc with Z. Then •

on the one hand, one can define a homomorphism 1 res : ΩM (r + 1) log Z −→ OZ

•

by integrating ω along a circle centered at the origin in D: this is also the residue of ω0 ; on the other hand, the residue of z1r ω, that is, that of ωr , depends on the choice of coordinates up to multiplication by an invertible holomorphic function. In particular, if one fixes a local coordinate z1 on D, one can define in this way a “residue” homomorphism 1 “res” : ΩM (r + 1) log Z −→ OZ .

9.16 Remarks (cf. [Del70, §3]). (1) As usual, we set, for any k 1, k 1 ΩM log Z = ∧k ΩM log Z.

It can be useful to have an intrinsic definition (i.e., without coordinates) k k of these sheaves. A local section ω of ΩM (∗Z) is a section of ΩM log Z if and only if ω and dω have at most simple poles along Z (see [Del70, Prop. 3.2]). (2) The notion of a logarithmic form can be extended in a natural way to the case where Z is a union (not necessarily disjoint) of smooth hypersurfaces Z1 , . . . , Zp which meet transversally. In the neighbourhood of an intersection point of exactly m hypersurfaces, say Z1 , . . . , Zm , there exist local coordinates z1 , . . . , zn such that Zi is defined by zi = 0 (i = 1, . . . , m) and a logarithmic form can be written as m

n dzi ω= ψi + ψj dzj zi i=1 j=m+1 1 where the ψj are holomorphic. All the properties of the sheaf ΩM log Z seen above can be extended to this situation. (3) The definition given in (1) above remains meaningful even if the hypersurface Z has singularities. When these singularities are normal crossings (as in (2) above), nothing really new happens. For more complicated singularities, the sheaf of logarithmic forms is harder to analyze. When this sheaf is locally free (of rank dim M ), one says that the hypersurface is a free divisor. We will see a remarkable example in §VII.1.10.

10 Affine varieties, analytization, algebraic differential forms

25

10 Affine varieties, analytization, algebraic differential forms We will now take up in an algebraic framework some of the notions introduced above. This will enable us to work with objects having polynomial—and not only analytic—coefficients. The affine setting will suffice. For more details (in particular the projective setting), the reader can refer for instance to [Har80] or [Per95]. 10.a Affine varieties An affine algebraic set is by definition the zero set, in the affine space An with coordinates u1 , . . . , un , of a family of polynomials in the ui . One can assume that this family is finite, as the ring of polynomials is Noetherian. The Zariski topology on An is the topology for which the open sets are the complements of affine algebraic subsets. Such a set is irreducible if it is not the union of two affine algebraic proper subsets. One equips it with the Zariski topology, induced by that of An . 10.1 Example (Elementary affine open sets). Fix f ∈ C[u1 , . . . , un ]. The “elementary” open set U = {f = 0} ⊂ An is an affine algebraic set: U = {1 − u0 f (u1 , . . . , un ) = 0} ⊂ An+1 . In particular, the complex torus (C∗ )n = {u1 · · · un = 0} is an affine algebraic set. On the other hand, the open set An {0} is not affine as soon as n 2. Let U be a Zariski open set of an affine algebraic set Z ⊂ An . A function f : U → C is said to be regular if, for any point z o ∈ U , there exist two polynomials g, h ∈ C[u1 , . . . , un ] such that h(z o ) = 0 and f ≡ g/h on the open set V = U {h = 0}. We define in this way a sheaf U → OZ (U ) on Z equipped with its Zariski topology: this is the sheaf of regular functions on the set Z, which is called an affine variety. Let IZ ⊂ C[u1 , . . . , un ] be the ideal of polynomials which vanish on Z. Then (cf. [Har80, Chap. 1, Th. 3.2]), Γ (Z, OZ ) = C[u1 , . . . , un ]/IZ . The locally free sheaves of finite type (resp. coherent) of OZ -modules correspond to the modules which are free of finite type (resp. of finite type) over the ring C[u1 , . . . , un ]/IZ by the functors (cf. [Ser55]). F −→ Γ (Z, F ) = F,

F −→ OZ

⊗

Γ (Z,OZ )

F = F.

26


10.b Analytization Let Z ⊂ An be an affine variety and let Z be the same subset, equipped with the topology induced by the usual topology of Cn . Then the identity mapping Id : Z → Z is continuous (as a Zariski open set is also an open set for the usual topology). A function f defined on an open set U of Z is said to be holomorphic if, for any z o ∈ U , there exist an open neighbourhood V of z o in Cn and a holomorphic function g : V → C such that g|V ∩U = f|U . The space Z , equipped with the sheaf of holomorphic functions, is denoted by Z an . If F is a locally free (or coherent) sheaf of OZ -modules and if F = Id−1 F denotes the sheaf that it induces on Z , one sets F an = OZ an ⊗Id−1 OZ F : this is the analytization of the sheaf F . It is a locally free (or coherent) sheaf of OZ an -modules. The essential property of this functor F → F an comes from the following result (cf. for instance [AM69] for the notion of flatness): 10.2 Theorem (Faithful flatness, [Ser56]). For any z o ∈ Z, the ring OZ an ,zo of germs of holomorphic functions on Z an at z o is faithfully flat over the ring OZ,zo of germs of regular functions on Z at z o . A consequence of faithful flatness (see for instance [Mat80] for this notion) is the following statement, maybe more “concrete”: 10.3 Corollary. Let ϕ : F → F be a homomorphism of sheaves of OZ modules. If ϕan : F an → F an is an isomorphism, then so is ϕ. When Z is irreducible, one defines the dimension of Z as the Krull dimension of the integral ring Γ (Z, OZ ), that is, the maximal length of increasing sequences of prime ideals. 10.c Nonsingular affine varieties The sheaf Der OZ of derivations of the sheaf OZ can be defined as in §9.a and the sheaf of differential algebraic 1-forms ΩZ1 is by definition the sheaf H omOZ (Der OZ , OZ ). The following result collects the definitions that we will have to use. 10.4 Theorem (The regular points, cf. for instance [Per95, Chap. 5]). Let Z ⊂ An be an irreducible affine variety. The following properties are equivalent: (1) If f1 , . . . , fp ∈ C[u1 , . . . , un ] generate the ideal IZ , then the Jacobian matrix ((∂fi /∂uj )ij ) has constant rank on Z, equal to n − dim Z. (2) The set Z an is a complex analytic submanifold of Cn . (3) The sheaf ΩZ1 is locally free of rank dim Z. (4) There exists a finite covering of Z by Zariski open sets Ui and, on each (i) (i) Ui , regular functions x1 , . . . , xdim Z which form an étale chart.

11 Holomorphic connections on a vector bundle

27

If these properties are satisfied, we say that Z is a nonsingular affine variety. On a nonsingular affine variety, the sheaves of forms ΩZk := ∧k ΩZ1 are thus also locally free and (ΩZk )an = ΩZk an (use étale charts). 10.5 Exercise (The hyperelliptic curve). Let a1 , . . . , ad be complex numbers. Show that the subset of C2 having equation y2 =

d

(x − aj )

j=1

is an affine variety of dimension one, and that it is nonsingular if and only if the aj are pairwise distinct.

11 Holomorphic connections on a vector bundle It is not in general possible to define an action by derivation of vector fields on any vector bundle, as for the trivial bundle OM or its powers. Moreover, there exist various ways to make vector fields act as derivation on the trivial bundles. The notion of holomorphic connection (also called covariant derivative) will enable us to take these phenomena into account. 11.1 Definition (of a connection). A holomorphic connection ∇ on a holomorphic vector bundle π : E → M is a C-linear homomorphism of sheaves 1 ∇ : E −→ ΩM ⊗OM E

satisfying the Leibniz rule: for any open set U of M , any section s ∈ Γ (U, E ) and any holomorphic function f ∈ O(U ), 1 ∇(f · s) = f ∇(s) + df ⊗ s ∈ Γ (U, ΩM ⊗OM E ).

Any holomorphic vector field ξ on an open set U of M induces (by defi1 nition of ΩM ) a OU -linear homomorphism of contraction (also called interior product) ιξ : ΩU1 → OU . We deduce from it a homomorphism of contraction ιξ : ΩU1 ⊗ E|U → E|U for any OU -module EU . The connection ∇ enables then to define a derivation along ξ on the sheaf E|U : for any open set V ⊂ U and any section s ∈ Γ (V, E ), one defines ∇ξ (s) 1 ⊗ E ) by the field ξ. We have as the result of the contraction of ∇s ∈ Γ (V, ΩM ∇ξ (f · s) = f ∇ξ (s) + ξ(f ) · s. 11.2 Proposition (The affine space of connections). Two holomorphic connections ∇ and ∇ on a bundle E differ by a OM -linear homomorphism 1 Ω : E −→ ΩM ⊗OM E .

Conversely, adding such a homomorphism Ω to a connection ∇ gives a new connection ∇ .

28


Proof. If one applies the Leibniz rule to ∇ − ∇ , the terms which are inde pendent of the connection cancel, hence the OM -linearity. 11.3 Example (Connections on the trivial bundle). The trivial bundle 1 of rank one is equipped with the connection d : OM → ΩM . In an analogous way, the trivial bundle of rank δ is equipped with the direct sum connection

1 δ δ → ΩM . Any other connection ∇ on the trivial bundle of rank δ can d : OM 1 ) of be written as ∇ = d + Ω where Ω is a global section of the sheaf Mδ (ΩM 1 δ × δ matrices with entries in ΩM . 11.a Local expression of the connection Let U be a trivializing open set for E and let e = (e1 , . . . , ed ) be a basis of Γ (U, E );any holomorphic section s of E on U can thus be written in a unique way as j sj ej with sj ∈ O(U ). There exists then a d × d matrix Ω = (ωij ) of holomorphic 1-forms such that (11.4) ∇(ei ) = ωji ⊗ ej . j

We can write this equality with matrices5 : ⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞ ∇(e1 ) e1 ⎜ .. ⎟ t ⎜ .. ⎟ Ω ⊗ = ⎝ . ⎠ ⎝.⎠ ∇(ed )

ed

We say that Ω is the connection matrix ∇ in the basis e. If s = holomorphic section of E on U , one can write, using matrices6 , ⎛ ⎛ ⎞⎞ e1 ⎜ ⎜ ⎟⎟ ∇(s) = ∇ ⎝(s1 , . . . , sd ) · ⎝ ... ⎠⎠

i si ei

is a

ed ⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞ e1 e1 ⎜ .. ⎟ ⎜ .. ⎟ = (ds1 , . . . , dsd ) ⊗ ⎝ . ⎠ + (s1 , . . . , sd ) · ∇ ⎝ . ⎠ ed

ed ⎛ ⎞ e1 ⎜ ⎟

= (ds1 , . . . , dsd ) + (s1 , . . . , sd ) · tΩ ⊗ ⎝ ... ⎠ ed 5

6

The choice that we make to put the differential form “on the left” does not simplify the matrix expression and forces us to write the basis as a column vector, hence the need to transpose; nevertheless this choice is more natural, because the vector fields act on the left on the bundle with connection. Here also, we transpose of the usual way or writing.


29

Let ε = (ε1 , . . . , εd ) be another basis of sections of E on U and let P ∈ Γ (U, GLd (OM )) be the base change from e to ε: (ε1 , . . . , εd ) = (e1 , . . . , ed ) · P. Then the matrix Ω of ∇ in the basis ε can be obtained from Ω by the formula (11.5)

Ω = P −1 ΩP + P −1 dP.

11.6 Exercise. Write explicitly the formula for the base change in a local chart of M with coordinates z1 , . . . , zn in which the sheaf E has basis e: set n () P = (Pij )1i,jd and Ω = (ωij )1i,jd with ωij = =1 ϕij dz . δ is zero 11.7 Example. The connection matrix of d on the trivial bundle OM in the canonical basis.

11.b Operations on bundles with connection Let (E, ∇) and (E , ∇ ) be two holomorphic bundles equipped with holomorphic connections. One can equip in a natural way the bundles E ⊕E , L(E, E ) and E ⊗ E with holomorphic connections that we denote by ∇ . If s and s are two holomorphic local sections of E and E respectively, we set for any vector field ξ, • • •

∇ξ (s ⊕ s ) := ∇ξ (s) ⊕ ∇ξ (s ), in other words ∇ = ∇ ⊕ ∇ ; ∇ξ (s ⊗ s ) := (∇ξ (s) ⊗ s ) + (s ⊗ ∇ξ (s )), in other words ∇ = (∇ ⊗ Id) + (Id ⊗∇ ); if ϕ : E → E is a homomorphism, ∇ξ (ϕ) is the local section of L(E, E ) defined by ∇ξ (ϕ)(s) = ∇ξ (ϕ(s)) − ϕ (∇ξ (s)) .

11.8 Exercise (The connection on the bundle of endomorphisms). (1) Define the natural connection on the bundle E ∗ dual to the bundle E. Show that both natural connections on E ∗ ⊗ E and L(E, E ) coincide. (2) Compute in a local basis of E and E the connection matrices of ∇ from Ω and Ω . (3) Check in particular that, if Ω is the matrix of ∇ in the basis e, that of ∇ on End(E) = L(E, E) in the basis deduced from e is ad Ω : A −→ [Ω, A]. 11.c Pullback of bundles with connection Let (E, ∇) be a holomorphic bundle with connection on an analytic manifold M and let f : M → M be a holomorphic mapping from an analytic manifold M to M . We know how to define the pullback E = f ∗ E of the

30


bundle E on the manifold M (cf. §§3.3 and 4.4). The sheaf E of holomorphic sections of E is given by the formula E = OM

(11.9)

⊗

f −1 OM

f −1 E .

We use the notation E = f ∗ E and E = f ∗ E . When E is the cotangent bundle T ∗ M , the cotangent mapping T ∗f is a morphism of bundles T ∗f : f ∗ T ∗ M −→ T ∗ M defining a morphism of sheaves of OM -modules (cf. §9.a) 1 1 T ∗f : f ∗ ΩM −→ ΩM .

Let (E, ∇) be a holomorphic bundle with connection. Let us define the pullback 1 ∇ : E −→ ΩM ⊗ E OM

of the connection ∇. The problem comes from the non OM -linearity of ∇. Its pullback cannot be defined by simply using the pullback functor for vector bundles, as given by Formula (11.9). 11.10 Example (Pullback by a projection). Assume that M is the product M × M and that f is the first projection. The pullback ∇ of the connection ∇ has a simple definition in this case: indeed, in such a case, any vector field ξ on an open set of M can be written in a unique way as the sum of a “horizontal” field ξ (i.e., section of f ∗ ΘM ) and of a “vertical” field ξ (i.e., section of p∗ ΘM if p denotes the second projection); by definition, the action of ∇ξ on the sections of E like 1 ⊗ e, e a section of E , is zero; on the other hand, if ξ is the sum of fields like ϕ ⊗ η, where η is a field on an open set of M and ϕ a function on an open set of M , then ∇ξ (1 ⊗ e) is determined by the formula ∇ϕ⊗η (1 ⊗ e) = ϕ ⊗ ∇η (e). We will start with an a priori nonintrinsic definition, in local coordinates, when M is a complex analytic submanifold of M and f denotes the inclusion mapping (this case is called restriction of the bundle with connection). Assume that M is an open set of Cn with coordinates z1 , . . . , zn and that M is the trace on this open set of the subspace with equations z1 = · · · = zp = 0. Assume also that E is trivialized and equipped with a basis e of holomorphic sections on M . We can then write the connection matrix in this basis as n Ω= Ω (i) (z1 , . . . , zn ) dzi . i=1

The matrix of ∇ on the bundle E , in the basis e restriction of e to M , is then given by the formula Ω =

n i=p+1

Ω (i) (0, . . . , 0, zp+1 , . . . , zn ) dzi .


31

In an intrinsic way and for f arbitrary, one uses the composition of the “sheaf-theoretic” restriction 1 f −1 ∇ : f −1 E −→ f −1 ΩM

⊗

f −1 OM

f −1 E

(i.e., one only considers the points of M ) with the operation OM ⊗f −1 OM (i.e., “one makes z1 = · · · = zp = 0”) to reach 1 1 f ∗ ΩM ⊗ f ∗ E = f ∗ ΩM ⊗ E , OM

OM

then one composes with the morphism induced by the cotangent mapping T ∗f ⊗ Id 1 1 f ∗ ΩM ⊗ E −−−−−−−−→ ΩM ⊗ E OM

OM

(i.e., one forgets dz1 , . . . , dzp ). We have now obtained a C-linear homomorphism 1 f −1 E −→ ΩM ⊗ E OM

which satisfies the Leibniz rule with respect to the multiplication by any function on an open set of M of the form ϕ ◦ f , where ϕ is holomorphic on an open set of M . We then define the pullback connection f ∗ ∇ as a connection 1 E −→ ΩM ⊗ E OM

by extending the previous homomorphism to E = OM ⊗f −1 OM f −1 E in such a way that the Leibniz rule is satisfied. We let the reader check that such an extension is well defined and is unique. We will denote by f + (E, ∇) the pullback bundle f ∗ E equipped with the connection ∇ constructed in this way. 11.11 Exercise (The connection matrix of the pullback). Let U be an open set of M trivializing for E , let e = (e1 , . . . , ed ) be a basis of E|U and Ω = (ωij ) the connection matrix of ∇ in this basis. Let (e1 , . . . , ed ) = (1⊗e1 , . . . , 1⊗ed ) be the basis of the pullback E|f −1 (U ) obtained from e. Show that the entries of the matrix of ∇ in this basis are the 1-forms T ∗f (ωij ). 11.12 Exercise. Use the decomposition f : M → M as p ◦ i, where i : M → M × M is the inclusion of the graph of f defined by m → (m, f (m)), and p is the second projection, to compute the pullback of a connection, by reducing the problem to the case of the inclusion of a submanifold and to that of a projection.

32


12 Holomorphic integrable connections and Higgs fields 12.a Holomorphic integrable connections One can, in a natural way, extend the action of ∇ on the sections of E = 1 2 OM ⊗ E as an action on the sections of ΩM ⊗ E (with values in ΩM ⊗ E ): ∇(ω ⊗ s) = dω ⊗ s − ω ∧ ∇(s).

12.1 Exercise (The curvature is O-linear). 1 (1) Show (cf. Exercise 9.6-(1)) that, if σ is a section of ΩM ⊗E,

∇σ(ξ, η) = ∇ξ (σ(η)) − ∇η (σ(ξ)) − σ([ξ, η]). (2) Prove that the C-linear homomorphism 2 R∇ := ∇ ◦ ∇ : E −→ ΩM ⊗OM E

is in fact OM -linear. Compute R∇ (s)(ξ, η). The homomorphism R∇ is the curvature of the connection ∇. 12.2 Definition (of integrability for a connection). The connection 1 ∇ : E −→ ΩM ⊗OM E

is said to be integrable, or also flat, if its curvature R∇ vanishes identically. 12.3 Remark. Exercise 9.6 shows that the trivial bundle OM (or its powers), equipped with the connection d, is flat. An easy computation gives: 12.4 Proposition (The structure equations). The connection ∇ is flat if and only if, in any local basis e of E , the connection matrix Ω satisfies dΩ + Ω ∧ Ω = 0.

We define Ω ∧ Ω as the usual matrix product, in which the product of entries is the exterior product of 1-forms (hence is not commutative). 12.5 Remark (In dimension one, any connection is integrable). When 2 dim M = 1, the sheaf ΩM is zero and therefore the integrability condition is fulfilled by any connection. Moreover, the matrix Ω in any local basis simultaneously satisfies both equations dΩ = 0 and Ω ∧ Ω = 0.

12 Holomorphic integrable connections and Higgs fields

33

12.6 Exercise (Explicit form of the structure equations). n () (1) if one writes in local coordinates Ω = =1 Ω () dz where Ω () = (ωij ) is a matrix of holomorphic functions, prove that the integrability condition can be written as ∀ k, ∈ {1, . . . , n},

∂Ω (k) ∂Ω () − = [Ω () , Ω (k) ]. ∂zk ∂z

(2) Check that, if the integrability condition is fulfilled by the matrix Ω, it is also fulfilled by the matrix Ω obtained by Formula (11.5). A ∇-horizontal holomorphic section of E on an open set U of M is a section s ∈ Γ (U, E ) satisfying ∇(s) = 0, in other words a section on U of the sheaf7 1 Ker[∇ : E −→ ΩM ⊗OM E ]. If the components of s in some local basis e of E are s1 , . . . , sd , the equation ∇(s) = 0 can be written as ⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞ ds1 s1 ⎜ .. ⎟ ⎜ .. ⎟ (12.7) + Ω ⎝ . ⎠ ⎝.⎠=0 dsd

sd

or also, using the notation of Exercise 12.6, ⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞ s1 s1 ∂ ⎜.⎟ (k) ⎜ .. ⎟ . ∀ k ∈ {1, . . . , n}, ⎝ . ⎠ = −Ω ⎝ . ⎠ . ∂zk sd sd In other words, s is a solution of a linear homogeneous differential system with holomorphic coefficients. 1 12.8 Theorem (Cauchy-Kowalevski theorem). Let ∇ : E → ΩM ⊗OM E be a holomorphic integrable connection on some bundle E of rank d.

(1) The sheaf E ∇ := Ker ∇ is a locally constant sheaf of C-vector spaces of rank d, i.e., is locally isomorphic to the constant sheaf CdM . (2) The sheaf OM ⊗CM E ∇ is a locally free sheaf of OM -modules, the connection on this sheaf defined by ∇(f ⊗ s) = df ⊗ s is flat and (OM ⊗CM E ∇ )∇ = E ∇ . (3) The natural homomorphism OM ⊗CM E ∇ → E is an isomorphism of bundles with connection. 7

Take care: as ∇ is not OM -linear, this sheaf is not a sheaf of OM -modules; in other words, it is not stable by multiplication by the sections of OM ; it is only a sheaf of C-vector spaces.

34


12.9 Remarks. (1) This statement is equivalent to the local existence of a basis of E consisting of ∇-horizontal sections. (2) In general there is no global isomorphism between the sheaves Ker ∇ and CdM . Such is the case however if M is simply connected (see §15 below). Proof. (1) As the statement is of a local nature, one can work in some local chart of M in which the bundle E is trivialized. It is a matter of showing that, on a polydisc Δ of Cn centered at 0, the solutions of the differential system (12.7) form a vector space of dimension d on C. We begin with fixing the variables z2 , . . . , zn and then solve the one-variable system depending on parameters z2 , . . . , zd : ⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞ s1 s1 ∂ ⎜.⎟ (1) ⎜ .. ⎟ . (12.10) = −Ω ⎝.⎠ ⎝ . ⎠. ∂z1 sd sd For any holomorphic vector σ(z2 , . . . , zn ) on the given polydisc, there exists a unique solution s(z1 , . . . , zn ), which is holomorphic in z1 , of the system (12.10) satisfying s(0, z2 , . . . , zn ) = σ(z2 , . . . , zn ) (see [Car95, Chap. VII] or [BG91, Chap. 5, §15]). This solution is holomorphic with respect to all the variables. By induction on n, we can apply the theorem to (12.7) in which we make z1 = 0 and we forget the derivation with respect to z1 . Hence, for any vector v of Cd , there exists a unique holomorphic solution σv (z2 , . . . , zn ) of the previous system, such that σv (0, . . . , 0) = v. Let sv be the solution of (12.10) with σv as initial condition. Then the integrability condition on the connection implies that sv is the unique holomorphic solution of the system (12.7) such that sv (0, . . . , 0) = v. We thus have proved that the mapping which associates to any section s ∈ Γ (Δ, E ∇ ) its value at 0 (or, in an analogous way, at a given point ∼ m ∈ Δ) is an isomorphism of C-vector spaces Γ (Δ, E ∇ ) −→ Cd . (2) Let us only make precise the construction of ∇ (the remaining part is quite 1 1 ⊗OM (OM ⊗CM E ∇ ) with ΩM ⊗C E ∇ obvious). We identify the sheaf ΩM by “putting the holomorphic functions as coefficients of 1-forms”. The connection ∇ is then defined by the fact that, for any m ∈ M , any germ s of section of E ∇ at m and any germ of holomorphic function f ∈ OM,m , there is the relation ∇(f ⊗ s) = df ⊗ s. (3) That the natural homomorphism OM ⊗CM E ∇ → E , defined at the level of germs by f ⊗s → f s, is an isomorphism means that, at any m ∈ M , the germs of horizontal sections generate the germ Em . In the local situation of (1), it is a matter of checking that the values at the point m ∈ Δ of horizontal sections generate the vector space Cd over C (because then d over OM , after Nakayama’s lemma). they generate the fibre Em = OM,m

12 Holomorphic integrable connections and Higgs fields

35

But this is exactly what gives the proof, as any vector v ∈ Cd is the value at m of a section of E ∇ on Δ. 12.11 Exercise (Operations on horizontal sections). (1) If the bundles with connection (E, ∇) and (E , ∇ ) are integrable, prove that so are the bundles E ⊕ E , E ∗ , L(E, E ) and E ⊗ E equipped with their natural connection. Moreover, show that

(E ⊕ E )∇ = E ∇ ⊕ E ∇

E ∗ ∇ = H omCM (E ∇ , CM )

L(E, E )∇ = H omCM (E ∇ , E ∇ )

(E ⊗ E )∇ = E ∇ ⊗CM E ∇ .

(2) Prove that L(E, E )∇ can be identified with the subsheaf of the sheaf H omOM (E , E ) consisting of the homomorphisms which commute to the action of ∇ and ∇ (we also say that they are morphisms of bundles with connection), or also which send E ∇ in E ∇ . 12.12 Exercise. With the notation of §11.c, show that, if ∇ is integrable, then so is its pullback by f on the manifold M . 12.13 Corollary (Analytic extension). The homomorphisms of bundles with connection satisfy the principle of analytic extension: if V ⊂ U is the inclusion of connected open sets of M which induces an isomorphism between the fundamental groups of V and U , and if ϕ : E|V → E|V is a homomorphism of bundles with connection, then ϕ can be extended in a unique way as a . homomorphism of bundles with connection E|U → E|U Proof. This is a direct consequence of the results on locally constant sheaves explained in §15. 12.b Higgs fields 12.14 Definition. A Higgs field 8 on a holomorphic bundle E is a OM -linear homomorphism 1 ⊗ E Φ : E −→ ΩM OM

which fulfills the “integrability” condition Φ ∧ Φ = 0. We also say that (E, Φ) is a Higgs bundle. 8

The relation with the physicist Higgs and the boson having the same name would need some explanation. We have here an example of appropriation by mathematicians of concepts coming from physics. Originally, a Higgs field is related to a connection on a principal bundle, and is used to perturb Yang-Mills equations (see for instance [AH88] or [JT80]). The terminology that we use has been introduced by C. Simpson [Sim92], after N. Hitchin; this terminology is reasonable when there also exists a “harmonic metric”. Here, we keep the terminology, in spite of the absence of a harmonic metric.

36


Let us be more explicit with regard to this condition: the homomorphism Φ enables us to define a homomorphism 1 2 Φ : ΩM ⊗ E −→ ΩM ⊗ E

(1)

OM

OM

by setting (1) Φ(ω ⊗ e) = ω ∧ Φ(e) (the reader will make precise the meaning of ∧). Then −Φ ∧ Φ is by definition the composition (1) Φ ◦ Φ. Let e be a local basis of E and let us still denote by Φ the matrix of Φ in this basis, defined with the same convention (11.4) as for connections. The integrability condition can then be written as Φ ∧ Φ = 0, now in the matrix sense that we also used for connections (in Proposition 12.4). If ξ is a holomorphic vector field on an open set U of M , we denote by Φξ : E|U → E|U the OU -linear endomorphism obtained by contraction of Φ with ξ. One can also regard Φ as a OM -linear homomorphism ΘM ⊗ E → E . From this point of view, we have Φξ (•) = Φ(ξ, •). In a chart of M equipped with local coordinates z1 , . . . , zn , one can write Φ=

n

Φ(k) dzk

i=1

where the Φ(k) = Φ∂/∂zk are endomorphisms of the bundle E (in the given chart). The “integrability” condition is equivalent to ∀ k, ∈ {1, . . . , n},

[Φ(k) , Φ() ] = 0.

One does not have an analogue of the Cauchy-Kowalevski theorem for Higgs fields. If for instance E is the trivial bundle of rank one on M , giving a Higgs field on E is equivalent to giving a holomorphic 1-form on M . Where this form does not vanish, the kernel of Φ reduces to {0}. 12.15 Remark (Operations on Higgs fields). The formulas describing the operations (⊕, ⊗, L) on bundles equipped with a Higgs fields are analogous to that for connections (Exercise 14.9 will justify this choice). •

• • •

If f : M → M is a holomorphic mapping and (E , Φ) a Higgs bundle on M , then the pullback Higgs bundle f + (E , Φ) is defined as in §11.c. In a local basis of E (cf. Exercise 11.11), the matrix of f + Φ is obtained by applying T ∗f to the entries of the matrix of Φ. For E = E ⊕ E we set, for any field ξ, Φξ = Φξ ⊕ Φξ . For E = E ⊗ E we set, for any field ξ, Φξ = (Φξ ⊗ Id) + (Id ⊗Φξ ). For E = H omOM (E , E ) and ϕ a local section of E we set, for any field ξ, Φξ (ϕ)(e) = Φξ (ϕ(e)) − ϕ(Φξ (e)).

The reader should check the integrability of the fields constructed in this way.

13 Geometry of the tangent bundle

37

13 Geometry of the tangent bundle When the bundle E that one considers is the tangent bundle T M , the objects that we introduced above (connections and Higgs fields) get supplementary symmetry properties. The integrability condition is then related to the existence of coordinates of a particular type on any simply connected open set of M or on the universal covering space of M . 13.a Some points of holomorphic differential geometry The reader can refer for instance to [GHL87, Chap. 1] for more details on what follows. Recall that a holomorphic vector field on an open set U of M is a derivation of OU . Any holomorphic vector field admits locally a holomorphic flow parametrized by a complex time: this is an immediate consequence of Cauchy’s theorem for holomorphic differential equations (see for instance [Car95, Chap. VII, Th. 1 and 2]). The Lie bracket of two vector fields ξ, η on U is the vector field denoted by [ξ, η] defined by [ξ, η](ϕ) = ξ(η(ϕ)) − η(ξ(ϕ)) for any holomorphic function ϕ on an open set V ⊂ U . For ξ fixed, the operator η → [ξ, η] is only C-linear relatively to η and satisfies the Leibniz rule when one considers ΘM as a OM -module. The is the Lie derivative associated to ξ. We will denote Lξ (η) = [ξ, η]. We let the reader check that, if f : M → M is a holomorphic mapping between manifolds and if ξ , η are vector fields on an open set U of M , then, in f ∗ ΘM (cf. (9.4)), T f ([ξ , η ]) = [T f (ξ), T f (η)]. The action of the Lie derivative can be extended in a natural to way p differential forms. It is a derivation of the graded algebra ΩM = p ΩM , of degree 0 with respect to this gradation (i.e., the degree of the form Lξ ω is equal to that of ω). The derivation d has degree one. The interior product ιξ by the vector field ξ, defined by the property that, for any p-form ω and any p − 1 vector fields ξ2 , . . . , ξp , (ιξ ω) (ξ2 , . . . , ξp ) = ω(ξ, ξ2 , . . . , ξp ), has degree −1. These three operators are related by the formulas Lξ = ιξ ◦ d + d ◦ ιξ

and ι[ξ,η] = Lξ ιη − ιη Lξ .

38


13.b Holomorphic foliations A holomorphic foliation of dimension p on a complex analytic manifold M is a subbundle F (as defined in Exercise 4.5) of rank p of the tangent sheaf ΘM , which is stable by the Lie bracket, that is, such that, for any m ∈ M and all ξ, η ∈ Fm , we have [ξ, η] ∈ Fm . An integral submanifold of the foliation F is a (not necessarily closed) connected analytic submanifold V of M of dimension p such that the tangent map T iV to the inclusion iV (cf. §9.a) induces an isomorphism ∼

ΘV −→ i∗V F ⊂ i∗V ΘM . A leaf of the foliation F is a maximal integral submanifold. Two distinct leaves are disjoint. The holomorphic variant of the Frobenius Integrability Theorem shows in particular the existence of a partition of the manifold M into leaves: 13.1 Theorem (Local normal form of a foliation). Let F be a holomorphic foliation of dimension p of M . There exists then, in the neighbourhood of any point of M , a coordinate system (z1 , . . . , zn ) centered at this point such that, in this neighbourhood, the sheaf F is generated by the fields ∂z1 , . . . , ∂zp . In the neighbourhood considered in the theorem, the leaves are the level submanifolds of the functions zp+1 , . . . , zn . Proof. One can refer for instance to [HH81, Chap. II, §2.3] for the proof of the Frobenius theorem in the real C ∞ framework. The adaptation of this proof to the holomorphic framework is straightforward. Let us consider the exact sequence of sheaves of OM -modules 0 −→ F −→ ΘM −→ Q −→ 0. By assumption, the sheaf Q is locally free. Dually, we thus get an exact sequence of locally free OM -modules 1 0 −→ J −→ ΩM −→ F ∨ −→ 0

where F ∨ = H omOM (F , OM ) and J = H omOM (Q, OM ). It is equivalent 1 . to giving the subbundle F of ΘM or the subbundle J of ΩM 13.2 Lemma (Frobenius condition). The subbundle F is stable by the Lie bracket if and only if J fulfills one of the equivalent conditions: 1 . (1) dJ ⊂ J ∧ ΩM (2) For any m ∈ M and all germs ξ, η ∈ Fm , the germ ξ ∧ η is killed by all elements of dJ .

Proof. See for instance [HH81, Chap. II, §2.4].


39

13.3 Remark. Let f : M → M be a holomorphic mapping and let J be 1 satisfying the integrability condition dJ ⊂ a locally free subsheaf of ΩM 1 1 J ∧ ΩM . Then the subsheaf T ∗f (J ) ⊂ ΩM is possibly not locally free, but nevertheless satisfies the integrability condition: indeed, if ω is a germ of 1-form on M , then T ∗f (dω) = d(T ∗f (ω)); therefore, 1 d(T ∗f (J )) = T ∗f (dJ ) ⊂ T ∗f (J ∧ ΩM ) 1 1 ) ⊂ T ∗f (J ) ∧ ΩM = T ∗f (J ) ∧ T ∗f (ΩM .

13.c Torsion free connections The torsion of a connection ∇ on the tangent bundle of a manifold M is the OM -bilinear operator T −→ ΘM ΘM ⊗ ΘM −−−∇ OM

(ξ, η) −−−−→ ∇ξ η − ∇η ξ − [ξ, η]. The assertion of OM -bilinearity is not free, so we will check for instance the OM -linearity in η: by definition, the term ∇η ξ is OM -linear in η; on the other hand, η → ∇ξ η and η → [ξ, η] are two derivations along ξ, hence their difference is OM -linear. A flat coordinate system on an open set U of M is a family t1 , . . . , tn of functions on U with complex values, such that in any point of U the differentials are independent (hence for any m ∈ M , there exist constants ci (m) such that the functions ti + ci (m) form a local coordinate system at m) and that the vector fields ∂/∂ti defined by 0 if i = j ∂ (dtj ) = ∂ti 1 if i = j are ∇-horizontal. The map (t1 , . . . , tn ) : U → Cn is thus an étale chart, as defined in Remark 2.4-(2). The existence of such a system implies that the connection ∇ is flat (as there locally exists a basis of ∇-horizontal vector fields) and that it has no torsion, i.e., has identically vanishing torsion (as, in the basis (∂ti ), we have ∇∂ti ∂tj = 0 by horizontality and [∂ti , ∂tj ] = 0 for all i, j). If (t1 , . . . , tn ) is a flat coordinate system on U , then for any (c1 , . . . , cn ) ∈ Cn the family (t1 + c1 , . . . , tn + cn ) is another one. We say that it is obtained by translation from the first one. 13.4 Theorem (Flat coordinates). Let M be a 1-connected complex analytic manifold and ∇ a flat torsion free connection on the tangent bundle T M . Fix mo ∈ M and let (ξ1o , . . . , ξno ) be a basis of the space Tmo M .

40


(1) There exists then a flat coordinate system (t1 , . . . , tn ) on M such that we have ∂ti (mo ) = ξio for any i = 1, . . . , n. (2) The systems which satisfy these conditions are those which can be deduced from the first one by translation. (3) Two flat coordinate systems on M can be deduced one from the other by an affine coordinate change. 13.5 Remark. With these conditions, we say that the manifold M is equipped with an affine structure. → U 13.6 Example. Let U be a connected open set of Cn and let ρ : U be a covering. The tangent bundle of U is canonically trivialized. So is the , which thus has a flat torsion free connection. Then the tangent bundle of U components ρ1 , . . . , ρn of ρ in the canonical coordinates of Cn form a flat . coordinate system on U Proof (of Theorem 13.4). Let us choose n independent vectors ξ1o , . . . , ξno in the fibre Tmo M . As the connection ∇ is flat, we can apply the Cauchy-Kowalevski theorem 12.8 and Lemma 15.9: as M is 1-connected, there exists a unique family of ∇-horizontal vector fields (ξ1 , . . . , ξn ) whose restriction to Tmo M is the given family. As the connection is torsion free and as these fields are horizontal, their Lie brackets vanish. Let us consider the dual basis ω1 , . . . , ωn . The 1-forms ωi are closed : indeed, for all i, j, k = 1, . . . , n,

dωi (ξj , ξk ) = ιξk ιξj dωi

= ιξk Lξj ωi because d(ιξj ωi ) = 0 = Lξj (ιξk ωi ) because [ξj , ξk ] = 0 =0

because ιξk ωi = δki .

As M is 1-connected, the space H 1 (M, C) is zero, hence the forms ωi are exact (see Exercise 9.8). The functions ti such that ωi = dti induce a mapping having everywhere maximal rank, as the ωi are everywhere independent. They form thus a flat étale chart. The remaining part of the proof is left to the reader. The torsion free connection associated to a “metric”. The result which follows is classic in Riemannian geometry (see for instance [GHL87, Th. 2.51]). It can be adapted without any trouble to the holomorphic framework. 13.7 Theorem (The “metric” connection). Let g be a symmetric nondegenerate OM -bilinear form g on the sheaf ΘM of vector fields on M . There exists then a unique torsion free connection ∇ such that, for any triple (ξ, η, ζ) of germs of vector fields,

Lζ (g(ξ, η)) = g ∇ζ ξ, η + g ξ, ∇ζ η .


41

We say that the connection ∇ given by the theorem is the Levi-Civita connection associated to the “metric”. One can formulate the relation above by extending the action of the connection ∇ to sections of the tensor bundles (tensor products, possibly symmetric or skew-symmetric, of copies of ΘM 1 and ΩM ). The relation expresses that the metric tensor is ∇-horizontal. If the connection ∇ is flat, we say that the “metric” is flat. 13.8 Remark. The notion of flat function has then a meaning: a holomorphic function f : U → C on an open set U of M is said to be flat if the field ξf , ∼ 1 deduced from the 1-form df by the isomorphism ΩM −→ ΘM induced by the “metric”, is ∇-horizontal. 13.d Symmetric Higgs fields Let Φ be a Higgs field on the tangent bundle T M of the manifold M . Let us recall that this is a OM -linear homomorphism 1 Φ : ΘM −→ ΩM ⊗ ΘM

which satisfies the “integrability” condition Φ ∧ Φ = 0. By using the natural pairing of 1-forms with vector fields, one can regard it as a bilinear homomorphism ΘM ⊗ ΘM −→ ΘM ξ, η −→ Φξ (η). Therefore, the Higgs field Φ defines a product9 “fibre by fibre” on the tangent bundle by the formula ξ η = −Φξ (η) (the sign − is introduced for convenience with a later use). The analogue, for Higgs fields, of the absence of torsion for connections is the property of symmetry: we say that the Higgs field Φ is symmetric if the associated product is commutative. 13.9 Proposition (Higgs field and product). The field Φ is a symmetric Higgs field if and only if the product is associative and commutative. Proof. The problem is local on M , so we can work in a system of local coordin nates (z1 , . . . , zn ). We can write Φ = i=1 dzi ⊗ Φ(i) , where the Φ(i) = Φ∂/∂zi define, for any m of the given chart, an endomorphism of ΘM,m . The condition Φ ∧ Φ = 0 is then equivalent to: ∀ i, k, 9

Φ(i) Φ(k) = Φ(k) Φ(i) .

One should not confuse this supplementary structure on ΘM with the natural structure of Lie algebra defined by the bracket of vector fields.

42


By definition, ∂zi ∂zj = −Φ(i) (∂zj ). We conclude that, when Φ is a symmetric Higgs fields, the following holds for all i, j, k: ∂zi (∂zj ∂zk ) = ∂zi (∂zk ∂zj ) = Φ(i) Φ(k) (∂zj )

(symmetry)

= Φ(i) ◦ Φ(k) (∂zj ), and similarly (∂zi ∂zj ) ∂zk = ∂zk (∂zi ∂zj ) = Φ(k) ◦ Φ(i) (∂zj ), hence the associativity. The converse is proved in the same way.

When, moreover, there exists on M a unit field , that is, a section e ∈ Γ (M, ΘM ) such that ξe=eξ =ξ for any germ ξ of holomorphic vector field10 , any tangent space Tm M is equipped with the structure of an associative and commutative algebra with unit, a structure which varies in a holomorphic way with m. Let (z1 , . . . , zn ) be a system of local coordinates on an open set U of M . Any polynomial aα (z1 , . . . , zn )η1α1 · · · ηnαn |α|d

in the variables η1 , . . . , ηn with holomorphic coefficients in z1 , . . . , zn defines a holomorphic vector field on U , namely, aα (z1 , . . . , zn )e ∂z1 · · · ∂z1 · · · ∂zn · · · ∂zn ! ! |α|d

α1 times

αn times

(the field e is useful for the degree 0 term). The set of polynomials such that the associated vector field is zero is an ideal of the ring OM (U )[η1 , . . . , ηn ]; the zero locus of this family of polynomials is a subset of U × Cn . One can check that, if Φ is symmetric and admits a unit field on M , this set is well defined as a subset LΦ of the total space of the cotangent bundle T ∗ M (of which the open set U × Cn considered above is a chart). 13.10 Definition (Canonical coordinates). A system (x1 , . . . , xn ) of coordinates on an open set of M is said to be canonical if the vector fields ∂xi satisfy ∂xi if i = j ∂xi ∂xj = δij ∂xi = 0 if i = j. 10

Such a field e is then unique.


43

n

On such an open set, the field e = i=1 ∂xi is the unit field. In such a n system, we will also have to consider the field E = i=1 xi ∂xi , called the Euler field. In the basis (∂x1 , . . . , ∂xn ), the matrix of the endomorphism R0 (•) = E • of multiplication by E is the diagonal matrix diag(x1 , . . . , xn ). 13.11 Remark (On the existence of canonical coordinates). Unlike the case of flat torsion free connections, one does not have, without any supplementary assumption, an analogue of Theorem 13.4 which would give the local existence of canonical coordinates for any symmetric Higgs field on ΘM . Note that, if such a system exists, then, for any vector field ξ, the operator ξ of multiplication by ξ on the fibres of the tangent bundle of M is semisimple. Moreover, the canonical coordinates are the eigenfunctions of the operator E for some field E. Conversely, let us assume that, for any ξ, the operator ξ is semisimple. There exists then locally11 a basis of fields (ηi )i=1,...,n satisfying ηi ηj = δij ηi , where δij denotes the Kronecker symbol: indeed, there exists locally a basis (ξi )i=1,...,n of vector fields which simultaneously diagonalize the operators ξ (as they commute); we deduce that there exist functions λi (z) such that ξi ξj = δij λi ξi ; it is a matter of showing that the λi do not vanish (we will set then ηi = ξi /λi ); this follows from the existence of a unit field e as, if we set e = i ai ξi , ξi = ξi e = ξi aj ξj = aj ξi ξi = ai λi ξi . j

The reader will note12 that this argument does not give however the local existence of canonical coordinates, because it does not show that the brackets [ηi , ηj ] vanish. 13.12 Exercise (The manifold LΦ is Lagrangian). Show that, in canonical coordinates, the ideal of polynomials considered above is generated by the polynomials ηi (ηi − 1), 1− ηi . ηi ηj (i = j), i

Deduce that the set LΦ is the subset of U × Cn consisting of the points (x1 , . . . , xn , η1 , . . . , ηn ) where all the ηi except one are zero, the nonzero one being equal to 1. 11 12

If one assumes the existence of a unit field. In order to obtain the existence of canonical coordinates, it is necessary and sufficient to ask for a supplementary compatibility condition between the product and the Lie derivatives Lξ . This leads to the notion of weak Frobenius manifold , introduced in [HM99]. This condition is equivalent to the geometric condition “LΦ is a Lagrangian manifold in T ∗ M ” (cf. [Her02]). This condition is realized for Frobenius manifolds that we will meet in Chapter VII (cf. [Aud98a] and §VII.1.8).

44


Compatibility with a “metric”. Given, as in §13.c, a symmetric nondegenerate bilinear form g on T M , that we also call a “metric”, we will say that the Higgs field Φ, or the product , is compatible with the metric g if, for any triple (ξ1 , ξ2 , ξ3 ) of vector fields on M , g(ξ1 ξ2 , ξ3 ) = g(ξ1 , ξ2 ξ3 ). Unlike the case of connections, a “metric” does not naturally define by itself a symmetric Higgs field compatible with it. If a unit field exists, one can consider the differential 1-form e∗ defined by adjunction. As a linear form on the tangent bundle, it is expressed by e∗ (ξ) = g(e, ξ). We then have g(ξ1 , ξ2 ) = e∗ (ξ1 ξ2 ). It can be useful to emphasize the trilinear form c(ξ1 , ξ2 , ξ3 ) = g(ξ1 ξ2 , ξ3 ) = e∗ ((ξ1 ξ2 ) ξ3 ). 13.13 Exercise (commutative Frobenius algebras). Let V be a finite dimensional C-vector space equipped with a linear form , with a nondegenerate bilinear form b and with a trilinear form t. By considering the isomorphism ∼ B : V −→ V ∗ defined by b, the trilinear form t defines a product on V : one asks that, for all v1 , v2 ∈ V , both linear forms B(v1 v2 ) and c(v1 , v2 , •) coincide. Give conditions on , b, t expressing that B −1 () is the unit and that the product is commutative and associative. One then says that (V, , e, b) or, in an equivalent way (V, , b, t), is a Frobenius algebra 13 .

14 Meromorphic connections Let M be a meromorphic bundle with poles along an analytic submanifold Z, i.e., a locally free OM (∗Z)-module of rank d. A connection on M is defined as in the holomorphic case, namely as a C-linear homomorphism ∇ : M → 1 ⊗OM M satisfying the Leibniz rule. ΩM Notice that, in a local basis of M over OM (∗Z), the matrix Ω of the 1 1 = ΩM (∗Z). connection has entries in OM (∗Z) ⊗OM ΩM The considerations of §11 can be readily extended to the meromorphic case. Note that the matrix P of §11.a now belongs to Γ (U, GLd (OM (∗Z))). The ∇ sheaf of horizontal sections M|M Z is then a locally constant sheaf of finite 13

The example originally considered by Frobenius when working on characters of finite groups is the (noncommutative in general) algebra of such a group on a field (see for instance [Lit40, Chap. IV]). That such an algebra is “Frobenius” as defined above is shown for instance in [CR62, Th. 62.1], where one will also find (Th. 61.3) other characterizations of Frobenius algebras.

14 Meromorphic connections

45

dimensional vector spaces which corresponds, after Theorem 15.8, to a linear representation of the fundamental group π1 (M Z, o): this is the monodromy representation attached to the meromorphic bundle with connection (M , ∇). 14.1 Exercise (Torsion of a connection by a logarithmic differential form). Let f ∈ Γ (M, OM (∗Z)) be a meromorphic function on M , with poles along Z, and let ω = df /f be its logarithmic differential. (1) Prove that the meromorphic bundle with connection (OM (∗Z), d + ω) has trivial monodromy, i.e., that the sheaf of its horizontal sections on M Z is isomorphic to the constant sheaf CM Z (write d + ω = f −1 ◦ d ◦ f ). (2) Deduce that, if (M , ∇) is a meromorphic bundle with connection on M with poles along Z, the sheaves of horizontal sections of (M , ∇)|M Z and (M , ∇ + ω Id)|M Z are isomorphic (use Exercise 12.11). We will say that a connection on a meromorphic bundle is integrable (or flat) if its restriction to M Z is an integrable connection on the holomorphic bundle M|M Z . If E is a lattice of a meromorphic bundle with connection (M , ∇), it may 1 ⊗OM E . However, happen that ∇(E ) is not contained in ΩM 1 1 ∇(E ) ⊂ ∇(M ) ⊂ ΩM ⊗ M = ΩM (∗Z) ⊗ E . OM

OM

Therefore, ∇ defines a meromorphic connection, which is not necessarily holomorphic, on the bundle E . We will say that E is a logarithmic lattice of the meromorphic bundle with connection (M , ∇) if 1 log Z ⊗ E ∇(E ) ⊂ ΩM OM

and more generally that it is a lattice of order r if 1 ∇(E ) ⊂ ΩM (r + 1) log Z ⊗ E OM

and of order r if moreover it does not have order r − 1 (logarithmic = order 0). Therefore, E is a logarithmic lattice if, in any local basis of E , the connection matrix of ∇ has forms with logarithmic poles along Z as entries. 14.2 Exercise (Behaviour of the order by operations on lattices). Prove that the order of E ⊕ E (resp. of E ⊗ E , resp. of L(E , E )) is equal to the maximum of the orders of E and E . We will say that a meromorphic bundle with flat connection (M , ∇) has regular singularity along Z if, in the neighbourhood U of any point z o ∈ Z, there exists a logarithmic lattice EU of M|U . More generally, we will call Poincaré rank of (M , ∇) along Z at z o the minimal order along Z of a lattice in the neighbourhood of z o .

46


The condition of regular singularity is local on Z and one does not ask for the existence of a logarithmic lattice E globally on M . Nevertheless, one can show the existence of such a lattice (see [Del70]). We will analyze with more details the structure of connections of one variable, with regular or irregular singularity, in Chapter II. 14.3 Remark (Regular singularity and logarithmic pole). One should clearly distinguish between the notion of regular singularity, which concerns meromorphic bundles with a flat connection, and that of logarithmic pole, which concerns holomorphic bundles with a flat meromorphic connection. In fact, a meromorphic bundle of rank 2 with a regular singular connection can contain lattices of arbitrarily large order (see Exercise II.4.4). 14.a Restriction of a meromorphic connection Let M be the product D × M , where M is a complex analytic manifold, D is a disc centered at the origin in C. We will identify M with the submanifold {0} × M of M and we will denote by i : M → M the inclusion. We will assume below that the hypersurface Z is equal to D×Z , where Z is a smooth hypersurface of M . Let (M , ∇) be a meromorphic bundle with connection on M with poles along Z. The meromorphic bundle M can be restricted as a meromorphic bundle M on M by the formula M = OM ⊗i−1 OM i−1 M , analogous to Equation (11.9). It is important, in order that this be meaningful, that the polar set Z of M intersects properly, i.e., along a hypersurface, the submanifold M . One can then, exactly as in §11.c, define the restriction 1 ∇ : M −→ ΩM ⊗ M OM

of the meromorphic connection ∇. We will say that the meromorphic bundle with connection (M , ∇ ) is the restriction (or pullback by the inclusion) to M of the meromorphic bundle with connection (M , ∇). Notice that, if one restricts (M , ∇) to M Z to obtain a holomorphic bundle with connection, the restricted bundle that one obtains from the latter with the definition of §11.c is nothing but (M , ∇ )|M Z . If ∇ is integrable, then so is ∇ (cf. Exercise 12.12). Notice also that, if E is a lattice of M , its restriction i∗ E is a lattice of M . 14.b Restriction and residue of connections with logarithmic poles Let us keep the notation of §14.a but let us now assume that the hypersurface Z is equal to {0} × M ; one could, for the logarithmic case which follows, consider a more general situation (where the “normal bundle” of Z in M is trivial), but we will not have to consider such a situation.

14 Meromorphic connections

47

Given a holomorphic bundle with meromorphic connection (E , ∇) (and not only a meromorphic bundle with connection), assume that (E , ∇) is logarithmic along Z. One can define a “restriction” of (E , ∇) to Z; this is a holomorphic bundle of rank d with holomorphic connection on Z: as a bundle, it is the restriction E|Z of E to Z (i.e., the pullback by the inclusion mapping iZ : Z → M ). Let us be more explicit concerning the connection matrix of the “restriction” in a local basis of E and in local coordinates z1 , . . . , zn with Z = {z1 = 0}: if Ω = Ω (1)

dz1 (i) + Ω dzi z1 i2

is the connection matrix, where the Ω (i) are matrices with holomorphic entries, the desired connection has matrix Ω (i) (0, z2 , . . . , zn ) dzi i2

in the corresponding basis of E|Z . One checks that this is independent of the choices and well defines a holomorphic connection on E|Z . The logarithmic connection ∇ also equips the bundle E|Z with an endomorphism: this is the residue ResZ ∇ of the connection along Z. With the local choices above, it has matrix Ω (1) (0, z2 , . . . , zn ). In order to check that this definition is really intrinsic, one considers the composed homomorphism (14.4)

∇ 1 −−→ i−1 i−1 Z E − Z ΩM log Z

⊗

i−1 Z OM

res ⊗ Id i−1 −−−−−−→ i∗Z E . Z E −

Then, if σ is a local section of E which vanishes on Z, its image by (14.4) is zero and therefore (14.4) passes to the quotient and defines ResZ ∇ : i∗Z E → i∗Z E . 14.5 Exercise (Restriction, residue and operations). (1) Prove that the construction of from ∇ is compatible with the operations on bundles with connection. (2) Determine the behaviour of the residue by the operations ⊕, ⊗ and L on the bundles with logarithmic connection. Check in particular that, if (OM , d) denotes the trivial bundle of rank one equipped with the trivial connection, the dual bundle H omOM (E , OM ) has residue − t ResZ ∇. 14.6 Exercise (Restriction, residue and integrability). Assume that the connection ∇ is integrable. (1) Prove that so is its “restriction” . (2) Show that the residue ResZ ∇, regarded as an endomorphism of the bundle E|Z , is compatible with the connection , i.e., when regarded as a section of the bundle Hom(E|Z , E|Z ), is a horizontal section with respect to the natural flat connection constructed from .

48


14.c Connections of order one When the connection has order one along Z, one can write locally its matrix as dz1 (i) + Ω dzi Ω = z1−1 Ω (1) z1 i2

where Ω (i) are holomorphic. One cannotdefine the restriction to Z of a flat connection by the procedure above, as i2 Ω (i) (0, z2 , . . . , zn ) dzi is a form which does not necessarily satisfy the integrability condition. However, if one fixes a coordinate z1 on D and if one considers a system of local coordinates z2 , . . . , zn on Z, one can equip the bundle E|Z with a “residue” endomorphism R0 (cf. Remark 9.15) and with a 1-form Φ with values in the endomorphisms of E|Z : in a local basis, R0 has matrix Ω (1) (0, z2 , . . . , zn ) and Φ is given by i2 Ω (i) (0, z2 , . . . , zn ) dzi . 14.7 Exercise (“Residue” and integrability). Prove that the integrability of ∇ implies that the following relations are satisfied by R0 and Φ (they are the analogues of the integrability of the connection and of the horizontality with respect to of the residue endomorphism, in the logarithmic case) Φ ∧ Φ = 0,

Φξ ◦ R0 = R0 ◦ Φξ

for any vector field ξ on M .

In particular, Φ is a Higgs field on E|Z and (E|Z , Φ) is a Higgs bundle. These objects depend on the choice of coordinate on D by a multiplicative constant. 14.8 Remark. However, it is not in general possible to define, for connections with pole of order 1 along Z, a residue endomorphism whose matrix in a local basis is formed by the residues of the coefficients of Ω. Indeed, if the rank of the bundle is 2, such a matrix does not have a suitable behaviour under a holomorphic base change. 14.9 Exercise (Higgs field, “residue” and operations). (1) Prove that the construction of Φ from ∇ is compatible with the operations on Higgs bundles. (2) Determine the behaviour of the “residue” R0 by the operations ⊕, ⊗, L.

15 Locally constant sheaves 15.a Locally constant sheaves of sets := Let F be a sheaf of sets on a topological space X. The disjoint union F

x∈X Fx of the germs of F at the points of X is equipped with a natural topology, for which a basis of open sets is given by the sets {sx } ⊂ Fx , Us = x∈U

x∈X

15 Locally constant sheaves

49

where U is an open set of X and s ∈ Γ (U, F ). For this topology, the natural → X is continuous and the set Γ (U, F ) is identified with projection p : F of the projection p, i.e., the continuous that of continuous sections σ : U → F mappings which satisfy p ◦ σ = IdU . Moreover, the projection p is a local homeomorphism and the topology induced on each fibre p−1 (x) = Fx is the , equipped with the projecdiscrete topology (cf. [God64]). We say that F tion p, is the étale cover associated to the sheaf F . 15.1 Exercise (Locally constant sheaves and coverings). Assume that X is connected. Prove that the sheaf F is constant (cf. §2.6) if and → X is homeomorphic to the projection only if the étale cover p : F p2 : Fx × X → X, for any x ∈ X. Deduce that the following properties are equivalent: (1) the sheaf F is locally isomorphic to a constant sheaf; → X is a covering map. (2) the projection p : F When one of both equivalent properties above is satisfied, we say that the sheaf F is locally constant. One thus sees that the category of locally constant sheaves of sets is isomorphic to that of coverings (check the behaviour of morphisms). From the theory of coverings (see for instance [God71]), we deduce: 15.2 Corollary. Any locally constant sheaf on a 1-connected space is constant. 15.3 Exercise (Locally constant sheaves and coverings, continuation). (1) Prove that, if f : X → X is a continuous mapping and if F is a locally constant sheaf on X, the pullback sheaf f −1 F is locally constant. (2) Let π : X → X be a finite covering and let F be a locally constant sheaf on X. Show that the direct image sheaf π∗ F is locally constant. 15.b Locally constant sheaves of finite dimensional C-vector spaces We will now be more precise concerning the correspondence locally constant sheaves ←→ coverings for sheaves of finite dimensional C-vector spaces. Such a sheaf is locally constant if there exist an open covering U of X and, for any open set U of U, an isomorphism of F|U with the constant sheaf CdU . In the following, all the sheaves will be sheaves of finite dimensional C-vector spaces and we will simply write “locally constant”. One also finds in the literature the term local system 14 instead of locally constant sheaf. 14

This in fact abbreviates “local system of coefficients” when one considers cohomology with coefficients in a locally constant sheaf.

50


15.4 Exercise. In Exercise 15.3, compute the rank of the sheaves f −1 F and π∗ F in term of that of F . We thus have defined a subcategory of the category (cf. §17) of sheaves on X, namely that of locally constant sheaves of finite rank. We say that this subcategory is full , as the set of homomorphisms of locally constant sheaves is equal to that of all homomorphisms of sheaves. If o is a given point of X (also called the base point), we have a “restriction” functor from this category to that of finite dimensional vector spaces: one associates to F its germ Fo and to ϕ : F → G its germ ϕo : Fo → Go . → X is a fixed universal covering space of X, we have a “global If π : X multivalued sections” functor from this category to that of finite dimensional π −1 F ) and to ϕ : F → G vector spaces: one associates to F the space Γ (X, π −1 F ) → Γ (X, π −1 G ). the induced morphism Γ (X, 15.5 Lemma (Locally constant sheaves on the square are constant). Let us assume that X is equal to the interval [0, 1] or to the square [0, 1]×[0, 1] and let us denote by 0 the origin of X. Let F , G be locally constant sheaves on X. (1) If s0 ∈ F0 , there exists a unique section s of F on X such that s(0) = s0 . (2) Let ϕ0 : F0 → G0 be a homomorphism. There exists a unique homomorphism ϕ : F → G whose restriction to F0 is ϕ0 . Proof. For the first point, adapt the proof of [God71, Lemmes 1.1 and 1.2, p. 129]. The second point follows from the first one, if we remark that H omCX (F , G ) is also a locally constant sheaf. 15.6 Exercise. (1) Prove that, in the lemma above, if ϕ0 is an isomorphism, then so is ϕ (consider the determinant of ϕ). (2) Show that, for X as in the lemma, any locally constant sheaf F is isomorphic to the constant sheaf π −1 F0 , if π : X → {0} is the constant map, and that such an isomorphism is unique if one moreover asks that its germ at 0 is equal to identity. (3) Prove that the lemma above can be interpreted by saying that, on the space X = [0, 1] or X = [0, 1]2 (with 0 as base point), the restriction functor is an equivalence (cf. §17) between the category of locally constant sheaves on X and that of finite dimensional C-vector spaces. 15.c Linear representations of groups (abstract) Let Π be a group and let F be a C-vector space (here, C could denote any field). A linear representation of Π in F (cf. for instance [Kir76, §7]) is a group homomorphism ρ : Π → Aut(F ), in other words a left linear action of Π on F .

15 Locally constant sheaves

51

If Π acts on F1 and F2 , then Π acts on HomC (F1 , F2 ) by # " γ ∈ Π −→ ρ(γ) : ϕ −→ ρ2 (γ) ◦ ϕ ◦ ρ1 (γ)−1 . A homomorphism of the representation ρ1 to the representation ρ2 is a homomorphism ϕ ∈ HomC (F1 , F2 ) such that ∀ γ ∈ Π,

ρ(γ)(ϕ) = ϕ.

We denote this set by HomΠ (ρ1 , ρ2 ) = HomC (F1 , F2 )Π ⊂ HomC (F1 , F2 ). In other words, ϕ : F1 → F2 is a homomorphism of representations (one also says intertwining operator ) if and only if, for any γ ∈ Π, the following diagram commutes: ϕ F1 F2 ρ1 (γ) F1

ρ2 (γ) ϕ

F2

In the language of the theory of categories (cf. §17), we have defined the category of linear representations of the group Π, whose objects are the linear representations and the morphisms are the homomorphisms of representations. It contains the subcategory of finite dimensional representations, which is full . It is equipped with a “forget” functor to the category of vector spaces. In what follows, we will take for Π the fundamental group π1 (X, o) of the space X with base point o (cf. for instance [God71]). We will denote by [γ] ∈ π1 (X, o) the homotopy class of a continuous loop γ : [0, 1] → X based at o, i.e., such that γ(0) = γ(1) = o. It will be convenient to use a convention opposite to that of [God71] for the product. In other words, we will denote by [γ]·[γ ] the class of the loop obtained by following first γ , then γ (in accordance with the composition of mappings, as in [Del70]). 15.d An equivalence of categories Let F be a locally constant sheaf on X. If γ is a continuous loop based at o, the sheaf γ −1 F is locally constant on [0, 1] (Exercise 15.3). The first part of Lemma 15.5 shows the existence of a map Tγ : Fo = (γ −1 F )0 −→ (γ −1 F )1 = Fo . It associates to any s0 ∈ Fo the value s(1) ∈ (γ −1 F )1 = Fo of the unique section s of γ −1 F such that s(0) = s0 . The uniqueness property implies that this mapping Tγ is linear. The second part of the same lemma also shows that this mapping only F depends on the homotopy class of γ and we denote it by T[γ] , or also by T[γ] to recall the dependence with respect to F .

52


15.7 Exercise (The monodromy representation is functorial). (1) Prove that [γ] → T[γ] is a linear representation of π1 (X, o) in Fo . (2) Show that F → T F is a functor from the category of locally constant sheaves of finite rank to that of finite dimensional linear representations of the group π1 (X, o). 15.8 Theorem (The monodromy representation is an equivalence). The functor F → T F is an equivalence between the category of locally constant sheaves of finite rank on X and that of finite dimensional representations of π1 (X, o). Proof. Let us apply the criterion given in §17. For the full faithfulness, it is a matter of verifying that any element ϕo ∈ HomC (Fo , Go )π1 can be lifted in a unique way as a homomorphism ϕ : F → G . This is a consequence of the following lemma, applied to the locally constant sheaf H omCX (F , G ). 15.9 Lemma (An existence criterion for a global section). Let F be a locally constant sheaf on X and pick so ∈ Fo . There exists a section s ∈ Γ (X, F ) such that s(o) = so if and only if T[γ] (so ) = so for any [γ] ∈ π1 (X, o). If such a section s exists, it is unique. Proof. Fix x ∈ X and let η : [0, 1] → X be a continuous path from o to x (recall that X is assumed to be path-connected). Lemma 15.5 applied to the sheaf η −1 F enables us to define sx ∈ Fx from so . Moreover, the condition T[γ] (so ) = so for any [γ] ∈ π1 (X, o) implies that sx does not depend on the chosen path η. We then see that x → s(x) := sx is a section of F . The set of points where the germs of two sections coincide is open in X. As F is locally constant, it is also closed, hence the uniqueness assertion. o ) be a Let us now sketch the proof of the essential surjectivity. Let (X, universal covering space of (X, o). Recall (cf. [God71, p. 134]) that π1 (X, o) if γ acts on X: is the lift of a loop γ based at o , there exists a unique auto such that h[γ] ( morphism h[γ] of the covering X o) = γ (1). One then denotes by F the quotient space of X ×Fo by the relation ( x, so ) ∼ (h[γ]−1 ( x), ρ[γ] (so )) ([γ] ∈ π1 (X, o)). One checks that the natural projection to X makes F a covering: this is the étale cover of the desired sheaf F . In order to check that the × Fo representation associated to F is equal to ρ, one takes the pullback of X by γ : the section which takes value so at o also takes value so at h[γ] ( o); one o), so ) and ( o, ρ[γ] (so )). identifies then the points (h[γ] ( 15.10 Corollary (Analytic extension). Let V ⊂ U be two connected open sets of X, containing the base point, such that the canonical homomorphism π1 (V, o) → π1 (U, o) is an isomorphism, and let G be a locally constant sheaf on V . (1) There exists a locally constant sheaf F on U and an isomorphism ∼ F|V −→ G .

16 Integrable deformations and isomonodromic deformations

53

(2) The restriction mapping Γ (U, F ) → Γ (V, F ) is an isomorphism. (3) If we have two locally constant sheaves F and F on U , any homomor can be extended in a unique way as a homomorphism ψ : F|V → F|V phism F → F . → X 15.11 Exercise (Another equivalence of categories). Let π : X be a fixed universal covering space of X. π −1 F ) (1) Let F be a locally constant sheaf of rank d on X. Prove that Γ (X, is a finite dimensional vector space, equipped with an action of the group G of automorphisms of the covering π. We denote by ρF the corresponding representation of G. (2) Prove that the functor F → ρF is an equivalence of categories. (3) Compare this functor with that defined in Exercise 15.7. 15.12 Exercise (Examples of locally constant sheaves). (1) Describe all locally constant sheaves of rank d on X = C∗ . (2) Describe all locally constant sheaves of rank one on the space X = P1 {0, 1, ∞} = C∗ {1}. (3) Prove that two linear representations ρ, ρ : π1 (X, o) → GLd (C) define isomorphic locally constant sheaves if and only if they are conjugate, i.e., there exists an invertible matrix C such that, for any [γ] ∈ π1 we have ρ ([γ]) = C −1 ρ([γ])C.

16 Integrable deformations and isomonodromic deformations Let us start with an analytic family of complex analytic manifolds whose topology (a fortiori the fundamental group) does not change. All these manifolds are thus pairwise homeomorphic. Given a family of linear differential systems on this family of manifolds, that is, a family of vector bundles, each one equipped with a holomorphic flat connection depending analytically on the parameters, we produce the locally constant sheaf of horizontal sections of this connection on each manifold in the family. As the notion of locally constant sheaf is topological, one can regard all these sheaves as sheaves on the same topological manifold. When these sheaves are all isomorphic to the same constant sheaf, we say that the family is isomonodromic. Let us be more precise. We thus have an analytic mapping π : M → X everywhere of maximal rank between two connected complex analytic manifolds. We make the assumption that π is a locally trivial topological fibration, that is, for any xo ∈ X, there exists a neighbourhood V of xo in X and a

54


homeomorphism h making the following diagram commute: V × π −1 (xo ) p1

h ∼ V

π −1 (V ) π

and whose restriction to π −1 (xo ) is the identity. Note that, as π is everywhere of maximal rank, the fibres of π are analytic submanifolds of M . 16.1 Examples. It is often necessary to consider more general situations than the projection π of a product M × X on X. (1) When π is a proper mapping, a theorem by Ehresmann (cf. [Ehr47, Ehr51], as well as [Wol64] for a proof) says that π is a locally trivial C ∞ fibration (i.e., one can choose a C ∞ diffeomorphism for h in the neighbourhood of any xo ). It is in general impossible to choose h holomorphic. (2) When π is not proper, the First Isotopy Lemma of R. Thom (cf. for instance [Dim92, Chap. 1] and the references given therein) often enables one to show that π is a locally trivial topological fibration over an open set dense of X. Such is the case for instance when there exists an analytic manifold M containing M as a dense open subset, equipped with a proper holomorphic mapping π : M → X extending π. For example, a n-variable polynomial defines a fibration π : Cn π −1 (Σ) → C Σ, where Σ is a finite set of points, called the “generalized critical values” of the polynomial π. (3) Let X = Xd ⊂ Cd be the open set consisting of the points with pairwise distinct coordinates and set M = Xd+1 . Then the projection π : Xd+1 → Xd which forgets the last coordinate is a locally trivial C ∞ fibration. The sheaf ΘM/X of vector fields tangent to the fibres of π is by definition the kernel of the tangent map T π : ΘM → π ∗ ΘX . This is a locally free sheaf, 1 of relative as π has maximal rank. One constructs by duality the sheaf ΩM/X differential 1-forms. , xq ) where π is written In any system of local coordinates (z1 , . . . , zp , x1 , . . . p as π(z, x) = x, any relative 1-form can be written as i=1 ϕi (z, x) dzi . 1 1 is naturally a quotient of the sheaf ΩM . It is equipped The sheaf ΩM/X 1 2 with a relative differential dM/X : ΩM/X → ΩM/X . Similarly, there is a rela1 such that the identity dM/X ◦ dM/X = 0 tive differential dM/X : OM → ΩM/X holds: in local coordinates (z, x) as above, p ∂f dM/X f = dzi . ∂z i i=1

Let E be a bundle on M . A relative connection ∇M/X on E is a homo1 ⊗OM E which is linear over the sheaf of rings π −1 OX morphism E → ΩM/X

16 Integrable deformations and isomonodromic deformations

55

and which satisfies the Leibniz rule ∇M/X (f · s) = f ∇M/X s + dM/X f ⊗ s. The relative connection is said to be integrable (or flat) if the relative curvature ∇M/X ◦ ∇M/X vanishes. One can readily express these notions on the connection matrix in a local basis of E and in local coordinates adapted to π as above. One also verifies that, when X is reduced to a point, one recovers the notions introduced in §§11 and 12. 16.2 Example (The relative connection associated to a connection). 1 If ∇ : E → ΩM ⊗ E is a connection on the bundle E, the composition of ∇ 1 1 ⊗ E → ΩM/X ⊗ E is a relative connection ∇M/X . with the projection ΩM If ∇ is integrable, then so is ∇M/X . In a local basis of E and in local coordinates adapted to π, the matrix of ∇M/X is obtained by forgetting the terms containing dzj (j = 1, . . . , q) in that of ∇. 16.3 Exercise (The Cauchy-Kowalevski theorem with parameters). Let ∇M/X be an integrable relative connection on some bundle E on M . Prove the analogue of Theorem 12.8 where one changes the sheaf CM with π −1 OX and the notion of a locally constant sheaf of C-vector spaces with that of a locally constant sheaf of locally free π −1 OX -modules (hint: see [Del70, Th. 2.23]). 16.4 Definition (of an isomonodromic family). An integrable relative connection ∇M/X on a bundle E is an isomonodromic family if the isomorphism class of the locally constant sheaf (of C-vector spaces) Ker ∇M/X|π−1 (x) does not depend on the point x ∈ X. Let us make it clear here that the restriction is taken in the analytic sense, that is, recalling (cf. previous exercise) that Ker ∇M/X is a π −1 OX -module, Ker ∇M/X|π−1 (x) = Oπ−1 (x) ⊗π−1 OX Ker ∇M/X . Let us now explain with more detail the expression “does not depend on x ∈ X”. For any xo ∈ X, let V be a neighbourhood of xo and let h be a ∼ homeomorphism V ×π −1 (xo ) −→ π −1 (V ) as above. We deduce, for any x ∈ V , a homeomorphism hx : π −1 (xo ) → π −1 (x). It enables us to pull back the sheaf Ker ∇M/X|π−1 (x) on π −1 (xo ). We get in this way a locally constant sheaf Fx on π −1 (xo ). The isomonodromy property means that, for x in a sufficiently small neighbourhood of xo , the sheaves Fx are pairwise isomorphic. 16.5 Exercise. Prove that the local isomonodromy property above does not depend on the choice of the homeomorphism h (it is a matter of verifying that, if F is a locally constant sheaf of C-vector spaces on a manifold N and if g : N → N is a homeomorphism homotopic to identity, then the sheaves F and g −1 F are isomorphic).

56


This exercise gives a nonambiguous meaning to the local notion of isomonodromy and therefore enables one to define it globally. 16.6 Proposition (Integrability implies isomonodromy). Let ∇ : E → 1 ⊗ E be a flat connection on some bundle E on M . Then the associated ΩM relative connection ∇M/X defines an isomonodromic family. Proof. We have already mentioned that this relative connection is flat. One then checks that Ker ∇M/X = π −1 OX ⊗C Ker ∇. Lastly, if V is a sufficiently small 1-connected neighbourhood of xo ∈ X, the fundamental group of π −1 (V ) V × π −1 (xo ) is equal to that of π −1 (xo ). It follows from Equivalence 15.8 that F = Ker ∇ is isomorphic to the pullback by h−1 ◦ p2 of its restriction to π −1 (xo ). We thus get isomonodromy. It is remarkable that, with only a weak assumption on fibres of π, the converse of this statement is true, at least locally on X: 16.7 Theorem (Isomonodromy implies integrability). Let us assume that the fundamental group of the fibres of π has finite type. Then, if ∇M/X is an integrable relative connection on some bundle E on M , defining an isomonodromic family, it comes, locally on X, from an integrable connection ∇ on E. 16.8 Remark. This assumption on the fundamental group of the fibres is satisfied for all the manifolds that we will consider in the remaining part of this book (quasiprojective varieties). In general, verifying this assumption will be easy. Our main example will be that of the complex line minus a finite number of points. Proof (Sketch). Fix xo ∈ X. According to the relative Cauchy-Kowalevski theorem, it is a matter of proving that, if G is a locally constant sheaf of locally free π −1 OX -modules on M , satisfying the isomonodromy property, there exists, up to changing X with a sufficiently small neighbourhood of xo , a locally constant sheaf F of C-vector spaces on M such that G = π −1 OX ⊗C F . We assume that the fundamental group π1 (π −1 (xo ), ) is generated by a finite number of classes γ1 , . . . , γp of loops based at . A linear representation of rank d of this group consists in giving p matrices T1 , . . . , Tp ∈ GLd (C) satisfying the same relations as the γi do. The set Rep of these representations is thus the closed subset of (GLd (C))p defined by the algebraic equations induced by the relations. These are equations like Tin11 · · · Tinrr − Id = 0. The group GLd (C) acts on the product by P · (T1 , . . . , Tp ) = (P T1 P −1 , . . . , P Tp P −1 ).

17 Appendix: the language of categories

57

The orbit of a representation ρo consists in the set of representations equivalent to ρo . The assumption of the theorem implies that, on some neighbourhood V of xo , there exists an analytic mapping V → Rep, the image of which is contained in the orbit GLd (C) · ρo (isomonodromy), if ρo is the representation corresponding to the locally constant sheaf G|π−1 (xo ) , and which sends xo to ρo . It is then a matter of showing that this mapping can be lifted, possibly after restricting V , as an analytic mapping V → GLd (C) sending xo to Id, that is, such that the following diagram commutes: GLd (C) P → P · ρo V

GLd (C) · ρo

This is possible because the mapping GLd (C) → GLd (C) · ρo has everywhere maximal rank, as the group acts transitively. 16.9 Remark. It is possible to extend the domain of existence of the integrable connection ∇, by using a vanishing theorem, cf. [Bol98].

17 Appendix: the language of categories We refer to [ML71] for more details on what follows. A category C consists (1) of a family of objects Ob(C ), (2) for any pair (X, Y ) of objects of C , of a set HomC (X, Y ), the elements of which are called morphisms of X to Y , (3) for any triple (X, Y, Z) of objects of C , of a mapping (called composition) ◦ HomC (X, Y ) × HomC (Y, Z) −−→ HomC (X, Z) (f, g) −→ g ◦ f satisfying the following properties: (a) the composition is associative, (b) for any object X of C , there exists an element IdX ∈ HomC (X, X) satisfying f ◦ IdX = f and IdY ◦f = f , for any f ∈ HomC (X, Y ). This element is necessarily unique. An f ∈ HomC (X, Y ) is an isomorphism if there exists g ∈ HomC (Y, X) with f ◦ g = IdY and g ◦ f = IdX . According to associativity, such an inverse is unique.

58


A functor F from a category C to a category C consists in giving a mapping F : Ob(C ) → Ob(C ) and, for any pair (X, Y ) of objects of C , of a mapping F : Hom(X, Y ) → Hom(F (X), F (Y )) compatible with composition and preserving the identity morphisms. We let the reader define the notion of morphism between two functors, also called natural transformation of functors, and then the notion of isomorphism of functors. If, for a given functor F , there exists an inverse functor F , that is, such that F ◦ F and F ◦ F are equal to the identity functors of each category, we say that the functor F is an isomorphism of categories. 17.1 Exercise. Check that the functor which, to any locally constant sheaf of sets associates its étale cover, is an isomorphism from the category of these sheaves to that of coverings. More often, there exists a quasi-inverse functor F , i.e., such that F ◦F and F ◦ F are isomorphic (and not necessarily equal) to the “identity” functors of the corresponding categories. Such a quasi-inverse functor is not necessarily unique. If such a quasi-inverse functor exists, we say that the categories are equivalent. It can be difficult to explicitly construct a quasi-inverse functor for a given functor. In order to check that a functor admits a quasi-inverse functor (and thus that it induces an equivalence of categories), one usually refers to the criterion below. We say that a functor F : C → C is fully faithful if, for any pair (X, Y ) of objects of C the map F : Hom(X, Y ) → Hom(F (X), F (Y )) is a bijection; we say that it is essentially surjective if, for any object X of C , there exists an object X of C such that F (X) is isomorphic to X . The criterion says that a functor F is an equivalence of categories if and only if it is fully faithful and essentially surjective. Indeed, when the latter properties are satisfied, one can show that there exists a quasi-inverse functor F (see for instance [ML71, p. 91]). Remark. In this book, we repeatedly use the notion of equivalence of categories. This is a convenient way, although somewhat formal, to express many properties: •

•

The equivalence of categories enables us to manipulate in different ways the objects of a category, by working directly in an equivalent category. This is what we have done with vector bundles. In this case, neither category (bundles and locally free sheaves) is simpler than the other, but depending on the question, we have “a better feeling” with one of them. One of the two categories is simpler to manipulate than the other one. One can then consider that equivalence plays the role of a classification, up to isomorphism, of the objects of the more complicated category. The equivalence bundles ↔ nonabelian 1-cohomology of §5 can be regarded— deceptively however—in this framework. On the other hand, for instance,

17 Appendix: the language of categories

•

59

the Riemann-Hilbert correspondence of Chapter II really falls within the scope of this framework. It may happen that the equivalence emphasizes hidden properties of one category which are visible in the other one. The equivalence enables then to simply exhibit these hidden properties. A known example is the equivalence between the category of regular holonomic D-modules and that of perverse sheaves, which shows that the latter is abelian.

Lastly, when both categories possess supplementary operations (direct sum or tensor product for instance), it is in general important to verify that the functor which establishes the equivalence preserves these operations.

I Holomorphic vector bundles on the Riemann sphere

In the following, the Riemann sphere is denoted by P1 : this is the complex projective line equipped with its usual topology and with the structure of complex analytic manifold as described in §0.2.2-4.

1 Cohomology of C, C∗ and P1 We denote by t the coordinate on C. Let CC∞ be the sheaf of C ∞ functions on C. It is a sheaf of rings, which contains the sheaf OC of holomorphic functions as a subsheaf of rings. It is then in particular a sheaf of OC -modules. ∂ The operator ∂ t := defines a homomorphism of sheaves ∂t (1.1)

∂ CC∞ −−−t→ CC∞

which is OC -linear (but not CC∞ -linear). By definition, its kernel is OC . The results below are fundamental. 1.2 The Poincar´ e Lemma for ∂ t . Let Δ be an open disc of the complex plane and let Δ be its closure. Let f be a C ∞ function defined in some neighbourhood of Δ. There exists then a C ∞ function g : Δ → C such that ∂g = f|Δ . ∂t Proof. See for instance [GH78, p. 5].

1.3 Theorem (The Dolbeault resolution on an open set). For any open set Ω of the complex plane, the map ∂ t : C ∞ (Ω) → C ∞ (Ω) is onto (and the kernel is O(Ω)). Proof. See for instance [BG91, Th. 3.2.1, p. 221].

62


1.4 Corollary (The local Dolbeault resolution). The morphism (1.1) is onto. Proof. It is of course a consequence of Theorem 1.3. It is also a consequence of the Poincaré Lemma 1.2: it is a matter of showing the surjectivity of the germ at to of (1.1), for any to ∈ C; if [f ]to is a C ∞ germ at to , there exist an open disc centered at to with radius r > 0 and a function f which is C ∞ on this disc and with germ [f ]to at to ; one takes forΔ the disc centered at to having radius r/2; Poincaré Lemma gives a C ∞ solution g : Δ → C of ∂ t g = f and the germ [g]to of g at to satisfies thus ∂ t [g]to = [f ]to . 1.5 Corollary (The holomorphic cohomology of an open set of C vanishes). For any open set Ω ⊂ C, H k (Ω, OΩ ) = 0 for any k 1. Proof. Corollary 1.4 shows that we have a short exact sequence of sheaves of C-vector spaces 0 −→ OΩ −→ CΩ∞ −→ CΩ∞ −→ 0. Theorem 0.6.2 gives then a long exact sequence · · · → H k (Ω, OΩ ) → H k (Ω, CΩ∞ ) → H k (Ω, CΩ∞ ) → H k+1 (Ω, OΩ ) → · · · from which we deduce, according to Theorem 0.6.3, that H k (Ω, OΩ ) = 0 for k 2. Theorem 1.3 expresses then the vanishing of H 1 (Ω, OΩ ). 1.6 Corollary (The holomorphic cohomology of P1 vanishes). The spaces H k (P1 , OP1 ) are zero for any k 1, and H 0 (P1 , OP1 ) = C. Proof. The second equality follows from Liouville’s Theorem, as a holomorphic function on P1 can be restricted as a holomorphic function on C = U0 , which is bounded by compactness of P1 . The covering of P1 by the charts U0 and U∞ (cf. Example 0.2.2-4) is acyclic for the sheaf OP1 , after the previous corollary; Leray’s Theorem 0.6.1 computes the cohomology of P1 with values in O with this covering. As it only consists of two open sets, we trivially have H k (P1 , OP1 ) = 0 for k 2. In order to show that H 1 (P1 , OP1 ) = 0, it is enough to see that any holomorphic function f on C∗ is the difference between the restrictions to C∗ of a holomorphic function on U0 and of a holomorphic function on U∞ : this is exactly what gives the Laurent expansion of f on the punctured line C∗ . 1.7 Corollary (Bundles of rank one on P1 ). A holomorphic bundle of rank one on P1 is determined (up to isomorphism) by its Chern class. Proof. The exact sequence of the exponential (cf. §0.7.b) induces a cohomology exact sequence c1 H 2 (P1 , ZP1 ) → H 2 (P1 , OP1 ) → · · · · · · → H 1 (P1 , OP1 ) → H 1 (P1 , OP∗1 ) −→ and both extreme terms vanish, after the previous corollary. This shows that c1 is an isomorphism.

2 Line bundles on P1

63

2 Line bundles on P1 2.a The tautological line bundle OP1 (−1) Let L ⊂ P1 × C2 be the subset consisting of pairs (m, v), where m is a line of C2 and v is a vector of C2 , such that v ∈ m. We denote by π : L → P1 the restriction to L of the first projection. If L˙ ⊂ L denotes the open set of pairs (m, v) such that v = 0, L˙ is identified, through the second projection, to C2 {0} and π : L˙ → P1 to the Hopf fibration C2 {0} → P1 .

Fig. I.1. The Hopf fibration restricted to the sphere S 3 = R3 ∪ ∞.

2.1 Proposition. The projection π makes L a holomorphic line bundle on P1 . We denote by OP1 (−1) the sheaf associated to the bundle L, called tautological . Proof. We will first compute the restriction of L to the open sets U0 and U∞ . Let us remark that L is a closed subset of P1 × C2 ; we will equip this set with the induced topology. Let t be the coordinate on U0 , let mo ∈ U0 be the point with homogeneous coordinates (1; to ) and let us set v = (v0 , v∞ ) ∈ C2 . Then, v ∈ mo if and only if v∞ = to v0 . We deduce a homeomorphism ϕ0 L|U0 −−−→ U0 × C (t, v) −−−→ (t, v0 ) and in the same way, if t denotes the coordinate on U∞ and if the homogeneous coordinates of mo ∈ U∞ is (to ; 1), v ∈ mo if and only if v0 = to v∞ ,

64


hence a homeomorphism ϕ∞ L|U∞ −−−−→ U∞ × C

(t , v) −−−−→ (t , v∞ ). On U0 ∩ U∞ the change of chart is given by

ϕ∞ ◦ ϕ−1 0 U0 ∩ U∞ × C −−−−−−−− −→ U0 ∩ U∞ × C (t, v0 ) −−−−−−−−−→ (t, tv0 ). The cocycle that one obtains is thus in H 0 (C∗ , O ∗ ).

2.2 Corollary (OP1 (−1) has no global section). The bundle L has no nonzero global holomorphic section; in other words, there is no non identically zero homomorphism OP1 → OP1 (−1) (in particular OP1 (−1) is not isomorphic to the trivial bundle). Proof. Let us show the absence of holomorphic section: the composition of such a section P1 → L with any of the projections of P1 × C2 → C restricts as a bounded holomorphic function on U0 , hence is constant. It remains to note that the bundle L has no holomorphic section which is constant and nonzero; in other words, as L is a line bundle, that L is not isomorphic to the trivial bundle; otherwise, there would exist a nonzero vector contained in all the lines of C2 , which is absurd. We have seen (cf. the remark in the proof of Proposition 0.4.1) that a homomorphism OP1 → OP1 (−1) is nothing but a global section of the bundle OM (−1), and such a section must be zero, by the previous argument. 2.b The line bundles OP1 (k) for k ∈ Z We define the bundle OP1 (1) as the bundle dual to OP1 (−1), that is, H omOP1 (OP1 (−1), OP1 ). It is also the inverse bundle of the bundle OP1 (−1) with respect to the tensor product. Is is called the canonical bundle on P1 . Then, for any k ∈ Z, we set ⎧ ⊗k ⎪ if k 1 ⎨OP1 (1) OP1 (k) = OP1 (−1)⊗|k| if k −1 ⎪ ⎩ if k = 0. OP 1 2.3 Exercise (First properties of the bundles OP1 (k)). Prove the following assertions: (1) The bundle OP1 (k) is trivial when restricted to the open sets U0 and U∞ −k and the corresponding cocycle is ϕ∞ ◦ ϕ−1 v0 ). 0 : (t, v0 ) → (t, t (2) For any k ∈ Z we have OP1 (−k) = H omOP1 (OP1 (k), OP1 ).


(3) (4) (5) (6) (7)

65

HomOP1 (OP1 (k), OP1 ()) = HomOP1 (OP1 , OP1 ( − k)). H 0 (P1 , OP1 (k)) = 0 ⇐⇒ k 0. HomOP1 (OP1 (k), OP1 ()) = 0 ⇐⇒ − k 0. If OP1 (k) is isomorphic to OP1 (), then k = . c1 (OP1 (k)) = k · c1 (OP1 (1)).

2.c Line bundle associated to a divisor We will now be more explicit concerning the notions introduced in §0.8 when M = P1 . Let us pick mo ∈ P1 . For k 0, we define OP1 (kmo ) as the subsheaf of OP1 consisting of germs of functions which vanish at order at least −k = |k| at mo : the germ of OP1 (kmo ) at m = mo is equal to OP1 ,m , while the germ at mo is equal to t|k| C{t} if t is a local coordinate vanishing at mo . One can extend this definition to k > 0: one first considers the sheaf OP1 (∗mo ) of germs of meromorphic functions with pole at mo on P1 , whose germ at m = mo is OP1 ,m and whose germ at mo is the ring C{t}[1/t]; one then defines OP1 (kmo ) ⊂ OP1 (∗mo ), for k > 0, as the subsheaf of germs which have a pole of order at most k at mo . We clearly have an exact sequence of sheaves (2.4)

0 −→ OP1 (kmo ) −→ OP1 ((k + 1)mo ) −→ Cmo −→ 0

where Cmo is the “skyscraper” sheaf on P1 defined by C if mo ∈ U, Γ (U, Cmo ) = 0 otherwise. 2.5 Exercise (The bundles O(k) and their divisors). (1) Prove that, for any k ∈ Z, the sheaf OP1 (kmo ) is locally free of rank one. ∼ (2) Show that OP1 (kmo ) −→ OP1 (km) for any m ∈ P1 . (3) Taking mo = ∞, compute a cocycle for OP1 (kmo ) and deduce that OP1 (kmo ) OP1 (k). 2.d The universal quotient bundle By its very construction, the tautological bundle is a subbundle of the trivial bundle of rank 2, i.e., OP1 ⊕ OP1 . 2.6 Proposition. The quotient sheaf Q := (OP1 ⊕ OP1 ) /OP1 (−1) is a locally free sheaf of rank one on P1 , isomorphic to the canonical bundle OP1 (1). Proof. Let us use the notation presented at the beginning of this section. Let us pick mo = (1; to ) ∈ U0 . The quotient C2 /Lmo is identified with C by the mapping v → v∞ − to v0 . There is thus an exact sequence of bundles ϕ 0 −→ L|U0 −→ U0 × C2 −−→ U0 × C −→ 0

66


with ϕ(t, v) = (t, v∞ − tv0 ), which gives a trivialization of Q on U0 . In the same way, there is a trivialization on U∞ by the map ϕ (t , v) = (t , t v∞ −v0 ). The cocycle associated to Q is (t, w) → (t, t−1 w): one recognizes the cocycle of OP1 (1). 2.e Extensions of line bundles We have constructed an exact sequence (2.7)

p 0 −→ OP1 (−1) −→ OP1 ⊕ OP1 −−→ OP1 (1) −→ 0.

One can ask whether this exact sequence splits, in other words if there exists a homomorphism OP1 (1) → OP1 ⊕ OP1 which becomes the identity after composition with p. Such a homomorphism does not exist, as any homomorphism OP1 (1) → OP1 is zero (cf. Corollary 2.2). More generally: 2.8 Theorem (Splitting of extensions). (1) If E is a bundle of rank 2 on P1 , any exact sequence 0 −→ OP1 (−k) −→ E −→ OP1 () −→ 0 splits as soon as k + 1. (2) If k + 2, there exists an extension E of OP1 () by OP1 (−k) which does not split. Proof. We will say that two extensions E , E of OP1 () by OP1 (−k) are isomorphic if there exist isomorphisms making the following diagram commute: 0

OP1 (−k)

0

OP1 (−k)

E E

OP1 ()

0

OP1 ()

0

(the extreme isomorphisms are then a nonzero constant times the identity). The proof of the theorem is thus reduced to both statements below. 2.9 Lemma. The set of isomorphism classes of extensions of the bundle OP1 () by the bundle OP1 (−k) is in one-to-one correspondence with H 1 P1 , OP1 (− − k) . 2.10 Theorem (Vanishing Theorem). We have H 1 (P1 , OP1 (−k)) = 0 if and only if k 1. Proof (of Lemma 2.9). We can tensor all terms by OP1 (−), so that we can assume that = 0. Consider first an extension E : 0 −→ OP1 (−k) −→ E −→ OP1 −→ 0.


67

One chooses a covering U of P1 finer than (U0 , U∞ ) and fine enough so that, on any open set Uj , the exact sequence splits (it is enough to insure that, on any Uj , one can complete a basis of OP1 (−k) in a basis of E ). Let σj be a section of E → OP1 on Uj . On Uj ∩Uj , we have σj −σj ∈ Γ (Uj ∩Uj , OP1 (−k)). The cocycle condition is clearly satisfied, hence (σj ) defines an element of H 1 (U, OP1 (−k)). We have inclusions H 1 ((U0 , U∞ ), OP1 (−k)) ⊂ H 1 (U, OP1 (−k)) ⊂ H 1 (P1 , OP1 (−k)) and, on the other hand, the covering (U0 , U∞ ) is acyclic for OP1 (−k) because it is so for OP1 and the restrictions of both bundles to U0 and U∞ are isomorphic. Therefore, after Leray’s Theorem 0.6.1, these inclusions are equalities. Conversely, any cocycle σ ∈ Z 1 (U, OP1 (−k)) associated to a covering U of P1 defines an extension E of OP1 by OP1 (−k): on any open set Uj of U we set Ej = (OP1 (−k) ⊕ OP1 )|Uj ; on Ui ∩ Uj , we glue Ei|Ui ∩Uj and Ej|Ui ∩Uj by means of the matrix Id σij 0 Id where the component σij of cocycle σ is regarded as an element of Γ (Ui ∩ Uj , H om(OP1 , OP1 (−k))). An extension E defined by a cocycle σ splits if and only if this cocycle is a coboundary (exercise). Therefore, any element of H 1 (P1 , OP1 (−k)) defines an isomorphism class of extension. Proof (of Vanishing Theorem 2.10). We know that H 1 (P1 , OP1 (−k)) = H 1 ((U0 , U∞ ), OP1 (−k)). By using the natural basis of OP1 (−k) on U0 , we see that a cocycle is a holomorphic function h on U0 ∩ U∞ and that a coboundary is a function of the form f (t) − t−k g(t) with f holomorphic on U0 and g holomorphic on U∞ . The existence of a Laurent expansion shows that a function h can be written as h(t) = an tn − t−k a−n t−n , n0

n0

where both series have an infinite radius of convergence, if and only if −k −1. 2.f Vector fields and differential forms on P1 As above, let us denote by t the coordinate in the chart U0 and by t the coordinate in the chart U∞ . The sheaf ΘP1 of vector fields on P1 has an everywhere

68


nonvanishing section on U0 , namely ∂/∂t, and an everywhere nonvanishing section on U∞ , namely ∂/∂t . We deduce isomorphisms ϕ0 ΘP1 |U0 −−−→ OU0 ∂ f (t) −−−→ f (t) ∂t

ϕ∞ ΘP1 |U∞ −−−−→ OU∞ ∂ g(t ) −−−−→ g(t ) ∂t

2 and the cocycle ϕ∞ ◦ ϕ−1 0 : OC∗ → OC∗ sends 1 to −1/t . It easily follows:

2.11 Proposition (Computation of the tangent and cotangent bundles of P1 ). We have isomorphisms ΘP1 OP1 (2), ΩP11 OP1 (−2) p p (ri + 1)mi OP1 − 2 + (ri + 1) , ΩP11 i=1

i=1

p if we denote by ΩP11 ( i=1 (ri + 1)mi ) the sheaf of meromorphic 1-forms with poles at the points m1 , . . . , mp and with order ri at mi (cf. §0.9.b).

3 A finiteness theorem and some consequences The following result, that we will not prove, enables one to analyze the bundles on P1 . It is one of the key points in the theory of Riemann surfaces, as well as in analytic and algebraic geometry; it is in fact true in a much more general framework (that of coherent sheaves on a compact complex analytic manifold). 3.1 Theorem (Finiteness Theorem). Let E be a holomorphic vector bundle on P1 and let E be the associated sheaf. Then we have dim H k (P1 , E ) < +∞ for any k 0. Proof. See for instance [Rey89, Chap. IX] for the finiteness of H 0 and H 1 . By using the Dolbeault resolution ∂ (0,1) 0 −→ OP1 −→ CP∞ −→ CP1 −→ 0 1 − where CP1 denotes the sheaf of differential 1-forms with C ∞ coefficients of type (0, 1) on P1 (see for instance [GH78]), as well as Theorems 0.6.3 and 0.6.2, one verifies the vanishing of H k (P1 , E ) for k 2. (0,1)

If E is a holomorphic vector bundle on P1 and E is the associated sheaf, we will denote by E (k) the tensor product E ⊗OP1 OP1 (k): it is a locally free sheaf over OP1 having the same rank as E . 3.2 Exercise. Describe a cocycle of E (k) from a cocycle of E .

4 Structure of vector bundles on P1

69

3.3 Corollary. For any holomorphic bundle E on P1 , there exists an integer k(E) such that H 0 (P1 , E (k)) = 0 for any k < k(E), and H 0 (P1 , E (k)) = 0 for any k k(E). Proof. Let us pick mo ∈ P1 . Let us choose an isomorphism OP1 (1) OP1 (mo ). Denote by Emo the sheaf such that Γ (U, Emo ) = Emo if mo ∈ U and = 0 otherwise. For any j ∈ Z, we have an exact sequence analogous to (2.4): (3.4)

0 −→ E (jmo ) −→ E ((j + 1)mo ) −→ Emo −→ 0.

Any open covering U of P1 such that mo is contained in only one open set is acyclic for Emo ; we deduce that H j (P1 , Emo ) = 0 for any j 1. Hence, the long exact sequence associated to (3.4) becomes (3.5)

0 −→ H 0 (P1 , E (jmo )) −→ H 0 (P1 , E ((j + 1)mo )) −→ Emo −→ −→ H 1 (P1 , E (jmo )) −→ H 1 (P1 , E ((j + 1)mo )) −→ 0.

It follows that, if H 0 (P1 , E (kmo )) = 0 for some k ∈ Z, then H 0 (P1 , E (jmo )) = 0 for any j k; in the same way, if H 0 (P1 , E (kmo )) = 0 for some k ∈ Z, then H 0 (P1 , E (jmo )) = 0 for any j k. Therefore, we are reduced to showing that there exists k such that H 0 (P1 , E (kmo )) = 0 and that there exists such that H 0 (P1 , E (mo )) = 0. Let us show the first assertion: if it is false, for any j ∈ Z, dim H 1 (P1 , E (j)) = dim Emo + dim H 1 (P1 , E (j + 1)), after the exact sequence (3.5). It follows that, for any j 0, dim H 1 (P1 , E ) = j dim Emo + dim H 1 (P1 , E (j)) j dim Emo j, which is in contradiction with the finiteness theorem 3.1. If the second assertion is false, there exists k0 ∈ Z such that, for any k k0 , we have 0 = H 0 (P1 , E (kmo )) = H 0 (P1 , E (k0 mo )). One can choose k0 0. One would then be able to find a strictly increasing sequence of integers n (n ∈ N) and a sequence of sections sn ∈ H 0 (P1 , E (−n mo )) such that, for any n ∈ N, the section sn vanishes at order n exactly at mo . It is clear that such a family is free, which is in contradiction with the finiteness statement of Theorem 3.1.

4 Structure of vector bundles on P1 4.a Birkhoff-Grothendieck theorem Let us begin with the classification of line bundles on P1 , the first step in the inductive procedure of Theorem 4.4.

70


4.1 Theorem (Classification of line bundles on P1 ). Any line bundle on P1 is isomorphic to OP1 (k) for one and only one k ∈ Z. Proof. Let L be a locally free sheaf of rank one on P1 . It follows from Corollary 3.3 that there exists a unique k0 ∈ Z such that H 0 (P1 , L (k0 )) = 0 and H 0 (P1 , L (k0 − 1)) = 0. There exists thus a non identically zero section of L (k0 ) and such a section does not vanish anywhere in P1 , otherwise it would be a section of L (k0 − 1). The homomorphism OP1 → L (k0 ) defined by this section is thus an isomorphism. We deduce from Corollary 1.7: 4.2 Corollary. We have H 2 (P1 , ZP1 ) = Z · c1 (OP1 (1)).

4.3 Definition (Quasitrivial bundles). We will say that bundle E of rank d on P1 is quasitrivial (of weight k) if it is isomorphic to OP1 (k)d for some k ∈ Z. Therefore, any line bundle on P1 is quasitrivial. 4.4 Theorem (Birkhoff-Grothendieck theorem). Let E be a vector bundle of rank d on P1 . There exists then a unique sequence of integers a1 · · · ad such that we have an isomorphism E OP1 (a1 ) ⊕ · · · ⊕ OP1 (ad ). We say that the sequence a1 · · · ad is the type of the bundle E. This theorem gives a multiplicative matrix variant of the Laurent expansion: 4.5 Corollary (Matrix Laurent expansion). Let A be an invertible matrix d × d with holomorphic entries on an annulus C = {t ∈ C | 0 r < |t| < R +∞}. There exist then two invertible holomorphic matrices P and Q respectively on |t| < R and |t| > r such that, on C , the matrix P AQ is equal to a diagonal matrix with diagonal entries ta1 , . . . , tad , where the sequence of integers a1 · · · ad depends only on A. Proof. Let us consider the covering of P1 by the two open sets |t| < R and |t| > r. The matrix A defines a 1-cocycle of this covering with values in GLd (OP1 ), hence a vector bundle. The corollary is then a simple translation of Theorem 4.4. 4.6 Remarks. (1) Corollary 4.5 was originally proved by G.D. Birkhoff (see [Bir13a]) as a tool in the study of singular points of differential equations. At the same time (cf. [Bir13b]), this author proved results on the normal form of systems with an irregular singularity, normal form which takes his name and that


71

we will consider in §IV.5. He then realized that the same method had been used by Hilbert and Plemelj to solve the Riemann-Hilbert problem. Theorem IV.2.2, which we will see later, expresses this unity. The proof of Birkhoff is taken up in [Sib90, §3.4]. In 1957, Theorem 4.4, in a more general situation where the structure group of the bundle is not necessarily GLd , was proved by A. Grothendieck in [Gro57]. The proof given below essentially follows that of Grothendieck. (2) A consequence of Theorem 4.4 is that any holomorphic bundle on P1 is trivializable when restricted to U0 and to U∞ and that it is isomorphic to an algebraic bundle, that is, it admits a cocycle given by a matrix of rational fractions. This result can be generalized: any holomorphic bundle on a closed complex analytic submanifold of the projective space Pn (see Example §0.2.2) can be defined by an algebraic cocycle (see [Ser56]). (3) The reader interested in variants and generalizations of Corollary 4.5 is referred to [PS86, Chap. 8]. Proof (of Theorem 4.4, existence). It is done by induction on the rank d of E, the case d = 1 being given by Theorem 4.1. Let k0 be the integer such that H 0 (P1 , E (k0 )) = 0

and H 0 (P1 , E (k0 − 1)) = 0.

There exists thus a section of E (k0 ) which does not vanish on P1 . It provides an injective homomorphism OP1 → E (k0 ) and the quotient sheaf F is locally free of rank d − 1 (such would not be the case if the section would vanish). By d−1 induction, there exists a sequence b2 · · · bd such that F j=1 OP1 (bi ). We will show that E (k0 ) OP1 ⊕ F . In order to do that, it is enough, as in Theorem 2.8, to check that the bi are 1. We will show more: the bi are 0. Setting then ai = bi − k0 for i = 2, . . . , d and a1 = −k0 , we obtain the desired existence. Let us consider the exact sequence of locally free sheaves that we have yet obtained, tensored with OP1 (−1), 0 −→ OP1 (−1) −→ E (k0 − 1) −→ F (−1) −→ 0. It gives rise to a long exact sequence, the part which we are interested in being 0 := H 0 (P1 , E (k0 − 1)) −→ H 0 (P1 , F (−1)) −→ H 1 (P1 , OP1 (−1)) = 0, (after Theorem 2.10). Therefore, H 0 (P1 , F (−1)) = 0. But H 0 (P1 , F (−1)) =

d i=2

H 0 (P1 , OP1 (bi − 1))

and hence we have bi − 1 −1 for any i = 2, . . . , d (cf. Exercise 2.3).

72


Proof of Theorem 4.4, uniqueness. Assume that we have two decompositions corresponding to two distinct sequences a1 · · · ad and a1 · · · ad . Let j ∈ {1, . . . , d} be such that ai = ai for i < j and aj = aj , for instance aj > aj . Then ai − aj = ai − aj 0 for i < j and ai − aj < 0 for i j. If we have an isomorphism OP1 (ai ) OP1 (ai ) i

i

we deduce, by tensoring with OP1 (−aj ), an isomorphism OP1 (ai − aj ) OP1 (ai − aj ). i

i

However, the dimension of the space of global sections for the left-hand term is strictly smaller than that for the right-hand term, whence a contradiction. 4.7 Exercise (Degree of a bundle). The degree of a bundle E of type d a1 · · · ad on P1 is by definition the sum i=1 ai . Prove that a bundle E is trivial if and only if it has degree 0 and satisfies H 1 (P1 , E (−1)) = 0. 4.8 Exercise (The Harder-Narasimhan filtration, case of P1 ). For any a ∈ Z, the subbundle F a E ⊂ E is defined as the direct sum of components isomorphic to OP1 (ai ) with ai a. (1) Prove F a+1 E ⊂ F a E , that the quotient F a /F a+1 vanishes if a is not equal to one of the ai and that it is quasitrivial of weight a. We thus have {0} = F ∞ E F a1 E ⊂ · · · ⊂ F ad E = E . (2) Prove that a filtration of E by vector subbundles satisfying the properties above is unique. (3) We call the slope of a nonzero bundle E the quotient μ(E ) = d deg(E )/ rk(E ), with deg(E ) = i=1 ai . Prove that μ(F a+1 E ) μ(F a E ) and consider the case when there is equality. (4) We say that E is semistable if any nonzero subbundle F of E satisfies μ(F ) μ(E ). Deduce that E is semistable if and only if it is quasitrivial. It can be suggestive to visualize the decomposition given by Theorem 4.4 as a polygon (see Figure I.2). This polygon is the graph of the function k ∈ {0, . . . , d} −→

k

ai .

i=1

The vertices of this polygon consist of the pairs (k, k ), where k is such that F ak+1 /F ak = 0 and k is the degree of F ak .


73

6 7 q

qqr qqq A q q A 1 qqqq A qqq q q q q A−2 q r qqqq 1 4 q A qqqqq μ(F ) = 7/5 A q q 3 qq qAr qqq qqqqqq q q q q 2 qqqq q qqqqqq qq qqqqqqμ(F −2 ) = 3/7 q q qqqqq q q q qqq qqq qqqqqqqq qq qqqqqqqq q q q2 5 7 Fig. I.2. The polygon of O(2)2 ⊕ O(1)3 ⊕ O(−2)2 .

4.b Application to meromorphic bundles 4.9 Corollary (Meromorphic bundles are trivial). Any meromorphic bundle M of rank d on P1 with poles on some nonempty finite set Σ = {m0 , . . . , mp } is isomorphic to the trivial meromorphic bundle OP1 (∗Σ)d . Proof. After Proposition 0.8.4, there exists a lattice E ⊂ M . Then M = E (∗Σ). By applying Birkhoff-Grothendieck theorem 4.4 to E , we are reduced to showing that, for any k ∈ Z, the meromorphic bundle OP1 (k)(∗Σ) is trivial; let us identify OP1 (k) with OP1 (km0 ); we then have in an evident way OP1 (km0 )(∗Σ) = OP1 (∗Σ), whence the result. 4.c Modification of the type of a bundle It is clear that, if a bundle E has type a1 · · · ad , then the bundle E (k) has type a1 + k · · · ad + k. We will now consider the effect on the type of some modifications on the bundle. Let us pick mo ∈ P1 and let Lo be a line in the fibre Emo . Let us define the subsheaf E (Lo mo ) of E (mo ) := E ⊗OP1 OP1 (1 · mo ) E (1): this subsheaf is equal to the sheaf E (mo ) on the open set P1 {mo }; let t be a local coordinate vanishing at mo ; the germ at mo of E (Lo mo ) consists of meromorphic sections σ of Emo which have at most a simple pole at mo (i.e., sections of E (mo )mo ) and whose residue at mo belongs to Lo , that is, such that (tσ(t))|t=0 ∈ Lo . 4.10 Exercise. (1) Check that this condition on the residue does not depend on the choice of a local coordinate. (2) Prove that, if e1 , . . . , ed is a local basis of E and if Lo is the line containing ed (mo ), then e1 , . . . , ed−1 , ed /t is a local basis of E (Lo · mo ), which is thus a locally free OP1 -module of rank d.

74


4.11 Proposition (Type of the modified bundle). Let a1 · · · ad be the type of E and let F a E (a ∈ Z) be the natural associated filtration (cf. Exercise 4.8). Let a(Lo ) be the integer a such that Lo ⊂ (F a E)mo and Lo ⊂ (F a+1 E)mo . Let j = j(Lo ) be the smallest integer i such that ai = a(Lo ). Then the type of E (Lo mo ) is a1 · · · aj−1 aj + 1 = a(Lo ) + 1 > aj+1 · · · ad . Proof. Let us first be more explicit concerning the definition1 of the integer j(Lo ) from a(Lo ): it is the unique integer j ∈ {1, . . . , d} such that there exists 0 with a(Lo ) = aj = · · · = aj+ ,

a(Lo ) < aj−1 ,

a(Lo ) > aj++1 .

We thus have a(Lo ) + 1 aj−1 (by convention, a0 = +∞). If d = 1, the result is clear because, in this case, the line Lo is equal to the fibre Emo and E (Lo mo ) E (1). to Theorem 4.4, a decomposition E = dFor d > 1, let us choose, according o L where L O(a ). If L = Lj,mo for some j, we similarly have i i i i=1 E (Lo mo ) = i=j Li ⊕ Lj (1) and the result is clear. In general, with the notation above, o

Lo ⊂ F a(L ) Emo = L1,mo ⊕ · · · ⊕ Lj+,mo and

o

Lo ⊂ F a(L

)−1

Emo = L1,mo ⊕ · · · ⊕ Lj−1,mo .

We can then modify the decomposition o

F a(L ) Emo = L1,mo ⊕ · · · ⊕ Lj−1,mo ⊕ Lj,mo ⊕ · · · ⊕ Lj+,mo as

F a(L ) Emo = L1,mo ⊕ · · · ⊕ Lj−1,mo ⊕ Lj,mo ⊕ · · · ⊕ Lj+,mo o

in such a way that Lj,mo = Lo . It is therefore enough to show that there exists a corresponding decomposition (4.12)

E =

j−1 i=1

j+ Li ⊕ Li ⊕ i=j

d

Li ,

i=j++1

as this reduces to the previous situation, and thereby ends the proof. In order to do so, let us choose an isomorphism Li OP1 (ai mo ), whence a basis of each Li,mo (i ∈ {1, . . . , d}); let us choose a basis of each Lj+k,mo (k ∈ {1, . . . , }); the projection pik : Lj+k,mo → Li,mo is then the multiplication by some complex number αik , equal to zero if i > j + . We consider the homomorphism OP1 (a(Lo )mo ) → OP1 (ai mo ) obtained from the natural homomorphism by multiplying it by αik . We thus get, by direct sum, an injective 1

It is taken from the proof that O. Gabber gives to Theorem IV.2.2.


75

d

homomorphism OP1 (a(Lo )mo ) → i=1 OP1 (ai mo ), which defines a subbun of E (k ∈ {1, . . . , }). One dle of this direct sum and hence a subbundle Lj+k then verifies (exercise) that this family of subbundles satisfies (4.12). 4.13 Definition (of the defect). Let E be a bundle of rank d on P1 of type d a1 · · · ad . The defect of E is the integer δ(E) = i=1 (a1 − ai ). The defect is a nonnegative integer and the bundle E has “defect zero” if and only if it is quasitrivial. 4.14 Corollary (Lowering the defect). If Lo ⊂ Emo is not contained in (F a1 )mo , we have δ(E) > 0 and δ(E(Lo mo )) = δ(E) − 1. Proof. This immediately follows from the inequality a1 > aj(Lo ) .

4.d Algebraic and rational vector bundles If one uses the Zariski topology instead of the usual topology on P1 , one gets the category of algebraic (instead of “holomorphic”) and rational (instead of “meromorphic”) vector bundles. The functor which associates to each such bundle its “analytization” is an equivalence between the algebraic categories and the corresponding holomorphic categories (cf. [Ser56]). In the algebraic framework, the bundles have a somewhat simple description in terms of cocycles. Let us denote as above U0 the chart of P1 with coordinate t centered at 0 and U∞ the chart with coordinate t centered at ∞. Recall the correspondence (cf. [Ser55] and §0.10.a) on any affine open set U : Vector bundles on U ⇐⇒ Free modules of finite rank over C[U ] where C[U ] denotes the ring of regular functions on U , that is, if for instance U is contained in U0 , the ring of rational fractions in t which have poles in U0 U . Any algebraic vector bundle on P1 can be represented by a cocycle relative to the covering (U0 , U∞ ), that is, an element of GLd (C[t, t−1 ]). The rational bundles which have a pole only at 0 and ∞ are the algebraic bundles on the affine open set U0 ∩ U∞ , that is, the free modules of finite rank over the ring C[t, t−1 ] of Laurent polynomials. 4.15 Proposition. Let M be a rational bundle of rank d on P1 with poles at 0 and ∞ (i.e., a free C[t, t−1 ]-module of rank d). (1) The lattices of M correspond to the pairs (E0 , E∞ ), where E0 (resp. E∞ ) is a free C[t] (resp. C[t ])-module of rank d contained in M, such that C[t, t−1 ] ⊗ E0 = M C[t]

with t = t−1 .

and

C[t , t−1 ] ⊗ E∞ = M C[t ]

76


(2) The following properties are equivalent: (a) the lattice corresponding to (E0 , E∞ ) is trivial; (b) we have in M the decomposition E∞ = (E0 ∩ E∞ ) ⊕ t E∞ ; (c) we have in M the decomposition E0 = (E0 ∩ E∞ ) ⊕ tE0 ; (d) we have M = E0 ⊕ t E∞ or also M = E∞ ⊕ tE0 . Proof. Let us only indicate why one of the decompositions (b) or (c) implies triviality for the lattice E associated to (E0 , E∞ ). The remaining part is left as an exercise. We first identify Γ (P1 , E) with E0 ∩ E∞ . The existence of the decomposition (b) means that the natural restriction mapping Γ (P1 , E) → i∗∞ E is an isomorphism. Birkhoff-Grothendieck theorem (in its algebraic version), plus Exercise 2.3-(4), enable us to conclude that the bundle E is necessarily trivial.

5 Families of vector bundles on P1 5.a First properties Let X be a complex analytic manifold, that we will always assume to be connected in the following. A family of holomorphic bundles on P1 parametrized by X is, by definition, a holomorphic bundle E on the manifold M = P1 × X. For any x ∈ X, we can then consider the restriction Ex of the bundle E to the submanifold P1 × {x} = P1 (cf. §0.3.3). Each bundle Ex has some type a1 (x) · · · ad (x). As this type consists of integers, one can imagine that it remains constant when x varies in some dense open set of X. Such is indeed the case. More precisely, one can show (see for instance [Bru85]), that there exists a stratification of X with constant type of Ex , namely, there exists a partition of X into complex analytic (not necessarily closed) submanifolds, above each of which the restriction of E has constant type; the closure of each of these submanifolds is a closed analytic (possibly singular) subset of X; the topological boundary of any submanifold of the family is a union of other submanifolds of the family. Notice that all the “degeneracies” are not possible. Corollary 5.4 (see below) shows for instance that, if at some point of X the type is that of the trivial bundle, the same property holds at any nearby point. Moreover, there is a simple constraint on the type of the bundles Ex for x ∈ X (cf. for instance [BS76, Chap. 3, Th. 4.12] for the complex analytic case and [Har80] for the algebraic case): 5.1 Proposition (In a deformation, the degree stays constant). If the d manifold X is connected, the degree function deg : x → i=1 ai (x) is constant.

5 Families of vector bundles on P1

77

When one replaces the Riemann sphere P1 with a compact Riemann surface, the Harder-Narasimhan polygon of the bundle indicates possible degeneracies (see for instance [Bru85] for a precise study on any compact Riemann surface). For the Riemann sphere, one recovers the polygon of Figure I.2. 5.2 Example (of a nontrivial deformation). The non-split extension (2.7) enables us to construct a family E of bundles of rank 2 on P1 , parametrized by the complex line X = C with coordinate z, such that E0 OP1 (−1) ⊕ OP1 (1) and Ez OP1 ⊕ OP1 for any z ∈ C {0}. Let E be the trivial bundle of rank 2 on P1 ×C. The trivial bundle E0 on P1 contains a subbundle F0 of rank one isomorphic to OP1 (−1). Let then E be the subsheaf of E whose local sections belong to F0 when restricted to z = 0. One can check, as in Exercise 4.10, that E is locally free of rank 2. As E and E coincide away from z = 0, the bundles Ez are trivial for any z ∈ C {0}. One can write E = F + zE ⊂ E , if F is the pullback bundle of F0 on 1 P × C. Let us set G0 = E0 /F0 OP1 (1) and G = E /F . We will explicitly give a homomorphism G0 → E0 , the image of which only meets F0 on the zero section, thereby showing that E0 = F0 ⊕ G0 . In order to do that, let us remark that we have a homomorphism z G = E /F −−→ E /zE induced by multiplication by z, as zE ⊂ E and zF ⊂ zE . Moreover, the subsheaf zG has image 0, as z 2 E ⊂ zE . We thus get the desired homomorphism z G0 = G /zG −−→ E /zE = E0 . 5.b Rigidity theorems We will mainly consider the case where the restriction Ex of E to P1 × {x}, for x general enough, is isomorphic to the trivial bundle. We will use some fundamental results of the theory of coherent sheaves, for which we refer to [BS76, Chap. 3] or [Fis76]: the semicontinuity of the dimension of fibres of a coherent sheaf and a criterion of local freeness, the coherence of direct images by a proper morphism (statement for a family analogous to the finiteness theorem 3.1) and the proper base change theorem. We will thus assume in this section some familiarity with the theory of coherent sheaves2 . In particular, we will use the fact that the support of a coherent sheaf H on X is a closed analytic subset of X and that, at any point x of this support, the fibre H /mx H of this sheaf3 , that is, the set of values at x of the germs of sections of H , is not equal to zero (Nakayama). 2

3

The reader will find a direct proof (i.e., not referring to the theory of coherent sheaves) of Theorem 5.3 and of Corollary 5.6 in [Mal83c]. We denote by mx the sheaf ideals equal to OX on X {x} and with germ at x equal to the maximal ideal of OX,x .

78


If E is a bundle of rank d on P1 ×X, the degree of its restriction to the fibre P × {x} does not depend on x, if X is connected, as follows from Proposition 5.1. If we still denote by OP1 ×X (1) the pullback by the first projection of the bundle OP1 (1) and E (k) = OP1 ×X (k) ⊗ E , we see that the degree of the restrictions of E (− deg E ) is zero. On the other hand, if π denotes the projection P1 × X → X and if F is a locally free sheaf on P1 × X, the sheaf Rk π∗ F (k ∈ N) is (see [God64, §4.17]) the sheaf associated to the presheaf 1

V −→ H k (P1 × V, F ). It is a coherent sheaf on X (Grauert’s Theorem; see for instance [BS76, Chap. 3, §2]). It is zero for k 2: indeed, if Fx is a bundle on P1 × {x}, we have H k (P1 , Fx ) = 0 for k 2, as mentioned in Theorem 3.1; we can then apply [BS76, Cor. 3.11]. It follows from this vanishing that the formation of R1 π∗ F is compatible with base change (see [BS76, Cor. 3.5]). In particular, the fibre at x of R1 π∗ F is equal to H 1 (P1 , Fx ). 5.3 Theorem (The nontriviality divisor). Let X be a connected complex analytic manifold and let E be a holomorphic bundle of rank d on P1 × X such that, for any x ∈ X, the restriction P1 × {x} has degree zero. (1) The support Θ of the sheaf R1 π∗ E (−1) is the set of points x ∈ X such that the restriction of E to P1 × {x} is not trivial. (2) If Θ = ∅ and Θ = X, then Θ is a hypersurface of X. Proof. According to the preliminary remarks above, the first point is a straightforward consequence of Exercise 4.7. It remains thus to show that the support Θ, that we will assume nonempty and = X, is a hypersurface4 . Let us begin with some remarks on determinant bundles. Let F and G be two locally free sheaves of OX -modules having the same rank d and let ϕ : F → G be a non identically zero homomorphism. In local bases of F and G , the determinant of its matrix is a holomorphic function, the zero locus of which is the set of points where ϕ is not an isomorphism. In a more intrinsic way, we call determinant bundle of F the line bundle det F = ∧d F and det ϕ the homomorphism det F → det G whose matrix in a local basis of det F and det G (obtained from a basis of F and G) is the determinant of that of ϕ. It is also a section of the bundle det G ⊗ (det F )∨ , where (det F )∨ is the dual bundle of the line bundle det F (it is also its inverse in the sense of tensor product, cf. §0.7). If ϕ : F → G is injective, the cokernel C of ϕ is a coherent sheaf on X and its support is the set of zeroes of the section det ϕ: if this set is not equal to X, it is a closed analytic hypersurface of X, empty if and only if ϕ is everywhere an isomorphism. 4

The proof which follows is inspired by that of [OSS80, p. 214–217]. I learned it from J. Le Potier.


79

We will therefore show that the sheaf R1 π∗ E (−1) admits, in the neighbourhood of any point xo of Θ, a presentation of the previous kind, that is, that there exists an exact sequence of sheaves on some neighbourhood of xo in X 0 −→ F −→ G −→ R1 π∗ E (−1) −→ 0, with F and G locally free and having same finite rank. Let us first show that, up to replacing X with a sufficiently small neighbourhood of xo , there exist an integer q and a surjective homomorphism (∗)

E := OP1 ×X (q)d −→ E (−1).

Indeed, there exists an integer r such that the restriction of E (r) to P1 × {xo } is generated by its global sections, that is, there exists a surjective d homomorphism ϕxo : OPd1 ×{xo } → Exo (r) (if Exo has the decomposition i=1 OP1 (ai ), choose r such that r + ai 0 for all i). For such an r, we also have R1 π∗ E (r) = 0: indeed, we have seen that, in our situation, R1 π∗ commutes with restriction to xo ; with the previous choice of r, we thus have R1 π∗ E (r)xo = 0, by the vanishing theorem 2.10; as R1 π∗ E (r) is coherent, Nakayama’s Lemma implies that the germ of R1 π∗ E (r) at xo is zero, hence R1 π∗ E (r) is identically zero in some neighbourhood of xo ; on such a neighbourhood, π∗ commutes then with restriction to xo ; therefore, any section of E (r)xo can be locally lifted to a section of E (r). In other words, the surjective morphism ϕxo can be lifted, if X is sufficiently small, to a morphism ϕ : OPd1 ×X → E (r). Using once more Nakayama’s Lemma at points of P1 × {xo }, and up to shrinking X once more, we get the surjectivity of ϕ. We now tensor ϕ with OP1 ×X (q), with q + r = −1, in order to get the existence and the surjectivity of (∗). Let K be the kernel of (∗). We will apply the long exact sequence of cohomology for the functor π∗ , obtained from the exact sequence 0.6.2 by passing to direct limit on neighbourhoods of xo ∈ X. Let us first remark that the sheaf π∗ E (−1) is zero: its restriction to fibres P1 × {x}, x ∈ Θ, is zero as H k (P1 , OP1 (−1)d ) = 0 for any k 0 (see [BS76, Cor. 3.11]); on the other hand, it has no local section supported in Θ, as such a section defines a section of the bundle E (−1) on an open set P1 × V supported in π −1 Θ, hence is zero. Moreover, for any coherent sheaf C on P1 , the cohomology groups k H (P1 , C ) vanish for k 2: we have mentioned this above for locally free sheaves (see the proof of Theorem 3.1). The general case of coherent sheaves follows, by using that any coherent sheaf on P1 admits a finite resolution by locally free sheaves (see for instance [BS76, Chap. 4, Cor. 2.6]). Therefore, we have Rk π∗ H = 0 for k 2, when H is one of the sheaves K , E or E (−1) ([BS76, Cor. 3.11]). We finally get ∼ π∗ K −→ π∗ E

80


and an exact sequence 0 −→ R1 π∗ K −→ R1 π∗ E −→ R1 π∗ E (−1) −→ 0. Let us note that G := R1 π∗ E is locally free, as it is coherent (proper direct image of a coherent sheaf) and its fibres have the same rank δ = dim H 1 (P1 , OP1 (q)d ) (see [BS76, Chap. 3, Lemma 1.6]). Similarly, F := R1 π∗ K is coherent and locally free of rank equal to δ on X Θ. Moreover, being a subsheaf of the locally free sheaf G , it has no torsion. If X has dimension one, we conclude that F is OX locally free as, for any xo ∈ X, the ring OX,xo is a principal ideal domain. If X has dimension n 2 and if F is not locally free, the dimension of the fibre of F at xo is > δ (see for instance [Fis76, p. 54]). Then there exists, up to shrinking X, a system of local coordinates (x1 , . . . , xn ) centered at xo such that the restriction of F to the x1 -axis has a generic fibre of dimension δ and a fibre at xo of dimension strictly bigger than δ, that is, this restriction is not locally free. As the formation of F and G commutes with base change5 (properness of π), this is impossible, after the result when dim X = 1. Therefore, F is locally free, with the same rank as G , and the support of R1 π∗ E (−1) is a closed analytic hypersurface of X. The rigidity statement below will be essential. As B. Malgrange remarked, it is basic for the Painlevé’s property of some systems of differential equations considered later. 5.4 Corollary (Rigidity of trivial bundles on P1 ). Let E be a bundle of rank d on the product P1 × X. We assume that there exists xo ∈ X such that E o := E|P1 ×{xo } is trivial. There exists then an open neighbourhood V of xo in X such that the restriction of E to P1 × V is trivial. Proof. After Theorem 5.3-(1), there exists an open neighbourhood W of xo such that E|P1 ×{x} is trivial for any x ∈ W . We thus have H k (P1 , E|P1 ×{x} ) = 0 for any k 1; therefore, as indicated before the statement of Theorem 5.3, we have Rk π∗ E = 0 on W for any k 1. It follows that the formation of π∗ E commutes to base change. Hence, denoting mxo the maximal ideal of OX,xo , we have Γ (P1 , E o ) = π∗ E /mxo π∗ E and this space has dimension d. Let us choose a basis eo1 , . . . , eod of it and let e1 , . . . , ed be liftings in (π∗ E )xo . We thus get, for V sufficiently small, a homomorphism e : OPd1 ×V −→ E|P1 ×V . In a local basis of E|P1 ×V , its matrix A(t, x) satisfies det A(t, xo ) = 0 for any t as, E o being trivial, it admits eo1 , . . . , eod as a local basis. It follows that, up to taking a smaller V , we also have det A(t, x) = 0 for any t and any x ∈ V . Therefore, e is an isomorphism. 5

As F may not be locally free, we have to use a resolution by locally free OP1 ×V modules to get the assertion for F from [BS76, Chap. 3, Th. 3.4].


81

5.5 Remarks. (1) We also get that π∗ E is locally free of rank d on X Θ. (2) The following analogy can be helpful in understanding the proof of this corollary. Let H be a finite dimensional C-vector space and let d be an integer dim H. The Grassmannian Gr(d, H) of d-dimensional subspaces of H is equipped with a “tautological” bundle E whose fibre at the point [E] representing the subspace E ⊂ H is precisely this subspace (for d = 1 and H = C2 , we have Gr(1, C2 ) = P1 and E = OP1 (−1)). Let us fix a d-dimensional subspace E o ⊂ H and a projection p : H → E o , that is, a decomposition H = E o ⊕ F o . We deduce, for any E ∈ Gr(d, H), a morphism ϕ : E → E o , that we regard as a morphism ϕ from E to the trivial bundle OGr(d,H) ⊗C E o with fibre E o . This morphism is an isomorphism away from the locus Θp where det ϕ = 0. We regard det ϕ as a morphism from the line bundle det E to the trivial bundle of rank one, that is, a section of the bundle det E ∨ dual to det E . Therefore, Θp is a hypersurface of Gr(d, H) (which depends on the choice of p). Condition (2d) in Proposition 4.15 suggests to extend the reasoning above to the case of an infinite dimensional space (i.e., take H = M). This is meaningful when H is a separable Hilbert space (cf. [PS86, Chap. 7]), for instance the space of L2 functions on the unit circle. The proof of [Mal83c] uses these kind of methods. We can now be more precise concerning Corollary 5.4 in the neighbourhood of a point of Θ: 5.6 Corollary (Meromorphic trivialization). Let E be a bundle of rank d on P1 × X having degree 0. We assume that the support Θ of R1 π∗ E (−1) is a (possibly empty) hypersurface. Then, for any x ∈ X, there exists an open neighbourhood V of x and a meromorphic trivialization E|P1 ×V (∗π −1 Θ) OPd1 ×V (∗π −1 Θ). Proof. It is a consequence of the following lemma: 5.7 Lemma. Let F be a OX -coherent sheaf, locally free of rank d on X Θ. Then OX (∗Θ) ⊗OX F is locally free of rank d as a OX (∗Θ)-module. Indeed, Remark 5.5 enables us to apply this lemma to π∗ E . Let us pick xo ∈ Θ and let (e1 , . . . , ed ) be a basis of π∗ E (∗Θ)xo . This basis defines thus a homomorphism e : OPd1 ×V (∗π −1 Θ) −→ E (∗π −1 Θ)|P1 ×V if V is a sufficiently small neighbourhood of xo . As e induces a basis of each bundle E|P1 ×{x} for x ∈ V Θ, it follows as above that e is an isomorphism.

82


Proof (of Lemma 5.7). Let us pick xo ∈ Θ. As F is coherent, we have dim Fxo /mxo Fxo d. Let us choose d independent vectors ϕo1 , . . . , ϕod in this space. They can be lifted in d independent local sections ϕ1 , . . . , ϕd of F on a sufficiently small neighbourhood V of xo . These ones define a homomorphism ϕ : OVd → F|V . The latter is an isomorphism on V Θ as F is locally free of rank d there and as the determinant of these sections, regarded as a homomorphism from OX to ∧d F , does not vanish on V . The kernel K and the cokernel C of ϕ are coherent sheaves with support in Θ. If θ = 0 is an equation of Θ in the neighbourhood of xo , K and C are killed by some power of θ. In particular, we have OV (∗Θ) ⊗ K = 0 and OV (∗Θ) ⊗ C = 0. OV

OV

As OV (∗Θ) is flat over OV (see for instance [Bou98]), we conclude that ϕ ∼ induces an isomorphism OVd (∗Θ) −→ F (∗Θ)|V . Let i0 and i∞ be the zero and infinity sections from X to P1 × X. Let us consider both natural restriction morphisms ρ0 : π∗ E −→ i∗0 E

and ρ∞ : π∗ E −→ i∗∞ E .

The mapping ρ0 is given, for any open set V of X, by Γ (P1 × V, E ) −→ Γ ({0} × V, E ) s(t, x) −→ s(0, x) and ρ∞ is defined similarly. Let E be a bundle of rank d on P1 ×X. We assume that there exists xo ∈ X such that E o := E|P1 ×{xo } is trivial. There exists then, after Theorem 5.3, a (possibly empty) hypersurface Θ of X not containing xo and such that Ex is trivial for any x ∈ X Θ. 5.8 Corollary (Canonical identification between the restrictions to 0 and to ∞). With this assumption, the restriction morphisms ρ0 and ρ∞ induce isomorphisms after tensoring with OX (∗Θ); in particular, on X Θ, the vector bundles π∗ E|XΘ , i∗0 E|XΘ and i∗∞ E|XΘ are isomorphic via ρ0 and ρ∞ . One also has, after applying the functor π ∗ , isomorphisms of meromorphic bundles E (∗π −1 Θ), π ∗ i∗0 E (∗π −1 Θ) and π ∗ i∗0 E (∗π −1 Θ). Proof. Let us notice first that i∗0 E and i∗∞ E are two vector bundles on X (restrictions of the bundle E ). After Corollary 5.6, the bundle E (∗π −1 Θ) is a meromorphic bundle trivialized on open sets P1 × V . We want to verify that the morphisms ρ0 and ρ∞ are isomorphisms. It is enough to check this property locally on X. We may thus assume that E (∗π −1 Θ) = OP1 ×V (∗Θ)d and in this case the result is obvious. The third part of the corollary is proved in the same way.

II The Riemann-Hilbert correspondence on a Riemann surface

In this chapter, M denotes a Riemann surface, i.e., a complex analytic manifold of dimension one (cf. §0.2) which will always be assumed connected. A general presentation of the properties of Riemann surfaces is given in [Rey89]. Their topological properties (that of their fundamental group in particular) are analyzed with details in [Gra84, Mas67].

1 Statement of the problems Let Σ be a discrete set of points of M and let o be a base point in M Σ. If for instance M = P1 , the set Σ = {m0 , m1 , . . . , mp } is finite, as P1 is compact, and we have P1 Σ = C {m1 , . . . , mp } (by taking ∞ = m0 ); therefore, the fundamental group π1 (M Σ, o) is the free group having as generators the classes of the loops γ1 , . . . , γp drawn in Figure II.1 (where the point m0 is at infinity), or, in a more intrinsic way, the quotient of the free group with p + 1 generators γ0 , . . . , γp by the equivalence relation generated by the relation γp · · · γ0 = 1. γp mp m2

γ2

m1

γ1

Fig. II.1.

Let us consider some representation π1 (M Σ, o) → GLd (C). For instance, when M = P1 and Σ = {m0 , . . . , mp }, giving such a representation is

84

II The Riemann-Hilbert correspondence

equivalent to giving p invertible matrices T1 , . . . , Tp without any other condition or, in an equivalent way, p + 1 invertible matrices T0 , . . . , Tp satisfying Tp · · · T0 = Id. According to Theorem 0.15.8, there exists a locally constant sheaf F on M Σ corresponding to this representation. Moreover, according to Theorem 0.12.8, there is a holomorphic bundle with connection (E , ∇) on M Σ such that E ∇ = F , namely E = OM ⊗CM F . Recall that, as M has dimension one, such a connection is flat; in higher dimension, one should not forget this adjective for the analogous problem. 1.1 The very weak Riemann problem. Does there exist a meromorphic bundle (M , ∇) with (flat) connection on M , whose restriction to M Σ is isomorphic to (E , ∇)? 1.2 The weak Riemann problem. Does there exist a meromorphic bundle (M , ∇) with (flat) connection on M which has a regular singularity (cf. §0.14) at each point of Σ and whose restriction to M Σ is isomorphic to (E , ∇)? 1.3 The partial Riemann problem. Given a meromorphic bundle with (flat) connection (UM , U ∇) on some connected open set U of M Σ, having poles at a discrete set Σ ⊂ U , assume that the inclusion U Σ → M (Σ ∪ Σ ) induces an isomorphism of fundamental groups (for instance U = M Σ). • •

Does there exist a meromorphic bundle with (flat) connection (M , ∇) on M , whose restriction to U is isomorphic to (UM , U ∇)? Can one moreover choose (M , ∇) with a regular singularity at each point of Σ?

We will show that the answer to these questions is positive. Moreover, the solution is unique when one asks for the regular singularity condition at each point of Σ: we thus get the bijectivity of the Riemann-Hilbert correspondence between representations of the fundamental group π1 (M Σ, o) and meromorphic bundles with (flat) connection having a regular singularity at each point of Σ. When M is compact (for instance M = P1 ), one can deduce, by using a GAGA1 type theorem (see Remark I.4.6) that the bundle with connection can be chosen algebraic. This is one of the main motivations for these kind of theorems. A solution to the partial Riemann problem, in the case where M = P1 , Σ = {∞}, Σ = {0} and U is a disc centered at the origin, as in the remark above, enables one to algebraize the germs of meromorphic connections (see §3.c). When M = P1 , any meromorphic bundle, whose set of poles is nonempty, is isomorphic to the sheaf OP1 (∗Σ)d (cf. Corollary I.4.9), so that, by taking 1

This means “analytic geometry and algebraic geometry”.

2 Local study of regular singularities

85

a basis of this sheaf, one can translate the statements on the connection into statements on meromorphic differential systems. For the solution to these problems, we will need a precise local study of regular singularities. The question of deforming Birkhoff’s problem, which we will consider with details in Chapter VI, will involve a precise local study of irregular singularities, which we will do in §§5 and 6. In order to do so, we will take a classic point of view from linear algebra: before solving a linear system of differential equations, we give it a “normal” form, in such a way that its resolution becomes easier. We will first introduce the possible normal forms, which we will call “elementary models”. Producing the normal form will involve the resolution of a linear system of the same kind to find the matrix of the base change.

2 Local study of regular singularities In this section, the Riemann surface M is the disc D = {t ∈ C | |t| < r}, where r is arbitrarily small, so that 0 is the only possible pole of the meromorphic functions that we consider. More precisely, we consider the germ (C, 0) of Riemann surface. 2.a Some definitions Let us take up in a local setting the notions introduced in §0.14. We consider the (germ of) trivial bundle of rank d on the germ (C, 0), equipped with the connection with matrix Ω = A(t) dt, where the entries of A are germs of meromorphic functions with pole at 0. The ring of germs of meromorphic functions with poles at 0 is the ring C{t}[1/t] of converging meromorphic Laurent series. More precisely, it is a field, that we will denote by k. The usual action of the derivation makes it a differential field, with field of constant (elements killed by the derivation) equal to the field C: a meromorphic Laurent series with zero derivative is constant. Therefore, a germ of meromorphic bundle with connection is nothing but a k-vector space of rank d equipped with a derivation compatible to the derivation of k. It amounts to giving a square matrix A(t) of size d with entries in k or also the matrix Ω = A(t) dt. Two (k, ∇)-vector spaces are isomorphic if and only if the corresponding matrices Ω1 and Ω2 are related by a meromorphic base change P ∈ GLd (k), via the relation Ω2 = P −1 Ω1 P + P −1 dP and the matrices A1 and A2 by the relation (2.1)

A2 (t) = P −1 A1 P + P −1 P .

86


A (k, ∇)-vector space M of rank d defined by a matrix A1 (t) has a regular singularity at 0 if there exists a matrix P ∈ GLd (k) such that the matrix A2 obtained after the base change (2.1) has at most a simple pole at t = 0. Otherwise, the singularity is called irregular. A lattice of this (k, ∇)-vector space is a free C{t}-module E ⊂ M such that k ⊗ E = M. C{t}

2.b Rank one The classification of such systems is simple: if a(t) dt is the “matrix” of the system, then a system of matrix b(t) dt is meromorphically equivalent to the first one if and only if b(t) = a(t) + p (t)/p(t) for some meromorphic germ p ∈ k. 2.2 Proposition (Regular singularities in rank one). (1) A (k, ∇)-vector space of rank one has a regular singularity if and only if, in any basis, the matrix a(t) dt of the connection has a simple pole. There exists then a basis in which the matrix takes the form α dt/t with α ∈ C. It admits a horizontal meromorphic section if and only if α ∈ Z. (2) Two (k, ∇)-vector spaces of rank one with regular singularity, with matrices a1 (t) dt and a2 (t) dt, are isomorphic if and only if a1 − a2 has a simple pole with integral residue at 0. Proof (Sketch). (1) One shows that a meromorphic function q(t) can be written as p /p with p meromorphic if and only if q has at most a simple pole at 0 with integral residue. (2) A homomorphism (M1 , ∇) → (M2 , ∇) is an isomorphism if and only if it is nonzero, as M1 and M2 have rank one. It is a horizontal section of the (rank one) (k, ∇)-vector space Homk (M1 , M2 ). The matrix of ∇ on this space is (a2 − a1 ) dt. Let us pick α ∈ C and let e be a basis of some (k, ∇)-vector space of rank one with respect to which the matrix of ∇ is α dt/t. A horizontal section on an open set U of D {0} takes the form s(t) = u(t)e where u is a holomorphic function on U satisfying Equation (0.12.7), which can be written here as u (t) + αu(t) = 0. If U is simply connected, Such an equation has a solution, namely u(t) = e−α log t if log is some determination of the logarithm on U . We denote by t−α this function.


87

2.3 Exercise (Lattices of (k, ∇)-vector spaces of rank one). Let M be a (k, ∇)-vector space of rank one and let E be a lattice. Let e and e be two bases of E and let a(t) dt and b(t) dt be the corresponding “matrices” of the connection. (1) Prove that there exists a germ p of invertible holomorphic function such that b(t) = a(t) + p /p. (2) Show that a meromorphic function q can be written as p /p, with p holomorphic invertible, if and only if q has at most a simple pole (at t = 0) with a nonnegative integral residue. (3) Infer from this a classification of lattices of a (k, ∇)-vector space of rank one with regular singularity. (4) Deduce more generally a classification of lattices of a (k, ∇)-vector space of rank one. 2.c Models in arbitrary rank We now consider a (k, ∇)-vector space (M, ∇) of rank d 1 equipped with a basis e = (e1 , . . . , ed ) in which the connection matrix takes the form (2.4)

Ω(t) = A

dt t

where A ∈ Md (C). There exists a constant matrix P ∈ GLd (C) such that J = P −1 AP takes the Jordan normal form. The connection matrix in the basis ε = e · P can be written as Ω (t) = J

dt t

as the term P −1 P is zero, the matrix P being constant. One can remark that the object we consider is the restriction to a neighbourhood of the origin of a meromorphic bundle with connection on C with pole at the origin only (because the coefficient of dt in the matrix Ω is a rational fraction with pole at 0 only). 2.5 Definition (Elementary regular models). We define an elementary regular model as a (k, ∇)-vector space equipped with a basis in which the connection matrix is written as Ω(t) = (α Id +N )

dt t

where α ∈ C and N is a nilpotent matrix. If N is a single Jordan block, we denote it by Nα,d . Note that the connection given in (2.4) is isomorphic to a direct sum of elementary regular models: indeed, this is true after the base change P , as the matrix Ω is blockdiagonal, each block taking the “elementary” form of Definition 2.5; this is thus also true before the base change.

88


2.6 Exercise (Horizontal sections of elementary regular models). We assume that the matrix N has a single Jordan block, of size d 1. (1) Prove that, on any simply connected open set U of D {0}, the horizontal sections s of the elementary regular model with matrix (α Id +N ) dt/t are obtained by taking the linear combinations with coefficients in C of the columns of the matrix 2 d −(α Id +N ) −α 2 (log t) d (log t) t + · · · + (−N ) := t Id −N log t + N , 2! d! that is, of the form s(t) = t−(α Id +N ) · σ, with σ ∈ Cd . (2) Prove that the monodromy representation (cf. §0.14) defined by the horizontal sections of an elementary regular model associated to the matrix α Id +N is given by T = exp (−2iπ(α Id +N )) . (3) Prove that the horizontal sections have moderate growth near the origin, that is, for any horizontal section s on the neighbourhood of a closed angular sector with angle < 2π, there exist an integer n 0 and a constant C > 0 such that, on this closed sector, −n

s(t) C |t|

.

Deduce analogous properties for any model (2.4). 2.7 Exercise (Extensions of elementary regular models). Prove that, if α − α is not an integer, (1) any homomorphism of (k, ∇)-vector spaces ϕ : Nα,d → Nα ,d is zero; (2) any (k, ∇)-extension of Nα,d by Nα ,d splits. 2.d Classification of (k, ∇)-vector spaces with regular singularity at 0 Let (M, ∇) be a (k, ∇)-vector space of rank d with regular singularity. There exists, by definition, a basis e of M in which the matrix of ∇ is Ω(t) = A(t)

dt t

where A(t) is a matrix of size d with holomorphic entries2 . 2.8 Theorem (Normal form regular singularities). With these conditions, there exists a matrix P ∈ GLd (k) such that, after the base change of matrix P , the matrix Ω of the connection takes the form Ω (t) = B0

dt t

where B0 ∈ Md (C) is constant. 2

If A(0) = 0 the singularity is only apparent (in the sense given in Exercise IV.2.3).


89

We then deduce from the results of §2.c: 2.9 Corollary (Sufficiency of elementary regular models). Any (k, ∇)vector space with regular singularity is isomorphic to a direct sum of elementary regular models. 2.10 Important remark. The matrix B0 that one gets is not necessarily equal (or conjugate) to the matrix A(0) (see however Exercise 4.5 for what concerns the characteristic polynomial). Moreover, the matrix exp(−2iπB0 ) only depends, up to conjugation, on (M, ∇), as it is the monodromy matrix of horizontal sections (cf. Exercise 2.6-(2)). The proof of Theorem 2.8 is done in two steps (see for instance [Was65], [Mal74]). One first constructs the matrix P (t) as a formal series, then one proves that this series has a nonzero radius of convergence. the field of meromorphic formal Laurent series, i.e., the We denote by k series n−n0 an tn , for which the series n0 an tn may have a zero radius of convergence (we also denote by C[[t]] the ring of such series). = A(t) dt/t, where A(t) 2.11 Proposition. Let Ω has entries in C[[t]]. We moreover assume that any two eigenvalues of the matrix A(0) do not differ by a nonzero integer. There exists then a matrix P ∈ GLd (C[[t]]) such that P + tP −1 P = A(0). P−1 A This proposition is completed by: = A(t) dt/t, where A(t) is a matrix with entries in 2.12 Proposition. Let Ω C[[t]]. There exists a matrix Q ∈ GLd (C[t, t−1 ]) such that the eigenvalues of B(0), where B(t) is defined by := Q−1 AQ + tQ−1 Q , B(t) do not differ by a nonzero integer. We deduce from both propositions the statement of Theorem 2.8, if we accept matrices P with possibly nonconverging entries. The matrix A(t) we start with has converging entries, as does the (constant) matrix B0 we get, but the matrix of the base change possibly not. It will thus be necessary, in order to achieve the proof of Theorem 2.8, to show: 2.13 Proposition. The matrix of the base change P obtained in Proposition 2.11 has converging entries. Proof (of Proposition 2.11). It follows that given in [Mal74] by B. Malgrange (see also [Gan59] or [Sab93, §I.5.2]). We search for a matrix P satisfying, if = A0 + tA1 + · · · , we put A(t) P + tP −1 P = A0 . P−1 A

90


One can regard this relation as a differential equation satisfied by P, namely (2.14)

P. tP = PA0 − A

We a priori set P = Id +tP1 + t2 P2 + · · · , where the P are constant matrices to be determined. We will determine them in an inductive way: in degree , Equation (2.14) is written as (2.15)

P = P A0 − A0 P + Φ (P1 , . . . , P−1 ; A0 , . . . , A ),

where Φ is a matrix depending in a polynomial way on its variables. 2.16 Lemma. Let U ∈ Mp (C) and V ∈ Mq (C) be two matrices. Then the following properties are equivalent: (1) for any matrix Y of size q × p with entries in C, there exists a unique matrix X of the same kind satisfying XU − V X = Y ; (2) the square matrices U and V have no common eigenvalue. Let 1. Let us assume that we have determined the matrices Pk (k − 1). The relation (2.15) can be written as in the lemma, with X = P , Y = Φ , U = Id −A0 and V = −A0 . Because of the assumption on A0 , and as 1, the condition in the lemma is fulfilled, as it means that there does not exist a pair (λ, λ ) of eigenvalues of A0 with λ − λ = . We can thus determine a matrix P which is a solution of (2.15) if we know the matrices Pk for k − 1. Proof (of the lemma). Let ϕ : Cq×p → Cq×p be the linear map defined by ϕ(X) = XU − V X. One shows (for instance assuming first U and V diagonalizable, then using a density argument) that the eigenvalues of ϕ are exactly the λi − μj , where λi belongs to the set of eigenvalues of U and μj that of V . Hence ϕ is bijective if and only if none of the differences λi − μj is zero. 2.17 Remark. With the assumption made in Proposition 2.11, any solution P ∈ GLd (k) is in fact in GLd (C[[t]]). More generally, if u ∈ kd is the solution of a system of the kind tu (t) + A(t)u(t) = 0 with A ∈ Md (C[[t]]) such that the possible integral eigenvalues of A(0) are 0, then u(t) ∈ C[[t]]d . Indeed, if u denotes the coefficient of t in u, the term ( Id −A(0))u can be expressed in terms of the uj for j < ; by induction, we deduce that u = 0 for < 0 as, in this case, Id −A(0) is invertible. Proof (of Proposition 2.13). It is thus a matter of verifying that, if A(t) has entries in the ring C{t} of converging series, so does the matrix P. We will not compute the radius of convergence of the series defining P: this would lead us to annoying computations. Let us rather remark that Equation (2.14) defines P as a horizontal section of a differential linear system of rank d2 and that the matrix of this system has at most a simple pole at 0 (the residue of which is the endomorphism ad A0 of Md (C), defined by ad A0 (X) = [A0 , X] = A0 X −XA0 ). The proposition is therefore a particular case of Proposition 2.18 below.


91

2.18 Proposition (Any formal solution is convergent). Let A(t) be a matrix in Md (C{t}). Any vector u(t) with entries in C[[t]] which is solution of the system tu (t) + A(t)u(t) = 0 has converging entries (i.e., in C{t}). Proof. We will use the method of bounding series3 . Let us write u(t) =

+∞

u k tk

and A(t) = A0 + tA1 + · · ·

k=0

so that the equation satisfied by u can be written as A0 u0 = 0,

( Id −A0 )u = −

Aj u−j

( 1).

j=1 4 Let 0 be such that Id −A ( 0 is invertible ( for any 0 . There exists then a −1 ( ( −A0 ) c for any 0 , if we set, for any constant c > 0 such that ( Id matrix B = (bij ), B = maxi j |bij |. As a consequence, for 0 ,

u c

Aj u−j .

j=1

u v = c j=1 Aj u−j

Let us set

for < 0 for 0 .

One checksby induction on that u v for any . Let us then show that the series v t is convergent: this will give the desired result. Let us set +∞ ϕ(t) = j=1 Aj tj . This is a converging series. 2.19 Lemma. We have ∞

−1

v t = (1 − cϕ(t))

=0

Proof. Exercise.

u0 +

0 j=1

uj − c

j

Ai uj−i tj .

i=1

As ϕ(0) = 1, the function (1 − cϕ(t)) is invertible in the neighbourhood of the origin; moreover, the ∞term between the brackets is a polynomial. The convergence of the series =0 v t in the neighbourhood of t = 0 follows. 3 4

At last, some analysis! Hint: Use that, for a matrix B such that B < 1, the series log(Id −B) := − j1 B j /j converges and deduce that, under these conditions, we have ( ( ((Id −B)−1 ( (1 − B)−1 .

92


Proof (of Proposition 2.12). Using a base change with constant matrix, we first reduce to the case where the matrix A0 is blockdiagonal, each block corresponding to some eigenvalue λi (i = 1, . . . , p) of A0 . Let us then write ) * (1) A0 0 A(t) = Aj tj + (2) 0 A0 j1 (1)

(2)

where A0 is the block corresponding to the eigenvalue λ1 and A0 λ1 . Let us set eigenvalues λj = t Id 0 Q(t) = . 0 Id

to the

Then the eigenvalues of the constant part B0 of the matrix B = Q−1 AQ + tQ−1 Q are λ1 + 1, λ2 , . . . , λp . By a finite sequence of such changes, we get a matrix B0 satisfying the conclusion of Proposition 2.12. 2.20 Exercise (Levelt normal form [Gan59, Lev61]). It is a matter of giving a normal form to the connection matrix after a holomorphic base change, even when the connection matrix does not satisfy the “nonresonance” conditions on eigenvalues, asked in Proposition 2.11. Let Ω = A(t) dt/t be the connection matrix, with A(t) holomorphic. We can assume that A0 is blockdiagonal, the blocks corresponding to the distinct eigenvalues. We denote by D = diag(δ1 , . . . , δd ) the diagonal matrix, the diagonal entries of which are the integral parts of the real parts of the eigenvalues of A0 . We assume that δ1 δ2 · · · δd : this is possible up to a permutation of the order of the blocks. We set δ = δ1 − δd . We thus have the following properties: • •

The endomorphism ad D = [D, •] : Md (C) → Md (C) is semisimple. The matrix A0 commutes with D and the eigenvalues λ of A0 − D satisfy Re(λ) ∈ [0, 1[ (hence the only integral eigenvalue of ad(A0 − D) is 0).

(1) Prove that there exists a matrix B0 = A0 + B1 + · · · + Bδ ∈ Md (C) with ad D(Bi ) = −iBi for i 1, and a matrix P(t) ∈ GLd (C[[t]]) such that (a) P(t) = P0 + tP1 + t2 P2 + · · · , (b) tP (t) = P(t)B(t)−A(t)P(t) with B(t) = A0 +tB1 +t2 B2 +· · ·+tδ Bδ = t−D B0 tD . [Use that ad(A0 − D) + k Id commutes with ad D, hence preserves the eigenspaces of ad D, and induces there an isomorphism if k = 0; then, decompose the equation of (b) on the eigenspaces of ad D.] (2) Show, by using Proposition 2.18, that the matrix P is convergent. Deduce that there exists a base change P ∈ GLd (C{t}) after which the connection matrix takes the form dt B(t) . t


93

(3) By applying the meromorphic base change with matrix P (t)t−D to the matrix Ω = A(t) dt/t, show that the new matrix is (B0 − D) dt/t and recover Theorem 2.8. Deduce that the monodromy matrix is exp(−2iπ(B0 − D)). (4) Give an example of a matrix A(t) in M2 (C{t}) such that the monodromy of the system with matrix A(t) dt/t is not conjugate to exp(−2iπA(0)). 2.e Canonical logarithmic lattices Let (M, ∇) be a (k, ∇)-vector space and let E be a logarithmic lattice. Let e be a basis of E over C{t} and Ω(t) = A(t) dt/t be the matrix of ∇ in this basis. Then the endomorphism of E0 having matrix A(0) in the basis e does not depend on the choice of the basis: it is the residue of the connection at the origin (see §0.14.b), that we will denote by Res ∇, or also by ResE ∇ to insist on the lattice which defines it. We can now be more specific about Exercise 2.6 and construct canonical logarithmic lattices (also called Deligne lattices) in any meromorphic bundle with regular singularities. They are obtained by gluing local canonical logarithmic lattices, as constructed below. The local Deligne lattices enable us to reformulate the classification Theorem 2.8 in terms of an equivalence of categories. 2.21 Corollary (Deligne lattices). Let (M, ∇) be (k, ∇)-vector space with regular singularity. (1) Let E be a logarithmic lattice of M; if the eigenvalues of the residue ResE ∇ of the connection ∇ on E do not differ by a nonzero integer, there exists a basis of E over C{t}, in which the connection matrix takes the form A0 dt/t, with A0 constant. (2) Let σ be a section of the natural projection C → C/Z (so that two complex numbers in the image Im σ of σ do not differ by a nonzero integer). There exists a unique logarithmic lattice σ V of (M, ∇) such that the eigenvalues of ResσV ∇ are contained in Im σ. Moreover, for any homomorphism ϕ : (M, ∇) → (M , ∇ ), ϕ(σ V) = σ V(Im ϕ, ∇) = σ V(M , ∇ ) ∩ Im ϕ. (3) Conversely, let T be an automorphism of Cd (defining a local system of rank d on some disc punctured D∗ ). There exists then a unique (up to isomorphism) bundle with meromorphic connection on D with logarithmic pole at 0 for which (a) the local system it defines on D∗ is that associated to T , (b) the residue at 0 of the connection has eigenvalues in Im σ. (4) The functor which associates to any (k, ∇)-vector space (M, ∇) with regular singularity the vector space σH = σ V/t σ V equipped with the automorphism T = exp (−2iπ ResσV ∇) is an equivalence of categories.

94


Proof. (1) This is exactly what gives Propositions 2.11 and 2.13. (2) The existence of a lattice σ V follows from Proposition 2.12. If E and E are two such lattices, there exists, after (1), a basis e of E (resp. e of E ) in which the matrix A0 dt/t (resp. A0 dt/t) of ∇ has eigenvalues in Im σ. By arguing as in Proposition 2.11, we see that the matrix of the base change P ∈ GLd (k) from e to e is constant and conjugates A0 with A0 . Whence the uniqueness. As the image by ϕ of a lattice is a lattice of the image of ϕ, the second assertion follows from uniqueness. (3) One can decompose in a unique way Cd = λ Fλ (Jordan decomposition of T ), where Fλ is a direct sum of spaces C[T, T −1 ]/(T − λ)k and we have a corresponding decomposition of the local system associated to T on D∗ . The desired bundle will be decomposed similarly and, to any term C[T, T −1 ]/(T − λ)k , one associates the connection ∇ on the trivial bundle of rank k having matrix (α Id +N ) dt/t, with T = exp −2iπ(α Id +N ), where −2iπα is the unique logarithm of λ which belongs to 2iπ Im σ, N is a Jordan block of size k and t is a coordinate on D. If we have two such bundles E and E , the bundle with meromorphic connection H omOD (E , E ) also has a logarithmic pole at 0 and the eigenvalues of the residue of its connection are obtained as the differences of the eigenvalues of Res ∇ and of Res ∇. Therefore, the only integral difference is 0, by assumption. As the bundles have the same monodromy on D∗ , there exists an isomorphism of the associated locally constant sheaves on D∗ and hence we get an invertible horizontal section of H omOD (E , E ) on D∗ . As the singularity of (H omk (M, M), ∇) is regular, this section has moderate growth (after Exercise 2.6 and Theorem 2.8), and hence is meromorphic at 0. As the unique integral eigenvalue of the residue of ∇ on H omOD (E , E ) is 0, this section is holomorphic at 0 (see Remark 2.17). Its inverse satisfies the same property, whence the existence of an isomorphism between both bundles with meromorphic connection. (4) Point (3) shows in particular that this functor is essentially surjective. For full faithfulness, let us first remark that, if ϕ : (M, ∇) → (M , ∇ ) satisfies ϕ(σ V(M)) ⊂ t · σ V(M ) then, after (2), we have σ V(ϕ(M)) = t · σ V(ϕ(M)) and therefore ϕ = 0. Lastly, let us show that the map induced on the Hom is onto. By choosing suitable bases, we are reduced to showing that, if A0 and A0 are two square matrices, of size d and d respectively, having eigenvalues in Im σ, any matrix P (t) of size d × d satisfying P A0 − A0 P = tP is constant. This follows from Lemma 2.16, as the only integral eigenvalue of the linear operator P → P A0 − A0 P is 0.


95

2.22 Remark (Algebraization of Deligne lattices). One can express the corollary above in a slightly different way. For any α ∈ C, let us set

n Mα = {e ∈ M | ∃ n, t∇∂/∂t − α Id e = 0}. Then, the corollary implies (by first considering an elementary model) that Mα is a finite dimensional C-vector subspace and multiplication by t induces an isomorphism from Mα to Mα+1 . Moreover, Mα = 0 except if exp(−2iπα) is an eigenvalue of T . Therefore, M := α Mα is a free C[t, t−1 ]-module contained in M, stable under the action of ∇ and which generates M over k. More precisely, the natural mapping k ⊗ M −→ M C[t,t−1 ]

is an isomorphism of (k, ∇)-vector spaces. Let us set σ V = α∈Im σ k∈N Mα+k . Then σ V is the Deligne lattice of M corresponding to σ and we have ∼

C{t} ⊗ σ V −→ σ V. C[t]

Lastly, let us notice that the natural mapping (2.23) Mα −→ σ V/t σ V α∈Im σ

is an isomorphism compatible with the action of T , if one defines it on the left-hand term by exp(−2iπt∇∂/∂t ). One can thus identify M to the graded (C[t, t−1 ], ∇)-module kσ t V/tk+1 σ V . grσV M := k∈Z

2.f Adjunction of parameters The previous results can be extended without any trouble to a situation “with parameters”. Although it is in fact not useful for what follows, we will indicate how they are obtained, and we will take this opportunity to introduce useful notions concerning irregular singularities. In the remaining part of this section, the space of parameters X is a complex analytic manifold. Recall the notion of regular singularity (cf. §0.14): 2.24 Definition (Regular singularities with holomorphic parameter). A meromorphic bundle M on D × X, with poles along {0} × X, equipped with a flat connection ∇, has regular singularity if, in the neighbourhood of any point (0, xo ) of {0} × X, there exists a logarithmic lattice of (M , ∇).

96


Let us denote by OD×X the formal completion of the sheaf OD×X along {0} × X. This is a sheaf on X = {0} × X. If U is an open set of X, the space of sections Γ (U, OD×X ) is the ring OX (U )[[t]] of formal series in t with coefficients in the ring OX (U ). The reader will verify that the presheaf U → OX (U )[[t]] on X. The germ OD×X,xo is the subring of OX,xo [[t]] of is a sheaf i series i ai (x)t , where the germs of functions ai (x) ∈ OX,xo are defined on the same neighbourhood of xo , i.e., which, as a series of x − xo , have a radius of convergence bounded from below by the same positive number. Let xo ∈ X and (x1 , . . . , xn ) be a system of local coordinates centered at xo . Let n dt (i) Ω = A(t, x) + C (t, x) dxi t i=1 be the connection matrix in some basis e of M in the neighbourhood of (0, xo ). If the matrices A and C (i) (i = 1, . . . , n) have holomorphic entries, (M , ∇) has regular singularity in the neighbourhood of (0, xo ). 2.25 Theorem (Normal form of regular singularities with parameter). There exists a basis of the germ M(0,xo ) in which the matrix of ∇ can be written as B dt/t, where B is constant. Proof. Let us first assume that the eigenvalues of the matrix A(0, xo ) do not differ by a nonzero integer. So do the eigenvalues of the matrix A(0, x) for any x in some neighbourhood U of xo . The endomorphism ad A(0, x) + Id is thus invertible on U , with a holomorphic inverse at x, for any ∈ Z {0}. Formula (2.15) furnishes thus a matrix P ∈ GLd (OD×U,xo ) such that P −1 A(t, x)P + tP−1 ∂ P/∂t = A(0, x) = P−1 Ω P + P−1 dP. Then for x ∈ U . Let us set Ω n = A(0, x) dt + (i) (t, x) dxi . Ω C t i=1

(cf. Exercise 0.12.6). As Ω satisfies the integrability condition, so does Ω (i) (i) (i) We deduce that C (t, x) = C (0, x) := C (x): indeed, the integrability condition implies that

(i) and, setting C

(i) ∂A(0, x) ∂C (i) ] = [A(0, x), C −t ∂xi ∂t (i) = k Ck (x)tk , we get, for k = 0, (i)

(ad A(0, x) + k Id)(Ck (x)) = 0; (i)

the choice of the open set U shows that Ck (x) ≡ 0 on U for any k = 0.

3 Applications

97

As the connection with matrix i C (i) (x) dxi is integrable, and as the residue A(0, x) is horizontal with respect to (cf. Exercise 0.14.6), there is A(0, x) dt/t. exists a basis in which the matrix of Ω The argument of Proposition 2.13 can be extended to the situation above, on the open set U . We deduce that P ∈ GLd (OD×U,(0,xo ) ). Lastly, it is enough to prove the analogue of Proposition 2.12, asking there xo ) do not differ by a nonzero integer. that the eigenvalues of the matrix B(0, The proof is similar. 2.26 Deligne lattices. We let the reader extend to the situation “with parameters” the results of §2.e. Let us only indicate that, for any section σ of the projection C → C/Z, there exists a unique logarithmic lattice σV of the meromorphic bundle (M , ∇). The local uniqueness enables us to obtain, by gluing, the global existence from the local existence.

3 Applications 3.a Riemann-Hilbert correspondence We follow here [Del70]. Let M be a Riemann surface and let Σ be a discrete set of points. 3.1 Theorem (The logarithmic correspondence). Given a locally constant sheaf F on M Σ, there exists a holomorphic bundle E on M and 1 a connection ∇ : E → ΩM (Σ) ⊗OM E with logarithmic poles, such that, on M Σ, the locally constant sheaf E ∇ is isomorphic to F . Proof. On the open set M Σ we put E = OM Σ ⊗C F . It is thus a matter of finding, for any point m ∈ Σ, a sufficiently small open neighbourhood U of m (in particular U ∩ Σ = {m}) and a basis e of Γ (U {m}, E ) in which the connection matrix of ∇ has a logarithmic pole: this basis enables us to define a bundle with connection on U , which coincides with E on U Σ. We then construct the desired bundle by gluing. Therefore, the problem is local and we can assume that U is a disc D centered at the origin of C. If we restrict to D{0}, giving the locally constant sheaf F = E ∇ is equivalent to giving the representation of π1 (D {0}, o) = Z in GLd (C), that is, an invertible matrix T . We then apply Corollary 2.21-(3). 3.2 Corollary (The meromorphic correspondence). Given a locally constant sheaf F on M Σ, there exists a meromorphic bundle with connection (M , ∇) on M with poles at the points of Σ and having regular singularity at these points, such that, on M Σ, the locally constant sheaf M ∇ is isomorphic to F .

98


Proof. It is enough to take M = E (∗Σ), where (E , ∇) is given by Theorem 3.1. The correspondence which associates to any meromorphic bundle with ∇ connection (M , ∇) the locally constant sheaf of horizontal sections M|M Σ is functorial: To a homomorphism ψ : M → M compatible with connections, that is, satisfying ψ(∇s) = ∇ (ψ(s)) for any local section s of M , one associates the restricted homomorphism

∇ ∇ ϕ : M|M Σ −→ M|M Σ .

This correspondence at the level of morphisms is of course compatible with the composition of morphisms. 3.3 Corollary (The Riemann-Hilbert correspondence is an equivalence). This correspondence induces an equivalence between the category of meromorphic bundles with connection, having poles at the points of Σ and having regular singularity at any point of Σ, and the category of locally constant sheaves of C-vector spaces on M Σ. Proof. The corollary above shows that the functor is essentially surjective. ∇ ∇ Let us show that it is fully faithful. Let ϕ : M|M Σ → M|M Σ be a homomorphism. It is a matter of showing that there exists a unique homomorphism ψ : (M , ∇) → (M , ∇) which induces it. Let us regard ϕ as a horizontal section of the bundle (H omOM (M , M )|M Σ , ∇). It is a matter of verifying that this horizontal section is the restriction to M Σ of a meromorphic horizontal section of (H omOM (M , M ), ∇). This follows from the lemma below, as (H omOM (M , M ), ∇) has a regular singularity at any point of Σ if (M , ∇) and (M , ∇) do so. 3.4 Lemma. Let (N , ∇) be a meromorphic bundle with connection, with poles at the points of Σ and having regular singularity at any point of Σ. Let s be a horizontal section of (N , ∇) on M Σ. Then s can be extended in a unique way as a meromorphic section of N on M . Proof. The uniqueness of the extension is clear. Let us show the existence. The problem is local, so that we can assume that M is a disc D centered at 0 in C and Σ = {0}. After Corollary 2.9, we can assume that N = Nα,d for some choice of α ∈ C and d ∈ N. There exists a horizontal section on D {0} if and only if α ∈ Z (horizontal sections have combinations of functions of the kind t−α (log t)p as coordinates) and, if α ∈ Z, there exists a unique horizontal section (up to a constant), which is meromorphic. 3.b Partial Riemann correspondence We take up the situation of the partial Riemann problem discussed at 1.3. Let us consider the functor which, to any meromorphic bundle with connection (M , ∇) on M , having poles at the points of Σ ∪ Σ and having regular

3 Applications

99

singularity at the points of Σ, associates its restriction (UM , U ∇) to the open set U and similarly for the morphisms of bundles with connection. 3.5 Theorem. This functor is an equivalence of categories. Proof. For the essential surjectivity, we begin by extending (UM , U ∇) to M Σ as a meromorphic bundle with connection: the holomorphic bundle with connection (UM , U ∇)|U Σ can be extended to M (Σ ∪ Σ ) as a holomorphic bundle with connection, as so does, after the assumption made in Problem 1.3, the locally constant sheaf of its horizontal sections (Corollary 0.15.10); this enables us to construct the desired meromorphic bundle on M Σ. Its extension to M can be obtained as in Theorem 3.1. This gives the essential surjectivity of the functor. Now for full faithfulness. If U = M Σ, we argue as in Corollary 3.3. Otherwise, we use the full faithfulness of the restriction functor from M Σ to U , obtained by means of Corollary 0.15.10-(3). 3.6 Remark. Corollary 3.3 is of course a particular case of Theorem 3.5. 3.c Algebraization of a germ of meromorphic connection This procedure has been introduced by G. Birkhoff [Bir09]. By applying Theorem 3.5, taking for U some small disc centered at the origin Σ , we get: 3.7 Corollary (Algebraization is an equivalence). Let (M, ∇) be a kvector space with connection. There exists then a meromorphic bundle (M , ∇) with connection on P1 , having singularities at most at 0 and ∞, the latter being regular, and with germ at 0 isomorphic to (M, ∇). Such a bundle is unique up to isomorphism and this isomorphism is unique if one asks that it induces the identity on M. Let us notice that Theorem 3.5 gives a canonical procedure to obtain this globalization. This corollary has a more concrete expression: 3.8 Corollary (Algebraization of holomorphic differential systems). Given a matrix A(t) of size d with entries in the field k of meromorphic Laurent series, there exists a matrix P ∈ GLd (C{t}) such that B(t) := P −1 AP + P −1 P has entries in the ring C[t, t−1 ] of Laurent polynomials and such that the connection with matrix B(t) dt has a regular singularity at infinity. Proof. Let us set (M, ∇) = (kd , d + A(t) dt) and let us denote by E the lattice C{t}d . We can then construct a meromorphic subbundle E (∗∞) of the meromorphic bundle M given by Corollary 3.7: the lattice E defines a lattice E|D of M|D on a sufficiently small disc centered at the origin; we glue it with the meromorphic bundle M|P1 {0} according to the identification E|D∗ M|D∗

100


on D∗ = D {0}. This meromorphic bundle has a pole at ∞ only. After Corollary I.4.9, it is isomorphic to OP1 (∗∞)d . Let us take some basis of E (∗∞), by using this isomorphism. In this basis, the connection matrix of ∇ has entries in the ring Γ (P1 , OP1 (∗{0, ∞})) = C[t, t−1 ]. The same property holds for the germs of these objects at 0. 3.9 Remark (Another algebraization procedure). The base change, obtained by the method above, from the given basis of M to the basis furnished by the corollary, is not explicit. One can also show that the formal analogue to C[t, t−1 ], is true (cf. [Mal91, Prop. 1.12, of this corollary, i.e., going from k p. 49]). This base change is even more explicit, as it is enough to truncate at a sufficiently large order the expansion of A(t). Nevertheless, it is not clear whether this procedure always produces a regular singularity at infinity. On the other hand, the procedure of Corollary 3.8 a priori only keeps from A the most polar part, as the matrix P has no pole. 3.10 Exercise. Let A(t) be a matrix with entries in C[t, t−1 ] such that the system with matrix Ω = A(t) dt has a regular singularity at infinity. Prove that any germ u ∈ C{t}d which is a solution to the system du + Ω · u = 0 is in fact a polynomial, i.e., belongs to C[t]d . 3.11 Exercise. When (M, ∇) has a regular singularity, compare Birkhoff’s procedure of Corollary 3.7 with that of Remark 2.22.

4 Complements 4.a How to recognize a regular singularity Given a germ (M, ∇) of meromorphic differential system, with matrix A(t) dt in some basis e, where A has entries in k, it is not immediate, in general, to check whether (M, ∇) has a regular singularity at 0. Indeed, it could happen, for instance, that A has a double pole and that nevertheless (M, ∇) has a regular singularity. We will give some criteria which happen to be effective. The following should be better regarded as an irregularity criterion; a proof of it is given as an exercise (cf. Exercise 5.9). 4.1 Theorem (An irregularity criterion). Let us set A(t) = B(t)/tr+1 with B(t) holomorphic, B(0) = 0 and let us assume that r 1. Then, if the matrix B(0) is not nilpotent, the system with matrix A(t) dt has an irregular singularity at 0. The property of having a regular singularity can be easily checked when the system is defined by a single linear differential equation (cf. [Mal74] for what follows). Let p(t, ∂t ) = ad (t)∂td + · · · + a0 (t)

4 Complements

101

be a differential operator of degree d, with a0 , . . . , ad ∈ k and ad = 0, and let us consider the associated linear differential system of rank d, with matrix ⎛ ⎞ 0 0 . . . 0 −a0 /ad ⎜1 0 . . . 0 −a1 /ad ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ (4.2) Ω(t) = ⎜ . ⎟ .. .. .. ⎝ .. ⎠ . . . 0 0 . . . 1 −ad−1 /ad Let us denote by v(ai ) the valuation of ai , that is, the integer vi such that ai (t) = tvi bi (t) with bi ∈ C{t} and bi (0) = 0. 4.3 Theorem (Fuchs condition, cf. for instance [Mal74]). The linear system associated to the operator p has a regular singularity if and only if the following condition is satisfied: ∀ i ∈ {1, . . . , d − 1},

i − v(ai ) d − v(ad ).

One can associate to the operator p a polygon in the plane, which is the convex hull of the quadrants (i, i − v(ai )) − N2 . The condition means that this polygon is also quadrant, having the point (d, d − v(ad )) as its vertex. Let (M, ∇) be a (k, ∇)-vector space and let us pick e ∈ M. We say that e is a cyclic vector of M if e, ∇∂t e, . . . , ∇∂t (· · · (∇∂t e)) ! d−1 times

is a basis of M over k. Any (k, ∇)-vector space admits a cyclic vector (cf. [Del70]); hence, the construction of a cyclic vector combined with Fuchs criterion gives a method to check the regular singularity property of a system (M, ∇). Another method is given in [Var91], where the author uses a variant of a method due to Turrittin. 4.4 Exercise (Lattices of arbitrarily large order). Set k t 0 0 0 dt and, for k ∈ Z, Pk (t) = . Ω(t) = 10 t 0 t−k Compute the order of Ω = P −1 ΩP + P −1 dP . Generalize to higher rank. 4.b Computing the monodromy of horizontal sections Given a logarithmic lattice of a regular differential system (M, ∇), that is, if we choose a basis, a holomorphic matrix Ω(t) = A(t) dt/t, •

if A(t) = A(0) is constant, the monodromy of horizontal sections is given by T = exp(−2iπA(0)) (cf. Exercise 2.6),

102

•


if A(t) is not constant, the monodromy T is then conjugate to exp(−2iπB0 ), where B0 is constructed in Theorem 2.8. If the eigenvalues of A(0) do not differ by a nonzero integer, one can choose B0 = A(0) (cf. Propositions 2.11 and 2.13). Otherwise, it can happen that T is not conjugate to exp(−2iπA(0)) (see Exercise 2.20-(4)).

4.5 Exercise (The characteristic polynomial of the monodromy). Prove that the characteristic polynomial of T is equal to that of exp(−2iπA(0)).

5 Irregular singularities: local study We will now tackle the analysis of systems with irregular singularities. We will straightly consider the case “with parameters”, letting the reader “forget”, during a first reading, the parameter space. We will take up both steps that we have followed for regular singularities, namely working first with formal series and then proving convergence. Nevertheless, the second step will not be as simple as in Proposition 2.13. In the following, the parameter space is an analytic manifold X equipped with coordinates x1 , . . . , xn in the neighbourhood of a point xo . We consider a meromorphic bundle M on D × X with poles along {0} × X, equipped 1 ⊗ M . We will now denote by M its with a flat connection ∇ : M → ΩD×X o germ at (0, x ) ∈ D × X: this is a module over the ring OD×X,(0,xo ) [t−1 ] = C{t, x1 , . . . , xn }[t−1 ]. 5.a Classification in rank one Let us pick ϕ ∈ C{t, x1 , . . . , xn }[t−1 ] and let us denote by Eϕ the germ (M, ∇) = (C{t, x1 , . . . , xn }[t−1 ], d − dϕ) (this is the system satisfied by the function eϕ ). For α ∈ C, let Nα,0 be the germ (M, ∇) = (C{t, x1 , . . . , xn }[t−1 ], d + α dt/t) (cf. Definition 2.5). 5.1 Proposition (Classification of irregular singularities in rank one). Any germ (M, ∇) of rank one is isomorphic to some germ Eϕ ⊗ Nα,0 . Two such germs corresponding to (ϕ1 , α1 ) and (ϕ2 , α2 ) are isomorphic if and only if ϕ1 − ϕ2 has no pole and α1 − α2 ∈ Z. Therefore, the class of ϕ in C{t, x1 , . . . , xn }[t−1 ]/C{t, x1 , . . . , xn } determines the germ Eϕ . In the following, we will fix this class r by considering only germs ϕ without holomorphic part, i.e., of the form k=1 ϕk t−k , where ϕk ∈ C{x1 , . . . , xn } for any k.

5 Irregular singularities: local study

103

Proof. A germ (M, ∇) of rank one is determined, up to isomorphism, by giving a 1-form ω with coefficients in C{t, x1 , . . . , xn }[t−1 ], satisfying dω = 0 (integrability condition in rank one). Two forms ω1 and ω2 determine the same germ if there exists a function p(t, x1 , . . . , xn ) ∈ C{t, x1 , . . . , xn }[t−1 ], with p(t, 0) ∈ k {0}, such that ω2 = ω1 + d log p. If ω is such a form, one can write in a unique way ω = ω + ω , where ω is the “nonlogarithmic” part of ω and ω its logarithmic part: there exists r ∈ N∗ minimum such that ω=t

−r

dt a(t, x) + bi (t, x) dxi t i=1 n

with a and bi holomorphic. The form ω is obtained by replacing a and the bi by their Taylor expansion in t up to order r − 1. The condition dω = 0 can thus be decomposed in dω = 0 and dω = 0. One can check, as in Proposition 2.2, that there exist p as above and α ∈ C such that ω = α dt/t + d log p. On the other hand, the adjunction of a term like d log p only modifies the logarithmic part ω of ω. In order to end the proof, it is enough to check that there exists a unique ϕ without holomorphic part, such that dϕ = ω . To show this, let us set dt , ω = t−k ωk + hk (x) t k1

where the ωk only contain the dxi . Denoting by dX the differentiation with respect to coordinates xi only, we obtain dt = 0. dω = t−k dX ωk + (dX hk + kωk ) ∧ t k1

We deduce that, for any k 1, there exists ψk ∈ C{x1 , . . . , xn } with dX ψk = ωk (cf. Poincaré Lemma 0.9.7) and there r exists ck ∈ C with hk = −k(ψk + ck ). If we put ϕk = ψk + ck and ϕ = k=1 t−k ϕk , we have ω = dϕ. Uniqueness is proved similarly. 5.b Models in arbitrary rank As in the regular case, we will first introduce some elementary models, to which we will compare the germ M. 5.2 Definition (Elementary irregular models). We will say that a germ of meromorphic bundle with connection (M, ∇) is elementary if it is isomorphic to some germ like (Eϕ , ∇) ⊗ (R, ∇), where (R, ∇) has regular singularity along {0} × X (cf. §2.f). 5.3 Exercise (Comparison of elementary models). Let us fix r 1 and r ϕ = k=1 t−k ϕk with ϕr ≡ 0.

104


(1) Compute the Poincaré rank of the meromorphic bundle with connection (Eϕ ⊗ R, ∇) (cf. §0.14). (2) Prove that there does not exist any nonzero horizontal section of the meromorphic bundle with connection (Eϕ ⊗ R, ∇). (3) Show that there does not exist any nonzero homomorphism Eϕ ⊗ R → R , where R, R have regular singularity. A model is a meromorphic bundle with connection (M, ∇) isomorphic to a direct sum of elementary models. We will write this direct sum as ϕ (5.4) (E ⊗ Rϕ ) ϕ

where we assume that the meromorphic bundles with connection Rϕ have regular singularity and the ϕ ∈ C{t, x1 , . . . , xn }[t−1 ] have no holomorphic part and are pairwise distinct. 5.5 Exercise (Comparison of elementary models, continuation). (1) By decomposing each Rϕ into elementary regular models, give a simple form for the connection matrix of a model. (2) Check that any homomorphism between two models is diagonal with respect to the ϕ-decomposition, and that two models are isomorphic if and only if the corresponding Rϕ are isomorphic. Deduce that the decomposition (5.4) is unique. 5.6 Definition (of goodness). We will say that a model (5.4) is good if, for all ϕ = ψ such that Rϕ , Rψ are nonzero, the order of the pole along t = 0 of (ϕ − ψ)(t, x) does not depend on x being in some neighbourhood of xo . r If ϕ−ψ = k=1 t−k (ϕ−ψ)k (x) with (ϕ−ψ)r (x) ≡ 0, the condition means that (ϕ − ψ)r (xo ) = 0. It may happen however that the order of ϕ or ψ is strictly bigger than r. Let us remark that, if a model (M, ∇) is good then, for any η ∈ t−1 C{x1 , . . . , xn }[t−1 ], the germ Eη ⊗ (M, ∇) = (M, ∇ + dη) remains a model, which is good. 5.7 Theorem (Formal decomposition). Let (M, ∇) be a germ of meromorphic bundle with connection, equipped with a basis in which the matrix Ω takes the form n + , dt (i) C (t, x) dxi Ω = t−r A(t, x) + t i=1 with r 1, A and the C (i) having holomorphic entries, and A0 := A(0, xo ) being regular semisimple (i.e., with pairwise distinct eigenvalues). There exists then a good model (Mgood , ∇) and a “formal” isomorphism ∼ OD×X,xo ⊗ (M, ∇) −→ OD×X,xo ⊗ (Mgood , ∇).


105

When the conclusion of the theorem is satisfied, we will say that the germ (M, ∇) admits a good formal decomposition along {0} × X. A more general result due to Turrittin, and for which there exist various approaches (see [Tur55], [Lev75], [Rob80], [Mal79], [BV83], [Var91] for the case “without parameter” and [BV85] for that “with parameters”), says that such a decomposition exists5 , possibly not for (M, ∇), but for its pullback by some suitable ramification t = z q of order q 1. In the present situation, no ramification is needed. Moreover, we will see that all the components Rϕ occurring in the model have rank one, which is not the case in general, even when no ramification is needed. + , dt Proof. Let Ω = t−r A(t, x) + i C (i) (t, x) dxi be the matrix of ∇ in some t basis of M. Let us set ∞ A(t, x) = Ap (x)tp . p=0

As A(0, xo ) is regular semisimple, so is A0 (x) := A(0, x) for any x nearby xo and there exists a matrix Q ∈ GLd (OX,xo ) such that (Q−1 AQ)(0, x) is diagonal with pairwise distinct eigenvalues6 . We may therefore assume from the beginning that A0 (x) takes the diagonal form diag(λ1 (x), . . . , λd (x)). The sheaf Md (OX ) of matrices of size d with holomorphic entries admits the decomposition7 Md (OX ) = Ker ad A0 ⊕ Im ad A0 , and each term is a locally free sheaf of OX -modules; moreover, ad A0 : Im ad A0 −→ Im ad A0 induces an isomorphism: indeed, Ker ad A0 consists of diagonal matrices and Im ad A0 of matrices having only zeroes on the diagonal. For m ∈ N, let us set Pm = (Id +tm Tm ), where Tm is a matrix of size d with entries in OX,xo . Let us consider the effect of the base change of matrix Pm on = P −1 ΩPm + P −1 dPm the coefficient of dt/t in the matrix Ω. If we write Ω m m as we did for Ω, we have = P −1 (t−r A)Pm + P −1 · tP , t−r A m m m which can be written as k k −A = A (−1)k tp+(k+1)m [Tm , Ap ]Tm +m (−1)k t(k+1)m+r Tm p∈N k0 5

6

7

k0

Generically on the parameter space; in Theorem 5.7, genericity is implied by the separation of eigenvalues. Hint: Check that the projection from X × C to X induces, on the subset having equation det(s Id −A(0, x)), a covering map, in the neighbourhood of the pullback of xo (i.e., the set of eigenvalues of A(0, xo )) and conclude with Example 0.2.2-(2). Recall that ad A0 (B) := [A0 , B].

106


p differ from Ap only for p m and we have The coefficients A m = Am + [Tm , A0 ]. A Let us assume that, for any p < m, we found Tp such that, after the base change of matrix P<m = 00 Pm , we get a decom into free O[t −1 ]-modules, stable by tr+1 ∇∂ , where the matrix position of M t of t∇∂t is diagonal, with dominant term t−r A0 (x). It remains to prove that this decomposition is stable by ∇∂x for = 1, . . . , n. In order to do so, we now use the integrability condition. Let us de() m r () = note by C m0 Cm (x)t the matrix of t ∇∂x in the basis constructed ()

above. It is a matter of showing that Cm is diagonal and it is enough to check () () that [A0 , Cm ] is zero or, what amounts to the same, that [A0 , Cm ] is also diagonal. We will show this by induction on m. Let us write the integrability relation as () ) ∂(t−r A) ∂(t−r C () , t−r A], − t = [t−r C ∂t ∂x that is, for any m, ()

(m − 2r)Cm−r − ()

()

∂Am−r = [Cp() , Aq ]. ∂x p+q=m ()

Then [A0 , C0 ] = 0, hence C0 is diagonal. For m 1, [A0 , Cm ] can be () expressed linearly as a function of the Cp and of the ∂Ap /∂x (p < m), hence is diagonal (by induction). As Ker ad A0 ∩ Im ad A0 = {0}, we must () () have [A0 , Cm ] = 0, hence Cm is diagonal. ∇) is isomorphic to some model, all the We have thus proved that (M, components of which have rank one, and the exponents ϕi take the form r−1 t−r λi (x)(1 + k=1 ui,k (x)tk ), where λi is an eigenvalue of A0 (x). By assumption, the differences λi (x) − λj (x) do not vanish in the neighbourhood of xo if i = j, which implies that the model is good. 5.8 Remark. The base change P belongs to GLd (OD×X,xo ), hence has no pole, neither does its inverse, along {0} × X. 5.9 Exercise (Decomposition with respect to eigenvalues). We consider a matrix Ω as in Theorem 5.7. We only assume that there exist k holomorphic functions λ1 (x), . . . , λk (x) in the neighbourhood of xo and integers ν1 , . . . , νk such that, for any x near xo , the characteristic polynomial of A(0, x) -k is equal to j=1 (s − λj (x))νj ; we moreover ask that the differences λi − λj do not vanish.


107

∇) is iso(1) Adapt the proof of Theorem 5.7 to show that the system (M, morphic to a direct sum of systems of rank νi equipped with a connection with pole of order r, for which the corresponding matrix A(i) (0, x) admits only λi (x) as an eigenvalue. (2) Prove that, if one of the eigenvalues λi is not identically zero, the formal ∇) does not have a regular singularity along {0} × X in the system (M, neighbourhood of xo . (3) Deduce from this a proof of Theorem 4.1 (where the space of parameters is reduced to a point). 5.c The sheaf A Unlike the case of regular singularities, the formal solutions of a system with an irregular singularity can be divergent8 and we cannot use the argument of Proposition 2.13 to complete Theorem 5.7 and find an analytic isomorphism with Mgood . In fact, we will see later that such an isomorphism may not exist. However, it does exist if one restricts to sectors around the origin. The sectorial analysis will lead us to work with polar coordinates. If D is an open disc with coordinate t centered at the origin and of radius the product [0, ro [ × S 1 and by π : D → D the ro > 0, we will denote by D iθ iθ mapping (r, e ) → t = re . In the neighbourhood of a point (0, θo ) we will use (r, θ) ∈ [0, ro [ × ]θo − η, θo + η[ as a coordinate system. ∞ ∞ functions on the manifold ]− ε, ro [ × Let C]−ε,r o [×S 1 ×X be the sheaf of C S 1 × X, for ε > 0. If × X −→ ] − ε, ro [ × S 1 × X i:D ∞ ∞ denotes the inclusion, the pullback sheaf i−1 C]−ε,r , o [×S 1 ×X , denoted by C D×X ∞ is by definition the sheaf of C functions on the manifold with boundary × X. In other words, a C ∞ function on D × X in the neighbourhood D o o of (0, θ , x ) is a function which can be extended as a C ∞ function on a neighbourhood of this point in ] − ε, ro [ × S 1 × X. By “working in polar coordinates ”, we can define the derivations t∂/∂t, ∞ t∂/∂t, ∂/∂xi and ∂/∂xi (i = 1, . . . , n) on CD×X : we have

∂ 1 t = ∂t 2

∂ ∂ −i r ∂r ∂θ

,

∂ 1 t = 2 ∂t

∂ ∂ +i r ∂r ∂θ

.

is the subsheaf 5.10 Definition (The sheaf A ). The sheaf of rings AD×X ∞ of germs killed by t∂/∂t and ∂/∂x (i = 1, . . . , n). of CD×X i 8

One will find in [Ram94] not only examples but also a survey on the use of divergent series in analysis.

108


∗ := D ({0} × S 1 ) coincides with D∗ = 5.11 Remark. The open set D ∗ × X, the sheaf A ∗ ∗ D {0} and, on D D ×X coincides with the sheaf OD ×X of ×V is on an open set of the kind D holomorphic functions. A section of AD×X nothing but a holomorphic function on D × V , as it is holomorphic on D∗ × V and locally bounded. On the sheaf AD×X is defined the action of the derivation ∂/∂t (and not only that of t∂/∂t): by using the vanishing of t∂/∂t, we can set ∂ ∂ = e−iθ . ∂t ∂r ∞ The action of the ∂/∂xi on CD×X keeps AD×X stable. The sheaf AD×X −1 contains the subsheaf π OD×X : if f is holomorphic on D × X, f ◦ π is a . section of AD×X The Taylor expansion of a C ∞ germ in (θo , xo ) along r = 0 can be written as fk (x1 , . . . , xn , θ)rk , k0

where the fk are C ∞ functions on some fixed neighbourhood of (θo , xo ). The thus takes the form Taylor expansion of a germ of AD×X fk (x1 , . . . , xn )tk , k0

where the fk are holomorphic on some fixed neighbourhood of xo . In other words, if we denote by AS 1 ×X the restriction to {0} × S 1 × X of the sheaf , the “Taylor expansion” mapping defines a homomorphism AD×X T AS 1 ×X,(θo ,xo ) −−→ OD×X,xo β (M∗ ) ⊗ V−(β+1) (M)/V>−(β+1) (M) −→ C. C

(3) Show that the orthogonal space of t−1 E ∩ V−(β+1) (M) is equal to [E∗ ∩ V>β (M∗ )] + [tE∗ ∩ Vβ (M∗ )] and deduce a nondegenerate bilinear form E∗ ∩ Vβ (M∗ ) [E∗ ∩ V>β (M∗ )] + [tE∗ ∩ Vβ (M∗ )] ⊗ C

t−1 E ∩ V−(β+1) (M) [E ∩ V−(β+1) (M)] + [t−1 E ∩ V>−(β+1) (M)] −→ C.

(4) Deduce that χE∗ (s) = (−1)d χE (−s), where d = dimk M. (5) Deduce that, if there exists a nondegenerate bilinear form on (M, ∇) of weight w relatively to E, we have χE (s) = (−1)d χE (w − s). ∗

Prove the analogous statements for M . Remark (Various notions of exponents). There exists other ways to associate “exponents” to a lattice E. Let us indicate that of Levelt [Lev61]. E. Corel [Cor99] has shown that these exponents correspond to the characteristic polynomial of the residue of ∇ acting on the largest logarithmic sublattice of E. It could also be possible to consider the smallest logarithmic lattice containing E, or also, with Gérard and Levelt [GL76], the lattice obtained from E by saturating by t∇∂/∂t . These exponents do not necessarily satisfy the duality property of Exercise 1.18, but in loc. cit. E. Corel has shown for them an inequality which enables one, when one applies it to a lattice on P1 , to obtain inequalities analogous to that proved by R. Fuchs for differential equations.

132

III Lattices

1.d Rigidity of logarithmic lattices The proposition which follows shows that, locally, logarithmic lattices do not produce any interesting theory of integrable deformations. This statement happens however to be very useful in order to transform local problems into global, hence algebraic, problems. 1.19 Proposition (Rigidity, [Mal83c, Th. 2.1], [Mal86]). Let (E o , ∇o ) be a bundle on a disc D equipped with a connection having a logarithmic pole at the origin. Let X be a 1-connected analytic manifold with basepoint xo . There exists then a unique (up to unique isomorphism) bundle E on D×X with a flat connection having logarithmic poles along {0} × X, such that (E, ∇)|D×{xo } = (E o , ∇o ). 1.20 Remarks. (1) This result can be compared with that of Corollary II.2.21 and §II.2.26, with the difference that the condition on the eigenvalues of the residue is replaced here with the initial condition (E, ∇)|D×{xo } = (E o , ∇o ), which gives the strong uniqueness. (2) A more precise way to formulate Proposition 1.19 is by saying that the restriction functor, from the category of holomorphic bundles on D × X with logarithmic connection with pole along {0} × X to the category of bundles on D × {xo } with logarithmic connection with pole at 0, is an equivalence. Indeed, if this equivalence is proved, any logarithmic (E, ∇) with restriction equal to (E o , ∇o ) is isomorphic to p+ (E o , ∇o ), if p : D × X → X denotes the projection. Full faithfulness shows that there exists a unique isomorphism inducing the identity when restricted to D × {xo }. (3) If, in Proposition 1.19, we start from a triple (E o , ∇o , , o ), where , o is a nondegenerate bilinear or sesquilinear form of weight w ∈ Z, a reasoning analogous to that done in the proof of this proposition shows the existence and the uniqueness of an extension (E, ∇, , ): we indeed regard , as ∗ ∗ a homomorphism (E, ∇) → (E ∗ , ∇∗ ) or (E , ∇ ) and we apply the full faithfulness of the restriction functor to D × {xo }. Proof (of Proposition 1.19). We will prove that the restriction functor is an equivalence. The essential surjectivity is clear, as we have seen in Remark 1.20(2): it is enough to take for (E, ∇) the pullback of (E o , ∇o ) by the projection p : D × X → D. Let us show full faithfulness. Any horizontal section of the sheaf H omOD (E o , E o ) can be lifted in a unique way as a horizontal section of H omOD×X (E , E )|D∗ ×X as, by assumption of 1-connectedness of X, the inclusion D∗ × {xo } → D∗ × X induces an isomorphism of fundamental groups. It is a matter of verifying that this section can be extended as a section of H omOD×X (E , E ). This follows from the existence of the normal

2 Lattices of (k, ∇)-vector spaces with an irregular singularity

133

form given by Theorem II.2.25: it implies indeed that any horizontal section on D∗ × X is meromorphic along {0} × X and that, if the restriction of such a section to D × {xo } is holomorphic, the section is also holomorphic along {0} × X 4 . 1.21 Remark. One can show in the same way that, if E o is a bundle on P1 equipped with a connection ∇o with logarithmic poles at all points of a subset Σ o ⊂ P1 having cardinal p + 1, there exists a unique (up to a unique isomorphism) bundle E equipped with an integrable connection ∇ with logarithmic poles along Σ o × X which extends (E o , ∇o ). 1.22 Remark. Let us now assume that the set Σ o varies analytically in P1 . In other words, let us be given a smooth hypersurface Σ in P1 × X, such that the projection Σ → X is a covering of finite degree p + 1. For any x ∈ X, the set Σx ⊂ P1 is thus a configuration of p + 1 distinct points and we have Σxo = Σ o . If X is 1-connected, the statement given in Remark 1.21 still holds in this situation, with the supplementary assumption that the inclusion (P1 Σ o ) × {xo } −→ (P1 × X) Σ induces an isomorphism of fundamental groups. This assumption is satisfied for instance if the homology group H2 (X, Z) is zero5 . As X is 1-connected, the covering Σ → X is trivializable and there exists p + 1 holomorphic mappings ψi : X → P1 (i = 0, . . . , p) such that Σ is the union of the graphs of ψi . We apply Proposition 1.19 to an open neighbourhood Vi of each component Σi isomorphic to D × X to obtain a bundle (Ei , ∇i ). We get (E, ∇) on P1 × X by gluing the (Ei , ∇i ) with the holomorphic bundle with a flat connection on P1 ×XΣ corresponding to the representation of π1 (P1 ×XΣ) = π1 (P1 Σ o ) defined by (E o , ∇o ).

2 Lattices of (k, ∇)-vector spaces with an irregular singularity 2.a Classification of lattices The classification of (k, ∇)-vector spaces with an irregular singularity is not as simple as for regular singularities (cf. §II.5). Nevertheless, once the latter is known, the classification of lattices reduces to that of formal lattices. Some of these lattices can be classified. We will give some indications below. 4

5

One will take care that this property can be false for a nonhorizontal meromorphic section. Indeed, as X is 1-connected, this group is equal to the group π2 (X); the homotopy sequence of the fibration (P1 × X) Σ → X gives the desired result.

134

III Lattices

Σi P1

Vi Σo xo

X Fig. III.2.

2.1 Lemma (Malgrange). Let M be a finite dimensional k-vector space. is a lattice of M := k ∩ M is a lattice of M ⊂ M and ⊗k M, then F := F If F we have C[[t]] ⊗C{t} F = F. One will find a generalization of this lemma in [Mal96, Prop. 1.2]. ∩ M. The injection F → F induces a homomorphism Proof. Let us set F = F C[[t]] ⊗C{t} F → F; we will show that it is an isomorphism. = C[[t]] ⊗C{t} G Let us fix a lattice G of M and let us consider the lattice G ∩ M. On the of M that it defines. By taking a basis of G we see that G = G −k other hand, we can assume, up to changing G to t G for some suitable k, ⊂ F. that G Let us consider the exact sequences 0

G

F

G F/

0

0

C[[t]] ⊗C{t} G

C[[t]] ⊗C{t} F

C[[t]] ⊗C{t} F/G

0

We know that the left up arrow is an isomorphism. It is thus enough to show the same property for the right one. In order to do so, let us remark that = M + G. We deduce that M =F ∩ (M + G) = F + G, F ⊂ F. We deduce that the natural injection F/G → F/ G is bijective as G and, in particular, multiplication by t is nilpotent on F/G. Therefore, we have G, whence the result. C[[t]] ⊗C{t} F/G = F/G = F/


135

Deligne lattices. We will assume in the following6 that the (k, ∇)-vector space (M, ∇) admits a good formal model (Mgood , ∇). This model can be written ϕ V(M ) be the Deligne lattice of Mgood , that is, by as ϕ E ⊗ Rϕ . Let ϕ definition, the lattice ϕ E ⊗ V(Rϕ ) , where V(Rϕ ) is the Deligne lattice of the (k, ∇)-vector space with regular singularity Rϕ . We deduce a lattice The Deligne lattice of (M, ∇) is by definition the lattice (cf. Lemma V(M). 2.1) ∩ M. V(M) = V(M) be a lattice of (M, ∇). This lattice is not necessarily Formal lattices. Let E ϕ of (M, ∇). ϕ ⊗ R Therefore, decomposed correspondingly to the components E in general, the classification of (formal) lattices cannot be reduced to that of lattices in (k, ∇)-vector spaces with regular singularity Rϕ . However, if the lattice has order equal to the Poincaré rank of (M, ∇), that is, if it has minimal order among lattices of (M, ∇), the decomposition corresponding to eigenvalues of the most polar part (cf. Exercise II.5.9) preserves the lattice (neither the base changes nor their inverses have a pole). In particular, if there is rk M distinct eigenvalues (as in Theorem II.5.7), the lattice can be decomposed as a direct sum of lattices of rank one: we will come back to these properties in §2.e. 2.b Characteristic polynomial of a lattice at infinity For want of a general classification of lattices of (M, ∇) when the connection has an irregular singularity, we will associate to any lattice a characteristic polynomial. Two kinds of characteristic polynomials can be defined: (a) By using the notion of Deligne lattice for irregular singularities introduced above, we can proceed as in §1.c. The polynomial that we get in this way determines the characteristic polynomial of the formal monodromy of (M, ∇). (b) By algebraizing the germ (M, ∇) as in §II.3.c and by using the (regular) Deligne lattice in the neighbourhood of infinity, we can follow an approach analogous to that of §1.c. The characteristic polynomial that we get in this way determines that of the monodromy of (M, ∇). We will follow the latter approach. Let (M, ∇) be the free C[t, t−1 ]-module with connection, with regular singularity at infinity and whose germ at 0 coincides with (M, ∇) (cf. §§I.4.d and II.3.c). There exists a unique C[t]-module E which is a lattice of M and whose germ at 0 is equal to E. Let V be a Deligne lattice of the analytic germ M of M at ∞ (that we have already used above, for instance), such that the eigenvalues of the residue of ∇ have a real part in ] − 1, 0]. Let V be the C[t ] submodule of M whose analytic germ at ∞ is 6

This assumption is made for simplicity; see [Mal83b] for the general case.

136

III Lattices

equal to V . We have in an evident way V /t V = V /t V , a space that we will denote by H , equipped with its monodromy T . Let us consider the increasing filtration of M by the t−k E = tk E, for k ∈ Z. It induces an increasing filtration on H by the formula Gk = V ∩ tk E/(t V ) ∩ tk E. 2.2 Lemma. The filtration G• is exhaustive, i.e., 0 if k ! 0, Gk = H if k 0. Proof. Given V and tk E, we define a bundle Gk on P1 (cf. Proposition I.4.15) and we have Gk = G ⊗ OP1 (k) by setting G = G0 . We deduce that V ∩ tk E = H 0 (P1 , Gk ) = 0 for k ! 0 and therefore Gk = 0 for k ! 0. ∼ On the other hand, we have an isomorphism t : V ∩ tk−1 E −→ (t V ) ∩ tk E, so that Gk is identified to the quotient of H 0 (P1 , Gk ) by H 0 (P1 , Gk−1 ). If m0 is a point of P1 , the exact sequence 0 −→ H 0 (P1 , G ⊗ O((k − 1)m0 )) −→ H 0 (P1 , G ⊗ O(km0 )) −→ Gm0 −→ H 1 (P1 , G ⊗ O((k − 1)m0 )) and the fact that H 1 is zero for k 0. that dim Gk = d for k

0 (see the proof of Corollary I.3.3) show

In an analogous way, if we fix a total order on C as in §1.c, we get an increasing exhaustive filtration on each Hλ by setting Gk (Hλ ) = t−k E ∩ Vα /t−k E ∩ V>α . 2.3 Definition (of the characteristic polynomial at infinity). The (s) is defined by Formula (1.15) where characteristic polynomial at infinity χ∞ E one replaces Hλk with Gk (Hλ ). We thus have νβ = dim

E ∩ Vβ . (E ∩ V>β ) + (tE ∩ Vβ )

2.4 Remark. This polynomial will reappear later in relation with Birkhoff’s problem (cf. Remark IV.5.13-(1)). 2.5 Exercise. Recover the characteristic polynomial of the monodromy T on the space H = V /t V from χ∞ E (s) (see Remark 1.17).


137

2.6 Example (Darkness at noon). If (M, ∇) has regular singularity and if E is a logarithmic lattice of it, we have χ∞ E (s) = χE (s). Indeed, we can write β M = β∈C M and E = β∈C Eβ . The multiplicity νβ of (s − β) in χE (s) is equal to dim Eβ . We remark then that the residue at 0 of ∇ on Mβ has eigenvalue β, while the residue at ∞ has eigenvalue −β. The behaviour by duality is analogous to that of Exercise 1.18: 2.7 Proposition (Behaviour by duality). If E∗ is the lattice dual to E ∗ ∞ d ∞ and E is its “Hermitian” dual, we have χ∞ E∗ (s) = χE∗ (s) = (−1) χE (−s). νβ∗ νβ and χ∞ Proof. Let us set χ∞ E (s) = E∗ (s) = β (s − β) β (s − β) . It is ∗ γ a matter of showing that νβ = ν−β . For any γ ∈ C, let F be the bundle on P1 constructed by gluing the lattices E (in the neighbourhood of the origin) and Vγ (in the neighbourhood of infinity). Let us denote similarly by F ∗γ the bundle constructed with the lattices E∗ and Vγ (M∗ ). As we have (cf. Exercise 1.18) Vγ (M∗ ) = [V>−(γ+1) ]∗ we also have F ∗γ = [F >−(γ+1) ]∗ . On the other hand, for k ∈ Z, we have F γ+k = OP1 (−k) ⊗ Fγ . Serre’s duality (cf. [Har80]) and the fact that ΩP11 OP1 (−2) (cf. Proposition I.2.11) imply then the equalities dim H 1 (P1 , F >−(γ+1) ) = dim H 0 (P1 , F ∗(γ+2) ) dim H 1 (P1 , F −(γ+1) ) = dim H 0 (P1 , F ∗>(γ+2) ). On the other hand, dim H 0 (P1 , F γ ) = dim E ∩ Vγ := δγ , so that νβ = (δβ − δβ+1 ) − (δ>β − δ>β+1 ). We thus deduce that

νβ∗ = dim H 1 (P1 , F >−β+1 ) − dim H 1 (P1 , F >−β )

− dim H 1 (P1 , F −β+1 ) − dim H 1 (P1 , F −β ) . For any γ we have an exact sequence of sheaves 0 −→ F >γ −→ F γ −→ Gγ −→ 0 where Gγ is the skyscraper sheaf, vanishing on P1 {∞} and with fibre Vγ /V>γ at ∞. This exact sequence induces thus a long exact sequence in cohomology: 0 −→ H 0 (P1 , F >γ ) −→ H 0 (P1 , F γ ) −→ Gγ∞ −→ H 1 (P1 , F >γ ) −→ H 1 (P1 , F γ ) −→ 0. By considering the sequences above for γ = −β and γ = −β + 1, and by using ∗ that dim Gγ∞ = dim Gγ+1 ∞ , we deduce the equality νβ = ν−β .

138

III Lattices

2.8 Corollary (Symmetry of the characteristic polynomial at infinity). If there exists a nondegenerate bilinear or sesquilinear form on (M, ∇) d ∞ of weight w relatively to E, then χ∞ E (s) = (−1) χE (w − s). 2.9 Exercise (Behaviour under tensor product, cf. [Var83]). Let (M , ∇ , E ) and (M , ∇ , E ) be two k-vector spaces with connection, equipped with lattices, and let (M, ∇, E) be their tensor product: M = M ⊗ M , k

E = E ⊗ E

and ∇ = ∇ ⊗ IdM + IdM ⊗∇ .

C{t}

(1) Prove that M = M ⊗C[t,t−1 ] M has regular singularity at infinity. (2) Show that, if V denotes the Deligne lattice at infinity, V(M) = V(M ) ⊗C[t ] V(M ). (3) Prove that, for any β ∈ C, we have, if we denote by (Vβ )β∈C the filtration which interpolates the filtration (tk V)k∈Z , Vβ (M)/V>β (M) + , + , α >α β−α >(β−α ) V (M )/V (M ) ⊗ V (M )/V (M ) = C

α ∈]−1,0]

k k+1 V) in terms of Mreg and Mreg by (Compute Mreg := k∈Z (t V/t considering the analytic germs of M, M , M at ∞). (4) Show that , + , + E ∩ Vα (M ) ⊗ E ∩ Vβ−α (M ) . E ∩ Vβ (M) ⊂ α ∈]−1,0]

Deduce that, for any β ∈ C, we have νβ+k να −i νβ−α −j . k0

α ∈]−1,0] i0 j0

(5) We set (ν ν )β = β +β νβ νβ . Deduce that, for any β, on a νβ+k (ν ν )β+k , and

k0

Nβ :=

k0

νγ (N N )β :=

γβ

(ν ν )β .

γβ

0. Check that Nβ = (N N )β for β ! 0 or β (6) We moreover assume that (M , ∇ ) and (M , ∇ ) are equipped with nondegenerate bilinear (or sesquilinear) forms of weight w and w relatively to E and E . Prove that (M, ∇) is also naturally equipped with a nondegenerate bilinear (or sesquilinear) form of weight w = w + w relatively to E. Deduce that, for any β ∈ C, νβ = νw−β

and

(ν ν )β = (ν ν )w−β .


139

(7) Keeping the previous assumption, show that Nβ = (N N )β for any β and deduce that νβ = (ν ν )β for any β. 2.c Deformations The main result of this section is Theorem 2.10 below, which is an analogue of Proposition 1.19 for connections with pole of order one, and the proof of which will occupy the remaining part of this chapter. We restrict ourselves here to the case of poles of order one for simplicity and because only this case will be considered in the following. The reader interested in a more general situation can refer to [Mal83c]. In the following, X denotes a connected analytic manifold of dimension n equipped with a base point xo and with holomorphic functions λ1 , . . . , λd : X → C. We will assume that, for any x ∈ X and all i = j, the values λi (x) and λj (x) are distinct. We will set λoi = λi (xo ). 2.10 Theorem (cf. [Mal83c]). Let (E o , ∇o ) be a bundle on a disc D equipped with a connection with pole of order one at the origin, the “residue” R0o of which admits λo1 , . . . , λod as eigenvalues. If the parameter space X is 1-connected, there exists a unique (up to isomorphism) holomorphic bundle E on D × X, equipped with a connection having pole of order one along {0} × X, such that • •

for any x ∈ X, the spectrum of R0 (x) is {λ1 (x), . . . , λd (x)}; the restriction (E, ∇)|D×{xo } is isomorphic to (E o , ∇o ).

2.d Bundles of rank one with connection having a pole of order one Let (E, ∇) be a holomorphic bundle on D × X equipped with a flat connection ∇. We assume in this paragraph that the bundle E has rank one and, as in Theorem 2.10, that the connection has a pole of order one. Let us begin with the local classification of such objects. 2.11 Proposition. Let (E, ∇) be a germ at (0, xo ) of bundle of rank one on D × X, with a connection having a pole of order one along {0} × X. (1) We can associate to (E, ∇) a unique pair (λ, μ), where μ ∈ C and λ ∈ O(X), characterized by the property that, in any local basis of E, the polar part of the connection form is written as λ(x) dt ωpol = −d +μ . t t (2) The germ of bundle (E, ∇) admits a non identically zero holomorphic horizontal section if and only if λ ≡ 0 and μ ∈ −N.

140

III Lattices

(3) Two such bundles with associated pairs (λ, μ) and (λ , μ ) are locally isomorphic if and only if λ = λ and μ = μ . Proof. (1) Let ω be the connection form in some local basis of E. The integrability condition reduces to the condition dω = 0 as E has rank one. Moreover, the polar part of the form ω is not modified by a holomorphic base change, which only adds some exact holomorphic form to ω. The integrability condition applied to the polar part of ω gives the desired expression. (2) This is analogous to Proposition II.5.1. Let us begin by noticing that there exists a basis of E in which the connection form is reduced to its polar part: indeed, the connection form ω in a given basis can be written as −ϕ ω = ωpol + dϕ with ϕ holomorphic. The base change with matrix ek gives the existence. In this basis, the coefficient s(t, x) = k0 sk (x)t of a holomorphic horizontal section satisfies the differential equation λ(x) ∂s + + μ s = 0, t ∂t t which can be written as (k + μ)sk (x)tk + λ(x) sk (x)tk−1 = 0. k0

k0

If λ(x) ≡ 0, we deduce step by step that all coefficients sk are identically zero. If λ ≡ 0, we see in the same way that the nonvanishing of at least one coefficient sk is equivalent to μ ∈ −N. (3) A homomorphism (E, ∇) → (E , ∇ ) is a holomorphic horizontal section of the bundle H om(E , E ). This one still has rank one and its connection still has order one, with form ω − ω. The existence of an isomorphism between both bundles with connection implies therefore, after (2), that λ ≡ λ and μ = μ . Conversely, if this equality is satisfied, both bundles are isomorphic, as there exists for each a basis in which the connection form reduces to its polar part. Let us now consider the global situation: the point (3) of the previous proposition shows the existence of a holomorphic function λ on X and of a complex number μ such that, in any local basis, the polar part ωpol of the connection form is equal to −d(λ(x)/t) + μ dt/t. 2.12 Proposition. There exists a locally constant sheaf E of rank one on X and an isomorphism E OD×X ⊗C E such that the connection ∇ can be written as + ωpol ∇=∇ is the natural holomorphic flat connection on OU ⊗C E. if ∇


141

Proof. It is enough to notice that the local basis of (E, ∇) in which the connection form reduces to its polar part is unique up to a multiplicative constant: indeed, two bases in which the matrix is equal to ωpol are related by multiplication by an invertible holomorphic function ψ such that d log ψ = 0, hence ψ is locally constant. 2.13 Remarks. (1) With the notation of §0.14.c, the endomorphism R0 is the multiplication by λ, the endomorphism R∞ is the multiplication by −μ and Φ = −dλ. (2) If X is 1-connected, it follows from Proposition 2.12 that the bundle E is trivializable. (3) The sheaf of automorphisms of (E, ∇) is locally constant of rank one on X: as a matter of fact, such an automorphism must preserve the polar part (if one ωpol of the connection matrix of ∇, hence also the connection ∇ prefers, the natural connection defined by ∇ on H omO (E , E ) has no pole as a consequence, it and it is also the natural connection defined by ∇); is an automorphism of the flat bundle (E, ∇). This sheaf is thus constant if X is 1-connected. 2.14 Exercise. Extend these results to the case of a connection of order r 1. 2.e Formal structure When E has rank 1, the structure of the bundle (E, ∇) is not so simple (this is even so for the associated meromorphic bundle; see §II.5). Nevertheless, if one only considers the associated formal bundle, everything is similar to rank one. Let O be the formal completion of the sheaf OD×X along {0} × X: it is a o sheaf ∞ on {0}i × X whose germ at any point (0, x ) is the set of formal series i=0 ai (x)t , where the ai are holomorphic functions defined on the same neighbourhood of xo (cf. §II.2.f). Let E be a holomorphic bundle on D×X and let E be the associated sheaf. We will denote by E the formal bundle associated to E along {0} × X: this is the sheaf O ⊗O E ; it is thus a sheaf on {0} × X. The notion of formal bundle with meromorphic connection remains meaningful and, if E is equipped with a connection having pole along {0} × X, then so is E. loses much information, if (E, ∇) In general, going from (E, ∇) to (E, ∇) does not have regular singularity along {0} × X. Nevertheless, we notice that, when E has rank one and ∇ has a pole of is equivalent to order one, giving the formal bundle with connection (E, ∇) giving a pair (λ, μ) and, in this case, taking the formal bundle is an equivalence of categories. Let us resume the assumptions of §2.c.

142

III Lattices

2.15 Theorem (Formal decomposition of a lattice of order one). If (E, ∇) is a holomorphic bundle on D × X with connection of order one along {0} × X and which “residue” R0 (x) has eigenvalues λi (x) at any x ∈ X, then the associated formal bundle with connection can be decomposed in a unique way (up to a permutation) as a direct sum of subbundles of rank one d = (Ei , ∇) (E, ∇) i=1

which are locally pairwise nonisomorphic. Proof. The restricted bundle i∗0 E can be decomposed as the direct sum of eigenbundles of R0 . It is a matter of lifting this decomposition to E in a way compatible with ∇. The local existence of the decomposition follows from Theorem II.5.7 because, as we mentioned in Remark II.5.8, neither the base change that we use not its inverse has a pole. This decomposition also provides complex numbers μi . Moreover, this local decomposition is unique: as a matter of fact, let us the projection E → Ej induced consider another decomposition by (Ei , ∇); i by the local decomposition is zero if i = j as λi = λj (Proposition 2.11-(2)) and, arguing the other way around, we deduce that Ei = Ei . is the unique subbundle of rank one of (E, ∇) Lastly, the summand (Ei , ∇) on which the polar part of ∇ is equal to −d(λi /t) + μi dt/t: if (Ei , ∇) is another one, we see as above that the sections of Ei have no component on the summands Ej (j = i) of the decomposition, hence Ei ⊂ Ei ; having fixed the residue μi implies Ei = Ei . The uniqueness now gives the global existence of the subbundle (Ei , ∇). Finally, the natural homomorphism i (Ei , ∇) → (E , ∇) is locally, hence globally, an isomorphism. 2.16 Remarks. is locally constant: indeed, an au(1) The sheaf of automorphisms of (E, ∇) tomorphism of (E , ∇) preserves the decomposition of Theorem 2.15 as the are pairwise nonisomorphic. (Ei , ∇) (2) When X is 1-connected, we deduce from what we have seen above that the of ∇ can bundle E is trivializable and admits a basis in which the matrix Ω be written as diag(ω1 , . . . , ωd ), where the ωi take the form −d(λi (x)/t) + μi dt/t. Such a basis is unique up to conjugation by a constant diagonal matrix. 2.f Proof of Theorem 2.10 ∇) Step 1: construction of the formal connection. If the formal bundle (E, exists, it must be trivializable, as X is assumed 1-connected and after Re-


143

mark 2.16-(2). It admits thus a basis in which the connection matrix is diag(ω1 , . . . , ωd ), with λi (x) dt ωi = −d + μi , t t where μi = μoi is determined by (E o , ∇o ). We equip the trivial formal bundle with this connection, which is suitable, and we fix a formal isomorphism fo o , ∇ o ) with the former. of (E Step 2: construction of the meromorphic bundle. The meromorphic bundle (M , ∇) = (E (∗({0} × X)), ∇) can be obtained by means of the Riemann-Hilbert correspondence with pa, ∇) = (E(∗{0} × X), ∇) is rameter of §II.6.b. Indeed, the formal bundle (M determined by Step 1. Moreover, Theorem II.6.1 shows that the Stokes sheaf is locally constant, hence constant as X is 1-connected. There exists therefore a unique section σ of this Stokes sheaf, the value of which at xo is the ele, ∇) and of the section σ, ment determined by (E o , ∇o , fo ). By means of (M we can thus construct a meromorphic bundle with connection (M , ∇, f). Its restriction to D × {xo } is isomorphic to (M o , ∇o , fo ) = (E (∗{0}), ∇o , fo ). Step 3: construction of the bundle (E , ∇). We can proceed in two ways. The simpler method notes that, once the formal decomposition of Theorem 2.15 is obtained, the arguments of §II.6 do not necessitate inverting the variable t and can thus be applied to (E , ∇, f) as well as to (M , ∇, f). We can therefore gather Steps 2 and 3. Another method involves constructing E as a lattice of the meromorphic bundle M obtained above and verifying that the connection ∇ has a pole of order one. Moreover, it is enough to construct the germ of E along {0} × X as, away from this set, E must be equal to M . It is thus enough to show that E := E ∩ M is a lattice of M which satisfies O ⊗O E = E; as a matter of fact, if this equality is proved, the connection ∇ on E has a pole of order one along {0} × X as so has its formalized connection. One will find in [Mal96, Prop. 1.2] a proof of this result, which is an analogue, with parameters, of Lemma 2.1. Uniqueness. Let us employ the arguments of the first method above, by using of course the simple connectedness of X. Let (E, ∇) and (E , ∇ ) be two such bundles with connection, which are isomorphic when restricted to D×{xo } and let g o such an isomorphism. On the other hand, let f and f be formal isomorphisms of these bundles with some model (E good , ∇good ) as in Theorem 2.15. Remark 2.16 shows that the automorphism ho = fo ◦ go ◦ (fo )−1 of good , ∇ good ) can be extended in a unique way as an autothe restriction i+ (E good good , ∇ ). The restrictions to D × {xo } of (E , ∇, h ◦ f) morphism h of (E o and (E , ∇ , f ) are then isomorphic via g . The constancy of the Stokes sheaf implies that (E , ∇, h ◦ f) and (E , ∇ , f ) are isomorphic.

IV The Riemann-Hilbert problem and Birkhoff ’s problem

Introduction The question of the existence of logarithmic lattices, trivial as vector bundles, in a given meromorphic bundle with connection on P1 , is known as the Riemann-Hilbert problem 1 . This question takes for granted that the meromorphic bundle has only regular singularities. There are various generalizations and variants of this question. Birkhoff ’s problem is one for which the meromorphic bundle has only two singularities, one being regular, and where one fixes the lattice in the neighbourhood of the other singularity, which can be regular or irregular. We can also ask for the existence of a trivial lattice whose order in each singularity is minimum among the orders of the local lattices of the meromorphic bundle at this singularity: it is a straightforward generalization of the Riemann-Hilbert problem to the case of irregular singularities. The case of bundles on compact Riemann surfaces has also been considered. One then tries to bound from above the number of apparent singularities which are needed for making the bundle trivial. One could also, considering Exercise I.4.8, ask for the existence of logarithmic lattices which are semistable as vector bundles (cf. [EV99]). One will find in [AB94] and [Bol95] a detailed historical review of this question (cf. also [Bea93]). Let us only note here that, although we have long known examples giving a negative answer to Birkhoff’s problem (cf. [Gan59, Mas59]), a negative answer to the Riemann-Hilbert problem has only been given quite recently by A. Bolibrukh. We will give here proof of the existence of a solution to the RiemannHilbert problem and to Birkhoff’s problem with an assumption of irreducibility, a result which is drawn from Bolibrukh and Kostov. We will not, how1

In fact, the original problem 1.1 shows up the monodromy representation, but this amounts to the same, according to the Riemann-Hilbert correspondence II.3.3.

146

IV The Riemann-Hilbert problem and Birkhoff’s problem

ever, exhibit examples for which the answer is negative, referring for this to [AB94, Bol95] and to the references given therein. We will also give a criterion, drawn from M. Saito, for a positive answer to Birkhoff’s problem. This criterion happens to be more effective, as we will mention in §VII.5, when applied to differential systems associated to some objects coming from algebraic geometry, than Corollary 5.7 below.

1 The Riemann-Hilbert problem Given a finite set {m1 , . . . , mp } of distinct points of the complex line, we fix a base point o ∈ C {m1 , . . . , mp }. The fundamental group π1 (C {m1 , . . . , mp }, o) is the free group with p generators. Giving a linear representation ρ : π1 (C {m1 , . . . , mp }, o) −→ GLd (C) is then equivalent to giving p invertible matrices T1 , . . . , Tp ∈ GLd (C). On the other hand, let us consider a differential system du = −A(t) · u, dt where A(t) is a matrix d×d with holomorphic entries on C{m1 , . . . , mp } and u is a vector (u1 , . . . , ud ) of functions on an open subset of C{m1 , . . . , mp }. Theorem 0.12.8 shows that this equation defines a linear representation as above. 1.1 The Riemann-Hilbert problem. Given p invertible matrices T1 , . . . , Tp ∈ GLd (C), do there exist matrices A1 , . . . , Ap ∈ Md (C) such that the representation defined by T1 , . . . , Tp is isomorphic to that associated to the system p du + Ai , ·u ? = dt t − mi i=1 1.2 Remark. One should not believe that the matrices Tj are related to the matrices Aj by relation Tj = exp −2iπAj . Indeed, in the neighbourhood of mj , the equation can be written as du = A(i) (t) · u dt Ai holomorphic in the neighbourhood of mi and ≡ 0 in t − mi general. The situation of Exercise II.2.20-(4) may thus happen here.

with A(i) (t) −

We will first consider an analogous problem, where representations do not occur. Let (M , ∇) be a meromorphic bundle with connection on the Riemann sphere P1 , with poles in p + 1 distinct points m0 , m1 , . . . , mp .

1 The Riemann-Hilbert problem

147

1.3 The algebraic Riemann-Hilbert problem. We suppose that (M , ∇) has a regular singularity at m0 , . . . , mp (i.e., that there exists in the neighbourhood of each mi a logarithmic lattice). (a) Does there exist a global logarithmic lattice of (M , ∇)? (b) Does there exist such a lattice which is moreover quasitrivial? (c) Does there exist such a lattice which is moreover trivial? Let us first translate the questions in terms of differential systems. Recall that (Corollary I.4.9) when Σ = ∅, the meromorphic bundle M is isomorphic to OP1 (∗Σ)d . Let Ω be the connection matrix in some basis e1 , . . . , ed of global sections of M , which exists according to this corollary. This matrix has poles in Σ. The question (c) is then equivalent to (c’) Does there exist an invertible matrix P whose entries are rational functions with poles contained in Σ, such that the matrix Ω := P −1 ΩP + P −1 dP has a logarithmic pole at each mi ∈ Σ and has no other pole in P1 ? Indeed, the lattice E generated by the basis (ε1 , . . . , εd ) = (e1 , . . . , ed ) · P satisfies then Property (c) and, conversely, any basis of a lattice E satisfying (c) provides, through some base change, a matrix having the desired form. Let us choose a coordinate t on P1 {m0 } in such a way that m0 = {t = ∞}. The question (c’) is then equivalent to the question (c”) Does there exist an invertible matrix P whose entries are rational functions with poles contained in Σ, such that the matrix Ω := P −1 ΩP + P −1 dP can be written as (1.4)

Ω =

p i=1

Ai dt ? t − mi

We then say that the differential system defined by Ω is Fuchsian. This equivalence follows from the lemma below applied to the entries of Ω: 1.5 Lemma. Let f be a holomorphic function on C {m1 , . . . , mp } having at most a simple pole at each mi , with residue fi ∈ C at mi . The differential form f (t) dt admits at most a simple pole at m0 = ∞ if and only if f (t) dt =

p i=1

and the residue at infinity is −

i

fi .

fi dt t − mi

148


Proof. Let us consider the 1-form g(t) dt = f (t) dt −

p i=1

fi dt. t − mi

By definition of fi , this form has no pole on C. Moreover, we have on U0 ∩U∞ , if we put t = 1/t, fi −fi dt dt = · t − mi 1 − mi t t so that this form has a simple pole at infinity, with residue −fi . Therefore, the 1-form f (t) dt has at most a simple pole at infinity if and only if the 1form g(t) dt does as well. But saying that g(t) dt has at most a simple pole at infinity is equivalent to saying that g(t) dt is a holomorphic global section of the sheaf ΩP11 (1 · ∞) OP1 (−1) (cf. Proposition I.2.11), which is equivalent to g(t) dt = 0, after Exercise I.2.3. We have a simple result giving a constraint on the residue matrices of the solutions to Problem 1.3-(c). 1.6 Proposition. Let E be a trivial logarithmic p lattice of a meromorphic bundle with connection (M , ∇) on P1 . Then i=0 tr Resmi ∇ = 0. Proof. One chooses a coordinate t on C such that the point {t = ∞} does not belong to Σ. Let e be a basis of E in which the matrix of ∇ is Ω(t) =

p i=0

We then have

i

Ai = 0 and therefore

Ai dt. t − mi i

tr(Ai ) = 0.

1.7 Remark (The canonical trivialization of a trivializable bundle). Let M be a connected complex analytic manifold and let E be a locally free sheaf of rank d of OM -modules. The restriction mapping provides, for any m ∈ M , a mapping Γ (M, E ) → Em which associates to any holomorphic section of E on M its germ at the point m. We deduce an homomorphism of sheaves OM ⊗ Γ (M, E ) −→ E . C

We say that E is generated by its global sections if this homomorphism is surjective. One can also show that, if M is compact (for instance M = P1 ), the bundle E is trivializable (i.e., isomorphic to the trivial bundle of rank d) if and only if this homomorphism is an isomorphism (the reader should prove this: one could use that, if M is compact and connected, one has Γ (M, OM ) = C). This homomorphism furnishes then a specific isomorphism— called canonical—with the trivial bundle of rank d. It identifies thus all the fibres Em of E to the same vector space Γ (M, E ).


149

When E is a logarithmic lattice of a meromorphic bundle with connection on P1 , having poles at Σ, the endomorphisms Resmi ∇ : Emi → Emi which act on distinct fibres of E can, when E is trivializable, be regarded as endomorphisms of the same vector space Γ (P1 , E ). The corresponding matrices in some basis of this pspace are nothing but the matrices Ai considered above (if we set A0 = − i=1 Ai ). 1.8 Exercise. (1) By using an argument analogous to that of Lemma 1.5, prove that, if ω is a logarithmic 1-form on P1 , having poles at m0 , . . . , mp and with integral residue at each mi , there exists a meromorphic function f on P1 , with poles at m0 , . . . , mp , such that ω = df /f . (2) Let T1 , . . . , Tp be matrices with determinant equal to 1. Show that, if there exists a solution A1 , . . . , Ap to Problem 1.1, there exists another one with matrices A1 , . . . , Ap having trace zero (i.e., belonging to the Lie algebra sld (C) of the Lie group SLd (C)). Check first that the Ai have an integral trace, then take ⎛ ⎞ tr Ai ⎜ ⎟ 0 ⎜ ⎟ Ai = Ai − ⎜ . . .. ⎟ ⎝ ⎠ 0 1.9 Exercise (Residue formula for a meromorphic form). Let ω be a meromorphic 1-form on P1 having poles on a set Σ = {m0 , . . . , mp }. Considering the proof of Lemma 1.5, prove the residue formula p

resmi ω = 0.

i=0

1.10 Exercise (Residue formula for a meromorphic connection). Let E be a bundle of rank d on P1 of degree deg E . The degree only depends on the (rank one) bundle det E . Let ∇ : E → ΩP11 (∗Σ) ⊗ E be a meromorphic connection on E , having poles at the points of a finite set Σ = {m0 , . . . , mp }. It is a matter of computing the degree of E by a residue formula from the meromorphic connection ∇, namely (∗)

deg E = −

p

tr Resmi (∇)

i=0

This computation can be generalized to any compact Riemann surface. (1) Let e be a local basis of E in the neighbourhood of a point mi and let Ωi be the matrix of ∇ in this basis. Let resmi Ωi be the residue of Ωi at mi , i.e., the coefficient of dz/z in Ωi , if z is a local coordinate centered at mi (cf. Remark §0.9.15). Prove that this residue does not depend on the chosen local coordinate and that its trace does not depend on the chosen local basis.

150


(2) Show that the determinant bundle ∧d E can be naturally equipped with a meromorphic connection, whose matrix in the local basis e1 ∧ · · · ∧ ed at mi is tr Ωi . Deduce that both terms in (∗) only depend on (det E , ∇), so that one can assume from the beginning that E has rank one. (3) If the bundle E is trivial, write ∇ = d + η, where η is a meromorphic 1-form and apply the classic residue theorem (cf. Exercise 1.9). (4) If E is not trivial, it is the bundle associated to some divisor, that we can assume to be equal to δm0 , if δ = deg E is the degree of E . Let s be a meromorphic section of E defining this divisor. Prove that there exists a meromorphic connection ∇ on E for which s is a horizontal section, i.e., such that ∇ f s = df ⊗ s for any holomorphic or meromorphic function f on an open set of P1 . Show that this connection admits −δ as residue at m0 (if e is a local holomorphic basis of E in the neighbourhood of m0 and if z is a local coordinate there, set s(z) = z δ u(z)e with u(0) = 0; show that, in the basis e,

−δv(z) dz ⊗e ∇ e = ∇ s(z)/z δ u(z) = d(1/z δ u(z)) ⊗ s(z) = z with v(0) = 0 and conclude). Consider then the connection ∇⊗Id − Id ⊗∇ on the trivial bundle E ⊗E ∗ to prove (∗) in this case. Let us come back to Problem 1.3 and let us first show a simple result. 1.11 Proposition. (1) The answer to Question (a) is positive. (2) There exists a trivial lattice of (M , ∇) which is logarithmic at each mi (i = 1, . . . , p), but possibly not at m0 . (3) Questions (b) and (c) are equivalent. Proof. (1) Adapt the proof of Corollary I.4.9 starting from local lattices which are logarithmic, which is possible as (M , ∇) has regular singularity. (2) Let us start from the logarithmic lattice E obtained in (a). It is possibly not trivial, but the meromorphic bundle E (∗m0 ) is trivializable (Corollary I.4.9). Let us then choose a basis e1 , . . . , ed of the meromorphic bundle E (∗m0 ) d and let us consider the lattice E := k=1 OP1 ek of (M , ∇). By assumption, it coincides with E on P1 {m0 }, hence it is logarithmic at m1 , . . . , mp . By construction also, it is a trivial bundle. Nevertheless, the connection matrix in the basis e1 , . . . , ed is possibly not logarithmic at m0 . (3) Let us assume that we have answered Question 1.3-(b) positively. Then let E be a quasitrivial logarithmic lattice of (M , ∇). On the other hand, let (OP1 (∗m0 ), d) be the trivial meromorphic bundle of rank one having a pole


151

at m0 only, equipped with its natural connection d (usual differentiation of meromorphic functions). The lattices OP1 (k · m0 ) are logarithmic (the reader should check this). We have in an evident way (cf. 0.11.b) (OP1 (∗m0 ), d) ⊗ (M , ∇) = (M , ∇). Therefore, when E is a logarithmic lattice of (M , ∇), the lattices OP1 (k · m0 ) ⊗ E also are logarithmic (cf. 0.14.b). If E is quasitrivial, isomorphic to OP1 ()d for some ∈ Z, the lattice OP1 (− · m0 ) ⊗ E is trivial. 1.12 Remark (The Riemann-Hilbert problem with a bilinear form). Let w1 , . . . , wp be integers. Let us set ω=

p wi dt . t − mi i=1

This is a 1-form on P1 with logarithmic poles at the points of Σ, with residues wi at mi and − wi at m0 = ∞. The trivial bundle is then a logarithmic lattice of the meromorphic bundle with connection (OP1 (∗Σ), d + ω). The latter is isomorphic to the bundle (OP1 (∗Σ), d) via multiplication by the rational fraction (t − mi )−wi . p Ai dt. We denote by Let us set A1 , . . . , Ap ∈ Md (C) and Ω = t − mi i=1

(E , ∇) the trivial bundle OPd1 equipped with the connection ∇ having matrix Ω in the canonical basis. It is a logarithmic lattice of the meromorphic bundle with connection (M , ∇) := (OPd1 (∗Σ), d + Ω). The matrix of ∇ in another basis of E takes the form C −1 ΩC with C ∈ GLd (C). The property (∗)

∃ C ∈ GLd (C), ∀ i = 1, . . . , p,

C −1 Ai C + t (C −1 Ai C) = wi Id

is equivalent to the existence of a nondegenerate pairing (E , ∇) ⊗ (E , ∇) −→ (OP1 , d + ω), ∼

that is, of an isomorphism (E ∗ , ∇∗ ) −→ (E , ∇ + ω Id). In order that this property is fulfilled, it is necessary that we have an isomorphism ∼

(M ∗ , ∇∗ ) −→ (M , ∇ + ω Id) and thus (M ∗ , ∇∗ ) (M , ∇). According to the Riemann-Hilbert correspondence, this is equivalent to the existence of an isomorphism of the corresponding local systems. In other words, given matrices T1 , . . . , Tp ∈ GLd (C), in order to solve the problem 1.1 with the supplementary condition Ai + tAi = wi Id, it is necessary that the matrices T1 , . . . , Tp are conjugate, by the same matrix, to orthogonal matrices (i.e., satisfying t T = T −1 )

152


2 Meromorphic bundles with irreducible connection 2.1 Definition (Irreducibility). We will say that a meromorphic bundle with connection (M , ∇) is irreducible if there exists no proper (i.e., distinct from M and 0) meromorphic subbundle N , on which∇ induces a connection, i.e., such that ∇(N ) ⊂ ΩP11 ⊗OP1 N . The first part of the statement which follows is drawn from J. Plemelj [Ple08] (see also [Tre83]) and the second one from A. Bolibrukh and V. Kostov (see for instance [AB94, Chap. 4]). The proof we give below is due to O. Gabber. This theorem will be instrumental in giving positives answers to Riemann-Hilbert and Birkhoff’s problems. 2.2 Theorem (Existence of a quasitrivial lattice). Let (M , ∇) be a meromorphic bundle with connection on P1 having poles at the points m0 , . . . , mp . Let E be a lattice of (M , ∇) of order ri 0 at each mi (i = 1, . . . , p) and admitting a local basis in the neighbourhood of m0 (coordinate t) in which the matrix of ∇ takes the form A dt/t with A ∈ Md (C). Let us assume that one of the two conditions below is fulfilled (1) (Plemelj) the matrix A is semisimple; (2) (Bolibrukh-Kostov) the bundle with connection (M , ∇) is irreducible. Then there exists a lattice E ⊂ E which coincides with E when restricted to P1 {m0 }, which is logarithmic at m0 and which is quasitrivial. Proof (First part: Plemelj). It is a matter of exhibiting a sublattice of E having defect zero (cf. Definition I.4.13). We will make a sequence of modifications like those of Proposition I.4.11 and apply Corollary I.4.14. As the residue Resm0 ∇ is semisimple, there exists a one-dimensional eigenspace Lo ⊂ Em0 for this residue which is not contained in (F ad +1 E)m0 . The bundle E (Lo m0 ) satisfies the same properties as E does: if Lo contains for instance the vector ed (m0 ), a local basis of E (Lo m0 ) is e1 , . . . , ed−1 , ed /t and the connection matrix in this basis and with this coordinate is A dt/t, where A is the diagonal matrix (α1 , . . . , αd−1 , αd + 1) if A is the diagonal matrix (α1 , . . . , αd ). If we have δ(E) > 0, Corollary I.4.14 shows that the defect of E (Lo m0 ) is < δ(E). By a simple induction, we get in this way a lattice E contained in E (δ(E)), which is logarithmic at m0 and which has defect zero, i.e., is quasitrivial. The lattice E = E (−δ(E)) is then a solution to the problem. 2.3 Exercise (Adjunction of an apparent singularity). Let (M , ∇) be a meromorphic bundle with connection having pole at Σ = {m0 , . . . , mp }. Let us pick mp+1 ∈ P1 Σ. Show that the conclusion of Theorem 2.2 holds for the bundle with connection (N , ∇) := (M (∗mp+1 ), ∇) and any lattice E of N (one can apply Plemelj’s Theorem at the point mp+1 ). We say that mp+1 is an apparent singularity of the bundle with connection (N , ∇).

2 Meromorphic bundles with irreducible connection

153

Proof (Second part: Bolibrukh-Kostov). The main point is that the irreducibility condition provides an a priori upper bound for the defect of any lattice E which coincides with E when restricted to P1 {m0 } and which is logarithmic p at m0 . Let us set r = −2 + i=0 (ri + 1) with r0 = 0, and R = d(d − 1)r/2. Let us begin with a general result, without assuming r0 = 0. 2.4 Proposition (A priori upper bound of the defect). Let us assume that (M , ∇) is irreducible. Then, for any lattice E having order ri 0 at mi (i = 0, . . . , p), we have the inequality δ(E) R. Proof. We can assume that d 2, otherwise both terms of the inequality vanish. If a1 · · · ad is the type of E, we have an isomorphism E d k=1 OP1 (ak · m0 ). There is a meromorphic connection d (with pole at m0 only, this one being logarithmic) on each summand. Let us set θ = ∇ − d. Its components θk are OP1 -linear morphisms /p 0 θk → ΩP11 OP1 (ak · m0 ) −−− i=0 (ri + 1)mi ⊗OP1 OP1 (a · m0 ). The right-hand term is isomorphic to OP1 (a + r), after Proposition I.2.11. Hence, after Exercise I.2.3, we have θk = 0 =⇒ ak a + r. If there exists k such that ak −ak+1 > r, we have θj = 0 for any j k and k+1 and therefore the subbundle F ak E := jk OP1 (aj ) (cf. Exercise I.4.8) is stable by θ and thus by the connection ∇, which is impossible according to the irreducibility assumption. We thus have ak − ak+1 r for any k = 1, . . . , d − 1 d and we immediately deduce the inequality on the defect δ(E) = k=2 (a1 − ak ). Lastly, let us note that the hypothesis of the proposition implies in particular d = 1 or r 0. 2.5 Remark (The semistability condition, cf. [GS95]). Let (M , ∇) be a (not necessarily irreducible) meromorphic bundle with connection, having poles at the points of Σ. A lattice E of M is said to be semistable (as a bundle with meromorphic connection) if any subbundle F of E satisfying ∇(F ) ⊂ ΩP11 (∗Σ) ⊗ F has slope μ(F ) μ(E ) (cf. Exercise I.4.8). The previous proposition shows in fact that the inequality on the defect is satisfied for any semistable lattice of order ri 0 at mi . When (M , ∇) is irreducible, all lattices are semistable. End of the proof of Theorem 2.2. By assumption, there exists a local basis of E in the neighbourhood of m0 and a local coordinate t, such that the connection matrix takes the form A dt/t with A constant. Up to a base change with constant matrix, we can moreover suppose that A = Resm0 ∇ takes the

154


Jordan normal form. Let us denote by (eα, ) this basis, where α belongs to a finite set indexing the Jordan blocks and, for any α, the integer belongs to a finite set Iα = {1, . . . , να }. If λ(α) denotes the eigenvalue associated to the Jordan block α, we have eα,−1 if 2 (A − λ(α) Id) (eα, ) = 0 if = 1.

. p Let us set as above R = d(d − 1) − 2 + i=0 (ri + 1) 2. We choose, for any α, a strictly increasing sequence of integers Nα, 0 ( ∈ Iα ) such that, for any α and any ∈ {1, . . . , να }, we have Nα, > Nα,−1 + R (if we set Nα,0 = 0). We then set eα, = tNα, eα, . The eα, generate a local lattice of (M , ∇), which is contained in E in the neighbourhood of m0 . We can extend it as a global lattice E by gluing this local lattice with E|P1 {m0 } . Let us note that, whatever the choice of the sequences (Nα, ) is, the defect of the lattice E is bounded from above by the number R, after Proposition 2.4. It is clear that the lattice E has order ri at any mi = m0 , as it coincides with E in the neighbourhood of such a point. We moreover have t∇∂/∂t eα, = (λ(α) + Nα, )eα, + tNα, −Nα,−1 eα,−1 , so that, for the lattice E , the connection matrix in the neighbourhood of m0 takes the form

dt Ω (t) = D + tR+1 C(t) t where D is diagonal and constant and C(t) has holomorphic entries. The situation is now analogous to that of Plemelj’s Theorem, up to a perturbation of order R. The modification of the lattice E done in the proof of Plemelj’s Theorem replaces here the connection matrix with a matrix (D1 + tR C1 (t)) dt/t, with D1 diagonal, so that we can iterate R times such a modification if needed, the connection matrix keeping at each step the form

dt Dk + tR−k+1 Ck (t) t (Dk diagonal). As δ(E ) R, we can get, by at most δ(E ) modifications, a lattice with defect zero. 2.6 Corollary (Existence of a trivial lattice). Let (M , ∇) be a meromorphic bundle having Σ as its set of poles and having at m0 a regular singularity. If one of the following conditions is fulfilled (1) (Plemelj) the monodromy at m0 is semisimple,

3 Application to the Riemann-Hilbert problem

155

(2) (Bolibrukh-Kostov) the representation π1 (P1 Σ, o) → GLd (C) associated to (M , ∇) is irreducible, (3) the meromorphic bundle (M , ∇) is irreducible, there exists, for any lattice E of M , a lattice E of M such that (a) E|P 1 {m0 } = E|P1 {m0 } , (b) E is logarithmic at m0 , (c) E is trivial. Proof. Let E be a lattice of M . As (M , ∇) has a regular singularity at m0 , there exists a logarithmic lattice E0 on some neighbourhood Δ of m0 . When restricted to Δ {m0 }, it coincides with E|Δ{m0 } = M|Δ{m0 } . We can therefore construct a lattice E which fulfills Properties (a) and (b), by gluing E|P1 {m0 } with E0 on Δ {m0 }, due to the previous identification. We can moreover, after Exercise II.2.6 or Corollary II.2.21, suppose that, in a suitable local basis of E0 , the matrix of ∇ takes the form A dt/t with A constant. If the monodromy T is semisimple, we can choose for A the semisimple matrix log T (with respect to any choice of logarithms of eigenvalues of T ) and we conclude by means of Plemelj’s Theorem and of Proposition 1.11-(3). If the representation associated to the holomorphic bundle with connection (M , ∇)|P1 Σ is irreducible, so is that associated to the meromorphic bundle (M , ∇) (the reader will verify this, but with some care, as the converse may not be true); therefore, Condition (2) is stronger than Condition (3). We conclude, in cases (2) and (3), by means of the Bolibrukh-Kostov Theorem 2.2-(2) and of Proposition 1.11-(3).

3 Application to the Riemann-Hilbert problem Let (M , ∇) be a meromorphic bundle on P1 having poles at the points of Σ. Let us moreover suppose that M has a regular singularity at each point of Σ. 3.1 Corollary. If one of the two following conditions is fulfilled • •

the monodromy of (M , ∇) at m0 is semisimple, the monodromy representation attached to (M , ∇)|P1 Σ is irreducible,

there exists a solution to Problem 1.3-(c). Proof. Indeed, we construct a logarithmic lattice E of M by gluing local lattices. We apply Corollary 2.6 to this lattice. 3.2 Remark. According to the equivalence of categories given by Corollary II.3.3, both following conditions are equivalent when (M , ∇) has only regular singularities: •

the monodromy representation attached to (M , ∇)|P1 Σ is irreducible,

156

•


the meromorphic bundle with connection (M , ∇) is irreducible.

The Riemann-Hilbert Problem 1.1 can now be translated as follows. Given a locally constant sheaf F of rank d on P1 Σ, does there exist on the trivial bundle E of rank d a connection ∇ with at most logarithmic poles at the points of Σ, such that, on P1 Σ, we have E ∇ F ? We say that F is irreducible if there exist no locally constant subsheaf F ⊂ F of rank d ∈ ]0, d[. It amounts to asking for the representation attached to F to be irreducible. 3.3 Theorem. If one of the following conditions is fulfilled • •

one of the monodromy matrices T0 , . . . , Tp is semisimple, the representation π1 (C {m1 , . . . , mp }, o) → GLd (C) is irreducible,

the Riemann-Hilbert Problem 1.1 has a solution. Proof. Let us start with an irreducible locally constant sheaf F . Let us associate to it, by the Riemann-Hilbert correspondence II.3.3, a meromorphic bundle with connection (M , ∇) having regular singularity at the points of Σ. Under the second hypothesis, it is irreducible in the sense of §2.1, as the Riemann-Hilbert correspondence is an equivalence of categories. We then apply Corollary 3.1 to it in order to conclude. 3.4 Remark (The position of singularities has influence on the existence). Without any irreducibility or a semisimplicity hypothesis, one can also show (cf. [Dek79]) that the answer to Problem 1.3-(c) is positive when the rank of the bundle is 2 (the answer in the case of rank one is trivially positive). We give below (as an exercise) the solution suggested by A. Bolibrukh, more elegant than the original solution of Dekkers. Nevertheless, starting from rank d = 3, there exist nonirreducible examples for which the problem has no solution. One can refer to [AB94] for a description of some of them. One should note that the existence or nonexistence of a solution to Problem 1.1 may depend on the position of the points m0 , . . . , mp in P1 . Recall that we can, by an automorphism of P1 , put m0 , m1 , m2 at ∞, 0, 1 respectively. The position of the other points is then the analytic invariant of the configuration of points; for instance, the cross-ratio is the analytic invariant of the position of four points in P1 . However, if there exists a solution to Problem 1.1 for some position of the points m0 , . . . , mp , there exists also one for any nearby enough position. Indeed, let ρo : π1 (P1 Σ o , o) → GLd (C) be a representation. Let U o be a union of discs centered at the points of Σ o , pairwise disjoint and not containing the point o. If Σ o is a configuration of points of P1 having exactly one point in each component of U o , there exists a natural isomorphism π1 (P1 Σ o , o) π1 (P1 Σ o , o) obtained by composing the isomorphisms induced by the inclusion morphisms ∼ ∼ π1 (P1 Σ o , o) −−−→ π1 (P1 U o , o) ←− π1 (P1 Σ o , o).

3 Application to the Riemann-Hilbert problem

157

We deduce a representation ρ : π1 (P1 Σ o , o) → GLd (C).

◦

◦ ◦ ◦ ◦ ◦ ◦

◦

Σo Σ o

Fig. IV.1. The open set U o .

Then, if there exists a solution to Riemann’s Problem 1.1 for the representation ρo , there exists also one for the representation ρ, as soon as U o is sufficiently small. Indeed, let X be the product of p + 1 copies of P1 minus the diagonals mi = mj . In P1 × X, let us consider the hypersurfaces (see Fig. III.2) Σi = {(m, m0 , . . . , mp ) | m = mi }. They are smooth and pairwise disjoint. Let Σ be their union. The points of Σ o define a point xo = (mo0 , . . . , mop ) of X. There exists by assumption a trivial bundle (E o , ∇o ) on P1 × {xo } equipped with a logarithmic connection having poles at the points of Σ o , which associated representation is ρo . We can then apply Remarks III.1.22 and III.1.21 to construct a bundle (E, ∇) on U × P1 o o with logarithmic connection along Σ which restricts to (E , ∇ ) if U = Uio is a contractible open neighbourhood of xo in X. The rigidity theorem for trivial bundles I.5.4 shows that, up to deleting from U some hypersurface Θ not containing xo , the bundle Ex is trivial for any x ∈ U Θ. 3.5 Exercise (Other examples of solutions to the Riemann-Hilbert Problem 1.1, [Bol95, Dek79]). (1) Prove that, if the monodromy representation ρ is abelian, i.e., if the matrices Ti = ρ(γi ) pairwise commute, there exists a solution to Problem 1.1 (show first that the logarithms of the matrices Ti pairwise commute). (2) One now assumes that the representation ρ has rank 2 (i.e., takes values in GL2 (C)). (a) Prove that, if the representation ρ is reducible, the matrices Ti have a common eigenvector. Deduce that there exists a basis in which each matrix is upper triangular.

158


(b) Moreover show that if none of the Ti is semisimple, the Ti pairwise commute. (c) Conclude that there exists a solution to Problem 1.1.

4 Complements on irreducibility We will give a matrix interpretation to the irreducibility condition. We will say that a p-uple of matrices M1 , . . . , Mp ∈ Md (C) is irreducible if there exists no proper vector subspace of Cd , which is stable by the Mi . The classic Schur Lemma shows that this condition is equivalent to the fact that the only matrices which commute to M1 , . . . , Mp are scalar matrices. 4.1 Theorem. Let (M , ∇) be a meromorphic bundle of rank d with connection on P1 , having poles at Σ and having regular singularity at any mi ∈ Σ. Let us consider the following properties: (1) (M , ∇) is irreducible; (2) for any choice of generators of π1 (P1 Σ, o), the p + 1-uple consisting of the monodromy matrices T0 , . . . , Tp is irreducible; (3) if we choose some coordinate t on P1 {m0 }, there exists a basis e1 , . . . , ed of the space Γ (P1 , M ) in which the connection matrix Ω takes the form (1.4), where (A1 , . . . , Ap ) is an irreducible p-uple, (4) there exists a logarithmic lattice E of (M , ∇), trivial as a OP1 -module, such that the endomorphisms Resmi ∇ (i = 1, . . . , p) acting on Γ (P1 , E ) (cf. Remark 1.7) form an irreducible p-uple. Then we have (1) ⇔ (2), (3) ⇔ (4) and, lastly, (1) or (2) ⇒ (3) or (4). Proof. The equivalence between (1) and (2) has been indicated in Remark 3.2. On the other hand, Remark 1.7 shows that (3) and (4) are equivalent. (1) ⇒ (4): if (M , ∇) is irreducible, Corollary 3.1 furnishes a trivial logarithmic lattice. If the residues of the connection on this lattice at m1 , . . . , mp do not form an irreducible p-uple, any subspace of Γ (P1 , E ) invariant by these p residues is also invariant by the residue at m0 , as we have Resm0 ∇ = − i=1 Resmi ∇, and we can then construct an eigenbundle of E stable by the connection, which then has logarithmic poles at each mi on this bundle, as it does so on E. By tensoring this subbundle by O(∗Σ), we get a meromorphic subbundle with connection of (M , ∇) of rank < d. This is in contradiction with the irreducibility assumption. 4.2 Remark. The converse implication (4) ⇒ (1) is false. The reason is that Condition (4) means that E has no logarithmic trivial subbundle stable by the connection, while Condition (1) for E means that there is no logarithmic not necessarily trivial subbundle stable (in the meromorphic sense) by the connection (use a Deligne lattice). The exercise below gives a counterexample; I learned it from A. Bolibrukh. One can also refer to [Bol95, Prop. 5.1.1].

5 Birkhoff’s problem

159

4.3 Exercise (According to A. Bolibrukh). We consider three matrices 1/2 0 −1/2 1 0 −1 A1 = , A2 = , A3 = 0 0 0 0 0 0 and, on the trivial bundle of rank 2 over C, the 1-form A A2 A3 1 Ω= + + dt. t t−1 t+1 (1) Prove that the meromorphic bundle with connection (M , ∇) that it defines has a pole at m0 = 0, m1 = 1, m2 = −1 only (and not at infinity) and that it is reducible (i.e., nonirreducible). (2) Set 1 0 P (t) = ∈ GL2 (C[t−1 ]). 3/4t 1 Compute the connection matrix after the base change of matrix P . (3) Show that the new basis of M generates a trivial logarithmic lattice and compute the residue matrices at the poles mi . (4) Prove, by computing the eigenspaces of these matrices, that the latter form an irreducible triple and conclude.

5 Birkhoff ’s problem 5.a Local analytic and algebraic Birkhoff ’s problems Let us begin with the local problem and let us consider a disc centered at the origin of C, equipped with the coordinate2 τ . Let us be given, on this disc, a meromorphic connection of order r 0 on the trivial bundle. In some basis of this bundle, the connection matrix takes the form A(τ )dτ , where A(τ ) is a square matrix of size d such that τ r+1 A(τ ) has holomorphic entries, one of which at least does not vanish τ = 0. 5.1 Local analytic Birkhoff ’s problem. Does there exist a matrix P (τ ) in GLd (O), where O is the ring of converging series at 0 (i.e., P has holomorphic entries and its determinant does not vanish at 0) such that the matrix B(τ ) = P −1 AP + P −1 P can be written as (5.2)

B(τ ) = τ −(r+1) B−(r+1) + · · · + τ −1 B−1

where B−1 , . . . , B−(r+1) are constant matrices? We then say that the matrix B takes Birkhoff’s normal form: its Laurent expansion at 0 has no coefficient with positive index. 2

Changing the name of the coordinate will enable us, in the following, to better distinguish the objects and their Fourier transforms.

160


Remarks. (1) If one only asks for the matrix B(τ ) to be a rational fraction with pole at 0 at most, that is, if one also accepts a finite number of coefficients Bk with k 0, the problem has a solution (see Corollary II.3.8). This is the result proved by Birkhoff in [Bir09] (see the proof of Birkhoff in [Sib90, §3.3]). (2) In the statement of Birkhoff’s problem, there is no hypothesis on the germ of the underlying meromorphic bundle: it may or may not have a regular singularity (if it has a regular singularity, the matrix B−(r+1) is nilpotent). It is quite easy (cf. [Gan59, vol. 2], see also [Mas59]) to give examples where the problem has no solution (unlike what Birkhoff thought having proved): when r = 0, the problem reduces to asking whether any germ of logarithmic lattice admits a basis in which the connection matrix takes the form B−1 /τ ; if the monodromy is not semisimple, there exists Levelt normal forms which are not of this kind (choose a nontrivial decreasing filtration of H which is stable by monodromy, cf. §III.1.a). (3) On the other hand, Turrittin ([Tur63], see also [Sib90, §3.10]) proved that, when the eigenvalues of A−(r+1) are pairwise distinct, there exists a matrix P ∈ GLd (O[τ −1 ]) such that B takes the form (5.2) (with the same index r, which is not evident, as P may have a pole at 0). We will also consider the problem in its algebraic form. In this case, we assume that A(τ ) has entries in the ring C[τ, τ −1 ] of Laurent polynomials. 5.3 Algebraic Birkhoff ’s problem. Let us suppose moreover that the connection with matrix Ω = A(τ )dτ has a regular singularity at infinity. Does there exist a matrix P ∈ GLd (C[τ ]) such that B(τ ) := P −1 AP + P −1 P takes the form (5.2)? Let us begin by noticing that the algebraic problem is nothing but a particular case of the local problem analytic: as a matter of fact, in the algebraic situation, assume that we have found a matrix P ∈ GLd (C{τ }) giving to the connection matrix the form (5.2). Then P is a germ at 0 of solution of the system P = P B − AP , which is algebraic and has a regular singularity at infinity. This implies that P has polynomial entries (cf. Exercise II.3.10). One can show similarly that P −1 has polynomial entries. Let us also notice that, in the local analytic problem 5.1, we can suppose that the matrix A(τ )dτ is as in Corollary 5.3: it is indeed enough to apply the base change given by Corollary II.3.8. Let us formulate the algebraic problem in an equivalent way: 5.4 Algebraic Birkhoff ’s problem (bis). Let (M , ∇) be a meromorphic bundle of rank d on P1 , with pole at 0 and ∞ only, equipped with a connection having a regular singularity at ∞ and admitting, in the neighbourhood of 0, a lattice of order r 1. Does there exist a lattice of (M , ∇) which coincides


161

with the given lattice in the neighbourhood of 0, which is logarithmic at infinity and which is isomorphic to the trivial bundle of rank d? Using Zariski topology and Proposition I.4.15, we obtain the following formulation: 5.5 Algebraic Birkhoff ’s problem (ter). Let (M, ∇) be a free C[τ, τ −1 ]module of rank d equipped with a connection having a pole at 0 and ∞ only, with a regular singularity at ∞. Let E0 ⊂ M be a free C[τ ]-module which is a lattice of order r 1. Does there exist on U∞ a lattice E∞ ⊂ M, which is logarithmic at ∞, such that we have E0 = (E0 ∩ E∞ ) ⊕ τ E0 ? Lastly, we can formulate the equivalence between the local Birkhoff’s Problem 5.1 and the algebraic Birkhoff’s Problem 5.3 or 5.5 in the proposition below, the (easy) proof of which is left to the reader. Let (M, ∇) be a (k, ∇)-vector space of rank d and let (M , ∇) be a meromorphic bundle on P1 , having a pole at 0 and ∞, with a regular singularity at ∞, whose germ (M , ∇)0 is isomorphic to (M, ∇); we know (cf. Corollary II.3.7) that such a bundle is unique up to isomorphism. Let E be a lattice of M. 5.6 Proposition (The various Birkhoff ’s problems are equivalent). (1) If e is a basis of E in which the matrix of ∇ takes the form (5.2) • the C[τ, τ −1 ]-module M := C[τ, τ −1 ]·e ⊂ M is stable by the connection ∇ and it has singularity at 0 and ∞ only, the latter being regular; • the C[τ ]-module E0 := C[τ ] · e ⊂ E is a lattice on U0 , with analytic germ E at the origin; • the C[τ −1 ]-module E∞ := C[τ −1 ] · e is a logarithmic lattice at infinity, which gives a solution to Problem 5.5 for E0 . (2) Conversely, if E0 is a lattice of M on U0 , with analytic germ E at 0 and if E∞ is a solution to Problem 5.5 for E0 , a basis of the trivial bundle defined by (E0 , E∞ ) induces a basis of E in which the connection matrix takes the form (5.2). If d = 1, there exists a solution to Problem 5.1 (cf. Remark III.2.13-(2)). On the other hand, Corollary 2.6 implies immediately: 5.7 Corollary (Solution to Birkhoff ’s problem in the irreducible case). If (M , ∇) is irreducible, or if the monodromy of (M , ∇)|C∗ is semisimple, the Problem 5.3 has a solution. 5.8 Remark (Birkhoff ’s problem with a sesquilinear form). Let (E , ∇) be a lattice which is a solution to Problem 5.4. There exists a nondegenerate bilinear (resp. sesquilinear) form of weight w ∈ Z on (E , ∇) if and only if, after conjugating by the same constant matrix C ∈ GLd (C), the matrices B−k are skewsymmetric (resp. (−1)k -symmetric) for k 2 and B−1 + tB−1 = w Id. In order that such a form exists, it is necessary that we have (M ∗ , ∇∗ ) (M , ∇) (resp. (M , ∇)).

162


5.b M. Saito’s criterion We will now give an existence criterion for Birkhoff’s problem as stated in Problem 5.5, a criterion which is due to M. Saito (in a slightly different way however; cf. [Sai89] and also [Sab06]). Let us take up the situation and the notation of §III.2.b. Let V be a Deligne lattice of the germ M of M at ∞, for instance that used in Chapter III, such that the eigenvalues of the residue of ∇ have their real part in ] − 1, 0]. Let V be the C[τ ]-submodule of M, the analytic germ of which at ∞ is equal to V . We have in an evident way V /τ V = V /τ V , a space that we will denote by H , equipped with its monodromy T . Let us consider the increasing filtration of M by the τ −k E0 = τ k E0 , for k ∈ Z. It induces an increasing filtration on H by the formula Gk = V ∩ τ k E0 /(τ V ) ∩ τ k E0 . This filtration is still exhaustive (cf. Lemma III.2.2). 5.9 Theorem. Let G associated to E0 . Then, any • be the filtration of H decomposition H = p∈Z Hp with respect to which T is lower triangular Hp ⊕ Hp+1 ⊕ · · · for any p) and compatible with the filtration (i.e., T (Hp ) ⊂ G• (i.e., Gk = pk Hp for any k) defines a canonical solution to Birkhoff ’s Problem 5.5.

It will be useful to formulate the condition in the theorem in terms of a pair of filtrations: 5.10 Lemma. There exists a decomposition as in Theorem 5.9 if and only if there exists an exhaustive decreasing filtration H • of H which is stable by the monodromy T and which is opposite to the increasing filtration G• , that is, such that H ∩ Gk = 0 for k = . +1 (H ∩ Gk ) + (H ∩ Gk−1 ) Proof. It is clear that the condition in the theorem implies the condition in the lemma, by setting H = p Hp . Conversely, if the condition in the lemma is fulfilled, we first show by decreasing induction on − k that H ∩ Gk = 0 if > k: this is clearly true for − k 0 and we then use that, for > k, we have H ∩ Gk = +1 ∩ Gk ) + (H ∩ Gk−1 ). We deduce that, if we put Hp = H p ∩ Gp , we (H have Hp ∩ Hq = 0 for p = q. Lastly, we show by increasing induction on j 0 that the intersection H k−j ∩Gk can be decomposed as a sum (which is direct, . after what precedes) Hk + · · · + Hk−j 5.11 Example. Let us assume that dim H = 2 and that T is not semisimple. There exists thus a single eigen line L for T . If a nontrivial decomposition


163

H = Hp ⊕ Hq exists, with p < q, we must have Hq = L and, consequently, Gp = L. In other words, the filtration G• defined by G−1 = 0,

G0 = L,

G1 = H

does not fulfill the condition in the theorem. On the other hand, if G0 = L, the condition of the theorem is satisfied, as in the case where T is semisimple. 5.12 Exercise. Give an explicit form to the condition of the theorem for dim H = 3. Proof (of Theorem 5.9). Let us begin with a result concerning opposite filtrations. Let V be a finite dimensional C-vector space equipped with an exhaustive decreasing filtration V • (all filtrations are indexed by Z). We denote by grV = (V /V +1 ) the graded vector space. We moreover assume that V is equipped with two filtrations F• V (exhaustive increasing) and F • V (exhaustive decreasing). They induce on grV the following filtrations . # " (F• ∩ V ) (F• ∩ V+1 ) F• grV = . • # " • • (F ∩ V ) (F ∩ V+1 ) . F grV =

Lemma. Let us suppose that F• grV and F • grV are opposite. Then F• V and F • V are so and, for any k, we have gr(Fk V ∩ F k V ) = Fk grV ∩ F k grV . Proof. We will give a “geometric” proof of this result. In order to do so, let us introduce a new variable u. The C-vector space F = k uk Fk V is naturally equipped with the structure of a C[u]-module, as F• is increasing. Similarly, F = k uk F k V is naturally equipped with the structure of a C[u−1 ]-module. Both are contained in the free C[u, u−1 ]-module C[u, u−1 ] ⊗C V . One checks (by taking a basis adapted to the corresponding filtration) that F is C[u]-free of rank dim V , and F is C[u−1 ]-free, of the same rank. Moreover, C[u, u−1 ] ⊗ F = C[u, u−1 ] ⊗ V = C[u, u−1 ] ⊗ F . C[u]

C

C[u−1 ]

These data enable us to define, by a gluing procedure, a vector bundle F (F• V , F • V ) on P1 . Exercise. The filtrations F• V and F • V are opposite if and only if the vector bundle F (F• V , F • V ) is isomorphic to the trivial bundle (of rank dim V ). The lemma can be shown by induction on the length of the filtration V • . One is reduced to the case of a filtration of length two, that is, to an exact sequence 0 −→ V 1 = gr1 V −→ V = V 0 −→ V /V 1 = gr0 V −→ 0.

164


By definition of the induced filtration on the graded pieces, one has an exact sequence of vector bundles on P1 : 0 → F (F• gr1 V , F gr1 V ) −→ F (F• V , F V ) −→ F (F• gr0 V , F gr0 V ) → 0. •

•

•

The assumption means that both extreme terms are isomorphic to trivial bundles. Using an argument analogous to that of Theorem I.2.8, the previous extension is split, hence the filtrations F• V and F • V are opposite. For any and any k, the map (∗)

. gr (Fk V ∩ F k V ) := (V ∩ Fk V ∩ F k V ) (V +1 ∩ Fk V ∩ F k V ) −→ Fk gr V ∩ F k gr V ⊂ gr V

is injective. Therefore, dim gr (Fk V ∩ F k V ) dim(Fk gr V ∩ F k gr V ).

(∗∗)

On the other hand, dim(Fk V ∩ F k V ) = dim gr(Fk V ∩ F k V ). Therefore dim(Fk V ∩ F k V ) (opposite filtrations) dim V = k

=

dim gr(Fk V ∩ F k V )

k

=

k

=

k

dim gr (Fk V ∩ F k V ) dim(Fk gr V ∩ F k gr V )

after (∗∗)

dim(Fk grV ∩ F k grV ) = dim grV

(opposite filtrations)

k

= dim V , whence the equality in (∗∗). Consequently, (∗) is also surjective.

Let us come back to the proof of Theorem 5.9. We will construct a C[τ ]module E∞ , which is a solution to Problem 5.5 for E0 . Let us consider the C[τ , τ −1 ]-module k k+1 τ V /τ Mreg := V C[τ , τ −1 ] ⊗ H . k∈Z

C

It is equipped with a natural connection induced by that of M and, if e is a basis of H , hence a C[τ , τ −1 ]-basis of Mreg , the connection matrix in this basis is nothing but ResV ∇ · dτ /τ . Let us note that Mreg has a regular singularity at ∞ and at 0. This module can be identified, as mentioned above, to the C[τ, τ −1 ]-module with connection grV M that we have yet considered


165

in II.2.22. When M does not have a regular singularity at 0, one cannot identify M with Mreg , as the latter module is regular at 0. On the other hand, if M has a regular singularity, both modules are isomorphic. The filtration H • enables us to construct a logarithmic lattice Ereg ∞ of reg M : we set k −k τ H . Ereg ∞ = k∈Z

On the other hand, the lattice E0 of M enables us to construct a lattice Ereg 0 of Mreg : we set (E0 ∩ τ k V)/(E0 ∩ τ k+1 V). Ereg 0 = k∈Z

The condition of the theorem (or, more precisely, that of the lemma) exactly reg of Mreg . means that Ereg ∞ is a solution to Problem 5.5 for the lattice E0 As M has a regular singularity at infinity, we can regard Mreg as a C[τ, τ −1 ] submodule of M (cf. Remark II.2.22). The lattice Ereg ∞ defines a . There exists then a unique lattice E∞ ⊂ M if we put E∞ = C{τ } ⊗C[τ ] Ereg ∞ lattice E∞ of M on the chart U∞ , the germ of which at ∞ is equal to E∞ . By construction, we have grV E∞ = grV E∞ = Ereg ∞ . Let us consider the filtrations Ek = τ k E0 and Ek∞ = τ k E∞ . The assumption is then that the filtrations induced on V0 /V1 are opposite. Multiplying by τ j , this implies that they induce opposite filtrations on Vj /Vj+1 for any j. It follows from the previous lemma that, for any 1, the filtrations they induce on V0 /V are opposite and that, using the notation of Lemma 5.10, −1 # " dim(Gk−j ∩ H k−j ). dim (Ek ∩ V0 + V ) ∩ (Ek∞ ∩ V0 + V ) mod V = j=0

But, as k is fixed, we have Ek ∩ V = 0 and V ⊂ Ek∞ for 0, hence the left-hand term above is nothing but Ek ∩ Ek∞ ∩ V0 and, multiplying by τ −k , we get dim(E0 ∩ E∞ ∩ V−k ) = dim(Ek ∩ Ek∞ ∩ V0 ) = dim(Gk−j ∩ H k−j ). j0

For k

0, this gives dim(E0 ∩ E∞ ) = dim(V0 /V1 ) = rk E0 .

In order to conclude, it is enough to show (cf. Proposition I.4.15) that the natural map E0 ∩ E∞ → E0 /τ E0 is injective, as it will then be bijective. Using oppositeness once more, we get, for any k, Vk ∩ τ E0 ∩ E∞ ⊂ Vk+1 ,

166


hence

Vk ∩ τ E0 ∩ E∞ ⊂ Vk+1 ∩ τ E0 ∩ E∞ .

Iterating the assertion, we deduce that, for any k, Vk ∩ τ E0 ∩ E∞ is zero, hence (taking k ! 0) τ E0 ∩ E∞ is zero, whence the desired injectivity. 5.13 Remarks. (1) One can show (see for instance [Sai89, Sab06]) that, if one fixes an order as in §III.1.c and if for any λ one can find a decomposition of Hλ as in Theorem 5.9 compatible with the filtration naturally induced by G• on Hλ , then the characteristic polynomial of B−1 for the canonical solution to Birkhoff’s problem given by Theorem 5.9 is nothing but the characteristic polynomial χ∞ E0 (s) associated to the lattice E0 as in §III.2.b. (2) Proposition III.1.6 applied to the lattice Ereg ∞ shows that, for the canonical solution to Birkhoff’s problem given by Theorem 5.9, the matrix B−1 is semisimple if and only if the unipotent part Tu of T is lower triangular with respect to the decomposition ⊕Hp , that is, (Tu − Id)(Hp ) ⊂ ⊕ ···. Hp+1 (3) Assume that we are given a nondegenerate bilinear or sesquilinear form of weight w on E0 . It amounts to giving a basis of E0 in which the matrix of ∇ takes the form 1 A−r−1 τ −r + · · · + A−1 + Al τ k dτ τ k0

where, for k = −1, Ak is skewsymmetric (resp. (−1)k -symmetric) and A−1 satisfies A−1 + tA−1 = w Id. We wish to give a condition in order to find a Birkhoff normal form with the same property. It is a matter of extending to E the nondegenerate bilinear (or sesquilinear) form defined on E0 . Let us note that this form can be extended in an evident way as a form of the same kind on the meromorphic bundle (M, ∇) and defines thus, by the Riemann-Hilbert correspondence (cf. Corollary III.1.12 and Exercise III.1.13), a nondegenerate bilinear form on H . It immediately follows from this Corollary that the form can be extended as a form of weight w on E if and only if, with respect to the bilinear form , on H , the filtration H • of Lemma 5.10 satisfies −k−w k ⊥ (H= 1 ) = H=1

and

(H1k )⊥ = H1−k−w+1 .

Indeed, these conditions are equivalent to the fact that the form on (M, ∇) induces on E∞ a nondegenerate form of weight w, whence the existence, by gluing, of the desired form on E.

V Fourier-Laplace duality

Introduction The Fourier transform exchanges functions of two real variables x, y with rapid decay at infinity as well as all their derivatives and functions of the same kind in the variables η, ξ. If we put t = x + iy and θ = ξ + iη (variable denoted by τ from §2 on), it is expressed by the formula ϕ(η, ξ) = ϕ(x, y)etθ−tθ dt ∧ dt. R2

The inverse transform is expressed by an analogous formula by using the kernel etθ−tθ . One extends these transforms, by the usual duality procedure, to temperate distributions. If the temperate distribution ϕ is a solution to a linear holomorphic differential equation with polynomial coefficients ad (t)

∂ ∂t

d ϕ + · · · + a1 (t)

∂ϕ + a0 (t)ϕ = 0 ∂t

then the distribution ϕ is itself a solution to the differential equation

d + · · · + a1 (−∂/∂θ)(θϕ) + a0 (−∂/∂θ)ϕ = 0. ad (−∂/∂θ) θ ϕ In this chapter, we will extend the algebraic aspect of this transform, as it appears in the differential equations above, to lattices of (C(t), ∇)-vector spaces. We will thus make a correspondence, under some conditions, between the solutions of Birkhoff’s problem and the solutions of the partial RiemannHilbert problem. The Fourier transform also exhibits a local variant, the microlocalization, which will be useful to analyze duality on lattices and its behaviour by Fourier transform.

168


The Fourier transform does not induce a correspondence between (C(t), ∇)-vector spaces and (C(θ), ∇)-vector spaces: as a matter of fact, torsion phenomena may occur because, in the case of temperate distributions for instance, the Fourier transform of a constant function is a distribution with punctual support. The Fourier transform naturally acts on modules over the one-variable Weyl algebra. One will find a detailed study of this transform in [Mal91]. We will only consider the properties which are useful for the study of the Fourier transform of lattices.

1 Modules over the Weyl algebra We will not give complete proofs for the following results. The reader can refer for instance to [Bj¨ o79, Bd83, Cou95, Ehl87, Kas95, Sab93, GM93, Mal91, Sch94]. 1.a The one-variable Weyl algebra This is the quotient algebra of the free algebra generated by the polynomial algebras C[t] and C[∂t ] by the relation [∂t , t] = 1. We will denote it by C[t]∂t . It is a noncommutative algebra. Its elements are the holomorphic differential operators with polynomial coefficients. Such an operator can be written in a unique way as P (t, ∂t ) = ad (t)∂td + · · · + a1 (t)∂t + a0 (t) where the ai are polynomials in t, and ad = 0. We call d the degree of the operator. The product of two such operators can be reduced to this form by using the commutation relation (1.1)

∂t a(t) = a(t)∂t + a (t).

Its degree is equal to the sum of the degrees of its factors. The symbol of an operator is the class of the operator modulo the operators of strictly lower degree. The set of symbols of differential operators, equipped with the induced operations, is identified to the algebra of polynomials of two variables with coefficients in C; it is thus a Noetherian ring. This enables one to prove that the Weyl algebra is itself left and right Noetherian. The Weyl algebra contains as subalgebras the algebras C[t] (operators of degree 0) and C[∂t ] (operators with constant coefficients). The transposition is the involution P → tP of C[t]∂t defined by the following properties: (1) t(P · Q) = tQ · tP for all P, Q ∈ C[t]∂t , (2) tP = P for any P ∈ C[t], (3) t∂t = −∂t .

1 Modules over the Weyl algebra

169

1.b Holonomic modules over the Weyl algebra There is an equivalence between C[t]∂t -modules and C[t]-modules equipped with a connection: the Leibniz rule for connections is translated to Relation (1.1) in the Weyl algebra, when acting on the left on the C[t]-module M, extending thus the natural action of C[t]. In the following, when saying “module” over the Weyl algebra, we will usually mean left module of finite type over C[t]∂t . Left to right, right to left. If Md is a right module over C[t]∂t , equip it canonically with a structure of left module Ml by setting, for any m ∈ Md , P · m := mtP. Conversely, to any left module is canonically associated a right module. Any module has thus a presentation (1.2)

·A C[t]∂t p −−−→ C[t]∂t q −→ M −→ 0,

where A is a p × q matrix with entries in C[t]∂t . The vectors are here written as line vectors, multiplication by A is done on the right and commutes thus with the left action of C[t]∂t . We will say that a module M over C[t]∂t is holonomic if any element of M is killed by some nonzero operator of C[t]∂t , i.e., satisfies a nontrivial differential equation. This equation can have degree 0: we will then say that the element is torsion. A holonomic module contains by definition no submodule isomorphic to C[t]∂t . In an exact sequence of C[t]∂t -modules 0 −→ M −→ M −→ M −→ 0 the middle term is holonomic if and only if the extreme ones are so. 1.3 Exercise (Products of operators and exact sequences of modules). (1) Prove that, in the Weyl algebra C[t]∂t , we have P Q = 0 =⇒ P = 0 or Q = 0 (consider the highest degree terms in ∂t ). (2) Show that, if Q = 0, right multiplication by Q induces an isomorphism ·Q

C[t]∂t /(P ) −→ (Q)/(P Q), ∼

if (R) denotes the left ideal C[t]∂t · R. (3) Prove that the sequence of left C[t]∂t -modules is exact: ·Q 0 −→ C[t]∂t /(P ) −−−→ C[t]∂t /(P Q) −→ C[t]∂t /(Q) −→ 0.

170


Given δ = (δ1 , . . . , δq ) ∈ Zq , let us call δ-degree of an element (P1 , . . . , Pq ) of C[t]∂t q the integer maxk=1,...,q (deg Pk − δk ). Let us call good filtration any filtration of M obtained as the image, in some presentation like (1.2), of the filtration of C[t]∂t q by the δ-degree, for some δ ∈ Zq . The graded module of M with respect to some good filtration is a module of finite type over the ring of polynomials of two variables. 1.4 Proposition. (1) A module is holonomic if and only if its graded module with respect to some (or any) good filtration has a nontrivial annihilator. (2) Any holonomic module can be generated by one element. We deduce that a holonomic module has a presentation (1.2) with q = 1. 1.5 Examples. (1) If P ∈ C is an operator in C[t]∂t , the quotient module M of C[t]∂t by the left ideal over C[t]∂t · P is a holonomic module: it has finite type, as it admits the presentation ·P 0 −→ C[t]∂t −−−→ C[t]∂t −→ M −→ 0. The graded module with respect to the filtration induced by the degree is equal to the quotient of the ring of polynomials by the ideal generated by the symbol of P ; its annihilator is nontrivial, hence the module is holonomic. (2) If δ0 denotes the Dirac distribution at 0 on C, the submodule of temperate distributions generated by δ0 is holonomic: it has finite type by definition; moreover we have tδ0 = 0, whence an isomorphism of C-vector spaces ∼

C[∂t ] −→ C[t]∂t · δ0 ; lastly, it is easy to check that t ∂tk δ0 = 0 as soon as > k. This module is thus a torsion module. It takes the form given in Example (1) by taking for P the degree 0 operator equal to t. (3) More generally, any torsion module is a direct sum of modules isomorphic to modules of the kind C[t]∂t /(t − to ) (the reader should check this). (4) Any holonomic module M can be included in a short exact sequence 0 −→ K −→ C[t]∂t /(P ) −→ M −→ 0 where K is torsion: in order to do so, we choose a generator e of M (Proposition 1.4-(2)) and we take for P an operator of minimal degree (say d) which kills e; it is a matter of seeing that the kernel of the surjective morphism C[t]∂t /(P ) → M which sends the class of 1 to e is torsion; if we work in the ring of fractions C[t, a−1 d ], in which we can invert the


171

dominant coefficient ad of P , we can use the Euclidean division algorithm1 of any operator by P , and the minimality of the degree of P shows that −1 C[t, a−1 d ]∂t /(P ) → M[ad ] is bijective; we deduce that K has support in the finite set of zeroes of ad . 1.6 Proposition (Localization preserves holonomy). Let M be a holonomic module. There exists a minimal finite set Σ = {p(t) = 0} such that the localized module2 M(∗Σ) := C[t, 1/p(t)] ⊗ M C[t]

is a free module over the ring of rational fractions in t with poles contained in Σ, i.e., M(∗Σ) defines a meromorphic bundle on P1 , with poles at Σ ∪ ∞, equipped with a connection. Moreover, for any finite set Σ , the localized module M(∗Σ ) is still holonomic. Conversely, any meromorphic bundle on P1 , equipped with a connection, is a holonomic module. The set Σ is the set of singular points of M. We will call rank of M that of the associated meromorphic bundle. Thus rk M = dimC(t) C(t) ⊗ M. C[t]

Lattices. A lattice of the module M is a C[t] submodule which generates it over C[t]∂t , that is, such that M=

∞

∂tk E.

k=0

1.7 Proposition. A lattice E of a meromorphic bundle M is also a lattice of the corresponding C[t]∂t -module. By asProof (Sketch). Let m1 , . . . , mr be generators of E as a C[t]-module. sumption, there exists a polynomial p(t) such that M = k∈−N p(t)k E. It is then enough to show that, for any m ∈ M (for instance, one of the mi ), there exists an integer j 0 such that, for all k < j, p(t)k m belongs to the C[t]∂t -module generated by the p(t)i m, with i ∈ [j, 0]. This result can be shown by using Bernstein’s relation: there exists a nonzero polynomial b(s) such that b(s)p(t)s m = Q(t, ∂t , s)p(t)s+1 m 3 . One chooses for j an integer less than the real part of any root of b. Then, for k < j, Bernstein’s relation for s = k shows that p(t)k m belongs to C[t]∂t ·p(t)k+1 m, hence, by induction, to C[t]∂t · p(t)j m. 1

2 3

Although the noncommutativity of the Weyl algebra! What is important for the Euclid algorithm is that the degree of the commutator [Q1 , Q2 ] of two operators is strictly smaller than the sum of the degrees of Q1 and Q2 . By “localized”, we mean “localized away from Σ”. This relation has to be understood as an algebraic relation, obtained by formally differentiating p(t)s+1 , and then dividing both sides by p(t)s , where s is a new variable.

172


1.c Duality If M is a left C[t]∂t -module, then HomC[t]∂t (M, C[t]∂t ) is equipped with a structure of right C[t]∂t -module (by (ϕ · P )(m) = ϕ(m)P ). More generally, the spaces ExtiC[t]∂t (M, C[t]∂t ) are right C[t]∂t -modules4 . 1.8 Proposition (Duality preserves holonomy). If M is holonomic, (1) the right modules ExtiC[t]∂t (M, C[t]∂t ) are zero for i = 1; (2) the left module DM associated to the right module Ext1C[t]∂t (M, C[t]∂t ) is holonomic; (3) we have D(DM) M. Proof. By using the long Ext exact sequence associated to the short exact sequence 1.5-(4), we are reduced to showing the proposition for M = C[t]∂t /(P ). This module has the resolution ·P 0 −→ C[t]∂t −−−→ C[t]∂t −→ M −→ 0 and, applying the functor HomC[t]∂t (•, C[t]∂t ) to this resolution, we get the exact sequence P· 0 −→ HomC[t]∂t (M, C[t]∂t ) −→ C[t]∂t −−−→ C[t]∂t −→ Ext1C[t]∂t (M, C[t]∂t ) −→ 0 in which we see that Ext1C[t]∂t (M, C[t]∂t ) = C[t]∂t /(P ) (here, (P ) denotes the right ideal generated by P ) and that all other Ext vanish. We thus have here DM = C[t]∂t /(tP ). Let M be a meromorphic bundle with poles at Σ, equipped with a connection. If p(t) is a polynomial whose roots are the σ ∈ Σ, the bundle M is a free C[t, 1/p]-module of finite rank. It is also a C[t]∂t -holonomic module (cf. Proposition 1.6). Its dual DM as a C[t]∂t -module is holonomic, but is not necessarily a meromorphic bundle. We will see that the module (DM)(∗Σ) is a meromorphic bundle with connection, i.e., Σ contains the set singular of DM. On the other hand, the dual M∗ = HomC[t,1/p] (M, C[t, 1/p]) of the meromorphic bundle M is naturally equipped with a connection (cf. 0.11.b). We will compare the meromorphic bundles with connection M∗ and (DM)(∗Σ). 1.9 Proposition (Localization is compatible with duality). We have a canonical isomorphism M∗ (DM)(∗Σ). 4

The reader can refer to [God64] for the elementary homological algebra used below.


173

Proof. Let us introduce the algebra C[t, 1/p]∂t of differential operators with coefficients in C[t, 1/p]. Then M is also a C[t, 1/p]∂t -module. By considering a resolution of M by free C[t]∂t -modules, we see that DM(∗Σ) = C[t, 1/p] ⊗ DM = Ext1C[t,1/p]∂t (M, C[t, 1/p]∂t )l . C[t]

We will now construct a free resolution of M as a C[t, 1/p]∂t -module. In order to do that, let us forget for a while the connection on the module M and let us consider it only as a free C[t, 1/p]-module. Then C[t, 1/p]∂t ⊗C[t,1/p] M is identified with C[∂t ] ⊗C M. Any element a free C[t, 1/p]∂t -module. It can be can be written in a unique way as k0 ∂tk ⊗ mk , and the (left) action of C[t, 1/p]∂t is given by the formulas ∂t (1.10) ∂tk ⊗ mk = ∂tk+1 ⊗ mk k0

(1.11)

k0

f (t)(∂tk ⊗ mk ) = ∂tk ⊗ f (t)mk +

k−1

∂t ⊗ g (t)mk ,

=0

k−1 where we have set [f (t), ∂tk ] = =0 ∂t g (t) in the Weyl algebra C[t]∂t . Let us consider the homomorphism C[t, 1/p]∂t (1.12)

⊗

C[t,1/p]

∂ ⊗ 1 − 1 ⊗ ∂t M −−−t−−−−−−−−−− → C[t, 1/p]∂t

∂tk ⊗ mk −−−−−−−−−−−−−→

k0

⊗

C[t,1/p]

M

∂tk ⊗ (mk−1 − (∂t mk )),

k0

where we now use the action of ∂t on M. Let us show that the morphism (1.12) is C[t, 1/p]∂t -linear; we will for instance check that f (t) · (∂t ⊗ 1 − 1 ⊗ ∂t )(1 ⊗ m) = (∂t ⊗ 1 − 1 ⊗ ∂t )(1 ⊗ f (t)m), letting the reader check the other properties as an exercise; we have f (t) · (∂t ⊗ 1 − 1 ⊗ ∂t )(1 ⊗ m) = ∂t ⊗ f (t)m − 1 ⊗ f (t)m − 1 ⊗ f (t)∂t m = ∂t ⊗ f (t)m − 1 ⊗ ∂t (f (t)m). Let us show the injectivity of (1.12): let k0 ∂tk ⊗mk be such that mk−1 − 0, we (∂t mk ) = 0 for any k 0 (by setting m−1 = 0); as mk = 0 for k deduce that mk = 0 for any k. We then identify the cokernel of (1.12) to M (as a C[t, 1/p]∂t -module) by the mapping ∂tk ⊗ mk −→ ∂tk mk . k0

k0

174


Let us now come back to the computation of Ext1 with this resolution. A left C[t, 1/p]∂t -linear morphism C[t, 1/p]∂t ⊗ M → C[t, 1/p]∂t is determined by its restriction to 1 ⊗ M, which must be C[t, 1/p]-linear. We deduce an identification HomC[t,1/p]∂t C[∂t ] ⊗C M, C[t, 1/p]∂t = M∗ ⊗ C[∂t ], C

where the structure of right C[t, 1/p]∂t -module on the right-hand term is given formulas analogous to (1.10) and (1.11). Therefore, applying the functor HomC[t,1/p]∂t (•, C[t, 1/p]∂t )l to the complex (1.12), we get a complex of the same kind, where we have replaced M with M∗ . Taking up the argument used for (1.12), we deduce an identification Ext1C[t,1/p]∂t (M, C[t, 1/p]∂t )l M∗ . In doing so, we also have proved that Ext1C[t,1/p]∂t (M, C[t, 1/p]∂t )l is a meromorphic bundle. 1.13 Exercise (An explicit form of the isomorphism of Proposition 1.9). We assume that M has the presentation C[t, 1/p]∂t /(P ), where P = d−1 ∂td + i=0 ai ∂ti is a differential operator with coefficients ai in C[t, 1/p] and (P ) denotes the left ideal that it generates. We denote by ek the class of ∂tk in M. Hence e0 is a C[t, 1/p]∂t -generator of M and (e0 , . . . , ed−1 ) is a C[t, 1/p]-basis of M. The matrix of the connection in this basis takes the form ⎞ ⎛ 0 0 . . . 0 −a0 ⎜1 0 . . . 0 −a1 ⎟ ⎟ ⎜ ⎜ .. .. .. .. ⎟ ⎝. . . . ⎠ 0 0 . . . 1 −ad−1 The dual module M := DM(∗Σ) is therefore isomorphic to C[t, 1/p]∂t /(tP ). The isomorphism of Proposition 1.9 amounts to the existence of a nondegenerate C[t, 1/p]-bilinear pairing S : M⊗C[t,1/p] M → C[t, 1/p] which is compatible with the connection (cf. Definition III.1.10). (1) Prove that the matrix of the connection on M∗ in the dual basis (e∗0 , . . . , e∗d−1 ) takes the form ⎛

0 ⎜0 ⎜ ⎜ .. ⎜. ⎜ ⎝0 a0

⎞ 0 ... 0 −1 0 0 ⎟ ⎟ .. ⎟ .. .. . . . ⎟ ⎟ . . . . . . 0 −1 ⎠ . . . . . . ad−2 ad−1 −1 0 .. .


175

(2) Prove that ε0 := e∗d−1 satisfies tP ε0 = 0. Conclude that the morphism M → M∗ sending the class of 1 to ε0 is an isomorphism of C[t, 1/p]∂t modules. (3) Equip M∗ with the basis (ε0 , . . . , εd−1 ) with εk = (−∂t )k ε0 . Prove that the natural pairing S : M ⊗C[t,1/p] M∗ → C[t, 1/p] is given by the following formulas: ⎧ 0 if i + j < d − 1, ⎪ ⎪ ⎪ ⎨1 if i + j = d − 1, S(ei , εj ) = 1 " # ⎪ i + j = d + k, ⎪ ⎪ ⎩− (−∂t )k ad−1 + · · · + ad−k−1 if 1 k d − 1. 1.d Regularity A differential operator with coefficients in C[t] P (t, ∂t ) = ad (t)∂td + · · · + a1 (t)∂t + a0 (t) is said to have a regular singularity at one of its singularities to (i.e., some root of ad ) if it fulfills Fuchs condition at to (cf. Theorem II.4.3) (1.14)

∀ i ∈ {1, . . . , d − 1},

i − vto (ai ) d − vto (ad ),

where vto denotes the valuation at to (i.e., the vanishing order at to ). Let us set t = 1/t and ∂t = −t2 ∂t and let P∞ (t , ∂t ) = P (t, ∂t ) be the operator with coefficients in C[t, t−1 ] = C[t , t−1 ] obtained from P by this change of variables. We will say that P has regular singularity at infinity if P∞ does so at t = 0. 1.15 Exercise (Regular singularity at infinity). (1) Prove that the operator P has a regular singularity at infinity if and only if its coefficients satisfy the inequalities deg ai − i deg ad − d for any i d (we define deg ai = −∞ if ai ≡ 0). (2) Show that the regularity condition at to (for to ∈ C or to = ∞) is stable by transposition. 1.16 Proposition. Let us fix to ∈ C ∪ {∞}, and let us set C{t − to }[(t − to )−1 ] if to ∈ C, k= if to = ∞. C{t }[t−1 ] Let M be a holonomic module and M = k ⊗C[t] M be the associated (k, ∇)vector space with connection. The following properties are equivalent: (1) any element of M is killed by some operator P ∈ C[t]∂t with regular singularity at to ,

176


(2) the (k, ∇)-vector space (M, ∇) has a regular singularity (in the sense of §II.2.a). When the conditions of the proposition are fulfilled, we say that M has a regular singularity at to . Exercise 1.15-(2) shows that this property is stable by duality.

2 Fourier transform 2.a Fourier transform of a module over the Weyl algebra The relation [∂t , t] = 1 defining the Weyl algebra can also be written as [(−t), ∂t ] = 1, so that we have an isomorphism of algebras C[t]∂t −→ C[τ ]∂τ t −→ −∂τ ∂t −→ τ denoted by P → P. Any module M over C[t]∂t becomes ipso facto a module over C[τ ]∂τ ; this is the Fourier transform of M. It is immediate we denote it then5 by M: that M is holonomic if and only if its Fourier transform is so. Similarly, if M is holonomic, the module M[∂t−1 ] := C[∂t , ∂t−1 ] ⊗C[∂t ] M −1 −1 ], a module which is holois still holonomic: we have indeed M[∂ t ] = M[τ nomic after Proposition 1.6. Moreover, the kernel and the cokernel of the natural morphism M → M[∂t−1 ] are isomorphic to modules of the kind C[t]p (with the usual action of ∂t ): as a matter of fact, the kernel and the cokernel of → M[τ −1 ] are holonomic modules with support the localization morphism M p in τ = 0, hence take the form (C[τ ]∂τ /(τ )) ; we deduce the assertion by the inverse Fourier transform. In particular, the singular points of M are also that of M[∂t−1 ].

2.1 Example. The Fourier transform of M = C[t]∂t /(P ) is C[τ ]∂τ /(P). If P = t − to (we then identify M with C[∂t ] · δto ), we have P = −(∂τ + to ) is identified to the space of entire functions C[τ ] · e−to τ . and M cf. [Mal91, Chap. V, 2.2 Proposition (Relations between M and M, §1]). Let us assume that the C[t]∂t -holonomic module M has a regular singularity at infinity. Then, 5

This notation is traditional and one should not confuse it with the—also traditional—notation that we have used for formalization.

2 Fourier transform

177

has a singularity only at τ = 0 and τ = ∞. The (1) its Fourier transform M former is regular and the latter has Poincaré rank (cf. §0.14) less than or equal to 1; (2) the kernel and the cokernel of the left action of ∂t : M → M have finite dimension and we have − rk M. dim Coker ∂t − dim Ker ∂t = rk M = rk M. In particular, if moreover M = M[∂t−1 ], we have rk M Proof. (1) We reduce, according to Proposition 1.16, to the case where M = has a regular singularity at infinity. It will be conC[t]∂t /(P ), where P venient to write P = i ∂ti ai (t) with ai ∈ C[t] and ad ≡ 0. The regular singularity condition says that deg ai deg ad − (d − i) (Exercise 1.15). Let us set ai (t) = j ai,j tj and d = deg ad . We thus have

P = ad,d ∂td td +

ai,j ∂ti tj

j 3”, arXiv: math.AG/9903124, 1999. [BBRS91] W. Balser, B.L.J. Braaksma, J.-P. Ramis & Y. Sibuya – “Multisummability of formal power series solutions of linear ordinary differential equations”, Asymptotic Anal. 5 (1991), p. 27–45. [Bd83] L. Boutet de Monvel – “D-modules holonomes réguliers en une variable”, in Séminaire E.N.S. Mathématique et Physique [BdDV83], p. 313– 321. [BdDV83] L. Boutet de Monvel, A. Douady & J.-L. Verdier (eds.) – Séminaire E.N.S. Mathématique et Physique, Progress in Math., vol. 37, Birkh¨ auser, Basel, Boston, 1983. [Bea93] A. Beauville – “Monodromie des systèmes différentiels linéaires ` a pˆ oles simples sur la sphère de Riemann (d’après A. Bolibruch)”, in Séminaire Bourbaki, Astérisque, vol. 216, Société Mathématique de France, 1993, p. 103–119. [Ber92] D. Bertrand – “Groupes algébriques et équations différentielles linéaires”, in Séminaire Bourbaki, Astérisque, vol. 206, Société Mathématique de France, 1992, p. 183–204. [BG91] C. Berenstein & R. Gay – Complex Variables, an Introduction, Graduate Texts in Math., vol. 125, Springer-Verlag, 1991. [AB94]

264

References

[Bir09] [Bir13a] [Bir13b]

[BJL79]

[Bj¨ o79] [BK98]

[Boa99] [Bol95]

[Bol98] [Bor87] [Bou98]

[BP02]

[Bri70] [Bri73]

[Bru85]

[BS76] [BV83]

[BV85]

[BV89a]

G.D. Birkhoff – “Singular points of ordinary linear differential equations”, Trans. Amer. Math. Soc. 10 (1909), p. 436–470. , “A Theorem on Matrices of Analytic Functions”, Math. Ann. 74 (1913), p. 122–133. , “The generalized Riemann problem for linear differential equations and allied problems for linear difference and q-difference equations”, Proc. Amer. Acad. Arts and Sci. 49 (1913), p. 521–568. W. Balser, W. Jurkat & D.A. Lutz – “A general theory of invariants form meromorphic differential equations; Part II, Proper invariants”, Funkcial. Ekvac. 22 (1979), p. 257–283. ¨ rk – Rings of differential operators, North Holland, AmsterJ.-E. Bjo dam, 1979. S. Barannikov & M. Kontsevitch – “Frobenius manifolds and formality of Lie algebras of polyvector fields”, Internat. Math. Res. Notices 4 (1998), p. 201–215. Ph. Boalch – “Symplectic geometry and isomonodromic deformations”, Ph.D. Thesis, Oxford University, 1999. A.A. Bolibrukh – The 21st Hilbert problem for linear Fuchsian systems, Proceedings of the Steklov Inst. of Mathematics, vol. 206, American Mathematical Society, Providence, RI, 1995. , “On isomonodromic confluences of Fuchsian singularities”, Tr. Math. Inst. Steklova 221 (1998), p. 127–142. A. Borel (ed.) – Algebraic D-modules, Perspectives in Math., vol. 2, Boston, Academic Press, 1987. N. Bourbaki – Commutative algebra. Chapters 1–7, Elements of Mathematics (Berlin), Springer-Verlag, Berlin, 1989, 1998, (French edition: 1964). J. Bertin & C. Peters – “Variations of Hodge Structures, CalabiYau Manifolds and Mirror Symmetry”, in Introduction to Hodge theory, SMF/AMS Texts and Monographs, vol. 8, American Mathematical Society, Providence, RI, 2002, (French edition: 1996). E. Brieskorn – “Die Monodromie der isolierten Singularit¨ aten von Hyperfl¨ achen”, Manuscripta Math. 2 (1970), p. 103–161. , “Sur les groupes de tresses (d’après Arnold)”, in Séminaire Bourbaki, Lect. Notes in Math., vol. 317, Springer-Verlag, 1973, exposé 401. `res – “Filtration de Harder-Narasmhan et stratification de A. Bruguie Shatz”, in Modules des fibrés stables sur les courbes algébriques [LPV85], p. 81–105. ˘nica ˘ & O. Sta ˘ na ˘¸sila ˘ – Algebraic methods in the global theory of C. Ba complex spaces, Editura Academiei, Bucharest, 1976. D.G. Babbitt & V.S. Varadarajan – “Formal reduction of meromorphic differential equations: a group theoretic view”, Pacific J. Math. 109 (1983), p. 1–80. , Deformation of nilpotent matrices over rings and reduction of analytic families of meromorphic differential equations, Mem. Amer. Math. Soc., vol. 55, no. 325, American Mathematical Society, Providence, RI, 1985. , Local moduli for meromorphic differential equations, Astérisque, vol. 169-170, Société Mathématique de France, Paris, 1989.

References [BV89b]

[Car95]

[Con99] [Cor99] [Cou95] [CR62]

[CZ99]

[Dek79]

[Del70] [Dim92] [Dou05]

[DS03]

[DS04]

[Dub96]

[Ehl87] [Ehr47] [Ehr51]

[EV86]

265

, “Some remarks on the asymptotic existence theorem for meromorphic differential equations”, J. Fac. Sci. Univ. Tokyo Sect. IA Math. 36 (1989), p. 247–262. H. Cartan – Elementary theory of analytic functions of one or several complex variables, Dover Publications Inc., New York, 1995, (French edition: 1961). R. Conte (ed.) – The Painlevé Property One Century Later, CRM Series in Mathematical Physics, Springer-Verlag, 1999. E. Corel – “Exposants, réseaux de Levelt et relations de Fuchs pour les systèmes différentiels réguliers”, Thèse, Université de Strasbourg, 1999. S.C. Coutinho – A primer of algebraic D-modules, London Mathematical Society Student Texts, Cambridge University Press, 1995. C.W. Curtis & I. Reiner – Representation theory of finite groups and associative algebras, Pure and Applied Mathematics, vol. XI, Interscience Publishers, a division of John Wiley & Sons, New York-London, 1962. H.-D. Cao & J. Zhou – “Frobenius manifold structure on Dolbeault cohomology and mirror symmetry”, Comm. Anal. Geom. 8 (1999), no. 4, p. 795–808. W. Dekkers – “The matrix of a connection having regular singularities ´ diff´ erentielles et on a vector bundle of rank 2 on P1 (C)”, in Equations systèmes de Pfaff dans le champ complexe, Lect. Notes in Math., vol. 712, Springer-Verlag, 1979, p. 33–43. ´ P. Deligne – Equations diff´ erentielles ` a points singuliers r´ eguliers, Lect. Notes in Math., vol. 163, Springer-Verlag, 1970. A. Dimca – Singularities and topology of hypersurfaces, Universitext, Springer-Verlag, Berlin, New York, 1992. A. Douai – “Construction de variétés de Frobenius via les polynˆ omes ´ Cartan, de Laurent: une autre approche”, in Singularités, Rev. Inst. Elie vol. 18, Univ. Nancy, Nancy, 2005, p. 105–123. A. Douai & C. Sabbah – “Gauss-Manin systems, Brieskorn lattices and Frobenius structures (I)”, Ann. Inst. Fourier (Grenoble) 53 (2003), no. 4, p. 1055–1116. , “Gauss-Manin systems, Brieskorn lattices and Frobenius structures (II)”, in Frobenius manifolds (Quantum cohomology and singularities) (C. Hertling & M. Marcolli, eds.), Aspects of Mathematics, vol. E 36, Vieweg, 2004, arXiv: math.AG/0211353, p. 1–18. B. Dubrovin – “Geometry of 2D topological field theory”, in Integrable systems and quantum groups (M. Francaviglia & S. Greco, eds.), Lect. Notes in Math., vol. 1260, Springer-Verlag, 1996, p. 120–348. F. Ehlers – “Chap. V: The Weyl Algebra”, in Algebraic D-modules [Bor87], p. 173–205. C. Ehresmann – “Sur les espaces fibrés différentiables”, C. R. Acad. Sci. Paris S´ er. I Math. 224 (1947), p. 1611–1612. , “Les connexions infinitésimales dans un espace fibré différentiable”, in Colloque de topologie – espaces fibr´ es (Bruxelles, 1950), Georges Thone, Liège, 1951, p. 29–55. H. Esnault & E. Viehweg – “Logarithmic de Rham complexes and vanishing theorems”, Invent. Math. 86 (1986), p. 161–194.

266

References

[EV99]

[Fis76] [Fre57] [FS82]

[Fuc07]

[Gan59] [GH78] [GHL87] [Giv98]

[GKZ94]

[GL76]

[GM93]

[God64] [God71] [GR65] [GR97]

[Gra84] [Gro57]

, “Semistable bundles on curves and irreducible representations of the fundamental group”, in Algebraic geometry: Hirzebruch 70 (P. Pragacz, M. Szurek & J. Wi´sniewski, eds.), Contemp. Math., vol. 241, American Mathematical Society, 1999. G. Fischer – Complex analytic geometry, Lect. Notes in Math., vol. 538, Springer-Verlag, 1976. J. Frenkel – “Cohomologie non abélienne et espaces fibrés”, Bull. Soc. Math. France 85 (1957), p. 135–220. ¨ F. Frobenius & L. Stickelberger – “Uber die Differentation der elliptischen Funktionen nach den Perioden und Invarianten”, J. reine angew. Math. 92 (1882), p. 311–327, & Complete Works, Springer-Verlag, 1968, p. 64–80. ¨ R. Fuchs – “Uber lineare homogene Differentalgleichungen zweiter Ordnung mit drei im Endlichen gelegenen wesentlich singul¨ are Stellen”, Math. Ann. 63 (1907), p. 301–321. F.R. Gantmacher – The theory of matrices. Vols 1, 2, Chelsea Publishing Co., New York, 1959, (Russian edition: 1942). P.A. Griffiths & J. Harris – Principles of Algebraic Geometry, A. Wiley-Interscience, New York, 1978. S. Gallot, D. Hulin & J. Lafontaine – Riemannian Geometry, Universitext, Springer-Verlag, Berlin, Heidelberg, 1987. A. Givental – “Elliptic Gromov-Witten invariants and the generalized mirror conjecture”, in Integrable systems and algebraic geometry (Kobe/Kyoto, 1997), World Sci. Publishing, River Edge, NJ, 1998, p. 107–155. I.M. Gelfand, M.M. Kapranov & A.V. Zelevinsky – Discriminants, Resultants and Multidimensional Determinants, Birkh¨ auser, Basel, Boston, 1994. ´rard & A.H.M. Levelt – “Sur les connexions ` R. Ge a singularités régulières dans le cas de plusieurs variables”, Funkcial. Ekvac. 19 (1976), p. 149–173. M. Granger & Ph. Maisonobe – “A basic course on differential mod´ ements de la théorie des systèmes différentiels [MS93], p. 103– ules”, in El´ 168. R. Godement – Topologie algébrique et théorie des faisceaux, Hermann, Paris, 1964. ´ C. Godbillon – Elements de topologie algébrique, collection Méthodes, Hermann, Paris, 1971. R.C. Gunning & H. Rossi – Analytic functions of several complex variables, Prentice-Hall Inc., Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1965. B. Grammaticos & A. Ramani – “Integrability — and how to detect it”, in Integrability of nonlinear systems (Pondicherry, 1996) (Y. Kosmann-Schwarzbach, B. Grammaticos & K. Tamizhmani, eds.), Lect. Notes in Physics, vol. 495, Springer-Verlag, 1997, p. 30–94. A. Gramain – Topology of surfaces, BCS Associates, Moscow, ID, 1984, (French edition: 1971). A. Grothendieck – “Sur la classification des fibrés holomorphes sur la sphère de Riemann”, Amer. J. Math. 79 (1957), p. 121–238.

References [GS95]

267

C. Gantz & B. Steer – “Gauge fixing for logarithmic connections over curves and the Riemann-Hilbert problem”, arXiv: math.AG/9504016, 1995. [Har80] R. Hartshorne – Algebraic geometry, Graduate Texts in Math., vol. 52, Springer-Verlag, 1980. [Har94] J. Harnad – “Dual isomonodromic deformations and moment map to loop algebra”, Commun. Math. Phys. 166 (1994), p. 337–365. [Her02] C. Hertling – Frobenius manifolds and moduli spaces for singularities, Cambridge Tracts in Mathematics, vol. 151, Cambridge University Press, 2002. [HH81] G. Hector & U. Hirsch – Introduction to the Geometry of Foliations, part A, Aspects of Mathematics, Vieweg, 1981. [Hit97] N.J. Hitchin – “Frobenius manifolds (notes by D. Calderbank)”, in Gauge Theory and Symplectic Geometry (Montréal, 1995) (J. Hurtubise & F. Lalonde, eds.), NATO ASI Series, Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1997, p. 69–112. , “Riemann surfaces and integrable systems”, in Integrable Sys[Hit99] tems – Twistor, Loop Groups and Riemann Surfaces (N.J. Hitchin, G.B. Segal & R.S. Ward, eds.), Oxford Graduate Texts in Mathematics, Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1999, p. 1–52. [HM99] C. Hertling & Yu.I. Manin – “Weak Frobenius manifolds”, Internat. Math. Res. Notices (1999), p. 277–286. ¨ rmander – An introduction to complex analysis in several vari[H¨ or73] L. Ho ables, North-Holland, Amsterdam, 1973, 2nd edition. [IKSY91] K. Iwasaki, H. Kimura, S. Shimomura & M. Yoshida – From Gauss to Painlevé: a modern theory of special functions, Aspects of Mathematics, vol. 16, Vieweg, Berlin, 1991. [IN86] A. Its & V. Novokshenov – The Isomonodromic Deformation Method in the Theory of Painlevé Equations, Lect. Notes in Math., vol. 1191, Springer-Verlag, 1986. [JM81] M. Jimbo & T. Miwa – “Monodromy preserving deformations of linear ordinary differential equations with rational coefficients II”, Physica 2D (1981), p. 407–448. [JMMS80] M. Jimbo, T. Miwa, Y. Mori & M. Sato – “Density matrix of an impenetrable Bose gas and the fifth Painlevé transcendent”, Physica 1D (1980), p. 80–158. [JMU81] M. Jimbo, T. Miwa & K. Ueno – “Monodromy preserving deformations of linear ordinary differential equations with rational coefficients I”, Physica 2D (1981), p. 306–352. [JT80] A. Jaffe & C. Taubes – Vortices and monopoles, Birkh¨ auser, Boston, 1980. [Kas95] M. Kashiwara – Algebraic study of systems of partial differential equations, Mémoires, vol. 63, Société Mathématique de France, Paris, 1995, English translation of the Master thesis, Tokyo, 1970. [Kir76] A.A. Kirillov – Elements of the theory of representations, Grundlehren der mathematischen Wissenschaften, vol. 220, Springer-Verlag, Berlin, 1976, (Russian edition: 1972). [Kod86] K. Kodaira – Complex Manifolds and Deformations of Complex Structures, Grundlehren der mathematischen Wissenschaften, vol. 283, Springer-Verlag, 1986.

268

References

[Kos90]

[KS90] [Lan65] [Lev61] [Lev75] [Lit40] [LPV85]

[LR94]

[LR95] [LRP97]

[LT97]

[Mal40]

[Mal74] [Mal79] [Mal83a] [Mal83b] [Mal83c] [Mal86] [Mal91] [Mal94] [Mal96]

V.P. Kostov – “On the stratification and singularities of the Stokes hypersurface of one- and two-parameter families of polynomials”, in Theory of singularities and its applications (V.I. Arnold, ed.), Advances in Soviet Mathematics, vol. 1, American Mathematical Society, Providence, RI, 1990, p. 251–271. M. Kashiwara & P. Schapira – Sheaves on Manifolds, Grundlehren der mathematischen Wissenschaften, vol. 292, Springer-Verlag, 1990. S. Lang – Algebra, Addison-Wesley, Reading, MA, 1965. A.H.M. Levelt – “Hypergeometric functions”, Nederl. Akad. Wetensch. Proc. Ser. A 64 (1961), p. 361–403. , “Jordan decomposition for a class of singular differential operators”, Arkiv f¨ or Math. 13 (1975), p. 1–27. D.E. Littlewood – The Theory of Group Characters and Matrix Representations of Groups, Oxford University Press, New York, 1940. J. Le Potier & J.-L. Verdier (eds.) – Modules des fibrés stables sur les courbes algébriques, Progress in Math., vol. 54, Birkh¨ auser, Basel, Boston, 1985. M. Loday-Richaud – “Stokes phenomenon, multisummability and differential Galois groups”, Ann. Inst. Fourier (Grenoble) 44 (1994), p. 849–906. , “Solutions formelles des systèmes différentiels linéaires méromorphes et sommation”, Expo. Math. 13 (1995), p. 116–162. M. Loday-Richaud & G. Pourcin – “Théorèmes d’indice pour les opérateurs différentiels linéaires ordinaires”, Ann. Inst. Fourier (Grenoble) 47 (1997), p. 1379–1424. ´baut – Théorie des fonctions holomorphes de C. Laurent-Thie ´ plusieurs variables complexes, Savoirs Actuels, CNRS Editions & EDP Sciences, Paris, 1997. J. Malmquist – “Sur l’étude analytique des solutions d’un système d’équations différentielles dans le voisinage d’un point singulier d’indétermination I, II, III”, Acta Math. 73 (1940), p. 87–129 & 74 (1941) 1–64 & 109–128. B. Malgrange – “Sur les points singuliers des équations différentielles”, Enseign. Math. 20 (1974), p. 147–176. , “Sur la réduction formelle des équations différentielles ` a singularités irrégulières”, Prépublication Institut Fourier, Grenoble, 1979. , “Déformations de systèmes différentiels et microdifférentiels”, in Séminaire E.N.S. Mathématique et Physique [BdDV83], p. 351–379. , “La classification des connexions irrégulières ` a une variable”, in Séminaire E.N.S. Mathématique et Physique [BdDV83], p. 381–399. , “Sur les déformations isomonodromiques, I, II”, in Séminaire E.N.S. Mathématique et Physique [BdDV83], p. 401–438. , “Deformations of differential systems, II”, J. Ramanujan Math. Soc. 1 (1986), p. 3–15. ´ , Equations diff´ erentielles ` a coefficients polynomiaux, Progress in Math., vol. 96, Birkh¨ auser, Basel, Boston, 1991. , “Connexions méromorphes”, in Congrès Singularités (Lille, 1991), Cambridge University Press, 1994, p. 251–261. , “Connexions méromorphes, II: le réseau canonique”, Invent. Math. 124 (1996), p. 367–387.

References

269

[Man99a] Yu.I. Manin – Frobenius manifolds, quantum cohomology and moduli spaces, Colloquium Publ., vol. 47, American Mathematical Society, 1999. , “Three constructions of Frobenius manifolds: a comparative [Man99b] study”, Asian J. Math. 3 (1999), p. 179–220. [Mas59] P. Masani – “On a result of G.D. Birkhoff on linear differential equations”, Proc. Amer. Math. Soc. 10 (1959), p. 696–698. [Mas67] W.H. Massey – Algebraic topology, an introduction, Graduate Texts in Math., vol. 56, Springer-Verlag, 1967. [Mat80] H. Matsumura – Commutative algebra, Benjamin/Cummings, Reading, MA, 1980, 2nd edition. [Miw81] T. Miwa – “Painlevé property of monodromy preserving deformation equations and the analyticity of the τ function”, Publ. RIMS, Kyoto Univ. 17 (1981), p. 703–721. [ML71] S. Mac Lane – Categories for the Working Mathematician, Graduate Texts in Math., vol. 5, Springer-Verlag, 1971. [MM97] Yu.I. Manin & S.A. Merkulov – “Semisimple Frobenius (super) manifolds and quantum cohomology of Pr ”, Topol. Methods Nonlinear Anal. 9 (1997), p. 107–161. [MR92] B. Malgrange & J.-P. Ramis – “Fonctions multisommables”, Ann. Inst. Fourier (Grenoble) 42 (1992), p. 353–368. [MS93] Ph. Maisonobe & C. Sabbah (eds.) – D-modules cohérents et holonomes, Les cours du CIMPA, Travaux en cours, vol. 45, Paris, Hermann, 1993. [Oda87] T. Oda – “K. Saito’s period map for holomorphic functions with isolated singularities”, in Algebraic Geometry (Sendai, 1985), Advanced Studies in Pure Math., vol. 10, North-Holland, Amsterdam, 1987, p. 591–648. [OSS80] C. Okonek, M. Schneider & H. Spindler – Vector bundles on complex projective spaces, Progress in Math., vol. 3, Birkh¨ auser, Basel, Boston, 1980. ´ [Per95] D. Perrin – Géométrie algébrique, Savoirs Actuels, CNRS Editions & EDP Sciences, Paris, 1995. [Ple08] J. Plemelj – Problems in the sense of Riemann and Klein, Interscience, New York, 1908. [PS86] A. Pressley & G. Segal – Loop groups, Oxford mathematical monographs, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1986. [Ram94] J.-P. Ramis – Séries divergentes et théories asymptotiques, Panoramas & Synthèses, vol. 0, Société Mathématique de France, Paris, 1994. [Rey89] E. Reyssat – Quelques aspects des surfaces de Riemann, Progress in Math., vol. 77, Birkh¨ auser, Basel, Boston, 1989. [Rob80] Ph. Robba – “Lemmes de Hensel pour les opérateurs différentiels, application ` a la réduction formelle des équations différentielles”, Enseign. Math. 26 (1980), p. 279–311. [Sab93] C. Sabbah – “Introduction to algebraic theory of linear systems of dif´ ements de la théorie des systèmes différentiels ferential equations”, in El´ [MS93], & math.polytechnique.fr/~sabbah/, p. 1–80. , “Frobenius manifolds: isomonodromic deformations and in[Sab98] finitesimal period mappings”, Expo. Math. 16 (1998), p. 1–58. , “Hypergeometric periods for a tame polynomial”, Portugal. [Sab06] Math. 63 (2006), no. 2, p. 173–226, arXiv: math.AG/9805077.

270

References

[Sai80]

[Sai83a]

[Sai83b] [Sai89] [Sai91] [Sch12]

[Sch85]

[Sch94]

[Ser55] [Ser56] [Sib62]

[Sib74]

[Sib90]

[Sim90] [Sim92] [Ste51] [SvdP03]

[SYS80]

[Tei77]

K. Saito – “Theory of logarithmic differential forms and logarithmic vector fields”, J. Fac. Sci. Univ. Tokyo Sect. IA Math. 27 (1980), p. 265– 291. (k) , “The higher residue pairings KF for a family of hypersurfaces singular points”, in Singularities, Proc. of Symposia in Pure Math., vol. 40, American Mathematical Society, 1983, p. 441–463. , “Period mapping associated to a primitive form”, Publ. RIMS, Kyoto Univ. 19 (1983), p. 1231–1264. M. Saito – “On the structure of Brieskorn lattices”, Ann. Inst. Fourier (Grenoble) 39 (1989), p. 27–72. , “Period mapping via Brieskorn modules”, Bull. Soc. Math. France 119 (1991), p. 141–171. ¨ L. Schlesinger – “Uber eine Klasse von Differentialsystemen beliebiger Ordnung mit festen kritischen Punkten”, J. reine angew. Math. 141 (1912), p. 96–145. P. Schapira – Microdifferential systems in the complex domain, Grundlehren der mathematischen Wissenschaften, vol. 269, SpringerVerlag, 1985. J.-P. Schneiders – “A coherence criterion for Fréchet Modules”, in Index theorem for elliptic pairs, Astérisque, vol. 224, Société Mathématique de France, 1994, p. 99–113. J.-P. Serre – “Faisceaux algébriques cohérents”, Ann. of Math. 61 (1955), p. 197–278. , “Géométrie algébrique et géométrie analytique”, Ann. Inst. Fourier (Grenoble) 6 (1956), p. 1–42. Y. Sibuya – “Asymptotic solutions of a system of linear ordinary differential equations containing a parameter”, Funkcial. Ekvac. 4 (1962), p. 83–113. , Uniform simplification in a full neighborhood of a transition point, Mem. Amer. Math. Soc., vol. 149, American Mathematical Society, Providence, RI, 1974. , Linear Differential Equations in the Complex Domain: Problems of Analytic Continuation, Translations of Mathematical Monographs, vol. 82, American Math. Society, Providence, RI, 1990, (Japanese edition: 1976). C. Simpson – “Harmonic bundles on noncompact curves”, J. Amer. Math. Soc. 3 (1990), p. 713–770. , “Higgs bundles and local systems”, Publ. Math. Inst. Hautes ´ Etudes Sci. 75 (1992), p. 5–95. N. Steenrod – The topology of fibre bundles, Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ, 1951. M. Singer & M. van der Put – Galois Theory of Linear Differential Equations, Grundlehren der mathematischen Wissenschaften, vol. 328, Springer-Verlag, 2003. K. Saito, T. Yano & J. Sekiguchi – “On a certain generator system of the rings of invariants of a finite reflection group”, Comm. Algebra 8 (1980), p. 373–408. B. Teissier – “The hunting of invariants in the geometry of discriminants”, in Real and Complex Singularities (Oslo, 1976) (P. Holm, ed.), Sijthoff and Noordhoff, Alphen aan den Rijn, 1977, p. 565–678.

References [Tre83] [Tur55]

[Tur63] [Var82] [Var83]

[Var91] [Var96] [vdP98]

[Voi99]

[Was65] [Wol64]

271

A. Treibich Kohn – “Un résultat de Plemelj”, in Séminaire E.N.S. Mathématique et Physique [BdDV83], p. 307–312. H. Turrittin – “Convergent solutions of ordinary differential equations in the neighbourhood of an irregular singular point”, Acta Math. 93 (1955), p. 27–66. , “Reduction of ordinary differential equations to the Birkhoff canonical form”, Trans. Amer. Math. Soc. 107 (1963), p. 485–507. A.N. Varchenko – “Asymptotic Hodge structure on the cohomology of the Milnor fiber”, Math. USSR Izv. 18 (1982), p. 469–512. , “On semicontinuity of the spectrum and an upper bound for the number of singular points of projective hypersurfaces”, Soviet Math. Dokl. 27 (1983), p. 735–739. V.S. Varadarajan – “Meromorphic differential equations”, Expo. Math. 9 (1991), p. 97–188. , “Linear meromorphic differential equations: a modern point of view”, Bull. Amer. Math. Soc. 33 (1996), p. 1–42. M. van der Put – “Recent work on differential Galois theory”, in Séminaire Bourbaki, Astérisque, vol. 252, Société Mathématique de France, 1998, p. 341–367. C. Voisin – Mirror Symmetry, SMF/AMS Texts and Monographs, vol. 1, American Mathematical Society, Providence, RI, 1999, (French edition: 1996). W. Wasow – Asymptotic expansions for ordinary differential equations, Interscience, New York, 1965. J.A. Wolf – “Differentiable fibre spaces and mappings compatible with Riemannian metrics”, Michigan Math. J. 11 (1964), p. 65–70.

Index of Notation

(Fourier-Laplace), 176 (involution), 128 [ , ] (Lie bracket), 37 (product), 41 Ad , 243, 258 ad, 29 AD×X , 107 An , 25 an (analytization), 26 AS 1 ×X , 108 AS<X 1 ×X , 108 Aut<X , 110 B0 , B∞ , 201 C k (U, F ), 14 C[t] ∂t , 168 χE (s), 129, 130 χ∞ E (s), 136 Der OZ , 26 δ(E) (defect), 75 d (differential), 20, 21 ∇, 27 ∇M/X , 54 , 47 ω , 237 E ∇ , 33 E (k), 68 E (Euler field), 43 exp 2iπ · , 16 ω E, 239 e (unit field), 42 Eϕ , 102 F a E , 72 Φ (Higgs field), 35

, 48 F f ∗ E, 6 f ∗F , 9 f −1 F , 9 GLd (OM ), 5 H 1 (M, G ), 11 H 1 (U, G ), 11 H k (M, F ), 15 H k (U, F ), 15 HomOM (F , G ), 8 H omOM (F , G ), 9 ιξ , 27 LΦ , 42 Lξ , 37 L(E, E ), 6 M μ (microlocalization), 184 μ(E ), 72 N α,d , 87 OD×X , 96 OM , 4 OM (∗Z), 17 OM (kZ), 17 OM (k1 Z1 + · · · + kp Zp ), 18 1 , 19 ΩM 1 log Z , 23 ΩM k , 21 ΩM k (∗Z), 21 ΩM k log Z , 24 ΩM OP1 (−1), 63 OP1 (k), 64 P1 , 4 Pn , 3 π1 , 51

274

Index of Notation

R0 , 200 R∞ , 206 res, 22 R∇ , 32 “res”, 24 Res ∇, 93 σ (section of C → C/Z), 93 StX , 110 T M , 19

T ∗ M , 19 T f , 20 T ∗f , 20 T∇ , 39 Θ (divisor), 78 ΘM , 19 V, σ V, 95 V, σ V, 93 d , 199 Xd , X

Index

affine algebraic set, 25 manifold, 25 structure, 40, 223 algebra Frobenius –, 44 Jacobian –, 245 Weyl –, 168 algebraic set affine –, 25 algebraization, 95, 99 analytic extension, 35, 52, 112 function, 2 analytization, 26 bifurcation set, 244 Birkhoff, see Birkhoff’s normal form, Birkhoff’s problem, Birkhoff-Grothendieck theorem Bolibrukh, see Bolibrukh-Kostov theorem bundle algebraic –, 71, 75 associated to a divisor, 65 canonical OP1 (1) –, 64 cotangent –, 19 determinant –, 78 Higgs –, 35 meromorphic –, 18, 73 rational –, 75 semistable –, 72, 153 tangent –, 19, 37 tautological OP1 (−1) –, 63

vector –, 5 category, 57 Cauchy, see Cauchy-Riemann equations, Cauchy-Kowalevski theorem characteristic polynomial of a lattice, 130, 136, 188 of a logarithmic lattice, 129 of the monodromy, 102 chart, 3 étale –, 4, 39 linear –, 5 Chern class, 16, 62 coboundary, 10, 15 cochain, 10 cocycle, 6, 10 codimension, 3 cohomology ˇ Cech –, 14 nonabelian –, 10 quantum –, 223, 254 condition cocycle –, 6 Darboux-Egorov –, 250 Frobenius –, 38 Fuchs –, 101, 175 connection flat –, 32, 45, 224, 237 holomorphic –, 27 integrable –, 32, 45 Levi-Civita –, 41 meromorphic –, 44, 45 relative –, 54 torsion free –, 39, 224

276

Index

coordinates canonical –, 42, 228, 246 flat –, 39, 225, 231, 236, 248 covering, 3 criterion irregularity –, 100 M. Saito’s –, 162 microdifferential –, 188 critical value, 245 curvature, 32 decomposition formal –, 104, 142, 186 formal and good –, 105 sectorial –, 109 with respect to eigenvalues, 106 defect of a bundle, 75 of a lattice, 153 deformation complete integrable –, 199 integrable –, 53, 192, 200, 223 isomonodromic –, 53 universal integrable –, 199, 208 degree of a bundle, 72 of an operator, 168 Deligne, see Deligne-Malgrange functor, Deligne lattice derivation, 19, 27 derivative covariant –, 27, 226 Lie –, 37, 226 differential form holomorphic –, 19 logarithmic –, 22 on P1 , 67 dimension, 3, 26 Krull –, 26 discriminant, 229, 244 divisor, 65 nontriviality –, 78 free –, 229 duality, 126, 131, 137, 172, 179 Dubrovin, see Dubrovin’s theorem Ehresmann, see Ehresmann’s theorem elementary model irregular –, 103 regular –, 87

equations associativity –, 223, 235, 236 Cauchy-Riemann –, 1 Painlevé –, 191, 198 Picard-Fuchs –, 255 Schlesinger –, 193, 195, 219 structure –, 32 WDVV –, 223 equivalence of categories, 58 étale cover, 49 Euler field, 239, 246 exponent, 131 family isomonodromic –, 55 of holomorphic bundles, 76 fibre, 6 field Euler –, 224, 239, 246 Higgs –, 35, 200 unit –, 42, 224, 225 filtration, 122, 124, 136 good –, 170 Harder-Narasimhan –, 72 Zariskian –, 185 flat connection, 32, 45, 224 coordinates, 39, 225, 231, 236, 248 function, 41 metric, 247 relative connection, 55 flatness faithful –, 26 of a module over a ring, 26 foliation, 38, 195 form bilinear –, 127, 138 Hermitian –, 204 sesquilinear –, 129, 138, 161, 179, 204 Fourier transform, 176, 219, 255 Frobenius, see Frobenius algebra, Frobenius condition, Frobenius structure, Frobenius theorem, Frobenius manifold Fuchs (L.), see Fuchs condition full subcategory, 50, 51 function analytic –, 2 flat –, 41

Index holomorphic –, 1, 3, 26 meromorphic –, 17 regular –, 25 functor, 58 Deligne-Malgrange –, 122, 126, 128 essentially surjective –, 58 fully faithful –, 58 quasi-inverse –, 58 fundamental group, 51, 83 good filtration, 170 good model, 104, 111 goodness, 104 Grothendieck, see Birkhoff-Grothendieck theorem Harder-Narasimhan polygon, 77 Higgs field, 35, 200 symmetric –, 41, 224 Hilbert, see Riemann-Hilbert correspondence, Riemann-Hilbert problem Hodge theory, 256 holomorphic connection, 27 differential form, 19 differential operator, 168 foliation, 38 function, 1, 3, 26 section, 33 vector field, 19 holonomic module, 169 homogeneity of a Frobenius structure, 233 of a section, 237 of the potential, 236 horizontal section, 33 hyperelliptic curve, 27 hypersurface, 3 infinitesimal period mapping, 237 integrability of a connection, 32, 45 of a deformation, 53 of a foliation, 38 of a Frobenius structure, 233 of a Higgs field, 35 of a relative connection, 55 irreducible algebraic set, 25

277

bundle with connection, 152, 158 isomonodromic deformation, 53 family, 53, 55 Kostov, see Bolibrukh-Kostov theorem Kowalevski, see Cauchy-Kowalevski theorem lattice, 18, 86, 133, 171, 179 Brieskorn –, 255, 258 Deligne –, 93, 97, 135 logarithmic –, 45, 93, 125, 147 of arbitrarily large order, 101 of order r, 45 quasitrivial –, 152 Laurent expansion, 62, 67 matrix –, 70 leaf, 38 Leibniz rule, 19, 27 lemma holomorphic Poincaré –, 21 isotopy –, 54 Malgrange’s –, 134 Poincaré –, 61 Leray, see Leray’s theorem Levelt, see Levelt normal form Lie bracket, 37 localization (of a module), 171 long exact sequence, 15 Malgrange, see Deligne-Malgrange functor, Malgrange’s lemma, Malgrange-Sibuya theorem manifold affine –, 25 complex analytic –, 3 Frobenius –, 43 Lagrangian –, 43, 228 nonsingular affine –, 27 Stokes –, 114 mapping infinitesimal period –, 237, 240 Kodaira-Spencer –, 245, 255 matrix of a connection, 28 regular –, 203 Stokes –, 110, 114 meromorphic bundle, 18

278

Index

connection, 44, 45 function, 17 metric, 40, 203, 213, 230 flat –, 247 microlocalization, 183 moderate growth, 88 monodromy representation, 45 natural transformation, 58 normal crossing, 24 normal form Birkhoff’s –, 159 Levelt –, 92 open elementary – set, 25 covering, 2 operator formal microdifferential –, 183 holomorphic differential –, 168 intertwinning –, 51 order of a lattice, 45, 101 of a meromorphic form, 23 Painlevé, see Painlevé equations, Painlevé’s property Painlevé’s property, 80, 193, 198 Plemelj, see Plemelj’s theorem Poincaré, see (holomorphic) Poincaré lemma, Poincaré rank Poincaré rank, 45 potential of a Frobenius structure, 223, 235, 251 of the metric, 232 problem Birkhoff’s –, 159–161, 182, 200, 208 partial Riemann’s –, 84, 182 Riemann’s –, 84 Riemann-Hilbert –, 146, 147, 155, 182, 192 product defined by a Higgs field, 41 interior –, 27, 37 on the tangent bundle, 41, 237 tensor –, 138 pullback of a holomorphic bundle with connection, 30

of a meromorphic bundle with connection, 46 of a sheaf of O-modules, 9 of a vector bundle, 6 refinement, 11 regular function, 25 matrix, 203 singularity, 45 representation linear –, 50 monodromy –, 45, 52, 101 residue of a logarithmic connection, 47 of a logarithmic form, 22 of a meromorphic connection, 149 of a meromorphic form, 24, 149 “residue” of a meromorphic connection, 48, 139, 200 of a meromorphic form, 24 resolution Dolbeault –, 61 restriction of a bundle meromorphic with connection, 46 of a holomorphic bundle with connection, 30 “restriction” of a logarithmic connection, 47 Riemann, see Riemann-Hilbert correspondence, Cauchy-Riemann equations, Riemann’s problem, partial Riemann’s problem, Riemann-Hilbert problem, Riemann sphere, Riemann surface Riemann sphere, 17, 61 Riemann surface, 4, 77, 83 Riemann-Hilbert correspondence, 84, 97, 109 rigidity, 80, 132 Saito (K.), see Saito structure Saito (M.), see M. Saito’s criterion Schlesinger, see Schlesinger equations section holomorphic –, 33 homogeneous –, 237 horizontal –, 33, 101, 114

Index primitive –, 237, 256 sheaf A , 107 constant –, 5 H om, 9 locally constant –, 33, 49, 110 locally free –, 7 of derivations, 26 of holomorphic differential forms, 19 of logarithmic differential forms, 22 of regular functions, 25 of vector fields, 19 Stokes –, 110 structure –, 4 Sibuya, see Malgrange-Sibuya theorem singularity apparent –, 152 irregular –, 100, 102, 133 regular –, 45, 86, 100, 175 slope of a bundle, 72 spectrum of a critical point, 256 Stokes, see Stokes direction, Stokes sheaf, Stokes matrix, Stokes structure, Stokes manifold Stokes direction, 114 structure formal Frobenius –, 254 affine –, 40, 223 Frobenius –, 223, 233, 234, 240, 242, 243, 249, 258 Saito –, 223, 224, 230, 234, 240, 242, 243, 249, 258 Stokes –, 110 submanifold complex analytic –, 3 integral –, 38 subset complex analytic –, 3 symbol, 168 symmetry mirror –, 224, 254 of a Higgs field, 41

279

of the characteristic polynomial, 131, 138, 188 system Gauss-Manin –, 255, 258, 260 Hamiltonian –, 218 local –, 49 theorem Birkhoff-Grothendieck –, 70 Bolibrukh-Kostov –, 152 Cauchy-Kowalevski –, 33, 55 Dubrovin’s –, 243 Ehresmann’s –, 54 finiteness –, 68 formal decomposition –, 104 Frobenius –, 38 Hukuhara-Turrittin –, 109 Leray’s –, 15 Malgrange-Sibuya –, 117 Plemelj’s –, 152 vanishing –, 66 theory Hodge –, 256 Thom, see isotopy lemma torsion of a connection, 39 of a module, 169 trace, 258 transposition, 168 Turrittin, see formal and good decomposition type of a bundle, 70, 74 unit field, 42, 224, 225 universal unfolding, 243, 254 vector field holomorphic –, 19 logarithmic –, 229 on P1 , 67 weight of a bilinear form, 128 Zariski topology, 25

Universitext Aguilar, M.; Gitler, S.; Prieto, C.: Algebraic Topology from a Homotopical Viewpoint Aksoy, A.; Khamsi, M. A.: Methods in Fixed Point Theory Alevras, D.; Padberg M. W.: Linear Optimization and Extensions Andersson, M.: Topics in Complex Analysis Aoki, M.: State Space Modeling of Time Series Arnold, V. I.: Lectures on Partial Differential Equations Arnold, V. I.; Cooke, R.: Ordinary Differential Equations Audin, M.: Geometry Aupetit, B.: A Primer on Spectral Theory Bachem, A.; Kern, W.: Linear Programming Duality Bachmann, G.; Narici, L.; Beckenstein, E.: Fourier and Wavelet Analysis Badescu, L.: Algebraic Surfaces Balakrishnan, R.; Ranganathan, K.: A Textbook of Graph Theory Balser, W.: Formal Power Series and Linear Systems of Meromorphic Ordinary Differential Equations Bapat, R. B.: Linear Algebra and Linear Models Benedetti, R.; Petronio, C.: Lectures on Hyperbolic Geometry Benth, F. E.: Option Theory with Stochastic Analysis Berberian, S. K.: Fundamentals of Real Analysis Berger, M.: Geometry I, and II Bhattacharya, R.; Waymire, E. C.: A Basic Course in Probability Theory Bliedtner, J.; Hansen, W.: Potential Theory Blowey, J. F.; Coleman, J. P.; Craig, A. W. (Eds.): Theory and Numerics of Differential Equations Blowey, J. F.; Craig, A.; Shardlow, T. (Eds.): Frontiers in Numerical Analysis, Durham 2002, and Durham 2004

Blyth, T. S.: Lattices and Ordered Algebraic Structures Börger, E.; Grädel, E.; Gurevich, Y.: The Classical Decision Problem Böttcher, A; Silbermann, B.: Introduction to Large Truncated Toeplitz Matrices Boltyanski, V.; Martini, H.; Soltan, P. S.: Excursions into Combinatorial Geometry Boltyanskii, V. G.; Efremovich, V. A.: Intuitive Combinatorial Topology Bonnans, J. F.; Gilbert, J. C.; Lemarchal, C.; Sagastizbal, C. A.: Numerical Optimization Booss, B.; Bleecker, D. D.: Topology and Analysis Borkar, V. S.: Probability Theory Bridges/Vita: Techniques of Constructive Analysis Brunt B. van: The Calculus of Variations Bühlmann, H.; Gisler, A.: A Course in Credibility Theory and its Applications Carleson, L.; Gamelin, T. W.: Complex Dynamics Cecil, T. E.: Lie Sphere Geometry: With Applications of Submanifolds Chae, S. B.: Lebesgue Integration Chandrasekharan, K.: Classical Fourier Transform Charlap, L. S.: Bieberbach Groups and Flat Manifolds Chern, S.: Complex Manifolds without Potential Theory Chorin, A. J.; Marsden, J. E.: Mathematical Introduction to Fluid Mechanics Cohn, H.: A Classical Invitation to Algebraic Numbers and Class Fields Curtis, M. L.: Abstract Linear Algebra Curtis, M. L.: Matrix Groups Cyganowski, S.; Kloeden, P.; Ombach, J.: From Elementary Probability to Stochastic Differential Equations with MAPLE Da Prato, G.: An Introduction to Infinite Dimensional Analysis Dalen, D. van: Logic and Structure Das, A.: The Special Theory of Relativity: A Mathematical Exposition

Debarre, O.: Higher-Dimensional Algebraic Geometry Deitmar, A.: A First Course in Harmonic Analysis. 2 nd edition Demazure, M.: Bifurcations and Catastrophes Devlin, K. J.: Fundamentals of Contemporary Set Theory DiBenedetto, E.: Degenerate Parabolic Equations Diener, F.; Diener, M.(Eds.): Nonstandard Analysis in Practice Dimca, A.: Sheaves in Topology Dimca, A.: Singularities and Topology of Hypersurfaces DoCarmo, M. P.: Differential Forms and Applications Duistermaat, J. J.; Kolk, J. A. C.: Lie Groups Dumortier.: Qualitative Theory of Planar Differential Systems Dundas, B. I.; Levine, M.; Østvaer, P. A.; Röndip, O.; Voevodsky, V.: Motivic Homotopy Theory Edwards, R. E.: A Formal Background to Higher Mathematics Ia, and Ib Edwards, R. E.: A Formal Background to Higher Mathematics IIa, and IIb Emery, M.: Stochastic Calculus in Manifolds Emmanouil, I.: Idempotent Matrices over Complex Group Algebras Endler, O.: Valuation Theory Engel, K.-J.; Nagel, R.: A Short Course on Operator Semigroups Erez, B.: Galois Modules in Arithmetic Everest, G.; Ward, T.: Heights of Polynomials and Entropy in Algebraic Dynamics Farenick, D. R.: Algebras of Linear Transformations Foulds, L. R.: Graph Theory Applications Franke, J.; Hrdle, W.; Hafner, C. M.: Statistics of Financial Markets: An Introduction Frauenthal, J. C.: Mathematical Modeling in Epidemiology Freitag, E.; Busam, R.: Complex Analysis

Friedman, R.: Algebraic Surfaces and Holomorphic Vector Bundles Fuks, D. B.; Rokhlin, V. A.: Beginner’s Course in Topology Fuhrmann, P. A.: A Polynomial Approach to Linear Algebra Gallot, S.; Hulin, D.; Lafontaine, J.: Riemannian Geometry Gardiner, C. F.: A First Course in Group Theory G˚arding, L.; Tambour, T.: Algebra for Computer Science Godbillon, C.: Dynamical Systems on Surfaces Godement, R.: Analysis I, and II Goldblatt, R.: Orthogonality and Spacetime Geometry Gouvêa, F. Q.: p-Adic Numbers Gross, M. et al.: Calabi-Yau Manifolds and Related Geometries Grossman, C.; Roos, H.-G.; Stynes, M.: Numerical Treatment of Partial Differential Equations Gustafson, K. E.; Rao, D. K. M.: Numerical Range. The Field of Values of Linear Operators and Matrices Gustafson, S. J.; Sigal, I. M.: Mathematical Concepts of Quantum Mechanics Hahn, A. J.: Quadratic Algebras, Clifford Algebras, and Arithmetic Witt Groups Hájek, P.; Havránek, T.: Mechanizing Hypothesis Formation Heinonen, J.: Lectures on Analysis on Metric Spaces Hlawka, E.; Schoißengeier, J.; Taschner, R.: Geometric and Analytic Number Theory Holmgren, R. A.: A First Course in Discrete Dynamical Systems Howe, R., Tan, E. Ch.: Non-Abelian Harmonic Analysis Howes, N. R.: Modern Analysis and Topology Hsieh, P.-F.; Sibuya, Y. (Eds.): Basic Theory of Ordinary Differential Equations Humi, M., Miller, W.: Second Course in Ordinary Differential Equations for Scientists and Engineers

Hurwitz, A.; Kritikos, N.: Lectures on Number Theory Huybrechts, D.: Complex Geometry: An Introduction Isaev, A.: Introduction to Mathematical Methods in Bioinformatics Istas, J.: Mathematical Modeling for the Life Sciences Iversen, B.: Cohomology of Sheaves Jacod, J.; Protter, P.: Probability Essentials Jennings, G. A.: Modern Geometry with Applications Jones, A.; Morris, S. A.; Pearson, K. R.: Abstract Algebra and Famous Inpossibilities Jost, J.: Compact Riemann Surfaces Jost, J.: Dynamical Systems. Examples of Complex Behaviour Jost, J.: Postmodern Analysis Jost, J.: Riemannian Geometry and Geometric Analysis Kac, V.; Cheung, P.: Quantum Calculus Kannan, R.; Krueger, C. K.: Analysis on the Real Line

Advanced

Kelly, P.; Matthews, G.: The Non-Euclidean Hyperbolic Plane Kempf, G.: Complex Abelian Varieties and Theta Functions Kitchens, B. P.: Symbolic Dynamics Klerke, A.: Probability Theory: A Comprehensive Course Kloeden, P.; Ombach, J.; Cyganowski, S.: From Elementary Probability to Stochastic Differential Equations with MAPLE Kloeden, P. E.; Platen; E.; Schurz, H.: Numerical Solution of SDE Through Computer Experiments Koralov, L. B.; Sinai, Ya. G.: Theory of Probability and Random Processes. 2 nd edition Kostrikin, A. I.: Introduction to Algebra Krasnoselskii, M. A.; Pokrovskii, A. V.: Systems with Hysteresis Kuo, H.-H.: Introduction to Stochastic Integration Kurzweil, H.; Stellmacher, B.: The Theory of Finite Groups. An Introduction

Kyprianou, A.E.: Introductory Lectures on Fluctuations of Lévy Processes with Applications Lang, S.: Introduction to Differentiable Manifolds Lefebvre, M.: Applied Stochastic Processes Lorenz, F.: Algebra I: Fields and Galois Theory Luecking, D. H., Rubel, L. A.: Complex Analysis. A Functional Analysis Approach Ma, Zhi-Ming; Roeckner, M.: Introduction to the Theory of (non-symmetric) Dirichlet Forms Mac Lane, S.; Moerdijk, I.: Sheaves in Geometry and Logic Marcus, D. A.: Number Fields Martinez, A.: An Introduction to Semiclassical and Microlocal Analysis Matouˇsek, J.: Using the Borsuk-Ulam Theorem Matsuki, K.: Introduction to the Mori Program Mazzola, G.; Milmeister G.; Weissman J.: Comprehensive Mathematics for Computer Scientists 1 Mazzola, G.; Milmeister G.; Weissman J.: Comprehensive Mathematics for Computer Scientists 2 Mc Carthy, P. J.: Introduction to Arithmetical Functions McCrimmon, K.: A Taste of Jordan Algebras Meyer, R. M.: Essential Mathematics for Applied Field Meyer-Nieberg, P.: Banach Lattices Mikosch, T.: Non-Life Insurance Mathematics Mines, R.; Richman, F.; Ruitenburg, W.: A Course in Constructive Algebra Moise, E. E.: Introductory Problem Courses in Analysis and Topology Montesinos-Amilibia, J. M.: Classical Tessellations and Three Manifolds Morris, P.: Introduction to Game Theory Mortveit, H.; Reidys, C.: An Introduction to Sequential Dynamical Systems Nicolaescu, L.: An Invitation to Morse Theory Nikulin, V. V.; Shafarevich, I. R.: Geometries and Groups

Oden, J. J.; Reddy, J. N.: Variational Methods in Theoretical Mechanics Øksendal, B.: Stochastic Differential Equations Øksendal, B.; Sulem, A.: Applied Stochastic Control of Jump Diffusions. 2 nd edition Orlik, P.; Welker, V.: Algebraic Combinatorics Perrin, D.: Algebraic Geometry: An Introduction Poizat, B.: A Course in Model Theory Polster, B.: A Geometrical Picture Book Porter, J. R.; Woods, R. G.: Extensions and Absolutes of Hausdorff Spaces Procesi, C.: Lie Groups Radjavi, H.; Rosenthal, P.: Simultaneous Triangularization Ramsay, A.; Richtmeyer, R. D.: Introduction to Hyperbolic Geometry Rautenberg, W.: A concise Introduction to Mathematical Logic Rees, E. G.: Notes on Geometry Reisel, R. B.: Elementary Theory of Metric Spaces Rey, W. J. J.: Introduction to Robust and Quasi-Robust Statistical Methods Ribenboim, P.: Classical Theory of Algebraic Numbers Rickart, C. E.: Natural Function Algebras Rotman, J. J.: Galois Theory Rubel, L. A.: Entire and Meromorphic Functions Ruiz-Tolosa, J. R.; Castillo E.: From Vectors to Tensors Runde, V.: A Taste of Topology Rybakowski, K. P.: The Homotopy Index and Partial Differential Equations Sabbah, C.: Isomonodromic Deformations and Frobenius Manifolds: An Introduction Sagan, H.: Space-Filling Curves Samelson, H.: Notes on Lie Algebras Sauvigny, F.: Partial Differential Equations I Sauvigny, F.: Partial Differential Equations II Schiff, J. L.: Normal Families

Schirotzek, W.: Nonsmooth Analysis Sengupta, J. K.: Optimal Decisions under Uncertainty ´ Seroul, R.: Programming for Mathematicians Seydel, R.: Tools for Computational Finance Shafarevich, I. R.: Discourses on Algebra Shapiro, J. H.: Composition Operators and Classical Function Theory Simonnet, M.: Measures and Probabilities Smith, K. E.; Kahanpäa¨, L.; Kekäläinen, P.; Traves, W.: An Invitation to Algebraic Geometry Smith, K. T.: Power Series from a Computational Point of View Smorynski: Self-Reference and Modal Logic Smoryński, C.: Logical Number Theory I. An Introduction Srivastava: A Course on Mathematical Logic Stichtenoth, H.: Algebraic Function Fields and Codes Stillwell, J.: Geometry of Surfaces Stroock, D. W.: An Introduction to the Theory of Large Deviations Sunder, V. S.: An Invitation to von Neumann Algebras ´ Tamme, G.: Introduction to Etale Cohomology Tondeur, P.: Foliations on Riemannian Manifolds Toth, G.: Finite Mbius Groups, Minimal Immersions of Spheres, and Moduli Tu, L. W.: An Introduction to Manifolds Verhulst, F.: Nonlinear Differential Equations and Dynamical Systems Weintraub, S. H.: Galois Theory Wong, M. W.: Weyl Transforms Xambó-Descamps, S.: Block Error-Correcting Codes Zaanen, A.C.: Continuity, Integration and Fourier Theory Zhang, F.: Matrix Theory Zong, C.: Sphere Packings Zong, C.: Strange Phenomena in Convex and Discrete Geometry Zorich, V. A.: Mathematical Analysis I Zorich, V. A.: Mathematical Analysis II

Isomonodromic Deformations and Frobenius Manifolds: An Introduction

Isomonodromic deformations and Frobenius manifolds: An introduction

Isomonodromic Deformations and Frobenius Manifolds: An Introduction