Introduction to Education

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Introduction to EDUCATION for South African teachers

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Introduction to EDUCATION for South African teachers AN ORIENTATION TO TEACHING PRACTICE

E M LEMMER D C BADENHORST

Juta & Co Ltd

First published 1997

© Juta & Co, Ltd PO Box 14373, Kenwyn 7790

This book is copyright under the Berne Convention. In terms of the copyright Act 98 of 1978, no part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording or by any information storage and retrieval system, without the written permission of the publisher.

ISBN 0 7021 3819 3

Subediting: Carola Meyer, Cape Town Book design and typesetting: AN £tp Services, Cape Town Artwork: Colin Daniel; Carol Nelson; Inspiration Sandwich, all of Cape Town Index: Sandie Vahl, Cape Town Cover design: Joy Wrench, Cape Town Printed by Creda Press, Eliot Avenue, Eppindust 2

Table of Contente Abbreviations 1 Teachers and Teaching

ix 1

Dr Thobeka V Mda, University of South Africa (Critical reader: Prof A H MacLarty, Medunsa)

2 A Historical Overview of South African Education Prof Andrew van Zyl, University of South Africa

45

(Critical reader: Prof) S Maphalala, University ofZululand)

3 Philosophical Foundations in Education and their Significance for Teachers

95

Dr Karin Franzsen, University of South Africa (Critical reader: Mr M A Ngoepe, University of the North)

4 Schools in Transition

137

Prof Trudie Steyn, University of South Africa (Critical reader: Dr S M Sebakwane, University of the Witwatersrand)

5 Cultural Diversity and Schooling

187

Dr Eulalie van Heerden, University of South Africa (Critical reader: Dr I Goduka, University of Michigan, USA)

6 Human Development and Learning Dr Nicky Kruger, University of South Africa

215

(Critical reader: Prof T S Mwamwenda, University of the Transkei)

7 Curriculum Perspectives and Issues

257

Prof Waldemar Sohnge, University of South Africa, and Prof R I M Moletsane, University of Lesotho

v

INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATION FOR SOUTH AFRICAN TEACHERS

8 Teaching

279

Prof Louis J van Niekerk, University of South Africa (Critical reader: Ms A J Gwynne-Evans, University of London)

9 School Management

327

Prof Dirk Badenhorst, University of South Africa (Critical reader: Prof C Mampuru, Vista University)

10 Education Finance

353

Prof Chris Claassen, University of South Africa (Critical reader: Mr M S Mothata, University of South Africa)

11 Education and the Law

381

Dr Joan Squelch, University of South Africa (Critical reader: Prof I Oosthuizen, Potchefstroomse Universiteit vir Christelike Hoer Onderwys)

12 Education in International Context

421

Prof Eleanor Lemmer, University of South Africa (Critical reader: Mr] Makete, Rhodes University)

Index

vi

451

/MtnetMtoM* ABET ANC ch COTEP DE DET DNE ECD ETQAs FDE FEC GEC HDE HED HEDCOM HET HSRC INSET NAPTOSA NCHE NEPI NGO NP NQF NSBs PRESET PTC QCs SADTU SAIRR SAQA SGBs STD Std UNISA

Adult Basic Education and Training African National Congress chapter (in legislation) Committee on Teacher Education Policy Department of Education Department of Education and Training Department of National Education Early Childhood Development Education and Training Quality Authorities Further Diploma in Education Further Education Certificate General Education Certificate Higher Diploma in Education Higher Education Diploma Heads of Education Departments Committee Higher Education and Training Human Sciences Research Council In-service Education for Teachers National Professional Teachers Organization of South Africa National Commission on Higher Education National Educational Policy Investigation Non-Governmental Organization Nationalist Party National Qualifications Framework National Standards Bodies Preservice Education for Teachers Primary Teachers Certificate Qualification Councils South African Democratic Teachers' Union South African Institute of Race Relations South African Qualifications Authority Standards-Generating Bodies Secondary Teacher's Diploma standard University of South Africa

vii


CHAPTER

ONE

7eac6en& tutd, *?eaefa»t$> Dr Thobeka V Mda University of South Africa

This chapter looks at the teacher as a professional. The perceptions of the public, the teacher, and the other professions about teaching determine the concept of the teacher as professional. In South Africa, in particular, the very low entry requirements for student teachers, the perception of teaching as an easy route to higher education for those with limited career options, and the past inequities in provision between the various race groups are some of the factors that have hurt teaching as a profession. The section on why people choose to teach challenges the theories about choice as regards teaching. This chapter takes us through the world of how they are prepared, who thegj ^^Mby many remain teachers and why others |fve, where the teaching jobs, the actities in which teachers inoleve, then^l|^î|||iyhat and how much remtneration thi|l|pi||g|eachers. information fromthe recent policy documents affecting teaching and education is also presented. BecauseBecause South AfrScWII^^^Îîir stage, because of high expectations from the new government, and because of the pressure from ghjhasfquarters to introduce change, the |itation of proposed reforms sometimes moves very fast for the practitioners. s||achers:


TEACHERS AND TEACHING

7*^

Raise voluntary contributions. Purchase textbooks and equipment. Pay light and water accounts. Determine school budget priorities.

Maintenance * Maintain school buildings. Communication & Report to parents and the school community. Community services * Provide local services for children and youth. * Participate in community social, health, recreational, and nutritional programmes.

If you compare the responsibilities of governing bodies in the public schools with those in Model C schools, what similarities are there?

8.2 The independent schools category The policy of the Ministry of Education is that schools previously known as private schools will be known as independent schools (DE, 1996a). Independent schools should be registered legally with the provincial department and comply with the conditions of registration laid down by the province. Home schools are a specific case of independent schools. Home schooling may be a reasonable option in various cases. The Department of Education is examining the relevant laws of other countries to determine the most suitable framework for the recognition of home schooling (DE, 1996a).

8.3 Schedule of events At the time of writing, three linked processes were awaiting the approval of Education White Paper 2 by Cabinet: the Ministry's school finance policy, the draft South African Schools Bill, and the Ministry's negotiating position (DE,T996a). The Ministry of Education intended to tabfe the South African Schools Bill in Parliament during the 1996 session. Since the processes are linked, this sets the pace. The Ministry of Education intended to seek the Cabinet's approval of all three documents before March 1996 or as soon as possible thereafter. The publication of the three documents

171


in early April 1996 would set in motion the process of formal negotiations on school governance, as contemplated in section 247 of the Constitution.

9 School Ownership The issue of school ownership is the most complex of the legacies of the previous education system (DE, 1996a).

9.1 Model C schools It is the policy of the Ministry of Education to ensure that the property which was transferred in the past from the state to the legal personae of these schools is transferred back to the state (DE, 1996a). This will amount to expropriation and will need to be undertaken in terms of the law governing expropriation. The question of property which may have been donated or bequeathed to former Model C schools or received in trust by them subject to specific conditions will need to be considered on a case by case basis (DE, 1996a).

9.2 Farm schools A review committee advised that the farm school system had outlived its usefulness. The high dropout rate, the critically limited provision at secondary school level and the lack of resources in the system to implement an appropriate curriculum cannot meet the demands for an internationally competitive agricultural production (DE, 1996a). Provision of education in rural areps must be integrated and rationalized at district level in order to optimize resources. The committee was of the opinion that the land and assets of farm schools should be transferred to the state in order to guarantee control, access, and their use for educational purposes. Although the Ministry of Education agrees with the committee's proposal, the owners of the land on which the schools have been erected should retain ownership for the time being. The acquisition of farm schools must be negotiated, and provision was to be made for these matters in the South African Schools Bill (DE, 1996c).

9.3 Community schools The review committee found community schools to be a very complex matter (DE, 1996a). The land and assets were already in public hands. The Ministry was advised that it would be necessary to expropriate the land on which community schools were conducted (DE, 1996a). The South African Schools Bill would order that control over community schools be vested in the provincial education department, that access to schools by interested parties may not be reasonably denied, and that no such schools may be closed without the approval of

172

SCHOOLS IN TRANSITION

the provincial department of education. These matters would also be included in the agenda for negotiation.

In the light of the proposed changes to the school system discussed earlier, how do you think the communities/owners of the above-mentioned schools will react?

10 Ofie* Jletvwwy a*td *DtitA*tce Sdutdtfat (JS1 <wt'%g7 %**uU) The reconstruction and development of the education and training system in line with lifelong learning requires a transformation in the delivery of education and training (ANC, 1 995). To meet these requirements it is necessary to reorganize the delivery of education and training within an open-learning framework. Open learning is an approach to education and training which seeks to remove barriers to learning, thus increasing access to, and allowing people to benefit from, learning opportunities throughout their life (ANC, 1995). Open learning focuses on the learner and on the outcomes of learning. Learning takes place in many contexts, at a number of sites, by a variety of mechanisms, and is available to all people of all ages. Open learning strives to recognize and accredit types of learning other than formal learning.

Do you foresee difficulties in determining the learning outcomes and the level of education in contexts outside formal educational institutions?

Distance education has significance for open-learning approaches because it has shown great potential for opening learning opportunities (ANC, 1995). Distance education is a structured learning process where learner and teacher are separated by time and space. It is designed to provide a learning environment using a variety of media, tutorial support, peer group discussion, and practical sessions. Although distance education is a cost-effective method of providing education when used in mass educational programmes, it is not a cheap and easy alternative to conventional education (ANC, 1995). A number of criteria should be met for distance education to be effective: well-designed courses, learner support, efficient administrative processes, and appropriate organizational structures and evaluation procedures

173


To facilitate the development of an open-learning approach to education and training, including distance education, a National Open Learning Agency (NOLA) will be established as a statutory body (ANC, 1995). The functions of NOLA will be * to facilitate the development of educational programmes based on the principles of open learning; * to facilitate the development and establishment of the institutional infrastructure necessary for the successful implementation of distance education and training programmes; * to facilitate and coordinate the development of learning material and courses; * to ensure that open learning and distance education and training institutions operate within the NQF; * to advocate the principles of open learning.

// (fanteduwVe^^ The proposed structure of the NQF has necessitated an overhaul of the learning programmes in the nation's schools and colleges (DE,1995a), and forty-one national curriculum committees have been created to address this need. These committees include representatives of the national and provincial departments of education, as well as the other roleplayers, and are coordinated by a representative Coordinating Committee for the School Curriculum.

11.1 Outcomes-based curricula The identification and definition of knowledge areas is an important element of curriculum development, including outcomes-based curriculum development (Curriculum Framework, 1 995). It is important to note that until recently curricula (the term used in the past to describe learning programmes, including the br0ad, core, and subject curricula) were content-based (DE, 1996b). The shift to an outcomes-based education and training system makes good sense in terms of mobility from one learning context to another, integrating education and training, opening access to learning, and recognizing prior learning. In outcomes-based education and training, the focus is on what learners know and can do at the end of a course of learning and teaching (Curriculum Framework, 1 995). Outcomes-based curriculum development processes have as their point of departure the intended results (outputs) of learning and teaching rather than the selection of prescribed input (knowledge areas/content). Jt does not mean that learning outcomes should replace knowledge areas, but that the definition of learning outcomes should be the first step in the curriculum development process (Curriculum Framework, 1 995). It is with this in mind that the Curriculum Framework includes a number of areas of learning appropriate to the South African context. The term areas of learning, rather

174


than subjects or field, is chosen because of the tentative boundaries of each of the knowledge areas. The following areas of learning are proposed for the general and further education and training bands (Curriculum Framework, 1995): * Communication, literacy, and languages; * Numeracy and mathematics; * Human and social studies; * Physical and natural sciences; * Physical education and health; * Culture, arts, and artistic crafts; * Technology education and training; * Occupational learning/Learning for life; * Economic science; * Spiritual development.

11.2 Designing a curriculum Curriculum design is informed by a number of principles (Curriculum Framework, 1995): * Human resource development: It is the role of education and training to prepare learners with a strong foundation of general education and with a desire to continue to learn, to apply, and to develop knowledge. & Learner-centredness: Curriculum development should put learners first by recognizing their skills, experiences, and abilities and responding to their individual needs. * Relevance: Learning programmes should be relevant to meet both the current and anticipated needs of the person and the country. * Integration: An integrated approach to education and training removes the rigid division between academic and applied knowledge. * Differentiation, redress, and learner support: The learning programme should create opportunities for all learners, including those with disabilities and those who were disadvantaged by the previous dispensation. Provision should be made for learners with special needs or other disabilities in mainstream education. * Nation building and non-discrimination: Education and training promote the development of national unity and national identity. The curriculum should also protect human rights. * Critical and creative thinking: The learning programmes should enhance learners' ability to think critically and creatively. * Flexibility: Learning programmes should provide an increasing range of learning possibilities by offering learners choices of what, where, when, how, and at what pace they want to learn.

175


* Progression: It should be possible for learners to move ahead on the basis of achieving particular learning outcomes and not as determined by age or fellow participants in a course. * Credibility: Education and training must have standards comparable to those in the rest of the world. This means that learning programmes should have both internal and international credibility. * Quality assurance: The South African Qualifications Authority (SAQA), through criteria it applies in the appointment of national standards bodies and accredited educational and training authorities and in determining registered unit standards and qualifications, will assure the quality of education and training. In some sectors and countries which have used this approach, the emphasis on outcomes-based learning has raised concern because of its narrow, prescriptive, and behaviouristic nature.

What is your view on the outcomes-based approach of the NQF?

12 t(j6u S<wte ScJaolb *ne WMC SUeetive tAa* Otfant School effectiveness leaders argue that schools make a difference and that they do so for reasons that can be traced back to alterable organizational characteristics of the school (Richards, 1991). In other words, the variation in student performance outcomes is attributable to organizational variables and not to differences in student ability, family background, or social class. Certain characteristics of effective schools have evolved through the years of research. In other words, certain given characteristics have been identified as being conducive to teaching and learning (Stoll, 1991). These given characteristics, however, only contribute to effectiveness and do not by themselves assure it. The personal characteristics of the principal and teachers are vital. Three areas and twelve key characteristics of effective schools can be identified. These are depicted in figure 4.5 and discussed in the paragraphs below (Stoll, 1991; Brookover, Beamer, Efthim, Douglas, Lezotte, Miller, Passalacqua & Tornatzky, 1 982; Lockheed & Levin, 1 993; Bliss, 1991).

12.1 A common mission The school's mission reflects the shared vision of teachers, parents and students, and may be defined as a view of a realistic, credible future which is better in some important ways than what exists now.

176


Clear goals Shared values and beliefs

Instructional leadership

Frequent monitoring of student behaviour

High expectations

A common mission

Emphasis

A cllmate

«*'* "'

Cohducation to

Upwlî ;

Student involvement

Physical environment

ii/iH^^Mn/K Recognition and rewards

Teacher development and collegiality Instructional and curriculum focus

Parent and community involvement

Positive student behaviour

Figure 4.5 The characteristics of effective schools (Stoll, 1991)

12.1.1 Clear goals School goals, the first priority of which is for all students to attain mastery of identified learning objectives, are clearly stated. Clearly stated and agreed goals provide purpose and a sense of direction. They also enhance planning and implementation.

177


12.1.2 Instructional leadership With so many important decisions being made at the school level, principals have a crucial role in school effectiveness. Principals of effective schools are actively involved in student achievement, monitoring, curriculum planning, staff development, and all instructional issues. Furthermore, strong leadership is positively related to staff morale, teachers' professional performance, and student learning. 12.13 Shared values and beliefs Effective schools are characterized by a culture of cooperation and collaboration in which all stakeholders within the school share a commitment to work together to develop the school's learning climate.

12.2 Emphasis on learning Learning is the primary purpose of schools and is demonstrated in various ways in effective schools, as outlined below. 12.2.1 Frequent monitoring of student behaviour Regular and systematic monitoring of students' progress helps to determine the strengths and weaknesses in teaching and learning. This is achieved by means of a variety of formal and informal assessments. 12.2.2 High expectations of students Principals and teachers in effective schools believe in the potential of their students. They set high but attainable standards. 12.23 Teacher development and collegiality In effective schools, teachers are typically decision makers and play important roles in shaping the school. Students benefit academically when teachers share ideas on teaching methods, cooperate in activities, and assist one another in their professional growth. In effective schools the emphasis is on enabling teachers as well as students to learn. 12.2.4 Focus on instruction and curriculum Intellectually challenging teaching is characterized by an appropriate curriculum, planning, problem solving, enough time allowed for engaging in academic tasks, frequently monitored homework, maximum communication, and the use of a variety of instructional skills and strategies.

178


12.3 A climate conducive to learning If students are treated in ways that emphasize their success and positive potential, they behave better and achieve more than when teachers focus on their failings and shortcomings. In a positive school climate students see themselves as able, valuable and responsible, and are treated accordingly. 12.3.1 Student involvement In effective schools many students hold positions of responsibility. They are also encouraged to take responsibility for their own learning. Through involvement they learn to organize, to plan, to participate in decision making and discussion, and to acquire leadership skills. 12.3.2 Physical environment Schools as places for learning and teaching need to be perceived as safe and orderly by both students and teachers (Lezotte, 1992). The physical environment should convey a message of care, comfort and safety. For teachers, the first test of school leadership is the creation of a disciplinary climate that is conducive to teaching and learning. 12.3.3 Recognition and rewards All forms of praise, appreciation and incentives have a positive impact on students. Effective schools create multiple opportunities for recognition. Schools that make a point of publicly honouring academic achievement and stressing its importance encourage students to perform well. 12.3.4 Positive student behaviour In more effective schools less emphasis is placed on punishment and behaviour management. Both teachers and students are involved in problem solving, which focuses on causes rather than symptoms. 12.3.5 Parent and community involvement A few studies find parental involvement and support to be a major factor in student achievement (Purkey & Smith, 1983). In more effective schools there is regular communication between the school and the home as to how parents can support their children's performance as well as the school's goals. Parents and community members have to be supportive of the vision, mission, goals and procedures of the school if the school is to be effective. The chances of successful student performance and staff effectiveness will probably diminish if parents and community leaders and organizations are not supportive.

179


Creating effective schools is significantly more difficult in developing countries such as South Africa than in developed countries like the United States, because schools in developing countries lack even the basic minimum inputs necessary for them to function as schools at all (Lockheed & Levin, 1993).

13 s4fipuMtc6e& fo Vetxbfi^ Bfêctwe From the earliest reviews on effective schooling, it is clear that recognizing an effective school is not the same as creating an effective school (Purkey & Smith, 1 983). Efforts to create effective schools by implementing a set of unrelated changes — the so-called check-list approach — have generally been unsuccessful (Lockheed & Levin, 1 993). This section concludes with an overview of areas to be considered when developing generic approaches to enhancing the effectiveness of schools (Lockheed & Levin, 1993).

13.1 Central philosophy Effective schools are characterized by a central philosophy or spirit that guides the design and implementation of a strategy. The central philosophy creates a sense of uniqueness and identity which also serves as a platform for action (see WestBurnham, 1992). The philosophy of effective schools is cohesive, overarching and holistic, and not merely a collection of piecemeal, incremental changes or add-ons to existing schools. Effective schools have explicit values which are shared by all stakeholders in the school community, explained to all who come into contact with the school, and used as a basis for all aspects of the school's policy and activities (West-Burnham, 1992).

13.2 Overall strategy The overall strategy is to use the central philosophy to design an ideal school. This ideal is used as a basis for a comprehensive and uniform approach to school change at macro level. At the same time flexibility, variations and adaptations are encouraged to meet local educational needs.

13.3 Community involvement According to Lockheed and Levin (1 993), community involvement is vital in attaining the ideal of the effective school. The community is expected to contribute local resources and voluntary participation in school activities. The school, in turn, is expected to contribute resources to the community by addressing community needs in its programmes and getting students to work on community problems and projects.

180"


13.4 Empowerment A prime emphasis is placed on empowering all stakeholders (i e teachers, students, parents and the community) to take responsibility for making educational decisions and to be accountable for those decisions. A meaningful education requires active participation among all who are involved in education rather than employing a formula set out by higher levels.

13.5 Active learning Student learning shifts from a more traditional, passive approach, in which all knowledge is imparted from textbooks and teachers are regarded as masters, to an active approach where students are responsible for their own learning. Effective school approaches emphasize self-instruction and evaluation, problem solving and meaningful applications. When students are excited by what they are doing in school they are active participants in their own learning rather than the teacher's passive audience. The primary evidence of effective teaching is demonstrated student learning (Lezotte, 1992).

13.6 Focus Effective schools tend to limit the scope of programmes by focusing on accomplishing a narrow set of objectives rather than addressing a much larger set of goals. The Coalition for Effective Schools in the United States stresses that less is more. This perspective is also found in their accelerated schools where acceleration often means covering fewer topics and activities in depth, rather than more topics and activities in rapid profusion.

13.7 Teacher expectations Effective approaches to learning are premised on high teacher expectations. This means that students can succeed if the right conditions and support are provided to ensure their success.

13.8 Funding and resources In most developing countries, where levels of available resources are below the threshold required to sustain schooling programmes, additional resources must be found. These can come from the community, from parental efforts, and from national or provincial budgets. Effective school reforms must address this problem by freeing resources that can be reallocated to meet more pressing needs. For example, the Impact project in the United States was premised on raising student-teacher ratios through increased self-instruction, low-cost educational technologies, and community participation. It is important to address the shortage of resources to make schools more effective.

181


If you consider the new school initiatives, do you think schools will become more effective? Why?

SuWKWlty 1 The establishment of an egalitarian education system in South Africa with equal provision for all students can only take place in a unitary system of administration and management. Such a structure is necessary because fifteen separate administrative structures do not provide equal education for all. 2 Schools in the predemocratic era differed in structure and their student populations were quite diverse in terms of socio-economic status and racial/ ethnic composition. 3 Early childhood education programmes are crucial in the present reconstruction and development programmes as impoverished families are not able to meet the needs of their children without assistance. This calls for a close link between adult basic education and training (ABET) and early childhood development (ECD). 4 The education ladder in the primary and secondary school system has four steps or phases: junior and senior primary, and junior and senior secondary. The primary phase aims at developing literacy and numeracy skills. The junior secondary phase is a bridging phase from primary to secondary, while the senior secondary phase offers many fields of study to prepare students for entry to tertiary institutions. Different fields of study are offered in the senior phase. 5 Tertiary institutions, such as universities, technikons, technical colleges and teacher training colleges, offer vocational education and prepare students for work situations. 6 There are a number of reform initiatives to prepare students for the democratic era, provide quality education for all students, and address illiteracy in South Africa. Structures such as.the National Qualifications Framework (NQF) provide access to lifelong learning by means of recognized levels on which all learning standards and qualifications will be registered. These levels comprise the general education and training band, the further education and training band, and the higher education and training band. 7 The South African Qualifications Authority (SAQA) is responsible for developing the rules of the NQF and overseeing the implementation of the new education system. 8 To address the needs of South Africa in accordance with the values and principle underlying the education system, there will be a change in the organization of schools. The policy of the Minister of Education is that there shall be only two categories of schools in future: public schools and independent schools.

182"


9 The proposed structure of the NQF has necessitated an overhaul of the learning programmes offered in educational institutions. The focus has shifted to outcomes-based learning. Outcomes-based curriculum development processes will have as their point of departure the intended results (outputs) of learning and teaching rather than the selection of prescribed input (knowledge areas/content). 10 Schools can make a difference in the quality of schooling. Effective schools have certain characteristics that create an environment conducive to teaching and learning. Developing more effective schools demands a concerted approach rather than independent strategies.

7en^ 4*ttt (fatcefiU adult basic education and training (ABET) curriculum development distance education early childhood education effective schools further education and training general education and training higher education and training independent schools

levels of schooling National Qualifications Framework (NQF) open learning primary and secondary schools public schools South African Qualifications Authority (SAQA) tertiary education types of schools (predemocratic)

Student rt€tMtfe& 1

Describe the transition to new education departments. Evaluate the transition in the light of South Africa's needs. 2 What types of schools existed in the predemocratic era? Why could they not address the needs of the democratic era? 3 Poll a group of people involved in education (parents, teachers, students) and establish their views on the following: - the reasons why the predemocratic schooling system was unacceptable to a large number of people; -the proposed new schooling system, comprising public and independent schools; - the role of governing bodies in public schools. 4 Briefly discuss the role and function of the NQF for a new dispensation. 5 What is the major difference between the previous school curriculum and the learning programme proposed by the Curriculum Framework?

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7 8

How do effective schools differ from other schools? Use the characteristics of effective schools to write a case study on the current situation in your (or any other) school. 9 Design a plan of action to optimize the effectiveness of the school described above.

Ottcoawfetut Ainscow, M (ed). 1991. Effective Schools for All. London: David Fulton Publishers African National Congress (ANC). 1995. A Policy Framework for Education and Training. Manzini, Swaziland: Macmillan Behr, A L 1988. Education in South Africa: Origins, Issues and Trends: 1652-1988. Pretoria: Academica Bliss, J R. 1991. Strategic and holistic images of effective schools. In J R Bliss, W A Firestone & C E Richards (eds) Rethinking Effective Schools: Research and Practice, 43-57. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice Hall, Inc Bliss, ] R; W A Firestone & C E Richards (eds). 1991. Rethinking Effective Schools: Research and Practice. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc Brookover, W, L Beamer, H Efthim, H Douglas, L Lezotte, S Miller, J Passalacqua & L Tornatzky. 1982. Creating Effective Schools: An Inservice Program for Enhancing School Learning Climate and Achievement Holmes Beach, Florida: Learning Publications, Inc Claassen, J C. 1995. The education system of South Africa. In E I Dekker & E M Lemmer (eds) Modern Education Systems, 2 ed. Durban: Butterworths Curriculum Framework for General and Further Education and Training. 1995. Discussion document developed by the Consultative Forum on Curriculum. Pretoria: Department of Education Education, Department of (DE). 1994. Interim Core Syllabi. Pretoria Education, Department of (DE). 1995a. Education White Paper 1. Educatipn and training in a democratic South Africa: First steps to develop a new system. Notice 196, Government Gazette 16312 of 15 March 1995 Education, Department of (DE). 1995b. Report of the Committee to Review the Organisation, Governance and Funding of Schools. Pretoria. Education, Department of (DE). 1996a. Education White Paper 2. The organisation, governance and funding of schools. Notice 130, Government Gazette 169-87 of 14 February 1996 Education, Department of (DE). 1996b. Lifelong Learning Through a National Qualifications Framework. Report of the Ministerial Committee for the development work on the NQF. February 1996. Pretoria. Education, Department of (DE). 1996c. South African Schools Bill. Notice 503, Government Gazette 17136 of 24 April 1996 Education, Department of (DE). 1996d. Towards a National Qualifications Framework (NQF). Pamphlet on the proposed NQF. Pretoria. Education and Culture, Department of (DEC). Additional Models for the Provision of Schooling. Pretoria. Finansies en Tegniek. 1996. Private onderwys al meer die oplossing. 9 February 1996, 10-11 Hofmeyr, J & G Hall. 1996. The National Teacher Education Audit: Synthesis Report. Pretoria: Department of Education Human Sciences Research Council (HSRC). 1995. Ways of Seeing the National Qualifications Framework. Pretoria: Human Sciences Research Council

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SCHOOLS IN TRANSITION Lezotte, L W. 1992. Creating the Total Quality Effective School. Okemos, Ml: Effective Schools Products, Ltd Lindsay, B & R C Zath. 1994. South African Education: A system in need of structural transformation. lournal of Black Studies, 24 (4), 462-83 Lockheed, M E & H M Levin. 1993. Creating effective schools. In H M Levin & M E Lockheed (eds) Effective Schools in Developing Countries, 119. London: The Palmer Press Marais, P G & L A Pienaar. 17 February 1992. Joint media statement by the Minister of Education and Culture, Administration: House of Assembly and the Minister of National Education Marais, P. 1994. Present and future scenarios for an education system in South Africa, taking into account the move towards democracy in the country. Journal of Educational Finance, 19 (Spring), 103-8 National Commission on Higher Education (NCHE). 1995. Brochure National Education, Department of (ONE). 1993. New Realities in South Africa. Pretoria. National Educational Policy Investigation (NEPI).1992. Governance and Administration. Cape Town: Oxford University Press National Educational Policy Investigation (NEPI). 1993a. Early Childhood Educare. Report of the NEPI Educare Research Group 1992. Cape Town: Oxford University Press National Educational Policy Investigation (NEPI). 1993b. Education, Planning, Systems, & Structure. Cape Town: Oxford University Press National Training Board. 1994. A Discussion Document on a National Training Strategy Initiative. Pretoria Pigford, A B & R P Ngcongo. 1995. South African education: A system primed for restructuring. Educational Horizons, 73 (Spring), 110-12 Pretoria News. 31 August 1995a, 10. Advertisement. Pretoria News. 8 November 1995b, 3. Old colleges will close to make place for new one. Pretoria News. 26 January 1996, 2. Get set to learn with news. Purkey, S C & M S Smith. 1983. Effective schools: A review. The Elementary School Journal, 83 (4): 427-52 Richards, J R. 1991. The meaning and measure of the effective school movement. In J R Bliss, W A Firestone & C E Richards (eds) Rethinking Effective Schools: Research and Practice, 28-42. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc Saunders, S J. 1995. The Reconstruction and Development of Higher Education in South Africa: A Systematic Approach. A submission to the National Commission on Higher Education. Stoll, I L. 1991. School effectiveness in action: Supporting growth in schools and classrooms. In M Ainscow (ed) Effective Schools for All, 68-91. London: David Fulton Publishers Strauss, J P, S J Plekker & J W W Strauss. 1994. Education and Manpower Development, 14. Bloemfontein: Universiteitsdrukkery, UOVS Sunday Times. 21 January 1996, 1 Urch, E F. 1992. Education in Sub-Saharan Africa. New York: Garland Publishing, Inc West-Burnham, J. 1992. Managing Quality in Schools. A TQM Approach. London: Longman

Legislation The Bantu Education Act 47 of 1953 South African Qualifications Authority Act 58 of 1995 South African Schools Act 84 of 1996

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CHAPTER

FIVE

(Zuttevuzl îwenaitty Organize learning experiences —» Evaluate Nicholls (1978: 14) conceptualized Tyler's approach in the following process diagram.

Figure 7.2 Steps in curriculum design (Nicholls, 1978: 14

The Tyler rationale became a recipe for curriculum design and development. It relied on general goals and more specific objectives being predetermined and later used in evaluation. Learning outcomes were decided on beforehand and content, study material, and teaching methods were specified. This became a highly technical approach that kept control in the hands of the hierarchy. It prescribed particular methods of attaining the aims of education, the curriculum and schooling, with a

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view to delivering end products in a process comparable to a factory set-up. Tyler's rationale gained wide acceptance and attained model status as the so-called objectives model. Of importance to this model is a basic distinction between aims, goals, and objectives. Aims are broad, very general and abstract formulations of what education is intended to achieve. Coals are more specific and concrete formulations of what is intended and may include reference to subject material or learning experiences. Objectives are detailed and highly specific formulations of intent, usually in the scope of a lesson or even part of a lesson.

5.2 Stages/phases of curriculum development 5.2.1 Situation analysis Tyler's first question was: What educational purposes should the school seek to attain? In order to answer this, one should find out what society, the education system, the school, the teacher, and the learner expect of the curriculum. This may include an evaluation of existing curricula. (See below for a brief discussion of each of these areas in turn.) Situation analysis may be used, for example, to clarify and expose the influence of power structures and groups in society, because hidden influences or philosophies should not be allowed to be embedded in a curriculum. Such a curriculum would serve the interests of, for instance, a political party or ideology. A curriculum should disclose such biases and interests instead of furthering the hidden influence of power structures. The situation analysis should also indicate problems and themes; learners' needs, interests, and expectations; a basic core of knowledge; and the needs with regard to knowledge organized as school subjects. (a) Society The analysis should address the type of society, its philosophies, and its expectations for the future. Political as well as economical aims and structures are influential factors to be taken into account. (b) Education system, school, and teacher The following questions will be helpful in obtaining the necessary information about the expectations held by the education system, the school, and the teacher: * * * * *

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What is the broad aim of the education authorities? What schooling is allowed and catered for by the system? What degree of sophistication is catered for? What infrastructure exists in present schools? For what type(s) of school is the curriculum being developed?

CURRICULUM PERSPECTIVES AND ISSUES

* What are the teachers' strengths and weaknesses? * To what degree would teachers require different training if new curricula were to be introduced and implemented? (c) Learner Situation analysis should also consider the short-term and long-term needs, interests, and potential of those who are to be educated in the school. When children enter schools for the first item, they arrive with a substantial amount of unsorttd knowledge and skills from their environment and homes. However, after a certain period they will be more inclined to accept what is offered to them. Similarly, at certain stages of development learners show increased curiosity and develop enquiring minds. Clearly curriculum development must take these changing needs of learners into account. (d) Existing curricula An analysis of existing curricula provides valuable information about both the shortcomings and the strong points of these documents and their content. Such an analysis should be undertaken from the perspective of current trends of thought in both public and private sectors. Since the objectives model of curriculum development requires that aims, goals and objectives be formulated at the start, the situation analysis should provide the information needed by decision makers so that the interests of all stakeholders are addressed. 5.2.2 Goals, objectives and taxonomies Essential to this model is the formulation of statements regarding broad aims, more specific goals, and detailed objectives. Various types of objectives can be distinguished. Originally there were only behavioural objectives. Later, instructional and performance objectives were added. The formulation, or stating, of these objectives is based on specific criteria. These criteria are: * the precise description of the behaviour expected after teaching; * the precise specification of the conditions under which the behaviour should be executed; * the precise statement of the standard that must be achieved for the behaviour to be considered acceptable. Further development in the use of objectives meant that an objective no longer needed to be stated in behavioural terms. Instead, the main criterion was that an objective should not allow for ambiguity, that is, an objective should clearly express the expected outcome. The possibility of formulating objectives on a very large scale created the need to organize and classify these objectives into related groups. This focused the attention of curriculum developers on the issue of taxonomies.

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A brief overview of the original taxonomies by Bloom (1956), Krathwohl (1964), and Simpson (1967) according to their hierarchical order will give you an idea of how objectives can be classified and how they relate to different domains. The section that follows names each of the different areas, summarizes its content, and gives an example of a question or task dealing with that particular area.

(a) The cognitive domain * Knowledge (recall of facts, principles, etc) Name two provinces in South Africa. * Comprehension (restating knowledge in own words) Translate a Zulu poem into English. * Application (using abstract knowledge in specific situations) Classify objectives according to the cognitive domain. * Analysis (breaking material down into elements and detecting relationships) Analyse the rhyme scheme of a sonnet. * Synthesis (combining parts into a whole) Draw a map of South Africa to show the new provinces. * Evaluation (judging value of material according to definite criteria) Evaluate a musical composition according to the rules of harmony.

(b) The affective domain * Receiving (awareness, willingness, controlled attention) Listen to the introductory speech of a new school student council member. * Responding (acquiescence, willingness, satisfaction) Practise newly introduced school rules. * Valuing (acceptance, preference, commitment) Debate the necessity for art education at school. * Organization (conceptualization, organization of values) Discuss the plurality of values in South Africa. * Characterization (generalized set, characterization) Display a new philosophy of life.

(c) The psychomotor domain * Perception (sensory, selective, translation) Develop a sensitivity to the use of herbs in food. * Readiness (mental, physical, emotional) Take up the correct position to hit a golf ball. * Guided response (imitation, trial and error) Perform a dance step as demonstrated. * Mechanism Type a letter on a computer.

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* Complex overt response (confidence, automation) Play a piece of music on the piano. This overview shows that specific verbs are used to state the intention of the outcome. The following list gives examples of unambiguous verbs: write, solve, identify, compare, measure, name, list, distinguish, interpret, apply, demonstrate, order, and describe.

5.23 Selection of study material According to the Tyler rationale, the selection of study material (both content and learning experiences) should be guided by the stated goals and objectives.

(a) Sources In a subject-centred approach to curriculum design, content material for school subjects is traditionally sourced from the scientific disciplines. In the transmission model the emphasis is on hard facts as provided by the natural sciences in particular. A proper situation analysis would expand this core of sources by indicating the need to investigate societal problems and other fields of interest to learners. (b) Criteria As the name of the objectives model implies, goals and objectives are the traditional criteria for choice of learning content. Brady (1992) and Edwards (1977) give us examples of such criteria for the selection of content: * * * * * *

validity and significance of content; consistency with social realities; balance of breadth and depth; provision for a wide range of objectives; learnability and adaptability to the experiences of learners; appropriateness to the needs and interests of learners.

(c) Classification Originally the basic classification of learning content corresponded to the divisions of scientific disciplines; this is why school subjects are named after the various sciences. Because of the emphasis on effectiveness and control in the objectives-based approach, human sciences, which are more difficult to reduce to clear, hard facts, tend to be relegated to a lesser place in the curriculum unless they can prove their effectiveness in measurable terms. For example, according to this model, aesthetic knowledge is not considered as important as mathematical knowledge, because aesthetic knowledge deals with interpretation and meaning, which are difficult to evaluate objectively.

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(id) Organization This activity concerns the way in which study material is finally presented in the curriculum document. One has to decide on the scope (breadth and depth) of a school subject and its content. Such decisions would have to take into account learnability and time constraints. Of equal importance is the sequence, or order, in which the material is organized and presented. Various ways of organizing material are possible, for example * from the simple to the complex; * from the concrete to the abstract; or * from the whole to the parts. Material can also be organized chronologically. Sometimes it is possible to make use of spiral sequencing whereby concepts are re-presented repeatedly, but at steadily increasing levels of sophistication and abstraction, according to the learners' development.

5.2.4 Methods and media Methods and media for teaching and learning are chosen according to their effectiveness in achieving the objectives. The basic function of a method or a medium is to align the learner with a learning objective and then to provide content in order for transmission to take place. There should be a variety of appropriate methods and media to allow for the wide scope of objectives. Brady (1992: 130) suggests the application of the following criteria in the selection of methods: variety, scope, validity, appropriateness, and relevance.

5.2.5 Evaluation Evaluation is a broader concept than measurement and assessment. It includes judgement of large processes, whereas assessment refers to a smaller-scale process, and measurement to specific quantitative procedures such as standardized tests. In the first place, one needs to evaluate the effectiveness of the teaching process in terms of the stated objectives. In the second place, one also has to scrutinize the curriculum document in order to establish its success as a finished product. Two types of evaluation are conventionally distinguished. Formative evaluation is an ongoing process of judgement, for example as applied throughout a teaching period. Summative evaluation takes place at the end of an extended time, for example a yearly assessment of what is taught and the manner in which it is presented. Procedures for evaluation may include tests set by the teacher and calling for essays, short answers, paragraphs, or sentences; multiple-choice tests; questionnaires; etc.

5.2.6 Concluding remarks The basic features of the objectives model became the standard guidelines for curriculum design, though not necessarily in the same order. An interactive model

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proposed by Taba (1962), for instance, seeks to open up the strict linear process by allowing for the possibility of starting curriculum development at any stage of the process. However, any model striving for product development by transmission in schooling can be regarded as being deeply influenced by the Tyler rationale, and consequently falls within the broad category of a transmission orientation. With reference to the four approaches to curriculum design (section 1), subject-centred and core-centred design could be used in close conjunction with the transmission model because of the reliance of these two approaches on transmitted knowledge. Problemcentred design is better suited to a transactional approach in which various fields of knowledge and more specific subject knowledge are related to different problems and themes. Learner-centred design points towards personal development and thus change. Since change is very difficult to handle within the rigid constraints of the transmission approach, the transformational approach is a more helpful alternative.

6 OOutcomes Model 6.1 Features of a transformational approach Technological, social and individual change resulting from the knowledge explosion has created a need for new educational principles and aims. Important curricular issues in this regard are the principles of lifelong learning and open learning, as well as the aim of personal change assisted by education within and beyond the school situation. In this context a person should be able to reflect on what he/she can do both intellectually and practically. Human capability should be taken into account. Moreover, the learner should be assisted in * becoming a person through change on her/his own terms; * establishing meaning through discourse and personal choice; * being creative, including exploring alternative ways of solving problems. A transformational approach is based on the following premises about the role of the learner, the role of the teacher, and the aims and content of teaching. As the learner grows and develops, his/her participation in the educational and schooling activities increases along with the capacity to accept responsibility for his/her own actions, investigations, beliefs and thought. The learner moves towards becoming a student. Education and schooling are regarded as a process of dialogue and discourse. Classroom practice is based on the acceptance that both the teacher and the learner/ student are striving towards the same aim. Thus the role of the teacher shifts from one of transmitting of information to that of a catalytic guide (Sawada & Caley, 1985). The teacher actively assists the learner not only in her/his endeavour to find knowledge, but in creating sense or meaning out of the vast scope of facts and narratives. This new role enhances the teacher's responsibility and increases the challenges she/he faces. It creates new scope for inventive and innovative actions and

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requires that the teacher to become critically self-reflective about her/his interventions and guidance. Basic knowledge and skills are a prerequisite for a learner to become investigative. The initial transmission of such information is therefore part of transformation, serving to introduce the learner to him-/herself, the environment, society, and the universe. This enables the learner to move forward not only to become involved in the transaction with individual, societal and political problems, but to transform on his/her own. Thus the learner is able to establish relationships with all aspects and dimensions of life. According to the transformational approach, curriculum design and development may draw in various approaches to help and guide the activities as long as they do not control the learning process. There is a need for knowledge (subjects, problems, core knowledge, and personal interests), classification and organization in view of learner development, with an emphasis on a holistic approach to curriculum design and development. Such a curriculum will not rely on predetermined objectives but, rather, point towards various learning outcomes. Such outcomes can only be evaluated in a holistic way, recognizing the learner's individuality and her/his reflection on schooling activities and experiences. Spady and Marshall (1991: 70) confirm this in their assertion that contemporary schools must 'equip all students with the knowledge, competence and ordinations needed for success after they leave school. Hence the guiding vision for the graduate is that of competent future citizen/ However, they argue that 'our prevailing, century old Industrial Age curriculum structure and delivery model lacks credibility and the capacity to generate these results'. A more suitable approach to curriculum design and development is called for. In particular, there is increasing community pressure for accountability in education. Current thinking among decision makers in various countries, including South Africa, suggests that this need could be met by another model of curriculum design, namely outcomes-based education (OBE). While this model may also be classified as a linear model, it differs considerably from the objectives model in that uses a transformational approach. Outcomes-based education encourages teachers and learners to focus on outcomes that have real-life applications.

6.2 Learning outcomes In contrast to the objectives approach, where the emphasis in curriculum development is on predetermined objectives, the OBE model is concerned with the result or outcome of a curriculum from the learner's point of view. Such a result may either be observable or refer to internal change in the learner. Thus this model represents a shift from a content-based (objectives) approach towards a learner-based approach. According to this approach, the process of curriculum design generally begins by establishing what competencies are needed to enable the learner to be successful in life. In contrast to the objectives model, which started by studying existing curricula in

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order to determine objectives, this approach examines and defines various areas of learning. While such areas may include school subjects, they should also have an interdisciplinary perspective. Print (1993: 138) explains that 'a set of curriculum outcome statements should cover not only the knowledge and skills domains of a subject syllabus but also the attitudes and values domain as well'. The QBE model is thus linear in reverse, beginning with outcomes and using a kind of 'backward planning' to plan instruction. 6.2.1 Definition and characteristics of learning outcomes QBE is based on three basic premises (Spady & Marshall, 1991): * All learners can learn and succeed (albeit not in the same way or the same time). * Success in learning breeds further success. * Schools and teachers control the conditions that determine whether or not learners succeed. Mamary (1991) adds the following characteristics of QBE to the above list: * * * * * * * *

All learners have talent and schools are obliged to develop it. The role of schools is to help learners succeed rather than fail. Mutual trust drives all effective OBE schools. Excellence is for every child and not just a few. By preparing children for success the need for correctives will be reduced. Children should collaborate in learning rather than compete. As far as possible no child should be excluded from any activity in a school. A positive attitude on the part of the teacher about a learner's abilities is essential.

An outcome itself relates to what the learner should be able to do (demonstrate) and to the content area, or scope, of learning involved in developing the ability. Outcomes may cover a wide scope. According to Spady (1994), outcomes could vary from simple content-based tasks on a traditional level, to the application of integration and synthesis in completing functions on a transitional level. The latter should eventually lead to real-life performances on a transformational level as they are required by life in society. To illustrate, here are a few examples of outcomes provided by Spady (1994: 20) which indicate the range of complexity: * All learners will correctly identify local government procedures for initiating new laws, * All learners will conduct a research project on methods of initiating new laws at the local level and present their findings to the class and/or to their parents, * All learners will design and carry out a project on a major issue or problem that uses data to heighten community awareness and proposes feasible ways to address it by initiating new laws,

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With regard to the gifted learner, Smith (1991: 54) provides the following examples: * The learner will chart the scope of a difficult problem over time and predict the factors likely to impede the resolution of the problem, * The learner will investigate community and/or global issues and develop a plan which uses art, music, theatre, and/or dance to address issues and promote desired changes, Spady (1994: 18) adds that 'outcomes are high-quality, culminating in demonstrations of significant learning in context. Demonstration is the key word; an outcome is not a score or a grade, but the end product of a clearly defined process that learners carry out/ In line with this explanation, he suggests the following four criteria which may be used when defining outcomes: * demonstrations must be of high quality, that is, thorough and complete; «fr demonstrations refer to the end of a process: the culminating point of learners' learning; * demonstrations must be the result of significant learning based on significant content; * demonstrations take place in a relevant context. The advantages of QBE are not clear cut. QBE is currently being hotly debated by educationists in many countries. In South Africa the successful implementation of OBE will depend on the adequate preparation of teachers in the principles that guide design, delivery, documentation and implementation of OBE. Moreover, both teachers and learners need to adopt a new approach to learning: that there is no such thing as failure, only feedback and results which may contribute to future success in learning.

63 Concluding remarks In a complex society, one of the important outcomes is the understanding and use of information technology in order to obtain, classify and organize information. This should help the learner to progress from linear to multidimensional ways of thinking and empower her/him in decision making, enabling her/him to engage intellectually and practically, not only in a local community but also in a powerful global community. In order to help the learner relate to the community and the universe, the curriculum should include scientific, technological, and academic knowledge, but not merely for professional purposes or for the sake of knowledge itself. Issues that could be dealt with in the curriculum include any aspect of contemporary life that impinges on learners or the world community, Although specific issues vary from locality to locality, examples

of the more universal issues include: career choice and the criterion of social value; war and peace in a nuclear age; toxic waste and public

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policy; ethics and the sexual revolution; stereotyping and its consequences; varieties of violence; migrant farm labour and social justice; hunger and mass starvation; ethics and life-support technology; free speech and censorship; and the deceptions of corporate advertising. (Zais, 1986: 21) These types of knowledge should lead towards exploration, new relationships and new interpretations. The availability of new information via electronic media means that learners will increasingly be equipped to select and combine curricular material.

4fcH0rM^^wvirv4^^v|4w' 1 A curriculum is usually about what is taught in school. The development of curricula is driven by a variety of perspectives which influence the aims, content and organization of education. 2 Curriculum development must keep abreast of the need for knowledge which has resulted from the technological revolution. The emphasis is no longer on the organization of knowledge within isolated academic disciplines but on the interrelatedness of knowledge. This calls for a more interdisciplinary approach. 3 The curriculum traditionally contains aims, goals, and objectives; content and learning experiences; methods and media; and evaluation. 4 Various perspectives on curriculum design are discussed. The transmission perspective represents the traditional teaching point of view, namely that the teacher presents the knowledge. A model closely related to this perspective is the objectives model. 5 The transformation perspective emphasizes the need for personal change by means of broad education and schooling, and also the learner's role in determining his/her process of change by establishing relations and meaning, assisted by critical self-reflection. A learner should be able to reflect demonstrable competences. Outcomes-based learning is linked to this perspective. 6 The close attention being given to QBE in South Africa reflects the desire for transformation and development not only on an individual but also on a national level.

'Jentut tutct (fatcefiU curriculum curriculum design curriculum development hidden curriculum objectives

outcomes-based education outcomes syllabus transmission perspective transformation perspective

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Stude^/Icti^tie^ 1 Consider the curriculum for the subject and grade (school standard) that you teach. Who compiled this curriculum? What beliefs and values about the aims of education does your curriculum reflect? How is the content organized? What guidelines are given for teacher behaviour, outcomes of learning, the role of the learner, and assessment? 2 A colleague has approached you about the difference between behavioural objectives and learning outcomes. Using this chapter as a basis, write notes on the two concepts and share them with your colleagues in a small group discussion. 3 Reflect on both the stated and the implied aims of education embodied in the curriculum you have experienced as a teacher. How do you think these aims affect learners' learning and career choices? 4 Parents and learners should also be involved in determining the relative importance given to different curriculum options. Conduct a survey of parent and learner opinions in your class by asking their views of the desirability of the following: * environmental education * citizenship skills * study skills * multicultural education * conflict resolution skills * sex education * computer science * ethics * education in the arts * religious education

asfe^**^y Bloom, B S, M D Engelhardt, E J Furst, W H Hill & D R Krathwohl. 1956. Taxonomy of Educational Objectives. Handbook 1. New York: McKay Bobbitt, F. 1918. The Curriculum. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Brady, L 1992. Curriculum Development. New York: Prentice-Hall Edwards, C H. 1977. Readings in Curriculum: A Process Approach. Champaign, IL: Stipes Krathwohl, D R, B S Bloom & B B Masia. 1964. Taxonomy of Educational Objectives: Handbook 2. New York: McKay Kumar, K. 1995. From Post-industrial to Post-modern Society: New Theories of the Contemporary World. Oxford: Blackwell.

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CURRICULUM PERSPECTIVES AND ISSUES Mamary, A. 1991. Fourteen principles of quality outcomes based education. Quality Outcomes-driven Education, Conference on QBE, Perth, October 21-8, 1991 Miller,) P & W Seller. 1985. Curriculum, Perspectives and Practice. New York: Longman Moser, C. 1994. Ends and means of curriculum reform. In The Curriculum Redefined: Schooling for the 21st Century. OECD Report. Paris: OECD Ornstein, A C & F P Hunkins. 1993. Curriculum Foundations, Principles and Issues. Boston: Allyn & Bacon Print, M. 1993. Curriculum Development and Design. St Leonards: Allen & Unwin Sawada, D & M T Caley. 1985. Dissipative structures: New metaphors for becoming in education. Educational Researcher, 14 (3) Simpson, E. 1967. Educational objectives in the psychomotor domain. In C J Cotrell & E F Hauck (eds) Educational Media in Vocational and Technical Education: A Report of a National Seminar. Center for Research and Leadership Development in Vocational and Technical Education, Ohio State University Smith, S J. 1991. Theory, practice, and challenges. The Gifted Child Today, 14 (1), 221-3 Spady, W G. 1994. Choosing outcomes of significance. Educational Leadership, 51 (6) Spady, W G & K J Marshall. 1991. Beyond traditional outcome-based education. Educational Leadership,

49(2), 16-26

Taba, H. 1962. Curriculum Development Theory and Practice. USA: Harcourt Brace & World Tyler, R W. 1949. Basic Principles of Curriculum and Instruction. Chicago: University of Chiciago Press Zais, R S. 1976. Curriculum: Principles and Foundations. New York: Crowell Zais, R S. 1986. Confronting encapsulation as a theme in curriculum design. Theory Into Practice, 25 (1), 94-101

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CHAPTER

EIGHT

/e&cJutt^ Prof Louis van Niekerk Faculty of Education University of South Africa

In this chapter we consider the role of teaching in education. Initially the reader will be invited to explore popular notions of teaching as a concept in order to come to a new understanding of what teaching means. It should become clear that teaching is complex and that there is no single definition. The reader will be introduced to different views of teaching in what is called a pluralist approach. The part played by the teacher in bringing about change will also be examined. Theory and practice will be united in a section that will provide guidelines to establish sound teaching practice.


TEACHING

*7* £«fa4#*#? A distinction is made between private (individual) funding and public funding. An individual spends her/his money on those goods and services, such as education, that he/she deems necessary. Some examples of such private spending in education are: school fees contributed by parents at a state school and opportunity costs borne by the student and his/her parents, for example the cost of transport, textbooks, and school uniforms. However, an individual is not simply left to her/his own devices to pay for education. Public schooling is driven by the idea that a child's future should not be limited by his/ her parents7 wealth and influence. Public funds are used to establish a public education system (national education system) that provides access to education for all children. In an elitist society, such as the aristocracies of the Middle Ages, the emphasis would be on privately funded education. However, virtually all modern nation-states are committed to the principle of egalitarianism, namely that all citizens should enjoy equal rights and opportunities, irrespective of their backgrounds (see section 6 for a discussion of the history of education financing). Plainly speaking, public funding works as follows. In all societies, citizens pool a proportion of their income and collectively spend the money on goods and services which are deemed necessary for all the citizens in the society. In other words, government collects the money (revenue) from the citizenry in the form of taxes, and redistributes it according to priorities. The pattern of spending differs from country to country, for example: A capitalist country generally collects low taxes, which makes relatively little money available for spending on public services. In such a country, education users (students or their parents) are expected to pay a portion of their study fees themselves. People are left with more money in their pockets. The reasoning is that private persons spend their own money more wisely and carefully than an outside agent, such as government. Ultimately, this leads to better economic growth, as government does not unproductively consume a large part of the country's wealth. A socialist country usually collects high taxes, which enables it to spend relatively more money on public services. In such a country, education is largely free. The reasoning is that society is morally obliged to look after the poor and helpless. In

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other words, those that have must care for those that do not have. Government is the agent which redistributes wealth. Public services differ from country to country. In South Africa, the state is involved in running airline companies and providing telephone services. In the United States of America, these two services are entirely privatized. Thus, the South African government assumes more duties than is the case in the United States. However, in all the countries of the world education is seen as a public, collective endeavour. The level of state funding of education differs from country to country. For example, a developing country which sees a direct correlation between education and development may spend a large part of its budget and its Gross National Product (GNP) on education. On the other hand, a developed country that has an adequate, established education infrastructure in place and wants to lessen the role of the state may spend less on education. For example, compare education funding in Lesotho and Italy (see table 10.2 below). To summarize: In all countries of the world, education is publicly funded. In section 6 this is shown to be a relatively recent development. Education is universally seen as a collective endeavour, and the state must assume the major responsibility for providing education. In section 11 you will see that this uncritical assumption has recently been challenged.

4 ^M^n^H^tt (police) ^wAMCMfy o4 Pnurtte ?i*tedUie7 Clearly education financing needs to be reformed. Questions are raised about state involvement in particular. Some arguments for reduced state involvement in education and for alternative methods of funding education are set out below. Nationalism and the role of the nation-state are dwindling. Previously the state directed the life of the nation; now groups and individuals are asserting themselves within nations. Thus nations do not have the monolithic dominance which they used to have. Similarly, diversity within the education system is encouraged, whereas it used to be frowned upon. Naisbitt (1994) identifies a so-called global paradox. On the one hand, the world is becoming like a global village through technology which makes instant communication possible and through global economic cooperation. On the other hand, paradoxically, groups within the nation-state are finding a sense of identity and security within their own groups. Both these tendencies detract from the importance of the nation-state. Three philosophical theories which support this trend are postmodernism, complexity theory, and chaos theory (Badenhorst, 1995; Claasen, 1995). Watson (1994: 1) summarizes this trend as follows: At the beginning of the 20th century we saw the development of the nation-state as the natural focal point for government and the control of peoples , , , Indeed many would argue that the 20th century has been "the age of the nation-state", Now, as we come to the end of the 20th and approach the 21st century/ the concept of the nation-state is coming under threat from a variety of sources, These changes have major implications for the provision of public education systems, since these have hitherto developed with one major purpose being to develop a sense of national identity and mass allegiance to the concept of the nation-state, Sources of knowledge are freely available in a postindustrial era. In the past, knowledge resided with an elite few (the teachers, literally called 'masters' in the past). Nowadays, knowledge can be obtained from many available sources, for

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example via the internet on the computer (Toffler, 1990). A learner does not have to attend a state-funded school in order to obtain knowledge. Home schooling is rapidly expanding in Western countries as a result of this availability of knowledge. Development is being reappraised. Education is not seen as automatically leading to development. In fact, the investment potential of expensive, often irrelevant, state-driven education is increasingly being questioned. Critics maintain that since education spending consumes a large part of the national wealth, it is a major contributor to inflation, which hampers economic growth. Consequently, many states are reducing their spending on education and privatizing aspects of the education system which have hitherto always been state-controlled — for example, some school districts in the USA have contracted out school administration to private companies.

12 @Mt- Mwttfy TtteaMtMt a»ut tftfawrttiveA {01 ^tutcU^ SdttcatuM, Although the following cost-saving measures pertain primarily to South Africa, they can readily be applied universally. The first White Paper (DE, 1995) proposes certain cost-saving measures: reducing the repetition of grades to educationally acceptable levels; eliminating overage students and shifting them into more cost-effective learning environments; phasing in guided self-study and distance-education programmes where appropriate, which will replace labour-intensive traditional teaching formats; rationalizing the education administration, which consumes as much as 29 % of the education budget (see section 8). restructuring teachers' remuneration, which will slow down the built-in rate of increase of the salary bill. In the present salary structure there is a 1 : 8 ratio from the lowest to the highest post/salary level. If this widely diversified structure is not modified, the country will not be able to afford the expected increase of 230 000 additional teachers over the decade from 1992 to 2002. Computer modelling estimates that a 1 : 5 ratio from the lowest to the highest level, which is in line with international norms, would probably be affordable (Hofmeyr, 1994). Apart from the above, additional alternative funding measures include the following: User or household charges: There are various arguments in favour of fee-paying education. Privatized or semiprivatized education (i e when user charges are levied for public schooling) is more responsive to the needs of clients (parents and students). It is more directly accountable and it generates and utilizes resources more efficiently (Lieberman, 1986). On the other hand, user charges are viewed as

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EDUCATION FINANCE

elitist, as encapsulated by the saying: The poor cannot pay/ This argument, in turn, is countered by the fact that user charges benefit the poor. Charging the user leaves more money for government to spend on schools in needy communities. Voucher system: Public subsidies are commonly channelled through schools and education departments. Alternatively, education subsidies could be given directly to students and their families in the form of education vouchers with a monetary value which can only be exchanged for schooling. (A parent cannot use them for gambling!) Voucher recipients could then attend the school of their choice. This approach increases parental choice and school accountability by encouraging schools to compete for students. This, in turn, improves efficiency in the education system. This system is employed in a few states of the United States. However, in a developing country a voucher scheme may not be feasible, because, apart from other considerations, its administrative costs would probably be high (Pillay, 1988). Block grants: When government allocates a subsidy without placing any restrictions on the allocation of these funds, such a subsidy can be classified as a block grant. For example, a school receives R2 million, which must cover all the costs of running the school, including salaries. A school may opt to employ fewer teachers (ie by grouping classes together and by dropping 'frills' from the curriculum), and to use the savings to build a long-awaited soccer field instead. Block grants are proposed by economists who favour a decentralized or 'free market' approach to education. The advantages of such a system are obvious (Pillay, 1988): — It allows decisions regarding the allocation of resources to be made by those who are closer to the ultimate users of education and better informed of local priorities. — The resulting autonomy enhances both academic freedom and efficiency. — This decentralized system will reduce the high cost of bureaucratic decision making. There is often so-called 'bureaucratic failure' when an education department vacillates endlessly about the allocation of funds. However, the question of whether a school community can handle a budget running into millions of rands remains. Will it not lead to conflict at school level, such as charges of corruption? Does a school community (principal, senior teachers, governing body) have the managerial and administrative capability to administer such a sum of money? Traditionally, public school funding in South Africa has been highly centralized. Tuition tax credit: Expenses paid towards a child's education are tax deductible. Curriculum change: The curriculum can be rationalized by excluding expensive 'frills' and options (eg music, arts, physical training) and by discontinuing subjects and programmes followed by few students (Berkhout, 1993). These subjects are then merged at selected institutions. An obvious objection is that such a costoriented approach may detract from the true aim of education. Is schooling not compelled to cultivate an appreciation for aesthetics, which may be regarded as

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an expensive 'frill? On the other hand, should the parent and other community bodies (the theatre company, for instance) not take greater responsibility for developing such skills and interests? A broad curriculum change is the introduction of vocational education. The manpower approach to educational planning (searching for the perfect match between manpower needs and education provision) originated the promotion of vocational education' (Berkhout, 1993: 116; Berkhout, 1989). Alternative classroom interventions: Relatively simple classroom interventions, such as the provision of textbooks, have been shown to be much more cost-effective in terms of improving the quality of education than grandiose spending plans at macro level.

13 SdttcaMw ^fatutcfaf w So*tt6> dfaca In this section, particular attention is paid to education finance in South Africa. It should be noted that this aspect has already been touched on in other sections of this chapter, which should also be consulted. Education financing in South Africa cannot be divorced from the political context. In the predemocratic (apartheid) era, education financing was especially renowned for its racial imbalance, which was often used as an indicator of the inequity of apartheid. The per capita expenditure according to the categories of racial groups in 1992 was as follows (ONE, 1993): Black pupils (DET): R1 775 White pupils: R4 694 Coloured pupils: R3 231 Indian pupils: R3 959 Thus, the ratio for spending on white education in relation to black education was roughly 3 : 1 . However, these imbalances were not as severely skewed as suggested by this ratio. Several factors have to be taken into account before comparisons of the per capita expenditure can be made (DNE, 1993). More than 70 % of school costs go towards teachers' salaries. In the case of education for black pupils, in 1992 only about 44% of teachers had three years' appropriate training after Std 10, compared to virtually all teachers in the other departments. Since the salary structure of teachers is based on the level of qualifications, this factor contributed significantly to the disparities in the per capita expenditure. Primary education is considerably cheaper than secondary education. In 1992, 71 % of black pupils were in primary schools, compared to 59 % of white pupils, a fact which also contributed to the disparities. In the reformist period following the Soweto uprising (1976 to 1994), government

[372

EDUCATION FINANCE

expenditure on black education increased dramatically. For example, the education budget rose from R5 billion in 1 985 to R20 billion in 1 992. Also, more than a hundred colleges of education for black students were founded during this period to make up for the backlog of teacher training. The vast education infrastructure which had been established by the time of the democratic transition in 1 994 is described in the first White Paper as follows (DE, 1995: 62): There were in 1994 nearly twelve million students, at 27 500 educational institutions, including 330 000 students at the 21 universities and 137 000 students at the 15 technikons, These learners were served by a staff complement of about 470 000 of whom 370 000 are educators,

14 Current financial challenges in South Africa Despite the extenuating circumstances described in the previous section, unequal spending has long been a particularly vexing aspect of apartheid. The democratic government faces various factors which require vast financial resources. Government is constitutionally obligated to principles such as equality, redress, and reconstruction and development, which have extensive financing implications. Government's educational policy is committed to values and principles which require vast financial outlays. The values and principles of education in a democratic South Africa include the following: — education as a basic human right, to be advanced by the state; — lifelong education and training of good quality; — redress of educational inequalities; — the equitable deployment of resources; — access to educational opportunities of good quality for all children, youth, and adults; — the improvement of the quality of education; — the rehabilitation of schools and colleges and the restoration of a culture of teaching and learning. Economic growth in recent years has been much lower than the 'education inflation factors', such as the growth in student numbers and the improvement in teacher qualifications. Urbanization and unemployment lead to students remaining in the formal system longer, which in turn creates ever-growing backlogs in the capacity of school buildings. Learning resources are undersupplied. Investments have to be made in educational productivity, such as the upgrading of teachers and managerial skills at school level.

373


Educational programmes need to be diversified to attend to early childhood learning needs^ special education needs, adult basic education and training, and vocational education and training. Free, compulsory education up to the ninth school year (Grade 9; Std 7) has been introduced. In fact, almost every single aspect spelt out in the two recent White Papers on education have expenditure and financing implications. In many newly independent African countries similar lofty goals were formulated. In practice, however, budgetary constraints prevented these states from meeting all their worthy goals. Consequently, they have had to prioritize educational aims and to finance education accordingly.

15 Proposed Model of Education financing Exactly how education financing is to be implemented is not clear at the time of writing. The Constitution determines that education at all levels, excluding university and technikon education, is the responsibility of provincial legislatures. Thus, provinces will have the executive responsibility to finance their schools out of allocations from the central government and subject to national guidelines, such as those contained in the White Papers on education. In the second White Paper the financing of schools was referred to a specialist committee. However, the outline of education financing is known. At national level government raises the education budget. Two significant guiding norms for establishing the national budget have been specified. — Equal funding for all race groups: In order to achieve this the level of funding will be well below that of previously white schools (House of Assembly schools), but above that of former Department of Education and Training (DET) schools. Those schools which want to retain previous levels of funding will have to raise their own funds. — Equitable teacher-pupil and class size norms: Learner-teacher ratios are pegged at 40 : 1 in primary schools and 35 : 1 in secondary schools. Thus former white schools will have to cope with substantially fewer teachers, while traditionally black schools will have more teachers. The income that is raised is distributed to the provinces. This distribution will not be according to an exact per capita ratio. For example, even if the Northern Province and the Western Cape have the same number of learners, the Northern Province may have a bigger allocation from central government for two reasons: — Redress: Educational backlogs are much bigger in the largely rural Northern Province, and thus require greater expenditure. Thus, the principle of equity (not equality) applies in budgetary allocations to provinces. — Provincial preference: A province receives a global budget from central

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EDUCATION FINANCE

government, which the province distributes according to guidelines supplied by central government A province may emphasize one particular service (e g transport), downscaling its education budget without contravening the national guidelines on providing free, compulsory education.

16 Ji«**tc*M% ot Sdoofo At school level significant changes in funding are to be introduced. There will be two categories of schools, namely public schools and independent schools. The system of state-aided schools has been abolished. Of former white schools, 93 % were run as so-called Model C or state-aided schools. Three options for school financing are considered in the second White Paper, namely a minimalist-gradualist approach, the equitable school-based formula approach, and the partnership funding approach. Partnership funding has provisionally been adopted by government and the finalization of the matter has been referred to a task group. What is to be understood by partnership funding? It is based on a recognition that the provisHW of quality education for all at no direct cost to parents and communities is not affordable in terms of budgetary allocations to education. The provincial budget for schools would go towards redressing inequalities in capital, core and operating costs, and salaries. However, in respect of operating costs, parents who can afford it will have to pay legally obligatory fees (DE, 1996: 32): Parents would be required to disclose the income bracket within which their income fell, Fees would be payable on an income-related sliding scale, with those at the lower end paying nothing, The provincial department's contribution to operating costs would be in inverse relation to the assessed fee income from parents, All schools would have the right to raise additional funds through voluntary contributions or other means, In an interim memorandum the task group dealing with this issue has given some detail on how partnership funding will work. A formula based on school attendance, results, and the redress of inequalities will be used. It would seem that school-based budgeting will become a possibility in the new dispensation, which has hitherto not been the case. A menu of responsibilities of public school governing bodies will be available (DE, 1996). Those schools that have the capacity may opt to assume some or all of these responsibilities. Financing responsibilities include setting school budget priorities and raising and controlling additional funds. The partnership funding approach contains elements of Model C schools in that partnership funding is continued. However, various objections are raised against this approach. Wealthy parents are doubly taxed by both high personal taxes and additional school levies. This is tantamount to discrimination against them. A disclosure of income can give rise to corruption, and it invades the right to privacy protected by the Constitution. According to the sliding scale, each parent will pay an

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individual fee, making administration difficult and leading to further charges of discrimination. The second White Paper (DE, 1996: 34) warns that this may have the effect that 'the independent sector grows in attraction and through the adherence of the middle class parents. This tendency would result in depriving the school sector of the better-educated and better-off segment of the population, regardless of race/ In 1994, parents at Model C schools contributed about R700 million towards the schooling of their children, which left government with the equivalent amount extra to spend on needier schools. Independent schools will continue to receive subsidies, as government acknowledges that many independent schools make an important contribution to the provision of education in South Africa. However, only schools which maintain satisfactory standards will be subsidized, as many 'unscrupulous and exploitative private school operators' (DE, 1996: 38) have lately opened private institutions.

17 Po4tcomfoui^^ Sdttcattw ^wtutCMa In the postcompulsory sector (final three years of secondary school), government will subsidize learners from disadvantaged backgrounds in part. However, the overall per capita expenditure in this phase will be substantially less than the corresponding subsidy in the compulsory phase. The funding of the tertiary sector is not yet clear, as the newly established National Commission on Higher Education is yet to report. However, it can be expected that a closer link between tertiary education and the needs of society and the economy will be encouraged. The structure of higher education programmes is the inverse of what is required by the society and economy, with a small technikon sector, a relatively large university sector, and a poorly developed and fragmented post-secondary college system' (DE, 1995: 32). Thus, funding priorities can be expected to correct these imbalances. For example, technikons may be more generously funded.

Sxwtaty 1 Education has individual and social benefits. Individuals and governments pay for

2

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education because they perceive it as having value. Economists gauge the dividends of education spending by means of a rate-of-return analysis. A private rate of return and a social rate of return are measured. Both individuals and governments pay for education. In an egalitarian society, which virtually all modern states strive to be, governments are primarily responsible for providing and paying for education. In an elitist society it is largely individuals who would pay for education, limiting access to the privileged. The pattern of spending differs from country to country.

EDUCATION FINANCE

3 Government is mostly involved in funding primary education (basic education), while its financing responsibility decreases towards the secondary and tertiary levels. Governments finance education heavily. In many countries, education is the single biggest item of the budget. 4 The consensus view holds that society is in harmony and that government spending ought to benefit everybody equally. The conflict view holds that social institutions do not operate in harmony and that there are power struggles in society. Government financing of education serves the interests of the dominating class. 5 Government funding of mass education is a relatively recent phenomenon. It is only since about the seventeenth century that education has been the responsibility of the state. 6 There are various costs in education, such as household costs and institutional costs. 7 Free education does not exist in essence. In all cases, someone has to pay for education. We can say, rather, that education is free of charge if users do not have to pay for it. Even so, education is hardly ever free of charge. Free education has become unsustainable in most countries. 8 Various cost-saving measures and alternatives for funding education exist. Many believe that the state's involvement in financing education should be decreased. Other methods of augmenting funding are user charges, a voucher system, tuition tax credits, block grants, curriculum change, and focusing on costeffective classroom interventions. 9 Education financing has been transformed in the democratic era. The unequal spending of the past is being replaced by an equitable provision and funding of education. Government has to make huge financial outlays to meet all its educational commitments. The separate category of state-aided schools is being abolished. However, in the partnership funding approach favoured by government, parents at state schools will still have to contribute according to their incomes.

%0»4 attd (fatcefiU block grant budget capital costs conflict view consensus view egalitarian elitist free education Gross National Product household costs

human capital theory partnership funding private rate of return public spending recurrent costs revenue social rate of return user charges voucher scheme

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Stafatt rtctMtoa 1 Imagine that you are the principal of a secondary school with 600 students and 25 teachers. The education department awards a block grant of R1,7 million to the school, which must cover all the annual expenses, including teachers' salaries. You have to submit a budget to the governing body. Draw up a detailed budget, indicating how you would spend the money. 2 Hold a class debate on the topic, Egalitarianism vs elitism: Which philosophy should guide a nation? Relate it to education funding as well. (In this chapter overwhelming credence is given to the egalitarian view, but research shows that the world is asking questions about the feasibility of egalitarianism. Are people inherently equal? Do differences in background, intelligence, interests, aptitudes, and attitudes not make them inherently unequal? This does not mean that some groups or individuals should be discriminated against, but rather that differences between individuals should be appreciated and accommodated.) 3 Imagine that you are the Minister of Education in South Africa. The President advises you that a dramatic cut in education expenditure is needed. The education budget must be slashed from R35 billion to R29 billion. Work out an overall cost-saving plan. How will you save public money in the education system? Some questions that may arise are: Should teachers be retrenched? Will you relate their salaries to their individual performances? Will you cut on head office spending? Which alternative methods of financing education will you consider?

&4tu>qn*fify Badenhorst, D C. 1995. Implications of the 'new science' for educational planning. South African Journal of Education, 15(1X13-15 Berkhout, S J. 1989. Manpower approach to the provision of education: A new educational route to Utopia? South African lournal of Education, 9 (1 ),13-21 Berkhout, S J. 1993. Financing education: who should pay? In E I Dekker & E M Lemmer (eds) Critical Issues in Modem Education. Durban: Butterworths Bray, M. 1990. Free education. In N T Postlethwaite & T Husen (eds) The International Encyclopedia of Education Research and Studies. London: Pergamon Press Brubacher,) S. 1966. A History of the Problems of Education. New York: McGraw-Hill Christie, P. 1989. The Right to Learn: The Struggle for Education in South Africa. Braamfontein: Ravan Press Claassen, J C. 1992. Economic perspectives on a new education dispensation. Educaref 21 (1&2), 10613 Claassen, J C. 1995a. The education system of South Africa. In E I Dekker & O J van Schalkwyk Modem Education Systems. Durban: Butterworths Claassen,) C. 1995b. Farewell to statism: towards the education system of the twenty-first century. South African journal of Education, 15 (4), 203-6

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EDUCATION FINANCE DNE: see National Education, Department of. Easton, P & S Klees. 1990. Education and the economy: Considering alternative perspectives. Prospects, XX (4), 413-28 Education, Department of (DE). 1995. Education White Paper 1. Education and training in a democratic South Africa: First steps to develop a new system. Notice 196, Government Gazette 16312 of 15 March 1995 Education, Department of (DE). 1996. Education White Paper 2. The organisation, governance and funding of schools. Notice 130, Government Gazette 16987 of 14 February 1996 Fagerlind, I & L Saha. 1989. Education and National Development: A Comparative Perspective. Oxford: Pergamon Fokus 46, 5. June 1990. Onderwysfinansiering in Suid-Afrika. Hofmeyr, J. 1994. There's light at the end of the education crisis tunnel. Weekly Mail, 6-12 May 1994,46 Illich, I. 1971. Deschooling society. New York: Harper & Row Lieberman, M. 1986. Privatization and public education. Phi Delta Kappanf 67 (5), 373-9 Naisbitt, J. 1994. Global Paradox. New York: Morrow National Education, Department of (DNE). 1992. Education Renewal Strategy. Pretoria National Education, Department of (DNE). 1993. Education Realities in South Africa 1993. Pretoria Pillay, P. 1988. Austerity and growth: Financing education in developing countries. Financing of Education. Proceedings of a workshop held by the EPU at the University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg Psacharopoulos, G. 1985. Returns to education: A further international update and implications. Journal of Human Resources, 20 (4), 583-604 Thomas, R M (ed). 1992. Education's Role in National Development Plans: Ten country cases. New York: Praeger Toffler, A. 1990. Powersoft. New York: Morrow Tsang, M C. 1988. Cost analysis for policymaking: A review of cost studies in education in developing countries. Review of Educational Research, 58 (2), 181-230 Van Niekerk, E J. 1994. The rise of mass popular education: A brief analysis of key factors. South African Journal of Education, 14 (4),199-203 Watson, K. 1994. Educational provision for the 21 st century: Who or what is shaping the agenda? Paper read at the SACHES Conference, Gaborone, 25-27 October

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CHAPTER

ELEVEN

Sdu&xtixM, attd, t6e *&uvDr Joan Squelch Faculty of Education University of South Africa

A student is suspended from school for bullying other students. Three high school students are expelled for bringing alcohol to school. A principal is fired for misappropriating school funds. A teacher is sued by parents for divulging confidential information about their child at a school function. A parent sues a school for racial discrimination. In yet another incident, a primary school files a suit in the Supreme Court in an attempt to determine its own admission policy and to restrict admission on the grounds of language competence. These examples show that education law is becoming an increasingly important part of a teacher's school life. Teachers in South Africa need some knowledge of the law and how it affects their work. In this chapter, you will learn about laws that affect your day-to-day activities in the school and classroom. You will have an opportunity to reflect on situations you may be faced with one day. By becoming more aware of the legal dimension of teaching, you will be able to avoid tricky situations and unnecessary court cases.


EDUCATION AND THE LAW

7*^V0***"** 1

Introduction The Relationship between Education and the Law 2.1 Education within the South African legal system

384 385 386

Nature and Sources of Law 3.1 The Constitution 3.1 .1 Bill of Rights 3.1 .2 Limitation of rights 3.2 Legislation 3.3 Common law 3.4 Case law

387 387 388 389 389 391 391

The Legal Context of Teaching 5 Classroom Instruction 5.1 Curriculum issues 5.2 Freedom of expression 5.3 Student records 5.4 Recommendations for practice

392 394 394 396 397 398

2 3

4

6

The Diligent Supervisor 6.1 Negligence 6.1 .1 Duty of care 6.1 .2 Breach of duty 6.1 .3 Causal relationship 6.1 .4 Damages 6.1 .5 Common sources of negligence 6.2 Supervision 6.2.1 Areas of supervision 6.3 Recommendations for practice

398 399 399 399 401 401 402 402 404 408

7

Students and Discipline 7.1 The principles of reasonableness and fairness 7.2 The rules of natural justice 7.3 Forms of punishment 7.3.1 Corporal punishment 7.3.2 Exclusion from school 7.3.3 Detention 7.4 Search and seizure 7.5 School and classroom rules 7.6 Recommendations for practice

409 409 410 411 411 412 413 414 416 417

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Student Activities

41 7 418 418

Bibliography.

419

Summary Terms and Concepts

/ IttfauUtfaM Ms Dent is a primary school teacher. She teaches religious instruction, science, and physical education to the Std 4 and S classes. What follows is an account of a typical day for Ms Dent.

Ms Dent arrives at school at 07:15 and supervises scholar patrol. During homeroom period she collects money and parental permission notes for a Std 5 school trip to a nature reserve, The first lesson of the day is religious instruction. Some students who are exempt from this class are given permission to work in the media centre during this period. Ms Dent does playground duty during first recess. She attends fo a junior who has fallen and cut her knee. During the science class Ms Dent teaches a lesson on heat. The Std 4 students are doing an experiment on expansion and contraction. They are required to heat different solids and liquids. At the beginning of the lesson, Ms Dent reminds the students about the safety rules for working in the science laboratory and, in particular, about the dangers related to using heat. In the physical education class, Std 5 students are using the pommel horse. Ms Dent first explains the safety aspects and demonstrates how to use it. Billy, who is not allowed to take part in strenuous activities, is put in charge of making sure all the equipment that is used is put back in the proper place. At 14:15 Ms Dent attends a brief staff meeting at which the staff are given information on the new regulations concerning school discipline, especially in respect of corporal punishment. From 15:00 to 16:00 Ms Dent coaches the under-12 netball team. At 17:30 she has an appointment with parents who are concerned about their child's performance and progress at school. They specifically wish to discuss the education psychologist's report on their child with her.

This account illustrates a typical day in the life of a teacher. On first reading, there is really nothing unusual about the activities which are mentioned here. The activities include instruction, supervision, meeting with parents, coaching sport, organizing

38

Introduction to Education

Introduction to Education Studies

Introduction to Early Childhood Education

Introduction to research in education

Democracy and Education: An Introduction to the Philosophy of Education

Exceptional Learners: Introduction to Special Education

Introduction to Research in Education, 8th Edition

An Introduction to Philosophy of Education

Education Studies: An Introduction

Adventure Education: An Introduction

Promoting Equality in Secondary Schools (Introduction to Education)

Opening Doors: An Introduction to Inclusive Early Childhood Education

Special Education in Contemporary Society 4: An Introduction to Exceptionality

Introduction to Oracy: Frameworks for Talk (Cassell Education)

An Introduction to the History of Education in Modern Egypt

An Introduction to Moral Philosophy and Moral Education

Introduction to International Education: International Schools and their Communities

Introduction to Aeronautics: A Design Perspective (Aiaa Education Series)

An Introduction to Cognitive Education: Theory and Applications

An Introduction to Confucianism (Introduction to Religion)

An Introduction to Judaism (Introduction to Religion)

An Introduction to Mormonism (Introduction to Religion)

An Introduction to Confucianism (Introduction to Religion)

An Introduction to Judaism (Introduction to Religion)

Marcuse's Challenge to Education

An Introduction to Confucianism (Introduction to Religion)

Studying Education: An Introduction to the Key Disciplines in Education Studies

Social Justice in Education: An Introduction

Foundations of Special Education: An Introduction

Social Justice in Education: An Introduction

Foundations of Special Education: An Introduction

Introduction to Education