International Journal of Retail & Distribution Management, Volume 31, Numbers 3, 2003

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ISSN 0959-0552

Volume 31 Numbers 3 2003

International Journal of

Retail & Distribution Management incorporating Retail Insights Number 3 is a special issue: Merchandising cases from the 7th international European Association for Education and Research in Commercial Distribution conference

www.emeraldinsight.com

International Journal of Retail & Distribution Management Volume 31, Number 3, 2003

ISSN 0959-0552

Retail Insights Winter

Merchandising cases from the 7th international European Association for Education and Research in Commercial Distribution conference Contents 130 Editorial Adelina Broadbridge and Colin Clarke-Hill 131 2D23D: Management and design perspectives on retail branding Tony Kent 143 Visual merchandising and the creation of discernible retail brands Shona Kerfoot, Barry Davies and Philippa Ward 153 Interviews of deshopping behaviour: an analysis of theory of planned behaviour Tamira King and Charles Dennis 164 Books 166 Abstracts 170 Note from the publisher

Access this journal electronically The current and past volumes of this journal are available at

www.emeraldinsight.com/ft You can access over 100 additional Emerald journals, each with a comprehensive searchable archive of articles (many dating back to 1989), a detailed classification system and links to referenced material. See previous issue for details of what your access includes.

Editorial

This issue of Retail Insights is devoted to cases from the 7th International European Association for Education and Research in Commercial Distribution (EAERCD) conference which was hosted by the University of Gloucestershire Business School in Cheltenham, England in July 2002 (Web site - http://online.chelt.ac.uk/eaercd). The conference attracted 27 papers in the areas of retail management, international retailing, retail education, retail case studies and online retailing. Colin Clarke-Hill chaired the conference and has been working with me to select cases for publication in Retail Insights. This was a difficult task as there was much good material at the conference and all cases had been through a blind-review process. The selected papers will appear in two issues, three papers in this one and a further three in a later issue. The theme of this selection is retail management with a special emphasis on merchandising issues. The three papers in this issue are linked but take very different views of merchandising. We believe that our readers will be interested in these papers as they offer some different insights into retailing in their different ways. We are particularly pleased to include the work of Shona Kerfoot and Tamira King who are being published for the first time.

The paper by Tony Kent develops the theme of 3-D visual merchandising based on the store design and the store brand. Each example shows the development of this theme over the period, with photographs depicting both historical and contemporary designs. Kent shows the link between the store brand and the physical design elements as a powerful way of creating differentiating through style and physical structures. The paper by Shona Kerfoot, Philippa Ward and Barry Davies focuses on visual merchandising and the effects that that has on purchase recognition and behaviour. The context the authors use is branded women’s clothing in a department store setting. Their results suggest the liking of the merchandise display does not necessarily determine purchase, but good display does make a purchase more likely. The third selection from the EAERCD’s July conference, is the paper by Tamira King and Charles Dennis. King and Dennis’ research is on the newly reported phenomenon of deshopping, where consumers, purchasing mainly clothing and who are predominantly women shoppers, use retail stores as libraries. The deshopper selects, purchases, uses and then returns the garments and accessories to the store for a refund. The research reveals alarming results of this type of dishonest behaviour and considers the implications of deshopping on retailers’ strategies on service and refund policy. The issue concludes with a review by Mike Pretious of McGoldrick’s book Retail Marketing, published by McGraw-Hill in 2002. There is also a press release for the latest edition of the Distributive Trades Digest, published by the Institute for Retail Studies, University of Stirling in 2003. Adelina Broadbridge Senior Lecturer in Marketing, Institute for Retail Studies, University of Stirling Colin Clarke-Hill Reader in Strategic Management, University of Gloucestershire Business School

International Journal of Retail & Distribution Management Volume 31 . Number 3 . 2003 . p. 130 # MCB UP Limited . ISSN 0959-0552

130

Introduction

2D23D: Management and design perspectives on retail branding Tony Kent

The author Tony Kent is Principal Lecturer in Retail Management in the School of Retail Studies, The London College of Printing, The London Institute, London, UK. Keywords Retailing, Design, Branding, Marketing, Clothing, Grocery Abstract The aim of this research is to define the development and boundaries of the retailer brand primarily through the elements of identity and image. Two perspectives are introduced to explain the ways in which threedimensional branding and sensory experiences of the retail brand can arise. One approach is marketing led; the other is based on design studies. The study assesses the development of retail branding, the areas in which sensory experience of the retail brand occurs and its implications for retailers. It concludes with new insights into retail branding and proposals for the subject to be studied across disciplinary boundaries. Electronic access The Emerald Research Register for this journal is available at http://www.emeraldinsight.com/researchregister The current issue and full text archive of this journal is available at http://www.emeraldinsight.com/0959-0552.htm

International Journal of Retail & Distribution Management Volume 31 . Number 3 . 2003 . pp. 131-142 # MCB UP Limited . ISSN 0959-0552 DOI 10.1108/09590550310465503

It has become increasingly evident that the branding of retailers is a complex multidimensional concept, in which the distinction between goods and services disappears as the ‘‘format becomes the brand’’ (Dawson, 2001). As part of this evolution the retail brand has moved beyond two-dimensional, visual expressions of format and product identity to embrace three-dimensional spaces of the store environment. The introduction of ‘‘retail theatre’’ in the 1990s, of multi-sensory experiences in department stores, shopping malls and in focused retailers typified by Niketown is evidence of the broadening of the concept. It seems appropriate, therefore, to explore these developments through a synthesis of interdisciplinary study. There is evidence in at least some marketing departments of an enthusiasm for breaking out of their specialised ‘‘silo’’ to build a broader, synthesised understanding of the subject. Brownlie et al. (1999) propose a rethinking of marketing in its social context, a bigger picture of the social space marketing occupies and its taken for granted ideas. ‘‘Alternative’’ marketing may include new pliable and differentiated forms of knowledge, as discourses between management disciplines accelerate. Such an eclectic framework is supported by postmodern approaches in which metaphorical reasoning at least finds a place alongside the positivistic tradition (Brown, 1997). More specifically retail management studies, based on a fusion of geography and marketing, have tended to ignore the value of a historical dimension (Alexander and Akehurst, 1999). Promotion of cross-disciplinary approaches is pedagogically desirable too as disciplinary boundaries become fuzzier; career paths often cross disciplinary boundaries, and crossdisciplinary learning increases students’ problem-solving abilities (Alden et al., 1991). Moves towards interdisciplinarity in teaching follows unease about the fragmentation of management courses into specialised components, marketing, accounting and so on. In a more general managerial context the nature of management is seen by Knights and Willmott (1997) to be changing. It becomes more problematical as management skills become more widely distributed, with more people being empowered and becoming more

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2D23D: Management and design perspectives on retail branding

International Journal of Retail & Distribution Management Volume 31 . Number 3 . 2003 . 131-142

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autonomous. In this context the role of design in the visualisation and experience of retail brands has taken on greater significance. Not least because retail branding has an intrinsic, creative appeal to students in ways that quantitatively based subjects do not.

Branding A positive or successful brand is defined as a name, symbol, design or some combination of these, which identifies the ‘‘product’’ of a particular organisation as having a sustainable differential advantage (Schmitt, 1999a). From its mid-nineteenth century origins, branding endowed a household product with special characteristics including its name, packaging and advertising and offered reliability and consistency to the consumer (Lury, 1998). Branding came to be understood as providing a unique mixture of benefits that satisfy rational needs, but also emotional ones, by facilitating and simplifying the consumer’s choice process through behavioural shortcuts, habit and perception. In this way brand selection is based on experience and expectation; it appeals to a discrete group of buyers, indeed to consistently succeed it must maintain an affinity with a defined group (Fifield, 2002). In the late twentieth century, the concept of branding expanded from its earlier, more narrowly defined features and benefits function. At a corporate as well as product level, the values of the brand and its visual cues have taken on greater significance. The attention of corporate brand managers has been directed to the creation of brand personality, the expression of values and culture; identity, the communication of personality through cues; and image, the perceptions of the brand, felt or thought, by its audiences (Pickton and Broderick, 2001). These three elements resonate throughout marketing and design studies, and it is the different ways in which their relationship to branding have both been interpreted and subsequently evolved that provide significant insights into retail branding. For Baker (1994) image or personality is created by successful brands that the customer wants to buy. Aaker (1996) proposes that personality is concerned with consumers’ self-identity and as such provides a metaphor to suggest the kind of relationship

the consumer might enjoy with the brand. Nevertheless Schmitt (1999a) argues that Aaker treats branding primarily as identity, and misses out on the brand as a ‘‘rich source of sensory, affective and cognitive associations that result in memorable and rewarding experiences’’. In this broader sense identity should help to establish a relationship between customer and brand through a value proposition involving functional, emotive or self-expressive benefits. This is evident in the visual and graphic elements of identity proposed by Schmitt (1999b) through the media of publication, presentation, product, and property. The increasing significance of associations and symbols in the development and maintenance of the brand have affirmed this trend. Symbols provide cohesion and structure to identity, making it easier to gain recall. As a result values determining brand identity have shifted from product or store functionality to those of symbolic representations. The creation of ‘‘image’’ too became increasingly important during the 1980s and 1990s, across both domestic and global boundaries (Goldman and Papson, 1996). During this period, consumer experience of shopping began to appear in both economic and marketing literature (Pine and Gilmore, 1998). Typical of this trend is Bell’s (1999) discussion of the essential values of Woolworth’s brand in experiential terms as a warm, friendly environment filled with family products. The concept of sensory experience as an essential element of marketing marks a further broadening of the role of the brand. As brand extensions take an increasing number of forms, both tangible and intangible, so they will themselves take on new communication functions. Such communication will be twoway and globally available extending beyond information to provide entertainment as well. Films, places, business schools, museums, major news stories, bring distinct images, associations, and experiences. In this environment Schmitt and Simonsen (1997) observe that ‘‘businesses that engage customers are those that afford them a memorable sensory experience that ties in with positioning of the company, product or services’’. The most recent views maintain this pervasiveness of branding; the more so as it has become clear that values are created outside the individual brand. There is an

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emphasis on the evaluation and selection of brand partners, driven at least in part through the shift of power to retailers (Hill and Lederer, 2001; Gadd, 2001; Ind, 2001). But such pervasiveness brings with it its own tensions; between the desire to be exclusive, and avoiding product line extensions with more widespread distribution, which could ultimately dilute the brand’s value (Moore et al., 2000). From a wider, consumerist perspective it sustains opposition to the very nature of branding, brand management and the panoply of socio-cultural issues surrounding globalisation (Klein, 2001).

Development of retail branding: the managerial perspective Studies of retailer branding from a management perspective have arisen out of product branding and consumer buying behaviour. Compared to product manufacturers, retailers were slow to take up both product and corporate branding reflecting the domination of manufacturers’ brands in the products the retailer made or bought and sold under its own name. Nevertheless an element of branding had always been fundamentally evident in the house, or retailer brand name and the identity it achieved through its fascia and windows (Lury, 1998). In this respect the competitive advantages bestowed by retailer identities and loyalties go back a long way, emerging in nineteenth century rivalries between regional Co-ops (Alexander and Akehurst, 1999). However, of the three brand concepts of identity, image and personality, identity has been the least researched. Although the association with retail branding is not explicit, personality and image relationships between products and retail environment were initially made through research into store patronage. Martineau (1958) first described the ‘‘personality of the retail store’’ that led to an acceptance that consumers ‘‘form thoughts and feelings’’ about stores that influence their shopping behaviour and loyalty (Porter and Claycomb, 1997). Store image, on the other hand, has been described as the ‘‘overall perception of a store perceived by consumers’’ (Keaveney and Hunt, 1992). It is derived from an individual’s cognition and emotions freed from perceptions or memory inputs that

are attached to a particular store, and which represent what that store signifies to an individual (Baker, 1994). Such emotions can inspire excitement with the environment, and the desire to dwell in it can lead to repeat patronage (Wakefield and Baker, 1998). The consequences of combining distinctive image and personality can be found in successful fashion retailer brands (Birtwistle and Freathy, 1998). The construction of store image comprises both tangible and intangible elements. These have been defined in multiple dimensions that combine the store’s functional qualities with the psychological attributes the consumer relates to them. Linquist (1975) in an early review of store image studies found that ‘‘physical facilities’’ (the store environment) were one of nine major factors. Other dimensions typically include fashion, selection and quality of merchandise, customer services and sales personnel, and store atmosphere. However the role of design tends to be discussed less comprehensively, even though its importance has been emphasised in retailer differentiation strategies (Harris and Walters, 1992; Doyle and Broadbridge, 1999). The tangibles: product brand development Product image and retail image have been shown to be closely related in the context of buying behaviour (Davies, 1998). Brands provide informational cues for buyers about the store’s merchandise quality, and favourable images of brands positively influence patronage decisions (Porter and Claycomb, 1997). Until the late 1970s ownbrands used to communicate the store’s low price position. However in the UK at least, retailers grasped the significance of their tradename in creating an image (Burt and Davis, 1999). As the management of store image became more important so the growth in retail advertising expenditure exceeded that of manufacturers’ brands during the 1970s and early 1980s (Burt and Davis, 1999). Advertising enabled retailers to create a brand image to transfer the imagery to the physical products themselves (Davies, 1998). Strong store and corporate images, and the competitive advantage they create as retail brands, took on a new significance as retailers expanded into international markets (Burt and Carralero-Encinas, 2000).

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Burt (2000) in assessing the evolution of retail brands within British grocery retailing identified the mid-1980s as a defining point in the development of ‘‘value added’’ brands. These are positioned to exceed the functional value of the product, for example through style innovations and design, product quality or store environment and staffing levels and skills (de Chernatony and McDonald, 1992). From the 1980s fashion retailing, too, shifted from passive distributor to expert channel coordinator of marketing activity, achieved by emphasis on product innovation and customer focus. Retailers came to recognise the value of own-brands as a means of reinforcing their market positioning, to communicate quality as well as value for money and their image has been supported by own-brands that provide consumers with additional psychological benefits (Moore, 1995). Sustainable competitive advantage was shown to be dependent on translating core values combining product, image and reputation into a coherent brand strategy (Birtwistle and Freathy, 1998). ‘ ... For the recreational shopper, shopping can be a very enjoyable use of time without needing to make a purchase; a leisure time activity and a way of information seeking for quality, fashions and prices... ’

By the 1990s retailers invested in image through ‘‘high quality, standardised or conforming stores’’. Category management provided a more coherent approach to the visual impact of products through space allocation. There was, too, a growing awareness of the retail trade name in the minds of the consumer and re-positioning of the ownbrands as higher quality products. These were re-packaged to emphasise the product in competition with manufacturers’ brands rather than promote the corporate identity. Brand extensions included services, cre`ches, bag packing, coffee shops (Burt, 2000); although these very extensions can also obscure meaningful distinctions between products and store image (Corstjens and Corstjens, 1995). As retail brands have encroached on manufacturers’ brand space so there has been a reversal of manufacturers from different sectors into retailing to re-assert a degree of control over their brand image. Across

different sectors Levi, Nike, Sony and Amoy have sought to both reinforce their identity and protect their product brand image through their own stores. Intangible/psychological elements in store image The second relevant group of studies to the branded environment and its image is found in the intangible and psychological elements of the store. Motivations for shopping and consumer expectations of the shopping experience are influential on the levels of pleasure experiences (McGoldrick and Pieros, 1998). The psychological impact of ‘‘the store’s atmosphere creates a retail image in the shopper’s mind’’, with the atmosphere influencing consumer behaviour in three ways, by creating attention, messages and an emotional, affective response (McGoldrick, 1990). Environmental cues including signage and exterior design as well as the internal environment have been found to be significant in the predictive decision making by consumers of service provision (Ward et al., 1992). Mehrabian and Russell’s (1974) work introduced early insights into the psychological influence of the retail environment. Donovan and Rossiter’s (1982) observations on the modification of feelings subsequently developed these by the environment as a powerful determinant of in-store behaviour. Environmentally induced responses can be primary determinants of the extent of planned spending. For the recreational shopper, shopping can be a very enjoyable use of time without needing to make a purchase; a leisure time activity and a way of information seeking for quality, fashions and prices (Bellenger and Korgaonkar, 1980). Described as an ‘‘almost automatic decoding process’’ impulse buying seems to be reactive behaviour in immediate response to an environmental stimulus, where arousal leads directly to action (Rossiter and Percy, 1987). In this state consumers may engage in imaginative, emotional and appreciative consumption experiences. Intrinsically motivated consumer behaviour is also typified by feelings of satisfaction, enjoyment, interest and pleasure. Play has been identified with flow experiences which are so enjoyable that doing replaces achieving (Havlena and Holbrook, 1986). Pleasurable absorption and losing track of time have been

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noted in other studies that relate consumption to the arousal of sensory stimuli (Holbrook and Hirschman, 1982). The use of different senses contributes to distinctive selling environments. Atmosphere has been created through the use of different senses; overwhelmingly through vision but also sound, and smell. A characteristic of larger retail spaces, such as department stores and shopping malls, is the promotion of vision as the key sense. Where the product itself is largely or exclusively concerned with information, such as mobile phone stores, information itself drives the experience. But the detachment of the visual experience from reality has led to a re-appraisal of the need to use other senses: in self-service environments, to touch and taste foods, to listen in music stores, to try on clothes. Touching products, trying them or tasting them by engaging their senses means that presentation becomes an important part of understanding the shop environment. Sensory psychologists can help to create a feeling of ‘‘being at home’’ for shoppers. Sounds and smells can perform important, if not fully understood, roles in this respect. Music has been shown to influence browsing and traffic flow behaviour. Scents can create a perception of friendlier, higher class and better-managed store. Sephora, a leading perfume retailer in France has experimented with sensory experiences on several levels, by creating a ‘‘Temple of Perfumes’’ in its Champs Elyseé store in Paris (Dupuis, 1998). But sensory experiences can be easy to copy. Starbucks can use exclusive coffee beans to make excellent coffee but other branded elements: its layout, atmosphere, and product range, are more easily imitated (Chan and Mauborgne, 1999). To summarise, retail branding from a management studies’ perspective is derived from marketing-led research into product marketing and the place of the store in determining buying behaviour. This has led to studies on store image and its impact on consumer behaviour, patronage, and loyalty. These also find support from research into measurements of service quality. The tangible elements of store image are evident in branded product studies, both within a store image context and in its own right, derived from a product marketing tradition. The intangible elements of store image have been researched in terms of consumer behaviour and

psychology through store environment and atmosphere. It is this group that provides more detailed insights into sensory experiences of branding.

The design tradition: branding and ‘‘experience’’ in a design context Brand identity, although marginalised in retail marketing research, forms a strong theme for designers, because identity management ‘‘concerns visual and other sensory experiences’’ (Schmitt and Simonsen, 1997). In retailing, design is concerned with the environments in which people shop: ‘‘[it] is a means of communicating a message to people, and ‘good design’ . . . must be a comprehensive and co-ordinated approach to everything the shopper sees’’ (Michell, 1986). The appearance of today’s stores owes much to the past application of design solutions to the needs of retailers as they have arisen: from department stores to self-service supermarkets, and lifestyle clothing retailers. Their design draws from both historical contexts and contemporary sources, for inspiration and materials, to create innovative store concepts. From a historical perspective, sensory experience of the store environment has a long if inconsistent tradition, and one that is not explicit in the literature of retail branding. Department stores have been a source for creative design for well over a century providing large spaces in which to develop expansive shopping experiences. Founded in 1909, Selfridges provided the most complete sensual experience of its time. The 21-window façade featured pictorial fashion tableaux. Inside the store a hidden string orchestra and banks of flowers contributed to an ultimate sense of opulence (Pound, 1960). And if Selfridges drew on a US tradition then a French influence was also widespread. The Parisian Bon Marche´ store was copied across the country, with one enthusiastic store owner going so far as to paint his delivery vans in red, white and blue (Crossick and Jaumian, 1999). The First World War brought an end to this level of retail brand experience. During periods of austerity in the 1920s and 1930s, developments in housing, transport and telephone communication enabled multiple retailers, such as Boots and Woolworths, to

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expand their businesses substantially. The main shopping streets in the UK came to be dominated by chains of shops (Evans, 1997). The variety in appearance of shopping areas was reduced, and a commonality of style asserted, through the combining of ownership, and the conscious imagery of the expanding retail companies. Modernity in architectural design, led to simpler outlines and minimised motifs. The ‘‘feeling for the pure cube’’, with façades of glass supported by minimal structures, allowed more light and air to pass into the interior of new buildings (Pevsner, 1974) but, combined with the use of mass construction techniques, created ever more standardised approaches to store design. ‘ ... By the 1980s the design remit became bolder still . . . Store design was an integral part of successful multiple clothing retailers’ strategies, leading the High Street towards both creative interiors and exteriors... ’

The shortages of products and materials combined with the modest expectations of consumers in the 1940s and early 1950s constrained the design of both retail interiors and exteriors. However as new consumer markets emerged from the mid-1950s onwards, designers responded with the retail store identity affirmed through window displays, as typified by Dolcis’s post-war double window frontages. Nevertheless a distinction was maintained between the external window display and interior layout. Within the store, design took on a functional role that extended well into the 1960s; its purpose to create sales-driven environments. Many fixtures were sent from manufacturers expressly to promote their products and point of purchase displays were directly related to selling products rather than complementing the store environment (Offenhartz, 1968). One of the first steps towards a designed interior came in 1961 with the ‘‘21 shop’’ in Woolards department store designed by Terence Conran for the style conscious teenager (Parsons, 2001). The integration of retail branded exteriors and interiors moved forward with Conran Design Group’s Habitat. Launched in 1964 Habitat focused on a home lifestyle for young marrieds and

singles that brought products and store design together. Another development in the 1960s saw retailers increasingly explore brand communication, initially through a visual medium. It was often individualistic, undertaken by shop owners with little retail experience and was frequently graphic (art school) led, evident in Biba’s art nouveau inspired logo. Department stores responded to Biba’s lifestyle-led challenge with Miss Selfridge in 1968 and Harrods Way In. Top Shop at Peter Robinson Oxford Circus (1967) provided a seminal point in the expansion of the visual presence of the brand for clothing retailers through the consolidation of window and interior store design, which led to the expansion of the visual presence of the brand (Parsons, 2001) (see Plate 1). The start of a retail design discipline emerged as design companies and multiple retailers jointly developed a new style of shop. At this stage, the designer was faced with a fundamental task of creating a shopping environment that established appropriate perceptions with the retailer’s targeted customers. By the 1980s the design remit became bolder still: ‘‘store as design’’ came to relate consumer behavioural needs to functionality and branding. Store design was an integral part of successful multiple clothing retailers’ strategies, leading the High Street towards both creative interiors and exteriors. These were evident in a wide variety of approaches in fashion retailing from the traditional look of Ralph Lauren to the minimalist use of colour at Jil Sander (Conran, 1996). Even W.H.Smith, a relatively conservative retailer, agreed that the future of ‘‘the High Street is Plate 1 Top Shop at Peter Robinson, c. 1970. Source: A. Parsons

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entertainment, [it’s] fun, and retailers have to realise this. That’s what the whole design thing is about’’ (Kay, 1987). Subsequent brand development became evident in merchandising effectiveness and lifestyle marketing communicated by a strong image to an ‘‘expertly defined target market group’’ (Moore, 1995).

arrival of self-service in the early 1950s held fundamental implications for interior design (see Plates 2 and 3). The disposition of space changed. Where the counter had formed a barrier, separating staff and goods from customers, self-service required an altogether different approach. Floor space needed to be used more flexibly, with products displayed within easy reach of customers. In parallel with clothing retailers supermarket design was sales driven, and its branding twodimensional throughout the 1960s. The

Total identity The significance of these developments in retail design had been quickly and graphically to identify shop units by their owners, market and trading position (Parsons, 2001). Plate 2 J. Sainsbury grocery shop c. 1911. Source: J. Sainsbury plc Graphics formed a key design resource in communicating brand identity to customers (Fitch and Knobel, 1990) through visual experiences. Logo and fascia design were established as the primary expression of identity, with the design of the logo becoming critical, especially where the store sought to re-establish its identity or create a new identity. In addition highly developed retail markets placed increasing pressure on the expression of retailer identity, where fresher, more desirable and more spectacular visual images have often been demanded to enhance the value of the brand (Olins, 1990). The retail name and logo from the fascia logically continued into the design of the retail interior, capturing and summarising the retailer’s brand values. The brand messages were developed inside the store, which added depth to perceptions encapsulated in the logo. A consistent approach across internal signage, store information, displays, packaging, carrier bags and ticketing typically drew from the corporate identity, using the same colour signals and typefaces to create a coherent image. But design also has a functionality, to display merchandise effectively using visual images, to instil trust, consistency and quality Plate 3 Self-service store environment c. 1954. Source: A. Kirby in the consumer’s mind. As a result the store environment has come to communicate strong visual sensory experiences of the retailer’s identity (Din, 2000). Branding by identity: the food sector Up to this point, retail brand design has focused on developments in the clothing sector. However, the food sector introduces a different perspective through the use of space to create new brand experiences. Food retailer identity was established through the use of graphics, combined with productdriven window displays. Inside the store the 137



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structure and space of urban supermarkets provided a backdrop through a fully glazed front with tiled façade for the store signage. The stores were fitted mostly into standard shop footprints; typically a High Street site was restricted by its place in a mixed development with retail units on the ground floor and offices above (Kirby and Kent, 2002). The development of Out of Town superstores offered more space and new design-led branding opportunities. The first was opened in 1967 and as competition for sites increased during the 1980s, external design became more visually and contextually demanding. In 1982 Tesco adopted the ‘‘Essex Barn’’ style supermarket architecture originally developed by Asda, built of bricks and pantiles and complete with clock tower. Its invented vernacular style within 20 years established itself as a visual ‘‘tradition’’ for this type of store (Kirby and Kent, 2002). Insideout store design gave further emphasis to the maximisation of interior sales space and gave impetus to the development of retailer brands and services. These moved beyond the twodimensional projection of visual identity into three-dimensional retail branding combining product development, and new sensory elements from in-store bakeries, fresh food displays, and cafes. Although delicatessen sectors had been introduced into Sainsbury’s as early as 1970 (Seth and Randall, 1999), extended fresh food displays, particularly in fruit and vegetables provided opportunities for changes in presentation and store layout (see Plates 4 and 5). The experience of retail space The communication of a consistent retailer identity through exteriors and interiors is the outcome of the contemporary design process in which consumerist, psychological, and aesthetic elements are drawn together (Din, 2000). In this design context postmodern theories of consumerism have formed a significant element. The concept of retail space as serving a more abstract social need concerns the use and design of retail spaces in the store itself, and its extension into the wider shopping environment, typically the street, mall or centre. Such spaces are used for the consumption of products and services for different purposes. Shopping can be understood as a social activity, in which consumption is for play or enjoyment.

Plate 4 J. Sainsbury, Greenwich. Source: A. Kirby

Plate 5 The ‘‘Essex Barn’’ architectural style, J. Sainsbury, High Wycombe. Source: A. Kirby

The shopping environment itself reflects a diversity of forms. Different geographies of retailing, shopping malls, department stores, and supermarkets offer different kinds of shopping experience and demand different kinds of knowledge: new retail developments exploiting captured markets at airports and petrol station forecourts, taking consumption to the consumer in targeted shopping catalogues, and appealing to the ‘‘leisured consumer’’ in Disney and Warner stores, and at football club shops (Lowe and Wrigley, 1996). Shopping centres and new designs for department stores in particular have taken on an experiential significance. Shopping mall design facilitates the shopper’s adventure, in

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their quest for ‘‘difference’’, and price-related bargains. These consumers, as expert semioticians, become adept at reading clues from the branding, packaging and point of sale material (Gabriel and Lang, 1995). Bluewater Park Shopping Centre (Plate 6) is distinguished by not merely its scale, but its social ambitions: ‘‘a monument to the enduring values of English culture’’ from a ‘‘belief in history as grounding the roots of a person’s identity’’ to ‘‘belief in the outdoors’’. In many new shopping malls, such as Bluewater, the experience is one of leisure as much as retailing and is very much a deliberate theme in concepts such as the Rainforest Cafe´. Visual merchandising is fundamental to these environments. The designer must create customer ‘‘cues’’ to draw the customer into a more fulfilling experience (Carbone, 1999). In the redesigned Selfridges every floor is divided into ‘‘worlds’’ of related merchandise, and dedicated areas within the worlds must be immediately recognisable (see Plate 7). Opportunities for visual excitement have to be Plate 6 Bluewater Park Shopping Centre, Kent. Source: A. Parsons

Plate 7 Selfridges Department Store, London. Source: A. Parsons

created within each world, requiring a graphics programme to be integrated into the overall design. The ‘‘theatre’’ developed by retailers and designers during the 1990s took experience of the retailer beyond material realities and visual imagery into retail as entertainment, and hedonism (Miller et al., 1998). In order to be interactive and fun, retail space becomes a stage; the show draws in customers and allows the retailer to charge a premium price for what may be commodity products or services. Traditions of carnival, play, enjoyment, flaneurism – windowshopping – find a place here as the rational is challenged by the irrationality of postmodern consumption. Further influences lie beyond the physical environment. The impact of Internet shopping, and the increasing influence of interactive games design on Web sites may encourage ‘‘bricks and mortar’’ retailers to change the design of their stores to increase the leisure elements of the shopping experience. But this pervasiveness has brought about a design-led reaction to brands, typified by a new wave of fashion retailers’ minimal branding, hard to find stores, small stock assortments and enigmatic promotion. Miller et al. (1998) argue that as a consequence of the wealth of images around them consumers have become detached from the real world of real things. Spaces and places have taken on their own properties rather than acting as a background to the products themselves. Minimalist, or ‘‘non’’ branding seeks to redress this balance by creating product-led exclusivity (see Plates 8 and 9). Moreover design has not been a central to all retail strategy. It has been more significant among retailers competing for impulse purchases and supplying the customers’ wants Plate 8 Non-branding. A Bathing Ape store, Tokyo, 2001. Source: J. Baker

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Plate 9 Non-branding. A Bathing Ape ‘‘camouflaged bus’’ promotion, Tokyo, 2001. Source: J. Baker

rather than needs, where visual appearances matter as much as functionality. Whilst clothing stores and shopping centres attracted the most design attention, the other creations of the 1980s, the retail warehouse and, collectively, retail parks were largely immune from these design trends. DIY and electrical Out of Town retailing competed on cost, width of product range and accessibility to car borne customers rather than experience of their stores.

multiple High Street retailers from Laura Ashley to Niketown and Starbucks, provide more intense, holistic experiences; their limited space though constrains the possible range of experiences. And critically it constrains the opportunities to indulge in substantial new experiences. Novelty for these retailers in the short term concerns product additions, graphics, and other nonpermanent materials that can be re-ordered, rearranged or re-presented. This is partly due to the very strength of their brand image and more prosaically the cost of continuous change. Some retail spaces remain less evaluated by design: the discount food and particularly clothing retailers; the retail park ‘‘sheds’’. Some sectors and specialists are seemingly less amenable to consumption theories and the use of design-led brand experiences. Consider pharmacies, DIY, electrical and white goods stores, not to mention the staples of the suburban parade: pet shops, newsagents, Indian restaurants and charity shops. Different formats and sectors need further research to establish appropriate boundaries to their brand.

Conclusion: boundaries of the retail brand

References

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Holbrook, M.B. and Hirschman, E. C. (1982), ‘‘The experiential aspects of consumption: consumer fantasies, feeling, and fun’’, Journal of Consumer Research, Vol. 9, September, pp. 132-40. Ind, N. (2001), Living the Brand, Kogan Page, London. Kay, W. (1987), The Battle for the High Street, Piatkus, London. Keaveney, S.M. and Hunt, K.A. (1992), ‘‘Conceptualization and operationalization of retail store image: a case of rival middle-level theories’’, Journal of Academy of Market Science, Vol. 20 No. 2, pp. 165-75. Kirby, A. and Kent, A. (2002), ‘‘Creating a tradition in supermarket design’’, CHORD Conference, University of Wolverhampton, Wolverhampton. Klein, N. (2001), No Logo, No Space, No Choice, No Jobs, Flamingo, London. Knights, D. and Willmott, H. (1997), ‘‘The hype and hope of interdisciplinary management studies’’, British Journal of Management, Vol. 8, pp. 9-22. Linquist, J. (1975), ‘‘Meaning of image’’, Journal of Retailing, Vol. 50 No. 4, pp. 29-38. Lowe, M. and Wrigley, N. (1996), Retailing, Consumption and Capital, Longman, Harlow. Lury, G. (1998), Brand Watching: Lifting the Lid on the Phenomenon of Branding, Blackhall, Dublin. McGoldrick, P.J. (1990), Retail Marketing, McGraw-Hill. McGoldrick, P.J. and Pieros, C.P. (1998), ‘‘Atmospherics, pleasure and arousal: the influence of response moderators’’, Journal of Marketing Management, Vol. 14 No. 1, pp. 172-97. Martineau, P. (1958), ‘‘The personality of the retail store’’, Harvard Business Review, Vol. 36, JanuaryFebruary, pp. 47-55. Mehrabian, A. and Russell, J.A. (1974), An Approach to Environmental Psychology, MIT Press, Cambridge, MA. Michell, G. (1986), Design in the High Street, The Architectural Press, Princeton, NJ. Miller, D., Jackson, P., Thrift, N., Holbrook, B. and Rowland, M. (1998), Shopping Place and Identity, Routledge, London. Moore, C.M. (1995), ‘‘From rags to riches – creating and benefiting from the fashion own-brand’’, International Journal of Retail & Distribution Management, Vol. 23 No. 9, pp. 19-27. Moore, C.M., Fernie, J. and Burt, S. (2000), ‘‘Brands without boundaries – the internationalisation of the designer retailer’s brand’’, European Journal of Marketing, Vol. 34 No. 8, pp. 919-37. Offenhartz, H. (1968), Point of Purchase Design, Reinhold. Olins, W. (1990), Corporate Identity: Making Business Strategy Visible through Design, Thames and Hudson, London. Parsons, A. (2001), ‘‘The branding of Burton menswear’’, paper presented to the CHORD Conference, University of Wolverhampton, Wolverhampton. Pevsner, N. (1974), Pioneers of Modern Design from William Morris to Walter Gropius, Penguin, Harmondsworth. Pickton, D. and Broderick, A. (2001), ‘‘Integrated marketing communications’’, Financial Times, Prentice Hall, Engldwood Cliffs, NJ. Pine, B.J. and Gilmore, J.H. (1998), ‘‘Welcome to the experience economy’’, Harvard Business Review, July/August, pp. 97-105.

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Porter, S.S. and Claycomb, C. (1997), ‘‘The influence of brand recognition on retail store image’’, Journal of Product and Brand Management, Vol. 6 No. 6, pp. 373-87. Pound, R. (1960), Selfridge, a Biography, Heinemann, London. Rossiter, J. and Percy, L. (1987), Advertising and Promotion Management, McGraw-Hill, New York, NY. Schmitt, B.H. (1999a), ‘‘Experiential marketing: a new framework for design and communications’’, Design Management Journal, Spring, Vol. 10 No. 2, pp. 10-16. Schmitt, B.H. (1999b), Experiential Marketing: How to Get Customers to Sense. Feel. Think. Act; Relate to Your Company and Brands, The Free Press, New York, NY. Schmitt, B.H. and Simonsen, A. (1997), Marketing Aesthetics: The Strategic Management of Brands, The Free Press, New York, NY. Seth, A. and Randall, G. (1999), The Grocers: the Rise and Rise of the Supermarket Chains, Kogan Page, London. Wakefield, K.L. and Baker, J. (1998), ‘‘Excitement at the mall: determinants and effects on shopping response’’, Journal of Retailing, Vol. 74 No. 4, pp. 515-39.

Ward, J.C., Bitner, M.J. and Barnes, J. (1992), ‘‘Measuring the prototypicality and meaning of retail environments’’, Journal of Retailing, Summer, Vol. 68 No. 2, pp. 194-220.

Further reading Christopher, M. (1996), ‘‘From brand values to customer value’’, Journal of Marketing Practice: Applied Marketing Science, Vol. 2 No. 1, pp. 55-66. Ewing, M.T. (2000), ‘‘Brand and retailer loyalty: past behavior and future intentions’’, Journal of Product and Brand Management, Vol. 9 No. 2, pp. 120-7. Kapferer, J-N. (2001), Re-inventing the Brand: Can Top Brands Survive the New Market Realities, Kogan Page, London. Richardson, P., Jain, A.K. and Dick, A. (1996), ‘‘The influence of store aesthetics on evaluation of private label brands’’, Journal of Product and Brand Management, Vol. 5 No. 1, pp. 19-28. Warnaby, G. (1994), ‘‘Laura Ashley – An international retail brand’’, Management Decision, Vol. 32 No. 3, pp. 42-8.

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Introduction

Visual merchandising and the creation of discernible retail brands Shona Kerfoot Barry Davies and Philippa Ward The authors Shona Kerfoot is based at Matalan Retail Ltd, Skelmersdale, UK. Barry Davies is Assistant Dean (Research) and Philippa Ward is Principal Lecturer, both at the University of Gloucestershire Business School, Cheltenham, UK. Keywords Merchandising, Vision, Branding, Retailing, Fashion Abstract This research presents the results of an initial investigation on ‘‘visual merchandising’’ and its effects on purchase behaviour and brand recognition. The context is concessionary branded female fashion offerings within a department store. The research utilises semi-structured interviews with a small sample of female undergraduate students. The interviews incorporated the use of stimulus material – photographs taken of concessions in a department store some 150 miles away from the research location. The results suggest that the themes that linked most strongly to purchase intention were: merchandise colours, presentation style, awareness of fixtures, path finding, sensory qualities of materials and lighting. Initial findings suggest that liking of display does not totally determine purchase, but does make it four times more likely. Electronic access The Emerald Research Register for this journal is available at http://www.emeraldinsight.com/researchregister The current issue and full text archive of this journal is available at http://www.emeraldinsight.com/0959-0552.htm International Journal of Retail & Distribution Management Volume 31 . Number 3 . 2003 . pp. 143-152 # MCB UP Limited . ISSN 0959-0552 DOI 10.1108/09590550310465521

Visual stimulation and communication have long been considered important aspects of retailing by practitioners and academics alike (McGoldrick, 1990, 2002). This interest in the visual has – at one level within the retail context – coalesced to form the practice of ‘‘visual merchandising’’. This is defined as the ‘‘. . . activity which coordinates effective merchandise selection with effective merchandise display’’ (Walters and White, 1987, p. 238). Visual merchandising is therefore concerned with both how the product and/or brand is visually communicated to the customer and also whether this message is decoded ‘‘appropriately’’ – in this context affecting a positive psychological or behavioural outcome, ultimately leading to purchase. The importance of attaining such an outcome has meant that within the retail environment, numerous methods have been used to display merchandise and communicate product and retailer brand. This diversity in visual merchandising methods has perhaps also stemmed from the vast array of goods and services that are sold by retailers. The development of merchandising techniques, and the dissemination of these approaches amongst retailers, has a wellestablished history. For example, L. Frank Baum acknowledged the importance of window display as early as 1897. He also acted as the founding editor of The Show Window – a trade publication in which he offered guidelines to retailers on the creation of effective window displays – where he provided an early mechanism for the dissemination of visual merchandising ‘‘best practice’’. This early publication evolved to examine display across the store and continued to offer advice for some considerable time. This interest in the importance and potential of display to affect customers has continued within the retail sector and dedicated trade publications are still apparent, for instance Visual Merchandise and Store Display (VM&SD), started in 1922. However, the importance of visual merchandising has not received as much attention in the academic literature (LeaGreenwood, 1998). One notable exception has been within the US fashion-based literature, where a number of texts have been devoted to the subject. These though are primarily practitioner-based, highlighting

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Shona Kerfoot, Barry Davies and Philippa Ward

again a deficiency of attention from retail academics. This study represents a small step towards addressing this lack. It investigates the influence of visual merchandising stimuli within the retail store environment on customer perceptions and responses. In doing this, the research is focused on the potential psychological and behaviour outcomes that result from customer interaction with visual merchandising, rather than directly trying to establish what constitutes best practice per se or manipulating visual merchandising techniques themselves. The context chosen for investigation is female fashion in the UK. This particular retail sector was chosen as it has recently elevated visual merchandising to an issue of board level concern (Lea-Greenwood, 1998). Given this situation the sector affords an ideal context in which to investigate the impact of such cues on customers, as the degree of retailer sophistication in this area is likely to be higher than that displayed by organisations in other sectors. Within the female fashion sector the department store was selected as the specific venue for investigation. This is because it offers distinctive merchandising possibilities for a number of brands – both retail and clothingbased. Here, the retail brands are derived from those stores that source and display ‘‘ownbrand’’ assortments, and the clothing-based brands stem from either a manufacturing or design base. Within the department store these brands are merchandised within their own concessions in a way that holds a number of extraneous variables constant – for example, building type or specific shop location. This makes the use of such a research context advantageous as it minimises the development of customer perceptions and behaviour based on such factors and therefore enables the consideration of various aspects of visual merchandising and display and the ‘‘effectiveness’’ of this communication on customers. However, whilst excluding extraneous factors is beneficial, to investigate visual merchandising adequately it is also necessary to understand what actually constitutes this area of retailer activity.

Dimensions of visual merchandising and display Omar (1999) suggests that there are three types of interior display: merchandise display,

point-of-sale display and architectural display. This study focuses on merchandise display: the choice of a singular store to provide the stimulus photographs minimises the architectural elements (external and buildingbased); additionally, point-of-sale areas were excluded from the photographs to ensure only merchandise display was considered. The key facets within merchandise display are identified within the literature as: layout, (e.g. Levy and Weitz, 1996; Berman and Evans, 1995), fixturing (e.g. Levy and Weitz, 1996; Donnellan, 1996), merchandise (e.g. Davies and Ward, 2002), presentation techniques (e.g. Buchanan et al., 1999), colour (e.g. Koelemeijer and Oppewal, 1999) and packaging (e.g. Bruce and Cooper, 1997; Da Costa, 1995). These areas have received varying degrees of attention as individual elements. However, there is, in fact, little work that brings these facets together as ‘‘merchandise display’’. There is also a lack of literature that examines the influence that such display engenders in consumers and – in particular – considers the influence of such cues on brand communication and purchase intention. However, some of the elements of merchandise display have been examined from an environmental psychology approach, as well as from a service environment perspective. These two related literatures provide potential starting points as each considers the physicality of the in-store environment and its influence on customers.

The physical in-store environment It has frequently been suggested that ‘‘good’’ interior design within a store can maintain customer interest, encourage customers to lower their psychological defences and make a purchase (e.g. Kotler, 1974; Walters and White, 1987; Bitner, 1992; Omar, 1999; Davies and Ward, 2002). In examining this potential, the physical in-store environment has been examined in relation to various elements, for example: orienting factors (Davies and Ward, 2002); signage (Bitner, 1992); spatial factors (Davies and Ward, 2002; Bitner, 1992); and ambient conditions (Bitner, 1992), which Kotler (1974) termed ‘‘atmospherics’’. These elements are in many ways redolent of the facets of merchandise display identified above. This high degree of congruence between merchandise display

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facets and the elements identified when concerning the physicality of the in-store environment would appear to add further weight to the use of such ‘‘borrowed’’ approaches in this research. The work regarding the physicality of the in-store environment focuses on the ‘‘communication’’ of elements through cues and stimuli that the customer digests through a number of sensory modalities (visual, aural, olfactory, haptic and taste). Within the research on in-store environments it has been suggested that some people are better at ‘‘digesting’’ environmental stimuli than others (Bitner, 1992) and therefore the onus is on the retailer to make the physical environment as digestible or ‘‘legible’’ as possible (Davies and Ward, 2002). Given that up to 90 per cent of the cues provided by an environment are digested through sight (Edwards and Shackley, 1992) it follows that many environmental cues in the retail context are visually communicated. The twin threads of visual communication and legibility highlighted in the environmental literature echo the sentiments raised in the definition of visual merchandising above. This then further strengthens the links between the visual merchandising and considerations of the physicality of the in-store environment. Therefore, from either perspective, understanding how to communicate product and brand images to customers through individual visual stimuli is vital. The term ‘‘visual merchandising’’ also suggests a degree of holistic communication and this totality of consideration is also reflected in the literature on the built environment. Here, in addition to the effect that individual visual stimuli may have on the perception of a particular retail space, also highlighted are the effects that derive from people’s ability to discern ‘‘wholes’’ within their field of perception. For example, Lynch (1960) devised the acronym ‘‘PLEND’’ to describe the ability of individuals to find their way by reference to: paths, landmarks, edges, nodes and districts. Similarly, individuals are able to perceive ‘‘routes’’ (Levy and Weitz, 1996) or to discern the level of ‘‘sociability’’ of a space. However, as Bawa et al. (1989) highlight only certain environmental variables have been the focus of research. Within these elements the totality of visual merchandising, in the wider context of the internal environment, has not, however, been

considered – given the relative importance of the visual as a medium for communication this lack in the literature is perhaps surprising. This paper concentrates on the visual aspects of this totality of merchandising within the store. In doing this the research utilises a foundation drawn from the literature on the retail built environment and focuses on issues concerning: colour, lighting, shape and space. However, consideration is also given to issues of layout and fixturing as well as merchandise and presentation. The treatment of these visual elements is not at the individual level and rather than create potentially meaningless divisions between them, the approach taken centres on consumers’ responses to the various retail environments as depicted in the stimulus material and ‘‘reasons’’ for these responses. This perspective is also consistent with the predominant approach used in the environmental psychology literature. It centres on the development of ‘‘approach or avoidance’’ behaviour as the result of ‘‘pleasure, arousal and dominance’’ being generated by the environmental stimuli (Mehrabian and Russell, 1974; Donovan and Rossiter, 1982; Donovan et al., 1994). In this research context these are operationalised as the development of ‘‘liking’’ or ‘‘disliking’’ and propensity to browse. The relative effectiveness of the communication potential of the in-store environment visual elements is also considered. This is done through the examination of respondents’ identification of brand and their assessment of merchandise price (the latter measure attempts to consider if respondents are at least able to discern the relative market position of the brand if not identify it outright). Some attention is also paid to haptic sensing. The use of a single departmental store would enable sound to be kept constant, however the stimulus materials used were purely photographic, and whilst it is possible to discern potential haptic cues from such sources it is obviously impossible to gauge auditory ones. Issues of sound were therefore excluded. The aims of this study are therefore to gather data from customers to identify those factors or themes that they see as important when considering visual merchandising. Beyond this an attempt was also made to establish whether presentation within the individual concession was liked or disliked

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and what particular features lead to a particular concession seeming attractive or unattractive. Respondents were also asked whether their perception of the price of the clothes was expensive or inexpensive, and whether respondents would be likely to browse or not within the concession. They were also asked to identify the brand in each of the seven cases. This research therefore adopts a consumer response-centred approach to visual merchandising stimuli in an attempt to consider this area of retail concern in an holistic manner. In doing so it seeks to both explore an area that has received limited attention in the literature and limit the potentially meaningless division of visual stimuli into discrete areas of consideration.

Methodology This research takes an exploratory approach and utilises qualitative data collection techniques. This type of approach lends itself to this study as the central topic of visual merchandising has seen limited empirical investigation and the aims of the research focus on developing an understanding of stimuli that cause particular responses. In doing this, it is necessary to explore respondents’ feelings and views in relation to a particular visual merchandising presentation and therefore a more open approach is dictated. Data collection techniques Semi-structured interviews were used as the central mechanism for data collection. The use of this data collection technique aligns well with an exploratory approach as semistructured interviews enable the ‘‘seeking of insights’’. This is achieved through the flexibility of using the technique, which affords the opportunity to explore responses, seek clarification and explanation as well as developing discussion and where appropriate employing probing techniques. This then provides greater understanding and achieves added depth and richness in the data. The semi-structured interviews were based around the use of visual stimulus material. Photographs were taken of seven varying female fashion concessions within Kendal’s, the large House of Fraser department store in the centre of Manchester. This store was sited some 150 miles from the research location.

The use of stimulus material generated in a distant ‘‘locational’’ context was adopted to eliminate the possibility of respondents having had a direct involvement with the concession. Had respondents had direct experience of the concessions they may have been able to identify the brand on the basis of their actual knowledge. The photographs did not show any elements of architectural display or point-of-sale display; care was also taken to exclude any obviously identifiable signage, logos or brand names. This meant that the photographs focused solely on aspects of visual merchandising and display. The ultimate selection of fashion ‘‘brands’’ included in the research was driven by interviews conducted with fashion-oriented young females (not themselves studying fashion), who were then excluded from further participation in data collection. The brands selected were also ones that featured within department stores around the interview location (Cheltenham). This then excluded those brands that potential respondents would otherwise perhaps not have encountered making it impossible for them to recognise the brand from its associated visual merchandising. The brands used in this study where: Armani Jeans, FCUK, Max Mara, Miss Sixty, Morgan, Nicole Farhi and Polo Jeans. Research procedure Interviewees were seen individually in their homes and shown photographs of a particular concession. They were asked a number of questions derived from the research aims. The questions concerned the following issues: recognition of clothing brand, liking or disliking of the ‘‘display’’, identification of what was seen as attractive and unattractive, propensity to browse the concession depicted, rationale behind browsing activity, and possible purchase intention. These topics were explored using open questions; in each context care was taken by the interviewer not to introduce specific aspects of visual merchandising to the discussion. This enabled respondents to express their opinions and select elements of the visual stimulus to explore, thereby ensuring that the respondents and not the interviewer drove the data collected. By adopting such an approach it is possible to circumvent some of the criticism that has been levelled at empirical studies examining other aspects of the in-store

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environment and customer perception (Davies and Ward, 2002). One closedquestion was used within the interview, this related to respondents’ perception of the cost of the merchandise on display. This question used a six-point scaled response format. The uniform response format was used in this context to ensure that answers could be easily compared. This question was however supported by an open inquiry that sought to determine respondents’ reasoning for their classification of the cost of the clothes depicted. This process was then repeated with the remaining six photographs. Each time the order of the questions remained fixed; however the open nature of the questions used meant that there was scope to explore points as they arose and where necessary respondents could be probed to provide additional information. The order of the stimulus presentation was however rotated to ensure that order effects did not colour the information gathered and additionally that respondent fatigue was not encountered consistently in relation to a particular photograph. A single interviewer administered this process and each session took between 45 minutes and an hour to complete. Sample The sample used was convenience-based; however it was guided by the characteristics provided by House of Fraser in relation to its female target market. These characteristics cover a broad spectrum of women. The focus in this research is on the younger female shopper, termed ‘‘the fashion-lover’’ who is between the ages of 18-26 and is of particular interest to the House of Fraser group. This focus enabled the narrowing of the boundaries for respondent selection. The concessions selected, as mentioned above, were based on the choices of females falling within the selected respondent category, and were not pre-selected by House of Fraser or the research team; the concessions did however all form part of the ‘‘fashion-lover’’ department. Respondents for the interviews were selected on a convenience basis and were all undergraduate students at the University of Gloucestershire studying a variety of programmes. In total 13 interviews were conducted. At this point data redundancy had

been reached and no further interviews were conducted. Data analysis The interviews were transcribed and thematic analysis conducted. These themes then assisted in the development of a model that utilises each separate question response (excluding those related to brand recognition and clothing pricing) to map the impact of visual merchandising on liking, browsing and purchase intention.

Findings and discussion A number of themes emerged from the interviews, these centred on the following topics: merchandise colour, manner of presentation, awareness of fixtures, path finding, sensory qualities of materials and the effects of lighting. Some of these elements have close associations within issues raised in the literature, others however appear to highlight new issues that have received little attention to date. Merchandise colour Merchandise colour had an immediate impact on most respondents and generated considerable comment. These tended to centre on the use of colour as a key presentation element and positive observations were made on the use of colour coordination across merchandise assortments – ‘‘. . . blue, white, pinks and denim go together’’. Colour coordination was also associated with the development of multiple purchases in many cases, for example ‘‘. . . I would buy the cream top to go with the jeans’’. It was clear that the use of strongly contrasting colours or what was deemed to be an ‘‘uncoordinated’’ colour arrangement was found to be unpleasant. Such conditions were associated with ‘‘cramped’’ or ‘‘jumbled’’ presentation. It was interesting that those respondents who commented on colour did so in relation to the merchandise and did not in fact note the background colour of the concession itself. This is perhaps surprising given that the focus of research in relation to colour in the in-store environment has been on ‘‘background’’ colour. Respondents also commented on the meaning that they associated with particular colours. These

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associations are summarised in Table I, which also extends these associations to the price of the merchandise. There appears to be a degree of consistency in respondents’ perceptions of merchandise colour. These associations are however not consistent with those presented in previous literature. The literature is itself though inconsistent and it would appear that while colour does generate associations in customers, these are varied and perhaps specific to context, item and even possibly time. This could therefore present considerable difficulty in conducting research into the use of colour in retail contexts and additionally perhaps provides some explanation for the variety of associations generated in existing research. It is also evident that whilst this may be a difficult area to research there is a need to understand the importance of colour, particularly as it appears to transmit signals related to merchandise pricing, and by implication quality. Respondents associated neutral colours with exclusive merchandise. This is consistent with previous research by Israel (1994). However, white could be considered a neutral colour, but respondents suggested that white merchandise would cost less than the average. Here, white is perhaps being associated with ‘‘basic’’ and ‘‘simple’’ both in terms of the product and perhaps in terms of production. Particular colours, as highlighted in the comments related to coordination, are not considered in isolation. The notion of colour mix appeared to influence respondents. The use of black and red in Miss Sixty was termed ‘‘high streety’’ and the mix of colours used by FCUK was thought to be ‘‘bright and fun’’. In general, the use of a wide variety of colours was deemed to produce ‘‘attractive and

appealing’’ displays and had the potential to positively impact a respondent’s propensity to browse. Given these findings it appears that merchandise colour is an important factor that influences perceptions of price and quality, as well as helping to form image perceptions of the wider retail offer. The examination of this area, perhaps alongside issues of colour in relation to the general background and, potentially, fixturing, would seem valuable. Manner of presentation This issue raised considerable comment in relation to four principal methods of presentation: hanging, folding, rail-based, and the use of mannequins. Hanging was viewed as the most attractive presentation method as it made garments ‘‘readily visible’’, enabling respondents to ‘‘see everything without rummaging’’ and also helped them to ‘‘visualise outfits’’ and also ‘‘mix and match’’ garments. Folding clothing made ‘‘the display look neat’’. However, respondents noted that folding clothing made assessing style difficult and in some cases was too neat, creating anxiety. This meant that a surprising number of respondents felt that they would not browse in the concession, as they did not want to ‘‘disturb the display’’. The use of rails also raised negative comment; respondents found ‘‘seeing only a sleeve’’ to be ‘‘irritating’’. These various display techniques – both used individually and in combination – also generated comment on the ‘‘orderliness’’ of the displays. Order was generally seen as a positive attribute by respondents and is often perceived as essential in the literature on display (Diamond and Pintel, 1997). However, the research indicated that there was a fine line between an orderly display and

Table I Colour perception and merchandise price Colour

Perception

Perception of price

White Neutral/beige

‘‘Crap and tacky’’ ‘‘Boring and dull" ‘‘Easy on the eye" ‘‘For the older, more mature person’’ ‘‘Looks very young’’ ‘‘Makes the clothes look too old’’ ‘‘Garish’’ ‘‘Tacky’’ ‘‘Makes the whole display look dark’’ ‘‘Blocks out all the other colours’’

Below average Expensive to very expensive

Pink Red Black

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Average to above average Average to below average (No clear association)




one that is perceived as being ‘‘complicated’’ or indeed ‘‘muddled’’. It has been suggested that hanging garments displayed on racks present an uncluttered and neat arrangement (Berman and Evans, 1995). However, respondents suggested that such displays were unattractive and disorganised and in fact, as Levy and Weitz (1996) suggest, are confusing and disordered. Therefore, the extent and nature of the orderliness perceived appears to differ with various methods of presentation. This suggests that the call for order in displays in the literature, whilst appropriate, needs to be developed to accommodate the differences between (and interaction with other) display types. This may then provide a degree of consistency within the advice given in relation to the use of display techniques within various retail contexts. Mannequins generated a positive response in the main. Respondents expressed approval at being able to ‘‘see designs’’, ‘‘entire outfits’’ and ‘‘see what the clothes will look like on’’. Such comments would seem to support the suggestion that mannequins influence multiple purchases (Kotler, 1974; Levy and Weitz, 1996; Morganstein and Strongin, 1992). Mannequins were also termed ‘‘very visual’’ and respondents actually made adverse comments in relation to displays that did not feature their use. Such positive views can perhaps explain why mannequin use has been deemed to stimulate browsing (LeaGreenwood, 1998). The only mannequins that generated an adverse reaction were those used in the Miss Sixty concession – these were however non-traditional clear torso mannequins. Awareness of fixtures A wide variety of response was generated in relation to fixturing – both in relation to materials used and type. There was a good deal of consistency however regarding the use of glass as a presentation material. It was viewed positively by most respondents and when used as ‘‘glass cubes’’ was termed ‘‘unusual’’ and considered to make presentation ‘‘neat and tidy’’. Respondents suggested that glass tables conveyed a ‘‘smart appearance’’ and merchandise laid out on such surfaces portrayed an ‘‘up-market image’’. This would seem to parallel Donnellan’s assertion that the use of tables and cubes to display folded garments is aesthetically pleasing. However, within this

research, as well as the display mechanism itself influencing perceptions of what is aesthetically pleasing, there is also a clear link to the material used. For example, when glass was used in combination with chrome, this made displays ‘‘look funky and fashionable’’. Within the literature, little is made of the associations generated by different materials (Schmitt and Simonson, 1997) and this is perhaps an area that warrants more detailed examination. When fixturing type is considered, the use of shelves and rails was seen as unattractive – engendering the perception that the concession was ‘‘bog standard’’ or made the products seem ‘‘out of a warehouse’’. The Nicole Farhi concession, which predominantly uses shelves and rails, was likened to ‘‘a Next sale’’. The use of red as a fixturing colour also generated negative comments. It was seen as being ‘‘tacky’’, ‘‘garish’’ and ‘‘in your face’’. This colour choice also lowered respondents’ perceptions of merchandise quality, leading to the assessment that the clothes were of an average, below average or even cheap price.

A holistic view of display Respondents commented on, and were potentially influenced by, a wide range of display-related factors. These, whilst often receiving individual attention, were not viewed in isolation, and rather respondents’ perceptions often involved various factors in combination. This ‘‘holistic’’ interpretation of display is somewhat at odds with the approaches conveyed in the literature. Whilst considering various aspects individually is clearly logical, it has perhaps meant that the literature fails to consider the effect of, for example, folded garments displayed on chrome and glass cubes and how changing materials or fixtures might in turn change perception. Such interactions begin to suggest that the research conducted on display has not as yet gone beyond the surface and increasing sophistication is needed to provide useful guidelines for retailers. Path finding The provision of a clear route noticeably affected some respondents’ propensity to browse. It was suggested that a clear route provided ‘‘a natural way to go around and

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look at things’’. When respondents ‘‘feel as though there is no route’’ it was deemed ‘‘difficult to know where to start’’. Where there were obstructions when a route had been delineated the displays where also termed ‘‘hard to walk around’’. Neat and sparse displays (both in terms of merchandise density and display density) were unsurprisingly associated with more expensive brands, one respondent commenting: ‘‘space says designer’’ and then suggesting ‘‘. . . one pair of trousers laid out on their own shows they can afford the space and people will pay the price because of the label’’. Here, the notion of low spatial density of display clearly generated the perception of ‘‘quality and not quantity’’. However, although the provision of space to browse was found to be pleasing, respondents also suggested that in such contexts ‘‘the shop assistants would be looking at you’’ and that respondents would feel that they ‘‘shouldn’t be there’’. Sensory qualities of materials Respondents deemed the use of ‘‘wood’’ for flooring and hangers as giving a ‘‘more exclusive’’ ambience. Wooden fixtures were also thought of as ‘‘often show[ing] quality’’. They also associated the material unsurprisingly with being natural and as creating ‘‘light and airy’’ displays. The use of plastic see-through mannequins (in the Miss Sixty concession) was viewed by some respondents as being ‘‘cheap and nasty’’. However, others suggested that the materials used in this concession were ‘‘futuristic’’. They suggested that ‘‘seethrough mannequins, glass and modern-art steel tables, make the display feel funky’’. Effects of lighting Respondents viewed lighting in a variety of ways. The most positive statements were generated by the Max Mara concession. Here, respondents suggested that the lighting conveyed a positive feeling, the display ‘‘looks inviting’’ and ‘‘gives a feeling of seclusion and I’m special’’. Where lighting was merely ‘‘satisfactory’’ it attracted terms that included ‘‘nice and light’’. Negative associations were attributed to lighting that was perceived as being ‘‘dull’’ or ‘‘basic’’. In these situations the lighting was seen to make the displays ‘‘feel cold’’, in a sterile and uninviting sense. The use of fluorescent strip lighting in a fashion

context was viewed particularly negatively. The suggestion was that its use made displays ‘‘look like a supermarket’’ and was even by some respondents deemed ‘‘off putting’’ and ‘‘offensive’’.

A potential link – visual merchandising and consumer behaviour The various themes identified led respondents to develop a perception of their likely behaviour in each concession. This information, stimulated by the seven pictures of the concessions across the 13 respondents provided 91 ‘‘paths’’ of action, enabled the development of a model that details the likely behaviour of respondents. These initial 91 responses were ‘‘translated’’ into arrows depicting the number of responses signalling a particular path in relation to respondents’ emotions and behaviour. The model developed is depicted in Figure 1. From this representation of respondents’ concession perceptions and intended actions a number of potential links between visual merchandising and consumption intention can be established. Most of the literature fails to directly identify the potential of visual merchandising to influence affective and behavioural response in a detailed manner. This research demonstrates that the development of approach or avoidance behaviour is strongly related to consumers’ like or dislike of visual merchandising. As illustrated in Figure 1 and Table II a favourable response that leads to liking, in the majority of cases, engenders browsing and once enticed to browse the link to purchase becomes evident. This pattern is supported in previous research studies. However, this research highlights that liking, whilst a good predictor and precursor to browsing, does not always result in this behaviour. In a perhaps surprising number of instances, liking still leads to avoidance behaviour. This pattern is also echoed by those responses where disliking is evident. Here, 36 per cent of ‘‘dislike’’ responses still lead to browsing and even more strikingly, in 19 per cent of instances, to purchase. Dislike does not therefore necessarily lead to avoidance behaviour. These findings suggest that to fully understand the creation of approach and avoidance behaviour there is a need to go

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Figure 1 Behavioural process from display to consumption

Table II Visual merchandising – affective responses and anticipated action Affective response

Action

Like (40 responses)

Leave immediately Browse: – purchase Leave immediately Browse: – purchase Leave immediately Browse: – purchase

Dislike (36 responses)

Indifferent (15 responses)

Response percentage 10 88 80 64 36 19 46 53 47

Notes: Response percentages do not equal 100 as browse and purchase are not mutually exclusive categories and other potential actions have been omitted from the table

beyond considering the development of a general state of liking or disliking and consider what propels consumers to act in a manner that is at odds with their affective responses.

Brand identification through visual merchandising Whilst it is clear that respondents expressed both affective and behavioural responses to visual merchandising, they were less able to use this cue as a means of recognising a particular fashion brand. Of the 13 respondents, nine correctly identified Morgan on the basis of the stimulus photograph provided. One respondent stated that ‘‘Morgan looks the same everywhere’’ suggesting that the company’s visual style is

both consistent and distinctive. As such this fashion brand is a prime example of the ability of visual merchandising to act as an identifying factor. In addition, four respondents also appropriately recognised FCUK, and three respondents identified Polo – here the red fixtures were said to aid this process. The respondents did not recognise both the Max Mara and Nicole Farhi fashion brands. However, these two concessions were consistently associated with a more expensive and upmarket offer. The basis for these perceptions corresponds with ideas detailed in the literature: for example, muted colour associations and the use of low spatial merchandise density (Schmitt and Simonson, 1997; Walters and White, 1987). The Armani Jeans concession also went unrecognised;

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comments such as ‘‘could be any jeans make’’ and ‘‘thought it was men’s’’ demonstrate the lack of any strong visual communication of the brand. In this instance respondents also considered the concession to be downmarket based on its visual merchandising. Here, as Buchanan et al. (1999) suggest, consumers have expectations regarding display, and if not met the brand may be re-evaluated. The influence of visual merchandising on brand recognition is again an area that would benefit from more detailed exploration.

Conclusions Consumer expectations regarding in-store design have increased (Buchanan et al., 1999) and there is also a heightened desire for shopping excitement, which can in part be delivered through innovative design of the physical environment (Erlick, 1993; Levy and Weitz, 1996). Such actions, coupled with effective visual merchandising, can also aid in the creation of differentiation and brand identification (Israel, 1994). These goals are reliant on retailers’ ability to communicate effectively with their target audience through the physical environment. This means retailers need a detailed understanding of their audience and also therefore places a heavy emphasis on visual merchandising. This area needs to be acknowledged as a significant issue in both practice and theory. Within the literature there has been a failure to examine the role of visual merchandising and it would appear that the work that considers interior display is perhaps overly simplistic. Current research does not adequately cover the influence of visual merchandising on affective response or then on subsequent behaviour and equally on the importance of merchandising on brand differentiation and recognition. There is a clear need to consider such issues both more holistically (in terms of ‘‘imageability’’) and at a more detailed level.

References Bawa, K., Landwehr, J. and Krishna, A. (1989), ‘‘Consumer response to retailers’ marketing environments’’, Journal of Retailing, Vol. 65 No. 4, pp. 471-96. Berman, B. and Evans, J.R. (1995), Retail Management: A Strategic Approach (6th edition), Prentice Hall, London.

Bitner, M.J. (1992), ‘‘Servicescapes: the impact of physical surroundings on customers and employees’’, Journal of Marketing, Vol. 56 No. 2, pp. 57-71. Bruce, M. and Cooper, R. (1997), Marketing and Design Management, International Thomson Business, London. Buchanan, C., Simmons, C.J. and Bickart, B.A. (1999), ‘‘Brand equity dilution: retailer display and context brand effects’’, Journal of Marketing Research, Vol. 36 No. 3, p. 345. Da Costa, R. (1995), ‘‘Making your image stand to attention’’, Marketing, 19 October, pp. x-xii. Davies, B. and Ward, P. (2002), Managing Retail Consumption, Wiley, London. Diamond, J. and Pintel, G. (1997), Retail Buying (5th edition), Prentice Hall, London. Donnellan, J. (1996), Merchandise Buying and Management, Fairchild Publications, New York, NY. Donovan, R.J. and Rossiter, J.R. (1982), ‘‘Store atmosphere: an environmental psychology approach’’, Journal of Retailing, Vol. 58 No. 1, pp. 34-57. Donovan, R.J., Rossiter, J.R., Marcoolyn, G. and Nesdale, A. (1994), ‘‘Store atmosphere and purchasing behaviour’’, Journal of Retailing, Vol. 70 No. 3, pp. 283-94. Edwards, S. and Shackley, M. (1992), ‘‘Measuring the effectiveness of retail window display as an element of the marketing mix’’, International Journal of Advertising, Vol. 11 No. 3, pp. 193-202. Erlick, J. (1993), ‘‘Visual merchandising: seeing is believing’’, Home Furnishings Daily, 27 September, pp. 13-14. Israel, L.J. (1994), Store Planning and Design: History, Theory, Process, John Wiley & Sons, New York, NY. Koelemeijer, K. and Oppewal, H. (1999), ‘‘Assessing the effects of assortment and ambience: a choice experimental approach’’, Journal of Retailing, Vol. 75 No. 3, pp. 319-39. Kotler, P. (1974), ‘‘Atmospherics as a marketing tool’’, Journal of Retailing, Vol. 49 No. 4, pp. 48-64. Lea-Greenwood, G. (1998), ‘‘Visual merchandising: a neglected area in UK fashion retailing?’’, International Journal of Retailing and Distribution Management, Vol. 18 No. 4, pp. 21-31. Levy, M. and Weitz, B.A. (1996), Essentials of Retailing, Irwin, Chicago, IL. Lynch, K. (1960), The Image of a City, The MIT Press Cambridge, MA. McGoldrick, P. (1990), Retail Marketing, McGraw-Hill, Maidenhead. McGoldrick, P. (2002), Retail Marketing (2nd edition), McGraw-Hill, Maidenhead. Mehrabian, A. and Russell, J.A. (1974), An Approach to Environmental Psychology, The MIT Press, Cambridge, MA. Morganstein, M. and Strongin, H. (1992), Modern Retailing: Management Principles and Practices (3rd edition), Prentice Hall, London. Omar, O. (1999), Retail Marketing, Pitman Publishing, London. Schmitt, B. and Simonson, A. (1997), Marketing Aesthetics, The Free Press, New York, NY. Walters, D. and White, D. (1987), Retail Marketing Management, MacMillan Press, Basingstoke.

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Interviews of deshopping behaviour: an analysis of theory of planned behaviour Tamira King and Charles Dennis

The authors Tamira King is a Doctoral Student and Charles Dennis is a Lecturer, both at Brunel University, Uxbridge, UK. Keywords Retailing, Borrowing, Consumer behaviour, Fraud Abstract Research reveals alarming results on the prevalence of the dishonest consumer behaviour known as deshopping. Deshopping is the ‘‘deliberate return of goods for reasons other than actual faults in the product, in its pure form premeditated prior to and during the consumption experience’’. In effect this means buying something with no intention of keeping it. The authors consider the implications of deshopping and retailers’ prevention of deshopping, exploring the research undertaken to date and the methodology for further research. Electronic access The Emerald Research Register for this journal is available at http://www.emeraldinsight.com/researchregister The current issue and full text archive of this journal is available at http://www.emeraldinsight.com/0959-0552.htm

International Journal of Retail & Distribution Management Volume 31 . Number 3 . 2003 . pp. 153-163 # MCB UP Limited . ISSN 0959-0552 DOI 10.1108/09590550310465558

Introduction and background The emphasis on the importance of the selfimage of products consumed and their psychological significance (Warde, 1994) has led to extensive pressure and risk being associated with the purchasing decision and the later consumption of a product (Mitchell and McGoldrick, 1996). In order to gain competitive advantage, retailers attempt to reduce this risk by introducing the opportunity to return goods for a refund (Mitchell and McGoldrick, 1996; Schmidt et al., 1999). Return goods policies are a method which allows the customer to defer their purchasing decision until after they gain some experience with the goods. As a result customers have learned that they can counteract their purchasing decision by returning the purchase (King and Dennis, 2001). Nevertheless the policy of returns within time limits is open to abuse by deshoppers. The return policies of retailers are facilitating the practices of deshopping and retail borrowing. Evidence in previous research highlighted the prevalence of deshopping and fraudulent returns behaviours (King, 1999; King and Dennis, 2001, 2002; Piron and Young, 2001; Schmidt et al., 1999; Gardner et al., 1999; Zabriskie, 1972-1973; Greenberg et al., 1979; Wilkes, 1978; Jolson, 1974). Research with retailers indicates that 82 per cent of mass-market retailers are aware of the deshopping problem (King, 1999). Research with independent retailers demonstrates that 70 per cent are aware of customers damaging garments so that they are entitled to a refund, and 94 per cent of independent retailers felt unprotected against this type of shopper (King and Dennis, 2001). A case study with a mass-market retailer indicates that shrinkage figures due to fraudulent returned garments are contributing to losses in the six-figure region per annum. The analysis of clothing returns of this mass-market retailer indicated that 50 per cent of all returns were fraudulent (King and Dennis, 2001). This study integrates the previous research by addressing Coles’ (1989) use of deterrence theory and social disapproval, Wilkes’ (1978) address of attitudes, and Piron and Young’s (2001) identification of predicting behaviour into one focused study. It also draws on Gardner et al.’s (1999) important link between theory of reasoned action into theory

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Interviews of deshopping behaviour


Tamira King and Charles Dennis

of planned behaviour when looking at fraudulent behaviour. This study of random female consumers who have never been used as a sample for this type of research before, and Piron and Young (2001) suggested that women ‘‘borrowed’’ goods from retailers, (deshopped) four times as much as men. The study also concentrates on one fraudulent behaviour, ‘‘deshopping’’, and focuses on one product category, clothing, utilising the theory of planned behaviour. Unlike previous research which integrates many acts of fraudulent behaviour (Wilkes, 1978; Jolson, 1974; Zabriskie, 1972-1973; Greenberg et al., 1979) and a variety of deshopped products (Wilkes, 1978; Jolson, 1974; Zabriskie, 19721973; Greenberg et al., 1979; Schmidt et al., 1999; Piron and Young, 2001), this study draws on the interesting previous research with a different focus i.e. on the two major elements, female consumers as a sample, and clothing returns as the main product category, and utilises the theory of planned behaviour which has not been applied before to this problem. Previous research has also identified the important emotions behind the behaviour, and Schmidt et al. (1999) demonstrated intentional deceit amongst deshoppers and in a ‘‘deshopping’’ focus group found deshopping was process of consumption and was a method of risk reduction. This study supports elements found in the previous research and it complements and adds to the previous research by placing deshopping within a theoretical framework by utilising the theory of planned behaviour. The theory of planned behaviour data demonstrate the correlations of subjective norm and perceived behavioural control and deshopping behaviour in the questionnaire, (King and Dennis, 2002). The following interviews will enable the researcher to identify mechanisms that could be put in place that would reduce and control the behaviour. By studying the respondents’ attitudes to the behaviour and past experience we can obtain their evaluation toward the behaviour to see if this affects the possibility of partaking and performing deshopping. Also, by addressing belief-based measures it should be possible to gain insight into the underlying cognitive foundation, and explore why people hold certain attitudes, subjective norms, and perceptions of behavioural control.

Theory of planned behaviour (TPB) The authors have utilised the theory of planned behaviour (TPB) (Ajzen, 1985, 1991), which attempts to explain variables in human behaviour. This method has been utilised in other studies to understand the mechanism of undesirable human behaviour such as quitting cigarette smoking (Devries and Backbier, 1994), and condom use and safe sex (Boldero et al., 1992). TPB was derived from the theory of reasoned action (TRA). The difference is that TPB incorporates the additional dimension of perceived behavioural control (PBC) (East, 1997). PBC may therefore be relevant for deshopping analysis, where the aim of the research is to control an undesirable behaviour. If PBC correlates with the behaviour, the research should be able to identify mechanisms that might reduce and control the behaviour.

Development of model According to the theory of planned behaviour, intention to perform a behaviour is influenced by four major dimensions: attitude, subjective norm, perceived behavioural control and actual control. A person’s attitude towards a behaviour represents evaluation of the behaviour and its outcomes. The subjective norm concerns the extent to which other people important to a respondent approve or disapprove of the behaviour. Perceived behavioural control refers to the ease or difficulty of performing the behaviour. Actual control concerns the tools respondents use to ensure their control during the behaviour (Ajzen, 1985, 1991). In this study we have considered this simple model illustrated in Figure 1. In this model, these five areas have been investigated, with the belief that they will allow the researcher to predict the deshopping behaviour: (1) Attitude towards deshopping will significantly predict deshopping behaviour. (2) Shoppers’ perceptions of the extent to which others important to the respondents approve of deshopping (subjective norm) will significantly predict deshopping behaviour. (3) Shoppers’ perceptions of the ease of carrying out deshopping (perceived

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Figure 1 Investigated model predicting deshopping behaviour

Limitations

behavioural control) will significantly predict deshopping behaviour. (4) The shoppers’ past experience of deshopping and returns will affect their confidence and perceived ability to partake in the behaviour (perceived behavioural control). (5) Actual control.

Many of the telephone numbers did not exist, many letters were returned to sender, and many people were not contactable or unwilling to partake further. Several interviewees did not turn up for the interviews. Nine semi-structured interviews were conducted and audio-recorded.

This is predicted to reduce the behaviour e.g. if a person was caught partaking in the behaviour then they are less likely to engage in the behaviour again. In addition it has emerged during this study that past experience may influence attitude.

Data collection A total of 528 questionnaires were completed. The questionnaire methodology and results are reported elsewhere (King and Dennis, 2002). The paths indicated by solid lines in Figure 1 were identified as significant to deshopping. From the results deshoppers were identified on a scale of partial to real deshoppers. Partial deshoppers represented 425 (80 per cent) of the total sample. Real deshoppers (the more extreme end of the scale were represented by 266 (50 per cent) of the total sample (King and Dennis, 2002).

Interviews with deshoppers All deshoppers identified (partial and real) in the ‘‘deshopping’’ questionnaires were eligible for interview. All those who had given address and telephone numbers were contacted by mail, to ask whether they would participate in the interview. This was followed up by a telephone call asking to arrange a convenient date for the interview.

Methodology The quantitative results demonstrated that the paths indicated by solid lines in Figure 1 were significant to deshopping. The interviews have been used in conjunction with the data to allow a deeper understanding of the areas highlighted. Wass and Wells (1994) suggested that interviews may also be a means to validate the findings from the questionnaire. Interviews aid the process of gathering reliable and valid data which are relevant to the research questions and objectives. Face to face interviews enabled the researcher to work more closely with respondents. The interviews were aimed at gaining an understanding of how the interviewee constructs the meaning and significance of the situation. To achieve these insights the researcher has to understand the other person’s views but also assists them exploring their own beliefs (Easterby-Smith et al., 1993). The interviews were informal and were used to explore the area in depth. There was no predetermined list of questions to work through, although the researcher had a clear idea about the aspects to explore. The interviewee was given the opportunity to talk freely about events, behaviour and beliefs in relation to the topic area (Saunders et al., 2000). The interaction is non-directive as the interviewee’s perceptions guide the interviewer. Saunders et al. (2000) suggested

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that a combination of styles may be used within one interview. At times the interview becomes a respondent interview where the interviewer directs and the interviewee responds, when the interviewer wants the interviewee to expand on an area of interest, which results in rich data. This is important in our case where an interviewer is concerned with understanding the meaning which respondents ascribe to various phenomena (Saunders et al., 2000).

Interview topics The interviewer tried to guide (when necessary) the interviewees to discuss the topics below: (1) The interviews tried to identify their general attitude towards shopping and their shopping behaviour to break the ice and ease into the more sensitive areas: . Q. How often do you go shopping? . Q. How do you feel when returning garments? (2) The interviewees were given two example scenarios to move focus to deshopping behaviour and assess their attitude: . Scenario 1. Purchasing a dress for special occasion, e.g. wedding and returning after fulfilled purpose. . Scenario 2. Purchasing a garment, e.g. a top purchased for a Saturday night worn and then damaged so it can be returned. (3) The interviewees were asked if they had ever experienced either scenario to provide evidence of deshopping, and level of deshopping. Q. Can you give examples of products/garments that you have returned to retailers or taken back recently? Why were they taken back? How old was the product garment? How did you feel? How often do you return garments? (4) Exploration of control beliefs: . What makes an interviewee comfortable/embarrassed/confident? . Are you aware of retailer’s policies/ consumer law? (5) Exploration of past experience: . What is perception of past experience? How does this affect your likelihood to partake in behaviour?

Have you ever felt uncomfortable during return? Do you have a plan before you return an item? (6) Investigate their opinion of retailer role. What part does the retailer play? (7) Exploration of subjective norm. How do people/friends/parents view the scenario? Does this affect whether you partake in behaviour? (8) Exploration of intention: . Do you deshop with ‘‘intention’’ at purchasing point? . Do you know when buying the garment you are going to return it, once it has fulfilled its purpose? . Do you return garment knowing it is not genuine return (intentionally)? . Have you deshopped since completing the questionnaire? .

Interview results For purposes of anonymity interviewee names have been altered. Interviews have been clustered into the four main elements of the deshopping model investigated. Interviewee 1. Liz Deshopping examples . Liz describes a top she purchased recently from Gap, wore it and did not feel good in the top, so is going to take it back. . Dining table £1,200. As Liz entertains a lot of people with children, after six months the table looked worn. ‘‘I complained and took it back and bought a more suitable table. I really chose a table that was not practical.’’ . Liz’s engagement gift list from M&S was delivered twice, an estimated £600 worth of products ‘‘all in boxes and brand new’’. ‘‘I took it all back’’ for a full refund. Subjective norm (1) Influence by friends: . My friends wrote a letter complaining about holiday, so I did and we are expecting a discount next holiday. . I bought a Burberry’s bag, with my friend. She told me recently that she had taken her bag back because the corners are worn, and they gave her a new bag. Now I know that, I am going to take mine back.

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(2) Fear of fiance´’s opinion of behaviour. Being just engaged I did not know what my fiance´’s view would be when I suggested returning gift list. I thought he would disapprove. When I suggested it he said it was ‘‘stealing’’, but I persuaded him it would be ‘‘OK’’. (3) Fiance´’s fear of other people’s perception of behaviour. ‘‘He told me never to tell anyone that story. But I don’t regret it.’’ (4) Concern for parents’ opinion of behaviour: . Also her mum would not approve or return garment if aware that Liz had worn it, her mum would say ‘‘good luck to you if you can get away with it’’ but would not do it for her. Liz felt slightly guilty. . Her father is horrified at the piles of garments she returns. Past experience Liz has never been caught deshopping, and if she perceived that there was a chance of being caught she would ‘‘not have the balls to do it’’. . Liz has rarely experienced a manager being called, especially because she has only had the ‘‘garment for a week and has receipt’’. .

Control belief Liz always checks that there are no marks on garments for evidence and it ‘‘looks genuine’’. . Liz ensures that all her receipts are kept safely. ‘‘Every night she empties her bulging purse and shopping bags and files receipts.’’ She also checks the receipts with her credit card bills at a later date. . Liz will pick a specific till that does not look threatening. . Liz will try to busy herself during returns process, with the children, a phone call or pretend she is in a hurry so that she is not available for questioning by staff. . Liz plans her response in advance of returning the garment that she has worn to Gap, ‘‘it was purchased for a cousin or niece and they do not want it.’’ Introducing a ‘‘niece’’ allows Liz to disassociate herself from process, in case the legitimacy of return is questioned. . Liz believes that if you say you are an account customer returns are easier, as you are questioned less. . Liz’s legal knowledge is limited but Liz states ‘‘it’s my word against theirs.’’ If they said there were marks on a garment I .

.

.

would say that I had walked around in top for ten minutes. Liz’s understanding of return policy is clear as stores ‘‘tell me the return policy when I purchase products’’. Liz took so much back she became familiar with the employees so she alternated returns between Brent Cross and Watford. So that they ‘‘would not recognise me’’.

Intention For a special occasion coming up I need a pashmina, just to literally wear to walk in and walk out, with a strapless. For a hundred quid I could get one to return from John Lewis, or Fenwicks. ‘‘I would cut off the tag and receipt and keep it in the bag, for return.’’ . Liz states that this is never intentional at time of purchase. She likes the garments at time of purchase, but is a bad shopper, and they do not look good when worn out, so they have to be returned when she changes her mind. .

Perceived behavioural control Liz feels that over the last five to ten years returning has got a lot easier. Attitude ‘‘Give it a go. The worst that can happen is they will not take it back. They cannot arrest you!’’ Liz believes the main consequence of deshopping to be embarrassment. Interviewee 2. Karen Deshopping example Karen has worn something, then decided that she did not like it so returned it: I have done it once because I had worn it and did not like it that much. It was top from Pilot. I wore it two to three times then picked seam, as a reason to go and give it back. I was excited to get my money back and get rid of top.

Past experience Prior to return Karen felt apprehensive, and nervous that they would not believe her: The feeling has put me off it will be just the one time I am going to get caught out and I feel guilty that I ruined the top to get money back.

Subjective norm . Karen is keen to get her parents’ approval for returns and if something is wrong with a garment she will ask her mum before she takes it back.

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Tamira King and Charles Dennis .

Deshopping is popular with Karen’s friends. Karen has not told her friends as she does not feel good about her past deshopping experience, and would not recommend it.

Control belief Karen understands the return policy, but not the legal details. . At point of return Karen stated that she had bought the top for her sister and she did not like it as it was too small and wanted a refund. This allows her to detach from responsibility at point of return. . When deliberately damaging the garment ‘‘the seam looks more realistic than taking scissors to it’’. .

Attitude Karen thinks this behaviour depends on the individual situation.

I only do it a couple of times it won’t make a lot of difference.

Control beliefs . Heather is not concerned with knowing her legal rights or return policies. . Heather feels more comfortable with certain retailers e.g. Miss Selfridge. . I am better when a friend comes in with me as they are very strong willed, and help me argue. . Before returning garments Heather ensures that there is no queue to save embarrassment, she also considers what the sales assistant looks like. . Heather ‘‘keeps all receipts in bag for couple of weeks after purchase’’. Attitude ‘‘I knew what I was doing was wrong but really wanted to wear dress and really wanted to go to party.’’ . Heather blames her behaviour on financial difficulties. She only deshops, ‘‘in desperate situations, it is not a regular habit, but if needs be that’s what I do’’. .

Perceived behavioural control Karen did not find deshopping difficult, but unpleasant as she felt guilty. Intention Karen’s deshopping experience was not premeditated at time of purchase or purchased intentionally for a return, but for a Saturday night. She states that she: Needed something to wear, it was getting late went in and bought it but didn’t like it very much, wore it, and then took it back. Read receipt and knew she could take it back soon.

Past experience I was nervous before the return but did not have a plan as:

.

I was confident it would work as I had done it before. I have never had a problem so far and I find it relatively easy. If it was difficult would be less likely to work as I would be more tense. .

Interviewee 3. Heather Deshopping examples . Heather explains how she wore a dress for a party then returned it. I wanted a dress, but mum wouldn’t lend me the money, I liked the dress so I wore it and then came back next morning and took it back with my friends. .

Heather bought a top for a leaving party, then returned it.

Subjective norm Heather feels that she is not influenced by her mum, only her friends. . Heather got the idea from her best friend. She went shopping with her when she did it. . Heather explains how she purchased trousers with her mum, and her mum took them back after she had worn them. .

Mum is up to date with all tricks, I learn how to argue from her. I don’t always tell her as sometimes she will give me a lecture, but she thinks some of my friends do it all the time and if

‘‘My best friend Chloe had a receipt when she made a hole in the left side of dress. She was pissed off when the shop wouldn’t take it back. She still shops and takes back in there as we do not see the same people again.’’

Intention ‘‘If money situation is not that good, and I only want it for one night, it is wrong but it is the only way. It’s not something I am planning to do.’’ . I have done it about three times since completing the questionnaire, and a bit before then as well. .

Interviewee 4. Linda Deshopping examples . ‘‘I bought a top in Jane Norman, as I needed the money so I took it back. I was careful with it ’coz I new I would take it back.’’ . Linda says she has deshopped about six times and she would return clothes:

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Whenever she needs to do it.




A skirt hem the thread was loose so I pulled that, and said it had just come undone, that was from Tammy so it was £17. .

Linda explains that she ‘‘tucks the labels in tops when I wear them and if I can see a bit of plastic then I wear a cardigan with it’’.

Subjective norm Linda’s friends deshop. ‘‘If my friends didn’t do it I wouldn’t have came up with the idea, I only started doing it when I changed school.’’ . Linda states that her mum thinks she has ‘‘done it once, she was alright but told me not to do it again and if I would rather have the money then I should not get the top.’’ . Linda observed a friend for the first time, and when she saw how easy it was she thought ‘‘I can do this’’. .

Past experience Linda or her friends have never encountered any problems when deshopping, and the sales person never argues. . She states that if she had difficulty she would be less confident to take things back next time. . If she was refused a refund she would be annoyed as she could not wear the top again as it had a hole in. . Linda explains that if her friends have taken something back to a store and she can see it was easy, then she would try that shop. .

Control beliefs Linda shops where she knows the return policy. She ensures that she only keeps her tops for little time when she wants to take them back so that there is no problem. . Her friends ensure that they do not do it at the same time as it would look too obvious. . Linda takes her friends in with her when returning as they give her more confidence and they make the sales girl feel under pressure. . Linda is not familiar with the law or return policies. . Linda will deshop in the same store, but not immediately. . Linda is careful when wearing garments that she is going to return, in case someone spills something on her. .

Interviewee 5. Hetty Deshopping example Hetty describes one occasion in Warehouse, with a £45 top that she wore for a night out and then did not need it anymore. It was not premeditated at time of purchase. Perceived behavioural control . Hetty perceives deshopping as ‘‘quite easy’’ because ‘‘customers have so many rights’’. . You can take nearly anything back, and it is not as scary as you think it should be really. Control beliefs Hetty will also disassociate herself from blame by saying ‘‘her sister doesn’t like it or it doesn’t fit her’’ so she is not playing a role in the process. . Hetty believed that legally retailers ‘‘have to take almost all things back by law . . . they basically just have to take it back’’. . Hetty says, ‘‘My Sister was manager of Knickerbox so she had to deal with people so you pick up little things. A shop cannot accuse you of lying unless it’s really obvious.’’ .

Subjective norm Hetty’s mum knows she has done it but her father does not know. . She explains how her elder sisters (28 and 24) damage clothes and ‘‘snap heels off of shoes and stuff’’. . Hetty’s mother does not approve but says, if you want to you can, but think about what you are going to say before you walk in there. .

Intention Deshopping is an option if she really needed the money back or really did not like her purchase. Past experience Sisters have always got away with it so that influences her. . From my experience a lot of the time they do not ask questions, when my friends do it all the time. . I have seen my sister have a row with a shop assistant: .

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I thought it was funny so I left the shop, in Brent Cross with her boyfriend. She ended up winning and getting an exchange, I bet she felt great afterwards.




Attitude

.

When it comes down to it then it’s only taking it back to the shop.

Interviewee 6. Lilly Deshopping examples . Lilly describes returning a £70-80 pair of trousers to Morgan, having unpicked the studs down the side seam. Lilly’s trousers had shrunk, but she knew that if they were faulty then she could return them. . Lilly recalls wearing a pair of jeans and returning them after they had been worn. (Lilly recalls returning shoes at 16, (now 25) having worn them for eight to nine months and being given a selection of shoes to replace them with.) . ‘‘I always take CDs back, record them then return them . . . always. I’ve done that loads. I wouldn’t think twice. I used to do it every week.’’ . Lilly describes getting a free video with a £2.99 book and then returning the video to HMV for a £15 refund. Control belief Lilly was concerned when giving her contact details to the sales assistant so gave a false address but a correct mobile so she could be contacted for new stock. . Lilly took her bank statement to prove where the garment was purchased. . Lilly is aware of returns policies. . Certain retailers make Lilly feel more comfortable as ‘‘M&S is easier to return than Morgan’’. Lilly would not return CDs to Our Price as their CDs are wrapped up. .

With CDs ‘‘I literally used to do it every week, I have never had a bad experience, it’s never a problem, and I never think about it’’.

Attitude Lilly is confident when returning genuine garments/products but ‘‘feels bad when she’s returning stuff that she should not be’’. Interviewee 7. Gail Deshopping example Gail purchased heated hair tongs from Boots, Gail used the tongs for two weeks, and the tongs did not heat up enough and straighten the hair to the look she required, so returned them. Past experience When returning Gail feels that staff look suspiciously at customers which makes her feel guilty. Control belief Gail always keeps receipts about a month, ‘‘just in case’’. . Gail asked her mother to return the tongs for her and refund them. .

Subjective norm Gail’s mother returned the tongs but insisted that she would not do it again. She states that if her mother had refused to return the tongs Gail would have kept them. . Gail’s friends told her she ‘‘was a cheapskate’’ when she repeated the story. .

Attitude Although Gail insists that she would not wear a top and then return it, if she purchased a garment and it was a lot of money taking it back after is an option, and cannot be ruled out. . Gail explains that this is acceptable when not done with intention at time of purchase. . Gail would ‘‘Never rule it out, is always an option, though I could get money back’’. .

Subjective norm Lilly is too embarrassed to tell her friends about these incidents. However, feels that she is influenced by them because ‘‘if they can do it, why can’t I?’’ . Lilly felt her mother would not be bothered but would be concerned if Lilly continued doing things like that. .

Past experience Lilly describes her experience as quick, and she could easily do it again by unpicking stitching. . Lilly tried to return shoes she had had for about a year. The manager said he would send them for repair, not replace them. This has not affected her perception of the ease of deshopping. .

Perceived behavioural control Gail believes that the consequence is not getting a return or exchange as the police would not be involved as it is not shoplifting or stealing ‘‘it’s just misrepresentation of facts’’.

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Interviewee 8. Tara Deshopping examples . I bought a stunning dress and wrap for my friend’s engagement, I really enjoyed wearing it, and bought it on the Friday and I took it back straight after the weekend. . I have had clothes for ages got bored of them so I unpick a seam and then take them back. . I can change my outfits regularly, and adopt all the latest season’s styles without any financial repercussions. Past experience I do this all the time, and never have any problem. It is so easy. . I have done it at loads of different shops. .

Interviewee 9. Paula Deshopping example I had worn trousers for Xmas day and for new year and enjoyed wearing them and then took them back. Past experience I have heard of my daughter’s friends (she is 28) doing this, and they never have any problems, ‘‘so I thought if they can all do it then why can’t I?’’ Control belief . When I am in the wheelchair people feel sorry for me and never ask me questions when returning. . I did not keep my receipt as I did not need to, especially at ‘‘Marks’’. Subjective norm I had to go shopping with my husband because of the chair, he was quite happy with us returning them as long as we got our money back, why not? . I have told friends, and my daughter’s friends who thought it was great. I am not embarrassed because but it shows the retailer up not me. .

Control belief You do not need to keep the receipts, without a receipt it can be more of a challenge. . I know what I can do and cannot. . Never keep the tags on garments you do not need to. . Tara has worked in high street retailer so is aware of return policies. . Tara does not think it is necessary to know your legal rights ‘‘you just have to hold your ground’’. .

Subjective norm I often have to hide my shopping bags from my parents, and I always lie about the cost of my purchases as they would go mad, if they knew how much I spent. . My friends know that I do it, I think my mum knows as well. . I never discuss clothes or shopping with my dad. .

Perceived behavioural control I have had managers called over before, but I put on my mask which ‘‘believes’’ I am right and pretends that I have not done anything wrong and I could argue all day till I get my money back. . It is my word against theirs. .

Attitude This is a real buzz and seeing as the retailers are ripping you off I do not feel bad at all. After all they make it so easy, what do they expect?

Perceived behavioural control It was easy, they asked no questions at all. Attitude I really would not like to buy something that had been worn, but I believe that if there are no consequences, and everybody else is doing it, then I do not have a problem with it.

Discussion and conclusion Intention The questionnaire highlights that ‘‘intention’’ to deshop a garment is not always evident at the point of purchase. The deliberate return of a garment may not be premeditated from the outset, but it is intentional and premeditated at the point of return. Perceived behavioural control This demonstrates the large element of control that the deshopper perceives they have over the deshopping process and its successful outcome. The interviews highlight the perceived ‘‘ease’’ with which they carry out deshopping. If this perception of control could be altered e.g. by tightened return policies then the behaviour could be reduced.

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Subjective norm The findings support questionnaire results that deshoppers are concerned with opinions of people who are important to them. The interviews highlight that the respondents are influenced by people (sisters, friends, parents) in a negative way as well as in a constructive and beneficial way. With consumer education, deshopping should become less acceptable and the deshopper should be less likely to continue the behaviour. Past experience Deshoppers have not encountered serious problems or punishment as a result of fraudulent returns. The deshoppers have witnessed friends having arguments with retailers, and ‘‘winning’’. They also consider that the worst a past experience can be is being refused a return and therefore having to keep the garment. This past experience is influential in their perception of deshopping being easy, and contributes to the attitude that they may as well try it because they have nothing to lose. Their successful previous deshopping experiences also enable the consumer to have a deeper understanding of the return process thus enhancing their knowledge and confidence for the next time. This enables deshoppers to perceive that they themselves have control over many areas. Attitude Attitude is closely associated with deshopping as is SN and PBC. Retailers can address PBC readily by imposing strict returns procedures, and SN by introducing an education programme. There is usually no obvious way to affect attitude except by advertising, which has often been of minimal effectiveness in previous ‘‘negative behaviour’’ campaigns e.g. drink driving. Significantly our results demonstrate that attitude can be altered by changing past experience. As retailers make returning procedures ‘‘easy’’ the deshoppers develop a more positive attitude to deshopping. The results show that making deshopping hard could alter deshoppers’ attitudes. To make returns hard, retailers could e.g. introduce returns logging programmes. This tracing device would make returns appear more difficult and this would affect perceived behavioural control, actual control and attitude.

Actual control From the previous structured questionnaires it was concluded that deshoppers would be less likely to deshop if they perceived it to be difficult. The in-depth interviews indicate that just by the very rare refusal of a refund, retailers are not doing enough to make deshopping difficult. This is because at present, when the deshoppers encounter a refusal of return, it is not recollected as a bad experience. So this is not deterring them from partaking in the behaviour again. The interviews particularly demonstrate that if this experience had led to severe embarrassment or involved the police or criminal proceedings it would change the deshoppers’ actual control and attitude.

Other aspects of deshopping The interviews also support previous research that states that the experiential and symbolic aspect of consumption plays a role in this behaviour (Schmidt et al., 1999). It also demonstrates that deshoppers differentiate between mass-market and independent retailers (Schmidt et al., 1999). The study also supports previous research by demonstrating that deshoppers blame their behaviour on their social and economic needs (Piron and Young, 2001). The retailer is also often perceived as playing a role in deshopping by being expensive and encouraging returns (Piron and Young, 2001). There are also some deshoppers who demonstrate traits of compulsive and addictive consumption. These elements will be explored elsewhere.

Recommendation for future research With the development of e-commerce, deshopping on the Internet will be apparent and unless researched and detected it cannot be prevented and it will be inclined to expand. There is also a new Directive being introduced in the EU, which may enable the growth of deshopping. The Distance Selling Directive (97/7/EC) came into force as The Consumer Protection (Distance Selling) Regulations 97/7/EC. This act provides substantial rights to the Internet shopper enabling a ‘‘seven day withdrawal from the contract without penalty and without giving

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any reason’’. This will encourage the growth of this behaviour online, as the consumer is protected. It would also be interesting and beneficial to conduct a study on the deshoppers’ perception of the ethics of their behaviour.

Implications for retailers The financial implications of ‘‘deshopping’’ to the retailer are extensive (King, 1999; King and Dennis, 2001). A retail mass-market case study using an analysis of clothing indicated that 50 per cent of all returns were fraudulent, and the retailer estimated the losses to be as large as in six figures per annum (King and Dennis, 2001). The retailer will also have to consider the possible introduction of the draft directive in the EU of the Consumer Guarantees Directive 1999/44/EC which will leave retailers more open to abuse of returns. However the model developed throughout this study (also addressed by King and Dennis, 2002) will enable retailers to design a more appropriate returns policy and develop a system that will aid the reduction of this behaviour.

References Ajzen, I. (1985), ‘‘From intention to action: a theory of planned behaviour’’, in Kuhl, J. and Beckman, J. (Eds), Action Control: From Cognitions to Behaviours, Springer, New York, NY. Ajzen, I. (1991), ‘‘The theory of planned behaviour’’, Organisational Behaviours and Human Decision Processes, Vol. 50, pp. 179-211. Boldero, J., Moore, S. and Rosenthal, D. (1992), ‘‘Intentions context and safe sex’’, Journal of Applied Social Psychology, Vol. 22 No. 17, pp. 1374-96. Devries, H. and Backbier (1994), ‘‘Self efficiency as an important determinant of quitting among pregnant women who smoke: the PHI Pattern’’, Preventative Medicine, Vol. 23 No. 2, pp. 167-74. East, R. (1997), Consumer Behaviour, Hemel Hempstead, Prentice Hall (and accompanying ‘‘NEWACT’’ and ‘‘README’’ PC Files). Easterby-Smith, M., Thorpe, R. and Lowe, A. (1993), Management Research: An Introduction, Sage, London. Gardner, D.M., Harris, J. and Kim, J. (1999), ‘‘The fraudulent consumer’’, Proceedings at the 1999 Marketing and Public Policy Conference, University of Notre Dame, 20-22 May. Greenberg, B., Bellenger, D., Robertson, D. and Parameswaran (1979), ‘‘An analysis of return prone

consumers’’, Proceedings of 1979 Southern Marketing Association Meetings, pp. 252-8. Jolson, M.A. (1974), ‘‘Consumers as offenders’’, Journal of Business Research, January, pp. 89-98. King, T. (1999), ‘‘To examine the phenomenon of deshopping and retail policies preventing deshopping’’, unpublished dissertation for MSc at Manchester Metropolitan University, Manchester. King, T. and Dennis, C. (2001), ‘‘The phenomenon of deshopping and retail policies preventing deshopping’’, 11th International Conference on Research in the Distributive Trades, EIM/Tilburg University/Erasmus University/TIAS Business School. King, T. and Dennis, C. (2002), ‘‘The investigation of the phenomenon of deshopping using the theory of planned behaviour’’, Proceedings of The British Academy of Management Annual Conference, Middlesex University Business School. Mitchell, V. and McGoldrick, P. (1996), ‘‘Consumers’ risk reduction strategies: a review and synthesis’’, The International Review of Retail, Distribution, and Consumer Research, Vol. 6 No. 1, pp. 1-33. Piron, F. and Young, M. (2001), ‘‘Retail borrowing: insights and implications on returning used merchandise’’, Journal of Retail and Consumer Services, Vol. 8, pp. 121-5. Saunders, M., Lewis, P. and Thornhill, A. (2000), Research Methods for Business Student (2nd Ed.) Pitman Publishing, London. Schmidt, R., Sturrock, F., Ward, P. and Lea-Greenwood, G. (1999), ‘‘Deshopping the art of illicit consumption’’, The International Journal of Retail & Distribution Management, Vol. 27 No. 8, pp. 209-301. Warde, A. (1994), ‘‘Consumption, identity-formation, and uncertainty’’, Sociology, Vol. 28 No. 4, pp. 877-98. Wass, V. and Wells, P. (1994), Principles and Practice in Business and Management Research, Dartmouth, Aldershot. Wilkes, R. (1978), ‘‘Fraudulent behaviour by consumers’’, Journal of Marketing, Vol. 42 October pp. 67-76. Zabriskie, N. (1972-1973), ‘‘Fraud by consumers’’, Journal of Retailing, Vol. 48, Winter, pp. 22-7.

Further reading Breakwell, G.M., Hammond, S. and Fife-Schaw, C. (2000), Research Methods In Psychology, 2nd edition, Sage, London. Cooper, D. and Emory, C. (1995), Business Research Methods, 5th ed., Irwin, Burr Ridge, IL. Elliot, R. (1997), ‘‘Symbolic meaning and post-modern culture’’, in Bromlie, D. et al. (Eds), Rethinking Marketing, Sage, London. Johnson, S., Sommer, R. and Martino, V. (1985), ‘‘Consumer behaviour and bulk food bins’’, The Journal of Consumer Research, June, Vol. 12 No. 1, pp. 114-17. Ward, P. and Sturrock, F. (1998), ‘‘‘She knows what she wants . . .’. Towards a female consumption risk reduction strategy framework’’, Marketing Intelligence & Planning, Vol. 16 No. 5, pp. 327-36.

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Books


Books Retail Marketing (2nd edition) Peter McGoldrick McGraw-Hill 2002 Keywords Retailing, Marketing, E-commerce Review DOI 10.1108/09590550310465585

The publication in 1990 of the first edition of Peter McGoldrick’s Retail Marketing was a significant landmark in marketing publishing in the UK. It was one of the first texts designed primarily for use in higher education that promoted the notion that marketing in a retail context merited consideration as a separate discipline. Other authors writing at around the same time (Collins, 1992; McDonald and Tideman, 1993) delineated the scope of the issues involved, or the process of developing a marketing plan, but McGoldrick’s approach was unique in combining academic theory with a comprehensive selection of quantitative and qualitative data garnered from retailers, consultancies and market research organisations. He placed marketing at the centre of all retail activity and in so doing developed a text that teachers involved in a wide variety of university sector retail courses could legitimately recommend to students as core reading material. However, by the end of the 1990s the retail environment had altered significantly and Retail Marketing had become dated. The overall market structure, retailer approaches to marketing and branding and consumer attitudes had all changed, leading to much of the data cited by McGoldrick being inaccurate and making it difficult to continue to wholeheartedly recommend the book. In addition, new authors (Gilbert, 1999; Omar, 1999) had produced texts that competed directly with McGoldrick’s offering in terms of content, were better presented and which had the advantage of more recent statistical material. Thus in 2002, after numerous entreaties from retail academics, a revised edition of Retail Marketing was produced; up to date, massively expanded in terms of pagination and nearly twice as expensive as the original version. So, does the new McGoldrick meet the need of its potential

users and merit the accolades that the first edition received? The structure of the new text is, on close inspection, not totally dissimilar to the old, though the format and typography is much enhanced. McGoldrick first sets the scene in an introductory chapter that outlines the development of modern retailing and the marketing function, paying particular attention to the role of IT in decision making. Theories of retail change are also discussed in this section, usefully linking the reality of retailing to academic analysis. Part One of the book proper analyses retail marketing strategy and contains chapters on the competitive environment, consumer behaviour and the strategic planning process. The author devotes two chapters to the monitoring of retailer performance, a subject that is rarely given as much space in student-orientated texts but which is clearly vital to practitioners. Part Two of the book examines the retail marketing mix, bringing together the subjects of store location, product selection, own branding, pricing, promotional activity, the selling environment and retail service. One might argue that some topics deserve more coverage; the areas of distribution and logistics are under-represented, in my view, though category management and ECR are tackled from the buying and store operations perspectives. A further criticism is that there is insufficient acknowledgement by McGoldrick that the loci of decision making for the marketing mix elements discussed are likely to be situated in different functional silos within a retailer and not necessarily regarded as central to the marketing department per se. For example, the practice of supply chain management may have more closely linked purchasing, inventory and in-store merchandising, but a property division that is less integrated with managers involved in day-to-day retail operations may well determine store location strategy. Part Three of the book is wholly new, comprising two chapters on international retailing and e-tailing, written respectively by Professor Steve Burt of the University of Stirling’s Institute for Retail Studies and Jonathan Reynolds of the Oxford Institute of Retail Management. Both these topics are of immense importance to the future of retailing and in selecting two recognised experts in their fields to write on his behalf, McGoldrick

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adds considerably to the richness of his text as a resource. Retail Marketing is extremely well referenced, pointing scholars towards more specialised texts and articles should they require more detailed information on particular subjects. Each chapter also contains a summary and review questions that are of great assistance as teaching aids. An online resource is available at www.mcgrawhill.co.uk/textbooks/mcgoldrick Overall, the new edition of Retail Marketing is comprehensive in its coverage, well organised on its presentation and diligent in its use of research. It fully deserves to continue be recommended to any serious student of retailing and will undoubtedly be the first point of reference for many UK academics teaching across a wide variety of retail programmes. Mike Pretious Institute for Retail Studies, University of Stirling

References Collins, A. (1992), Competitive Retail Marketing: Dynamic Strategies for Winning and Keeping Customers, McGraw-Hill, London. Gilbert, D. (1999), Retail Marketing Management, Pearson Education, London. McDonald, M. and Tideman, C. (1993), Retail Marketing Plans: How to Prepare Them, How to Use Them, Butterworth-Heinemann, Oxford. Omar, O. (1999), Retail Marketing, Pearson Education, London.

Distributive Trades Profile 2001-2002: A Statistical Digest Keywords Statistics, Retailing, United Kingdom, Distribution

This book published in January 2003 provides statistics on the retail and wholesale trades in the UK. It is the thirteenth publication of this series. Using statistics from various official sources, it provides a handy reference guide to the changes in the UK distributive trades. The book has been prepared by Adelina Broadbridge and is published by the Institute for Retail Studies, University of Stirling. A total of 72 tables are included in the statistical book. The data are divided into five main sections: (1) Section 1: Retail and wholesaling within the economy. (2) Section 2: Retail and wholesaling structure. (3) Section 3: Retail and wholesale employment. (4) Section 4: Retail and wholesale sales volume. (5) Section 5: Consumption patterns. The book costs £20.00 (including postage and packaging). To order a copy please send a cheque payable to ‘‘University of Stirling’’ to: The Institute for Retail Studies, University of Stirling, Stirling FK9 4LA, Scotland.

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Abstracts


Abstracts

The following abstracts offer a view of the most pertinent recently published literature. They are selected for Retail Insights from the Emerald Reviews database. The full text of these reviews can be ordered from: Infotrieve, 7666 Market Street, Canton, Michigan 48187, USA. Tel: +1 800 422 4633 (US toll free); +1 734 459 9699 (outside USA). Fax: +1 310 208 5971. E-mail: [email protected] Web site: www.infotrieve.com For further details about the Emerald Reviews database please visit www.emeraldinsight.com/review In-store impact on impulse shoppers Miller, R., Marketing (UK), 21 Nov, 2002: p. 27 (2 pages) Reveals that, according to research by the UK point-of-purchase (POP) industry body, POPAI, 75 per cent of buying decisions are made in store although some marketers are questioning the exact nature of impulse purchases, claiming that most impulse purchasing is actually conditioned behaviour with consumers acting on their physical or psychological circumstances. Explains that there are four types of purchase: planned, a reminder, knowing the type of product but not the exact item and, lastly, pure impulse. Also suggests that point-of-sale and promotions exert a negligible influence because they are not striking enough but concedes that there is still a role for POP – although it has to be sophisticated as consumers are using emotional and sensory processes to interpret the messages. Goes on to cite examples of successful POP marketing that addresses emotional needs, emphasizing the importance of clarity and engaging the consumer. ISSN: 0025-3650 Cosmetic changes (POP), Rayner, S., Marketing Week (UK), 21 Nov, 2002 Vol. 25 No. 47: p. 37 (2 pages) Reports that not only are sales of toiletries in the UK booming but that shoppers are increasingly buying them from supermarkets

rather than a specialist shop or department stores. Puts this down to retailers’ emphasis on increasing sales through point-of-purchase (POP) and pricing initiatives, given that heavy promotion in stores is a tried and tested method of driving shoppers to the category. Finds that retailers are undertaking in-depth analyses of POP activity with focus groups and checkout data in order to get the best possible results. Remarks that consumer behaviour, however, has also changed, with consumers increasingly wanting a one-stop shop and a wide choice, which supermarkets are able to provide by buying in huge volumes at low prices and expanding their range to offer customers a better selection. Believes that supermarkets will soon own the middle ground but will not be able to compete with specialist shops and department stores. ISSN: 0141-9285 Missing the point? (point-of-purchase), Benady, D., Marketing Week (UK), 19 Sep 2002 Vol. 25 No. 38: p. 35 (2 pages) Reports that, according to research by marketing agency Iris, point-of-purchase (POP) material produces few tangible benefits and fails to boost sales. Compares this with Point-of-Purchase Advertising International’s contention that in-store marketing plays a crucial role in determining which brands shoppers buy and can boost sales by as much as a fifth. Argues that POP needs to engage all of the senses and to surprise people, which is what supermarkets are now doing through their positioning of products and the promotional material associated with them. Ends by looking at the difficulty in persuading store managers to put up POP material and how to overcome this problem. ISSN: 0141-9285 Gaining the skills to succeed at POP, Miller, R., Marketing (UK), 8 Aug 2002: p. 25 (1 page) Offers UK marketers advice on how to maximize the benefits from point-of-purchase (POP) displays. Points out the need for an understanding of POP, which can be gained through industry body POPAI’s training courses, as well as the need for co-operation between the retailer, brand owner and supplier. Goes on to describe how national lottery operator Camelot commissioned ID

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Magasin to carry out a research project into the activity of its customers, then using the findings to develop the new in-store look. Believes that there is no substitute for visiting the stores in which the brand’s POP is displayed so that marketers can see how their own and their competitors’ POP campaigns are working in practice. ISSN: 0025-3650 How to exploit POP around the globe, Miller, R., Marketing (UK), 8 Aug, 2002: p. 27 (1 page) Reveals that brand owners are developing global point-of-purchase (POP) promotions to go with their global names and packaging for international products. Reports the results of a study of consumer behaviour across 12 countries in Europe by Visuality Research which demonstrates that the main trigger for consumers’ decisions is their environment and that shoppers will only browse if the POP makes sense to them. Goes on to stress the importance of research into cross-cultural practicalities, including visiting different retailers in the countries concerned in order to understand their specific needs and, for international POP campaigns, recommends having a basic creative template that can be adapted to local cultures. Concludes that although international brand consistency is the goal, there are practical and cultural reasons why POP specialists have to be flexible. ISSN: 0025-3650 Not created equal (POP), Middleton, T., Marketing Week (UK), 8 Aug, 2002 Vol. 25 No. 32: p. 37 (2 pages) Argues that point-of-purchase (POP) displays are still focusing on simple messages and arresting visuals instead of taking account of knowledge about how consumers shop. Points out the differences in shopping behaviour as a result of gender, consumer mood, role within the family, socio-economic class and age. Then goes on to describe the three basic forms of behaviour – browsers, rushers and impulsive shoppers – and the three different modes of shopping – replenishment, bargain-hunting and browsing. Then mentions that research has shown that smells have a far more important emotional impact on people than the other senses. Ends by suggesting ways in which

POP designers could take advantage of the latest research on consumer behaviour. ISSN: 0141-9285 Mystery of the magic lantern (digital signage), Donald, H., Marketing Week (UK), 9 May 2002 Vol. 25 No. 19: p. 35 (4 pages) Reports that retail media networks have generated considerable excitement but finds that there is disagreement over whether advertising revenue is an added benefit or the main objective, attributing this to insufficient research into what digital signage can achieve. States that previous trials have been flawed, with UK high street retailers running a pilot in their flagship stores even though these are not representative of their other stores. Suggests that content is crucial in enhancing the retail experience and then goes on to explain how to maximize the impact of digital signage. Adds that retailers will soon have the technology to tailor messages to appeal to certain customers at different times of the day or to promote shortterm offers in a single store and ends by describing the success of Sainsbury’s and Boots interactive kiosk systems. ISSN: 0141-9285 Switched on to a ‘‘can-do’’ attitude (the business side of children’s television programmes), Harvey, F., Financial Times (UK), 15 Mar 2002: p. 13 (1 page) Uses the popularity of Bob the Builder in the USA to examine the nature and success of UK children’s television programmes. Notes that Bob’s makers, HIT Entertainment, get 5 per cent of their revenues from selling the programme to broadcasters, 51 per cent from video/DVD sales and 44 per cent from merchandising. Suggests that the UK has a strong reputation for pre-school programming, but that exports to the USA are still relatively low, compared to US programming sold to the UK. Warns that the small size of many companies in the field means that failure to sell a programme can be disastrous. ISSN: 0307-1766 Making licences work: beyond the unique point of difference (sales promotion), Croft, C., Admap (UK), Apr 2002 Vol. 37 No. 4: p. 17 (3 pages) Explains the value to retailers of licensing a big brand to drive merchandise sales. Warns that

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Abstracts


this should not be undertaken as a short-term response to a property that is currently popular in the media. Suggests that licensed-based activity should follow from an analysis of marketing objectives and target audience, followed by a search for an appropriate licence and definition of targets for customer retention levels, market share, margin and transaction counts. Discusses the value of integrated marketing communications in allowing licensor, licensee and retailer to maximize the potential of the licensed property and fully support the brand. Considers the mechanics of implementing the promotion and the risks posed by delays in the supply chain. ISSN: 0001-8295

purchase (POP) campaign: championing the campaign at local level or organizing everything centrally. Adds that countries differ not just in terms of culture, but also in sophistication, product presentation and shopping habits although the greatest pitfalls are in translation. Ends by suggesting that POP should be designed to add value and to help the retailer’s environment. ISSN: 0141-9285

Putting up with POP (point-ofpurchase), Flack, J-A., Marketing Week (UK), 11 Apr 2002, Vol. 25 No. 15: p. 33 (2 pages) Reports that multiple retailers in the UK are becoming more flexible when negotiating point-of-purchase (POP) material in store. Even so, states that retailers are reluctant to reduce space for own-label products because this is such a profitable area for them. Goes on to discuss the main issues concerned with increasing POP, such as limited store space, failure to use POP material, the need to promote the category rather than just one product and the challenge of making stores look better without being cluttered. Remarks that supermarket chain Asda allows very little POP in store, concentrating instead on a programme of micro-marketing, and wonders whether the adoption of such an approach by other supermarkets would further squeeze brands and POP consultants. ISSN: 0141-9285 Global pop (POP in global campaigns), Middleton, T., Marketing Week (UK), 11 Apr, 2002, Vol. 25 No. 15: p. 36 (2 pages) States that although globalization creates opportunities for marketers, it also presents problems in terms of national regulation and logistics, necessitating the adaptation of working methods and devising campaigns that are both creative and comprehensible. Urges clients to make sure that in-store advertising fits with the other media being used. Finds that there are two opposing views on how to put together a global point-of-

Pop idolatry (music industry tie-ins), Johnson, B., Marketing Week (UK), 21 Feb 2002 Vol. 25 No. 8: p. 23 (3 pages) Comments on how music management company 19 Management is seeking to capitalize on the runaway success of the UK television show, Pop Idol. States that although the sales of singles are falling, pop stars can now tap into other revenue streams such as sponsorship, product endorsement and merchandising deals. Adds that brands are increasingly being associated with pop music because it provides a means of targeting the youth market although warns of the dangers of over-licensing and inappropriate partnership deals. Points out the problems involved in sponsorship, such as the short lifespan of pop groups and of behaviour that reflects badly on the sponsoring brand. Concludes that the major earnings come from reaching global rather than just UK markets. ISSN: 0141-9285 Appearance is all (packaging), Whiteling, I., Marketing Week (UK), 14 Mar 2002, Vol. 25 No. 11: p. 37 (2 pages) States that products are packaged to persuade consumers to buy them although other in-store design features can help increase purchases. Offers examples of successful re-packaging and store design, attributing their success to painstaking research and new approaches to understanding consumers, such as semiotics theory, ethnographic research and in-store observation. Remarks that many companies are put off by the complexity and cost of research but believes that it is worth investing in research to ensure the packaging is effective. Points out, however, that packaging also needs to be well displayed and in the right position in the store. Suggests that retailers could be more

168

Abstracts


Discusses the results of recent research on customer behaviour and explains how to adopt efficient POP strategies. ISSN: 0025-3650

innovative when it comes to cross-category merchandising. ISSN: 0141-9285 Right materials, wrong location? (point-of-purchase), Harrington, S., Marketing (UK), 7 Mar 2002: p. 29 (1 page) States that despite the fact that 75 per cent of purchase decisions are made in store and that effective point-of-purchase (POP) material has a direct effect on sales, there is 40 per cent wastage due to poor compliance at store level. Argues that the wastage is due to the fact that POP is not in the most appropriate place, namely where shoppers are in the right mode to receive it, and provides illustrations of the effectiveness of changing location. Adds that in-store filming is a useful way of gaining information on customer behaviour but points out that this needs to be combined with insight into consumer psychology.

On the beer goggle box, Thurtle, G., Marketing Week (UK), 7 Feb 2002, Vol. 25 No. 6: p. 39 (4 pages) With promotions vital for maintaining market share and defining the brand, finds that bar and restaurant point-of-purchase campaigns are increasingly being tailored to the type of consumer. Remarks that plasma screens highlighting promotions are an example of this and that marketers are working on making the experience interactive. Comments on other ways to put one’s message across, such as sponsoring a pub and advertising on the bottom of beer glasses. Ends by discussing ways of tying in restaurant point-of-purchase promotions with other companies’ brands. ISSN: 0141-9285

169

Note from the publisher


doubt that this battle raises important geographical issues. First is the spatial fit of each of the bidders and the Safeway stores. The key question is who will gain most new regional market share from the purchase of the Safeway stores. The second is the implication for local spatial monopolies in different parts of the UK depending on the likely winner. This will almost certainly be investigated by the UK Competition Commission. The aim of this paper is to examine both these geographical isues and present some what-if scenarios concerning future amalgamations of store networks.


Forthcoming in this journal Issue 4 . ‘‘Retail bank customer preferences: personal and remote interactions’’, by Durkin et al. . ‘‘An empirical evaluation of US bank customer perceptions of the impact of technology on service delivery in the banking sector’’, by Joseph and Stone. . ‘‘Client commitment relations towards financial entities’’, by Iniesta and Sanchez. . ‘‘Retailing and the regulatory state: a case study of lap dancing clubs in the UK’’, by Jones et al. . ‘‘Multi-channel mistake: the demise of a successful retailer’’, by Lightfoot. Issue 5 ‘‘Participation in alternative retail channels: a choice or necessity?’’, by Williams. . ‘‘The food shopping experience: a satisfaction survey of older Scottish consumers’’, by Hare. . ‘‘Are co-operation and trust being confused with power? An analysis of food retailing in Australia and the UK’’, by Dapiran and Hogarth-Scott. . ‘‘Cross-cultural equivalence of price perceptions between US and Polish consumers’’, by Moore et al. . ‘‘The battle for Safeway’’, by Poole et al. We are particularly pleased to bring you this topical piece at this time. The abstract for the article is as follows: .

The bid for Safeway announced by Morrisons in January 2003 ended months of speculation as to the next victim in the battle for power in the UK multiple food market. The Morrisons bid provided the catalyst for other major food retailers to express their interest in the Safeway company and its stores (also joined by a number of non-food retailers). There is little

Special issues Special issues on their way during the remainder of the 2003 volume of this journal: . Issue 7 will be a Retail Insights issue featuring case studies from the 2002 conference of the European Association for Education and Research in Commercial Distribution. . Issue 9 will also be a Retail Insights issue featuring papers from the 2002 Contemporary Issues in Retail Marketing event. . Towards the end of the volume we will feature a special issue on the theme of ‘‘Social inclusion and food deserts’’ (put together by Graham Clarke at the University of Leeds) and an issue on ‘‘Fashion retailing’’ (put together by Grete Birtwistle and Christopher Moore of Glasgow Caledonian University).

Conference attendance John Fernie, the Editor of this journal is aiming to attend the European Association for Education and Research in Commercial Distribution (EAERCD) event in Paris, which takes place in July. Adelina Broadbridge, the Retail Insights Editor is also likely to be at this event. Adelina will be at the Retail Week conference in early March and is also hoping to be at the Contemporary Issues in Retail Marketing (CIRM) event in Manchester, in September. Finallly, John Fernie is hoping to be present at the American Collegiate Retailing Association event held in Columbus, Ohio in early November. If you have ideas for papers, special issues or any other ideas regarding contribution to IJRDM please track down John or Adelina at these events.

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International Journal of Retail & Distribution Management, Volume 31, Numbers 3, 2003

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International Journal of Physical Distribution & Logistics Management - Vol. 33 No. 3 2003: Competition, collaboration and co-operation in logistics

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International Journal for Philosophy of Religion Volume 63, Numbers 1-3 February 2008

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The International Journal of Systems & Cybernetics, Volume 31, Number 9 10, 2002

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International Review of Neurobiology Volume 31

International Journal of Powder Metallurgy Volume 44 Issue 3

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