Historical Dictionary of the Discovery and Exploration of the Pacific Islands (Historical Dictionaries of Discovery and Exploration)

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Historical Dictionaries of Discovery and Exploration Series Editor: Jon Woronoff 1. Australia, by Alan Day, 2003. 2. Pacific Islands, by Max Quanchi and John Robson, 2005.

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Historical Dictionary of the Discovery and Exploration of the Pacific Islands Max Quanchi John Robson

Historical Dictionaries of Discovery and Exploration, No. 2

The Scarecrow Press, Inc. Lanham, Maryland • Toronto • Oxford 2005

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SCARECROW PRESS, INC. Published in the United States of America by Scarecrow Press, Inc. A wholly owned subsidiary of The Rowman & Littlefield Publishing Group, Inc. 4501 Forbes Boulevard, Suite 200, Lanham, Maryland 20706 www.scarecrowpress.com PO Box 317 Oxford OX2 9RU, UK Copyright © 2005 by Max Quanchi and John Robson All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior permission of the publisher. British Library Cataloguing in Publication Information Available Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Quanchi, Max. Historical dictionary of the discovery and exploration of the Pacific islands / Max Quanchi, John Robson. p. cm. — (Historical dictionaries of discovery and exploration ; no. 2) Includes bibliographical references. ISBN 0-8108-5395-7 (hardcover : alk. paper) 1. Oceania—Discovery and exploration—Dictionaries. 2. Pacific Area— Discovery and exploration—Dictionaries. 3. Oceania—History—Dictionaries. 4. Pacific Area—History—Dictionaries. 5. Oceania—Dictionaries. 6. Pacific Area—Dictionaries. I. Robson, John, 1949– II. Title. III. Series. DU19.Q36 2005 995'.003—dc22 2005010010

∞ ™ The paper used in this publication meets the minimum requirements of American National Standard for Information Sciences—Permanence of Paper for Printed Library Materials, ANSI/NISO Z39.48-1992. Manufactured in the United States of America.

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Contents

Editor’s Foreword Jon Woronoff

vii

Preface

ix

List of Maps

xi

Pacific Islands and Their First European Visitors

xiii

Chronologies

xxvii

Maps

xlvii

Introduction

lix

THE DICTIONARY

1

Bibliography

183

Appendix Associations, Libraries, and Societies

295

About the Authors

299

v

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Editor’s Foreword

In the annals of discovery and exploration no chapter is more exciting and adventuresome, even romantic, if you will, than the exploration of the Pacific Ocean. But it was, indeed, driven by a search for islands, even atolls, as well as a great South Land and a Northwest Passage, neither of which were found because they did not exist. But the islands did, and they were encountered one after the other, sometimes as the result of careful investigation, more often because of hazard and happenstance. The motives behind all this were often crudely political or crassly commercial but they also included more altruistic aspects, such as mapping the globe and scientific progress. The outcome, sometimes but not always beneficial for the intruding Europeans and Americans, was frequently disastrous for the lands, peoples, and cultures they discovered. But this discovery worked in both directions, and the Islanders came to know the outside world and, as the authors indicate, the intruders also gradually learned more about themselves. Max Quanchi has published extensively on the Pacific Islands, its peoples, and cultures. John Robson is a leading specialist on Captain James Cook, and fortunately also a librarian for many years, and presently the map librarian at the University of Waikato in Hamilton, New Zealand. This obviously benefited the bibliography, which he produced. There is no question that a passion for constantly uncovering and verifying more of the absorbing story of Oceania is shared by the authors, with Max Quanchi presently focusing on colonial photography and John Robson on James Cook and Oceania’s maps. Historical Dictionary of Exploration and Discovery of the Pacific Islands has the broadest scope of any volume in the series. The introduction sums up this great adventure while the details are traced in hundreds of entries on the nations and explorers, the voyages and expeditions, the initial contacts with the islanders in many locations, and the vii

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EDITOR’S FOREWORD

general background. Of particular significance is the bibliography, very extensive and yet only selective given the enormous number of works published, but which is easy enough to navigate since the titles are meticulously divided and subdivided by type of work, topic, place, and period. Jon Woronoff Series Editor

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Preface

This historical dictionary and bibliography provides details of European exploration of the Pacific Islands and associated intellectual, scientific, artistic, and cultural developments in Europe and the Pacific. The dictionary includes the names of national heroes and their barques, fluyts, and caravels as well as entries on longitude, scurvy, Nouvelle Cythère, speculative geographers and dreamers, transculturites, mythical Polynesian voyagers, and an officer who climbed on the bowsprit of a ship heading into pack ice just to say jokingly to James Cook that he had gone farther south than the rest of the crew. We want this to be comprehensive and go beyond a listing of daring, resolute, and exemplary explorers and the islands they added to the European charts of the Pacific. We have included exploration through to the present with reference to El Niño, marine archaeology, and the expanding scholarly study of cross-cultural encounters and indigenous histories. In the case of surnames, the French convention has been followed, for example, Marion Dufresne rather than the English custom of noting his name as just Dufresne or Du Fresne. Honorifics, such as Comte, Chevalier, Sir, and Ritter, have been omitted. Military ranks, such as Admiral, Captain, and Lieutenant, have also been omitted. To take advantage of the links between individual entries, readers are advised to follow the prompts in bold. For example, the well-known shipwreck of the Antelope in Palau in 1783–1784 is not described at length, but readers can follow the event and related histories through a series of entries, including Henry Wilson, Lee Boo, Palau-early European contacts, and George Keate. James Cook, already the subject of more than 6,000 books and articles, has a small entry in the Dictionary, but his impact on related individuals, events, and histories can be followed by going to 38 other entries indentified in bold in the text or in the “See” section at the end of his entry. ix

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PREFACE

The dictionary and the bibliography were completed separately—the Dictionary in Brisbane and the Bibliography in Hamilton—but they complement each other in ways made possible with modern technology despite being situated on either side of the Tasman Sea and meeting only once early in the planning. We thank colleagues who answered tricky questions and particularly Max Shekleton and Jean-Louis Boglio and we acknowledge the work of our predecessors in compiling similar Pacific explorer reference works—John Cawte Beaglehole (1934), Peter Buck (1953), Andrew Sharp (1960), Oscar Spate (1979–1988), Jacques Brosse (1983), and John Dunmore (1992). We also thank the authors of related dictionaries in the Scarecrow Press Historical Dictionary series and the authors of monographs, multivolume works, and edited reprints of 16th–19th-century journals that continue to provide a dazzling amount of detail and insight. Max Quanchi, Brisbane, Australia John Robson, Hamilton, New Zealand

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List of Maps

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

8.

9.

10.

11.

Eastern Melanesia Central Pacific Ethnic groupings/cultural areas Hawai‘i New Guinea New Zealand/Aotearoa Tracks of Espérance and Recherche around New Caledonia 1792–1793 (from Beautemps-Beaupré’s Atlas, plate 15, cited in p. 86, Frank Horner, Looking for La Pérouse, Melbourne University Press, 1995. The Tuamotuan-Tahitian corridor, from p. 88, OHK Spate, Paradise Found and Lost, University of Minnesota Press, 1988. Tracks of Russian voyages to Alaska 1728–1741, from p. 245, Glyn Williams, Voyages of Delusion; The Search for the Northwest Passage in the Age of Reason, HarperCollins, 2002. Father Juan Cantova’s map of the Caroline, Marianas and Palau Islands in 1722, from p. 52 of Fran Hezel, The First Taint of Civilization; A History of the Caroline and Marshall Islands in Pre-Colonial Days 1521–1885, University of Hawai‘i Press, 1983. Andrew Cheyne’s track and plan of the Loyalty Islands, 1842, from p. 101, Dorothy Shineberg, ed, The Trading Voyages of Andrew Cheyne, Australian National University Press, 1971.

xi

xlvii xlviii xlix l li lii

liii

liv

lv

lvi

lvii

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Pacific Islands and Their First European Visitors

This document lists most of the Pacific Islands and the name and date of the first European visitor. Further information can be obtained from Andrew Sharp’s The Discovery of the Pacifc Islands and John Dunmore’s Whos Who of Pacific Exploration.

Island Group

Island Name

A. Melanesia

Fiji Kadavu Viti Levu Yasawa Group Waya Naviti Yanqeta Matacawa Levu Nacula Yasawa Ovalau Makogai Vanua Levu Koro Ringgold Isles Rabi Taveuni Qamea Laucala Cikobia Exploring Isles Vanua Balavu Lakeba Moala Oneata Matuku Totoya Namuka-i-Lau Moce

Alternative Name

Thikombia Vanua Mbavalu Lakemba

Mothe

xiii

Date

1792 1789 1789 1789 1789 1789 1789 1789 1789 1789 1789 1643 1789 1643 1643 1643 1643 1643 1643 1792 1797 1792 1792 1792 1827 1827 1789 1789

European “Discoverer”

Bligh Bligh Bligh Bligh Bligh Bligh Bligh Bligh Bligh Bligh Bligh Tasman Bligh Tasman Tasman Tasman Tasman Tasman Tasman Bligh Wilson Bligh Bligh Bligh Dumont d’Urville Dumont d’Urville Bligh Bligh (continued)

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Island Group

Island Name

A. Melanesia

Fiji (continued) Ogea Levu Yagasalevu Fulaga Vatoa Ono-i-Lau Tuvana-i-Ra Gau Nairai Batiki Wakaya Rotuma

Alternative Name

Date

European “Discoverer”

Ongea Yangasa Levu Fulanga

1797 1789 1797 1774 1820 1820 1789 1789 1789 1789 1791

Wilson Bligh Wilson Cook Bellingshausen Bellingshausen Bligh Bligh Bligh Bligh Edwards

1774 1774 1774 1774 1774 1774 1774 1774 1793 1793 1793 1793 1793 1793 1793 1793 1793

Cook Cook Cook Cook Cook Cook Cook Cook Raven Raven Raven Raven Raven Raven Raven Raven d’Entrecasteaux

1798 1788 1794

Fearn Gilbert Butler

1526 1768 1528 1528 1768 1528 1767 1767 1643 1643 1643 1643 1700 1700

Meneses Bougainville Saavedra Saavedra Bougainville Saavedra Carteret Carteret Tasman Tasman Tasman Tasman Dampier Dampier

Ngau

New Caledonia New Caledonia Ouen Isle of Pines Koutoumo Nokanhoui Balabio Baaba Belep Islands Mare Dudune Leliogat Uoa Tiga Vauvilliers Lifou Ouvea Atoll BeautempsBeaupre Hunter Matthew Walpole

Grande Terre Ile de Pins

Oua

Papua New Guinea New Guinea Kaniet Islands Admiralty Islands Manus Ninigo Islands Hermit Islands Aua Wuvulu Long Umboi New Britain Witu Islands St. Matthias Group Mussau

Vitu Islands

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Island Group

Island Name

Alternative Name

Date

• xv

European “Discoverer”

Papua New Guinea (continued) Emirau Tench Lavongai New Ireland Tabar Islands Lihir Group Tanga Islands Feni Islands Nissan Islands Bougainville Buka Tulun Nuguria Nukumanu Rossel Tagula Deboyne Islands Misima Basilaki d’Entecasteaux Islands Goodenough Fergusson Normanby Sanaroa Amphlett Group Muyua Budibudi Islands Egum Atoll Marshall Bennett Is. Gawa Trobriand Islands Kiriwina Kaileuna Vakuta Lusancay Islands

Enus New Hanover

Anir Islands Green Islands

Yela Sudest

Morata Moratau Duau Welle Woodlark Nada

1700 1781 1616 1616 1616 1616 1616 1616 1616 1768 1767 1767 1822 1616 1768 1606 1793 1793 1606 1793 1793 1793 1793 1793 1793 1836 1812 1793

1793 1793 1793 1793 1793

Dampier Maurelle Le Maire Le Maire Le Maire Le Maire Le Maire Le Maire Le Maire Bougainville Carteret Carteret Abgarris Le Maire Bougainville Torres d’Entrecasteaux d’Entrecasteaux Torres d’Entrecasteaux d’Entrecasteaux d’Entrecasteaux d’Entrecasteaux d’Entrecasteaux d’Entrecasteaux Grimes Laughton d’Entrecasteaux Bristow? Bristow? d’Entrecasteaux d’Entrecasteaux d’Entrecasteaux d’Entrecasteaux d’Entrecasteaux

Solomon Islands Anuta Fatutaka Tikopia Vanikoro Utupua Nendo Tinakula Reef Islands Duff Islands Ongtong Java Roncador Sikaiana

Fataka Vanikolo Santa Cruz Volcano

Luangiua Keuopua Stewart Islands

1791 1791 1606 1595 1595 1595 1595 1595 1606 1643 1568 1791

Edwards Edwards Quiros Barreto Barreto Mendana Mendana Mendana Quiros Tasman Mendana Hunter (continued)

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PACIFIC ISLANDS AND THEIR FIRST EUROPEAN VISITORS

Island Group

Island Name

Alternative Name

Date

European “Discoverer”

1790 1790 1568 1568 1568 1568 1568 1568 1568 1767 1568 1568 1568 1788 1788 1568 1568 1568 1568 1787 1768 1788 1787 1568 1769 1788 1787

Wilkinson Wilkinson Henriquez Mendana Mendana Henriquez Henriquez Henriquez Ortega Carteret Ortega Ortega Ortega Shortland Shortland Mendana Ortega Ortega Ortega Read & Dale Bougainville Shortland Read & Dale Ortega Surville Shortland Read & Dale

1774 1774 1774 1774 1774 1774 1774 1774 1774 1774 1774 1774 1774 1774 1774 1774 1774 1774 1606 1768 1606

Cook Cook Cook Cook Cook Cook Cook Cook Cook Cook Cook Cook Cook Cook Cook Cook Cook Cook Torres Bougainville Quiros

Solomon Islands (continued) Bellona Rennell San Cristobal Santa Catalina Santa Ana Three Sisters Uki Ni Msi Ulawa Malaita Dai Guadalcanal Florida Islands Savo Russell Islands Pavuvu Santa Isabel San Jorge New Georgia Vangunu Ghizo Vella Lavella Simbo Ranongga Choiseul Vaghena Shortland Treasury Islands

Mu Nggava Mu Ngiki Makira Owa Riki Owa Rafa Olu Malau Uki Mala

Bughotu

Gizo Mbilua Ghanongga Lauru Alu

Vanuatu Anatom Futuna Tanna Aniwa Erromanga Efate Nguna Emao Etarik Mataso Shepherd Islands Tongoa Emae Tongariki Epi Lopevi Paama Ambrym Malakula Pentecost Maewo

Aneityum Erronan

Vate

Monument Matah

Ulveah

Malekula Whitsunday Aurora

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Island Group

Island Name

• xvii

Alternative Name

Date

European “Discoverer”

Omba

1768 1606 1606 1606 1606 1606 1788 1788 1788 1606 1788 1850 1850 1850 1850 1850 1850

Bougainville Quiros Quiros Quiros Quiros Quiros Bligh Bligh Bligh Quiros Bligh Erskine Erskine Erskine Erskine Erskine Erskine

1522 1761 1761 1767 1773

Espinosa Hutchinson Hutchinson Carteret Tompson

1798 1528 1528 1529 1529 1595 1528

Musgrave Saavedra Saavedra Saavedra Saavedra Barreto Saavedra (continued)

Vanuatu (continued) Aoba Espiritu Santo Santa Maria Mere Lava Merig Vanua Lava Mota Mota Lava Reef Islands Ureparapara Vot Tande Toga Loh Linua Tegua Metoma Hiu B. Micronesia

Gaua

Rowa Vat Ganai

Palau (Belau) Ngeruangel Ngcheangel Babeldaob Oreor Ngerekebesang Ngemelachel Ngerchaol Chelbacheb Ngemlis Ngercheu Ngedbus Ngerechong Ngebad Beliliou Ngeaur Sonsorol Pulo Anna Merir Tobi Helen

Ngaruangl Kayangel Babelthuap Koror Arakabasan Malakal Ngargol Rock Islands Ngemelis Ngergoi Ngesebus Ngeregong Ngabad Peleliu Angaur

Federated States of Micronesia Kosrae Pingelap Mwokil Pohnpei Ant Pakin Ngetik

Kusaie Mokil Ponape

Ngatik

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Island Group

Island Name

Alternative Name

Date

European “Discoverer”

1565 1565 1806 1537 1528 1528 1529 1529 1824 1565 1565 1795 1799 1804 1797 1804 1797 1797 1797 1797 1828 1565 1543 1543 1543 1565

Arellano Arellano Monteverde Grijalva Saavedra Saavedra Saavedra Saavedra Hall Arellano Arellano Mortlock Ibargoita Boll Wilson Boll Wilson Wilson Wilson Wilson Litke Arellano Villalobos Villalobos Villalobos Arellano

1521

Magellan

Federated States of Micronesia (continued) Oroluk Minto Reef Nukuoro Kapingamarangi Mortlock Islands Namokuk Losap Nama Hall Islands Truk Islands Pulap Puluwat Pulusuk Pikelot Satawal West Fayu Lamotrek Elato Ifalik Woleai Eauripik Sorol Fais Ulithi Yap islands Ngulu

Nomoi

Ifaluk

Guam Kiribati

Arorae Tamana Onotoa Nikunau Beru Tabiteuea Nonouti Aranuka Kuria Abemama Maiana Tarawa Abaiang Marakei Butaritari

Kiribati comprises three sets of widely separated island groups (Line, Phoenix, and Gilbert) straddling the Equator in the central Pacific. Grijalva possibly made the first European contact in1537.

Nukunau

Makin Meang

1809 1804 1826 1826 1826 1799 1799 1788 1788 1788 1788 1788 1788 1824 1606

Patterson Cary Clerk Clerk? Clerk? Bishop Bishop Gilbert Gilbert Gilbert Gilbert Gilbert Gilbert Duperrey Quiros

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Island Group

Island Name

Alternative Name

• xix

Date

European “Discoverer”

1788 1804 1825 1823 1826 ? 1794 1825 1825 1822 1798 1798 1777 1823 1823 1820 1521 1801 1802 1821

Gilbert Mertho ? Coffin, J. Tromelin Emmett Barner Gardner, J. Starbuck Worth, G. Fanning Fanning Cook Clark Starbuck Bellingshausen Magellan ? Sawle Brown

1688 1522 1522 1522 1688 1688 1688 1543 1543 1543 1688 1688 1688 1521

Morales Espinosa Espinosa Espinosa Morales Morales Morales Torre Torre Torre Morales Morales Morales Magellan

Kiribati (continued) Makin Banaba Kanton Enderbury Rawaki Manra McKean Mikumaroro Baker Howland Teraina Tabuaeran Kiritimati Malden Starbuck Vostok Caroline Flint Palmyra Jarvis

Ocean Canton Phoenix Sydney Gardner

Washington Fanning Christmas

Mariana Islands Farallon de Pajoras Maug Islands Asuncion Island Agrihan Pagan Alamagan Guguan Sarigan Anatahan Farallon de Medinilla Saipan Tinian Aguijan Rota

Uracas

Marshall Islands

The Marshalls comprises two chains of many small islands and atolls.

Ebon Namorik Kili Jaluit Ailinglaplap Jabwot Namu Lib Kwajelein

Luta

1824 1792 1797 1809 1797 1566 1568 1565 1543

Joy Bond Dennott Patterson Dennott ? Mendana Arellano Villalobos (continued)

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Island Group

Island Name

Alternative Name

Date

European “Discoverer”

1543 1543 1543 1767 1528 1528 1825 1529 1529 1526 1817 1527 1527 1565 1565 1565 1543 1543 1543 1543 1788 1788 1788 1788 1788

Villalobos Villalobos Villalobos Wallis Saavedra Saavedra Kotzebue Saavedra Saavedra Salazar Kotzebue Saavedra Saavedra Legazpi Legazpi Legazpi Villalobos Villalobos Villalobos Villalobos Marshall Marshall Marshall Gilbert Gilbert

1798

Fearn

1824 1811 1769 1777 1775 1791 1800

Gardner Henry Cook Cook Gayanagos Vancouver Bass

1777 1788 1823 1823 1777 1777 1773 1788 1774 1814 1828

Cook Christian Dibbs Dibbs Cook Cook Cook Bligh Cook Lazarev Rule

Marshall Islands (continued) Lae Ujae Wotho Rongrik Rongelap Ailinginae Bikini Enewetak Ujelang Bokaak Bikar Utrik Taka Mejit Ailuk Jemo Likiep Wotje Erikub Maloelap Aur Majuro Arno Mili Knox

Eniwetok Taongi Utirik

Erikup

Narik

Nauru C. Polynesia

Austral Islands Maria Rimatara Rurutu Tubuai Raivavae Rapa Marotiri Cook Islands Mangaia Rarotonga Mauke Mitiaro Atiu Takutea Manuae Aitutaki Palmerston Sowarrow Nassau

Suvorov

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Island Group

• xxi

Alternative Name

Date

European “Discoverer”

Pukapuka Manihiki Rakahanga Penrhyn

Tongareva

1595 1822 1606 1788

Mendana Patrickson Quiros Sever

Easter Island

Rapanui

1722

Roggeveen

Magareva Timoe

1797 1797

Wilson Wilson

Big Island Kahoolawe

1778 1779 1778 1779 1779 1778 1778 1778 1778 1778 1778 1789

Cook Clerke Cook Clerke Clerke Cook Cook Cook Cook Cook Cook Douglas

Island Name Cook Islands (continued)

Gambier Islands Mangareva Temoe Hawai‘i Hawai‘i Kaho’olawe Maui Molokini Lana‘i Moloka‘i O‘ahu Kaua‘i

Lanai Molokai Oahu Kauai Niahu

Lehua Ka‘ula Nihoa

Kaula

Other islands

in central Pacific linked to Hawaiian group

Necker Island French Frigate Shoals La Perouse Pinnacle Gardner Pinnacles Maro Reef Laysan Island Lisianski Island Pearl and Hermes Atoll Kure Atoll Johnston Atoll Wake Midway

1786 1786 1786 1820 1820 1827 1805 1822 1827 1807 1566 1859

Laperouse Laperouse Laperouse Allen Allen Staniukovich Lisyanski Clark & Taylor Staniukovich Johnston Mendana Brooks

1791 1791 1791 1791 1791 1791 1791 1774 1595

Ingraham Ingraham Ingraham Marchand Ingraham Ingraham Ingraham Cook Mendana (continued)

Marquesas Islands Motu One Hatutaa Eiao Motu Iti Nuku Hiva Ua Huka Ua Pou Fatu Huka Hiva Oa

Ile de Sable Hatutu Hatu Iti

Ua Pu

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Island Group

Alternative Name

Date

European “Discoverer”

Tahuata Mohotani Fatu Hiva

Motane

1595 1595 1595

Mendana Mendana Mendana

New Zealand

Aotearoa

Te Wai Pounamu Te Ika a Maui Three Kings Great Barrier White Kapiti d’Urville Resolution Solander Stewart

South Island North Island

1642 1643 1643 1770 1770 1770

Tasman Tasman Tasman Cook Cook Cook

1773 1770

Cook Cook

1774

Cook

1722 1722 1722 1722 1722 1840?

Roggeveen Roggeveen Roggeveen Roggeveen Roggeveen Swain

Island Name Marquesas Islands (continued)

Entry

Niue Samoa, American Ta‘u Olosega Ofu Tutuila Rose Swains Samoa

Formerly known as Western Samoa

Savai’i Apolima Manono Upolu

1787 1787 1787 1722

Laperouse Laperouse Laperouse Roggeveen

1767 1767 1769 1767 1767 1769 1769 1769 1769 1769 1767 1767

Wallis Wallis Cook Wallis Wallis Cook Cook Cook Cook Cook Wallis Wallis

1765 1791 1839

Byron, J. Edwards Crocker

Society Islands Mehetia Tahiti Tetiaroa Moorea Maiao Huahine Raiatea Tahaa Bora-Bora Tupai Maupihaa Motu One

Meetia

Tubuai-Manu

Motu Iti Mopihaa, Mopelia Bellingshausen

Tokelau Atafu Nukunonu Fakaofo

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Island Group

Island Name

Alternative Name

• xxiii

Date

European “Discoverer”

1643 1643 1643 1643 1643

Tasman Tasman Tasman Tasman Tasman

1643 1643 1777 1777 1777 1777 1643 1781 1781 1781 1616 1616 1616

Tasman Tasman Cook Cook Cook Cook Tasman Maurelle Maurelle Maurelle Le Maire Le Maire Le Maire

1832 1829 1606 1606 1606 1606 1606 1826 1792 1767 1791 1826 1767 1767 1767 1823 1797 1794 1767 1767 1606 1768 1768 1826 1767 1767 1767 1606 1606

Cary Moerenhaut Quiros Quiros Quiros Quiros Quiros Beechey Weatherhead Carteret Edwards Beechey Carteret Carteret Carteret Duperrey Wilson Boenechea Wallis Wallis Quiros Bougainville Bougainville Beechey Wallis Wallis Wallis Quiros Quiros (continued)

Tonga ‘Ata Tongatapu ‘Eua Nomuka Group Kotu Group Tongua Kao Tofua Ha’ano Foa Lifuka Uoleva Late Vava’u Toku Fonualei Niuafo’ou Niuatoputapu Tafahi Tuamotu Archipelago Morane Maria Marutea South Matureivavao Tenarunga Vahanga Tenararo Fangataufa Moruroa Tematangi Tureia Vanavana Nukutipipi Anaunurunga Anuanuraro Reao Pukarua Tatakoto Pinaki Nukutavake Vairaatea Vahitahi Akiaki Ahunui Paraoa Manuhangi Nengonengo Hao Amanu

Cadmus Moerenhout Lord Hood Melbourne Minto Bedford Marokao Cockburn Mururoa Bligh’s Carysfort Barrow Margaret Four Crowns Archangel Clermont-Tonnere Serle Clerke, Narcissus Whitsunday Queen Charlotte Egmont Cook’s Lagoon Lancier, Thrum Cap Byam Martin Gloucester Cumberland Prince William Henry Bow, Harp Moller

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Island Group

Island Name

Alternative Name

Date

European “Discoverer”

1769 1768 1768 1768 1768 1773 1772 1773 1820 1521 1521 1521 1765 1765 1606 1606 1803 1803 1820 1820 1820 1773 1774 1768 1803 1820 1831 1835 1835 1825 1774 1820 1774 1722 1722 1722 1616 1616 1616 1616 1722 1616 1815 1820

Cook Bougainville Bougainville Bougainville Bougainville Cook Boenechea Cook Bellingshausen Magellan? Magellan? Magellan? Byron, J. Byron, J. Quiros Quiros Buyers Buyers Bellingshausen Bellingshausen Bellingshausen Cook Boenechea Bougainville Buyers Bellingshausen Ireland FitzRoy FitzRoy Kotzebue Cook Bellingshausen Cook Roggeveen Roggeveen Roggeveen Le Maire Le Maire Le Maire Le Maire Roggeveen Le Maire Kotzebue Bellingshausen

1767 1616 1616

Wallis Le Maire Le Maire

Tuamotu Archipelago (continued) Ravahere Marokau Reitoru Haraiki Hikueru Tekukota Tauere Marutea North Nihiru Pukapuka Fakahina Fangatau Napuka Tepoto North Takume Raroia Taenga Makemo Katiu Hiti Tuanake Motutunga Tahanea Anaa Faaite Fakarava Raraka Taiaro Kauehi Aratika Toau Niau Kaukura Apataki Arutua Tikei Takaroa Takapoto Manihi Ahe Maketea Rangiroa Tikehau Mataiva

Dawhaida Manaka Bird’s Croker, San Quentin Melville Doubtful St. Simeon Furneaux Nigeri Dog Enterprise Arakchev Isle of Disappointment Otooho Volkonsky Barclay de Tolley Holt, Yermalov Koutousof, Smolenski Saken Ohiti, Clute Reid Adventure Tchitchagoff Chain Miloradovitch Wittgenstein King Vincennes Karlshoff Elizabeth Greig Auura, Oura Hegemeister Rurick Romanzoff King George’s Islet Spridof Wilsons Peacock Aurora Deans Krusenstern Matahiva, Lazareff

Wallis & Futuna Uvea Futuna Alofi

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PACIFIC ISLANDS AND THEIR FIRST EUROPEAN VISITORS

Island Group

Island Name

D. Other Pacific Islands

Alternative Name

Date

• xxv

European “Discoverer”

Mostly isolated and uninhabited before European arrival. Macquarie Campbell Auckland Snares Antipodes Bounty Chatham Raoul Macauley Curtis l’Esperance Norfolk Philip

1810 1810 1806 1791 1800 1788 1791 1793 1788 1788 1793 1774 1774

Hasselborough Hasselborough Bristow Broughton Waterhouse Bligh Broughton d’Entrecasteaux Sever Sever d’Entrecasteaux Cook Cook

1767 1818? 1606 1606

Carteret Henderson Quiros Quiros

Pitcairn Islands Pitcairn Island Oeno Henderson Ducie

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The Diaspora of Pacific Peoples c40000BC

Evidence of people living in New Guinea.

c8000BC

Rising sea levels isolate New Guinea and Australia.

c4000BC

Austronesians move into Southeast Asia.

c1500BC lands.

People move from Philippines to Guam and Marianas Is-

c1500–1000BC People move from New Guinea to Solomon Islands, Santa Cruz, Vanuatu, and New Caledonia. c1500–1000BC

People move north into Western Carolines.

c1500–1000BC

Emergence of Lapita people in New Caledonia.

c1500–1000BC People, and Lapita culture, move east from Vanuatu to Fiji and Samoa. c200BC People move east from Fiji to Tonga, the Cook, the Society and Marquesas Islands. AD

c1–500

People move to Kiribati and Marshall Islands.

c300 People move southeast from Society Islands to Easter Island (Rapa Nui).

AD

c400 People move north from Society or Marquesas Islands to Hawai‘i.

AD

AD1000

Tonga unified under rule of Tu‘i Tonga.

c1200 Zealand.

AD

People move from eastern Polynesia to Aetearoa/New

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CHRONOLOGIES

Significant Dates in European Contact with the Pacific 1494 Treaty of Tordesillas. 1513 Vasco Nuñez de Balboa, crossed Isthmus of Darien and sighted Pacific. 1520 Ferdinand Magellan entered the strait that now bears his name. 1521 Magellan was the first European to cross the Pacific. 1522 Juan de Elcano assumed command of Magellan’s expedition and completed first recorded circumnavigation. 1526 Jorge de Meneses visited Western New Guinea, which he called the Ilhas de Papuas. 1545 Ynigo Ortiz de Retes gave New Guinea its present name. 1564–1565 Miguel de Legazpi, Andreas de Urdaneta, and Alonso de Arellano led an expedition from Mexico and founded the first Spanish settlement in the Phillipines. 1578–1579 Francis Drake crossed to Palau before returning to Britain, making the first British circumnavigation. 1593 The Spanish began sailing Manila galleons eastward across the Pacific from Manila to Acapulco. 1599–1600 Pacific.

Jacques Mahu’s expedition, the first Dutch crossing of the

1600–1601 Olivier Van Noort crossed the Pacific and returned to Holland to complete the first Dutch circumnavigation. 1606 Luis Vaez de Torres sailed west through the strait now bearing his name. 1642–1643 Abel Tasman led a Dutch expedition from Java and mapped parts of Tasmania, New Zealand, Tonga, and Fiji. 1680s–1690s British buccaneers, including William Dampier, operating in Southeast Pacific.

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1715–1716 Jean-Baptiste Langerie sailed across the Pacific from China to South America and on to France, the first person to circumnavigate from west to east. 1720

South Sea Bubble investment and speculative collapse.

1726 Jonathan Swift’s novel Gulliver’s Travels published in London partly based on Dampier’s journals and events in the Pacific. 1756 The Histoire des navigations aux terres australes published in Paris by Charles de Brosses. The terms Polynesia and Australasia used for the first time. 1767 Samuel Wallis the first to visit Tahiti. Alexander Dalrymple’s An Account of the Discoveries made in the South Pacifick Ocean prior to 1764 published in London. 1769–1770 James Cook first voyage arrived at Tahiti to observe the Transit of Venus. 1785 James Hanna, the first sea otter fur trader to reach the American coast. 1788 The British ship, Emelia, was the first whaler to enter the Pacific via Cape Horn. 1788

The British “First Fleet” arrived in Botany Bay.

1789

Mutiny on the Bounty.

1792

First sealing base established in Dusky Sound, New Zealand.

1797

James Wilson, in the Duff, brought the first missionaries to Tahiti.

1804 Ivan Kruzenshtern’s voyage opened a new phase in Russian exploration. 1817 Camille de Roquefeuil’s expedition marked the French return to the Pacific. 1825 Dumont d’Urville began his first voyage. He promoted use of the terms Melanesians and Micronesians. 1826 Peter Dillon found evidence on Vanikoro of Laperouse’s lost expedition. 1828

Netherlands annexed western New Guinea.

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CHRONOLOGIES

Chronological Listing of European Voyages This list contains significant voyages of exploration made by ships originating in Europe, Australia, and North America from Ferdinand Magellan to the Challenger Expedition of 1876. Merchant vessels, fur traders, and whalers have been added selectively to the list where they have made “discoveries.” The list is in chronological order by the starting date of the voyage, where known. 1519–1522 Magellan, Ferdinand (with Juan Elcano, Gonzalo Espinosa). Spanish navy. Trinidad, Concepcion, Victoria. 1525–1526

Rocha, Diogo de. Portuguese navy.

1525–1526 Loaysia, Garcia (with Alonso de Salazar, Jorge de Najera). Spanish navy. Santa Maria de la Victoria, San Lesmes, Santa Maria del Parral, Santiago. 1527–1529

Saavedra, Alvaro de. Spanish navy. Florida.

1537–1539

Grijalva, Hernando. Spanish navy. Santiago.

1538

Castro, Francesco de. Portuguese navy.

1542–1546 Villalobos, Ruy Lopez de (with Juan Gaetan, Bernado de la Torre). Spanish navy. Santiago, San Anton, San Jorge, San Juan. 1543–1545

Gaetan Juan. Spanish navy. San Juan.

1544

Torre, Bernado de la. Spanish navy. San Juan de Letran.

1545

Retes, Ynigo Ortiz de. Spanish navy. San Juan de Letran.

1564–1566 Legazpi, Miguel Lopez de (with Alonso de Arellano, Andreas de Urdaneta, Felipe de Salcedo). Spanish navy. San Pedro, San Lucas. 1565 Arellano, Alonso de. Spanish navy. San Lucas. Salcedo, Felipe de. Spanish navy. San Pedro. 1566

Pedricon, then Martin, Lope. Spanish navy. San Geronimo.

1567–1569 Mendana, Alvaro de (with Hernan Gallego, Pedro de Ortega, Hernando Henriquez). Spanish navy. Los Reyes, Los Todos Santos, Santiago (brig).

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• xxxi

1577–1580 Drake, Francis. British privateer. Pelican, renamed Golden Hind. 1586–1588 Gallant.

Cavendish, Thomas. British privateer. Desire, Content,

1595–1596 Mendana, Alvaro de (with Ysabel de Barreto [wife], Pedro Quiros). Spanish navy. Santa Ysabel, San Jeronimo. 1596

Barreto, Ysabel de. Spanish navy. Santa Ysabel.

1598–1600 Mahu, Jacques (with William Adams, Simon de Cordes). Dutch expedition. Hoop, Liefde, Geloof, Trouw, Blijde Boodschap. 1598–1601 Eendracht. 1600

Van Noort, Olivier. Dutch merchant vessels. Mauritius,

Spanish navy. Santa Margarita.

1605–1606 Quiros, Pedro Fernandez de (with Luis Vaez de Torres, Prado y Tovar) Spanish navy. San Pedro y Pablo, San Pedrico, Los Tres Reyes Magos. 1614–1617 Silbergen, Joris van. Dutch merchant vessels. Groote Sonne, Groote Manne. 1615–1616 Le Maire, Jacob and Willelm Schouten. Dutch merchant vessels. Eendracht, Hoorn. 1623–1624 L’Hermite, Jacques (with Geen Schapenham). Dutch merchant vessels (The Nassau Fleet). 1642–1643 Tasman, Abel. Dutch East India Company ships. Heemskerck, Zeehaen. 1645

Vries, Maarten. Dutch East India Company. Castricum.

1683–1686 Swan, Charles (with William Dampier). British buccaneer. Cygnet. 1683–1690

Davis, Edward. British buccaneer. Batchelor’s Delight.

1684–1686 Eaton, John (with William Cowley, Edward Davis). British buccaneer. St. Nicholas, Batchelor’s Delight. 1688–1690

Morales, Luis. Spanish missionary.

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Rodriguez, Juan. Spanish navy.

1696–1697

Careri, Giovanni. Italian passenger on Spanish ships.

1699–1701

Dampier, William. British buccaneer. Roebuck.

1703–1705 Dampier, William (with William Funnell). British buccaneer. St. George, Cinque Ports. 1704

Clipperton, John. British buccaneer.

1708–1711 Rogers, Woodes (with Edward Cooke, Alexander Selkirk, William Dampier). British buccaneer. Duke, Duchess. 1710–1711 Trinidad. 1712

Padilla, Francisco. Spanish navy/missionary. Santissima

Egui, Bernado de. Spanish navy. Santo Domingo de Guzman.

1714–1716 Langerie, Jean-Baptiste. French merchant vessel. Comtesse de Pontchartrain. 1719–1722 Shelvocke, George (with John Clipperton). British buccaneers. Speedwell, Success. 1721–1723 Roggeveen, Jacob (with Jan Koster, Cornelis Bouman, Roeloef Rosendaal). Dutch. Arend, Thienhoven, Afrikaansche Galey. 1740–1744 Anson, George (with John Byron). British navy. Centurion, Gloucester, Tryall, Wager. 1761 Hutchinson, Norton (with James Dewar, Thomas Baddison). British merchant vessels. Carnavon, Warwick, Princess Augusta. 1764–1766 Byron, John (with Patrick Mouat, Philip Carteret). British navy. Dolphin, Tamar. 1766–1768 Wallis, Samuel (with Philip Carteret, John Gore, George Robertson). Dolphin, Swallow. 1766–1769

Carteret, Philip. British navy. Swallow.

1766–1769 Bougainville, Louis-Antoine de (with Jeanne Baret, Philibert Commerson, Duclos-Guyot, Francois La Giraudais). French navy. Etoile, Boudeuse.

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1768–1771

• xxxiii

Cook, James. British navy. Endeavour.

1769–1770 Surville, Jean-Francois-Marie de. French merchant vessel. Saint Jean-Baptiste. 1770–1771 Gonzales, Felipe. Spanish navy. San Lorenzo, Santa Rosalia. 1771–1772 Marion Dufresne, Marc-Joseph (with Du Clesmeur, Julien-Marie Crozet). French navy. Mascarin, Marquis de Castries. 1772–1775 Boenechea, Domingo de (with Tomas Gayangos, Cayetano Langara). Spanish navy. Santa Maria Magdalena renamed Aguila, Jupiter. 1772–1775 Cook, James (with Georg Forster, Johann Forster, Tobias Furneaux, James Burney). British navy. Resolution, Adventure. 1773 Tompson, Felipe. Spanish navy. Nuestra Señora de la Consolación. 1775–1776

Langara, Cayetano. Spanish navy. Aguila.

1776–1780 Cook, James (with Charles Clerke, John Gore, James King, George Vancouver). British navy. Resolution, Discovery. 1780–1781

Maurelle, Francisco. Spanish navy. Princesca.

1783–1784 Wilson, Henry. British merchant vessel. Antelope, then Oroolong. 1785–1788 Portlock, Nathaniel (with Dixon). British fur trader. King George. 1785–1788 Dixon, George. British fur trader. Queen Charlotte. 1785–1788 Laperouse, Jean-Francois de Galaup de (with De Langle). French navy. Astrolabe, Boussole. 1786–1790 Meares, John (with William Douglas, James Colnett). British fur trader—several voyages. Nootka, Iphigenia Nubiana, Felice Adventura. 1786–1791 Colnett, James. British fur trader. Prince of Wales, Princess Royal, Argonaut.

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1787–1788 Read, Thomas (with Richard Dale). American merchant vessel. Alliance. 1787–1792

Ball, Henry. British navy (First Fleet). Supply.

1787–1792 samheyd.

Hunter, John. British navy (First Fleet). Sirius, Waak-

1787–1789 Gilbert, Thomas and John Marshall. British navy (First Fleet). Charlotte and Scarborough. 1787–1789

Sever, William. British merchant vessel. Lady Penrhyn.

1787–1793 Gray, Robert (with John Kendrick, Joseph Ingraham). American fur trader. Two voyages. Lady Washington, Columbia Rediviva. 1787–1794 Kendrick, John. American fur trader. Lady Washington, Columbia Rediviva. 1787–1790 Bounty. 1788

Bligh, William (with Fletcher Christian). British navy.

Mather, James. British whaler. Prince of Wales.

1788–1789 Shortland, John. British navy (First Fleet). Alexander, Friendship. 1788–1790 1789

Shields, James. British whaler. Emelia.

Douglas, William. British fur trader. Iphigenia Nubiana.

1789–1794 vida.

Malaspina, Alessandro. Spanish navy. Descubierta, Atre-

1789–1791 Cox, John Henry (with George Mortimer). British fur trader. Mercury. 1789–1792

Bond, Essex Henry. East India Company. Royal Admiral.

1789 Wilkinson. British navy. Indispensable. Bowen, George. British merchant vessel. Albermarle. Manning, Edward. British merchant. Pitt. 1790–1792

Marchand, Etienne. French merchant vessel. Solide.

1790–1792

Edwards, Edward. British navy. Pandora, Resolution.

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1790–1792 1791

• xxxv

Weatherhead, Matthew. British navy. Matilda.

Oliver (with Edward Edwards). British navy. Resolution.

1791–1793 McClure, John. British trader. Panther, Endeavour. 1791–1793 Ingraham, Joseph. American fur trader. Hope. 1791–1795 Vancouver, George (with William Broughton, Peter Puget, Richard Hergest). British navy. Discovery, Chatham. 1791–1792

Hergest, Richard. British navy. Daedalus.

1791–1794 Bruny d’Entrecasteaux, Joseph-Antoine (with Rossel, Jean-Michel Kermadec, Alexandre d’Auribeau, De Trobriand and Labillardiere). French navy. Recherche, Esperance. 1792–1794

Raven, William. British merchant vessel. Britannia.

1792–1793

Musgrave. British merchant vessel. Sugar Cane.

1792–1793

Bligh, William. British navy. Provudence.

1792–1794

Colnett, James. British navy. Rattler.

1793

Boyd, Matthew. British merchant vessel. Bellona.

1794 Barber, Henry. British fur trader. Arthur. Page, Benjamin. American merchant vessel. Halcyon. 1794–1795

Butler, Thomas. British merchant. Walpole.

1795–1796

Mortlock, James. British merchant. Young William.

1794–1809 Bishop, Charles (with George Bass). British fur trader. Ruby, Nautilus. 1795–1799

Broughton, William. British navy. Providence.

1796–1798

Wilson, James. British missionary. Duff.

1796–1798

Dennott, Thomas. British merchant navy. Britannia.

1797–1799

Fanning, Edmund. American sealer. Betsey.

1798 Cameron, John. British merchant vessel. Barwell. Fearn, John. British merchant vessel. Hunter.

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1799–1807 ance.

Delano, Amasa. American sealer. Two voyages. Persever-

1795–1800

Waterhouse, Henry. British navy. Reliance.

1800–1801

Ibargoitia, Juan de. Spanish navy. Filipino.

1800–1803 Margaret.

Buyers, John (with John Turnbull). British merchant ship.

1802

Sawle. British? Palmyra.

1803–1804 Pendleton, Isaac. American sealer and trader. Union, Independence. 1803–1806 Krusenstern, Ivan (with Lisianskii, von Langsdorf, Kotzebue). Russian navy. Nadezhda, Neva. Lisianskii, Yurii. Russian navy. Neva. 1803–1804

Cary, James. American whaler. Rose.

1804–1805

Mertho, John. British vessel. Ocean.

1804 Boll, Samuel. American trader. Maria. Crozer. American whaler. Nancy. 1806 Monteverde, Juan. Spanish navy. Palas. Bristow, Abraham. British whaler. Ocean. 1806–1807

Bourayne, Joseph-Cesar. French navy. Canonnière.

1806–1808

Johnston, Charles. British navy. Cornwallis.

1807–1808

Bristow, Abraham. British whaler. Sarah.

1807–1810

Hagemeister, Karl. Russian navy. Neva.

1807–1809

Folger, Mayhew. American sealer. Topaz.

1807–1813

Golovnin, Vasilii. Russian navy. Diana.

1809

Patterson. British merchant vessel. Elizabeth.

1809–1810

Stewart, William. British sealer. Pegasus.

1810–1811

Hasselborough, Frederick. British sealer. Perseverance.

1811–1812

Laughlan, David. British merchant. Mary.

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1813–1814

• xxxvii

Porter, David (with John Downes). American navy. Essex.

1813–1815 Staines, Thomas (with Francis Crozier). British navy. Briton, Tagus. 1813–1816

Lazarev, Mikhail. Russian navy. Suvorov.

1815–1828 Gardner, George Washington. American whaler. Several voyages. Globe, then Maria. 1815–1818 Kotzebue, Otto Eustafevich von (with Louis-Charles Chamisso, Gleb Shishmarev). Russian navy. Riurik Nadeshda. 1816–1839 Williams, John. British missionary. Several voyages. Active, then Endeavour, then Messenger of Peace. 1816–1819 lais.

Roquefeuil, Camille de. French merchant vessel. Borde-

1816–1820

Hagemeister, Karl. Russian navy. Kutuzov.

1817–1819 chatka.

Golovnin, Vasilii (with Fedor Lutke). Russian navy. Kam-

1817–1820 Freycinet, Louis de (with Rose Freycinet (wife), Auguste Berard). French navy. Uranie. 1818–1820

Rule, George. British whaler. Spring Grove.

1818–1821

Brown, Matthew. British whaler. Eliza Frances.

1819?

Henderson. Britsh merchant vessel. Hercules.

1819–1820 Pollard, George (with Owen Chase). American whaler. Essex. (Sunk by whale). 1819–1823

Shishmarev, Gleb. Russian navy. Blagonamerennyi.

1819–1821 Bellingshausen, Faddey Faddeyevich (with Mikhail Lazarev). Russian navy. Vostok, Mirnny. 1819–1820

Peyster, Arendt de. British trader. Rebecca.

1819–1822 Vasilev, Mikhail (with Shishmarev, Aleksei Lazarev). Russian navy. Otkrytie, Blagonamerennyi. 1819–1822

Barrett, George. American whaler. Independence II.

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1819–1843 Brind, William Darby. British whaler, various voyages. Cumberland, then Asp, then Toward Castle (1830–1831), then Narwhal. 1819–1822 1820 1820?

Allen, Joseph. American whaler. Maro.

Swain, Jonathan. American whaler. Independence I. Emmett. British merchant vessel. Sydney.

1821 Raine. British merchant vessel. Surrey. 1821–1824 Vanderford, Benjamin. American trader. Roscoe. 1821–1825 Worth, George B. American whaler. Oeno. 1821–1830 Henry, Samuel. British missionary and trader. Haweis. 1822 Patrickson. British merchant vessel. Good Hope. Clark. British whaler. Pearl. (sunk). Taylor. British whaler. Hermes (sunk). British vessel. Britomart. Whaler. Abgarris. Coffin, James. British vessel. Transit. 1822–1823 Globe.

Worth, Thomas (with Samuel Comstock). American whaler.

1822–1824

Macy, Richard. American whaler. Maro.

1822–1824

Rule, George. British whaler. Fanny.

1822–1825 Duperrey, Louis-Isidore (with Dumont d’Urville, de Blosseville). French navy. Coquille. 1822–1825

Dillon, Peter. British trader. Calder.

1822–1846 Starbuck, Obed. American whaler. Several voyages. Hero, then Loper, then Rose, then Zone. 1822–1825

Joy, George. American whaler. Boston.

1823

Clark, William. American whaler. Winslow.

1823

Dibbs, John (with John Williams). British missionary. Endeavour.

1823–1824

Starbuck, Valentine. British whaler. Aigle.

1823–1826

Kotzebue, Otto Eustafevich von. Russian navy. Predpriatie.

1824

Hall, John. British merchant vessel. Lady Blackwood.

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1824–1826 Bougainville, Hyacinth de (with Du Bouzet). French navy. Thetis, Espérance. 1824–1826 Byron, George Anson (with Edward Belcher). British navy. Blonde. 1824–1826

Morrell, Benjamin. American trader. Tartar.

1825 Mooers, Prince B. American whaler. Spartan. Koerzen and Eeg. Dutch Navy. Maria Rogersbergen, Polllux. Renneck. British trader. Lyra. Lewis. Australian whaler. Minerva (wrecked). Plaskett. American whaler. Independence II. 1825–1826 Jones, Thomas. American navy. Peacock. 1825–1827 Coffin, James. British vessel. Ganges. 1825–1828

Beechey, Frederick William. British navy. Blossom.

1825–1829 Dumont d’Urville, Jules-Sebastien-Cesar (with Charles Jacquinot). French navy. Astrolabe. 1825–1828 1826

Dillon, Peter. British trader. St. Patrick.

Clerk. American whaler. John Palmer.

1826–1829

Lutke, Fedor. Russian navy. Senyavin.

1826–1829

Staniukovich, Mikhail. Russian navy. Moller.

1826–1829

Duhaut-Cilly, Auguste. French merchant navy. Heros.

1826–1829

Tromelin, Louis. French navy. Bayonnaise.

1826–1842 Ebrill, Thomas. British trader. Various voyages. Minerva, Star. 1827–1828 Macy, Richard. American whaler. Harvest. 1827–1829

McKenzie, Daniel. American whaler. Minerva Smith.

1828–1829

Moerenhout, Jacques. Dutch. Volador.

1828–1830

Hagemeister, Karl. Russian navy. Krotkii.

1828–1832 Kromchenko, Vasilii. Russian navy. Two voyages. Elena, Amerika.

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1829–1831

Morrell, Benjamin. American trader. Antarctic.

1830–1831

Driver, William. American whaler. Charles Doggett.

1830–1833

Laplace, Cyrille. French navy. Favorite.

1831

Ireland. British vessel. Adhemar.

1831–1834

Downes, John. American navy. Potomac.

1831–1836 Beagle.

FitzRoy, Robert (with Charles Darwin). British navy.

1832–1854 Cary, Nathaniel C. American whaler—various voyages. Gideon Barstow, then Charles Drew, then Nimrod. 1834–1836

Schantz, Ivan von. Russian navy. Amerika.

1835

Hunter, R. L. British vessel. Marshall Bennett.

1836

Grimes. British? Woodlark.

1836–1837 Bonite.

Vaillant, Auguste-Nicolas (with De la Salle). French navy.

1836–1839 Crocker, Stephen R. American whaler. General Jackson. Dupetit-Thouars, Abel. French navy. Venus. 1837–1839

Cecille, Thomas-Medee. French navy. Héroine.

1837–1840 Dumont d’Urville, Jules-Sebastien-Cesar (with Charels Jacquinot). French navy. Astrolabe, Zéleé. 1837–1840

Laplace, Cyrille. French navy. Artémise.

1837–1842 Belcher, Edward (with Henry Kellett). British navy. Sulphur, Starling. 1837–1842 Langlois, Jean-Francois. French whaler. Two voyages. Cachalot, Comte de Paris. 1838–1841

Stanley, Owen. British navy. Britomart.

1838–1842 Wilkes, Charles (with William Hudson, Cadwalader Ringgold). American navy. Vincennes, Peacock, Porpoise, Relief. 1839–1843

Lavaud, Charles-Francois. French navy. Aube, Allier.

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1840–1866 Cheyne, Andrew. British sandalwood trader, many voyages. Naiad, then Starling, then Lady Montague. 1841–1842 Du Bouzet, Joseph-Fidele-Eugene. French navy. Allier, Aube. 1842–1844 Dupetit-Thouars, Abel. French navy. Reine Blanche. 1842–1846 Blackwood, Francis. British navy. Fly, Bramble. 1844–? Hamelin, Ferdinand-Alphonse. French navy. Virginie, Heroine, Triomphante. 1845–1849 Du Bouzet, Joseph-Fidele-Eugene. French navy. Brillante. 1846–1849 Tromelin, Louis. French navy. 1846–1850 Stanley, Owen. British navy. Rattlesnake. 1846–1850 Lavaud, Charles-Francois. French navy. Psyche. 1846–1877 Hayes, William (Bully). American privateer. Many voyages. Ellenita, then Shamrock, then Rona. 1847–1852

Stokes, John Lort. British navy. Acheron.

1848–1853

Erskine, John Elphinstone. British navy. Havannah.

1853–1856

Rodgers, John. American navy. John Hancock.

1854

Wing, Andrew. American whaler. Canton.

1854–1858

Du Bouzet, Joseph-Fidele-Eugene. French navy. Aventure.

1857–1859

Scherzer, Karl (with Hochstetter). Austrian Navy. Novara.

1859

Brooks. American vessel. Gambia.

1872–1875

Nares, George. British navy. Challenger.

1875–1876

Thomson, Frank. British navy. Challenger. European Exploration of New Zealand

The exploration of New Zealand consisted of two stages. The initial stage involved the delineation of the outline of the coasts of the islands

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and fixing their positions. The second stage was the exploration of the interior. A comprehensive list of coastal surveys appears in the Appendix in J.O’C. Ross, This stern coast. Wellington: Reed, 1969. The following list is a selection of the more important contributions to the exploration of the coast of New Zealand. 1642–1643 Tasman, Abel, and Franz Visscher (Heemskerck and Zeehan). First known visit to New Zealand by Europeans. 1769–1770 Cook, James (Endeavour). Circumnavigated and mapped the islands. 1773

Cook, James (Resolution). Surveyed Dusky Sound.

1791 Vancouver, George (Discovery) and William Broughton (Chatham). Surveyed Breaksea Sound, the Snares and Chatham Island. 1793 Malaspina, Alesandro, and Felipe Bauza (Descubierta and Atrevida). Surveyed Doubtful Sound. 1801 Wilson, William (Royal Admiral). Surveyed River Thames and Hauraki Gulf. 1804 Smith, Owen. American sealer confirmed existence of Foveaux Strait (Smith’s Strait) and Stewart Island. 1809 Bunker, Eb. (Pegasus). Surveyed Foveaux Strait. Chase, S. (Pegasus). Established that Banks Island was Banks Peninsula. 1822 Edwardson, W. (Snapper). Various surveys in Southland and Stewart Island. 1824

Duperrey, Louis (Coquille). Surveyed Bay of Islands.

1826 Herd, James (Rosanna) and Thomas Barnett (Lambton). Surveyed Otago Harbour and Port Nicholson (Wellington Harbor). 1827 Dumont d’Urville, Jules-Sebastien-Cesar (Astrolabe). Many surveys, mainly North Island. 1835–1837 Wing, Thomas (Fanny then Trent). Many surveys, North Island, including Tauranga Harbor. 1838 Cécille, Jean-Baptiste (Héroine). Surveyed around Banks Peninsula, including Akaroa and Lyttelton Harbor.

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Chaffers, E. M. (Tory). Surveyed Port Nicholson and Tory

1840 Fisher, P. (Herald). Surveyed Waitemata Harbor. Dumont d’Urville, Jules-Sebastien-Cesar (Astrolabe). 1848–1851 Stokes, John Lort, with G. H. Richards and F. J. Evans (Acheron). Extensive official hydrographic survey in the Acheron. 1851–1855 Drury, Byron (Pandora). Continuation of official hydrographic survey. European Exploration of New Guinea New Guinea, a large island with a mountainous interior and some snowcovered peaks, remained largely unknown to the outside world well into the 20th century. Most of the coast and the outline of the island were known by the middle of the 19th century. Huge swamps and coastal plains, and with lower slopes of rugged ridges and valleys covered with dense forests and bush, meant progress across the terrain was always slow. The interior of New Guinea was not mapped for nearly another hundred years after the coast had been mapped. The following lists indicate the slow discovery by Europeans of coastal and interior New Guinea. Coastal New Guinea 1511–1512

D’Abreu, Antonio. To south coast of West Papua.

1526–1527 Meneses, Jorge de. To Doberai Peninsula in West Papua. First to use name “Ilhas de Papuas” for the island. 1528

Saavedra, Alvaro de. Sailed along north coast.

1537

Grijalva, Hernando. Sailed along north coast.

1545 Retes, Inigo Ortiz de. Sailed along north coast. First to use name Nueva Guinea. 1606 Jansz, Willem. Visited south and west coasts. Torres, Luis Vaez de. Sailed along south coast and through Torres Strait between New Guinea and Australia.

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1616–1617 Le Maire, Jacob, and Willem Schouten. Sighted mouth of Sepik River. 1623

Carstensz, Jan. Visited south west coast and sighted Mt. Carstenz.

164?

Tasman, Abel. Visited south coast of West New Guinea.

1700 Dampier, William. Sailed along north coast and also visited New Britain and New Ireland. 1767 Carteret, Philip. Visited Buka, Duke of York Islands, and New Ireland in Swallow. Bougainville, Louis-Antoine. Visited Orangerie Bay, Louisiade Islands, Bougainville, New Ireland, Hermit Islands in the Boudeuse and Etoile. 1770 Cook, James. Visited south coast of West Papua in Endeavour. 1791

Hunter, John. Visited Duke of York Islands in Waaksamheyd.

1792 Bruny d’Entrecasteaux. Antoine. Visited New Ireland and Manus in Recherche and Espérance. 1793 Bruny d’Entrecasteaux. Antoine. Second Visit in Recherche and Espérance to Louisiade Islands, d’Entrecasteaux Islands, Huon Gulf and New Britain. 1827 Dumont d’Urville, Jules-Sebastien-Cesar. In the Astrolabe visited New Britain and south coast. 1845 Blackwood, F. P. Surveyed the Gulf of Papua in the Fly. Yule, C. B. Continued the survey east to Redscar Bay in the Bramble. 1849 Stanley, Owen. Rattlesnake, carried out surveys in southeast New Guinea. 1849

Simpson, Cortland H. Visited Bismarck Archipelago and Rabaul.

1873 Moresby, John. Surveyed Milne Bay and Port Moresby in the Basilisk. Interior New Guinea 1871–1872 Mikluho Maclay, Nicolai. Inland from Rai coast, Northeast New Guinea.

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1872–1873 d’Albertis, Luigi Maria, and Oduardo Beccari. Explored in Arfak Mountains. 1876 d’Albertis, Luigi Maria. Up the Fly River in launch Neva. Macleay, William. Into the Katau River in Chevert. 1884 Dutch steamship Havik sailed up Mamberamo River. Everill, H. C. Ascended Fly and Strickland Rivers in Bonito. Schleinitz, G. von. Even farther up Sepik River in the Ottilie. Zöller, Hugo. Explored Finisterre Range. 1885–1887 Finsch, Otto. Several excursions in Samoa from base in Duke of York Islands to north coast of New Guinea, including up the Sepik River. 1886

Dallmann. Farther up the Sepik River in the Samoa.

1887

Schrader, C. Even farther up the Sepik River in the Samoa.

1889 MacGregor, William. Explored Owen Stanley Range and climbed Mount Victoria. Lauterbach, Carl. Explored Gogol River, inland from Madang. 1890–1899 MacGregor, William. Many explorations of Papuan Rivers and mountain ranges. 1895 Ehlers, Otto von, and W. Piering. Killed while attempting to cross from Huon Gulf to Lakekamu. 1896

Lauterbach, Carl. Ramu River from Markham River.

1905 Dutch vessel Valk travelled up Digul River. Monkton, Charles. Explored Waria and Lakkamu Rivers. Dammköhler, Wilhelm. Explored Markham and Ramu Rivers. 1909–1910 Lorentz, H. A. Attempted to climb Mount Wilhelmina. Reached the snowline. 1910

Luymes, J., and L. Schutze. Explored Sepik region.

1910–1911

Staniforth Smith, W. Explored inland from Kikori.

1912–1913

Behrmann, W. Explored Sepik region.

1913 Darling, Arthur. Found gold near Bulolo. Wollaston, Alexander. Utakwa River and attemped to climb Carstensz Toppen. Herdeschee,

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Franssen. Expedition to Mount Wilhelmina. Weijerman, E. Uwimmerah River to Alice River. Pilhofer, Georg, and Leonhardt Flierl. Explored Waria to Markham Rivers. 1917

Humphries, W. R. Crossed from Gulf of Papua to Huon Gulf.

1920–1921 Overeem, J. A. van. Traveled up the Mamberamo River to Swart Valley. 1921 Kremer, J. H. G. Swart Valley and Idenburg River to Mount Wilhemina. Park, William. Discovered gold at Koranga Creek, Wau and Edie Creek. Austen, Leo, and Leonard Logan. Explored Alice and Fly Rivers. 1926

Stirling, Matthew. Rouffaer River up to Nassau Range.

1926–1928 Karius, Charles, and Ivan Champion. Crossed from Fly River into Sepik. 1929–1930 Shepherd, E. A., and Reg Beazley. Akmana expedition from Sepik intoWestern Highlands. 1930 Leahy, Michael J., and Michael Dwyer. Markham River via Dunantina to join Purari River down to the Gulf of Papua. 1933 Leahy brothers (Michael, Jim, and Dan) and James Taylor. Bena Bena to Mt. Hagen and Wabag. Hides, Jack, and Jim O’Malley. Strickland River via Southern Highlands to Kikori River and Gulf of Papua. 1936 Champion, Ivan, and Jack Hides. Into Lake Kutubu and Upper Purari regions. Fox, J. and T. Mount Hagen to Dutch border and back via Southern Highlands. 1937

Cator, J. W. Uta up to Wissel Lakes.

1938–1939 Taylor, James, and John Black. Mount Hagen to Telefomin in West Sepik. 1952 Meyer-Ranneft, Robert. Ilaga Valley to Lake Habbema and Baliem Valley. 1959 Bär, C. B., and G. H. Dasselaar. Digul River and Sibil Valley north to Humboldt Bay. 1959

Gaisseau, Pierre-Dominique. Mappi River to Indenberg River.

1962

Harrer, Heinrich. Climbed Carstensz Toppen.

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Pacific Islanders discovered, mapped, and settled one third of the globe when they reached the dispersed atolls and islands of Oceania well before European ships ventured beyond the Atlantic. The migrations that populated Oceania were an amazing feat of long-distance voyaging accomplished by skilled navigators and commanders using advanced marine technology. Their search for a new home in Oceania is the most remarkable story in maritime history, exploration, and human settlement. The earliest voyagers reached New Guinea perhaps 45,000 to 60,000 years and the Solomon Islands 28,000 years ago. In the next phase, waves of newcomers from Asia traveled and settled up and down an island corridor from Asia to the southwest Pacific for 20,000 years. Then 3,500 years ago, a few daring voyagers leapt eastward across open ocean from the southern Solomon Islands to Fiji, Samoa, Tonga, Tahiti, and eventually to the three distant corners—Hawaii, Rapanui/Easter Island, and Aotearoa/New Zealand. A further 500 years of exploration occurred as the oceanic backyard was searched and even the most remote and solitary islands and archipelagos were considered for settlement. Society was on a small scale and widely dispersed. Over several centuries these people, later known as Palauans, Kosraeans, Samoans, Tokelauans, Niueans, Tahitians, and others, continued to traverse the ocean, finding and refinding islands and establishing routes that linked resources, tributary powers, allies, and further islands for colonization. Mythological voyages and real commanders, the construction of great canoes, the canoe names and the families that trace their genealogy back to the earliest voyaging are legendary. In an essay in 1832, “On the islands of the great ocean,” Jules Dumont d’Urville, recently returned from an expedition as a junior officer in the Pacific in 1822–25 and then as commander of the Astrolabe in 1826–29, published a three-part categorization of Melanesia, lix

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Polynesia, and Micronesia that has lasted until today. Although first sighted by Europeans in 1521, it was between 1763 and 1850 that a series of European expeditions expanded geographical knowledge of Oceania’s islands, atolls, reefs, and archipelagos. The charting of the islands also led to the compilation of a descriptive, scientific inventory of the indigenous peoples who had settled in Oceania and their culture and societies. This dictionary is mostly about the Euro-American visitors who started to arrive in the 16th century and in a massive archive of written records and publications presumptuously claimed to have “discovered” the Pacific and its peoples. They charted the islands on maps using latitude and longitude, renamed atolls, reefs, bays, and straits with EuroAmerican names, and cataloged indigenous inhabitants according to observed and assumed, but mostly misinterpreted, behavior and cultural and physical similarities. Oceania or the Pacific Ocean was initially called the “South Sea” in opposition to the “North Sea” (the Atlantic) but was later divided into a North Pacific and a South Pacific and more generally referred to as the “South Seas.”

EARLY EUROPEAN INTEREST IN OCEANIA The Spaniard Vasco Nuñez de Balboa was the first European to sight the Pacific Ocean in 1513 when he gazed west after crossing the Isthmus of Panama. At the same time the Portuguese captured Malacca and the Spanish established a base in the Philippines. Europeans were about to enter the Pacific from both east and west. Christopher Columbus had crossed to the New World in 1492 and Vasco Da Gama rounded the Cape of Good Hope to forge a sea route to Asia six years later in 1498. In 1521, eight years after Balboa saw the Pacific, Ferdinand Magellan found a passage from the Atlantic to the Pacific and sailed west to the Philippines. In an exciting 30 years from 1492 to 1521, European knowledge of the globe was dramatically rewritten. The Pacific was regarded in Europe as a space that Europeans were destined to explore, map, and claim. Historians have tended to divide this expansion into Portuguese, Spanish, Dutch, Russian, French, and British periods of exploration, but recent interpretations stress how each voyage was an independent event, often with multiple personal,

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national, commercial, scientific, strategic, and imperial motivations. In the 300-year period after Magellan several bursts of European exploration occurred and were usually related to power struggles in Europe and wars between Spain, Portugal, Netherlands, Britain, and France. The final fall of Napoleon and the end of the Seven Years War were periods, for example, when European powers were freed to allocate ships, crews, and capital for commercial and imperial expansion. Private patronage and business syndicates were also enthusiastic about expansionary prospects once peace was established. A Pacific voyage involved two or three years of uncertainty as depths, currents, and winds were mapped for the first time, provisions and resupply were variable and officers, crew, artists, and scientists had to survive new foods, climate change, isolation, scurvy, malaria, and shipboard brutality, as well as the excitement and danger of meeting new peoples. Not surprisingly, many expeditions in small ships on a huge ocean ended in mutiny, shipwreck, and personal deprivation. In an age of empires, the names of the early European explorers and their ships were central to the myth-making and national consciousness of Portugal, Spain, Netherlands, Russia, Britain, France, Italy, and the United States of America. For Pacific Island peoples, another phase in history was beginning, now including strangers who sailed over the horizon, stayed a few days or weeks and disappeared.

HISTORIES OF EXPLORATION Historians have extensively researched the European exploration of the Pacific and close attention has been given to the ships, technology, logistics, admiralty, and company instructions and expectations of what ships and crew would find and how they should act. A second field of history is devoted to the brief moment—the encounters, meetings, and entanglement for the first time in a contested or liminal space on the deck or beach where both were strangers to the other. Variously called ethnohistory, clash of cultures, first contact or culture contact this has become a separate field of history. A third, islander-oriented or post-colonial history of these meetings and the subsequent period of change has also developed, relying on indigenous sources, evidence, and perspectives.

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A fourth field of history has developed around travel and the literature of travel, encompassing everything from Magellan and 16th-century philosophy through to eco-tourism, television documentaries, and holiday programs. The extent of this relatively new field is demonstrated by the size of the three-volume Literature of travel and exploration; an encyclopaedia (2003). The title of recent studies by Marshall Sahlins, How natives think about Captain Cook for example, Klaus Neumann Not the way it really was; constructing the Tolai past, Anne Salmond Two worlds; first meetings between Maori and Europeans and Inga Clendinnen Dancing with strangers indicate the complex, multiple, many-layered, and intriguing histories now being told. Discovery and exploration have become old-fashioned terms in this new historiography.

PATTERNS, THEMES, AND COMMONALITIES A few patterns emerge from the alphabetical listing of the actors and events in the Dictionary section. The first is the importance of imperial rivalry. Many Pacific voyages followed strategic moves to gain an ascendency along the Asian littoral zone and the South American, Pacific Northwest, and Alaska coasts. The rivalry between the Portuguese, Spanish, and later the Dutch in the Spice Islands created a similar urge to explore. There was also a consistent link with the so-called First Fleet that took convicts to the new British penal settlement at Botany Bay (Sydney). Free after delivering their convict cargo to engage in trade, these ships accidentally mapped islands along the triangular Sydney–Islands–China/India trade routes they were pioneering. From this new base on the Pacific’s western edge, Sydney-based private entrepreneurs also funded voyages that added islands to charts in the decade after the settlement was established. Another notable link between entries is the frequency of junior officers and shipmates going on to lead voyages in their own right after promotion. Others served on subsequent expeditions, or left the navy and entered in commercial expeditions with ex-shipmates. Reliance on former shipmates when planning new voyages was common. The role of the whaling industry early in the 19th century was also significant as whaling captains gave accurate positions and named the islands often seen or vaguely reported 200 years earlier. Another link between entries is the fur trade and the names of captains and ships entered the charts as they voyaged out

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from the Atlantic and back and forth between Hawaii, Nootka, and the Northwest coast and China. A further feature is the youth of the captains, officers, and crew. Many had the exceptional experience at a young age of visiting several continents, being the first ashore on an unmapped island, or making one or more ocean crossings and circumnavigations.

THE GREATEST There is a temptation to describe each voyage as amazing and each explorer as exemplary, so we have taken a risk in listing the “greatest.” This selection is open to contestation. Isolating one captain or one voyage as an example of others from the same nation, same century, or same motivation is not our intention, because each voyage was a fractional event in a longer history determined by diverse circumstances spread over four centuries. Each voyage also followed untypical pathways in specific response to a thousand different island environments, indigenous cultures, languages, and local perceptions. By comparing events, voyages, and personalities across the centuries, nations, and locations, we hope to generate argument and an enhanced sense of awareness of the era of exploration. Greatest impact of a single event: • Willem Schouten’s discovery of Le Maire Strait, a passage south of the dangerous Strait of Magellan, made access to the Pacific from Europe and the Atlantic safer and easier. • Louis-Antoine de Bougainville’s declaration that Tahiti was a Nouvelle Cythère (new paradise) created the long-lived, romantic European invention of the South Seas as a paradise. • The disappearance of the two ships in the expedition led by JeanFrançois de Lapérouse created a mystery and numerous more expeditions, charts, museum collections, and a continuing facscination with marine archaeology. Greatest impact of a single invention: • John Harrison’s chronometer made the calculation of longitude possible and after 250 years of voyaging ships finally knew exactly where they were and could guide others to the same location.

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Greatest influence over a long period: • This status is shared equally by Andrés Urdaneta, William Dampier, Ivan Krusenstern, James Cook, Joseph Banks, and Jules Dumont d’Urville as they served on and commanded voyages, supported protégés and trained others, planned new expeditions and over a long period created a legacy of scientific, geographical, commercial, and imperial interest in the Pacific for their respective Spanish, Russian, British, and French nations. • Two mythical places (the Northwest Passage and Terra Australis Incognita) and one fabulously rich place (the Spice Islands) had an enduring legacy and motivated exploration for nearly 300 years and incidentally led to the charting of much of the Pacific. These events and individuals, and all those listed in the Dictionary, offer a window on the milieu in which exploration developed in Europe. The actors and events also offer access to the complex, perplexing relationships created when Pacific Islanders and Europeans were drawn into cross-cultural encounters on a heaving ship’s deck, alongside in a canoe, on a beach, or farther inland.

THE LIBRARY OF EXPLORATION This Dictionary and Bibliography focuses specifically on the islands of the Pacific Ocean and refer only to the littoral zone or rim when a voyage that charted new islands in the Pacific also included exploration of the Arctic, Antarctica, Australia, New Zealand, Asia, or the North and South American coastlines and offshore islands. Titles in the Scarecrow Press Historical Dictionary series should be consulted for these locations. The alphabetical listing includes land exploration in some instances but also lists technological, literary, philosophical, artistic, and scientific advances, as well as the activities of whalers, traders, and others who did not see themselves as “explorers” but who nonetheless added many atolls, reefs, and islands to what became a complete chart of the Pacific. The bibliography will guide readers to the original charts, logs and journals, art, reports, popular fiction and nonfiction generated by the Eu-

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ropean age of exploration, as well as the large corpus of secondary analysis and commentary. The introduction to the bibliography section explains the arrangement of a library that continues to grow. Although mostly limited to the English language, the bibliography demonstrates the extent of contemporary and recent secondary literature available for filling gaps and creating a comprehensive history of the era of exploration. This book is therefore a continuation of the work of many historians and they should be consulted individually for further detailed reference.

FIRST CONTACT The first European incursions were in the north Pacific when Portuguese expeditions under Jorge de Ménèses, Diogo de Rocha, and Francisco De Castro charted some islands in the northwest Pacific and northern New Guinea. After Miguel Legazpi established a depot in the Philippines in 1565, the fabled Manila Galleon trade began with ships following a circle route from Acapulco across the equatorial zone to Manila and then north to take the west-east route in the “Forties” back to Mexico. These traders named islands on their way back and forth through Kiribati, Tuvalu, the Marshall Islands, Caroline Islands, Marianas, and New Guinea. The Spaniards Alvaro Mendaña and Pedro Quirós followed with expeditions between 1567 and 1606 and attempted, unsuccessfully and violently, to establish colonies in the Solomon Islands and Vanuatu. An expanding Dutch trading empire then created a commercial motivation for exploration. Between 1616 and 1722, the voyages of Jacob Le Maire, Willem Schouten, Abel Tasman, and Jacob Roggeveen increased the number of known islands but found little to interest their capitalist promoters. Terra Australis Incognita or the unknown southern continent was also the motivation for early expeditions into the Pacific and although the mythical land was never discovered, the Australian continent was sighted several times before being settled by the British as a penal colony in 1788. During this era of global rivalry, the young English privateer William Dampier visited the Pacific four times between 1699 and 1711, circumnavigated the world three times, and produced four best-selling chronicles based on his experiences. The 1760s was the most spectacular in terms of mapping and scientific research. As well as defining the true shape of the Pacific, the

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British expeditions of John Byron, Samuel Wallis, Philip Carteret, and James Cook (three voyages from 1769–1779) and the French expeditions of Louis-Antoine de Bougainville, Jean-François-Marie de Surville, and Marc-Joseph Marion Dufresne were celebrated in bestselling books based on their official journals.

DEBATES, CAREERS, AND PROMOTING EMPIRE Natural history and ethnographic illustrations by shipboard artists enlivened the voyage journals and supported, and sometimes inadvertently challenged, the texts that varied from the mundane to armchair philosophizing and systematic, informed ethnographic detail. Descriptions of tropical lands, scientific observations, and popular commentary were eagerly read in Europe, plagiarized, and published in other languages. For example, much of Charles de Brosses Histoire des navigations aux terres Australes, published in 1756 and carried on board by Bougainville and Cook, appeared as Terra Australis cognita when published in Edinburgh by John Callender. Some voyages produced several contradictory accounts, such as Woodes Rogers A cruising voyage round the World and Edward Cooke’s A voyage to the South Seas by a junior officer on the same privateering voyage in 1708–10. In a controversial manner, the journals of several British expeditions were collated and edited by the journalist John Hawkesworth, but dissatisfied with Hawkesworth’s An account of the voyages undertaken . . . for making discoveries in the Southern Hemisphere, Cook made certain any publications from his second voyage remained under his own editorial control. In 1788, the London-based travel writer George Keate, after interviewing the returning captain Henry Wilson and reading his journals of a shipwreck in 1783, published his best-selling An account of the Pelew Islands. Twelve editions were published over the next 20 years and there were foreign-language editions and several pirated versions. Tahiti’s amazing status in the European imagination was confirmed when Bougainville named Tahiti Nouvelle Cythère, the new paradise. Jean-Jacques Rousseau and Denis Diderot saw an element of harmony in tropical society, culture, and politics as well as a bon sauvage (a good savage, but poorly translated into English as “noble savage”). Diderot published a Supplement au voyage de Bougainville and Rousseau a series of

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commentaries, published as novels, between 1755 and 1765. The terms Tahiti, South Seas, Pacific, and paradise were interchangeable. Other commentators saw violence, injustice, and moral decline; theories about ignoble savages and fatal impact were generated. Criticism of the current economic, political, and social order in Europe was given a new context by the reports sent back, widely published and serialized in newspapers and magazines. William Shakespeare partly based his play The Tempest on the voyages of Ferdinand Magellan, Alvaro Mendaña, and Pedro Quirós. Voyages also inspired the best-selling social commentaries, disguised as novels when Woode Rogers A cruising voyage round the world became the inspiration for Daniel Defoe’s Robinson Crusoe. Gulliver’s Travels by Swift and Swiss Family Robinson by Johann Wyss were similarly inspired by voyaging literature. This genre had begun in 1516 with Utopia by Sir Thomas More and continued through The Lusiads by the Portuguese poet Luiz de Camõens and the History of the Sevarities by Denis Vairasses in 1675. Pantomime, plays, poetry, essays, and treatises with voyaging themes were popular in Europe and the landscape, portrait, botanical, topographical, and historical tableaux from the voyages were sold as paintings and etchings, hung in galleries, and used to illustrate books.

THE PACIFIC IN EUROPE The seminal study of the relationship between early voyaging and European political, social, and scientific thought was Bernard Smith’s European vision and the South Pacific (1960). He concluded that the mapping and exploration of the Pacific was “among those factors contributing to the triumph of romanticism and science in the 19th Century world.” The voyages once described in terms of expanding European trade, converts, and empire are now described by historians in terms of their contribution to theatre, art, literature, and philosophy. Europe had explored the Pacific and in the process discovered more about itself. The meticulous documentation of flora, fauna, topography, and the island’s resources had a different result. Commercially motivated expeditions began to explore the Pacific to exploit what explorers noted—seaotter fur, sandalwood, bêche-de-mer, turtle-shell, pearls, pork, whales, seals, guano (phosphate), and coconut oil (later traded as dry fibre or copra). As trading networks developed out of Botany Bay (Sydney), Hobart,

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the Bay of Islands, Acapulco, Callao, Honolulu, Canton, Macao, Moluccas, and Manila, the voyages to and from the Pacific or between its major ports doubled as incidental voyages of discovery, adding a name here and there to the map. Scientific expeditions in the early 19th century completed the map of Oceania. Thirty Russian expeditions traversed the Pacific between 1803 and 1826, nine major French expeditions between 1816 and 1840 and 10 major British and five American voyages carried out later but significant research. Typical expeditions in the 19th century include the surveying voyages of 1831–36 by the Adventure and the Beagle, notable because of the presence of the young naturalist Charles Darwin and the famous Challenger oceanography expedition of 1876. The most notable American expedition was the USA South Sea Exploring Expedition led by Charles Wilkes in 1838–42. Herman Melville, continuing a long line of literary borrowing, loosely based his novel Moby Dick on incidents he read about in the 20 volumes published after the expedition returned. A further example of the literary genre based on discovery, captivity, and adventures in strange places was Caroline Edgeworth David’s Funafuti or three months on a coral island published in 1899. A popular account, it was based on experiences with her geologist husband during a coral reef drilling expedition. It gave the otherwise unnoticed Tuvalu (then shown on maps as the Ellice Islands) temporary fame in the outside world. Missionaries from several faiths and evangelical societies followed the first London Missionary Society group after it arrived in 1797 but they made a limited contribution to the early charts because they tended to seek converts on well-known islands. Their contributions to botany, ethnography, science generally, and eventually anthropology, were later important. By recording the village names, topographical features, and shipping channels in their mission districts, they also added important local detail. With mapping nearly complete, attention turned to explaining the origins of island peoples, their lineage, traditions, language, and material culture, and eventually to investigating the ocean weather, the depths, winds, and currents. Discovery and exploration in the Pacific in the 20th century focused on the mapping of commercial fishing grounds and the sea floor in a search for minerals and oil. The plotting of the El Niño–La Niña phenomenon in the late 20th century therefore has a long historical connection to Willem Schouten’s charting of the Le Maire Straits

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and Andrés de Urdaneta and Alonso de AreLano’s pioneering northern galleon passage from the Philippines back to Mexico. In the 20th century, the meaning of “discovery” changed when anthropology and oceanography, two new fields of research developed. After the Cambridge Haddon expedition to the Torres Strait, the German South Sea Expedition and Bronislaw Malinowski’s fieldwork in the Trobriand Islands, people rather than place became the focus of exploration. The ocean depths were surveyed, and steamers began to bring travellers (later called tourists) keen to discover indigenous cultures allegedly not seen before by Europeans. The Euro-American discovery of the Pacific continued in the 20th century with the publication of the best-selling Coming of Age in Samoa by Margaret Mead. The artist Paul Gauguin, the filmmakers Robert Flaherty and Frank Hurley, and photographers like Thomas McMahon, Thomas Beattie, and Earl La Voy took the discovery of Oceania into the public domain using art, photography, and film. In the late 20th century, a new breed of literary explorers ventured into Oceania and blended picturesque travelogue with political commentary, basic facts, cultural insights and hints for tourists, and humorous anecdote. Titles such as Tin roofs and palm trees: a report on the new South Seas; Tramp ship to paradise: more tales of the South Pacific; Tuturani: a political journey in the Pacific Islands; Pacific odyssey: the islands of the South Seas; and the best-selling The happy Isles of Oceania by Paul Theroux continued to allow distant armchair readers to discover the Pacific. The “explorer” role in the Pacific was therefore deliberate or accidental, government-controlled or privately funded, scientific or literary, and was shared by naval officers, ship’s crews, scientists, traders, whalers, writers, artists, and missionaries. Each added names, filled in gaps on existing charts, and added topographical, meteorological, and ethnographic detail.

PACIFIC ISLANDERS AND EXPLORATION The presence of European ships in the Pacific created a two-way traffic in discovery as Pacific Islander men and women voluntarily and sometimes involuntarily traveled to the western world, worked on ships, signed off in distant ports, and lived temporarily and in a few cases permanently in new lands as they pursued their own discovery of the Euro-American world.

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Many returned to tell stories and create epic tales for their clan, village, and community. Several like Ahutoru, Omai, Leboo, and Tupai’a have featured in written works but most transculturites can only be traced in the margins of ship’s logs or in indigenous myth, legend, and family histories. Pacific Islanders have continued to explore the rest of the world. Increased access to international transport, and a tradition of mobility and discovery has enticed half a million Pacific Islanders to New Zealand, Australia, Hawaii, Europe, and the United States of America in the last quarter of the 20th century. If we think of the 16th to 19th centuries in terms of Europeans discovering the Pacific, then the half-century since 1950 has reversed that trend as Pacific Islanders explore the west.

INDIGENOUS NAVIGATION AND VOYAGING Despite the establishment of imperial boundaries, protectionist villagebased policies and bans on long distance canoe travel in the early 20th century, indigenous voyaging skills, watercraft, navigation techniques, and rituals were not lost. The great drua, kalia, hamatafua, takitumu, and baurua of the ancestors were no longer built, but indigenous maritime communities maintained their seafaring way of life and maritime technologies. Meanwhile academics debated the origins of Pacific peoples— where had they come from and how had they reached their island homes? The debate on indigenous exploration and voyaging topics was revived when Thor Heyerdahl made an epic east-to-west drift on the Kon Tiki, a reed and timber raft. In an expanding subfield of history, David Lewis published We the navigators in 1972, still regarded as the seminal analysis of Pacific Islander exploration, discovery, and voyaging. The famous exploits of the Hawaiian double-hulled canoe Hokule’a, annual canoe races, voyaging festivals, reconstruction projects, museum exhibits, documentaries, and the Festival of Pacific Arts have taken interest in early exploration and voyaging to a wider audience. For Euro-Americans and Asians, the fields of eco-tourism and culturaltourism have maintained the spirit of 16th- to 19th-century voyages as travelers search for others, authentic native villages, perfect beaches, and shipwrecks, but mostly discover resorts, cultural centers, and museums. The number of guidebooks on the Pacific suggests that discovery and exploration have lost none of their appeal in the Pacific.

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The Dictionary

–A– ADAMS, WILLIAM (1564–1620). An English-born pilot, he sailed with the commercial Dutch trading expedition of five ships led by Jacques Mahu and Simon de Cordes in 1598–1600. By the time the sole surviving ship, the Liefde, reached Japan in 1600 only 24 of the crew were alive and six more died soon after. Adams became a trusted advisor in Japan, promoted Dutch trade, built ships, married a Japanese woman, and made several voyages in Asian waters. AHUTORU (AHU-TORU OR AOTOUROU). A young Tahitian male, possibly the son or brother of Ereti, a local chief, he traveled with Louis-Antoine de Bougainville to France in 1769. During Bougainville’s 18-day stay in Tahiti, he recognized Philibert Commerson’s valet was a woman, and Jeanne Baret’s true identity was revealed. On the voyage to France he helped with translations and although not learning to speak French was regarded as a useful member of the crew. In Paris he developed a taste for French food and wine, the theater, reputedly had numerous liaisons with actresses and created a sensation when presented to the King. He was known in Paris as Mayoa. In October 1771, after 11 months in Paris he was sent home via Mauritius, at Bougainville’s expense. As he headed for the Pacific with Marc-Joseph Marion Dufresne on the Mascarin, he died of smallpox contracted three weeks earlier while on Mauritius. He is widely known historically as a transculturite, despite being denied the opportunity to share his experiences with his family and friends back home. AIRPLANES. Airplanes and seaplanes were used for general exploration, aerial surveying, and re-supplying in the highlands and inland 1

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river systems in New Guinea in the 1920s. The New Guinea flights of Frank Hurley, EW Brandt, and the Archbold expeditions were well known and featured in various media, including movies, National Geographic, and illustrated encyclopaedia. In 1928, Charles Kingsford Smith and Charles Ulm completed a historic trans-Pacific flight from the United States of America to Australia and later made the first single-engine flight from Australia to the United States of America. In 1937–39, trans-Pacific “clippers” flew from San Francisco to Manila and Auckland using bases in Honolulu, Wake, Noumea, and Guam, and after the Pacific War of 1941–45, a trans-Pacific flying boat service was established briefly from 1951 to 1960. The adventurer Amelia Earheart disappeared making a trans–Pacific flight in 1937. After World War II, aerial surveying and satellite imaging enabled detailed maps of the Pacific to be finally completed. ALASKA, COASTAL MAPPING. The search for a Northwest Passage, the mapping of the Asiatic coast and commercial exploitation by Russian, American, and British merchants in the fur trade created a motivation for many early voyages along the Pacific coastline north of Mexico. The vessels engaged in the fur trade in the 1790s added to the charts compiled by Vitus Bering, Aleksei Chirikov, and others. The coast was also mapped progressively in the long-running but failed search for a Northwest Passage, alleged by geographers and others to link Hudson’s Bay to the Pacific. Between 1769 and 1792, the Spanish voyages of Juan Perez, Juan Francisco Quadra, Francisco Maurelle, Ignacio de Arteaga, and Estéban Martinez defined the coast north of Vancouver. They comprehensively established the coastline from Nootka to the Aleutians but the final mapping was so difficult due to innumerable off-shore islands, inlets, rivers, and bays that it was not completed until the next century by the Russian Fedor Lütke in 1826–28 and the American William Dall in 1871–79. Due to fogs, rain, sleet, and a maze of offshore islands James Colnett complained after two seasons hunting furs on the coast that “It’s a doubt with me if ever I have seen the coast of America at all.” The fur trade, whaling, and the frequency of expeditions in Arctic waters created Honolulu as a favored port-of-call and led to several discoveries on the passage north from Cape Horn or along the China trade route between Nootka–Honolulu–China.

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ANSON, GEORGE

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ALCALÁ-GALIANO, DIONISIO (ALSO KNOWN AS GALIANO) (1762–1805). A Spanish naval offer, he served on the Alessandro Malaspina expedition in 1789–90 and then commanded two small vessels in 1792, the Sutil and the Mexicana, on the last Spanish expedition to search for the Northwest Passage. This expedition was notable in Pacific exploration as it originated and departed from Mexico rather than from Europe. During the voyage he exchanged scientific collections with the British expeditions of George Vancouver and William Broughton who were also exploring the north Pacific. Although not finding a passage to Hudson’s Bay, he circumnavigated Vancouver Island and his reports on the commercial potential of the northwest coast were significant. His book Relación del Viaje hecho por las Goletas Sutil y Mexicana was published in 1802, with a fine atlas, and was widely read. He died in the Battle of Trafalgar in 1805. ALLEN, JOSEPH. An American whaler in the Maro, he mapped Gardner’s Island to the northwest of Hawaii in 1820, now known as Gardner’s Pinnacles. ANDIA Y VARELA, JOSEPH. The Spanish captain of the slower supply ship Jupiter on the expedition of Domingo de Boenechea in 1774, he reported sighting Tatakoto and Amanu in the Tuamotu Archipelago but both were seen previously, by Pedro Quirós in 1606 and by Boenechea a day earlier. ANSON, GEORGE (1697–1762). A British naval officer, he circumnavigated the world in 1740–44 with an expedition of six ships and a crew of 1,900. In the first year he attacked Spanish galleons and ports in the eastern Pacific, but the Gloucester, Pearl, Wager, Tyral, and Severn were all burnt, scuttled, wrecked, or lost at sea. Anson in the Centurian captured several “prize” ships along the American coast and then sailed west to Tinian in the Marianas before reaching Macao in November 1742. He returned to Spithead in the Centurian in June 1744. By capturing a Spanish galleon and its cargo of gold and silver in June 1743, he managed to cover up what had been an otherwise disastrous expedition. Anson became a celebrity and was praised in verse and ballads and six narratives were quickly published. Because of

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ANTARCTICA, EXPLORATION

scurvy, desertion, shipwreck, or death in skirmishes, by the time he reached England, only 188 of the expedition’s original crew were alive. An illustrated official account of the voyage was published in 1748, the same year he was promoted to admiral. He became one of the most influential promoters and organizers of Pacific voyages and in 1751 became First Lord of the Admiralty. His journal A voyage around the world by George Anson was a bestseller and attracted 1800 advance subscribers. It was well illustrated by a naval officer Piercy Brett, translated into several languages, used as a guide by most subsequent expeditions and as an argument for further British expansion in the Pacific. In contrast, the tragic death rate, privations, and bad naval planning served as a warning of what not to do, and subsequent British voyages benefited from the Admiralty and Anson’s failings. ANTARCTICA, EXPLORATION. The first to cross the Antarctic Circle (60° degrees south) was James Cook on 17 January 1773. Cook made three extended exploratory voyages into Antarctic waters. Fifty years later, Nathaniel Palmer, Thaddeus Bellingshausen, and Edward Bransfield separately but simultaneously approached the ice mass in 1820. Bellingshausen is credited with being the first to sight Antarctica, but it is difficult to distinguish between several conflicting claims as the claimants probably saw pack ice or the ice shelf and only possibly the land mass. In 1823, the British trader Benjamin Morrell sailed in Antarctic waters and then the British sealer James Weddell reached 74° south and published the sensational Voyage towards the South Pole in 1824. Both Morrell and his wife also wrote popular, if exaggerated and inaccurate, accounts. The British whaling firm of Enderby and Sons sent several whalers south and added the names Enderby, Biscoe, Heard, and Kemp Islands. The later voyages of Jules Dumont d’Urville, Charles Wilkes, and James Clark Ross in 1840 voyaged through the pack ice and made separate landfalls on the continent. Ross had previously discovered the Magnetic North Pole. The Challenger expedition sponsored by Edinburg University and the British Navy in 1874 closed the era of Antarctic maritime exploration. The names Ross Sea and Ross Ice Shelf, Weddell Sea, Bellingshausen Sea, Vincennes Bay, Porpoise Bay, and others commemorate

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the voyaging era. The first to land was possibly the American sealer John Davis in the whaler Huron in February 1821, but d’Urville is usually credited with being the first on 22 January 1840. From 1895, a new surge of land exploration began (known as the “heroic age”) dominated by the legendary exploits of Robert Scott, Roald Amundsen, Ernest Shackleton, and Douglas Mawson. The Antarctic continent was not crossed until 1956. ARAGO, JACQUES ETIENNE (1790–1855). A French novelist, dramatist, and draughtsman, he sailed with Louis Freycinet on the Uranie in 1817–20. He was instructed by the Academy of Sciences to portray the people encountered on the voyage. His art was romantic in style and portrayed Islanders as warlike but dignified and with fine physiques. He also painted landscapes and historical tableaux and his stay in Hawaii, although for only 22 days, was significant because his drawings were the last to show Hawaii before the arrival of missionaries and the many subsequent changes to culture and society. In Guam, he sailed in a Carolinean canoe from Guam to Rota and Tinian and gathered information on the Caroline Islands during a meeting with Luis de Torres. Three hundred of his ethnographic drawings survived the shipwreck of the Uranie on the voyage home. On returning to France he published two accounts, Promenade autour du monde in 1822 in two volumes, including charts and drawings and Souvenirs d’un Aveugle; voyage autour du monde in 1835. His letters, which formed the basis for Promenade autour du monde were translated and published in English in 1823. He worked with the other naturalists to prepare a report based on the voyage’s collections and this was presented with acclaim to the French Academy of Sciences. ARCHAEOLOGY, MARINE. Exploration of the underwater realm began with the Challenger and Tuscarora expeditions in the 1870s. They revealed that life existed at great depth, dredged the ocean floor, and discovered the existence of deep ocean trenches. Marine archaeology is concerned with the material aspects of voyaging, shipbuilding, and the material culture that a recovery project reveals about the milieu in which a voyage took place. Marine archaeology developed into an inter-disciplinary science, for example, as a branch of anthropology and maritime history. It is concerned with shipwrecks and

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human settlements and harbors now submerged by land subsidence or sea level rises. Attention focuses on uncovering 19th-century wrecks, such as the Pandora and the two ships of the Jean-François La Pérouse expedition. These wrecks are investigated for clues to ancient societies, technological change, and seafaring life. The progressive invention of the diving suit, diving bells, bathyscaphe (1948), and scuba gear allowed archaeologists to work longer and at greater depth. Modern research uses acoustic and magnetic remotesensing equipment, as well as optical, infrared, and robotic technology to explore underwater sites, and many governments now have legislation to protect shipwrecks and underwater sites. Marine archaeology also includes research on the role of maritime museums. ARCHBOLD EXPEDITION. In 1938–39 a large scientific expedition with the patronage of Richard Archbold and sponsored by the American Museum of Natural History, entered the Grand Valley of the Bailem in Netherlands New Guinea (now West Papua). A Catalina sea-plane was used effectively to map uncharted areas and suggest access routes into the interior and the central cordillera. This was one of seven Archbold expeditions in New Guinea, starting in 1933–34 at Yule Island, with two more before the outbreak of the Pacific War and finishing in 1964 on the Huon Peninsula, Finschhafen, and inland ranges. ARCTIC EXPLORATION. The charting of the Artic Ocean, East Siberian Sea, Chukchi Sea, Bering Sea, and the Aleutians above 60° north occurred late in the era of exploration. Voyages in Arctic seas were motivated by a search for the Northwest Passage, the need to consolidate Russian expansion in Asiatic and American waters, the investigation of a possible sea or land bridge between Asia and North America and the gradual mapping of Alaska and the Northwest coast of North America. Russian expeditions by Vitus Bering (1728–30), Vitus Bering and Aleksei Chirikov (1740–41), Petr Kuz’mich Krenitsyn and Mikhail Dmitrievich Levashev in 1764–69, and Ferdinand Wrangel in 1820–24 and 1825–27, and later the British voyages of James Cook, George Vancouver, and William Broughton passed through the Artic waters and incidentally led to many new islands in the Pacific being charted.

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ART OF THE VOYAGES

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ARELLANO, ALONSO DE (?–1579). The Spanish captain of the smallest ship, the 40-ton San Lucas in the Miguel Legazpi expedition of four ships of 1564–65, he mapped six islands in the Caroline Islands while separated, or possibly deserting, from the rest of Legazpi’s fleet. After reaching the Philippines he adopted an independent course and using Fray Andrés de Urdaneta’s advice took a cargo of spices back to Mexico by sailing north then east on 43° north latitude for 12 weeks, reaching Baja California in July 1565. This was the first ship to sail west–east across the Pacific and pioneered the Manila Galleon trade route. Arellano mapped Likiep, Kwajelien, and Lib in the Marshall Islands and then Minto Reef, Chuuk (Truk), Pulap, Sorol, and Ngulu in the Caroline Islands. His detailed topographical and nautical account of his voyage was not published until 1887. His voyage was one of the greatest in Pacific maritime history, being accomplished in unknown seas with a small ship and a crew of 20, mostly soldiers, and apart from charting islands in the Carolines and Marshalls, he made an east–west and then the first west–east trans-Pacific crossing. A Board of Inquiry later credited Urdaneta with this discovery and Arellano, judged to have deserted the Legazpi expedition, was disgraced. ARROWSMITH, AARON (1750–1823). The owner of a map and chart publishing business in the 1790s, he worked as Alexander Dalrymple’s assistant in the British Admiralty Office of Hydrography in 1795–96. He published a series of comprehensive and mostly accurate charts of the Pacific collated from the accounts of Pacific voyages, including the Map of the World in 1790, Planisphere in 1794, Chart of the Pacific Ocean Drawn from a Great Number of Printed and Manuscript Journals in 1798, and a full map of the Pacific in 1818. His son, John Arrowsmith (1790–1873) was also a well-known cartographer. ART OF THE VOYAGES. The link between art and exploration was well established as a means to describe new and distant places. Ethnographic illustration and depictions of natural phenomena were popular in the early 16th century, but the idea that draughtsmen, artists, and painters were essential to the success of a voyage was a relatively modern addition to exploration. Although the art of a naval officer, Piercy Brett, was praised when it was published in the journal of George Anson’s voyage in 1740–44, it was not until 1768 in England, under the

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ASTROLABE

influence of Joseph Banks, the Royal Society, and the recently formed Royal Academy (1768), that artists played a central role in British expeditions. James Cook’s three voyages set the pattern for subsequent expeditions. Topographical drawings of coasts, harbors, and navigation features to guide ships was a major naval concern, but ethnographic portraits, landscapes, and historical tableaux gradually gained popularity in the proliferation of voyage accounts, published journals, and reports. Naval officers, naturalists, and scientists on voyages also doubled as artists and worked with the naval draughtsmen to record flora, fauna, and topography. The artists made their sketches, drawings, and pleinair paintings on the spot and they were finished during the voyage home or years later. They were usually turned into copper-plate engravings for printing and publication in books and atlases. The importance in Europe of the art of Pacific voyages was first studied by Bernard Smith in European vision and the South Pacific in 1960, revised in 1985 and continued in Imagining the Pacific in the wake of Cook’s voyages in 1992. Smith’s research revealed the contribution made by voyage artists to art, science, and a number of modern disciplines and restored to fame the names of voyage artists, including Sydney Parkinson, Alexander Buchan (both died on Cook’s first voyage), William Hodges, John Webber, and William Ellis. In what became the typical role of artists on voyages, 61 of Webber’s drawings from James Cook’s third voyage were published in the official three-volume account. The next voyages to carry artists were the French expeditions of Jean-François La Pérouse, Joseph-Antoine Bruny d’Entrecasteaux, and Nicolas-Thomas Baudin between 1785 and 1804 and the Spanish expedition of Alessandro Malaspina in 1789–94. The works of later artists, including Louis Choris with Otto Kotzebue, Baron von Kittlitz with Fedor Lütke, Jacques Arago with Louis Freycinet, LF Lejeune with Louis-Isadore Duperrey, Louis Sainson with Jules Dumont d’Urville, Augustus Earle, and Conrad Martens with Robert Fitzroy were equally influential in allowing Europeans to imagine and understand the Pacific. ASTROLABE. Instruments to measure the altitude of heavenly bodies and thereby calculate latitude had been developed by the Greeks and Arab navigators and later promoted in Europe by Prince Henry the

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Navigator of Portugal in the 15th century. In the 16th century, the astronomer’s quadrant was simplified as a cross-staff and remained in use until replaced in the 18th century by the back-staff, a measuring device that did not require looking directly at the sun. In the 1730s, John Hadley invented the reflecting octant and then the doublereflecting quadrant, which remained in use until it was refined and became the sextant still in use today. These were important maritime innovations and made possible the plotting of accurate latitude. When finally a method of calculating longitude was invented using lunar tables and a chronometer it was possible to accurately complete the surveys and map making that characterized the later phase of exploration. ATLAS. See MAPS AND MAPPING AUSTRONESIA, DIASPORA. The first great exploration of the Pacific started more than 40,000 years ago when people began moving into what we now know as Australia and New Guinea. The next period of discovery and exploration occurred between 3,000 BC and AD 1,000 when more people moved into the Pacific. This was the most amazing feat of exploration, discovery, and settlement in world history. These indigenous explorers were efficient gardeners but also relied on ocean resources and developed a unique way of life known as Lapita culture after the site in New Caledonia where archaeologists found the first pottery artifacts. These explorers are known as Austronesians because they shared a common language source. Once they settled, intermarried with existing populations or new arrivals, and adjusted to strange environments, a number of differences developed. They were the forebears of today’s Fijians, Niueans, Tongans, Hawaiians, Tuvaluans, Maori, and other Pacific peoples. They were able to move across land when sea levels were low but mostly used outrigger, lateen-sail canoes, later developed into a fine art and able to make long-distance voyages over open seas, eventually reaching Hawaii, Rapanui/Easter Island, and New Zealand. Hawaii was settled from the Marquesas around 1,700 BC. By the 1820s, scholars were calling these people Melanesians, Polynesians, and Micronesians. In the North Pacific a separate Diaspora occurred when people moved from Taiwan or the Philippines into the north and central Pacific around 1,500 BC. European “discovery” of the Pacific therefore

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~ BALBOA, VASCO NUN EZ DE

occurred well after the original Diaspora and well after Pacific islanders had explored, discovered, and settled the islands of the Pacific.

–B– ~ BALBOA, VASCO NUNEZ DE (1475–1519). A Spanish conquistador, he led an expedition across the Isthmus of Panama and on 26 September 1513 became the first European to sight the Pacific Ocean. He reported that it was a large expanse and peaceful. On his return to Spain, he honored the Spanish Crown by sharing the wealth he had plundered in the New World, but was falsely accused by competitors and executed. BALL, HENRY LIDGBIRD (1757–1818). A British naval officer and commander of the Supply on the First Fleet taking convicts and settlers to Botany Bay (Sydney), he made several local surveys and in February 1788 sighted Lord Howe Island. His visit was commemorated by the naming of Mount Lidgbird and Ball’s Pyramid, a sheer rock outcrop near Lord Howe Island. BANABA, EARLY EUROPEAN CONTACT (ALSO KNOWN AS PAANOPA OR OCEAN ISLAND). Banaba was first sighted by Europeans in 1801 by Jered Gardner in the merchant ship Diana on a voyage out of Botany Bay (Sydney) bound for China. His description of the island, which he named Rodman’s Island, was widely published but its location was not confirmed until the visit of the British captain John Mertho on the Ocean when he sighted it in 1804. He named it Ocean Island. Although briefly a haven for beachcombers, who later left after a long drought, Ocean Island became famous in 1900 after Alfred Ellis discovered it was a raised coral island comprised of the purest phosphate of lime then known to European mineralogists. It was mined profitably by the Pacific Islands Trading Company and a series of subsequent companies until mining by the British Phosphate Commission ceased in the 1970s. Banaba, as it is now known, was incorporated in the Gilbert and Ellice Island Colony by the British and is controversially still a part of the republic of Kiribati.

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BANKS, JOSEPH (1743–1820). A wealthy British botanist, scientist, and polymath, he was instrumental in planning many British voyages in the Pacific. He had already made a voyage to Newfoundland and later Iceland, when he funded his own part in James Cook’s first voyage in 1768. He also funded a group of scientists and artists, including Daniel Solander, Hermann Sporing, Sydney Parkinson, and Alexander Buchan. On returning to England his fame as a naturalist grew and the voyage was often called “Mr. Bank’s voyage.” For Cook’s second voyage, Banks proposed an enlarged upper deck and a set of suites for his scientific entourage but this was rejected by the navy and Banks withdrew from the expedition. Bank’s contribution was wide ranging—he was instrumental in planning voyages, the settlement of Botany Bay by the First Fleet, the opening of the Northwest fur trade, the collecting of breadfruit from Tahiti by William Bligh, the selecting of naturalists for voyages, including David Nelson and Archibald Menzies, who he sent on the voyages of James Cook, William Bligh, James Colnett, and George Vancouver, and various other projects, including the preparation of the florilegium, a set of Sydney Parkinson’s botanical drawings. He was indeed the British “director general of exploration.” He was made a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1766 and President in 1778, appointed by the King as Director of the Royal Gardens at Kew in 1773 and Royal Advisor on Philosophical Affairs. He is commemorated in geographical features, plants, and the name of suburbs. BARBER, HENRY. A British captain on a voyage in the Arthur from Botany Bay (Sydney) to the Northwest coast of America, he sighted McKean Island in the Phoenix group in 1794. BARBINAIS, LE GENTIL DE LA (?). A Dutch captain, he served as a captain on the Nassau Fleet of 11 ships sent to raid Spanish ports on the South American coast in 1623. In 1625, the fleet sailed west to the Moluccas. He compiled a short description of the Marianas. See also L’HERMITE, JACQUES; SCHAPENHAM, GHEEN HUYGHAN. BARET, JEANNE (1744–1788). A young French woman, she remained in disguise as the botanist Philibert Commerson’s male valet during the voyage of Louis-Antoine de Bougainville in 1766–69. Her gender

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BARKELY, CHARLES WILLIAM

was not revealed until Ahutoru, a young Tahitian on board the Boudeuse, immediately identified her as a woman. She left the ship with Commerson in Mauritius on the return voyage. She is often incorrectly called the first woman to cross the Pacific (this was Ysabel de Barreto, Alvaro Mendaña’s, wife in 1595–96), but she did eventually return to France and complete a circumnavigation. BARKELY, CHARLES WILLIAM (1761–1832). A British merchant captain, he was one of the first fur traders to reach Nootka, via Hawaii in 1786. He charted several features, including Juan de Fuca Strait, and then sailed for Macao. He made another voyage to the Northwest coast in 1792. His wife Frances accompanied him on the first voyage and wrote a journal that was often referred to but not published. BARRETO, LORENZO (?–1595). The brother of Alavro Mendaña’s wife, Ysabel de Barreto, he was captain of the flagship San Jerónimo on the second Mendaña expedition in 1595. During a local survey of the Solomon Islands he mapped the Swallow Islands, Vanikoro, and Utupua, and possibly Ant atoll. He died one day after Mendaña at their attempted settlement at Ndeni and command of the expedition passed to Ysabel Barreto. Pedro Quirós became the effective navigator and leader of the expedition, now in disarray, as it headed toward Manila. BARRETO, YSABEL DE. The wife of Alvaro Mendaña, she took command of the expedition in 1595 when Mendaña died at Ndeni in the Solomon Islands. She is credited with the mapping of Pakin in the eastern Carolines while sailing the San Jerónimo to Manila after a series of tragic events and ship wrecks. Pedro Quirós was the navigator and the effective leader of the expedition. The accompanying vessels, the Santa Catalina and Santa Ysabel, both disappeared. Barreto sailed back to Mexico in the San Jerónimo in December 1596, the first woman to make a return crossing of the Pacific. The first woman to circumnavigate the world on a Pacific voyage was Jeanne Baret on the voyage of Louis-Antoine Bougainville in 1766–68. BARRETT, GEORGE (1773–1821). The captain of a Nantucket whaler, he left the Japan grounds and sailed south looking for new

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fields. He named a group of atolls Mitchell’s group (now Tuvalu) and mapped Nukulaelae in 1821. The name Mitchell’s group was used for the rest of the century. He also reported sighting Nurakita (or Niulakita) but this had been sighted 226 years before by Alvaro Mendaña on his second voyage in 1595. BAUDIN, NICOLAS-THOMAS (1754–1803). A French merchant and naval officer and an experienced botanist, cartographer, and naturalist, he commanded a major scientific expedition in the Géographe and Naturaliste in 1800–1803. Sent to complete the survey of Australia’s coasts, it was the most impressive scientific voyage so far. Baudin had already completed botanical expeditions to the Asia, Pacific, and the Antilles, and although he did not add to the charts of the Pacific, his voyage was the epitome of scientific voyaging and a defining example of the link between exploration, science, and national prestige. The 24 scientists on the voyage—mineralogists, astronomers, hydrographers, zoologists, artists, botanists, horticulturists, and gardeners—returned with huge collections and an estimated 2,500 new species were named in the 100,000 animal specimens they collected. This was also the first voyage to be given anthropological instructions when a 70-page essay on evaluating the human condition was given to scientists on board by the Société de Observateurs de L’Homme, formed in Paris in 1799. Louis-Antoine de Bougainville’s son was a midshipman and Louis Freycinet and his brother Henri were ensigns. Promoted during the voyage, Louis Freycinet was given command of the Casuarina, a schooner purchased as a support vessel. In April 1802, Baudin met the British navigator Matthew Flinders who was also circumnavigating the continent, later named “Australia” by Flinders. In December 1802, Géographe and Naturaliste separated and Baudin headed for France. The Géographe reached France a year after the Naturaliste. Accounts of the voyage were published by the zoologist Bory de Saint-Vincent in 1804 and 1810, the artists Jacques Milbert in 1812, the zoologist Francois Péron in 1816, and the botanist Leschenault La Tour in 1824. A series of 10 volumes and atlases were published between 1807 and 1824 by Péron and Freycinet. Baudin died in Mauritius on the voyage home and when Freycinet completed the atlas of the voyage in 1812, Baudin’s role was ignored.

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BEACHCOMBERS AND CASTAWAYS. The name beachcomber is given to Europeans who deserted, voluntarily left their ship, were paid-off, or survived wrecks, and then lived briefly with indigenous communities. A castaway is the name given to those who were abandoned or left ashore because of illness or discipline and occasionally by accident. For example, of the crew of 126 on the voyage of Louis Freycinet in 1817–20, 38 men deserted, 15 were paid-off during the voyage, and two sick men were sent ashore. Mostly illiterate sailors, only a few beachcombers wrote journals, but there is considerable reference in ships logs to escaped convicts, deserters, and sizable beachcomber communities in a few favored locations. As many as 50 beachcombers were reported to be on Pohnpei in 1850. They generally led short, violent lives, killed in fights among themselves or by hosts who no longer tolerated their behavior. Some gained popularity by teaching Western shipbuilding, acting as armorers, or serving in local wars, and many acted as pilots or as intermediaries for traders. The romantic idea of escaping harsh ship life and finding a South Seas paradise faded as permanent European settlement occurred and port towns, missions, naval visits, and eventually European annexation made the former beachcomber havens too conventional and law abiding. Indigenous men and women also took advantage of voyaging expeditions to travel abroad and live on other islands or in Asia and Europe. Their motivations were as varied as their European counterparts—a sense of adventure, a rite of passage for youth, escaping obligations, temporary absence to gain knowledge and wealth. Many were sent by elders, chiefs, and family to gain experience in Western tools and technologies. They are known historically as transculturites to distinguish them from the European beachcombers and castaways. BEAUCHESNE. See GOUIN DE BEAUCHESNE, JACQUES. BEAUTEMPS-BEAUPRE´, CHARLES-FRANÇOIS (1766–1854). A French naval officer and hydrographer, he sailed with JosephAntoine Bruny d’Entrecasteaux in 1791–94 as chief surveyorhydrographer and was responsible for producing 213 maps and charts. His charts of the west coast of New Caledonia and later the Solomon Islands and the archipelago east of New Guinea were the first good charts published for these areas. He is regarded as the founder of mod-

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ern French hydrography and Bruny d’Entrcasteaux reported “it is truly to him that the success of this expedition will be due.” He was head of the French Naval Hydrographic Department from 1796 to 1838. Heo, an atoll north of the Loyalty Islands, bears his name. BECHER, ALEXANDER. A British naval officer and hydrologist who worked in the Admiralty’s Hydrographic Office, in 1860 he published the influential Navigation of the Pacific Ocean with an Account of the Winds, Weather and Currents Found Therein throughout the Year. Based on anecdotal sea captain’s reports and sailing directions it remained in use until replaced by the more scientific research of Matthew Maury and Nathaniel Bowditch. BEECHEY, FREDERICK WILLIAM (1796–1856). A British naval captain, geographer, surveyor, and zoologist, he sailed to Arctic regions in 1818 and 1819 before being chosen in 1825–28 to take the Blossom to resupply the Arctic land expeditions of William Parry and John Franklin. He visited Rapanui/Easter Island, Pitcairn Island, the Gambiers, Tahiti, and Hawaii and in January 1826 added four new islands to the charts of the Tuamotu Archipelago. He was the first European to land on Mangareva Atoll. He made two visits to the Arctic in June 1826 and August 1827 taking advantage of the summer melting of the ice pack and compiled valuable reports on places he had visited. A junior officer, Edward Belcher, later led a Pacific voyage in 1835–42. In 1831, Beechey’s two-volume account Narrative of a Voyage to the Pacific and Beering’s Strait was published. Separate volumes using Beechey’s notes but edited by the expedition scientists on zoology, botany, and geology were published between 1839 and 1841. In 1835, he took command of another surveying and natural history expedition in the Sulphur and the Starling. The main aim of the voyage was to confirm all previous claims and charts. After falling ill in June 1836, Beechey was replaced initially by Henry Kellet and then by his former junior officer, Edward Belcher. The voyage of the Sulphur eventually lasted six and half years. BELCHER, EDWARD (1799–1877). A British naval officer, surveyor, and hydrographer, he served on the Blossom under Frederick Beechey in a scientific and surveying expedition in 1825–28, and again in

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1836–42. He took command after Beechey became ill and Henry Kellet, who had continued the expedition’s work for a year, was judged to be too junior. He continued the surveying work for six years in the Hawaiian Islands, Alaska, Marquesas, and the South Pacific. His twovolume Narrative of a Voyage Round the World was published in 1843. BELKNAP, GEORGE EUGENE (1832–1903). An American naval officer, appointed midshipman in 1827 and lieutenant in 1855, he fought in the Civil War and then served on the Formosa (Taiwan) expedition in 1867. He commanded the steamer Tuscarora on a major American expedition in 1873–74 surveying the ocean floor between the west coast and Japan for an undersea cable. In the process, the expedition discovered the Aleutian and Japan Trenches. BELLINGSHAUSEN, THADDEUS (ALSO KNOWN AS FADDEI FADDEIEVICH OR FABIAN GOOTLEIB BENJAMIN VON) (1778–1852). A Russian naval captain, astronomer, hydrologist, and naturalist born in Estonia, he circumnavigated the world in Ivan Krusenstern’s expedition on the Nadezhda in 1803–06. In 1819–21, he commanded an official voyage sent to map Antarctica and then undertake further exploration in the north Pacific and through the islands of the South Pacific. He completed the first circumnavigation of Antarctica in the Vostok supported by Mikhail Lazerev in the Mirnyi. They sighted through a fog what they thought was an Antarctic land mass but claims of being the first to sight Antarctica were set aside when a fur trader, The Hope, captained by Nathaniel Palmer sailed into view and reported having already sighted land. Bellingshausen gave the name Palmer Land to the coast that probably neither had actually sighted. His exploration of the North Pacific was significant but in the South Pacific he proved himself to be “among the ablest of all maritime explorers of his age.” During a two-year voyage he meticulously mapped 17 Pacific Islands, including seven atolls in the Tuamotu Archipelago, two islands in Fiji and Vostok Island, and confirmed the charts for numerous other groups and islands. In 1831, he published a two-volume account Repeated Explorations in the Southern Icy Ocean and a Voyage around the World and an atlas. Motu-one in the Society Islands was briefly known as Bellingshausen Island.

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His exploring, charting, and recording achievements in the Pacific equalled those of James Cook, but he has attracted less attention. His main voyage, sent in the spirit of the great late 19th-century exploring expeditions, was preceded by 40 years of spectacular surveying, charting, and scientific voyaging; by the 1820s, few “firsts” remained for European explorers. Bellingshausen’s fame rests instead on the charts and ethnographic accounts he provided of the Pacific at a time when permanent European settlement was just beginning. In Russian history his fame is linked to naval expansion in the great age of Russian exploration 1800–1830 and particularly to Antarctica exploration. He was highly decorated, promoted to admiral, and later made military governor of Krondstadt. BE´RARD, AUGUSTE (1796–1852). A French naval officer, he served under Louis de Freycinet and Charles Jacquinot on the Uranie in 1817–20. He then served under Louis-Isidore Duperrey in 1822–25 along with Dumont d’Urville in the circumnavigation on the Coquille and was responsible due to Duperrey’s illness for much of the charting done in the South Pacific. In 1842–46, he commanded the Rhin on another Pacific voyage promoting French colonial and commercial interests. BERING, VITUS JONASSEN (1681–1741). A Danish navigator who served in the Russian navy, he commanded two expeditions out of Kamchatka to the Artic in 1728–30 and 1740–42. These were known as the Great Northern Expeditions. Beginning in 1725 and traveling overland, he finally sailed from Kamchatka in 1728. The second expedition started officially in 1733 but again took several years for the party to cross Russia by land and build two ships the St. Peter and St. Paul. It finally sailed out of Kamchatka in 1741. These were organizational tasks of amazing breadth and timing and included many scientists. The accounts of Alaska by the zoologist and ethnographer Georg Wilhelm Stellar were the first on this region. The first expedition reached 67° north. The names Bering Sea and Bering Straits acknowledge this pioneering voyage. The second expedition was more ambitious and Bering was asked to explore North America, the whole Asiatic coast north from Japan, and establish a fur trade based on tributes with local indigenous inhabitants. In July

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1741, Bering reached the Alaskan coast and created the first Russian map to show a part of North America. Despite initial failures because of fogs and scurvy the two voyages by Bering confirmed that Siberia and North America were not joined. Bering charted the strait that divides them, but was less successful in finding the elusive Northwest Passage. On the second voyage, he added Alaska and the Aleutian Islands to the charts of the North Pacific. Aleksei Chirikov accompanied him on both voyages and another Danish-born officer, Martin Spanberg, was also later to make separate voyages. In the Artic winter of 1741, after landing on Bering Island near Kamchatka and losing his ship in the surf, the 62-year-old Bering and 12 crewmen died. The survivors made it to safety in September 1742. BIBLIOTHECA AUSTRALIANA. The Bibliotheca Australiana was a series of exploration narratives published jointly by Nico Israel in Amsterdam and Da Capo Press in New York. Beginning in 1967, 42 titles were republished in a series of facsimile editions chronicling 400 years of Pacific exploration. Many of the important voyages from the beginning of the 16th century through to the scientific expeditions of the 19th century were reprinted. Because the original voyage narratives and journals were often published and republished in several editions, for the facsimile series the most informative or influential edition was reproduced. Many books in the series dealt specifically with the Pacific while others covered voyages that passed briefly through the region. BISHOP, CHARLES (ca. 1765–1810). A British merchant captain, he visited the Northwest coast via Hawaii in 1795 unsuccessfully trying to enter the fur trade. He then traded in the triangular China trade between Botany Bay (Sydney), the islands, and China until 1798. Under license to the British East India Company, he sailed from Sydney to Canton in the Nautilus in 1799 and charted Tibuteuea, Abemama, and Nonouti in Kiribati, as well as numerous previously sighted atolls in the Marshall Islands. A chart of the islands was later passed to Alexander Dalrymple and he published it in 1802. Bishop was accompanied on the voyage in 1799 by George Bass, a member of the famous Bass and Flinders expedition that charted the Aus-

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tralian coast. Bishop also sailed to Tahiti in 1801 in the newly established pork trade between the islands and the new colony at Sydney. BLACKWOOD, FRANCES PRICE (1809–1854). A British naval officer, navigator, and artist, he commanded the Hyacinth on a voyage to South America and Australia in 1833. A recognized artist himself, he supported the appointment of the artist Conrad Martens to the voyage. He then commanded the first of a series of important surveying expeditions in the Great Barrier Reef, Torres Strait, New Guinea, and Australian waters in 1843–44 with the Fly and the Bramble. He mapped the Fly River and Aird River in 1845, charted a safer passage through the Torres Strait, circumnavigated Australia, charted safe passages through the Great Barrier Reef, and collected 5,000 ethnological and zoological specimens. J Beete Jukes, the naturalist on the Fly published the official report, the Narrative of the Surveying Voyage of HMS Fly, in two volumes in 1847. The other naturalist, John McGillivray, was later to serve on the next surveying voyage in the Rattlesnake with Owen Stanley. After Blackwood returned to England take a new command, the Fly continued under Charles Bamfield Yule and finally returned to England in 1846. BLIGH, WILLIAM (1754–1817). A British naval officer, he joined the navy at 14 years, studied hydrology and navigation, and, as a 21-year-old, progressed to the rank of masters mate on the Resolution on James Cook’s third voyage. He carried out his role efficiently and then went on half-pay and worked in the merchant service, until suggested by Joseph Banks for a voyage on the Bounty in 1787–89 to collect breadfruit from Tahiti. Breadfruit, which had been noted in the journals of George Anson and Cook, was expected to be a useful food supply for slaves in the West Indies. The gathering of 1,015 breadfruit seedlings took five months and was a success with the help of a Bank’s protégé, David Nelson, who had also sailed on Cook’s third voyage with Bligh. The Bounty’s gunner, William Peckover, had also sailed on all three of Cook’s voyages. On the voyage home, a mutiny occurred on 28 April 1789, led by some of the crew disgruntled with Bligh’s disrespect and insults, and perhaps longing to return to the idyllic life they had just left in Tahiti. With 18 crew in a longboat, Bligh was cast adrift and then completed

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one of the most amazing feats of navigation, finally reaching Timor via the Torres Strait, after a three-month, 7,200-kilometer voyage across mostly uncharted waters with the loss of only one man, killed by Tongans at Tofua. In Fiji, he recorded six islands and the Yasawa Archipelago and put Fiji on English maps. Bligh published A Narrative of the Mutiny in 1790 and A Voyage to the South Sea in 1792. He was exonerated of losing his ship. In 1791, Bligh was given command of the Providence and Assistant for a second attempt to collect breadfruit seedlings in Tahiti. The mission was a success and with a cargo of 2,000 seedlings, Bligh was awarded a 1,000-pound bonus. Nathaniel Portlock, the captain of the Assistant, was awarded a 500-pound bonus. Bligh also mapped the Bounty Islands, Aitutaki in the Cook Islands, Matilda rocks in the Tuamotu Archipelago, and four Islands in Vanuatu. The Bounty mutineers meanwhile mapped Rarotonga and two new islands in Tonga. On the second voyage, Bligh added three new islands to the charts of Fiji. He later served as governor of the colony of New South Wales from 1805–8, where he was the victim of another mutiny. He returned to England and was later promoted to rear-admiral. BODEGA. See JUAN FRANCISCO QUADRA. BOENECHEA, DOMINGO DE (ca. 1730–1774). A Spanish captain, he made two voyages in the Santa Maria Magdalena (also known as the Aguila) carrying Spanish missionaries and supplies to Tahiti in 1772–74 as a counter to the English naming of Tahiti as St. George Island. He was also sent to survey Rapanui/Easter Island and Tahiti and collect a young Spanish officer left to learn the language on Tahiti by Felipe Gonzalez. He mapped three islands in the Tuamotu Archipelgo and died in Tahiti during the second voyage of the Aguila in 1774. Tomas Gayangos took command of the Aguila and mapped Raivavae in the Australs on the way back to the South American coast. The Aguila made a further voyage to Tahiti under Captain Cayetano de Langara, but only sighted islands previously mapped by Boenechea and James Cook. The three voyages had sighted and named 22 islands. Boenechea took four Tahitians to Peru on the Aguila, including Tipititia and Oheiau, who both died. Thomas Paautu and Manuel Tetuanui returned to Tahiti in 1774, where they were unsuccessful as

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evangelists. Another tranculturite, Puhoro, who was taken from Makatea to Peru by the Aguila in 1774, returned and was more successful by using trade goods to gain influence. BOLL, SAMUEL WILLIAM. An American trepang (bêche-de-mer) trader sailing out of Guam in the Maria in 1804, he mapped West Fayu and Pikelot in the western Carolines. His companion on the voyage, Luis de Torres, became a local authority on the Caroline Islands. BON SAUVAGE. A French term, meaning the good savage, was used to romantically describe the harmonious society and paradisiacal conditions of allegedly primitive indigenous people in the Pacific. It was poorly translated into English as “noble savage ” See also FIRST CONTACT; ETHNOHISTORY; FATAL IMPACT; COMMERSON, PHILIBERT; CROZET, JULIEN-MARIE; DIDEROT, DENIS; BOUGAINVILLE, LOUIS-ANTOINE DE. BOND, ESSEX HENRY. A British captain on the British East India Company ship Royal Admiral sailing from Sydney to China, he mapped Namorik atoll in the Marshall Islands in 1792 and confirmed Namu atoll, previously seen by Alvaro Mendaña. BONNE, RIGOBERT (1727–1792). A French hydrographer and director of the mapping department of the French Naval Hydrographic Services, he compiled, adapted, and published many maps from Pacific voyages, including maps of New Caledonia, Vanuatu, Hawaii, Leeward Islands, Tahiti, and the Marqueasas. BOTANY. The scientific analysis of plants, known today as botany, was first known as plant collecting and evolved from the 17th-century private and early museum practice of creating a “cabinet of curiosities” or a panel, glass case, or room devoted to items from the New World, Asia, and Africa. Plant collectors later became known as naturalists and the field of natural history developed. In Italy in the 1540s, and as the Russian, British, French, and Dutch empires expanded, collectors created botanical gardens such as the Ambulacrum, the Leyden University botanical gardens (1599), the Botanical Gardens at Kew in London (1759) and the Jardin des Plantes in Paris (1793).

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Natural history, or botany as it became known, was transformed by European exploration in the Pacific. The naturalists who made voyages in the Pacific included disciples of the taxonomy of Carolus Lineaus (1707–78) and significant contributions to botany were made by Karl Heinrich Mertens, Jacques-Julien la Billardière, Daniel Solander, Anders Sparmann, Johann and Georg Forster, Joseph Banks, Archibald Menzies, David Nelson, and others. All nations were involved in scientific exploration and the Russian voyages of Ivan Krusenstern, Otto Kotzebue, and Thaddeus Bellingshausen, the French voyages of Dumont D’Urville and Louis Freycinet, and the British voyages of James Cook and Frederick Beechey were justifiably famous among the scientific community in Europe. For example, the specimens brought home by William Dampier in the 17th century were used by Charles Darwin in the 19th century. Darwin praised Dampier’s patient observance and record of the relationship between plants, soil, climate, and other living things. The published botanical records of voyages, such as the naturalist Billardière’s three-volume Relation du voyage in 1799, an account of the Antoine d’Entrecasteaux expedition in 1792–93, included a pictorial atlas and was a best-seller. It was immediately republished in France and in three English and two German editions. But, such was the extent of the unclassified and, to Europeans, unknown plants in the Pacific that 500 of the 3,000 examples collected during Freycinet’s voyage in 1817–20 had not been previously collected for the French natural history museum and 200 of those mounted on paper in Freycinet’s herbaria, were unknown. One of the six volumes published on Freycinet’s voyage was devoted to botany. The collection of plants and classifying the hundreds of thousands of new species was partly scientific and partly commercial. In the 16th century, the Dutch East Indies Company (VOC) deliberately sought to profit from the collection, carriage, and knowledge of new plants with commercial value. The British network of botanical gardens, natural history experts, and field collectors who sent home specimens also shared, in the historian David Mackay’s opinion, the “mercantilist aim of identifying and classifying species likely to be useful to an industrialising Britain.” For example, Williams Dampier’s plant specimens were passed quickly from John Woodward to John Ray, Leonard Plunkett, and William Sherard, men closely involved in the early

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study of botany. The first issue of the Botanical Magazine in 1787 was a British best-seller and sold 3,000 copies. A second network developed among natural history artists, evolving from a tradition of plant drawing and botanical illustration traced back to Greek times. The art of the voyages, drawn by professional artists, scientists, crew, and supernumeraries, was motivated by naval and topographical demands and a desire to capture a likeness of the people they met, but was overwhelmingly botanical. Sydney Parkinson made 955 paintings of plants on James Cook’s first voyage and, after the voyage of Louis Bougainville, the naturalist Philibert Commerson returned to Europe with 3,000 plants and 1,500 drawings. The high point in botanical illustration was Joseph Banks’ long devotion to publishing the Florilegium, finally deposited in a museum in 1827. Botanical drawing therefore spans the era of exploration from Francis Drake’s circumnavigation in 1577–80 to James Cook’s first voyage in 1768–71, the botanical voyage par excellence, and well into the 19th century. See also SCIENCE AND EXPLORATION. BOUGAINVILLE, LOUIS-ANTOINE DE (1729–1811). A French naval officer, mathematician, and navigator, he completed the first French circumnavigation in the Boudeuse and L’Etoile in 1766–69. This was the first voyage to carry scientists and was planned with the assistance of Charles de Brosses. The astronomer Pierre-Antoine Véron and the naturalist Philibert Commerson returned to Europe with new plants, drawings, and several new charts. The highpoint was an 11-day stay in Tahiti, which he named the Nouvelle Cythère because of the idyllic life he imagined the Tahitians enjoyed. Two of the 18 chapters in his journal were devoted to Tahiti. His journal was otherwise conventional and merely reported what the expedition had observed. The voyage had been sent to seek lands for French colonization, find the alleged Davis Land, and open up a new route to China and the Spice Islands. Although he added seven islands to the chart of the Tuamotu Archipelago, which he named the “Dangerous Archipelago,” three islands in Vanuatu and three islands in the Solomon Islands, and reported on Samoa, Rotuma, and New Guinea, he had not achieved his three main aims. The literary impact was more impressive and his illustrated account Voyage autour du monde was a bestseller when

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published quickly in 1771. In 1772, an enlarged English edition was published. Equally influential were the essays of Denis Diderot and Commerson who published glowing essays on the paradisiacal South Seas and noble savages even before Bougainville returned to France. Creating an equal furore in Paris was the Tahitian, Ahutoru, who Bougainville brought back to France. In Tahiti, Bougainville had been surprised to be told by Tahitians that Commerson’s assistant was in fact a woman, Jeanne Baret. Bougainville helped plan the voyages of Jean-François de Lapérouse and Joseph-Antoine Bruny d’Entrecasteaux. An island in the Solomon Islands and a flowering plant Bougainvillea are named after him and he is regarded as the finest example of a 19thcentury French traveler, patriot, and navigator. He was given a national funeral at the Pantheon when he died. Bougainville’s son, Hyacinthe-Yves-Philippe Potentien de Bougainville (1781–1846), led a voyage to the Pacific in the Thétis and Espérance in 1822–26. BOUMAN, CORNELIUS (ca. 1680–?). The Dutch captain of the Thienhoven, he served on Jacob Roggeveen’s expedition in 1721–23. The Manua group in Samoa was initially named Bouman’s Islands and the island of Tutuila named Thienhoven. BOUNTY, MUTINY ON THE. A mutiny against William Bligh occurred on the Bounty on 28 April 1789 during a British voyage to collect breadfruit seedlings from Tahiti. This incident created a web of connections to subsequent voyages involving Mayhew Folger, Edward Edwards, and Nathaniel Portlock, discoveries in the Tuamotu Archipelago, Pitcairn, Fiji, and Tonga, the settlement of Norfolk Island, botanical history involving Joseph Banks and David Nelson, and archaeological work on the Great Barrier Reef on the wreck of the Pandora in the 20th century. Bligh survived the mutiny by sailing to Timor in a long boat for three months with 18 men. The mutineers had meanwhile wandered about the South Pacific visiting several islands before one group stayed in Tahiti, later to be imprisoned on the Pandora, and a second group led by Fletcher Christian finally settled on Pitcairn where they remained in obscurity for 20 years. The Bounty was burned to hide

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the evidence of their presence. The inhabitation of Pitcairn was noted in 1808 and the descendents of the mutineers first visited in 1815. Due to population pressure the whole community of 193 persons was relocated to Norfolk Island in 1856. Several families moved back to Pitcairn in 1864. Amazingly, Larcum Kendall’s chronometer K2 was found on Pitcairn, and it eventually ended up in the National Maritime Museum at Greenwich where it still keeps accurate time. The Pandora under Edward Edwards imprisoned 14 men found on Tahiti, including the innocent who had not been able to fit in the small boat with Bligh. Four drowned in chains in the notorious “Pandora’s box” when the Pandora was wrecked on the Great Barrier Reef, three hung in England, and seven were pardoned. BOURAYNE, JOSEPH-CE´ SAR (1768–1817). A French naval officer in the Canonnière in 1807, he made the first French voyage to cross the Pacific in 14 years following the voyage of Joseph-Antoine d’Entrecastaux. To gather supplies for their Spanish allies in the Philippines, he sailed north and east across the Pacific to Mexico in April and returned across the central Pacific in October. BOWDITCH, NATHANIEL (1773–1838). An American astronomer, mathematician, and mariner, after serving at sea from 1795 to 1803, he began correcting the published astronomical and maritime charts then in use. After making thousands of corrections, the Practical navigator was renamed the New American Practical Navigator and attributed to Bowditch. It was translated into 12 languages and remains the seaman’s bible. He was president of the American Academy of Arts and Science and, with Matthew Maury, pioneered the fields of hydrography and oceanography and made a lasting impact on Pacific exploration. In 1841, William Hudson of the US South Seas Exploring Expedition named Fakaofo in Tokelau, Bowditch Island in his honor. BRITAIN, EARLY EXPLORATION IN OCEANIA. British ships did not enter the Pacific until 50 years after Fredinand Magellan opened a passage out of the Atlantic. The first British in the Pacific were the privateers or buccaneers Francis Drake with five ships,

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including the Golden Hind in 1577–80 and Thomas Cavendish in 1586–88. These circumnavigations were followed by John Davis in 1591 and Richard Hawkins in 1594. They went only as far as the South American Pacific coast to raid Spanish ships and ports and take advantage of the war between Britain and Spain in 1586–89 and Spain’s defeat in the Armada. The publication of a compendium of voyages to 1598, Richard Hakluyt’s Principal navigations, voyages and discoveries of the English nation, and a peace treaty with Spain in 1604 created interest but it was another hundred years before British privateers made further voyages into the Pacific. The formation of the British East India Company in 1600 increased shipping and commercial interests in Asia and the Spice Trade but the British could not decide whether raiding Spanish ports, inciting rebellion against Spanish rule or the peaceful expansion of trade in the Pacific was the best national policy. Interest was renewed with John Narborough’s voyage in 1669–71 along the Peru coast and the excellent charts he produced of the Strait of Magellan. The publication in 1694 of an English edition of Abel Tasman’s voyage and the best-selling release of William Dampier’s New voyage around the world again raised interest and coincided with the buccaneer and privateering voyages of Charles Swan and Dampier in 1683–86; Edward Davis in 1683–90 (creating the longrunning mystery of Davis Land); John Eaton in 1684–86; William Dampier again in 1699–1701, 1703–5, and 1708–11; John Clipperton in 1704 and again 1719–22 with George Shelvovke, and Woodes Rogers in 1708–11. They added islands to the maps of the Pacific that Spanish, Portuguese, and Dutch cartographers had been secretly compiling. The great era of official British naval exploration was foreshadowed by George Anson’s disastrous circumnavigation in 1740–44. Anson later lobbied to promote the navy’s role in exploration. The Histoire de la navigation by Charles de Brosses in 1756 and Alexander Dalrymple’s Account of discoveries made in the south Pacific in 1768 argued that empire; exploration, and science were linked to national prosperity and power. The search for a southern continent of unknown wealth, Terra Australis Incognita and an Asia–Atlantic link through a Northwest Passage added further motivation for voyages to the Pacific. Although voyages were postponed

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briefly during the Seven Years War (1756–63), they resumed spectacularly with a series of voyages by John Byron in 1764, Samuel Wallis in 1766–68, Philip Carteret in 1766–69, and the three voyages of James Cook in 1768–71, 1772–75, and 1776–79. By 1790, Britain was expanding in two directions; the first fleet had left to establish a colony in New South Wales, and Pacific resources were being harvested, first its breadfruit by William Bligh to increase profits in the Caribbean and secondly the fur trade on the Northwest coast. By 1800, the four corners of the Pacific were known and Britain was indeed monarch of the seas. BROOKE, JOHN MERCER (1826–1906). An American hydrographer, astronomer, surveyor, and inventor of the Brooke deepsounding apparatus, he served on the North Pacific Exploring Expedition led by Cadwalader Ringgold and John Rodgers in 1853–55 and then led a surveying expedition along a proposed steamship route in the north Pacific in 1858–59. In 1855, he made an amazing 720-kilometer voyage in a small boat charting the Asiatic coast and using his own apparatus took a sounding to 3,500 fathoms in the Japan Trench. His charts of the Asian coast, shoals and reefs, and natural history collections were highly regarded. He later became professor of physics and astronomy in the state of Virginia. BROSSES, CHARLES DE (1709–1777). A French geographer and promoter of French exploration in the Pacific, he compiled the first great compilation of Pacific voyages, Histoire de navigations aux terres Australes, in 1756. An influential five-volume set, it organized the journals and accounts of 65 voyages into three groups; Magellanie (for Atlantic voyages), Australie for the Indian Ocean, and Polynesie for the Pacific. In 1766–68, John Callender plagiarized de Brosses’ Histoire and published a three-volume version Terra Australis Cognita in English. De Brosses promoted the use of naturalists and draughtsmen (painters) on voyages and his Histoire influenced the philosophical, expansionary, and academic thinking of many theorists, planners, and voyagers in the mid-19th century. He promoted French expansion in the Pacific and was wary of British dominance, noting Britain had assumed

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the mantle of “la monarchie universelle de la mer” and argued the British would reap benefits by being the monarch of the seas. BROUGHTON, WILLIAM ROBERT (ca. 1762–1821). The British naval captain of the Chatham in the George Vancouver expedition, after being separated from Vancouver south of Tasmania, he mapped Snares and the Chatham Islands in November 1791–92. Broughton landed on the Chathams and in a rare example of explorers annexing new lands, claimed them immediately for Britain. They later became a New Zealand possession. In 1795–99, he carried out valuable survey work on the American northwest coast, Sakhalin, Korea, Japan, and the China coast and published A voyage of discovery to the north Pacific Ocean in 1804. BRUNY D’ENTRECASTEAUX, JOSEPH-ANTOINE (ALSO KNOWN AS D’ENTRECASTEAUX) (1737–1793). A French naval officer, administrator, and hydrographer in command of the Recherche and Espérance, he was sent in 1791–94 to search for the missing Jean-François de Lapérouse and to establish a French presence in the Pacific. The voyage was proposed by the Société d’Histoire Naturelle and approved by parliament. Bruny d’Entrecasteaux, a 52-year-old rear-admiral, was chosen as leader. Huon de Kermadec was in command of the Espérance and Charles-François Beautemps-Beaupré served as chief hydrographer. The officers, scientists, and crew were divided between supporters of the ancient regime and the republic and between élèves (aristocrats) and volontaires (commoners). The expedition visited Tasmania, New Caledonia, the Solomon Islands, New Ireland, and the Admiralty Islands, then circumnavigated Australia back to Tasmania. It continued searching through Tonga, Vanuatu, New Caledonia, New Guinea, and Santa Cruz Islands and then gave up the search for La Pérouse. Kermadec died off the coast of New Caledonia in May 1793 and three months later in July 1793, Bruny d’Entrecasteaux died off the coast of New Guinea. Command passed to Alexandre (or Hesmivy) D’Auribeau, who died in August 1794, and then to Elisabeth-Paul-Edouard Rossel. The expedition collapsed in the Dutch East Indies and the Republicans in the crew were imprisoned. The Dutch took the two ships. The journals, charts,

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art works, and specimens were saved by Rossel and transferred to a Dutch East India ship bound for Holland. This was captured by the British as the Dutch and British were at war. In 1802, due to Joseph Bank’s influence the 21 crates were returned to France. In the last year of the voyage several islands were added to the charts, including Esperance and Raoul in the Kermadec group, Beautemps-Beaupré atoll in the northern Loyalty Islands, and several islands in the Louisiade Archipelago, the d’Entrecastaux Islands, Trobriand Islands, and others off New Guinea. The maps of the voyage, secretly copied by the British, also assisted subsequent British expeditions. In 1826, Rossel, a member of the Academy of Sciences and director of the Depository for navy maps and plans, helped plan the voyage of Dumont D’Urville. The main achievements were the ethnographic and natural history records of Tonga, Tasmania, Solomon Islands, Australia, and New Caledonia. Accounts of the voyage were published by the botanist Jacques Julien de la Billardière, Relation du voyage in two volumes in 1799 (and in five English and German editions between 1800 and 1804), the officer and scientist Rossel, Voyage d’Entrecasteaux envoyé à la Recherche de la Pérouse in two volumes and an atlas in 1808, and the hydrographer Charles Beautemps-Beaupré, Atlas du voyage de Bruny Dentrecasteaux in 1807. Fréminville published Nouvelle relation du voyage à la recherche de la Pérouse in 1838. La Billardière also wrote separate books on the plant species of Australia (1804–7) and New Caledonia (1824). BUCCANEER. A term referring to the captain and crew of privately owned vessels who plundered ship’s cargoes and ports in the Caribbean and along the Spanish South American coast, and particularly sought rich prizes among the Manila galleons in the 17th century. Although they took possession of captured ships, their actions were regarded as above common piracy. They were not sanctioned or commissioned by governments, but the distinction between buccaneer and a commissioned privateer with “letters of marque,” for example, in the cases of John Clipperton, George Shelvocke, John Eaton, Woodes Rogers, and William Dampier, was often blurred. A rough form of democracy and sharing existed on board, such as apportioning captured prizes and electing leaders, but life was otherwise undisciplined and brutal. The

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typical buccaneer crew consisted of experienced and inexperienced sailors, runaway slaves, and desperate men from all over the globe, although some surprisingly published literate accounts of their exploits. BURNEY, JAMES (1750–1821). A British naval officer and historian, he served on the second and third voyages of James Cook. An 11-year veteran, and having already passed the lieutenant’s examination, Burney signed on the second voyage as an able seaman. He was soon promoted to lieutenant. His father, a well-known historian, musician, and friend of Lord Sandwich at the Admiralty, had supported John Hawkesworth’s appointment as the chronicler of Cook’s and other voyages, and Burney became a historian himself after retiring from the navy. He published A chronological history of the discoveries in the South Sea or Pacific Ocean in five volumes in 1803–7 and A chronological history of north-eastern voyages of discovery in 1821. BUTLER. Captain of the merchant ship Walpole heading for Botany Bay (Sydney) in 1794, he mapped Walpole Island southeast of New Caledonia. It was claimed for France in 1876 by the French naval officer and hydrographer Charles-Marie-Léon Cambeyron on the Le Curieux. It was mined for guano for many years. BUYERS, JOHN. The British captain of a failed fur trade venture on the Northwest Pacific coast, he later left Sydney on a trading expedition to Tahiti and Hawaii and in March 1803, mapped Phillip’s and Holt’s Islands and Makemo, Taenga, and Faaite in the Tuamotu Archipelago. BYRON, GEORGE ANSON (1789–1868). The British naval captain of HMS Blonde, he took the bodies of the Hawaiian King Kamehameha II back to Hawai‘i in 1824. He named Malden, Starbuck, and Mauke in 1825, and the naturalists on board the Blonde returned with significant collections. Malden may have been sighted in 1823 by the whaling captain William Clark. A junior officer, Edward Belcher made later expeditions to the Pacific. BYRON, JOHN (1723–1786). A British naval officer, he circumnavigated the world with George Anson in 1740–44 and later led an ex-

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ploring voyage in 1764–65 in the Dolphin accompanied by the Tamar under Patrick Mouat. This was a follow-up voyage proposed many years earlier by Anson, but did not occur until the end of the Seven Years War. Byron’s secret instructions told him to “make discoveries of countries hitherto unknown” and to search for “commodities useful in commerce.” Byron mapped Atafu in Tokelau, Napuka, and Tepoto in the Tuamotu Archipelago and possibly Tabiteuea, Beru, and Nukunau in Kiribati in 1765. His visit to Nukunau was the first recorded contact between Kiribati and Europeans. An unofficial account of the voyage was published in several languages in 1769. The official account was not published until 1773. Although the achievements of the expedition have been overlooked by historians, Byron proved the value of copper bottom sheeting to reduce worms and portable soup or beef extract to reduce scurvy and his charts were used by subsequent British voyages. The Dolphin was also used for the next British expedition under Samuel Wallis in 1767. Philip Carteret was a junior officer under Byron who later made voyages under his own command. Byron helped plan Samuel Wallis’s expedition and was later governor of Newfoundland and promoted to vice-admiral. His grandson George Anson Byron commanded the Blonde to the Pacific in 1824–26.

–C– CALLAO. A Spanish port serving the inland capital, Lima, in Peru, Callao was the base for many voyages westward across the Pacific. CANNIBAL ISLES. The name Cannibal Isles was used to describe Fiji after William Bligh had passed through its waters in 1789. Although formally becoming the Crown Colony of Fiji in 1875, the name continued in colloquial use. Fijians were cannibals only in the European definition of the term. Cannibalism was a European discourse that evolved from European preoccupation with conceptions of the primitive and was a literary device used in popular fiction, juvenile, and travel literature tropes. Fijians did carry out sacrificial anthropophagy or ritual practices involving the digestion of slain enemies, but these

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were driven by political, spiritual, and symbolic rather than dietary motivation. Across the Pacific, possibly originating in James Cook’s description of cannibalism in New Zealand, the terms cannibal, headhunter, and savage appeared in book titles and the everyday language of Europeans well into the 20th century. Cannibal was often used by European writers interchangeably with savage and native to identify the allegedly violent disposition of indigenous people met during voyages even if in practice they were actually hospitable trading partners, hosts, and later colonial subjects. CANO, JUAN SEBASTIAN DEL (ALSO KNOWN AS ELCANO) (ca.l476–1526). A Spanish captain on Ferdinand Magellan’s expedition in 1519–22, after Magellan was killed Cano completed the circumnavigation in the Victoria, a vessel of only 85 tons and a crew of 39. He has not attracted the attention of historians and the voyage is usually referred to incorrectly as Magellan’s circumnavigation. He was made second in command of the Garcia Jofre de Loiasa expedition of 1525–27 and recruited many Basque crew, including his own three brothers, a cousin, nephew, and brother-in-law. He died before Loiasa’s fleet headed west across the Pacific. CARAVEL. A fast, versatile ship in the 15th to 17th centuries, it had a shallow draught, flat stern, and variable lateen or square-rigged sails that allowed it to be sailed to windward and used in shallow waters and estuaries. It replaced the earlier broader, roomier but slower carrack. The biggest of the three masts was forward and the hull was carvel-built using sawn planks sealed with waterproof caulking. Various modifications existed such as the caravela latina and carvela redonda. Caravels were used by the Portuguese and Spanish in many of the pioneering voyages out of the Atlantic, including those of Christopher Columbus, Bartolomeu Diaz, and others. It was replaced when the carrack evolved into the bigger, sleeker galleon with two to three decks, a longer keel, and mounted guns that fired through portholes in the side. CARSTENZ, JAN. A Dutch navigator with the Dutch East Indies Company, he sighted the southwest coast of New Guinea in 1623 in the vessels Pera and Arnhem. He reported seeing snow on the New

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Guinea ranges and then sailed south to become the first European to report on the “arid and poor tract” of the Australian continent. West New Guinea’s Carstenz Pyramid at 16,535 feet, the highest point in the Pacific, was not climbed until 1962. CARTERET, PHILIP (1733–1796). A British naval officer, he served as first lieutenant of the Tamar and then the Dolphin on the voyage of John Byron. He was given command of the 30-year-old sloop the Swallow which accompanied Samuel Wallis on a British Admiralty expedition in 1766–68, sent in search of Terra Australis Incognita. After taking four months to pass through the Strait of Magellan, Carteret was separated from Wallis in a storm in April 1767. Carteret proceeded alone, searched for the mysterious Davis Land and then made the most southerly course across the Pacific to that time and named Pitcairn, Tematangi, Mururoa, charted Santa Cruz (named by Ferdinand Magellan), and the three atolls known as the Duke of Gloucester Islands in the Tuamotu Archipelago, as well as undertaking valuable charting in the Solomon Islands, including Ndai (South Malaita), Kilinailau (known briefly as Carteret’s Islands), Buka and Vanikoro, and New Guinea. He named St. George’s channel separating New Ireland, New Hanover, and New Britain, as well as the Admiralty Islands (first sighted by Alvaro de Saavedra in 1528). Carteret claimed possession of New Britain and nailed a lead plate on a tree recording his visit, which was later seen by Louis-Antoine de Bougainville. In the Caroline Islands, he sighted Tobi and then visited the Philippines and the East Indies. In the meantime, Wallis returned to England and two ships were sent to search for the Swallow. The Swallow returned a year later, and despite losing half the crew, Carteret had completed an amazing feat of seamanship and circumnavigation in an unseaworthy, poorly equipped vessel. Carteret’s journal was edited by John Hawkesworth and contained many charts and sketches of islands. Carteret made a very significant contribution but his achievements were overshadowed by Wallis’s less impressive voyage because Wallis made a long stay at Matavai Bay and stamped Tahiti on European maps and imaginations. CARY, JAMES (ca. 1770–1805). The captain of a Nantucket whaler the Rose, he mapped Tamana in southern Kiribati in 1804 on a voyage to

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Canton. He continued through New Guinea, Sydney, and the Southern Ocean around the Cape of Good Hope to complete a circumnavigation. He died in Canton during his next voyage to the Pacific. CARY, NATHANIEL (1797–1887). The captain of an American whaler, he mapped one of the last remaining uncharted islands, Morane atoll in the Gambier Archipelago, in 1832. Morane had possibly been sighted by Jacques Moerenhout in 1829. Cary made four more whaling trips to the Pacific in 1842–54. CASTAWAYS. See BEACHCOMBERS; TRANSCULTURITES. CASTRO, FRANCISCO DE. A Portuguese captain blown off course in 1538 while delivering missionaries from the Moluccas to the Philippines, he probably sighted Ulithi and Fais in the western Caroline Islands and possibly landed on Yap. It had been sighted by Diogo de Rocha in 1525. The contacts by Castro and Rocha explain why Ruy López Villalobos was greeted on Yap five years later by Islanders saying buenos dias, matelots. CAVENDISH, THOMAS (1560–1592). A British captain, he led the third circumnavigation of the world with three ships in 1586–88 when only 28 years old. In 1591–92, he tried to make a second circumnavigation with five ships but died mysteriously in the Atlantic after failing to pass through the Strait of Magellan. CHALLENGER EXPEDITION (1873–1876). A British expedition with a large scientific team, sponsored by Edinburgh University, the Royal Society, and the Royal Navy, it traversed 70,000 nautical miles in 1873–76, including a circumnavigation. It was the first major million-dollar expedition to investigate the physics, chemistry, geology, and biology of the ocean floor. The Challenger was a 2,300-ton wooden corvette with auxiliary steam power, commanded by George Nares who was already famous for Arctic exploration. Frank Thompson took command for the last two years of the expedition after Nares embarked on another Artic voyage. There were six “civilians,” including Professor CW (Wyville) Thompson (1830–82) and the naturalists John Murray (1841–1914) and HN Moseley, among

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the 243 crew on the Challenger. Seven men died, 26 were hospitalized ashore, five shipped out for the Artic with Nares, and 61 deserted during the voyage. The Challenger surveyed the Indian and Southern Oceans, Antarctica, Australia, and New Zealand, and helped found the science of oceanography. The expedition trawled life forms from 2,000 fathoms, disproving the empty “black abyss” theories that no life could exist at such depths and eventually made a depth sounding at 4,475 fathoms in the Marianas Trench and 3,900 fathoms in the Japan Trench. They also discovered pure manganese nodules on the ocean floor. Another mineral discovery later led to the very profitable mining of phosphate on Christmas Island. During the three-and-half-year voyage, 362 soundings were made. An amazing array of data was collected from the thermometers, density gauges, and dredges that went down with the sounding line. The scientists brought home 13,000 kinds of animals, thousands of illustrations, and several thousand water samples from the ocean depths and floor. A report of 50 volumes was published in 1880–95, mostly under the guidance of John Murray, who took over when the original editor, Professor CW (Wyville) Thompson, died in 1882. Over a hundred scholars contributed to the compilation of all existing knowledge on the ocean at that time. In 1876, the scientist WJJ Spry published the popular The cruise of Her Majesty’s ship Challenger; voyages over many seas, scenes in many lands and the marine biologist and oceanographer Wyville Thompson published The voyage of the Challenger; a preliminary account of the general results in two volumes in 1877. The Challenger and later the Tuscarora expedition of 1873–76 opened the modern era of oceanographic research and in an era of great power competion led to further oceanography expeditions such as the German expedition of the Gazelle in 1874–76, the American research voyages of the Albatross starting in 1882, and the British Antarctic voyages of the Discovery in 1901–4, 1925–27, and 1929–31. CHAMISSO, LOUIS-CHARLES-ADELAIDE DE (OR ADELBERT) (1781–1838). A French poet, biologist, and naturalist, he served on the Russian expedition of Otto Kotzebue in 1815–18 in

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the Ryurik. Large collections were made in the Aleutians, Cooks, Guam, Hawaii, Marshall Islands, and California. Chamisso returned to Berlin and became conservator at the botanical gardens and then Royal Horticulturist. He collaborated with Kotzebue on Reise um die Welt (Journey around the world) in 1821 and published his own diary Voyage autour du monde in 1835. CHAMPION, IVAN. See KARIUS, CHARLES. CHINA, PACIFIC EXPLORATION. The Chinese in the Song dynasty (AD960–1279) had developed a magnetic compass, sternpost rudder, and watertight compartment, made the world’s first printed maps, and probably visited at least the Caroline Islands in the western Pacific. During the Ming dynasty (1368–1644) and the reign of Yung Lo in 1403–24 the Chinese navigator Zheng-He (or Cheng Ho) commanded seven voyages to southeast Asia, Africa, and Arabia. These voyages passed along the Asiatic coast and probably through the western Pacific but no specific references to islands have been found so far. CHINA TRADE. Three triangular trade networks involving China were responsible for discoveries in the Pacific. Merchant shipping captains became discoverers as they pioneered new routes from India, Australia, and the northwest coast of America. Beginning in 1788, with the founding of a settlement at New South Wales, one triangle ran from Sydney, through the islands trading for local produce (called country trading), and finally to China. Phrases, such as “the Inner Passage,” “just east of New Guinea,” and “the Outer Passage just west of Kiribati” became commonplace as trading vessels freed from their convict transport duties on the First Fleet sought a safe route through the uncharted reefs, shoals, and islands of the southwest and central Pacific. The pioneers of the China trade routes included Thomas Gilbert, John Marshall, John Fearn, William Sever, Charles Bishop, George Gardner, and Joshua Gardner and all added names to the map between 1788 and 1809. A second triangular route developed at the same time from the North American coast. Centered on the fur trade at Nootka Sound, it ran in and out of Honolulu for provisioning and then on to Canton or Macao in China. The fur trade to China began in 1785 and Henry

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Barber, Edmund Fanning, James Cary, and others charted many new islands. The Russian voyage of Mikhail Lazarev was one of the last, naming Suwarrow in 1814. A third network involved British East India Company vessels on a regular India–China route that involved wide sweeps, also known as the Inner and Outer Passage, through the western Pacific. These were not voyages of exploration but added many new islands to the charts, accurately charted islands seen two centuries before by Portuguese and Spanish expeditions and renamed many others. For example, Henry Bond in 1792 and William Raven in 1797 followed the pioneering route established by Thomas Gilbert and John Marshall and sighted Namorik, Namu, Kili, Ailinglapalap, and Lib in the Marshalls. Raven also sighted Pingelap, Ngatik, and the Mortlock Islands in the Carolines. Ngatik had already been sighted by the Spanish beche-de-mer and shell trader Felipe Tompson in 1773. The Spanish had perfected a curing process that allowed them to sell beche-de-mer on the China markets. Other traders adopted these procedures in the 1820s and a lucrative beche-de-mer trade with China flourished briefly. A fourth trade route developed from China across the Pacific to the Atlantic in 1783 when the Harriet took a cargo of ginseng from China to Boston. As the frequency of shipping across the Pacific increased the accuracy of the charts improved. For example, between 1791 and 1793 six different merchantmen taking the Inner Passage on the China–India route made sightings of Yap. These merchant captains and China traders therefore deserve recognition in the EuroAmerican age of exploration for their role in adding to and revising the charts of the Pacific. CHIRIKOV, ALEKSEI IVANOVICH (1703–1748). A Russian naval officer, he served on Vitus Bering’s first Kamchatka expedition (1728–30) and then as captain of the St. Paul and second-incommand on Bering’s second Kamchatka expedition (1740–41). The Great Northern Expeditions proved Siberia and North America were not joined, consolidated the Russian presence on the Asiatic coast and the north Pacific, and opened a sea route to the North American Pacific coast and the fur trade. Chirikov was involved with Bering and Martin Spanberg in mapping Alaska, the Bering Strait

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and several Aleutian Islands and was the first European to sight the Northwest coast. Not knowing of Bering’s death in 1841 he continued separately to explore the Aleutians and Kamchatka. On returning to Russia, Chirikov made valuable contributions to the work of Pacific map-makers. CHORIS, LOUIS (1795–1828). A Russian painter who had already served on an expedition to the Caucasus, he served as draughtsman (painter) on the voyage of Otto Kotzebue in 1815–18. His paintings were published in Paris as Voyage pittoresque autour du monde in 1822 and Vues et paysages des regions équinoxiales in 1826. These were rare editions as most voyage artists could not privately publish work considered part of the official naval record. He died, aged 33, in an ambush in Mexico. CIRCUMNAVIGATION. The idea of circumnavigating the globe became possible after a series of expeditions beginning with Vasco Balboa’s sighting of the Pacific, Vasco da Gama’s breakthrough voyage out of the Atlantic and around the Cape of Good Hope in 1497–99, Ferdinand Magellan’s discovery of a strait from the Atlantic to the Pacific, and finally Willem Schouten’s discovery of a safer and quicker, more southern passage around Cape Horn in 1616. The first six around-theworld voyages went westward from Europe. The first was by Magellan in 1519–22. This was path-breaking news. Of his five ships only one ship and 18 men returned. Francis Drake in 1577–80, the second around the world, and Thomas Cavendish in 1586–88 were the first British expeditions to make the journey. William Dampier made three circumnavigations between 1683 and 1708. Several circumnavigations occurred at the turn of the century with the first eastward circumnavigation by the French in the Comtessede-Pontchartrain under Jean-Baptiste Langerie in 1714–15. The British circumnavigation by George Anson in 1740–44 was a mammoth undertaking with six ships and 1,955 men that ended badly with the loss of five ships and 90 percent of the crew mostly due to scurvy. Circumnavigations became normal practice as France and Britain, freed from the restraints imposed by the Seven Years War, sent several expeditions around the world with a combination of scientific, geographic, and imperial motivation, including John Byron in

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1764–65 in the Dolphin and Tamar, Samuel Wallis in 1766–68 and Louis-Antoine de Bougainville in the Boudeuse and Etoile in 1766–69. On his second voyage in 1772–75, James Cook made the second eastward circumnavigation after a 60 year gap since the Comtesse-de-Pontchartrain. CLARK, WILLIAM. The captain of the American whaler Winslow, he made contact with indigenous peoples and gave inconclusive sightings of two islands in 1823. He then sighted another island, possibly Malden Island. It was charted by George Byron two years later in 1825. CLERK, JOHN. The captain of the British whaler John Palmer, he mapped Onotoa atoll and the previously sighted Tamana and Beru atolls in Kiribati in 1826. CLERKE, CHARLES (1741–1779). A British naval officer, he began his career as an officer’s servant as a 12-year-old. He served with John Byron in 1764–66 and on James Cook’s first and second voyages. He was captain of the Discovery on Cook’s third voyage in 1776–79 and took command after Cook’s death. Although ill, he led the expedition back to the Arctic searching for a Northwest Passage. He died of consumption (now known as tuberculosis) six months after Cook in July 1779. He gave the first sightings of Clerke Rocks in Antarctic waters and Lanai and Kahoolawe in Hawaii and made the first landing on Oahu. CLIPPERTON, JOHN (?–1722). A British captain, he sailed as master’s mate with William Dampier on a privateering expedition. In September 1704, he mutinied and deserted the expedition in a captured vessel that later foundered. He then navigated an amazing voyage across the Pacific in a small 40-ton ship, stopping briefly at the remote, small atoll that now bears his name. He made his way back to England in 1706. In 1718, he took command of the Speedwell and Success in an expedition with George Shelvocke to raid Spanish ships and ports on the South American coast. This voyage was the last of the British privateering expeditions and was marred by mutiny, desertions, shipwreck, and a death rate of 80 percent. After

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the Speedwell and Success separated, they each took several prizes and crossed the Pacific via Guam to China. The Speedwell was wrecked in 1720 and the Success sold in Macao. Clipperton and Shelvocke returned separately by taking passage in British East India Company ships. Two accounts were published, A Voyage around the World by Way of the Great South Sea by Shelvocke in 1726 and A Voyage around the World by William Betagh in 1728. These mentioned potential commercial opportunities in the Pacific and reported on the alleged Spanish islands of gold. Both Clipperton and Shelvocke’s voyages had a literary legacy when Samuel Taylor Coleridge’s “The rime of the ancient mariner” was based on an incident in Shelvocke’s book, and Daniel Defoe’s The Life and Strange Surprising Adventures of Robinson Crusoe, was based on Alexander Selkirk’s life on Juan Fernandez as a castaway in 1704. COLIJN, ANTON HENDRIKUS (1869–1944). An officer in the Royal Netherlands East Indies Army, he was sent in 1906 to report on the best policy for the Dutch colony in West Papua—expanded exploration, open commercial development, or cutback administration expenses. In a Note concerning a line of action for New Guinea, he suggested a policy of exploration to discover the resource potential and map the interior. In 1907–15, four military expeditions were sent to the central cordillera but were expensive, costly, and largely unsuccessful in what became known as the race for the snow. In 1907, he published Nota betreffende de ten aanzien van Nieuw Guinea te volgen gedragslijn (To the perennial snow of New Guinea) in Batavia and then returned to the Netherlands and was a successful politician and Prime Minister from 1933–39. He died in a German concentration camp during World War II. His son AH (Anton) Colijn, reached the base of the Carstenz Peaks in 1937 with the patronage of the Netherlands New Guinea Oil Company, the Royal Netherlands Geographical Society and the assistance of aerial surveys and food-drops by sea-plane. He also died in a concentration camp, after capture by Japanese forces in Java in 1945. COLNETT, JAMES (ca. 1753–1806). Although not credited as a discoverer, when he was serving as a British midshipman with

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James Cook, he was the first to sight the coast of New Caledonia in September 1774. The cape still bears his name. His life was typical of naval and merchant officers who were familiar with the Pacific over a long period. Promoted to master of the Adventure on Cook’s next voyage and later to lieutenant, he retired to become master of a Nootka Sound and Alaskan coast fur trader in 1786–88. This commercial expedition established Hawaii as a resupply port. Colnett crossed the Pacific twice to sell cargo in Macao and met with Nathaniel Portlock, George Dixon, and John Meares, shipmates who had also served with Cook. The naturalist Archibald Menzies also traveled on the voyage and Colnett assisted in the collection of specimens. Back in the navy in 1793–94 he served on a surveying expedition on the American Pacific coast on the Rattler and in 1802–3 commanded a convict transport ship across the Pacific to New South Wales. His account, A voyage to the South Atlantic and round Cape Horn into the Pacific, was published in 1798. COMMERSON, PHILIBERT (1727–1773). A French botantist and surgeon, he traveled with Louis-Antoine de Bougainville in 1766–69 as a naturalist. He made extensive collections, including 5,000 botanical specimens and 1,500 drawings, and named several new plants and animals, including Bougainvillea. During the voyage he sent back a long letter to a friend describing Tahiti as a utopia and this was published in Mercure de France in Paris in 1768. In a much quoted phrase he claimed “they know no other god than love.” Even before Bougainville had returned this letter caused a furor and added to the excitement over Bougainville’s own account of Nouvelle Cythèra. Denis Diderot was inspired by Commerson’s letter to write his Supplément au voyage de Bougainville which also appeared before Bougainville’s own account. In Tahiti, Commerson’s scientific assistant was revealed by Tahitians to be a woman, Jeanne Baret, whom Commerson had tricked Bougainville and crew into believing was a man. Commerson left the voyage in Ile de France (Mauritius) in November 1768 and, after an expedition to Madagascar, died of pneumonia. His numerous papers were never published. Not knowing he had died, eight days later in Paris, he was elected a member of the Academy of Sciences.

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COMPASS. The first compass, a device required to steer along a specified course, was a magnetized needle stuck in a straw and floating in a bowl of water. The magnetized point of the needle pointed north. The marine compass was probably invented by the Chinese in the Song Dynasty but was certainly in use by the 12th century. The magnetic compass, or dry compass with a magnetic needle mounted on a 360-degree card, was the next step forward in the 13th century. The magnetic compass was noted as early as 1180 but claims are also made for its invention in Italy in the 14th century. When Ferdinand Magellan crossed the Pacific in 1519–21 he had on board 50 compasses, 7 astrolabes, 21 quadrants and 18 hourglasses, and 24 charts. A compass was only successful for plotting a course in association with the gradual invention of accurate charts, Mercator projection maps, almanacs, lunar tables, compass variation tables, and a method of measuring latitude and longitude. See also MAPS AND MAPPING; NAVIGATION; SHIPS. COOK ISLANDS, EARLY EUROPEAN CONTACT. The mapping of the Cook Islands took 227 years and involved Spanish, British, Russian, and American voyages. Pukapuka was sighted by Alvaro Mendaña in 1595 and Rakahanga by Pedro Quirós in 1606, but the southern Cooks were not mapped until 150 years later when James Cook mapped Manuae in 1773; Palmerston in 1774; and Aitu, Mangaia, and Takutea in 1777. William Sever mapped Tongareva (Penrhyn) in 1788 and William Bligh mapped Aitutaki in 1789 and the Bounty mutineers stayed off Rarotonga later the same year. The Russian voyage of the Suvarov added Suwarrow in 1814. Patrickson added Manihiki and Rakahanga in 1822 and finally in 1823 George Rule added Nassau and the London Missionary Society missionaries John Williams and John Dibbs added Mitiaro and Mauke to complete the mapping of the Cook Islands. COOK, JAMES (1728–1779). A British naval officer, he led three voyages to the Pacific in 1768–71 in the Endeavour in 1772–75 with two ships, the Resolution and the Adventure, and in 1776–80 with the Resolution and Discovery. The motivation for these voyages varied. The first voyage was commissioned by the Royal Society to Tahiti to observe the Transit of Venus but Cook was also charged by the

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British Government on this and subsequent voyages with exploring the Pacific. As well as exploration of the ocean, Terra Australis Incognita and the Antarctic were his targets on the first two voyages while the Northwest Passage and the Arctic were objectives on the third. Cook circumnavigated New Zealand and surveyed the east coast of Australia and in those countries has been regarded as a founding father by European settlers, but not so fondly by the indigenous population. Cook wrote that he hoped to go “as far as I think it possible for a man to go.” He led three expeditions back and forth across the Pacific, tacking and drifting, becalmed or riding out storms, naming islands, charting everything, and compiling journals that researchers are still dredging for insights into first contacts between Europeans and Pacific Islanders, precontact indigenous cultures and European histories of exploration, conquest, and imperialism. Because of his involvement and achievements in surveying, the compiling of ethnographic reports, maritime technology, astronomy, botany, meteorology, longdistance voyaging, expedition planning, plant classification, science, visual arts, and other advances of the Enlightenment era, he is regarded as the greatest British explorer. He became a national hero and, after his death in Hawai‘i in January 1779, a national icon. It was said by the British that after Cook there was little left to discover in the Pacific. Officers, crew, and civilians, including Charles Clerke, John Gore, Tobias Furneaux, William Bligh, James Colnett, George Dixon, John Meares, David Nelson, Nathaniel Portlock, Edward Riou, Richard Hergest, and George Vancouver served several times with Cook and served on or took command of subsequent British voyages in the Pacific. The careers of other significant figures in the 18th and 19th centuries, Joseph Banks, Johann Forster, Yves Kerguélen, Julien-Marie Crozet, the Earl of Sandwich, John Harrison, Larcum Kendall, and John Hawkesworth are also linked to Cook. His impact extends to natural history, science, hydrology, and hydrography, prevention of scurvy, tatau (tattoo), literature and fiction, and the sea otter fur trade. He is also linked to indigenous actors in the era of exploration, Mai, Hitihiti, and Tupaia, as well as the history of Australia, New Zealand, Nootka Sound, Tahiti, the Marquesas, Hawai‘i, and Norfolk Island.

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Cook has been the subject of more than 6,000 books and articles. The standard references are still the definitive works by JC Beaglehole, The Journals of Captain Cook on his Voyages of Discovery (3 volumes, 1955, 1961, and 1967), The Endeavour Journal of Joseph Banks (1962), and The Life of Captain Cook (1974). The “Cook book” industry continues and in 2003, two major studies were added to the Cook library by Nicholas Thomas, Discoveries; The Voyages of Captain Cook and Anne Salmond, The Trial of the Cannibal Dog; Captain Cook in the South Seas. In 2004, The Captain Cook Encyclopaedia edited by John Robson appeared but did not extinguish the desire by historians and writers to continue to tackle the amazing life and impact of James Cook. COPPER BOTTOMS. The use of a copper sheath on the hulls of vessels was a major innovation in long voyaging, as it prevented the infestation and rotting of timbers by worms, teredo navalis. Weed, which quickly attached itself to the hull below the water line, also reduced significantly a ship’s speed. The voyage of John Byron in 1764–65 proved the advantage of copper sheathing on ship’s bottoms and it soon became universal. The solution also created another problem, soon resolved, when electrolytic action between iron filings and copper created excessive corrosion of fittings below the salt-water line. CORDES, SIMON DE (ca. 1559–1599). A Dutch captain, he took command of the five ships in the Jacques Mahu expedition of 1598–1600, but died when the Hoop (Hope) was lost near Hawaii in late 1599. His nephew Balthasar Cordes made it to Tidore in the Trouw (Fidelity) where he was killed and the Trouw captured by the Portuguese. COUTANCE, LOUIS RUAULT. A French trader on a private voyage funded from Mauritius, he made a pioneering trans-Pacific voyage from Sydney to Callao in the Adèle in 1803–04. He recorded the longitude and latitude of an island (11° 33' south and 165° 25' west) and named it Adèle after his ship. It was Nassau in the Cook Islands. In a typical case of naming and renaming, it was later known as Lydra, Mitchell, and Newport Island. George Rule, in 1827, is often credited with the first sighting when he recorded it at 11° 48' south and 164° 47' west and named it Lydra Island.

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CREW, CONDITIONS. For two or three years as expeditions slowly tacked, drifted, and lay becalmed on a huge ocean, the officers, crew, and animals shared space on a ship the size of three European homes, and their bed space was measured in centimeters, not meters. Only the captain had a cabin. The officers in groups of two or three, civilian scientists, marines, and crew slept in cramped spaces with low headroom shared with cows, goats, sheep, and poultry, and as the voyage progressed more and more containers of scientific specimens. Hammocks were stowed during the day, and when the big guns were also stored some space was freed below deck. The idea of ventilating below decks to combat dampness was not introduced until the 1750s. Cockroaches reached plague proportions. The infamous sea biscuits were usually weevil-ridden and meat preserved in salted water, known as “salt meat,” was unappetizing and tough. On JosephAntoine Bruny d’Entrecasteaux’s voyage in 1791–94, the botantist La Billardière wrote the “maggots from the biscuits spread through our food jumping and wriggling.” In the 19th century, portable soup, saloup, lemon and orange “robs,” and sauerkraut gradually improved the diet and combated scurvy. Clothing was a simple loose shirt and breeches. Barefoot sailors stuffed straw in their clogs to keep warm or wore oilskin boots in cold conditions. The number of crew on board ships varied, ranging from 32 on Otto Kotzebue’s Rurik in 1815–18 to the 400 men on George Anson’s 60-gun and 1,005-ton Centurian in 1740–44. Ferdinand Magellan’s fleet of five ships had a combined crew of only 237 of “divers nations,” including Greeks, Spanish, Portuguese, and people from “Venice, Genoa, Sicily and France.” There were 11 officers and 203 men on Louis-Antoine de Bougainville’s La Boudeuse in 1766–69 but on d’Entrecasteaux’s two ships in 1791–94 there were only 222 crew, including 129 sailors, 33 officers, 27 marines, and 33 “supernumeraries” or clerks and servants. On James Cook’s Endeavour in 1768–71 there were 71 naval personnel, 12 marines, and 11 civilians. A full complement included a captain, officers, surgeon, midshipmen, quartermasters, masters (responsible for sailing the ship), boatswains, carpenters, armourers, gunners, and sail-makers, marines, and officer’s servants. On some occasions patients in naval hospitals were ordered to sail on long voyages to fill a ship’s complement. Additional or replacement

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crew were press-ganged or forced to sign-on in European ports or ports-of-call during the voyage such as Callao, Honolulu, Sydney, and Cape Town. The administering of punishment, by flogging (usually 20–30 for insubordination but often as many as 500 lashes), keelhauling, ducking or the deprivation of luxuries, such as canceling the daily ration of wine, beer or rum, was constant. Bickering, intrigues, and promiscuity were rife. On Bougainville’s voyage in 1766–69, the civilian naturalist Philibert Commerson described the eight officers and 108 men on the L’Etoile living in a “den in which reigned hatred, insubordination, bad faith, theft, cruelty and disorders of all sorts.” Life on board was hierarchical and governed by rank and class. The monotonous daily routine was only broken by music and dancing sessions, fishing, and religious services on Sundays. The most desired break was when ships reached port, or anchored off an island. However, even ashore work routines were maintained for the gathering of water, firewood, fresh food, animals, and careening the ship to repair damage to the bottom or remove weed. Scurvy was the main killer, but cholera, consumption, fevers, and dysentery in ports like Batavia (now Jakarta) and Kupang in Timor were also feared. In George Anson’s voyage in 1740–44 almost 1,400 of the original crew of 1,900 were lost at sea, killed in action or succumbed to scurvy. Even in the 19th century the loss rate on voyages was often more than 50 percent; of the 79 crew on the 1826–29 voyage by Dumont D’Urville in the Astrolobe, 10 died, 20 deserted, and 23 were signed off due to sickness during the voyage and on Charles Wilkes five ships in 1838–42, of the 435 crew, 23 died, 127 deserted, and 88 were signed off. Officers carried their own additional food supplies and had servants to prepare their food and equipment. The average age was under 30 years. At first the scientists were commissioned naval officers but increasingly civilians were taken on board to undertake specific investigations. Nicolas-Thomas Baudin’s expedition in 1800–04 included 24 scientists and their assistants. Captains preferred to sign-on former shipmates and there were many officers and crew who made voyages together over several decades. CROCKER, STEPHEN (1807–1888). An American whaler, he sailed for three years in the Pacific in 1836–39 in the General Jackson,

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sighting Nukunonu Atoll, which had already been charted in 1791 by Edward Edwards in the Pandora. To the south, Crocker also sighted Fakaofo Atoll in the Tokelau group but it had been visited previously by the USS Dolphin in 1825, the whaler General Jackson under Captain Smith in 1835 and the New Bedford whaler Nautilus in 1837. Fakaofo was later “discovered” by the US Exploring Expedition and named Bowditch Island. Crocker made the first sketch map of the three atolls in the Tokelau group. CROZER. The captain of the Boston whaler Nancy, he mapped Kosrae (then known as Kusaie or Ualan) in December 1804. The highest peak still bears Crozer’s name. It is possible this whaler’s name was Crocker and had been confused by the time the sighting was mentioned in a New England newspaper in 1806 and then recorded by Louis Duperrey in 1827. CROZET, JULIEN-MARIE (1728–1782). A French naval officer and scholar, he met Marc-Joseph Marion Dufresne, a former shipmate, in Mauritius and accepted the role of second in command of the Mascarin on a voyage to take Ahutoru back to Tahiti. He assumed joint command of the expedition with Ambroise Bernard-Marie Le Clesmeur and Jean Roux after Marion Dufresne’s death in the Bay of Islands, New Zealand in 1772. They stayed another month, carrying out severe reprisals and causing hundreds of deaths. After remasting and provisioning, the ships continued the expedition and visited Tonga, the Marianas, and Guam. Crozet is well known for his detailed description of New Zealand, accounts of Maori culture, and changing the myth that Pacific Islanders were admirable, noble savages to the less romantic, negative and opposing notion of ignoble savages. In an often-quoted incident he told Jean-Jacques Rousseau about the Maori attack on Crozet. Rousseau, an advocate of the noble savage concept, replied “Is it possible that the good children of nature could be so wicked?” Crozet had decided in the Bay of Islands that the Maori were not noble but violent, emotionally volatile, and ignoble. This was to start European rethinking about the role of nature and nurture in indigenous societies and led to the negative phrase “ignoble savage” entering the logs and journals of subsequent explorers.

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Crozet’s Islands in the Southern Indian Ocean had been charted by Crozet, but not named. They were named in Crozet’s honor by James Cook in 1776 in recognition of this sighting. Cook had met Crozet at Cape Town in March 1775 and exchanged charts of the most recent voyages, including Marion Dufresne and Crozet and those of Yves Kerguélen and Jean-François-Marie de Surville. Crozet’s account Nouveau voyage à la mer du Sud was published in 1783. CROZIER, FRANCIS RAWDON MOIRA (ca. 1796–ca. 1848). An officer in the British navy, he served on the Briton under Thomas Staines in 1813–15 when they were the first to visit the Bounty survivors on Pitcairn Island. In 1839–43, he commanded the Terror on the Pacific and Antarctica voyage of James Clark Ross. He died when trapped in Arctic ice with the John Franklin expedition of 1847–48. CURIOSITIES. The collecting of decorative, religious, military, and domestic items from other cultures, including pieces of volcanic rock, ebony wood, carvings, ornaments, necklaces, and utensils, was integral to an expedition’s return home where the items served as proof of presence, a source of amusement and wonderment, and often the basis for scientific debate. The European practice of collecting cultural objects from foreign places can be traced back several centuries. By the 18th century, items of non-European origin brought home to illustrate exotic cultures were called artificial curiosities. To supplement their meager incomes crews of European vessels were often unofficial agents for gentlemen collectors and scientists in Europe and carried back to Europe the weapons, tools, jewelry, basketware, and stone and wooden carvings they had traded during the voyage. These items of limited indigenous significance or importance were bartered or given as gifts by Pacific Islanders during the excitement of first contact, initial festivities and reception, and subsequent trading. In Europe, they were given a different meaning and value in museums, libraries, salons, clubs, family kitchens, and parlors.

–D– D’ALBERTIS, LUIGI MARIA (1841–1901). An independent Italian explorer and naturalist, he made the first exploration of the Fly River

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in New Guinea in 1875. After spending time in West New Guinea, he made two further expeditions on the Fly River in 1876 and 1877 with the assistance of a colonial administration steam launch. He named the Victor Emmanuel mountain range, published the two-volume New Guinea; What I Did and What I Saw in Italian and English in 1880 and contributed several scholarly papers. He hoped his explorations would lead to an expanded Italian interest in the Pacific. His extensive and significant collections of plants, animals, and artifacts are housed in European and Australian repositories. DALRYMPLE, ALEXANDER (1737–1808). A Scottish hydrographer, historian, publisher of charts and journals, he was an advocate of Pacific exploration and British trade. In 1765, he returned from working for 13 years in India and two years later privately published An Account of the Discoveries Made in the South Pacific Ocean Previous to 1764. He gave a pre-publication copy of this to Joseph Banks who took it on James Cook’s first voyage. He published An Historical Collection of Several Voyages and Discoveries in the South Seas in two volumes in 1770. The first volume covered Spanish and the second, Dutch voyages. It was later published in French and German. He was nominated by the Royal Society to lead the voyage to observe the transit of Venus but refused when the navy would not give him complete command of the ships, crew, and voyage. This honor then passed to Cook. He was appointed the first Admiralty Hydrographer in 1795. A Fellow of the Royal Society, Dalrymple was a fervent promoter of the existence of a massive continent the size of Asia in the southern ocean (Terra Australis Ignonita) and remained unconvinced even after James Cook’s voyages proved it did not exist. In 1799, he published the influential chart of Charles Bishop and George Bass’s voyage in the Nautilus through Kiribati and the Marshall Islands, founding the Outer Passage on the China trade route. He also printed Luis Vaez de Torre’s then unpublished 1607 chart of the Torres Strait and this passage between Australia and New Guinea was later confirmed by Cook. He edited and published many logs, charts, and journals from Asian, Atlantic, and Pacific voyages in A Collection of Charts and Memoirs in 1772 and 1786. He also published Plan for Promoting the Fur Trade and was involved in the first British fur trade voyages to Nootka, as well as promoting the search

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for a Northwest Passage. See also PORTLOCK, NATHANIEL; DIXON, GEORGE; MEARES, JOHN. DAMPIER, WILLIAM (1652–1715). A buccaneer, expedition leader, naval officer and pilot, and author, he sailed into the Pacific on four major voyages, three times around the world and visited all five continents, beginning in 1679 as a 27-year-old on a privateer, raiding Spanish shipping and ports. He was the first Englishman to visit Australia on the Cygnet in January–February 1688. He was back in the Pacific in 1699–1701 as captain of the Roebuck on the first official British voyage of discovery. After being court-martialed for his behavior on the expedition and the loss of the Roebuck when she sank on the way back to England, he was banned from command of any naval vessel. He was back in the Pacific in 1703–7 as captain of two privateers, the St. George and the Cinque Ports. During these visits Dampier named Mussau and Emirau in the Bismarck Archipelago, New Britain and Dampier Strait separating New Britain and New Guinea, and confirmed that New Guinea was separate from Australia. His last voyage in the Pacific was as a 56-year-old pilot with Woodes Rogers in 1708–11. His story of 12 years as a privateer, raiding Spanish ports and crossing the Pacific between 1679–91 was told in his best-selling and influential A New Voyage around the World in 1697 and two subsequent books, Voyages and Descriptions in 1699 and A Voyage to New Holland in 1703–9. His Discourse of Trade-Winds, Breezes, Storms, Seasons of the Year, Tides and Currents was cited for several centuries. These created interest in British exploration of the Pacific and created a new genre of travel writing. Dampier’s A New Voyage became the historical basis for Daniel Defoe’s two fictional works Robinson Crusoe (1719) and A New Voyage around the World by a Course Never Sailed before (1724). A thousand English words like avocado and cashew can be traced to Dampier’s use of them on his return as a “far voyager.” His legacy is considerable as he constantly recorded unfamiliar phenomena and left his mark in fields as diverse as exploration, natural science, map making, and hydrography. He should also be regarded as the first published popular travel writer. DARWIN, CHARLES ROBERT (1809–1882). A British naturalist, he sailed as a 23-year-old civilian under Robert Fitzroy on the Bea-

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gle in 1831–36 and visited the Galapagos and Society Islands and New Zealand. A junior officer, John Lort Stokes and the artist Conrad Martens were shipmates. He contributed the third volume to the official account of the voyage, Journal and Researches into the Geology and Natural History of the Countries Visited in 1839 and to international acclaim and criticism, later published On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection (1858) and Descent of Man (1871) and many other seminal works that provided the “foundation for the entire structure of modern biology.” DAVIS, EDWARD. An illiterate Flemish-born privateer, he commanded a British buccaneering voyage in the Bachelor’s Delight raiding Spanish ships and ports in the eastern Pacific in 1683–87. About “600 leagues” from the Galapagos Islands he sighted the alleged Davis Land in 1687 and Lionel Wafer, the surgeon recorded the position as 27° 20 minutes south latitude. It was later printed in Dampier’s A New Voyage in 1697, drawn on its frontispiece map of the world, and mentioned again in Lionel Wafer’s A New Voyage and Description of the Isthmus of America in 1699. The two islands he claimed to have seen were possibly San Ambrosio and San Felix. The search for Davis Land continued for another hundred years. DAVIS, JOHN (ca. 1550–1605). A skillful British captain and inventor of the back staff, an improvement on the astrolabe, he made several attempts to find the Northwest Passage. He then commanded the Desire on the second circumnavigation of Thomas Cavendish in 1591 but failed to pass through the Strait of Magellan. He wrote two popular books, including the Worldes Hydrological Description in 1595. DAVIS LAND. After Edward Davis’s sighting of Davis Land was noted on a map in William Dampier’s A New voyage in 1697, several expeditions, including Jacob Roggeveen in 1721–22 and Philip Carteret in 1767 searched for the supposed continent. Carteret concluded that mistaken sightings of San Ambrosio and San Felix might have caused the error. Later, Louis-Antoine de Bougainville and James Cook continued to search for the missing island. It was known as David’s Island by the Spanish and French and often confused with Rapanui/Easter Island in early accounts.

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DENNETT, THOMAS (?–1798). The captain of the former First Fleet convict transport the Britannia, subsequently involved in the China trade, he mapped four atolls in the Marshall Islands in July 1797. Kili was an addition to maps but Namu, Lib, and Ailinglaplap had been sighted by the Spanish in the 16th century. D’ENTRECASTEAUX. See BRUNY D’ENTRECASTEAUX. DEZHNEV, SIMON (OR SEMEN OR SEMYON) (CA. 1608– 1673). A Siberian Cossack, in 1648 he sailed on behalf of a new trading and hunting company around Cape Deshneva, the eastern extremity of Siberia. He was the first European to cross the Bering Sea. He did not name it but gave a detailed description of the strait that separated Asia from America. In 1647 to 1649, he also sailed the Northeast Passage on Russia’s arctic coast and along the Kamchatka coast collecting the Russian government’s tax on trade. His explorations were unrecognized until his journals were found in 1736 and finally published in 1758. The route of his voyage in 1648 was not published until it appeared on a map by Jacob Stählin in 1774. By this time, Vitus Bering had been credited with these discoveries. To belatedly recognize Dezhnev’s achievements, his name was given to Cape Dezhneva in 1898. DIDEROT, DENIS (1713–1784). A French philosopher and writer, he was inspired by a utopian paradise in Tahiti he read about in a letter sent back by Philibert Commerson from Tahiti during LouisAntoine de Bougainville’s voyage and published in Mercure de France in Paris in 1768. Diderot’s Supplément au voyage de Bougainville appeared in privately printed essay form (it was not published until 1772) before Bougainville’s own account of the voyage and was responsible for creating the long-running, romantic myth about the bon sauvage or noble savage, a paradisiacal Tahiti, an idyllic South Seas and fatal impact. DILLON, PETER (1788–1847). A British trader in the South Pacific from 1809–26, he discovered the wreck of Jean-François de Lapérouse’s two ships on Vanikoro in the Santa Cruz Islands, ending the search that begun with their disappearance in 1789. Joseph-

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Antoine Bruny d’Entrecasteaux’s attempt to find the ships in 1791–92 had failed, so in 1826, when Dillon saw some French relics from wrecks while visiting Tikopia near Vanikoro he sought funding from the British East India Company in Bengal and in 1827 returned on the Research. After making an inventory and gathering as much from the wrecks as he could, Dillon returned to Bengal and then went on to France. He was awarded the title Chevalier by King Charles X, given a lifetime pension and presented to the King. His two-volume account Narrative and Successful Result of a Voyage in the South Seas was published in 1829. Dillon was involved in opening the sandalwood trade in Vanuatu in 1825 and artifacts he collected in the Pacific in 1827–28 were housed in the former Musée National des Arts d’Afrique et d’ Océanie in Paris. After meeting Dillon and hearing about the wrecks, a monument was erected on Vanikoro by Jules Dumont d’Urville in 1828. DIXON, GEORGE. After serving as armorer on James Cook’s third voyage in 1776–80, he later convinced Joseph Banks and others that a commercial expedition to hunt for furs in Nootka Sound and along the Alaskan coast would be a financial success. The South Sea Company was formed and in 1785–88 two ships commanded by Dixon and Nathaniel Portlock, who also had served as master’s mate on Cook’s third voyage, visited Hawaii, the Pacific Northwest coast, and crossed the Pacific to sell their cargo in Macao. A visit to Hawai‘i established Kauai and Niihau as favored safe harbors and resupply ports. Dixon is credited with naming the Queen Charlotte Islands. He also saved John Meares, who had suffered a bad winter on the northwest coast, and met up with James Colnett, another shipmate from Cook’s second voyage. All four were now involved in the fur trade. Portlock and Dixon were the first British visitors to Hawai‘i after Cook’s death and were the first English fur traders on the Alaskan coast, only preceded by the Russians. His account of these adventures, A voyage around the world, was published in 1789 and his navigation and local seamanship was relied upon by Alexander Dalrymple to produce charts of the coast. In a long dispute with Meares over navigation and discoveries he published Remarks on the Voyages of John Meares in 1791.

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DOUGLAS, WILLIAM (?–1791). The captain of a fur trader with John Meares on the northwest Pacific coast in 1787–89, he mapped Niihau in the Hawaiian archipelago in March 1789. DRAKE, FRANCIS (cl540–1596). A British privateer, he captained The Golden Hind, the first British vessel to cross the Pacific. Beginning with five small ships in 1577, he was sent reputedly with the patronage and a secret commission Queen Elizabeth to raid Spanish ships and ports on the American coast. After passing through the Strait of Magellan, rough seas and shipwrecks left him with one ship. He successfully carried out several acts of piracy against Spanish shipping and took prizes of silver, gold, and jewels. His achievements were spectacular, being driven down to 57° south and then hoping to return by the supposed Northwest Passage he sailed along the North American coast to 33° and possibly 48° north. To avoid the Spanish navy, he turned west. Between 23 July and 30 September, he sighted only one island, probably Palau. He then continued to Manila, Ternate in the Moluccas and eventually home to England in September 1580. On board, he had six tons of pimento, ginger and cloves, and with other prizes it was a highly profitable voyage. He was knighted but his maps went missing and some of the plunder was returned to Spain to avoid an international diplomatic scandal. There was no official account of the voyage but in the 1590s a version allegedly based on Drake’s records was published by Richard Hakluyt. Drake proved Tierra del Fuego was an island, had gone further north along the American coast than any other European, established there were suitable ports on the coast of California, naming it New Albion, and crossed the Pacific. Unfortunately, this geographical knowledge was suppressed in the lead up to Spain and England going to war in 1585. His main achievement was proving that Spain could not defend her trading and strategic monopoly and that the Pacific was no longer a “Spanish lake.” The voyages of Thomas Cavendish, Richard Hawkins, William Dampier, and others soon followed. DU BOUZET, JOSEPH-FIDÈLE-EUGÈNE (1805–1867). A French naval officer and one of the few explorers to return to the Pacific as

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a colonial administrator, Du Bouzet served on the voyage of Jules Dumont d’Urville (1837–40) and captained the Allier to Wallis and Futuna in 1841–42. He made a long Pacific voyage in the Brillante in 1845–49. On his way to Tahiti in 1855 to take up the position as governor of French Oceania his ship was wrecked in the Isle of Pines (Kunie Island) in New Caledonia. He served as governor until 1858. DU FRESNE. See MARION DUFRESNE. DUHAUT-CHILLY, AUGUSTE BERNARD (1790–1849). A former French naval officer, he joined the merchant service as captain of the Héros. In 1826–29, he traded along the American coast for 18 months and then visited Hawai‘i before crossing the Pacific to China and returning to France. His best-selling account of California and Hawai‘i was published in two volumes in 1834. DUMONT D’URVILLE, JULES SE´ BASTIEN-CE´ SAR (ALSO KNOWN AS D’URVILLE) (1790–1842). A French hydrographer, scientist, naval captain, and promoter of voyages, he served in the Mediterranean on the surveying voyage of the Chevrette with Auguste Bérard, Louis-Isadore Duperrey, Charles Jacquinot, Jean le Quoy, and Victor Lottin, who he was to serve with, or under, or command in later Pacific voyages. He made his first voyages to the Pacific with Louis-Isidore Duperrey in the Coquille in 1822–25 and returned in command of the Astrolabe in 1825–29 and finally in command of the Astrolabe and the Zélée in 1837–40. After the defeat of Napoleon, a series of French voyages set out for the Pacific and he commanded the French King’s next official expedition in the Coquille now renamed the Astrolabe in 1825–29. The aim was to complete the charting and survey work of the Pacific begun by Duperrey and fill in gaps in James Cook’s charts. After hearing about Vanikoro in the Solomon Islands from Peter Dillon, he visited the shipwreck site of Jean-François de Lapérouse’s missing ships and erected a memorial to mark the event. Surpassing Duperrey’s considerable achievements, the hydrography, scientific and natural history results of this voyage were impressive and the official account of the voyage came out as Voyage de découvertes de l’Astrolabe with five volumes of narrative, eight scientific volumes and four

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atlases in 1830–35. This included volumes on zoology by Quoy; fauna and entomology by Boisduval; botany by Lesson and Richard; and philology, meteorology, and hydrology by d’Urville. The painter Louis Auguste de Sainson brought home 182 views, 153 portraits, 112 studies of ornaments and tools, 45 coastal profiles, and one of the most impressive visual records of New Zealand. In the break between voyages d’Urville’s best-selling illustrated survey of exploration in the Pacific, Voyage pittoresque autour du monde, came out in two volumes in 1834–35. In 1837, he left again for the Pacific with the Astrolabe accompanied by the Zéléé commanded by Charles Jacquinot to investigate Antarctica waters “towards the pole as far as the polar ice will permit” and to consolidate French commercial interests noted by Abel du Petit-Thouars. In January 1840, he was possibly the first to step on the Antarctica continent. Again the natural history and scientific results of the voyage were impressive and d’Urville’s reputation was cemented. The encyclopaedic account of the voyage, Voyage au pôle Sud et dans l’Océanie, was published in 1841–45 and included 23 volumes and seven more of illustrations. In art historian Martin Terry’s opinion, it was the “zenith of French voyage publishing” and included volumes on zoology by Jacquinot, botany by Montagne and Decaise, anthropology by Dumontier, geology by Grange, as well as others on geography, hydrology, and history. The anthropology volume included 50 color plates and was the last in the era of depicting Pacific people prior to the invention of the camera. A collection of 6,000 drawings was brought to Europe along with 400 views of the coastline. D’Urville also compiled a 762-page account and many new charts of New Zealand. D’Urville was influential in promoting the idea of Pacific peoples as noble savages and also popularized the tripartite division of the Pacific into Micronesia, Polynesia, and Melanesia by giving an address to the Geographical Society in Paris and publishing an article in the Bulletin de la Société de Géographie in 1831. His three circumnavigations added little to the charts, except for three islands in Fiji, but had amassed huge collections and created many spectacular, benchmark volumes of scientific reports, and general descriptions of the islands. His last voyage brought to an end the era of heroic exploration. Over twenty years, he ranked as one of the truly great voy-

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agers of the southern and eastern Pacific, a national hero and promoter and patron of exploration. Just five years after passenger train services began, he was killed with his wife and son in France’s first major railway accident near Paris in 1842. DUPERREY, LOUIS ISADORE (1786–1865). A French naval officer and hydrographer, he was a shipmate of Auguste Bérard, Jules Dumont d’Urville, Charles Jacquinot, Jean Quoy, and Victor Lottin on a series of French voyages. He sailed to the Pacific under Louis Freycinet in the Uranie in 1817–20 and then proposed a voyage to the Pacific and was appointed commander of the Coquille. Dumont D’Urville, who had supported the proposal, became second in command. The voyage from 1822–25 also included Lottin, Bérard, and Jacquinot and was achieved without the loss of any crew. The Academy of Sciences declared the voyage was “scientifically exemplary” as it had brought back hundreds of previously unknown plant and animal species and details of the first sighting of a live bird of paradise (already well known for its plumes) by Europeans. The official publication was released immediately and included a volume on hydrography with 50 plates and maps, and seven scientific volumes. The zoologist René-Primevère Lesson also wrote a scientific account and a separate two-volume account of the voyage. Dumont d’Urville contributed to the four botanical volumes. Duperrey only added a few islands to the maps of Kiribati, Tuamotu Archipelago, and the Carolines and his voyage was overshadowed by the following voyages of Dumont d’Urville, but he was later president of the Academy of Sciences and a respected scientist. DUPETIT-THOUARS, ABEL AUBERT (1793–1864). A French naval officer, he commanded the Vénus on a voyage in 1836–39 to report on whaling and expand French commercial and missionary interests in the Pacific. He carried out hydrographic work, searched for alleged islands in the north Pacific and Kamchatka, carried out surveys of the American coast, Rapanui/Easter Island, and the Marquesas, and visited Hawaii, Galapagos, Tonga, the Cook Islands, and New Zealand. He delivered Catholic priests to the Marquesas and defended the rights of French priests on Tahiti and Hawaii. While Jules Dumont D’Urville was anchored in Matavai Bay, Dupetit-Thouars

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raised the French flag to protect French missionary interests in Tahiti, although not he claimed later, as an act of possession. He returned in 1841–44 in charge of French naval operations in the Pacific and annexed the Marquesas in 1842 and Tahiti in 1843. His four-volume Voyage autour du monde was published in 1840–64. DUPLESSIS. A French hydrographer and painter, he served on a brief voyage along the South American coast with Jacques Beauchesne in 1700. He noted in a journal that it was “necessary to notice everything in unknown countries” but the French kept his charts, journals, and art secret. However, other merchants began planning expeditions and soon French ships were entering the Pacific from the west and the east. D’URVILLE. See DUMONT D’URVILLE. DUTCH EAST INDIA COMPANY. The Vereeringde Oostindische Compagnie (VOC) or Dutch East Indies Company was established in 1602 and expanded rapidly for the first 50 years. It was the world’s largest shipping and trading company in the 17th and 18th centuries and as part of that expansion sent ships from Batavia (now Jakarta) to explore the trading potential of Terra Australis Incognita. In a brief flurry of Dutch exploration, the ships of the VOC explored Australia’s coast, the Solomon Islands and New Guinea. This expansion caused competitors in 1614–16 to send a fleet of six ships under Joris Spilbergen and two ships under Jacob Le Maire and Willem Schouten to find an alternative route from the Strait of Magellan to the Moluccas. In 1642–44, the VOC sent Abel Tasman on two voyages to achieve the long awaited discovery of the unknown south land, to secure an eastward route to Chile, and to meet the inhabitants of the islands and learn “whether there is anything profitable to be got or effected.” Deciding in 1645 there was little to be gained in southern waters the VOC discouraged further exploration and focused its trade, investment, and expansion on Asia. In 1721, Jacob Roggeveen, on behalf of a competitor, an off-shoot of the Dutch West Indies Company, was sent from Holland to investigate trade opportunities in the Pacific. After adding several islands to the map of the Pacific he reached the East

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Indies where the VOC arrested him for trespassing on its domain. By this time, the VOC was in decline and its power was being challenged by the British. DUTCH, EXPLORATION OF OCEANIA. The first Dutch ships to cross the Pacific east–west were the Hope, Charity, and Faith (the Hoop, Liefde, and Trouw) the surviving vessels of an expedition of five ships led by Jacques Mahu in 1598. The Hope and Charity intended to sail from Peru to the Moloccas under Simon de Cordes, who had assumed command after Mahu’s death. In February 1600, the Charity disappeared north of Hawaii. The Hope sighted several islands, probably Johnston Atoll and the Marianas, before reaching Japan in April 1600, where the surviving crew were imprisoned. The Trouw separately reached Tidore where most of the crew died. In May 1600, after unsuccessfully raiding Spanish ports on the South American coast, Olivier van Noort crossed the Pacific to Guam in the Mauritius and the Eendracht. After naval battles with the Portuguese he finally escaped capture and traded in the Moluccas before returning to Rotterdam in August 1601, completing the first Dutch circumnavigation. After the founding of the Dutch East Indies Company (VOC) in 1602, a brief period of exploration occurred in southern waters with the two voyages of Abel Tasman. The Company’s chief cartographer Hessell Gerritz (1581–1632) included New Guinea in several maps made before 1622 and these were amended by his successors. By 1645, the VOC had decided to focus on trade in Asia. In the meantime Dutch merchants in Europe funded trading and raiding voyages to the Pacific as a pathway to the Spice Islands and a means to break the monopoloy of the Dutch East Indies Company. Several large expeditions were planned from Europe, including the six ships commanded by Joris Spilbergen in 1614–16, the two ships under the command of Willem Schouten and Jacob Le Maire in 1615–16, and the Nassau fleet of 11 ships led by Jacques L’Hermite and Gheen Huygen Schapenham in 1623–24. These voyages were mostly unprofitable but added new routes and new islands to the charts and maintained merchant interest in the Pacific. The last Dutch voyage in the Pacific, 100 years later, was led by Jacob Roggeveen in 1721–22. Dutch land exploration continued in New Guinea in the late 19th and early 20th centuries under the sponsorship of the Royal Dutch

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Geographical Society (KNAG or Koninklijk Nederlandsch Aardrijkskundig Genootschap) founded in 1873, the Society for Scientific Research of the Dutch Colonies (MBNO or Maatschappij ter Bevordering van het Natuurkundig Onderzoek der Nederlandse Koloniën) in 1888 and the Netherlands Indies Committee for Scientific Research (ICWO or Indische Comité voor Wetenschappelijk Onderzoekingen), which sponsored several expeditions in 1903–13, 1920–22 and the Anton Colijn expedition of 1936. These were part of the race to the snow and focused on both scientific research and the conquest of the highest peaks.

–E– EARHART, AMELIA (1897–1937). An adventurer, author, and pioneer in women’s flying, she made a solo crossing of the Atlantic in 1932 and died somewhere in the central Pacific during the Pacific section of a round-the-world flight in 1937. EAST INDIA COMPANY, BRITISH. The East India Company, formed in 1600, held a monopoly over British vessels wanting to trade in the Pacific, the China trade, the new colony at Botany Bay (Sydney), and later the fur trade on the Northwest American coast. Many early sightings of islands were therefore by East India Company ships, or ships trading under license to the East India Company. Their role in exploring and finding new islands was incidental to the main business of trade. The Company’s monopoly in the Pacific was finally abolished in 1813 and the monopoly of British trade to China abolished in 1834. EATON, JOHN. A British captain of the privateer St. Nicholas that raided Spanish settlements in the Pacific in 1685 before crossing the Pacific to Guam, the Marianas, Canton, and Timor. One of Guam’s longest staying early visitors, the St. Nicholas rested and resupplied for five weeks. EBRILL, THOMAS (?–1842). A trader in the 1820s, he shipped sandalwood to Sydney, traded for pearl in the Tuamotu Archipelago, delivered missionaries to islands, and deputized briefly as British

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consul in Tahiti. In 1833, he mapped the Actaeon Islands in the Tuamotus but they had been sighted 240 years earlier by Pedro Quirós. He lost his life in November 1842 in a violent encounter in New Caledonia trading axes for sandalwood while trying to establish sandalwood trading on the Isle of Pines (Kunie Island). The Star was captured by Kanaks and burned. The 16 crew, three passengers, and two Samoan pastors on board were killed. EDWARDS, EDWARD (1741–1815). During a British naval expedition sent in 1790–91 to capture and carry the Bounty mutineers back to Britain, Edwards mapped Tureia in the Tuamotu Archipelago, Nukunonu in Tokelau, Rotuma Island, and Anuta and Fataka in the Solomon Islands. The Pandora was wrecked on the Great Barrier Reef in August 1791. Trapped in the infamous “Pandora’s Box,” an iron cage built on the deck, only ten of the Bounty crew, of whom only some were mutineers, survived the wreck. Three of the survivors were convicted and later hung in England. Edwards was exonerated of losing the Pandora, and was eventually promoted to rear-admiral. The Pandora wreckage was recovered by marine archaeologists in 1977. EGUI, BERNADO DE. A Spanish captain, he was recorded as sighting Ulithi during a voyage out of Guam in 1712. The historian and Spanish priest, Juan Antonio Cantova, who recorded this “first sighting” was killed on Ulithi in 1731. ~ EL NINO. The exploration of the Pacific Ocean continued in the 1970s when the phenomenon of equatorial swelling and subsidence of warmer and cooler waters was researched in the eastern and western Pacific. The warmer sea temperature and lower atmospheric pressure was known as El Niño and the reverse as La Niña. The El Niño effect created a warming of the central and eastern Pacific and a global shift in weather patterns causing droughts, storms, floods, bush fires, and disruptions to the annual monsoon pattern. El Niño is Spanish, meaning “boy-child” and was used by Peruvian fisherman to describe the arrival of a warm current off the coast at Christmas time. El Niño is linked by weather forecasters to the Southern Oscillation Index (ENSO). Archaeologists also have linked the El Niño cycle to increased opportunities for west-to-east sailing by early Polynesians between AD 600 and 1300.

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ERSKINE, JOHN ELPHINGSTONE (1806–1887). A British naval captain on the surveying voyage of HMS Havannah in 1849–50, he carried out extensive survey work in the western Pacific, mapped eight new islands in Vanuatu and published Journal of a Cruise among the Islands of the Western Pacific in 1853. ESPINOSA, GONZALO GOMEZ DE. Spanish captain of the Trinidad, during the voyage of Ferdinand Magellan, he headed north after Magellan’s death in the Philippines and mapped Sonsorol in the western Carolines and two islands in the Marianas in 1522 before being captured by the Portuguese in the Moluccas. ETHNOHISTORY. The field of research known as ethnohistory uses the accounts of European explorers and other visitors during first contact to create a description of indigenous society and culture by using evidence gathered at the point when it was still unaffected by the visitor’s technology, ideas and presence. This field privileges early voyage journals, logs, and published accounts as witness to a time when imposed, adopted or adapted changes had yet to occur. In Oceanic societies that relied on oral traditions and had no written and limited visual records, the journals, for example, of Abel Tasman in New Zealand in 1642, or 300 years later, the photographs taken on expeditions into the highlands of New Guinea, offer a unique, window into the past. This ethnographic evidence allows historians to reconstruct the motivations, understandings, and behavior of Pacific peoples—even though it was recorded by visitors who often did not fully understand what they were recording. EUROPE. See PACIFIC, IMPACT ON EUROPE.

–F– FANNING, EDMUND (1769–1841). A pioneer of the Northwest American fur trade, he mapped Teraina (Washington), Kingmam Reef, and Tabuaeran (Fanning) on his first Pacific voyage in the Betsey in 1798 while crossing from Juan Fernandez and the Marquesas to China with a load of seal furs. He continued west and completed a

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profitable circumnavigation. The voyage had taken from May 1798 to March 1802. He published a popular account, Voyages around the World, in 1833 and was later involved in the promotion and planning of the American US South Seas Exploring Expedition. FATAL IMPACT. The idea that Pacific Islanders would have enjoyed prosperity and peace if Europeans had not arrived had a long-running expression in the promotion in Europe of the phrase fatal impact. It suggested indigenous life before Europeans arrived was primitive but well organized, healthy and in harmony with nature, summarized by the description of Pacific Islanders as a bon sauvage or noble savage. It was argued that after first contact, everything turned bad; alcoholism, addictions, disease, missionaries, and oppressive colonial regimes created despair, population decline, and a loss of the will to live. Islanders were described as victims and European presence since the age of exploration was condemned for creating a demoralizing depopulation and loss of culture. This idea was popularized in the 18th to 20th centuries by voyage narratives and a series of fiction writers but reached its peak in 1966 in Alan Moorehead’s The Fatal Impact; The Invasion of the South Pacific 1767–1840. This book has been reprinted many times and was published in an illustrated edition in 1987. The fatal impact argument has been repudiated by scholars who focus attention on island-orientated and islander-agency histories of the period since 1521 and who see Pacific Islanders as agents in their own destiny. Cultural maintenance, the continuation of traditions, customs, and languages, and population growth now support the opposite arguement—of agency, strength, and continuity of living cultures. FEARN, JOHN. The British captain of the Hunter trading out of Sydney toward Hawaii in 1798, he sighted Hunter Rock east of New Caledonia and then Nauru, which he named Pleasant Island. He also charted Eniwetok in the Marshall Islands, which had been sighted by Alvaro de Saavedra in 1529. FERNÁNDEZ, JUAN (ca. 1530–1599). A Spanish captain sailing out of Callao in Peru in 1574, he sighted the Juan Fernández Islands. On a voyage in 1576, he gave an inconclusive report of a large land mass in the west, possibly Rapanui/Easter Island, Tahiti or New Zealand.

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This report was linked later to arguments promoting the presence of a fabled Terra Australis Incognita. FIJI. Fijians were great travelers and explorers, making epic voyages eastward from Melanesia in their huge drau or double-hulled canoes 3,000 years ago to settle on unoccupied islands in the south Pacific. They carried with them aspects of lapita culture, a sedentary agriculturalist and partially mobile maritime way of life. On a group of islands called Viti, they founded a culture and society that intrigued European explorers who came centuries later. Reflecting the lateness of regular contact with Europeans and the inability of early observers to understand the mixture of tradition and ritual that made up the vanua or way of life, Fiji was for many years known as the “Cannibal Isles.” The Dutchman Abel Tasman noted 12 islands in Fiji in 1643 but his report was full of references to dangerous shoals and unexpected reefs. Sailors kept away until the Englishman James Cook passed through in 1774. William Bligh, headed for Timor in 1789 after the mutiny on the Bounty, recorded 39 islands when he passed through and put Fiji on British maps. Bligh published A Narrative of the Mutiny in 1790 and A Voyage to the South Sea in 1792 and then returned on HMS Providence to map more of the islands. The London Missionary Society supply ship Duff passed through in 1797 and in 1820 Thaddeus Bellingshausen added a few more islands to nearly complete the list. Finally, the French explorer Dumont d’Urville named Astrolabe Reef in 1834. As in other regions, the leaders of expeditions, naval officers, and colonial officials published books based on their travels and experiences, but Fiji was never a destination imagined, known, or sought as eagerly as the fabled Tahiti and Hawaii. Rotumah Island, separate but included in the British colony declared in 1874 and later part of the modern nation of Fiji, was first visited in 1791 and then irregularly visited by missionary vessels after 1797. By the 1820s, Rotumah was a major whaling and trading port of call where crews from all over the Pacific could always be found waiting to sign on. The first personal contact between Fijians and Europeans occurred during the visit of the Pandora in 1791. By 1800, as voyages passed regularly through the Fiji group, wrecks were begin-

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ning to dot the reefs. The next phase of “discovery” by both Fijians and Europeans was the result of capitalist desire to reap rewards from Fiji’s natural resources. The first traders came in 1804–12. In the 1820s and 1830s a second wave came looking for sandalwood and bêche-de-mer. In 1835, the first two European missionaries arrived and soon their colleagues released books with maps of the group, and a text that mixed doctrine, hagiography, ethnographic observation, myth, legend, and basic geography. These missionaries, traders, and naval officers doubled as explorers by filling in the charts with harbors, passages, and reefs, and recording aspects of Fijian culture. By 1840, Levuka on the island of Ovalau was an entrepot where crew and deck-hands could be signed on, routes and depots plotted, whalers re-provisioned, and ships laid over in a stormy spell. The two larger islands, Viti Levu and Vanua Levu, were not well known and Viti Levu was not crossed by Europeans until 1865. The detailed surveying of Fiji by the British was closely linked to a desire to formalize for perpetuity the Fijian relationship with their land. A Land Claims Commission, and later a Native Lands Trust Board institutionalized Fijian land ownership, boundaries, and hereditary rights. The map of Fiji began to look like a county map of rural England. Because Fiji was an archipelago of mostly small islands there was little opportunity for the usual colonial hobby of inland exploration, usually described in masculine, sexual terms as “penetrating” the interior, so the urge to explore turned toward classification and inventories of material culture, crafts, linguistics, folklore, flora, and fauna. Exploration in Fiji now focuses on surfers searching for new reefs and perfect, huge waves and Fiji already hosts one of the world’s premier surfing competitions at a reef located several kilometers off the coast. FINSCH, FREDERICH HERMANN OTTO (1839–1917). A German zoologist, museum curator, naturalist, explorer, and ornithologist, he led a scientific expedition to New Guinea, Polynesia, Australia, and New Zealand in 1879–81. In 1884–88, he returned to New Guinea’s north coast on behalf of the German Neuguinea-Kompagnie to report on settlement and commercial potential. From Mioko he carried out five expeditions naming Kaiser Wilhelmsland, the Bismarck Range and

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Kaiserin River (Sepik River) and the site for the first German colony at Finschhafen. In 1888, he published Samoafahrten. Reisen in Kaiser Wilhelmsland und Englisch-Neu-Guinea. An acknowledged expert on parrots, he traveled the world and published extensively on Pacific birds. FIRST CONTACT. Europeans had been confronted with the “other” in Africa but the academic study of the moment of first contact between Pacific Islanders and Europeans has its origins in Christopher Columbus’s encounter with the New World in 1492. The evidence used to interpret Pacific cultural contacts, beginning in 1521–22 with Ferdinand Magellan’s crossing of the Pacific, includes voyage narratives, journals, and logs, official reports, art, performance, travel literature, fiction, and oral histories. It is a field of study known variously in book titles and lecture topics as a clash of cultures, culture contact, first contact, encounters, engagement, and cross-cultural encounter. It is described historically as a meeting or exchange taking place in a liminal zone, or metaphoric beach, which both sides occupy to create a temporary, untypically restrained accommodation of the other. The first meetings were characterized by wariness, challenges, hospitality, bartering, and occasionally violence. These meetings actually occurred on the deck, alongside in canoes, on a beach, inland, or in villages. The focus of research has changed dramatically from a Eurocentric description of European behavior and attitudes with Europeans “discovering” indigenous people to a reflective postcolonial discourse on the meanings and empowerment attached to the meeting by both sides. It is now accepted that both were strangers to the other. As an interdisciplinary field it draws on history, ethnohistory, anthropology, literary studies, and art history. Studies of first contact also have included subsequent events, even to the 20th century, and the applicability of terms, such as noble savage, fatal impact, victimturned-agent, accumulated experience, and lingering hegemony, are central to recent studies of cross-cultural encounters. See also FIRST SIGHTING; NAMING AND RE-NAMING OF ISLANDS. FIRST FLEET. A fleet of 11 ships brought the first British convicts, military, and settlers to the founding colony of New South Wales. A settlement was established at Botany Bay (Sydney). The ships, freed from their transport role and often sailing under licence to the East In-

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dia Company, sailed through the Pacific for China or India or the Pacific Northwest coast of America and reported and mapped many islands, as well as trading for island resources and charting safer routes to China through the archipelago of the western Pacific. They pioneered the China trade in sandalwood and bêche-de-mer and were involved in the early fur trade. Several of the First Fleet ships and their captain’s names are remembered in the names of islands, included the Lady Penrhyn (captain William Sever), Charlotte (Thomas Gilbert), Scarborough (John Marshall), Britannia (Thomas Dennett), and the Sugar cane (Musgrave). FIRST SIGHTING. There is considerable disagreement, often over several centuries, concerning the first time Pacific Islanders and Europeans saw specific islands or atolls, and named or renamed the island on a chart or log. It is also applied to the first sighting of geographical features. The term “first contact” is applied to the first sighting or personal meeting between Europeans and Pacific Islanders. In the European archives, confusion over first sightings is caused by incorrect maps, errors in longitude and latitude, incorrect recording of indigenous names, multiple naming and renaming, failure to consult or ignorance of existing voyage narratives and official accounts, and lack of access to foreign language publications. For example, the atolls of Kiribati (known as the Gilbert Islands) were reportedly sighted first by Hernándo de Grijalva, Luis Lopez, Miguel Lopez, Alvaro Mendaña, and Thomas Gilbert, and the first sighting of Yap was reportedly by Francis Drake, Diogo de Rocha, Francisco de Castro, Ruy López de Villalobos, and Bernado de Egui. The first sighting of Rapanui/Easter Island is usually credited to Jacob Roggeveen but was probably by the crew or captain, Roelof Rosendaal, on the accompanying vessel, the Afrikaansche Galey. The first human sighting of an island or atoll was in most instances during the Austronesian diaspora, hundreds (and, in some instances, thousands) of years before Europeans arrived to rediscover, rename, and remap the islands. See also FIRST CONTACT; NAMING AND RE-NAMING OF ISLANDS. FITZROY, ROBERT (1805–1865). A British naval officer, meteorologist, and inventor of the Fitzroy barometer, he was captain of the

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Beagle during its circumnavigation and five-year voyage in 1831–36 with the naturalist Charles Darwin and the artists Augustus Earle and Conrad Martens. He mapped Taiaro (King Island) and Kauehi (Vincennes Island) in the Tuamotu Archipelago and worked with Darwin and Phillip Gidley King, second-in-command on the voyage, on editing the three-volume Narrative of the Surveying Voyage of HMS Adventure and Beagle. The third volume by Darwin was published as Journal and researches. A junior officer on the Beagle, John Clements Wickham later commanded British naval forces in Australia and sent John Lort Stokes, another junior officer on the Beagle, to survey the Great Barrier Reef. The artists Conrad Martens and Augustus Earle (1793–1838) also served briefly and went on to well-regarded careers in England and Australia. Fitzroy was governor of New Zealand from 1843–45 and later promoted to vice-admiral. His research on daily weather forecasting was the forerunner of the modern science. He committed suicide in 1865. FLORILEGIUM. After James Cook’s first voyage, Joseph Banks funded a huge project to create a set of colored botanical engravings, more commonly known as “Bank’s Florilegium.” It took 12 years to create engravings of 738 botanical drawings from Oceania, Latin America, Australia, and Asia made by Sydney Parkinson (1745–71) during Cook’s voyage in 1768–71. Parkinson’s drawings were compared with specimens held in the Royal Botanic Gardens and Bank’s own herbarium and then made into copper-plate engravings. The plates were eventually deposited in the British Museum in 1827 but never published as a full set until 1988. FLUYT (OR FLUIT). A flat-bottomed, Dutch trading ship, or flyboat, it was developed to carry bulk cargoes such as grain or timber, but they were used in the early exploration of the Atlantic, Indian, and Pacific oceans. The term often referred to a ship without its guns mounted. FLY RIVER. The largest river in New Guinea, the Fly River flows for 1,200 kilometers south from the cordillera to discharge into the Gulf of Papua and the Torres Strait. The many deltas and mouths were

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mapped by the British naval officer Francis Blackwood in the Fly in 1845. The naturalist on the voyage, JB Jukes, predicted a shallow draught vessel might go 300 kilometers into the “heart of the country.” The extent of the Fly was not realized until Luigi D’Albertis reached the 930 kilometer mark in 1876. William Macgregor went farther to the Palmer River junction in 1890. In 1926–27 and 1927–28, after their first attempt failed, the government patrol officers Charles Karius and Ivan Champion crossed New Guinea by following the Fly to its headwaters, trekked over the cordillera, and then descended the Sepik River. The last unmapped area was patrolled in the amazing Strickland-Purari patrol by Jack Hides and Jim O’Malley in 1935. Finally, the upper reaches of the Fly and its tributaries the Palmer and Strickland were surveyed by air in 1936 using a seaplane belonging to the Archbold Expedition from the American Museum of Natural History in New York. FOLGER, MAYHEW (ca. 1775–?). An American trader on a sealing expedition in the Topaz in 1807–9, he sighted and reported life on Pitcairn Island. The Pitcairners were not visited until the voyage of Francis Crozier in 1813–15 and then another gap occurred before the visit of Frederick Beechey in 1825. FORSTER, JOHANN GEORG ADAM (1754–1794) AND FORSTER, JOHANN RHEINOLD (1729–1798). The German father and son, Johann and Georg Forster served as naturalists on the Resolution during James Cook’s second voyage in 1772–75. The father, Johann, had just translated Louis-Antoine de Bougainville’s account of his voyage. Georg was only 18 years of age. Johann’s ideas on comparative anthropology were based on indigenous people seen during the voyage and they took up two-thirds of his Observations Made during a Voyage around the World published in 1784. In a race with Cook to release an account of the voyage, Georg published Voyage around the World in two volumes in 1777, six weeks before Cook’s own account was published. The astronomer William Wales and the other naturalist on the voyage, Anders Sparrmann, also published accounts. Both Forsters followed academic careers after the voyage, and their observations are still cited by researchers interested in late 18th century exploration, science, philosophy, and ethnography.

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FRANCE, EXPLORATION OF OCEANIA. The first French presence in the Pacific was a brief survey of waters along the South American coast by Jacques Gouin de Beauchesne in 1700. During the voyage the hydrographer Duplessis made several charts of the coast and the Strait of Magellan but the French tried to keep them secret. However, other merchants began planning expeditions; soon, French ships were entering the Pacific from the west and the east. The Baron-de-Breteuil, Saint-Esprit, and Saint-Joseph made the first French passage using the more southern Le Maire Strait rather than the Strait of Magellan. By 1705, 25 French traders had sailed for the Pacific coast. In 1707, the Saint-Louis traded on the coast and then returned to France via the Cape of Good Hope, thus becoming the first French ship to cross from one cape to the other. In the same year the trader Nicolas de Frondat’s ship, the Saint-Antoine, became the first French ship to sail through the Pacific Islands. His traverse was repeated in the next two years by Du Bocage in the Découverte, Benac-Urassiron in the Princesse, and Racquienne in the Solide between 1707 and 1709. The merchant vessel Comtesse de Pontchartrain under Jean Baptiste Langerie made the first west-to-east crossing in 1715. This was not repeated until James Cook’s second voyage 60 years later. Ten French merchant ships beginning with the Grand-Dauphin completed a French circumnavigation between 1711 and 1714, well before official French interest in the Pacific was revived with the voyage of Louis-Antoine de Bougainville in the Boudeuse in 1766. His voyage is often wrongly credited as the first French circumnavigation. After losing the Seven Years War and most of her overseas possessions, France embarked on a policy of investigating the Pacific for scientific reasons, new lands for colonization, and the search for Terra Australis Incognita. Bougainville’s spectacular voyage in 1766–69 stimulated a new wave of expeditions and led to the first contact between Pacific Islanders and French ships and the mapping of many new islands. Bougainville was followed by the voyages of JeanFrançois-Marie de Surville 1769–70, Marion Dufresne in 1771–72, Jean-François La Pérouse in 1785–88, and Joseph-Antoine Bruny d’Entrecasteaux and Huon de Kermadec in 1791–93. Reflecting the domestic troubles in revolutionary France, the officers, scientists, and crew on these voyages were divided between

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supporters of the ancient regime and the republic, and in the case of Bruny d’Entrecasteaux this resulted in the republicans being imprisoned when the expedition reached Surabaya in 1794. The Napoleonic wars, restoration of the monarchy, and internal problems also affected French policy on naval voyages. In this period several commercial expeditions were mounted by Langerie, Etienne Marchand, Camille de Roquefeuil, Auguste Duhaut-Cilly, and Jacques Morenhout. Their published accounts stimulated interest in further commercial ventures. After a gap in the 1790s, official French naval exploration was resumed in the huge scientific expedition to survey Australian waters by Nicolas-Tomas Baudin in 1800–1803. The only voyage to the Pacific in this period was by Joseph-César Bourayne who made a return crossing from Manila to Mexico in 1807. Another gap occurred because of the Napoleonic wars before a series of scientific voyages began with Louis Freycinet in 1817–20, Louis-Isidore Duperrey in 1822–25, Jules Dumont D’Urville in 1826–29, and again with Charles Jacquinot in 1837–40 and the two voyages of CyrillePierre-Théodore Laplace in 1832–40. These restored French prestige to the first rank of powerful nations and eventually led to French annexation of New Caledonia, Wallis, and Futuna, and the Marquesas, Society and Austral Islands, and the Tuamotu Archipelago. FREEWILL, JOSEPH (?–1767). A male from the Mapia Islands in northwest New Guinea, he clung to the mast of the Swallow during Philip Carteret’s visit in 1767. Carteret interpreted this as a voluntary decision to travel abroad and named the man “Joseph Freewill.” He only traveled as far as the Celebes where he died from disease, but he enters history as one of the first tranculturites or Oceanic travelers to utilize European ships to explore and discover the western world. FREYCINET, LOUIS CLAUDE DE SAULCES (1779–1842). A French naval officer, he served with his brother Henri Freycinet (1777–1840) on the voyage of Nicolas-Tomas Baudin in 1800–1803 and spent from 1804 to 1816 with François Peron writing, editing, and preparing for publication the atlases and many volumes arising from the Baudin voyage. He then proposed a major expedition to the Pacific to gather scientific data on astronomy, hydrology, magnet-

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ism, meteorology, and geography. After the Napoleonic wars and the restoration of the Bourbon monarchy, Louis XVIII approved the voyage and Freycinet departed in the Uranie in 1817. Against naval orders, he smuggled his wife Rose on board disguised as a man. Louis Duperrey and Charles Jacquinot, later to make voyages of their own, and Jacques Arago the artist were appointed along with zoologists and botanists. During a three year voyage the Uranie visited Samoa, Cook Islands, Hawaii, Guam, Marianas, and New Zealand. On the return voyage, the Uranie foundered in the Falkland Islands and it took nine months for the crew to be rescued and find passage back to France. Freycinet immediately began planning another voyage, later led by Duperrey and Dumont D’Urville in 1822–25. Freycinet had not added new names to the chart but the record of places visited, especially three months in the Marianas and a month in Hawaii, provided valuable ethnographic and scientific data. The published works of the voyage, a grand series of nine volumes and four atlases included two volumes and an atlas by Arago, a book on magnetism by Duperrey and eight volumes prepared by Freycinet between 1824 and 1839. FUR TRADE. The fur trade, sometimes referred to as the sea otter trade or fur seal trade, was initiated by Russians in the Aleutian Islands but the ships of several nations were soon involved hunting sea otters (Enhydra lutris), found only in the Aleutians and southward along the northwest coast to California. Their pelts brought high prices in China. The fur seal was found more widely but its pelt was a fraction in value of the prized sea-otter. Russian fur traders known as promyshlenniki followed the example of Vitus Bering who brought home 600 sea otter pelts in 1741 and used their sale to recoup some of his costs. By 1764, Russian traders had gradually expanded east toward Kodiak Island and by 1800, 60 Russian companies had been merged into the Russian American Company and were trading well down the Alaska coastline. In 1760, Chinese furriers perfected the method of separating the coarse outer fur from the smooth under-fur. Traders then hunted sea otters, fur seals, elephant seals, and Weddell seals in a reckless slaughter. In California between 1786 and 1790, 10,000 sea otter pelts were obtained by Spanish missionaries and in the 1790s, 100,000 sea otter pelts were sold in

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China by British and American traders. In 1820, a fur trader told Thaddeus Bellingshausen he had killed 60,000 seals in a single season. The fur trade escalated after readers noticed in James Cook’s journals a reference to the shores of Nootka being thick with seals. Cook’s crew were reported to have traded these pelts in Kamchatka for enormous prices. In 1786, the six vessels on the coast were all British but they had to seek permission from the East India Company, which still had a monopoly on Pacific trading. Nootka became the favored anchorage for the trade along the northwest coast and Honolulu the favored port-of-call on the China trade route. The impact on indigenous life was profound as Chinook, Kwakiutl, Haida, Tlingit, Inuit, and Aleut were involved in hunting and trading and their lifestyle affected by the presence of permanent European settlements, factories, and depots. Many Hawaiians and other Pacific Islanders went to the Northwest coast coast as laborers and ship’s crew. After the peak years of 1795–1825, the fur trade moved inland when coastal rookeries became depleted. See also COLNETT, JAMES; DALRYMPLE, ALEXANDER; DIXON, GEORGE; MEARES, JOHN; PORTLOCK, NATHANIEL; ALASKA; NOOTKA SOUND. FURNEAUX, TOBIAS (1735–1781). A British naval officer, he served with Samuel Wallis in 1776–68 and then as captain of the Adventure with James Cook in 1772–74. For much of the voyage, the Adventure and Resolution were separated. Due to senior officers being ill, he was responsible for claiming Tahiti for Great Britain in 1767, naming it King George Island. He mapped Marutea in the Society Islands in August 1773 and in November lost 11 men in an attack by Maori in Queen Charlotte Sound, New Zealand. On the return voyage, he took the young Tahitian Omai to England.

–G– GAETANO (ALSO GAYTANO OR GAETAN), JUAN. An Italian sailor on the Spanish expedition of Ruy Lopez de Villalobos in 1542–44, his account of the voyage was published by the Italian historian Giovanni Ramusio in his three-volume Delle navigationi e Viaggi (navigation and travels) in 1550–59. Gaetano also claimed to

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have discovered the Hawaiian Islands in 1555, but there is no evidence to support this claim. GALLEGO, HERNA´N (ca. 1514–ca. 1570). A Spanish pilot familiar with the American coast, he took command of the two ships during the voyage of Alvaro de Mendaña in 1567–69. He was trusted by Mendaña in preference to Pedro Sarmiento, the expedition’s other pilot and cosmographer. In the Solomon Islands, he carried out three surveys and sighted new islands in a locally built brigantine, the Santiago, under the command of Pedro de Ortega and other captains. When the expedition was abandoned, Gallego piloted the two ships back to Mexico. His unpublished account is the major source of information about Mendaña’s first expedition. Many new islands attributed to Mendaña or Ortega were probably sighted and charted by Gallego, including islands in Tuvalu, Ontong Java, Marshalls, Wake Island, and the Solomons. GALVANO, ANTONIO (ALSO KNOWN AS GALVAO). Portuguese governor of Moluccas, promoter of Portuguese dominion and evangelism, and a historian who recorded several voyages into the western Pacific, including those of Diogo de Rocha in 1525, Alavaro de Saavedra in 1527–28, Hernándo de Grijalva in 1537, and Francisco de Castro in 1538. In 1563, he published The Discoveries of the World from Their First Original unto the Year of our Lord 1555, a chronicle of world exploration up to that time. GAYANGOS, TOMAS (ca. 1730–1796). A Spanish captain, he took command of the Aguila after Domingo de Boenechea’s death in Tahiti in 1774. In February 1775, he mapped Raivavae in the Australs. GILBERT, THOMAS. Traveling in convoy with John Marshall in 1788 on a pioneering voyage from Botany Bay (Sydney) to China in a former First fleet transport, he mapped seven atolls in Kiribati and five atolls in the Marshall Islands. He published Voyage from New South Wales to Canton in the Year 1788 with Views of the Islands Discovered in 1789. His name was retained for the Gilbert Islands until independence in 1979 when the new nation adopted Kiribati (which means Gilbert in Kiribati language).

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GOLOVNIN, VASILII MIKHAILOVICH (1776–1831). The Russian captain of the Diana sent in 1807 to survey the Asiatic coast, he visited Tana in 1809, the Kurile Islands and Kamchatka in 1809–11, and was held prisoner in Japan from 1811 to 1813 before finally returning to St. Petersburg in 1814. He published Narrative of my captivity in Japan in 1818, Recollections of Japan in 1919, and a twovolume account The voyage of the Russian Imperial sloop Diana in 1819. He was sent in the Kamchatka in 1817–19 to investigate the activities of the Russian American Company of fur traders and made a circumnavigation, again visiting Kamchatka and then Hawai‘i, the Marquesas, California, the Marianas, and Philippines. He returned with an impressive collection of artifacts and astronomical data. Golovnin published Notes of Naval Captain Golovnin in 1816, Abbreviated notes of Golovnin in 1819, and after the second voyage The Journey of the Sloop Kamchatka in 1919, and Voyage around the World in two volumes in 1822. His critical reports on the Russian American company were not published until 1861. A five-volume collection of his numerous writings on Russian settlement, the Pacific, shipwrecks, and the navy was published in 1864. Fedor Lütke on the Diana and Kamchatka and Ferdinand Wrangel were junior officers who later commanded their own Pacific expeditions. Golovnin, along with Otto Kotzebue and Thaddeus Bellingshausen, was one of the most significant voyagers in the great era of exploration by Russia from 1800–1830. GONNEVILLE LAND. In a voyage in the Espoir in the South Atlantic in January 1504, Sieur de Gonneville (also known as Bigot Paulmier) was blown off course and landed on a huge southern land, which he named France Australe. He stayed six months and took one young indigenous male, Essormeric, back to France. Pirates stole his charts on the return journey, so a mystery was created and “Gonneville” became the focus for two centuries of French dreams of finding Terra Australis Incognita. It was probably a part of the South American coast. In the influential Histoire de la navigation aux terres australes Charles de Brosses argued for a southern land and was convinced Gonneville did exist. In 1722, the Dutch sent Jacob Roggeveen and in 1738–39 France sent Lozier Bouvet with two ships and then Yves Kerguélan and Marc-Joseph Marion Dufresne in 1771 in search of Gonneville.

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GONZALEZ Y HAEDO, FELIPE (1703–1792). A veteran Spanish naval officer, he led an expedition from Callao in the San Lorenzo in 1769 to search unsuccessfully for the mysterious Davis Land. In 1770, in the San Lorenzo and Santa Rosalie he was sent from Callao to forestall any further French territorial expansion in the Pacific. After sighting Rapanui/Easter Island, he claimed it for Spain and then returned. It had already been charted by Jacob Roggeveen in 1722. GOOCH, WILLIAM (1786–1792). A British astronomer appointed to the George Vancouver expedition of 1791–95, he was traveling on the merchant supply ship Daedalus heading to reprovision Vancouver on the Pacific Northwest coast when he was killed by Hawaiians on Oahu on 12 May 1792. The ship’s captain, Richard Hergest, and a Portuguese seaman were also killed when a party went ashore at Waimea Bay to collect water and possibly upset local protocols, or were inadvertently caught in a local political unrest. An ordinary seaman, Gooch’s life and death demonstrate the dangers, complex histories, and cross-cultural encounters typical of the exploration era. His life story, unusually for a minor character, was the subject of a book by Greg Dening, The Death of William Gooch; A History’s Anthropology in 1995. GOUIN DE BEAUCHESNE, JACQUES. A French merchant and leader of the first French trading expedition to the Pacific, he set out with four ships in 1698. Only two ships, the Phélipeaux and the Comte-de-Maurepas, made it through the Straits of Magellen after a six-month winter passage. They traded briefly along the American coast and the Galapagos Islands before completing a circumnavigation by returning around Cape Horn to France in 1701. The naval engineer and hydrographer, Duplessis, made several charts, plotted currents and bays, and painted many watercolors. The expedition was a failure but more French expeditions to the Pacific were soon planned. GREAT BARRIER REEF. The Great Barrier Reef is the world’s largest coral rampart and stretches for 2,000 kilometers along the eastern Australian coast. The first recorded sighting was by James Cook in 1770 but it had probably been seen by Portuguese navigators in the late 15th and early 16th century and possibly the northern

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section was seen by Luis de Torres in 1606. However, it was Cook’s journals that made coral reefs a topic with popular appeal. After Cook, expeditions continued to explore and chart the labyrinth of the reef, including Charles Darwin on the Beagle with Robert Fitzroy in 1831–36, the Challenger expedition in 1872–76 under George Nares, and a private expedition from Sydney in the Chevert by the collector and naturalist Charles Macleay. Special hydrographic surveys were carried out between 1837 and 1861 by JC Wickham and John Mort Stokes on the Beagle, Francis Greenwood in the Fly, Owen Stanley in the Rattlesnake, and Henry Denham in the Herald. One of the more famous wrecks was the Pandora in 1791, commanded by Edward Edwards. It was not discovered until 1977. Now under environment protection legislation, the World Heritage Zone (declared in 1981), and the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park (declared in 1979) extend for nearly 350,000 square kilometers. GREAT NORTHERN EXPEDITION. To consolidate Russia’s presence on their Asiatic coast and establish if Siberia and North America were joined, two expeditions were sent to the north Pacific under the command of Vitus Bering. The first expedition began planning and shipbuilding in 1725 but took three years for men and equipment to cross by land from St. Petersburg to Kamchatka. The voyage component in Arctic waters began in 1728 and took two years to 1730. The second expedition followed a similar timetable. Although beginning in 1733, the voyage component out of Kamchatka did not begin until 1740. Bering died in the Aleutians in 1741, but his work and that of Aleksei Chirikov and Martin Spanberg confirmed the shape of the North Pacific and the divide between Asia and North America and led to a boom in the fur trade. Between 1743 and 1764, 42 Russian fur-trading voyages left Kamchatka for the newly charted Aleutians. GRIJALVA, HERNANDO DE (?–1537). A Spanish captain and colleague of Hernán Cortes, the conqueror and later governor of Mexico, he was sent from Paita in 1537 to discover the islands of gold supposed to lie to the west. On the voyage the crew of the Santiago mutinied, killed Grijalva, and eventually reached New Guinea, where the ship foundered. The seven remaining crew were sold as slaves and were eventually ransomed by Antonio Galvano, the governor of

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the Moluccas. They had passed south along the equator, the first ship to do so on a westward passage, sighting two islands in Kiribati, possibly Christmas Island and Kapingamarangi atoll, and several islands off the coast of New Guinea. An account of the voyage was recorded by Galvano. Hernando may be the same person as Juan Grijalva who first sighted Mexico in 1518, leading to the invasion of Cortes in November that year. GRIMES. The captain of the merchant ship Woodlark out of Sydney, he sighted an island north of the Louisiade Archipelago possibly in 1835 or early in 1836. Later named Woodlark Island, it is now known as Murua Island.

–H– HADLEY, JOHN (1682–1744). A British mathematician, he invented Hadley’s Octant, which improved the ability to take celestial readings and therefore calculate latitude and position. The reflecting octant, an improvement on the astrolabe and cross-staff, eventually was replaced by the double-reflecting quadrant and, in turn, by the sextant (still in use today). He was later vice-president of the Royal Society but was known worldwide for “Hadley’s quadrant” or just plain “Hadleys.” HAGEMEISTER, LEONTII ADRIANOVICH (ALSO KNOWN AS GAGEMEISTER) (1780–1834). A Russian naval officer, he first sailed in the Neva to the north Pacific in 1808–9. He returned in the Russian American Company vessel, the Kutuzov, in 1816–20, and finally in 1828–30 in the Krotkii. He charted the coast of Alaska, Hawai‘i, and the Marshall Islands and completed two circumnavigations. HAKLUYT, RICHARD (1522–1616). A British geographer, compiler of voyages, and promoter of exploration, he published a compilation of voyages, The Principal Navigations, Voyages and Discoveries of the English Nation in 1589, and a revised three-volume edition in 1598–1600. He was an outstanding archivist of travel narratives, geographer, and essayist, and his role in promoting British trade and colonization is remembered through the Hakluyt Society, founded in 1846.

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HAKLUYT SOCIETY. The Hakluyt Society was formed in 1846 to publish travel narratives, journals, and both published and unpublished early accounts. The society’s name acknowledges the work of Richard Hakluyt. The society’s motto, Magellan’s ship the Victoria, acknowledges non-English voyaging achievements. The Society continues to publish accounts of travel and geographical discoveries and over 300 volumes have been published, of which 36 are accounts or charts from Pacific voyages. HALL, JOHN. The captain of a British trading vessel, the Lady Blackwood, crossing the Pacific from Calcutta to Mexico, he was typical of the captains who are mostly unknown but who sighted and charted the last-remaining remote islands in the Pacific. Hall’s charting of Nomwin and Murilo north of Chuuk in April 1824 was noted later by Louis-Isidore Duperrey and the name Hall’s Island given to the small group. HARRISON, JOHN (1693–1776). English inventor and clock-maker, he invented a clock in 1726 that could compensate for different climatic conditions, an obstacle that prevented clocks being used to measure longitude while at sea. Harrison claimed the Board of Longitude’s prize, but did not perfect a maritime chronometer until a spectacular demonstration of his apparatus on a voyage to Jamaica in 1761–62. He fought for recognition for many more years and was finally awarded the much-deserved prize in two payments in 1765 and 1773. He died three years later. James Cook carried a copy of Harrison’s fourth chronometer, known as H4, made by watchmaker Larcum Kendall on his second voyage along with three other chronometers. Cook referred in his journals to the exceptional accuracy of charts made using “Kendall’s watch” but the credit was due to Harrison. HASSELBOURGH, FREDERICK (ALSO SPELLED HASSELBURG AND HASSELBOROUGH) (?–1810). The captain of the Campbell and Company sealer Perseverance out of Sydney, he mapped Campbell and Macquarie Islands south of New Zealand in October 1810. Hasselbourgh and two of the crew drowned while on Campbell Island.

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HAWAII, EARLY EUROPEAN CONTACT. Claims that Hawaii was first sighted during Alvaro de Saavedra’s expedition in 1527 or by an Italian sailor, Juan Gaetano, on the expedition of Ruy López de Villalobos in 1542–44 are now discredited. The first sighting was therefore during the voyage of James Cook on 18 January 1778. HAWKESWORTH, JOHN (ca. 1715–1773). A well-known writer and journalist, he was chosen to edit the journals of the voyages of John Byron, Samuel Wallis, Philip Carteret, and James Cook’s first voyage. He also used the journal of Joseph Banks. He attracted bitter criticism for adding opinions and ideas of his own, as well as reordering events and not writing with authority on navigation and maritime matters. He had been asked to construct a popular narrative from the explorer’s supposedly dull journals but by adding popular philosophical and literary insights and exaggerating references to giants and sexual relations, he turned the official account into his own book rather than a journal written by the commanders of the voyages. He claimed the commanders had seen the sections relevant to their voyage, but this had not occurred possibly through an error by the Admiralty. He was paid the phenomenal sum of 6,000 pounds, but died five months after the three-volume An Account of Voyages Undertaken by the Order of his Present Majesty for Making Discoveries in the Southern Hemisphere was published in June 1773. Despite criticism it was a bestseller. Newspapers reported that after three days “a copy was not to be met with in the hands of the bookseller . . . and even ten guineas have since been offered” (for the five-guinea, three-volume set). A second edition was published in August and it was then released in 60 weekly parts, as well as in separate editions in the America, Germany, Italy, and France. Hawkesworth’s alterations earned him a bad reputation, which has lasted until today. Cook, who found Hawkesworth’s account “mortifying,” retained full control of the official publication of his second voyage. HENDERSON, JAMES. A merchant captain on the Hercules on a pioneering route from Valparaiso to Calcutta in 1819, he sighted Pitcairn, Oeno, and Starbuck Island. He also sighted Elizabeth or Hendersons Island, but it had been recorded in 1806 by Pedro Quirós.

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The whaling captain Obed Starbuck is usually noted as the first to sight Starbuck in 1823. HENRIQUEZ, HERNANDO. A Spanish naval officer on Alavro Mendaña’s first expedition in May and June 1568, he mapped San Christoval (Makira), Ulawa, Olu, Malau, and Ugi during coastal surveys while the expedition was attempting to establish a colony at Santa Ysabel in the Solomon Islands. See also ORTEGA, PEDRO DE; GALLEGO, HERNÁN. HERGEST, RICHARD (1754–1792). A British naval officer who served on James Cook’s second and third voyages in 1772–75 and 1776–79 and then commanded the supply ship Daedalus in 1791–92, sent to reprovision George Vancouver’s Northwest Pacific expedition. While in Oahu, Hawaii, in 1792, he was killed by Hawaiians along with the astronomer William Gooch and Manuel, a Portuguese crewman. In charts drawn up two years later, he was mistakenly credited with mapping several islands in the Marquesas. HEYERDAHL, THOR (1914–2002). An explorer, adventurer, academic, and archaeologist born in Larvik, Norway, he led expeditions to Polynesia in 1936–37, Northwest America in 1940–41, Galapagos in 1952–54, and Rapanui/Easter Island in 1955–56. His most famous Pacific expedition was in the 18-meter balsa wood raft, KonTiki, in 1947. Heyerdahl and five companions left Callao, Peru, and crossed 8,000 kilometers in 101 days to reach Raroia atoll, in the Tuamotu Archipelago to prove that ancient Peruvians could have reached Polynesia. He also led two Atlantic voyages in ancient craft, known as the Ra Expeditions in 1969–70. Heyerdahl’s published works include Fatu-hiva; Back to Nature (1938), Kon-Tiki (1948), American Indians in the Pacific: The Theory behind the Kon-Tiki Expedition (1952), Aku-Aku; the Secret of Easter Island (1958), and Expedition Ra (1970). Heyerdahl’s film, Kon-Tiki, won an Academy Award for Best Documentary Feature in 1951. In 1999, he was voted Norwegian of the Century. His attempts in the 20th century to identify the origins of Polynesians, a mystery first noted by 18th-century navigators, his antics and theories on the origin of the sweet potato and white bottle

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gourd attracted criticism but he created public interest in anthropology and archaeology and was the most well-known modern explorer and adventurer in Oceania. HIDES, JACK GORDON (1906–1938). A patrol officer with the Australian Territory of Papua administration, he had made several notable patrols before being selected for an exploratory patrol into the highlands of New Guinea. This legendary patrol, led by Hides and LJ (Jim) O’Malley, became known as the Strickland–Purari patrol. It was the first to enter the Southern Highlands, the Tari Basin, and Wage, Nembi, Erave, and Samberigi valleys. This was the last great foot patrol through the New Guinea highlands unassisted by aerial reconnaissance and air drops. In 1935, when Hides returned to Sydney he was a celebrity, doing radio interviews, public addresses, and publishing Papuan Wonderland and Beyond the Kubea. He retired from the administration in 1936 and returned to Papua to search unsuccessfully for gold. He committed suicide a year later, aged 29 years. O’Malley had not attracted the same publicity and remained in Papua as a patrol officer and later District Commissioner. See also KARIUS, CHARLES. HISTOIRE DES NAVIGATIONS AUX TERRES AUSTRALES. See BROSSES, CHARLES DE. HITIHITI (OR MAHINE OR ODIDDEE). A young Tahitian from Raiatea, he was taken on board during James Cook’s second voyage in August 1773 because Cook thought his local knowledge might be useful. Mahine wanted to head for Europe. He was popular on board and although considered “docile, gentle and humane,” he also exasperated Cook because neither he nor Omai were familiar with the languages of other islands. Cook compared him favorably to Omai in terms of usefulness on board and aptitude for learning. When Cook could not promise him a return voyage from Europe, Mahine decided to return to Raiatea and was put ashore in June 1774. Cook met him again in 1777, but thought he had not prospered. HUDSON, WILLIAM LEVERRETH (1794–1862). An American naval officer, he was second in command and captain of the Peacock

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during the US South Seas Exploring Expedition under Charles Wilkes in 1838–42. The six ships in this major scientific expedition spent considerable time on separate missions ranging from Antarctica waters to the northwest coast of America. The Peacock surveyed the Tuamotu Archipelago, Tonga, Upolu Island, Makatea Island, Hawaii, Tuvalu, and Kiribati, and charted Swain’s Reef, which Hudson named after the whaler who had given him its position. The Peacock reached 68° south but was forced to turn back due to the poor condition of the ship. In December 1841, the Peacock surveyed Washington and Jarvis islands, the Phoenix group, and Tokelau, naming Fakaofo after Nathaniel Bowditch. Many small islands were added to the charts. When rejoining Wilkes at the Colombia River on the Pacific Northwest coast, the Peacock foundered and was wrecked. All the crew, papers, and charts were saved but the ethnological collections were lost. HUNTER, JOHN (1721–1821). A British naval officer, sailing out of Sydney, he named Stewart’s Islands in the Solomon Islands and the Isle of Pines (Kunie Island) in New Caledonia in 1791. Sikaiana and Faore are the two largest of the five islands that make up Stewart’s Island. Hunter published An Historical Journal of the Transactions at Port Jackson and Botany Bay in 1793. He was governor of the Colony of New South Wales from 1795 to 1800. HUON DE KERMADEC, JEAN MICHEL (1748–1793). A French naval officer and member of the Academy of Marine, he joined the voyage of Joseph-Antoine Bruny d’Entrecasteaux in Mauritius in 1791 and helped plan the search for Jean-François de Lapérouse. With Bruny d’Entrecasteaux in command of the Recherche and Kermadec on the Espérance, the expedition visited Tasmania, New Caledonia, Solomon Islands, New Ireland, and the Admiralty Islands and then circumnavigated Australia. They continued searching through New Caledonia, New Guinea, and Santa Cruz Islands, and then quit. Kermadec had become ill off the west coast of New Caledonia and died of fever in May 1793. He was buried on the small island of Poudiou. The name Houn or Kermadec is found on modern maps of Tasmania, New Caledonia, and New Guinea, and the famous ocean depth, the Kermadec Trench. The islands of the Kermadec group near

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New Zealand were charted by William Sever in 1788 and by Bruny d’Entrecasteaux two months before Kermadec died. HUXLEY, THOMAS HENRY (1825–1895). A renowned British surgeon, artist, biologist, and one of the founders of the discipline of anthropology, he served as assistant surgeon on the Rattlesnake with Owen Stanley in 1846–50. He returned and began lecturing in natural history and for the rest of the century was a key figure in learned societies and academia. In 1860, at a famous meeting of the British Association, he defended Charles Darwin’s theories on evolution against a fierce traditionalist onslaught. His manuscript, Diary of the Voyage of HMS Rattlesnake, was edited by his nephew Julian Huxley and published in 1935. He was president of the Royal Society, a founder of the Royal Anthropological Institute and an example of the many significant men in European science and the arts who had personal experience in the Pacific. See also PACIFIC IMPACT ON EUROPE. HYDROLOGY and HYDROGRAPHY. See OCEANOGRAPHY.

–I– IBARGOITIA, JUAN DE. A Spanish captain, he sailed from the Philippines to Mexico and returned through the western Carolines in 1799. On a second voyage in 1800–01, he named Pulusuk, Puluwat, and Onon. These were recorded as the Los Martires (Martyr’s Islands) to acknowledge the loss of men on neighboring Pulap during Alonso Arellano’s visit in 1565. INGRAHAM, JOSEPH (1762–ca. 1800). An American mechant and later naval captain, he mapped six islands known as the Washington Islands in the Marquesas Archipelago during a trading voyage in the Hope in 1791. Joining the fur trade on the Northwest coast, he collected 1,400 furs and crossed the Pacific to China and then returned to Nootka. His four-volume journal, with an account of the Marquesas, was published two years later by the Massachusetts Historical Society.

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–J– JACQUINOT, CHARLES HECTOR (1796–1879). A French naval officer, he served with Jules Dumont d’Urville and Victor Lottin in the Mediterranean and then as a junior officer with shipmates LouisIsidore Duperrey and Auguste Bérard on the voyage of Louis Freycinet in 1817–20 and as astronomer, again with Bérard, Lottin, and d’Urville on Duperrey’s voyage in 1822–25. Again with Lottin, he served under Dumont d’Urville on the circumnavigation of the Astrolobe in 1826–29. After promotion to captain of the Zélée, again with Lottin, now as astronomer, he joined Dumont d’Urville’s second voyage in 1837–40. After Dumont d’Urville’s death he directed the publication of the official 23 volumes and six atlases, Voyage au Pôle Sud et dans l’Océanie in 1841–55. Jacquinot was responsible personally for editing five volumes and an atlas. During these voyages, many new islands were added to the charts and huge collections were taken back to add to European understanding of the natural history of the Pacific. Although Jacquinot is not acknowledged, his role over a 30-year period on several voyages was typical of the men quietly serving behind the famous names. They are less well known but loyally served their captains and country and indeed ensured the voyages, surveying, and scientific work were a success. JOY, GEORGE FOLGER (1796–1876). Typical of American whalers who favored certain ports-of-call, he mapped the eight islets of Ebon Atoll in the Marshall Islands in May 1824, and, during the next 25 years whaling in the Pacific, revisited them seven times.

–K– KA‘IANA. (ALSO KNOWN AS TIANNA). A male Hawaiian chief from Kauai, he set out to visit Europe with the fur trader John Meares in 1787 but ended up in Nootka and then Canton rather than London. He was 198 centimeters tall and Chinese were wary of him but he was popular with expatriate society in Canton and Macao. He

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returned to Hawai‘i with Meares in 1789. He is one of the most welldocumented Hawaiians of this era, appearing in the journals of Nathaniel Portlock, George Dixon, George Vancouver, and John Meares. Two famous portraits in feathered cloak and headdress, carrying a spear, painted by Joseph Woodcock and the artist Spoilum in Canton in 1787 are now in the Bishop Museum, Honolulu. KARIUS, CHARLES (1893–1940) AND CHAMPION, IVAN (1904–1989). Charles Karius and his second in command, Ivan Champion, kiaps (patrol officers) with the Australian Territory of Papua administration, made an amazing crossing of New Guinea from the Fly River in Papua in the south to the source of the Sepik River in New Guinea, via Telefomin, in December 1926–January 1928. The Northwest Patrol, as it became known, explored unmapped country with 12 native police and 36 carriers. Karius had only been a patrol officer for four years and he selected Champion to accompany him as junior officer. They were young but both had served on earlier inland expeditions in the territory. After a failed first attempt, the North-west Patrol regrouped and completed the epic journey. The governor of Papua wrote “it is by far the most important and most difficult feat of exploration that has ever been performed in New Guinea or any of the adjacent islands.” Champion described the expedition in the classic book, Across New Guinea from the Fly to the Sepik in 1932. He remained in the Territory and later became Chief Native Lands Commissioner. Karius was awarded the Royal Geographical Society Patron’s Gold Medal. He died of cancer in 1940. See also HIDES, JACK. KEATE, GEORGE (1729–1797). An English author and member of the Royal Society, he read the journals of the returning Henry Wilson after his shipwreck in the Palau (Pelew) Islands and his return to England with the young Palauan Lee Boo. An account of the Pelew Islands, published in 1788, included portraits, scenic views and drawings of the artifacts carried back to England. In 1803, a new edition included a supplement by John Hocking that carried the story beyond Lee Boo’s untimely death in London to the return of his possessions to Palau in 1790. Ten editions, with slightly differing titles were released before 1808. It was translated between 1789 and 1818 into

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French, Italian, Dutch, German, and Spanish, and a Palauan edition in 1966. It was also published in America in 1802, was still being read as a radio serial in Palau in the 1990s and the story of Wilson’s shipwreck and Lee Boo’s adventures continue to be regarded as a major story in curriculum materials produced on Palau. Keate’s book made Palau known to captains searching for a port-ofcall in the western Carolines, and An Account of the Pelew Islands became a classic travel narrative of noble savages and idealized Pacific societies, reflecting the growing interest in the Pacific caused by the upsurge of expeditions following the end of the Seven Years War. KELLETT, HENRY (1806–1875). A British naval officer, he served as captain of the Sulphur on Frederick Beechey’s surveying exedition in 1835–42, taking command briefly in 1836 when Beechey became ill. He then commanded the British hydrography survey expedition of the Herald and Pandora in 1845–51, which surveyed the Galapagos and American coast from Guayaquil to Vancouver, despite three diversions to search for John Franklin in Arctic waters. The motivation for these expeditions was scientific, but naval and commercial considerations and wider British expansion were significant. The two-volume account of the voyage Narrative of the Voyage of HMS Herald was written by the naturalist Berthold Seemann in 1853. KENDALL, LARCUM. An English watchmaker, he was commissioned by the Board of Longitude to make a copy of the fourth chronometer (known as H4) invented by John Harrison and this was taken by James Cook on his second voyage in the Resolution in 1772. Kendall made three watches K1, K2, and K3, and all were used successfully to measure longitude at sea. K1 accompanied Cook on his second and third voyages and he referred to it as “Mr Kendall’s watch machine.” Two watches by the watchmaker John Arnold, also copies of Harrison’s chronometer, were carried on the Adventure on Cook’s second voyage. K2 was believed lost when the Bounty was burned at Pitcairn, but it was later found and returned to London. K1, K2, and K3 are now housed at the Royal Observatory at Greenwich, London. KERGUE´ LEN, YVES JOSEPH TRE´ MAREC DE (1734–1797). A French naval officer and geographer, he commanded the third French

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expedition sent in search of Terra Australis Incognita, following the unsuccessful voyages of Jean-François-Marie de Surville and Marc-Joseph Marion Dufresne. In the Fortune and the Gros Ventre, he sighted the Kerguélen Islands in the south Indian Ocean in 1772. The two ships then separated and returned to Mauritius. His second voyage in 1773 in the Rolland and Oiseau was also unsuccessful. James Cook tried twice to confirm the position of the Kerguelen Islands, doing so on his third voyage with the help of charts passed over in Cape Town when he met Julien-Marie Crozet. As well as making a detailed survey, Cook harvested Kerguelen cabbage as a cure for scurvy and found a message in a bottle left by previous French visitors. The Kerguelen archipelago was not fully surveyed until 1840 during the voyage of James Clark Ross in the Erebus and Terror. Kerguélen’s account Relation de deux voyages dans les mers australes et des indes was published in 1782. Kerguélen did not enter the Pacific in his two voyages in 1772 and 1773–74, but his sighting of a possible southern continent, dreams of La France Australe, and the inclusion of scientists such as the professor of mathematics at the Ecole Militaire in Paris, d’Agelet, who was astronomer on the Fortune, meant his name is connected with the great era of 18th century French exploration. KERMEDEC. See HUON DE KERMADEC. KIRIBATI, EARLY EUROPEAN CONTACT. Kiribati consists of three atoll groups, the Gilberts, Phoenix, and Line Islands, and one raised coral island, Banaba (Ocean Island). The main archipelago of 16 atolls was known initially by the names listed by Ivan Krusenstern in the 1820s—the Scarborough group in the north, the Simpsons group in the center, and the Kingsmill group to the south. The name Kingsmill was given to the whole archipelago by the US South Seas Exploring Expedition under Charles Wilkes in 1840s. The name Gilberts was adopted for the whole group in the 1860s in recognition of the charts made by Thomas Gilbert in 1788. The first sighting was Caroline Island in 1521 by Ferdinand Magellan. Butaritari was sighted by Pedro Quirós in 1606 but it was another 180 years before Gilbert named seven central and northern atolls. Charles Bishop sighted three atolls in the Kiribati group in

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1799. Tamana was sighted by James Cary in the whaler Rose in 1804 and Arorae by Patterson in 1809. Twenty years later, the naming of the last four atolls was completed by Louis-Isidore Duperrey and the whaler John Clerk. The Phoenix group of eight atolls was mapped between 1794 and 1826. After Magellan, a 250-year gap occurred before the Line Islands were completely mapped between 1777 (by James Cook) and 1823 (William Clark and Obed Starbuck). Banaba was first sighted by Jered Gardner in the Diana in 1801 but not named Ocean Island until John Mertho sighted it in 1804. The first contact between iKiribati and Europeans was possibly on Marekei and Abiang during the visit of Hernándo de Grijalva in April 1537. The first confirmed record of contact did not occur until 1765 during the voyage of John Byron when 60 canoes from Nukunau traded and men went on board the Dolphin. Kiribati was the name adopted for the new nation at the time of independence in 1979. KOSRAE, EARLY EUROPEAN CONTACT. Ferdinand Magellan may have sighted Kosrae in 1521, but the first confirmed reference was not until 1793 when Captain Musgrave on the trader Sugarcane out of Sydney bound for China sighted an island at 5° north and 161° east. Kosrae was again sighted by the American whaler Hope in 1801 (and briefly known afterward as Hope Island). It was sighted again and renamed Strong’s Island by the American whaler Nancy in 1804 and possibly by the passing trader Hope in 1807. Finally, the French expedition of Louis-Isidore Duperrey landed on 3 June 1824 and stayed 10 days. They mapped the three harbors and reefs and renamed the island Oualan. Three years later, the Russian expedition of Fedor Lütke, following Duperrey’s charts, arrived in the Senyavin and stayed for three weeks completing further detailed observations and maps. Kusaie, as it became known, was soon a regular port of call for whalers and traders. KOTZEBUE, OTTO EUSTAFEVICH VON (1787–1846). An Estonian who served with the Russian navy, he was a hydrographer and expedition leader who first circumnavigated the world with Ivan Krustenstern in 1803–6. In command of two ships, the Ryurik and Nadesha in 1815–18, he explored the Arctic Ocean and made another

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circumnavigation, without any loss of life. During his third voyage in 1823–26, he made a third circumnavigation. He mapped Tikahau, Aratika, and Fangahina in the Tuamotu Archipelago, Bikini Atoll in the Marshall Islands, and Fangahina in 1824–25. In 1817, he spent three months mapping the Marshall Islands. The 1815–18 expedition’s naturalist Johann Eschscholtz made many discoveries and published a multiple volume zoological atlas and the artist, Louis Choris, published two volumes of art from the voyage. The naturalist and poet, Adelbert von Chamisso, collaborated with Kotzebue on one book in 1821 and independently published another in 1835. Kotzebue’s three-volume A Voyage of Discovery into the South Sea and Bering’s Straits for the Purpose of Exploring a North-West Passage in 1821 was immediately followed by German and English editions. His account of the third expedition, the two-volume A New Voyage around the World 1823–26, was published in 1830. Although Kotzebue made significant contributions to natural history, hydrography and Pacific charts during his 20 years voyaging in the Pacific, his name is associated most with a scathing attack made on the negative influence of Protestant missionaries. KRUSENSTERN, IVAN FEDOROVICH (OR JOHANN OR AJ OR KRUZENSHTERN) (1770–1846). A Russian naval officer, he wrote to the government suggesting the need for a sea route to Russia’s north Pacific coast and then served as captain of the Nadezhda in the first Russian circumnavigation and partly commercial, partly scientific north Pacific naval training expedition with Yuri Lisianskii on the Neva in 1803–6. He had already served in the British navy and visited India and China. During the expedition Lisianskii explored the eastern Pacific while Krusenstern explored the western Pacific. On board they carried naturalists, astronomers, botanists and artists. Lisianskii, Johann Horner the astronomer and the naturalists, Wilhelm Tilesius and Georg Heinrich Langsdorff, published accounts of the voyage. Krusenstern published Voyage around the World 1803–1806 in 1809–12, Contribution to the Hydrography of the Great Ocean in 1815, Atlas de l’Océan Pacifique; Hémisphère austral in 1824, Atlas de l’Océan Pacifique; Hémisphère boréal in 1827 and Suppléments in 1836. These atlases were the first to delineate the coasts and archipelagos of the Pacific. He correctly identified Ail-

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inglapalap in the Marshalls, mapped Sakhalin, visited the Marquesas and Hawaii and confirmed the charts of many earlier explorers. Tikehau atoll in the Tuamotu Archipelago was once known as Krusenstern Island. In the 1820s, Krusenstern was highly regarded for his Pacific atlases, which collated all known charts and maps and were the best of the time and for his role in the remarkable 30 Russian voyages between 1803 and 1833. His contribution was also notable in maritime astronomy, geodesy, linguistics, physics, and hydrography. He promoted Russian mercantile expansion on the Asiatic coast and the need for a Pacific ice-free port. He was a founder of the Russian Geographical Society, director of the St. Petersburg Naval Academy, and was promoted to admiral. He helped prepare several subsequent Russian voyages, including those by Otto Kotzebue and Thaddeus Bellingshausen, who served as junior officers on the Nadezhda.

–L– LADRILLERO, JUAN FERNÁNDEZ. An experienced Spanish captain with 20 Atlantic crossings, he was based on the South American Pacific coast in 1558 when sent to explore southward and through the Strait of Magellan for a viable trade route back to Spain. He sailed eastward through the Strait of Magellen and made the return westward passage, being the first to traverse the Strait in both directions. LANGERIE, JEAN-BAPTISTE FORGEAIS. A French merchant captain, he completed a circumnavigation in the Comtesse de Pontchartrain in 1715 and was the first merchant vessel to cross the Pacific west to east. He traded in China and the South American coast but did not add any islands to the charts. LANGLE, PAUL-ANTOINE FLEURIOT DE (1744–1787). A French naval officer, he commanded the Astrolabe, the second ship in the Jean-François Lapérouse expedition of 1776–78. Due to illness he passed on hydrographic work to a junior officer. During a visit to Samoa, not heeding Lapérouse’s advice, he went ashore at Lafaga Bay on Tutuila, with a watering party. Leaving the boats off

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shore due to a low tide the party was attacked by Samoans, for reasons still unknown, and de Langle and 11 men were killed. The chaplain, Claude Receveur, died of injuries as the voyage proceeded to the new settlement at Botany Bay (Sydney). This incident created a negative opinion of Samoa that did not change until whalers and missionaries arrived 50 years later. LAPE´ ROUSE, JEAN FRANÇOIS DE GALAUP, DE (1741–1788). A French naval officer in command of the Boussole and Astrolabe, he was sent in 1786–88 to further France’s commercial and political interests in the Spanish and Russian fur trade and the Pacific generally. He had suggested France follow James Cook’s voyage by completing the charts Cook had missed. This meticulously planned and extraordinary voyage visited Rapanui/Easter Island, Hawaii, and then the Alaska and California coasts before crossing to China and the Philippines. It then visited Japan, Kurile Islands, and Kamchatka before turning south to Samoa and Botany Bay (Sydney). Lapérouse added several islands in Samoa to the charts, including Apolima, Manono, and Savaii, and Necker Island, and the French Frigate Shoals in the Hawaiian Archipelago. During a visit to Fasaga Bay, Tutuila Island in Samoa in December 1787 a watering party was involved in an affray and an unknown number of Samoans and 11 officers and crew, including second-incommand Fleuriot de Langle were killed. Others died from their injuries after the voyage resumed, including the chaplain, ClaudeFrancois Receveur, who was buried in Botany Bay. After leaving Botany Bay in February 1788, Lapérouse was never seen again. The expedition probably passed New Caledonia before both ships were lost on Vanikoro in a storm. After leaving Sydney the final months of the voyage remain a mystery. As he sent his journals back to France on two occasions, when calling at Kamchatka and then at Botany Bay, accounts of the voyage were published in 1790 and 1794. The expedition had the unusual distinction of being well-reported and published despite its mysterious disappearance. The natural history collections were lost when the ships foundered. The voyage of La Pérouse attracted considerable interest among historians. The tragedy at Fasaga Bay created a negative opinion of

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Samoans as treacherous and savage that lasted for 50 years and the disappearance of the two ships provided motivation for several subsequent voyages, including those of Joseph-Antoine Brun d’Entrecasteaux in 1791 and Jules Dumont D’Urville in 1926–29. Another element of the story involved the trader Peter Dillon, who was rewarded by the French King for solving the mystery when he accidentally uncovered the La Pérouse wrecks on Vanikoro in 1827. LAPLACE, CYRILLE-PIERRE-THE´ODORE (1793–1875). A French naval officer who had spent two years surveying in Asian waters, he crossed the Pacific and completed a circumnavigation in the Favorite in 1832–33. In 1838–40, on the Artémise, he visited Tahiti, Hawaii, and California, defended the work of French missionaries and brought home a large collection of natural history specimens. An account of the first voyage appeared in 1833. Publication between 1841 and 1854 of the six volumes on the second voyage, Campagne de circumnavigation de la frigate l’Artémise, was disrupted by the 1848 revolution in France. LATITUDE, See ASTROLABE; HADLEY, JOHN; HARRISON, JOHN; KENDALL, LARCUM; LONGITUDE; SHIPS. LAZCANO, FRANCISCO. A Spanish captain, he named the Las Islas Carolinas (Caroline Islands) in 1686 after King Carlos II of Spain. Although divided into a Western and Eastern Carolines and later known by several names, the more general Micronesia has remained in use. LAZEREV, MIKHAIL PETROVICH (1788–1851). The Russian naval captain of the Suvorov sent to resupply Russian fur traders on the coast of Alaska in 1814, he mapped Suwarrow in the northern Cooks. He then commanded the Mirnyy on Thaddeus Bellingshausen’s expedition in 1819–21 when they gathered important ethnographic details in the Austral, Tuamotu, and Society Islands. Matahiva in the Tuamotu Archipelago was briefly known as Lazarev Island. LEAHY, MICHAEL JAMES (1901–1979). An Australian gold prospector and explorer, the first of four brothers to go to New

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Guinea—Jim, Patrick, Michael (Mick), and Dan Leahy—he joined a gold rush at Edie Creek in 1926 and by 1932 had made several trips into the interior prospecting for gold. In 1931, Mick and Patrick inspected Kukukuku country and, in 1933, Mick and Dan joined patrol officer Jim Taylor on an expedition into the western highlands. In 1933, Mick and Dan made two pioneering airplane flights into the highlands and saw for the first time “a beautiful pale green valley with checker-board gardens . . . much larger than we’d ever dreamed of.” He took thousands of photographs and movie film, used later in the award-winning documentary First Contact. After serving in the American Engineers during the Pacific War of 1941–45, he settled at Zenag, south of Lae. He published Land that time forgot in 1937 and his diary, Explorations into highland New Guinea 1930–35, in 1991. LEE BOO (OR LEBUU) (CA. 1764–1884). Lee Boo was sent by his father to Europe to acquire European knowledge when the survivors of the wrecked China trader Antelope departed from Palau in November 1783. Captain Henry Wilson and his crew had been on Palau for three months and Lee Boo, the second son of the Ibedul (paramount chief) at Koror, left with orders to learn and return to teach other Palauans. Arriving in London a decade after Omai, Lee Boo charmed London audiences with his poise, intelligence and polite manner. Known as the “Black Prince,” he attended church and school and was feted by dinner parties. After six months, he died of smallpox in May 1784. The East India Company erected a tombstone on his grave in Rotherhithe with the line “A Prince of mine, Lee Boo, lies bury’d here.” By 1795, a fur-trading vessel on the Nootka coast was named the Lee Boo. His story featured in George Keate’s An account of the Pelew Islands in 1788 and then appeared as an abridged version and became a best-seller and widely read school text. Between 1789 and 1850, 20 unattributed popular editions were published as The History of Prince Lee Boo a Native of the Pelew Islands Brought to England by Captain Wilson and later as The Interesting and Affecting History of Prince Lee Boo. It turned Lee Boo into a well-known historical character and often-cited example of a transculturite. Lee Boo’s absence was reputedly recorded each month on a knotted rope kept by his father until his belongings were returned in January 1791.

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LEGAZPI, MIGUEL LOPEZ DE (ca. 15l0–1572). A Spanish captain, he was sent with four ships in 1564–65 to follow the path of Ruy López de Villalobos across the Pacific. He sighted Mejit, Ailuk, Wotho and Jemo atolls in the Marshall Islands, visited Guam and finally landed in the Philippines. In 1565, he established a Spanish settlement and, in 1571, took possession of Manila. Six weeks out from Acapulco, the San Lucas became separated from the fleet and Alonso Arellano separately sailed westward sighting three atolls in the Marshall Islands and five islands in the Caroline Islands before finally reaching the Philippines. Arellano made a spectacular return, becoming the first ship to cross the Pacific from west to east. This was accomplished in a small ship with 20 crew. After the northern route back to Mexico was pioneered by Arellano and Andrés de Urdaneta, the Manila galleon trade began. LE MAIRE, JACOB (ca. 1567–1616). The son of a Dutch merchant, he commanded an expedition sent to discover a new route to the Spice Islands and break the monopoloy of the Dutch East India Company (VOC). He left Texel in 1616 with two ships, the Eendracht and the Hoorn under the command of brothers Willem Schouten and Jan Schouten. Le Maire and Schouten bartered for 30,000 lemons while reprovisioning in Sierre Leone, unwittingly discovering a cure for scurvy. The Hoorn was lost due to a fire while trying to burn weed off the hull, but the Eendracht, with the Hoorn’s crew on board, passed through a passage south of the Strait of Magellan, naming it Le Maire Strait, sighted Cape Horn and then crossed the Pacific. On the Eendracht, Le Maire and Willem Schouten sighted Juan Fernandez, the Tuamotu Archipeliago, Tonga, Wallis and Futuna, Nukumanu, and then sailed north of New Guinea before finally reaching Jakarta in August 1616. The ship and cargo was confiscasted by the VOC and Le Maire and Schouten were sent back to Holland. Le Maire died on the voyage home. During the 18-month voyage they made the first recordings of indigenous people and material culture and in a less praiseworthy manner were involved in several fatal skirmishes. They added five atolls to the Tuamotus, three islands in Tonga, Wallis and Futuna, Nukumanu, two islands in the Bismarck Archipelago, Tanga, Tabar and Lihir, New Ireland, New Hanover, some islands in the Admiralty group, and sighted

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the western extremity of the island of New Guinea. Willem Schouten’s self-aggrandizing account of the voyage, The relation of a wonderful voyage, was published in English in 1618, but accounts by other authors in 1619 and 1622 restored the praise equally on Le Maire. The significance of the voyage, with the loss of only three men, was in charting a safe southern route around Cape Horn and, although Dutch interest was not aroused, British merchants started making plans. A southern route from Cape Horn to the Spice Islands had been completed by Joris Spilbergen, who arrived in Batavia five months before Le Maire and Shouten, but without sighting any islands during his crossing. LES SAUVAGES DE LA MER PACIFIQUE. A panoramic woodcut, stencil, and gauche wallpaper tableaux or pageant of Pacific Island peoples at the time of contact with Europeans in the 19th century, Les sauvages de la Mer Pacifique was designed by Jean-Gabriel Charver and produced as wallpaper by Joseph Dufour in Lyon, France in 1804–05. It was based on wallpaper by Saint-Sauveur in 1797 of costumes and figures from Oceania Tableau des découvertes de Capitaine Cook, et de la Pérouse. It was constructed in 20 panels, and if hung as one continuous wallpaper would have stretched for 10 meters. It could be arranged in different combinations or each panel hung separately. Hundreds of copies were produced. Referred to as a papiers peints-paysages (landscape wallpaper painting) or tableaux-tentures (tapestry), it was exhibited at the Paris Exposition of 1806. The scenes ranged across the Pacific from Nootka, Hawaii, Rapanui/Easter Island, the Marquesas and Society Islands to New Zealand, New Caledonia, New Guinea, and Palau. It has artistic, historical, and philosophical importance, apart from its aesthetic or educational value. An alternative title for the wallpaper was “Les voyages du Capitaine Cook.” However, it represented the positive and negative impact on Pacific peoples of all the great European voyages. Known copies, full or in part, are held today in private hands, archives, museums, and galleries in 11 counties. L’HERMITE, JACQUES (1582–1624). The Dutch commander of the Nassau Fleet, he sailed through Le Maire Straits in 1624 and was expected to establish a Dutch trading presence on the Peru coast. His

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name was given to a small island in the Tierra Del Feugo. After a long illness, he died in June 1624 and command of the fleet passed to Gheen Huygen Schapenham. LINSCHOTEN-VEREENIGING SOCIETY. Founded in 1908, by 2001 it had published 100 rare and often previously unpublished Dutch historical voyages, travel accounts, and geographical volumes. LISIANSKII, UREY (ALSO SPELLED YURI LISYANSKY) (1773–1837). The Russian captain of the Neva during Ivan Krusenstern’s circumnavigation with two ships in 1803–6, he mapped Lisianski Island in the northern Hawaiian group. The two vessels, Neva and Nadezhda, voyaged separately for most of the three years. Lisianskii’s two-volume A Voyage around the World, published in Russian and English in 1810–14, was considerably different from accounts by Krusenstern and those published by the astronomer Johann Horner and the naturalists Wilhelm Tilenau and GH Langsdorff. LITERATURE, FICTION. The description of new lands, geographic and scientific observations, and the art from voyages were popular in Europe. For novelists searching for locations, plots, and characters, the hundreds of accounts of Pacific voyages and collected editions of journals and charts between 1660 and 1800 provided a literary gold mine. Some journals, such as those from James Cook’s three voyages, were the best-illustrated travel books of the time. Islanders were also traveling to the western world and being seen in Europe. The idea of a voyage, of finding strange new lands and encountering allegedly wild savages, cannibals, and transculturites, like Omai, Le Boo, and Tupaia, was transformed into fictional characters, plots, locations, and adventures, often with biting satire on the European society of the day. These novels, plays, pantomimes, and poems were usually an exploration of Europe more so than of the Pacific, taking the form of a commentary on the uncertainty of the contemporary economic, political, and social order. Historian, Gavan Daws noted in A Dream of Islands (1980), that for armchair readers at home “a voyage into the South Seas was likely to turn out to be a journey into the self.” Not surprisingly novels became a thinly disguised extrapolation and embellishment of the journals brought back from

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the Pacific. This genre began in 1516 with Utopia by the British humanist Sir Thomas More (1478–1535) and The Lusiads by the Portuguese poet Luiz de Camõens (1524–1580) in 1572. In the mid-17th century, the southern oceans and possible southern lands inspired Ricard Broome’s The antipodes in 1640, James Harrington’s Oceana in 1656, The Isle of Pines or a Late Discovery of a Fourth Island in Terra Australis Incognita by Henry Neville (1620–1694) in 1668, and the History of the Sevarites or Sevarambi by Denis Vairasses in 1675. William Shakespeare based his play The Tempest on a reading of the voyages of Ferdinand Magellan, Alavaro Mendaña, and Pedro Quirós. Daniel Defoe’s Robinson Crusoe was partly based on Woodes Rogers’ account of Alexander Selkirk’s time on Juan Fernandez. Jonathon Swift’s Gulliver’s Travels and John Wyss’ Swiss Family Robinson were based on Pacific voyages and became bestselling social commentaries disguised as novels. In 1697, William Dampier’s best-selling account of his voyages, A New Voyage around the World, provided Defoe and Swift with plot and characters. In 1720, Defoe satirized the voyage journals in The Life, Adventures and Piracies of Captain Singleton. James Cook’s second voyage became the anonymously authored Travels of Hildebrand Bowman in 1771/1778, and 20 years later the Bounty saga inspired Byron’s The Island or Christian and His Comrades. Fantasy and hoax novels also appeared with the hero of Travels of Baron Munchausen diving into a volcano only to emerge in the Pacific and Samuel Coleridge Taylor’s fantasy poem “The Rime of the Ancient Mariner” was based on reading the journal of George Shelvocke’s Pacific voyage in 1718. See also PACIFIC, IMPACT ON EUROPE. LOIASA, GARCIA JOFRE DE (OR LOAYSA OR LOYASIA) (?–1526). A veteran Spanish soldier and captain, he led an expedition of seven ships and 450 men sent in 1525–27 by the Spanish in search of spices in the Moluccas, via the Pacific, after the success of Ferdinand Magellan’s expedition. Andrés de Urdaneta, the friar, pilot, and historian was a senior officer. After three ships were lost the remaining four made the passage into the Pacific but one, the caravel San Lesmes, was later lost at sea. Cannon allegedly from the ship were recovered on Amanu atoll in the Tuamotu Archipelago in 1929. Loiasa died in mid-Pacific and his second in command Juan del

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Cano died four days later. Only the flagship Santa Maria de la Victoria under the command of Toribio Salazar finally reached the Moluccas where it was captured by the Portuguese. The other ship to cross the Pacific, the Santa Maria del Parrel was wrecked in the Philippines. Despite the two ships crossing the Pacific and probably sighting or visiting several islands, only one was recorded, Taongi in the Marshall Islands. Loiasa expected to become governor when he reached the Moluccas; however, by 1529, Spain had sold its claims in the Spice Islands to Portugal The significance of the expedition lay in Urdaneta’s stay in the Moluccas, where, 30 years later, he charted the pioneering north Pacific west–east route back to the Mexico and paved the way for the famous Manila Galleon trade. LONGITUDE. Latitude north or south of the equator had been calculated in the 16th century using the cross-staff and astrolabe but the biggest navigation problem on long voyages was judging east–west distances, often reckoned and found to be out by 2,000 kilometers. In 1598, Spain offered a sizable reward for the invention of a method to measure longitude. The Dutch also offered a reward. In 1666, the French established the Académie Royale de France; in 1675, the British established Greenwich Observatory. Some progress was made, but in 1714, the newly established British Board of Longitude was still offering a huge prize of 20,000 pounds for the invention of a method to measure longitude. In the 1760s, the German astronomer Tobias Mayer collated a set of lunar tables and, in 1764, John Harrison perfected his marine chronometer. With the double invention of lunar tables and a chronometer to measure distance around the globe, the problem of longitude was conquered. Despite this, many atolls and islands were imperfectly charted, often with errors of up to 10 degrees of longitude, and were not corrected until systematic surveys were conducted in the mid-19th century. LOTTIN, VICTOR. After a surveying voyage in the Mediterranean on the Chevrette with Auguste Bérard, Louis-Isidore Duperrey, and Charles Jacquinot, he served with them as shipmates on subsequent voyages in the Pacific, including his appointment as third in command under Jules Dumont d’Urville in 1826–29.

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LOYALTY ISLANDS, EARLY EUROPEAN CONTACT. The four islands in the Loyalty group, Tiga, Mare, Lifu, and Ouvea, were mapped quite late in the era of exploration. Although James Cook had mapped neighboring New Caledonia in September 1774, and Jean-François de Lapérouse may have sighted the Loyalty Islands in 1786–88, the first recorded sighting was not until 1793 when the trader, Britannia, sailing from Sydney to Jakarta sighted Mare Island. Three years later the crew of two traders headed for Jakarta also landed on Lifu but the islands were not fully charted until the visit of Dumont d’Urville in 1827. By 1840, sandalwood traders and missionaries had arrived. LÜTKE, FEDOR PETROVICH (OR FRIEDRICH LITKE) (I792–1882). A Russian navigator and geographer, he first sailed to the Pacific as a shipmate with Ferdninand Wrangel in the circumnavigation led by Vassili Golovnin in 1817–19. In 1826–29, possibly because of his friendship with the new Tsar, Nicholas I, Lütke commanded an expedition of two ships, Seniavin (or Senyavin) and Moller, sent to survey the northern Asiatic and American coasts. The ships separated and followed separate routes and although only adding one atoll to the charts, Eauripik in the western Caroline Islands, the expedition was memorable for the charts and ethnographic accounts of the north Pacific, particularly the Caroline Islands, where they visited every inhabited atoll, except Palau and Yap. He spent three weeks in the Mortlocks, which had not been visited since Pedro Quirós in 1565. He thought the Mortlockese were adept at dealing with foreigners and “hospitable, kind, reserved and pleasing in their conduct.” The expedition collected 4,480 amphibians, crustaceans, insects, shells, birds, and rocks, as well as 4,000 plants. The three naturalists on the voyage, Karl Mertens, Alexander Postels, and Baron von Kittlitz, produced 1,300 drawings and Lütke’s account of the Bering Sea and an atlas with 50 maps made him justifiably famous. His five-volume A Voyage around the World came out in French and English editions in 1835–36. He was later an admiral, president of the Academy of Sciences, and a founder of the Russian Geographical Society. The Lütke Gold medal was struck in his honor in 1873.

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–M– MAGELLAN, FERDINAND (OR FERNAO DE MAGALHAES) (CL480–1521). Although he was born in Portugal, after a successful appeal to the Spanish Crown in 1518 he led a Spanish expedition in 1519–22 to find an alternative route to the Spice Islands (Moluccas). Three of his five ships passed through a strait he discovered between the Atlantic and the Pacific in November 1520. He then traversed the Pacific Ocean in 98 days to the Marianas and eventually to the Philippines, where he was killed fighting for a sultan in a local dispute. In the crossing, only two uninhabited islands were seen, probably Pukapuka atoll in the Tuamotu Archipeligo and Caroline (or Flint) Island in the Line Islands. In the Marianas, Magellan saw Rota and landed on Guam and named them Las Ilas de Velas Latinas (Island of lateen sails), but after an incident they were renamed Islas de los Ladrones (Islands of Thieves). The Trinidad, captained by Gonzalo Espinosa, was the first to sight Sonsorol and two islands in the Marianas. The flagship, the Victoria, commanded by Juan del Cano, eventually reached Spain in 1522 and was the first ship to circumnavigate the globe and revolutionize European thinking about the size and potential of the world beyond Europe. The profits from the spices the Victoria carried back were sufficient to cover the cost of the whole three-year expedition. The Italian, Antonio Pigafetta, one of only 17 survivors from the original crew of 267, published a short book The First Voyage around the World. It was translated into English in 1555. Magellan and del Cano’s voyage along with Pigafetta’s account greatly expanded the horizon and added a new global dimension to Spanish and other European interest in exploration and discovery. It was another 58 years before Francis Drake made the second circumnavigation. MAHU, JACQUES (1564–1598). A French-born Dutch merchant, he organized a commercial trading expedition of five ships and 491 crew in 1598 to cross the Pacific, trade in the Spice Islands (Moluccas), and incite the local people to rise against their Spanish overlords. The expedition was a failure, as Mahu died before rounding Cape Horn,

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the Geloof (faith) turned back, the Blijde Boodscap (good news) was captured in South America by the Spanish, and the Hoop (hope) lost off Hawaii. The Liefde (charity) reached Japan with only 24 of the crew alive, including William Adams who stayed in Japan and became a trader and advisor. Simon de Cordes took command of the expedition after Mahu died, but he died when the Hoop was lost near Hawaii late in 1599. Cordes’ nephew Balthasar made it to Tidore on the Trouw (fidelity) but most of the crew, including Balthasar, were killed and the ship captured by the Portuguese. The Geloof commanded by Sebald de Weert returned to Holland via the Strait of Magellan in July 1600 with 36 of the original 109 crew in a voyage that had taken two years and 16 days. The Liefde and Geloof were the first Dutch ships to cross the Pacific. The Liefde had possibly sighted Johnston Island and islands in the Marianas and Bonin archipelago. MALASPINA, ALESSANDRO (1754–1809). An Italian who served as a Spanish naval officer, commanded the Ascunción on a transPacific voyage in 1782–84, and then completed a circumnavigation in the Astrea in 1784–88. After he proposed to the Spanish throne a scientific voyage to counter recent French and British expeditions, he led a major scientific expedition to the Pacific Northwest coast and Alaska with the Descubierta, Atrevida, Sutil, and Mexicana in 1789–94. He was instructed to complete the geographical knowledge of Spanish possessions, search for a Northwest Passage, and establish Spanish claims in the north Pacific. Following a pattern set by other Enlightenment projects, the expedition was the best-equipped to leave Europe and carried the latest chronometers, sextants, hydrological equipment, as well as scientists and artists. It was, in effect, a floating laboratory. Two 306-ton corvettes were built for the expedition. It was large in scope, but by then, most of the geography of the Pacific was well known. The voyage included two crossings of the Pacific and visited the Philippines, Macao, New Zealand, Tonga, New South Wales, and the American coast. On a separate route, Dionisio Galiano and Juan Gayetano in the smaller support vessels Sutil and Mexicana carried out important surveys of Vancouver Island and the Nootka coast. In April 1793, Malaspina laid claim to Vavau Islands in Tonga on behalf of Spain. A year after returning, he was imprisoned for eight years due to political

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rivalry and then banished to Italy. The journal and charts of the Sutil and Mexicana were published in 1802, but no mention was made of Malaspina. He died in Italy in 1809. His plan for an eight-volume account with 70 maps and 70 illustrations never eventuated and the 681page account of the expedition was not published until 1885. MANILA GALLEONS. The charting of a route by Alonso de Arelano and Andrés de Urdaneta from the new Spanish base in the Philippines to Mexico using the prevailing winds at 40° north in the Pacific. The route opened up a lucrative trade with silver from the Americas taken in Spanish galleons westward across the Pacific and spices, porcelain, silks, ivory, gold, and exotic Asian goods traveling eastward to Acapulco in Mexico and then overland to the Atlantic and on to Spain. The Manila galleons (Nao de China and Nao de Acapulco) made this annual voyage from 1565 to 1815 and charted some new islands. The Manila galleon trade attracted legendary status because of literary tales of British bucaneers and privateers taking prizes and returning with riches to Europe. MAPS AND MAPPING. Exploration by Europeans in the Pacific in the early 16th century coincided with the development of navigational instruments and the drawing of more reliable and detailed charts. Until the end of the 15th century, European ships hardly ventured away from coastal waters and the Mediterranean as, away from the sight of land, sailors had no means of establishing their exact location on an open sea. Ferdinand Magellan sailed in 1519 with 24 charts of Asia and the Atlantic but they were of little help once he entered the Pacific. In 1529, Diego Ribera produced the first approximate map of the Pacific and in 1570, Abram Ortel, known as Ortelius, published the world’s first atlas, Theatrum orbis terrarium (theatre of the countries of the world) with 70 maps, but it was not until 1699 that William Dampier published a pioneering chart of Pacific winds, tides, and currents. In 1722, in a long ethnographic description of the Marianas, a Spanish priest, Juan Antonio Cantova, included a map of the Palau, Marianas, and western Caroline Islands based on the reports of indigenous cataways landing on Guam after being blown off-course. Thirty years later, George Anson’s expedition in 1740–44 was planned with the help of a Spanish “coasting pilot” with sailing directions that covered Cape Horn to California,

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but there were still few charts to help plot a route through the South Sea as the Pacific was then known. Anson was helped immeasureably when he captured a Spanish chart that detailed the outward and return Manila galleon route through the North Pacific. Gradually instruments were developed to aid navigation and allow sailors to venture farther afield and make more accurate charts of location. Compasses were available but navigation was usually very approximate. The astrolabe, backstaff, octant, and sextant represented stages in the ability to determine latitude, the angular distance north or south of the equator, and by the 18th century this could be worked out reasonably accurately. Longitude, the angular distance east or west of a prime meridian, remained a problem for much longer, and it was only through John Harrison’s marine chronometer that calculating longitude was solved at the end of the 18th century. The ability to note longitude and latitude meant accurate charts could be drawn. The value of charts was realized at an early date and they served several purposes. A chart recorded the relative locations of islands, atolls, and reefs, and showed the means of sailing from A to B (and, importantly, back again from B to A), as well as rocks, sand banks, and other dangers and impediments. In the age of exploration, a chart also represented ownership and for most of the 18th century, mapmaking was a secretive, well-guarded national business. In proposing spheres of interest and trading or strategic empires, a chart was one of the best ways to prove a country’s claims. During the 16th and 17th centuries, the people who sailed into new waters were not necessarily the same people who drew the charts. Information in the logs and journals of the voyages was used by cartographers in Europe, such as Gerard Mercator (1512–94), Jodocus Hondius (1563–1611), Willem Blaeu (1571–1638), and Vincenzo Coronelli (1650–1718). Mercator’s benchmark world atlas (the first to use this name) came out in three parts between 1585 and 1595. Beyond Europe, Petrus Plancius (1552–1622), the cartographer for the Dutch East Indies Company produced local charts and two world maps in 1592–94. In these beautiful charts and atlases, the maps were more works of art than useable items. Preparing them was a slow process, and errors could and did appear. Often charts were copied by competitors, so errors, if they existed, were passed on. The charts depicting the

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Pacific from the early sixteenth century were also drawn at scales that did not allow specific detail. The lack of information meant that early portrayals of the Pacific were notable for supposed landmasses, most famously Terra Australis Incognita (the Great Southern Continent). Some charts depicted much of the South Pacific as being occupied by land extending from Antarctica and it was only after James Cook’s second voyage in 1775 that its existence was shown to be a myth. Cook and his French contemporary Louis-Antoine de Bougainville were also responsible for fixing the locations of many of the islands of the Pacific and the map that Henry Roberts drew in 1784, after Cook’s third voyage, was the first to accurately depict the Pacific Ocean. The voyages of Cook (three voyages between 1768 and 1780) and Jean Francois Lapérouse (1792–93) represented a new development as their crew included sailors trained in surveying and able to draw their own charts as they traversed the ocean. Gradually, governments realized the need to keep sets of detailed and accurate charts. The French established the Dépot des cartes et plans de la marine in Paris in 1720 and the British an Hydrographic Office in 1795. A principal function of the scientific voyages of the 19th century, such as Ivan Krusenstern (in 1809–12, 1815, 1824, 1827, and 1836), Dumont d’Urville (in 1822–25, 1825–29, and 1837–40) and Charles Wilkes (in 1838–42) was to complete the cartographic knowledge of the Pacific and this was largely achieved by 1850. The series of charts, books, and atlases they published also collated all known charts and maps and finally delineated the coasts, islands, and archipelagos of the Pacific Ocean. MARCHAND, ETIENNE (1755–1793). A French merchant captain, he completed the chart of the Marquesas Islands in 1791 when he sighted Motu Iti during a trading voyage on the Solide. Marchand heard of the potential for the fur trade on the Northwest coast from Nathaniel Portlock in 1788 and was on his way to the northwest coast and China when he visited the Marquesas. His account Voyage autour du monde, was published in 1798–1800 and another by Charles Fleurieu, Voyage autour du monde in 1801. Although his voyage added little to existing charts, the two books were influential in French commercial circles.

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MARIANAS, EARLY EUROPEAN CONTACT. The Marianas, an archipelago of nine volcanic islands and five raised coral islands in the northwest Pacific, including the larger southern islands of Saipan, Tinian, Rota, and Guam, were named the Ilas de los Ladrones (islands of thieves) by Ferdinand Magellan in 1521. Over the next 200 years additional islands were slowly added by Toribo Salazar in 1525, Miguel Legazpi in 1565, Thomas Cavendish in 1588, Olivier Van Noort in 1600, Joris Spilbergen in 1616, John Eaton in 1684, William Dampier in 1686, Le Gentil de La Barbinais in 1716, and George Anson in 1742. In 1668, the Spanish missionary Diego Luis San Vitores arrived and after his death in 1672 an oppressive military regime was imposed. The indigenous Chamorro were reduced from 70,000, according to an estimate by Louis Freycinet, down to 3,500 recorded in a census in 1710. In 1722, a Spanish priest, Juan Antonio Cantova, wrote a long letter describing the ethnography of the Marianas, including a map of the Palau, Marianas, and western Caroline Islands. This letter was widely published and with the publication of Anson’s best-selling journal in 1748, offered European audiences a fulsome description. MARIANAS TRENCH. The Challenger expedition of 1873–76 recorded the greatest depth in the Pacific to that time in March 1875, at 8,190 meters. In 1960, navy divers proved the trench was deeper than previously thought. MARINE ARCHAEOLOGY. See ARCHAEOLOGY. MARION DUFRESNE, MARC-JOSEPH (ALSO KNOWN AS DU FRESNE) (1724–1772). A merchant captain living in Mauritius, he accepted command of an expedition of two ships to return Ahutoru to Tahiti. The Marquis de Castries was paid for by Louis-Antoine de Bougainville and the Mascarin by the French navy. After three weeks, Ahutoru died of smallpox. With no need to go to Tahiti, Marion Dufresne tried to make a profit from the voyage by exploring the Indian Ocean and seeking trade potential in the southwest Pacific. After visiting Tasmania and sailing in New Zealand waters for six weeks, the Mascarin and Marquis de Castries anchored in the Bay of Islands. For 33 days, the French had amicable relations with the lo-

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cal Maori. Warnings about breaches of conduct, over-extending their welcome, and impending local wars were ignored, and for a combination of factors, including unwittingly breaking a tapu or taboo on eating fish from a prescribed beach, passing on venereal diseases, and exhausting local food supplies, Marion Dufresne and 16 crewmen were killed. Marion Dufresne’s death was concealed from the ship’s crew until the next day when nine more French were killed. Julien-Marie Crozet, Jean Roux, and Ambroise Bernard-Marie Le Clesmeur took joint command and carried out severe reprisals while slowly preparing their ships to resume their voyage. The expedition sailed after another month and visited the central Pacific, Marianas, and Guam. The impact of Marion Dufresne’s death was twofold. It gave New Zealand a bad reputation as a violent land unsuitable for colonization. After Crozet’s account of the incident was published, in which he challenged existing ideas of Pacific Islanders as noble savages, it caused a re-imagining of Pacific Islanders as ignoble savages. As well as an unpublished account, Extrait d’un nouveau voyage en australazie en 1772 by an officer, Le Dez, accounts of the Marion Dufresne expedition were published by Crozet and the officers Jean Roux, Chevillard de Montaison, and Ambroise Bernard-Marie Le Clesmeur. MARQUESAS ISLANDS, EARLY EUROPEAN CONTACT. An archipelago of 12 islands, the Marquesas was placed on charts in two separate eras. In 1595, Ferdinand Magellan sighted the four southernmost islands of Hiva Oa, Tahuata, Fatu Hiva, and Mohotani (or Motane). Two hundred years later, James Cook added one island, Fatu Huka, in 1774 and the remaining six islands were charted by the whaler, Joseph Ingraham, who named them the Washington Islands in 1791. They were regularly visited by whalers and then missionaries after 1800. MARSHALL ISLANDS, EARLY EUROPEAN CONTACT. A widely scattered group with two main archipelagos of 35 main and 1,990 smaller atolls and islands in the central north Pacific, they were sighted by Toribo Salazar in 1526, and then visited by Alvaro de Saavedra in 1527–28, Ruy López de Villalobos in 1543, Alonso

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Arellano in 1565, Miguel Legazpi in 1565, and Alvaro Mendaña in 1568. A 200-year gap occurred before the visits of Samuel Wallis in 1767 and John Marshall and Thomas Gilbert in 1788. Five more atolls were charted by whalers between 1792 and 1824 and the Russian expedition of Schantz mapped 13 more atolls in 1835. The last atoll, Pikaar, was not mapped until 1840. MARSHALL, JOHN. The captain of the Scarborough in the First Fleet taking convicts to Botany Bay (Sydney), he undertook a pioneering trading voyage along a new route to China, in tandem with Thomas Gilbert. They mapped many islands in Kiribati and the Marshall Islands between 18 and 30 June 1788. The northern atolls of the Kiribati archipelago were known briefly as Scarborough’s Islands. MARTENS, CONRAD (1801–1878). A young British artist, he sailed to the Pacific in April 1833 as the artist on a three-year voyage with Frances Blackwood on the Hyacinth. In October, in Montevideo in Uruguay he transferred to the Beagle as artist on the surveying voyage captained by Robert Fitzroy. A year later he left the Beagle and traveled privately to Australia, making several important paintings of Tahiti, Moorea, Cook Islands and New Zealand on the way. In Australia, he had a long career as a respected professional artist. MASKELYNE, NEVIL (1732–1811). A British scholar, ordained minister, and astronomer, he was elected to the Royal Society in 1758 and appointed Astronomer-Royal in 1765. He was a founder of the Board of Longitude and inventor of the prismatic micrometer. After the death of the Dutch astronomer Tobias Mayer, and relying on his lunar tables, Maskelyne published the British Mariner’s Guide in 1763 and the Nautical Almanac and Astronomical Ephemeris in 1765 and was involved in planning many British voyages of the era. MAURELLE (ALSO MOURELLE), FRANCISCO ANTONIO (1754–1820). A Spanish pilot and naval officer, he explored the northwest coast on two voyages with Juan Quadra in 1775 and 1779. In 1780–81, in the La Princessa he made the last Spanish voyage into the South Pacific when he attempted to find a southern route

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from the Philippines to Mexico. This was in the wrong season, but despite the contrary prevailing winds he sighted or mapped 29 of the 50 islands in the Niningo group, the Hermit Islands and Tench Island in New Guinea, Ontong Java in the Solomon Islands, two atolls in Tuvalu, and three islands, including Late, Fonualei, and Vavau, in Tonga. He saw several volcanoes in the Solomons and Tonga and this began a long fascination with exploration, and later tourism centered on active volcanoes. Maurelle then returned to Guam and finally took the north Pacific route back across the Pacific to San Blas. He published Noticia de la navegacion de la fragata Princesa. His account of the voyage of the Sonora to the Northwest coast was translated into English in 1781 by Daines Barrington, a member of the Royal Society and promoter of English expansion. MAURY, MATTHEW FONTAINE (1806–1873). American naval officer and hydrographer regarded as the founder of modern ocean meteorology and oceanography. He completed a circumnavigation and sailed in the Pacific in 1826–30 and then held posts at the Observatory and Hydrology Office in Washington, D.C., where he collected logs and charts from a range of shipping. His systematic collection of data was adopted by most countries. He published the influential A New Theoretical and Practical Treatise on Navigation in 1836 and after collating details from ship’s captains and owners, the equally influential Wind and current charts in 1847. He promoted exploration in Antarctica and his first publication was an essay On the navigation of Cape Horn. He also published whale charts, which were well received by the whaling industry. In the 1850s, as Superintendent of the Depot of Charts and Instruments, he was involved in planning the North Pacific Exploring Expedition. To accompany the printing of charts of winds and currents, he published the first of seven editions of Explanations and sailing directions in 1851 and, in 1855, the influential Physical Geography of the Sea and Its Meteorology, which went to eight editions. He was later a professor of physics and served in the Confederate Navy. For a long time after his death, American maps carried an acknowledgment to his pioneering research and map-making. Maury and Nathaniel Bowditch were pioneer researchers in a number of maritime fields and their work had a lasting impact.

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MEARES, JOHN (1756–1809). A British naval officer, he became a merchant captain and made several voyages across the Pacific trading for furs on the northwest Pacific coast on behalf of a Bengalbased company. During his first voyage with two ships in 1786–87, the Sea Otter was lost at sea. In 1787, with former shipmates from James Cook’s voyages, James Colnett, George Dixon, and Nathaniel Portlock, he was again on the northwest coast engaged in the fur trade. Meares harbored in Kauai and Niihau in Hawai‘i and opened up a regular route between Nootka–Hawai‘i–China. He gave a passage to Ka’iana, a Kauai chief wanting to travel to England, but Ka’iana was stranded in Canton and never made it to Europe. After forming a four-ship convoy, including Colnett bound for the Northwest coast in 1788–89, he returned Ka’iana to Hawai‘i. He mapped the isolated rock Sofu Gan (Lot’s Wife) north of the Marianas in April 1788, was involved in the so-called “Nootka incident” between Spain and England and appeared before a British Privy Council inquiry into the affair. After publishing Voyages Made in the Years 1788 and 1789 from China to the North West Coast of America in 1790, he engaged in a long dispute with Dixon over navigation and claims of discovery. MENDAÑA DE NEIRA (OR NEYRA, OR NEGRA), ALVARO (ca. 1541–1595). A 25-year-old Spanish captain, he led an expedition of two ships from Callao in search of allegedly gold-rich islands in the Pacific in 1567–69. He possibly sighted the northern atolls of Tuvalau, Ontong Java, and Roncador reef before landing at Santa Isabel in the Solomon Islands. During the six-month visit, several surveys of the group were completed by Pedro de Ortega and Hernán Gallego in the Santiago, a five-ton, undecked brigantine built for local exploration. Mendaña sighted Wake Island and Namu in the Marshall Islands on the return voyage. He then proposed a colonization scheme in the Solomons and finally, in 1595, set out with 400 men, his wife and four ships, the San Jerónimo, Santa Ysabel, San Felipe, and Santa Catalina. He mapped four islands in the Marquesas, Pukapuka in the Cook Islands, and Nurakita in Tuvalu, finally reaching Ndeni (now Ndende) in the Santa Cruz group south of the main Solomon Islands archipelago. After two months Mendaña died and command passed to Lorenzo Barreto, and

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then to Mendaña’s wife, Ysabel de Barreto, the sister of Lorenzo Barreto. Abandoning the settlement plan at Graciosa Bay, under the leadership and navigation of the pilot Pedro Quirós, the flagship San Jerónimo finally reached Manila, mapping Pakin in the Caroline Islands and sighting Pohnpei and Guam. Quirós then sailed the San Jerónimo back to Peru, finally arriving in 1596. The Santa Ysabel and Santa Catalina were lost at sea. The San Felipe, after losing contact with the expedition, eventually reached the Philippines. ME´ NESE` S, JORGE DE. A Portgugese captain and governor of the newly established settlement in the Moluccas, he missed his bearings in 1526–27 on the way to his new post and 600 kilometers to the east became the first European to sight New Guinea. During a visit of several months he mapped part of the West Papua coast, probably Biak Island, and was the first to use the name Ilhas dos Papuas derived from the Malay phrase orang papuwah for frizzy-haired. He was later sent to India in disgrace for improper conduct and died in exile in Brazil. MENZIES, ARCHIBALD (1754–1842). A British botanist and surgeon, he traveled with James Colnett in 1786–89 and then was appointed naturalist, with the support of Joseph Banks, on the voyage of George Vancouver in 1791–95 to the northwest Pacific coast. Twenty-five of the 300 plant specimens he collected in Alaska and Hawaii are named after him, and many were planted in Kew Gardens, London. He also brought home 112 separate collections of artifacts, later displayed in the British Museum but A Catalogue of Curiosities and Natural Productions Brought Home in Her Majesty’s Sloop Discovery from the North West Coast of America and the South Sea Islands was not published until 1951. Menzies was a minor figure but one who inspired further research in the natural history of the north Pacific. MERTHO, JOHN. The British captain of the Ocean, a merchant vessel, he sighted Banaba and named it Ocean Island in 1804. There had been an earlier unconfirmed sighting by Jered Gardner, who named it Rodmans Island in 1901. Mertho also charted the atolls of Lae, Ujae, Kwajalein in the Marshall Islands, but they may have been sighted

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during the expeditions of Ruy López de Villalobos and Miguel Legazpi in the 1540s and 1560s. MICRONESIA, NAMING OF. Various names were given to the Carolines and Marianas by Europeans based in the Moluccas. Their earliest term referred to the known 87 islands east of the Philippines as the Palaos, probably derived from the word for canoe, proa. The Caroline Islands had been sighted by the Portuguese Diogo de Rocha in 1527, the Marianas (which were named the Islas de los ladrones or Islands of Thieves) by Ferdinand Magellan in 1521 and Palau by Magellan in 1521 and Gonzalo Espinosa in 1522. The Spaniard Francisco Lazcano named the Las Islas Carolinas (Caroline Islands) in 1686 after King Carlos II of Spain. In 1831, the French Geographic Society adopted the name Micronesia for the archipelago and associated island groups. The tripartite division of Oceania into Micronesia, Polynesia, and Melanesia was made famous by Jules Dumont d’Urville in an essay in 1831. MIKLOUHO-MACLAY, NICOLAI (1846–1888). A Russian scientist, he lived on the Astrolabe coast in New Guinea for two and a half years between 1871 and 1880, as well as undertaking flora and fauna expeditions to Papua, Malay Peninsula, and Australia. He returned briefly to the Astrolabe coast in 1883. This was a remarkable achievement, as there were few maps, no port towns, few traders or missionaries, and only irregular visits by ships. He compiled a record of language, material culture, and marine biology that was invaluable to later researchers. Later he made a major contribution to the Australian scientific community as a member of the Linnean Society and founder of the first biological field station at Watson’s Bay in 1881. After marrying and raising an Australian-born family, he returned to Russia two years before his death. Miklouho-Maclay published more than 90 scientific papers but his travel journals were not published until 1923. An annotated collected works in five volumes was published in 1950–54. He was, and remains famous in Russia, was well known in Australia, and stands out among early explorers and scientists in New Guinea for establishing excellent although ambiguous relations with indigenous people. His collections are housed at the Macleay Museum in Sydney and the

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Miklouho-Maclay Institute of Ethnology and Anthropology in Moscow. MISSIONS AND EXPLORATION. The earliest European ships to make contact with Micronesia were carrying Spanish priests. Although they charted and named islands, their interests were evangelical rather than geographic or scientific. They confirmed indigenous names or gave islands new Spanish names but over three centuries of presence in the Pacific, had little impact on the mapping of the Pacific. The pioneering London Missionary Society (LMS), when it arrived in the south Pacific in 1797, also preferred to seek converts in known locations. However, LMS missionaries did add local detail to the charts by naming rivers, bays, and mountain ranges, as well as recording the indigenous names for many topographical and coastal features. A rare example of missionaries who made a new sighting was John Williams and John Dibbs of the London Missionary Society who added Mitairo and Mauke to the final mapping of the Cook Islands in 1823. MOERENHOUT, JACQUES-ANTOINE (1796–1879). A Belgiumborn merchant who worked in French Polynesia and made three voyages from the South American coast into eastern Polynesia between 1828 and 1834. He was the Dutch consul in Chile and briefly the French, then American consul in Papeete where he lived for 20 years. He was embroiled in the so-called Pritchard affair in 1836–44 over the paramountcy of British and French interests in Tahiti. He made three voyages, the first in 1828–29 during which he mapped Minerva Reef and then Maria Island in the Tuamotu Archipelago. Maria was once known as Moerenhout Island. On his second voyage in 1830, he visited Rapanui/Easter Island, the Tuamotu and Society Islands, but made no new discoveries. The third voyage in 1834 visited the Gambier and Society Islands and possibly the Cook Islands. He published an informative two-volume journal Voyages aux îles du grand océan in Paris 1837. Morenhout was an unusual explorer because he lived in the Pacific compared to nearly all others who voyaged out from Europe. MOLUCCAS (OR MALUKA). The term Moluccas was used for a wide region bounded by Timor, Sulawesi, western New Guinea, and

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open to the Pacific in the north and included Seram, Banda, Halmahera, Ambon, Raja Empat, and hundreds of other islands. The Moluccas in common usage included the sultanates of Ternate, Bacan, Jailolo, and Tidore. The name Spice Islands was given to a group of five small-clove producing islands of Ternate, Tidore, Mare, Moti, and Makian to the west of Halmahera. The Spice Islands and Moluccas were interchangeable. In the early Asian trade routes the five islands and the wider region were famous as a source of cloves, nutmeg, and other exotic produce. After 1500, a short period of intense rivalry between Portugal and Spain occurred. Following the Portuguese capture of Malacca in the Straits of Malacca and the Treaty of Zargoza in 1529, the Portuguese dominated. In a second battle between trading empires, the Netherlands captured control of the spice trade by 1599. The Spice Islands by this time were famous in Europe. The Dutch consolidated their monopoly by making alliances with local sultans and expelling all other European trading rivals but, by 1700, the spice boom was over. As a motivation to establish trade routes to and from Europe, the spice trade’s importance lasted for a century and it deliberately or accidentally caused many Pacific islands to be added to European charts. MORALES, LUIS DE (1641–1716). A Spanish missionary, he mapped seven islands in the Marianas Islands in 1688–91 that finally defined the shape of the archipelago. Despite occasional sighting by Spanish and Portuguese ships for 160 years from 1522 to 1688, the actual shape of the Marianas on maps was not settled until Morales contribution was recognized in a French publication, Histoire des isles Marianes, published in 1700. MORESBY, JOHN (1830–1922). A British naval officer, he surveyed the coast of New Guinea in the Basilisk in 1872, naming Port Moresby, Fairfax Harbour, where the capital of Papua New Guinea is today, and China Straits, an important shipping route. His account New Guinea and Polynesia, Discoveries and Surveys in New Guinea and the D’entrecasteaux Islands was published in 1876. The voyage of the Basilisk completed the mapping of the coast of New Guinea. Moresby claimed New Guinea for Britain in 1873, but the annexation of southeastern British New Guinea did not occur until 1884.

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MORTLOCK, JOHN. The British captain of a China trader the Young William, he mapped the Namoi Islands in 1793, although they had probably been sighted by Alavaro de Saavedra in 1527–29 and Musgrave in 1793. They were known initially as the Mortlock Islands. MOUAT, ALEXANDER (1761–86). The 15-year-old son of Patrick Mouat, he deserted in Tahiti while serving on James Cook’s third voyage, but was caught and punished. Later promoted to lieutenant, he served in the navy until his early death in Antigua. MOUAT, PATRICK (1712–1790). A British naval officer, he commanded the support vessel, the Tamar, on John Byron’s expedition in 1764–66. He was promoted to second in command and took over as captain of the Dolphin when the expedition was at Juan Fernandez. MURRAY, JOHN (1841–1914). A Canadian-born naturalist, geologist, and map-maker, he served on the British Challenger expedition in 1872–76 led by George Nares and Frank Thompson. He became editor of the 50-volume report of the voyage after the death of fellow naturalist and Edinburgh University professor, Wyville Thompson. He was coauthor of the Narrative of the Voyage and also a report on deepsea deposits. He collected logs and reports for many years before completing the first worldwide maps of the ocean floor in 1886. From 1880 to 1906, he also carried out bathymetric surveys and established biological laboratories in Scotland, where he died of an accident in 1914. He is regarded as one of the founders of oceanography. MUSGRAVE. A British captain sailing out of Sydney in the Sugar Cane in 1793, he reported several islands in the Carolines, later confirmed as Pingelap and Ngatik. He possibly saw Kosrae prior to its longitude and latitude being recorded by the whaler Nancy in 1804. He also reported the Mortlock (Namoi) Islands prior to their naming by Mortlock in 1793. MYTHOLOGY AND INDIGENOUS EXPLORATION. Oceanic peoples settled their islands and atolls several thousand years before EuroAmericans arrived and they continue to assert mythological and genealogical explanations for their ownership, occupation, and presence.

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Many foundation myths involve great voyages and explorers who crossed the open sea and discovered the lands that modern-day Pacific Islanders call home. Communities have foundation myths with a localized evolutionary explanation such as Te Pusi Mo Te Ali (the eel and the flounder) in Tuvalu, the Kumulipo chant in Hawaii, which links creation with chiefly rule, the progeny of Afimusaesae and Mutalali in Samoa, and the manifestations of Tangaroa (or Tangaloa or Ta’aroa), the sky god named in many South Pacific myths. Indigenous explorers and navigators are feted in Oceania in song, verse, performance, names, and genealogy. The navigator Kupe is revered as the founder of Maori settlement in Aotearoa/New Zealand; Hawai‘iloa, and his principal navigator Makali‘i brought bananas, gourds, yams, and sugar cane to Hawaii; and Aluluei is revered in the Marshall Islands as the teacher of navigation. In the Society Islands, exploration is linked to return voyaging in the myth of Ru and his sister and pilot, Hina-fa‘auru-va‘a, who made a return voyage in the canoe te-apori from Aotearoa to the fabled Havai‘i or Ra’iatea. In Rapanui/Easter Island mythology, a great canoe Oraora-ngaru or Te Oraora-miro was built by Ira, Raparenga, Kuukuu, Ringiringi, Nonom, Urure, and Makoi, and spent five weeks searching for a new land, now known as Rapanui. In the Marquesas, the story is told of Tau-me-tini and Toni, who built a great canoe Tia-te-ani and then launched a war expedition with six other canoes and a thousand warriors against Aotoka (or Rarotonga). In the Cook Islands, Ruatapu made a canoe Te Kare-roa-itai out of the wood of the tamanu tree and then voyaged from Aitutaki to Rarotonga and, in another Cook Island story, Tangiia sailed in a single-hulled canoe that was joined to another canoe to make the double-hulled Takipu (later known as Takitamu). With his navigator, Pai or Tei-vao-ariki, they sailed to Wallis Island, Upolu in Samoa, Tahiti, Borabora, Ra‘iatea, and ‘Avaiki, the ancestral homeland before returning to Rarotonga. In the same manner that European explorers became national heroes in Europe, Oceania honors it own great navigators. Their names resonate with great voyages, deeds, skills, and daring exploration and discovery. See also AUSTRONESIAN DIASPORA; POLYNESIAN VOYAGING SOCIETY.

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–N– NAMING AND RENAMING OF ISLANDS. Atolls and Islands were often sighted, noted on charts, and renamed several times over the first three centuries of European exploration in the Pacific. Examples include the Galapagos group, first sighted and named Islas Encantadas (Enchanted Islands) by the Spanish in 1535, and then Insulae de los Galepego on the Ortelius world map in 1570. Takapoto was known as Spiridof after Jacob Le Maire and Willem Schouten’s visit in 1616. Jacob Roggeveen named the atoll Shadelyk (Pernicious) after the Africaansche Galey was wrecked in 1722. It eventually reverted to its original name, Takapoto. The name Sonder Grondt was also used for the adjacent atolls of Takapoto and Takaroa. Nororutu in the Austral group was mapped first by George Gardner an American whaler in 1822–25 and named Maria’s Island after the whaleship Maria, but was later renamed Hull Island and then Sands Island. Between 1803 and 1827, Nassau in the Cook Islands was variously known as Adele, Mitchell, Newport, and Lydra Island. Nikumaroro in the Phoenix Islands was named Gardner’s Island after captain Joshua Gardner in 1825, and was later known as Kemins or Kimins Island. Over several decades, Pleasant Island reverted to Nauru, Savage Island to Niue, and Cornwallis Island to Johnston Atoll, and then Kalama. Rodmans Island was named in 1801 and then renamed Ocean Island three years later before eventually reverting to its original name, Banaba. Nui, one of the atolls in the Tuvalu group was variously named Netherland Island, Isla de Jesus and Egg Island. With the gaining of independence some nations choose to revert to indigenous names—from New Hebrides to Vanuatu and Ellice to Tuvalu—while others chose a vernacular translation of the colonial name—from Gilberts to Kiribati. NARES, GEORGE STRONG (1831–1915). A British naval officer and hydrologist, he was commander of the Challenger expedition. His early voyages concentrated on sea floor and deep sea exploration but the Challenger expedition (1872–76) had a wider, global scope. After a year in the Atlantic they explored New Zealand, Vanuatu, Fiji, and Tonga before heading for the Moluccas, Philippines, and finally

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Hong Kong. Nares then transferred to command an Arctic expedition for which he was awarded a Gold Medal for sailing farther north than any other vessel. Frank Thompson took command of the Challenger for the second phase of its expedition. Nares contributed to the multivolume report on the expedition and also wrote Narrative of a Voyage to the Polar Sea (1878). NASSAU FLEET (1623–1624). At the end of the Spanish–Dutch war in 1621, a Dutch fleet of 11 ships and 1,600 men was sent to establish a Dutch military and trading presence on the South American coast in opposition to Spanish claims. After attacking numerous ships and ports, the leader Jacques L’Hermite died of illness in June 1624. After unsuccessful raiding attempts, Gheen Schapenham and Gentil de la Barbinais led the expedition across the Pacific in November 1624–January 1625. They reached Guam and then went on to the Moluccas. After naming Nassau Bay in Tierra del Fuego, only the atoll of Taongi, a previously sighted atoll in the Marshall Islands, was recorded during the crossing. On the passage from Guam to the Moluccas, they sighted Fais or Ulithi and made contact with Yap. This was the first recorded visit to Yap, but it may have been sighted earlier by Diogo de Rocha, Francisco de Castro, or Ruy López de Villalobos. NATURAL HISTORY. The terms natural history and naturalist were commonly used by naval boards, historians, Royal Societies, and authors to describe the voracious and multifareous collecting, animal hunting, drawing of plants, naming of species, and ethnographic recording undertaken on voyages. The early naturalists were naval officers doubling as scientists or civilians appointed to accompany official naval expeditions. The word “scientist” was not in vogue until the 1840s. On the American South Seas Exploring Expedition in 1838 the civilian experts were called “Scientifics,” a term which did not last. Natural history was a broad term encompassing empirical and inductive sciences, observation, measurement, and objective interpretation of the natural world. In 1665, the British Royal Society published Directions for Seamen Bound on Far Voyages. A century later, Charles de Brosses argued in his influential Histoire that naturalists

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were essential on voyages; 20 years later, the voyages of LouisAntoine de Bougainville, James Cook, and Jean-François de Lapérouse followed this path. These three voyages are regarded as having founded modern scientific voyaging. In a letter to Carolus Linneaus, Cook’s first voyage was described as a natural history expedition par excellence; “No people ever went to sea better fitted for the purpose of natural history . . . they have got a fine library of natural history, they have all sorts of machines . . . besides there are many people whose sole business it is to attend them for this very purpose.” The naturalists associated with Cook and Bougainville—Joseph Banks, David Nelson, Georg and Johann Forster, Daniel Solander, Sydney Parkinson, Anderrs Sparmann and Philibert Commerson— are now synonomous with the transition from amateur and informal natural history collecting to scientific voyaging. The classification system of Carolus Linnaeus had an extraordinary impact on the organization of specimens and the way fieldwork was conducted. By the time the Russian naturalist Nikolai Miklouho-Maclay left New Guinea for Sydney in the 1870s, he was able to join the colony’s own Linnean Society. Natural history voyages or scientific expeditions, had their apex in the extraordinary voyage of the Beagle with Robert Fitzroy in 1831, described as the “cutting edge in modern science,” and the American South Seas Exploring Expedition led by Charles Wilkes in 1838–42. Natural history became an outdated term as the naural sciences— zoology, botany, geology, oceanography, and geography—became more specialized and social research was allocated to the new field called anthropology, first used in 1805 and achieving the appointment of its first professor in 1884. See also BAUDIN, NICOLASTHOMAS; BELLINGSHAUSEN, THADDEAUS; CHAMISSO, LOUIS; D’ALBERTIS, LUIGI; DARWIN, CHARLES; FINSCH, OTTO; MENZIES, ARCHIBALD; KRUSENSTERN, IVAN; SCIENCE AND EXPLORATION; STELLAR, GEORG. NAVIGATION. The art of directing the course of a ship from point A to B and returning was highly accomplished before long sea voyages to the Pacific occurred at the beginning of the 16th century. Using early navigational instruments, European captains and pilots, often

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referred to as navigators, were able to successfully make voyages, for example, across the Atlantic. In Asia, Arab traders had established long trade routes and the Chinese had voyaged as far as Africa and perhaps Europe. However, the skills of coasting a well-known coast, setting a course through shallow waters or entering harbors, estuaries, and bays were vastly different once thousands of kilometers of open sea had to be traversed and dead reckoning was less useful. Dead reckoning, or plotting a course along a compass line to a known point for a certain time and distance, was impossible in the Pacific until longitude and latitude were able to be determined and charts of the 7,000 islands and atolls were drawn up and in common use. A lead line, which was traditionally used for determining the depth and composition of shallow coastal waters, was less effective on long voyages but the “log” for measuring a ship’s speed by a knotted rope running out from the stern (the origin of “knots”) was still essential. Technological advances, such as the astrolabe, Hadley’s quadrant, telescopes, micrometers, lunar tables, iron-bottom ships, a cure for scurvy, improvements in ship design, and the ability to maintain a full roster of able-bodied crew helped captains to arrive at their destinations and return home. Improved map-making and the publications of atlases and voyage journals, for example, by Giovanni Ramusio, Richard Haklyut, Alexander Dalrymple, and Charles de Brosse, enabled subsequent navigators to be well-prepared for a voyage to the “South Sea.” The seamanship on some voyages was amazing and Pedro Quirós, Pedro Sarmiento, Willem Schouten, Phillip Carteret, and William Bligh should be truly referred to as navigators. They were followed in the early 19th century by expeditions that had cartography as a priority, as well as the mapping of winds and currents, the ocean floor and the Pacific coastlines of Alaska, the Northwest coast, Antarctica, Australia, and New Zealand. It was the mid-19th century before bad charts, faulty reckoning, and instrument failure were overcome and navigation became less hazardous. NELSON, DAVID (?–1789). A naturalist and ordinary seaman, he sailed on a North Atlantic voyage in search of the Northwest Passage and, in 1776, while a gardener at the Royal Gardens at Kew, was officially appointed as a servant to the astronomer, William Bayley

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on the Resolution on James Cook’s third voyage. He was promoted to able seaman during the voyage. His real task, as arranged by Joseph Banks, then director of the Royal Gardens, was to act as a naturalist and collect as many natural history specimens as possible. He has been overlooked historically but he made a significant record of Hawaiian birds and his specimens are housed in the British Museum. He also transplanted Tongan shaddock trees in Tahiti and found they had thrived when he visited Tahiti 11 years later with William Bligh. Banks arranged for Nelson to go with Bligh on his breadfruit voyage in 1787 as a botantist and gardener. Nelson had sole control of the Great Cabin after it was converted to a temporary greenhouse to house the 1,015 healthy potted breadfruit plants they were to carry to the West Indies. Nelson was cast adrift with Bligh after the mutiny on the Bounty, and after surviving an amazing voyage to safety, died of fever in Kupang, Timor, on 20 June 1789. His name is preserved in the Nelsonia genus and in Nelson’s Hill in Tasmania, named by Bligh, where Nelson had been the first European to reach the summit during Cook’s third voyage. Nelson was an ordinary seaman and gardener, but as the first of a long line of natural history collectors sent on voyages, the role he played was typical of the era of scientific exploration. NERO EXPEDITION. The America expedition of the Nero in 1899 made 2,074 deep-sea soundings along a proposed California–Japan submarine telegraph line. This was the first detailed ocean survey and recorded a deep-sea trench near the Marianas at 5269 fathoms, the deepest then measured and still known by its name “Nero Deep.” NETHERLANDS. See DUTCH EAST INDIA COMPANY; DUTCH EXPLORATION OF OCEANIA. NEW CALEDONIA, EARLY EUROPEAN CONTACT. New Caledonia consists of the large island of Grande Terre and numerous offshore islands and reefs. In 1774, Cape Colnett and the d’Entrecasteaux reefs to the north were sighted during the second voyage of James Cook. Cook then sailed along the east coast of the main island and the Isle of Pines before heading south to New Zealand. Traders out of Sydney made the next sightings—Thomas Gilbert sighted

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Matthew Island in 1788, John Hunter the Isle of Pines in 1791, William Raven passed along the west coast of the nearby Loyalty Islands in 1793, and John Fearn sighted Hunter Rock in 1798. Walpole Island, later mined for guano, was sighted by a captain Butler in 1794. Joseph-Antoine Bruny d’Entrecasteaux sailed along the east coast of the main island in 1792 and returned in 1793 to visit the Loyalty Islands, the northeast coast and the reefs to the north. The northernmost atoll in the Loyalty Islands was named after CharlesFrançois Beautemps-Beaupré, a naval officer and hydrographer with Bruny d’Entrecasteaux on the Espérance. By 1810, whalers were regularly visiting the Loyalty Islands. The two visits of Jules Dumont d’Urville in 1827 and 1840 completed the mapping of New Caledonia, particularly the work of Louis Tardy de Montravel (1811–1864), a naval officer and hydrographer who sailed on the Zéleé during the second voyage of Dumont d’Urville and Anatole Bouquet de la Grye (1827–1909), who visited in 1854 and added to the earlier charts of Beautemps-Beaupré. NEW GUINEA. New Guineans had been traveling, marrying, raiding, and trading across the region for several millennia and had established regular and ritualized routes that amazed Europeans when they described them in the late 19th century. The Vitiaz Strait, Hiri, Kula Ring traders, and others had ritually mapped the land and sea with their own fabled, legendary heroes and travelers. In the far west, bird of paradise feathers, trade, and raiding for slaves were integrated into the stories of Asian peoples. The huge mass of the cordillera from the Birds Head in the west to the Louisiade Archipelago in the east did not enter the European imagination until 1526 when the Portuguese Jorge de Meneses and the Spaniard Alvaro de Saavedra in 1528 sailed along the northwest coast. Meneses named it Ilhas dos Papuas after the Malay word for frizzy hair. Twenty years later, the Spaniard Innigo de Retes renamed it Nueva Guinea after seeing similarities with Guinea in Africa. In 1606, Luis de Torres sailed through the strait now bearing his name and proved New Guinea and Australia were not joined and Willem Schouten and Jacob Le Maire made similar sightings. The mapping of New Guinea resumed in 1700 with coastlines and offshore islands mapped by William Dampier, Philip Carteret, Louis-

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Antoine de Bougainville, James Cook, and Joseph-Antoine Bruny d’Entrecasteaux. In 1774–76, John Forrest voyaged through the islands looking for trade opportunities on behalf of the British East Indies Company. Between 1842 and 1873, the British naval voyages of Frances Blackwood, Charles Yule, Owen Stanley, and John Moresby completed the coastal charts and left their names on today’s towns, islands, and mountain ranges. The naturalist Alfred Wallace spent eight years gathering specimens in the Moluccas and west New Guinea in 1854–62. European exploration resumed in the late 19th century. By then the island had been divided into a Netherlands New Guinea in the west, German New Guinea in the northeast, and British New Guinea (later the Australian Territory of Papua) in the southeast. The Russian Baron Miklouho-Maclay on the north coast and the Italian Luigi Maria D’Albertis in the Gulf of Papua and the Fly River stayed for lengthy periods in the 1870s. D’Albertis published New Guinea; What I Did and What I Saw in two volumes in 1880. In German New Guinea, the scientists Dr. Schrader and Dr. Hollrung, Carl Hunstein, Dr. Knappe, Hugo Zoller, Carl Lauterbach, Otto Finsch, and others explored the Sepik River, Finnisterre Range, and the Ramu River valley, respectively, in the 1880s and 1890s. Between 1901 and 1909, Wilhelm Dammköhler made a series of expeditions into the interior, before dying from wounds suffered during an attack on the Watut River. In the west, the Dutch Border expedition of 1858 and government patrols along coastal rivers opened new areas for exploration. The next phase saw the mapping of the large Mamberamo River catchment in 1883–84. In the 20th century, a “Race to the snow” occurred as Dutch expeditions sought to be the first to conquer the many permanently snow capped peaks of the central ranges, inspired partly by the competition of other expeditions such as two proposed by the British Ornithological Union. After a survey of the colony’s resources, maps, and administration by Hendrikus Colijn in 1905–7, four military expeditions led by Hendrikus Lorentz, Franssen Herderschee, Anton Colijn, JT de Wal, and JV Opperman trekked into the interior. The highest peak, Carstenz Pyramid, was not reached until 1962. These expeditions were recorded in heavily illustrated Dutch reports and popular accounts.

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One of the most amazing periods of world exploration occurred after World War I as administration patrols, miners, and missionaries began to trek into the mountainous interior. Airplanes allowed Europeans their first sighting of gardens, villages, and the wide, fertile valleys that were revealed to be the home of several million people. Patrols by Charles Karius and Ivan Champion in 1927–28 and Jack Hides and Jim O’Malley in 1935 were just two of many legendary exploratory patrols into the rugged interior that crossed slowly from coast to coast and valley to valley. The Hagen-Sepik patrol of 1938–39 led by James Taylor and John Black was the longest in duration, lasting 13 months and traversing 3,000 kilometers. For the first time in exploration history the traumatic initial meeting of cultures was recorded on print and motion picture film, told with dramatic effect in the award-winning documentary First Contact using raw footage filmed by Mick Leahy as Papua New Guinea highland people met Europeans. Naming New Guinea’s many rivers and mountains attracted aspiring gold-medallists, Fellows of Royal Geographical Societies, and self-proclaimed professors and amateurs seeking to be the first to make a discovery. Some, like Jack Hides, became instant celebrities and best-selling authors. Exploration, often doubling as an official patrol to carry out a census or pursue wrongdoers, was officially endorsed and the early British administrator William McGregor personally crossed British New Guinea three times and climbed and named the Owen Stanley Range and its highest point, Mount Victoria. The outbreak of the Pacific War in 1941 curtailed further expeditions. Postwar expeditions finally mapped the most remote parts of the highlands and were the subject for Patrol Officer JK McCarthy’s Patrol into Yesterday and New Guinea Journeys and a series of books by ex-kiap James Sinclair. Gavin Souter’s informative narrative of exploration, New Guinea; The Last Unknown (1963), was an apt title, and Papua New Guinea still advertises itself as “The land of the unexpected”—even in the new millennium. NEW ZEALAND, EARLY EUROPEAN CONTACT. A report by Juan Fernández of a mysterious land in the south Pacific in 1576, apart from stimulating debate about Terra Australia Incognita, suggested he might have reached New Zealand. The first recorded visit

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by a European was Abel Tasman in 1642, after which a Dutch cartographer gave the land the name Nieuw Zeeland (new sea-land). The next contact was 127 years later in December 1769 when James Cook and Jean-François-Marie de Surville separately arrived. After the death of Marc-Joseph Marion Dufresne in 1772, a quick succession of voyages charted New Zealand’s coast and left important ethnographic accounts of Maori life and culture, including James Cook again in 1773–74 and 1777, Joseph-Antoine Bruny d’Entrecasteaux in 1793, and Alessandro Malaspina in 1793. The naval expedition of William Broughton in 1791–92 and the merchant trader Frederick Hasselbourgh in 1810 added off-shore islands to the charts. The final charting of New Zealand was undertaken by John Lort Stokes in the steamer Acheron in 1848–51. After the Acheron was recalled a smaller brig the Pandora continued the survey until 1856 when the junior officers FH Richards and FJ Evans published the New Zealand Pilot. New Zealand’s reputation as a savage land prevailed after Julien Crozet’s account of Marion Dufresne’s death, but this was shortlived as voyages to New Zealand increased and an influential body of literature developed, including a 762-page volume on New Zealand compiled by Jules Dumont D’Urville in 1826–29. The painter with Dumont d’Urville, Louis de Sainson, produced one of the most impressive visual records in New Zealand exploration. NOBLE SAVAGE. See BON SAUVAGE; BOUGAINVILLE, LOUISANTOINE DE; COMMERSON, PHILIBERT; CROZET, JULIENMARIE; DIDEROT, DENIS; ETHNOHISTORY; FATAL IMPACT; FIRST CONTACT. NOOTKA SOUND. A deep sound on the western Pacific shore of Vancouver Island, it became famous after James Cook described the pelagic sea otter colonies on the northwest coast. Within a few years, dozens of ships were trading for pelts and a brisk China trade started using Nootka and Hawaii as provisioning ports on a triangular transPacific crossing to Macao and Canton. Nootka became a central anchorage and depot and synonymous with the fur trade. NORFOLK ISLAND, EARLY EUROPEAN CONTACT. Although once inhabited, James Cook merely reported during his second voyage

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in October 1774 that tall spruce trees and flax grew in abundance. Access to a supply of timber for masts was partly the motivation for its incorporation in the colony of New South Wales, despite being 1,700 kilometers east of Sydney. Norfolk was also sighted by Jean-François de Lapérouse in January 1788. It was occupied as a penal settlement from 1788 to 1814, abandoned and reopened as a prison from 1825–52. George Vancouver sent the storeship Daedalus to Norfolk with breadfruit in 1794 and, in 1804, the natural history painter Ferdinand Bauer visited the penal colony. In 1856, the descendents of the Bounty mutineers were resettled from Pitcairn to Norfolk. NORTH PACIFIC EXPLORING EXPEDITION. The five ships of the American North Pacific Exploring Expedition, led by Cadwalader Ringgold in the Vincennes were sent in 1853–55 to survey the Bering Straits and north Pacific waters relevant to American whalers and trading routes across the Pacific for the expansion of American trade with China. The Act of Congress orders also instructed the expedition to carry out surveys to “diminish the hazards of the ocean.” Both the Porpoise, lost in a storm in 1854, and the Vincennes had been used in the American South Seas Exploring Expedition. The North Pacific expedition took soundings at 3,500 fathoms in the Japan Trench. After Ringgold fell ill he was replaced by John Rodgers. Because of disputes between Rodgers and Ringgold and the outbreak of the Civil War, the expedition’s planned multivolume account was never published. The expedition had revealed ocean depths, charted the Japan and Asiatic coast, and opened north Pacific routes which would later be influential in American activities in Asia. NORTHWEST COAST. A phrase used to describe the North American coast from California to Alaska and the Bering Sea. The early exploration was by Spanish expeditions from the south and Russian land and sea expeditions from the west. Spain prohibited but was unable to stop maritime exploration along the southern coasts from 1606 to 1773. The region became famous during the fur trade when hundreds of vessels from many nations traded at Nootka Sound and up and down the coast and incidentally added islands, bays, inlets, and rivers to the charts. On routes to and from China, they also sighted and charted islands for the first time. See also ALASKA; BRITAIN; CHINA TRADE; FUR TRADE; NOOTKA SOUND; RUSSIA; SPAIN.

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NORTHWEST PASSAGE. The charting of the islands of the Pacific was often a secondary or incidental benefit of the search to find a passage across North America from the Atlantic to the Pacific and thereby open up a faster trade route to Asia. Russians beginning with Mostivin, Gvozdev, Vitus Bering, and Alexsei Chirikov discovered Bering Strait and a summer passage along the north coast of Russia into Asian waters, and by the time John Byron’s secret instructions in 1764–66 sent him along the northwest Pacific coast looking for a passage back into Hudsons Bay, 50 voyages had been dispatched to search for the alleged Northwest Passage. The search was a particularly British obsession going back to the 16th century. The third voyage of James Cook (1776–80) and George Vancouver’s survey of 1792–94 practically ended speculation that a passage existed. Vancouver wrote it did not exist despite being “zealously pursued and with a degree of minuteness far exceeding the letter of my commission or instructions.” The search continued with the voyage of John Franklin in the Erebus and Terror in 1845–48 and when both ships were lost, it sparked another 40 expeditions in search of Franklin. Roald Amundsen (1872–1928) is credited with finding a passage through the Arctic waters in 1903–6. A Royal Canadian Mounted Police expedition made the first west-to-east and return east-to-west passage in 1940–44. Glyn Williams in Voyages of Delusion (2002) summed up the search for a navigable passage “as pursuing a phantom, but during their quest they discovered much.” These discoveries included the North American continent, the Pacific coast, the fur trade, and passing to and fro, the incidental addition of many new islands to the charts of the Pacific. NOUVELLE CYTHE` RE. Tahiti and particularly Matavai Bay were named Nouvelle Cythère, the “new paradise,” by Louis-Antoine de Bougainville during his visit in 1768. Recalling mythical Aphrodite’s island, Bougainville was enchanted by the beauty, freedom, and abundance of life. His description of a Tahitian girl standing above an open hatch continues to be cited—“The girl carelessly dropped a cloth which covered her and appeared to the eyes of all beholders such as Venus showed herself to the Phyrgian shepherd, having indeed the celestial form of that goddess.” After reading Bougainville and other voyage journals, these themes were taken up by salon

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philosophers and social commentators critical of the unsavory direction of state and society in Europe, and Tahiti became synonymous with idealized and romantic notions of paradise in the South Seas.

–O– OCEANOGRAPHY. The related sciences of hydrography (the surveying and charting of the oceans) and hydrology (the study of the ocean’s water, salinity, nutrients, temperature, and currents and waves, and their affect on land) are closely linked to marine biology and meteorology. Oceanography is the term used to encompass all these studies and was first used in Germany and England in the 1880s. The terms hydrographer and hydrologist were used interchangeably on some voyages to describe scientific research roles we would now list under oceanography. Formal departments of the navy or admiralty devoted to hydrography were established in the late 18th century, and in the 19th century special expeditions were sent to the Pacific to create charts of the islands, atolls, and reefs; to survey the ocean floor; and to map the ocean currents. Nathaniel Bowditch, Matthew Maury, John Arrowsmith, Alexander Dalrymple, and Charles-François Beautemps-Beaupré are regarded as the founding researchers of oceanography as a science. They also contributed to the planning of expeditions, the compiling of charts from the various voyages, and the publication of new charts and atlases. The Russian expeditions led by Ivan Krusenstern and Otto Kotzebue; the British expeditions of James Cook, William Bligh, John Lort Stokes, Henry Kellett, Frederick Beechey, and Edward Belcher; the French expeditions of Joseph-Antoine Bruny d’Entrecasteaux, Louis-Isidore Duperrey, Jules Dumont d’Urville, and Nicolas Baudin; and the American expeditions of John Brooke and John Murray gradually recorded a huge mass of detail and created a new field of research as the waters, coasts, and floor of the Pacific Ocean were revealed to the world. See also, BELKNAP, GEORGE; BONNE, RIGOBERT; CHALLENGER EXPEDITION; MARIANAS TRENCH; NARES, GEORGE; NORTH PACIFIC EXPLORING EXPEDITION; THOMPSON, FRANK; TUSCARORA EXPEDITION, SOUTH SEAS EXPLORING EXPEDITION; WILKES, CHARLES.

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ODIDDY. See HITIHITI. OMAI (or MAI) (ca. 1753–1780). A young Tahitian, originally from Ra‘iatea or Huahine, he met Samuel Wallis in Tahiti in 1767 and then James Cook in 1769 before sailing to England with Tobias Furneaux during Cook’s second voyage in 1773. In London, he met Joseph Banks, whom he knew from Cook’s first voyage, visited the King and made a favorable impression with his manners, learning and skills. After two years, by which time he was less well regarded, he returned on the Resolution with Cook. He acquired two Maori boys, Tiarooa and Cooa, as servants in New Zealand and further retainers in Tahiti and Borabora. He was resettled on Huahine in August 1777 with European-style goods, house, garden, vineyard, and animals. Cook commented on Omai’s good nature and docile disposition though he was less enthusiastic about Omai’s ability to learn. No more news was heard of Omai or the two Maori boys. Omai was thought to have died two years after landing on Huahine. A pantomime Omai or a Trip around the World was a spectacular success in Europe in 1885–88 and his portrait by Joshua Reynolds is still widely published. ORTEGA, PEDRO DE (ca. 1520–?). A military officer on the first expedition of Alvaro Mendaña in 1567–69, he carried out local surveys in the Solomon Islands during the expedition’s six-month stay in 1568. A brigantine, the fiveton, undecked Santiago, was built for local exploration and Ortega and a pilot, Hernán Gallego, with 30 crew, mapped Malaita, Guadalcanal (named after Ortega’s birthplace in Spain), Florida, Savo, San Jorge, Gatukai, New Georgia, Vanganu, and Choisel. Several peaceful landings were made but violent skirmishes also occurred.

–P– PACIFIC, IMPACT ON EUROPE. The addition of a vast new region between 1521 and 1850, a third of the world’s surface, which was tropical, mysteriously and sparsely inhabitated, unclaimed by European powers, and as yet uncatalogued by Europe’s enlightenment scientists and natural historians, exerted considerable influence on

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European philosophy, politics, international relations, natural sciences, anthropology, and arts. The argument that the Pacific Islands influenced events in Europe reverses the older imperial, Eurocentric narrative in which the only significant historical phenomenon was Europe’s impact on the Pacific Islands. The practice of body adornment, tatau or tattoo, traveled to Europe, as did words like tapu or taboo, and the adventures of Alexander Selkirk, William Dampier, and others had a long-running impact on fiction and literature. The “Rime of the Ancient Mariner” and Robinson Crusoe are two often-cited examples of plots derived from real-life Pacific events. The “South Seas” began to appear regularly as a plot, location, or theme in novels, poetry, essays, and pantomime. Despite John Hawkesworth’s alterations to the journals of Samuel Wallis, Philip Carteret, John Byron, and James Cook, and the addition of personal “sentiments and observations,” An Account of Voyages Undertaken by the Order of His Present Majesty for Making Discoveries in the Southern Hemisphere was sold out in London in days. The best-selling books in Europe were the 18th century accounts of voyages by George Anson, James Cook, and LouisAntoine de Bougainville, and others. Perceptions that the Pacific Islands were a Nouvelle Cythère or paradiasical home to noble savages, soon to be ravaged by a fatal impact as Euro-Americans traveled, traded, and settled in the islands, affected the writings of seminal thinkers and authors, such as Jean-Jacques Rousseau and Denis Diderot. They created a mythological “South Seas” and particularly a “Polynesia” in reference to their own preconceptions and predelictions, rather than what was actually happening in the Pacific. Geographers like Charles de Brosses and Alexander Dalrymple were influenced by a supposed Terra Australis Incognita and, in the 19th century, the sciences we now know as hydrology, hydrography, and oceanography originated in early research expeditions in the Pacific. Later, the sciences, humanities, art, and social anthropology developed. Charles Darwin and Thomas Huxley’s Pacific voyages, the Hamburg South Seas expedition, AC Haddon’s Torres Strait expedition, and Bronislaw Malinowski’s experiences in New Guinea opened up new fields of research and methodology. Museums, galleries, salons, and drawing rooms of the wealthy regularly displayed the specimens brought back

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including curiosities, art, artifacts, and new species of flora and fauna. A voyage that failed to add any new islands or potentially exploitable resources could still be regarded a national success due to its contribution to science. The Pacific was also an arena for gaining international prestige and engaging in imperial competition. Russian expansion in its Asiatic domain, Spain and Portugal’s attempts to create monopolies over trade in the Moluccas in the west and the American coast in the east, and the search for the Northwest Passage, long a dream in Europe, meant the Pacific was central to the posturing and prestige of several European nations. The effort of Britain to cement its ascendency after victory in the Seven Years War, and France’s efforts to recapture lost prestige and colonies after its defeat, led to many expeditions to the Pacific over the next 30 years. Commercial interest in the Pacific was uneven and depended on national and domestic fortunes, but the patronage and funding for many early voyages came from merchants in Europe. The search for the Northwest Passage and the desire to monopolize the spice trade, fur trade, China trade, and whaling were associated with well-publicized additions to Pacific charts. Geographic, strategic, and scientific arguments in Europe led to voyages of exploration in the Pacific and establishing a presence in the Pacific became a historical phenomenon of considerable influence. The Pacific also exerted an antipodean impact on intellectual life in Europe. The official and unofficial voyages sent out by France, Britain, and Russia not only created a set of national heroes but also led in the late 18th century to what the historian Glynn Williams called a “Pacific craze.” PACIFIC OCEAN, NAMING. After Vasco de Balboa crossed the Isthmus of Panama and saw the expanse of a great ocean in 1513, it was known for much of the next two centuries as the South Sea or Mar Del Sur, Zuid Zee, Mare Australe, or Mer du Sud. Antonio Pigafetta’s acccount of the voyage of Ferdinand Magellan is usually attributed as the first use of the term “Pacific” because it appeared as Mare pacifico in Latin in the Italian edition and Mer pacifique in the French edition. The South Sea, Pacific Sea, or Pacific Ocean appeared on maps under various names until 1800.

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By 1800, the term “South Seas” had become a romantic, literary figure of speech. In common use, the ocean was usually divided into a North Pacific and a South Pacific. PADILLA, FRANCISCO. A Spanish captain, he was sent from Manila in 1710 on the Santissimo Trinidad, chartered by the Jesuit order to discover islands in the western Pacific. He mapped Palau and made the first confirmed European contact but Palau had been seen previously by passing Portuguese vessels and possibly by Francis Drake. PALAOS. A Spanish term used to describe the known 87 islands east of the Philippines prior to the naming of the Caroline Islands by Francisco Lazcano in 1686. In the 19th century, the term Micronesia began to be used. The word Palaos was probably derived from the indigenous word for canoe, parau or proa. PALAU, EARLY EUROPEAN CONTACT. Ferdinand Magellan in 1521, Gonzalo Espinosa in 1522, and Ruy López de Villalobos in 1542 had possibly sighted Sonsorol and Palau, and Francis Drake possibly stayed for three days in 1579. The first recorded visit was by Francisco Padilla and his pilot Josefe Somera in 1710 on the Santissima Trinidad. Two years later, Bernado de Egui came looking in 1712 for reportedly lost or killed missionaries. Felipe Tompson mapped Helen Reef in 1773 then Henry Wilson on the East India Company trader Antelope was wrecked near Oreor in 1783. When an account of Wilson’s stay on (Pelew) Palau was published by George Keate in London in 1788 as An Account of the Pelew Islands, the archipelago became well known. Today, Palau also uses the official name of Beleu. PANDORA. Commanded by Edward Edwards, the Pandora, a 24-gun frigate, was returning captured mutineers from the mutiny against William Bligh on the Bounty to England when it ran aground on the Great Barrier Reef in August 1791. Refloated by the crew, the Pandora later sank intact and settled into the sea bed. Covered by sand, the ship remained undisturbed for 180 years. The wreck was discovered by scuba divers, aided by an airborne magnetometer carried in a

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military airplane in November 1977. It was declared a protected historic site in April 1979 and the Queensland Museum carried out nine expeditions to the site between 1983 and 1999. The Pandora wreck was a unique opportunity to retrieve an intact collection of late 18thcentury tools, domestic and personal items, trade goods, and maritime technology. Along with the Lapèrouse wreck on Vanikoro, the recovery of items from the Pandora led to several exhibitions and renewed public interest in early voyages and marine archaeology. PATRICKSON. On a merchant voyage in 1822 that pioneered the Calcutta to Valparaiso route, he sighted Rakahanga and Manihiki. Rakahanga had been sighted by Pedro Quirós in 1606 and by Thaddeus Bellingshausen just two years earlier, but Manihiki was a first sighting. PATRONAGE OF EXPLORATION. The funds to finance a two- or three-year voyaging expedition came from diverse sources. Wealthy merchants often established special expeditionary partnerships with the intention of charting new trade routes such as the Northwest Passage, or trading and establishing monopolies, such as the Nassau Fleet. The Dutch East Indies Company funded the voyages of Abel Tasman and, in 1721, the town of Hoorn backed the voyage of Willem Schouten and Jacob Le Maire. Scientific organizations, such as the British Royal Society, the French Academy of Sciences, and the Royal Dutch Geographical Society, either argued for, or sponsored expeditions, for example, for the sighting of Venus in Tahiti and the Race to the snow in New Guinea. In an unusual example, a university was the major promoter of an expedition, although the British Navy often took as much credit as Edinburgh University for the Challenger expedition in 1872–76. In some cases, the sponsorship came jointly from scientists, merchants, and Naval Boards, as in the case of Nathaniel Portlock and George Dixon, the pioneering fur traders, or the voyage of George Vancouver to the Northwest Coast. The government of the day, often the monarchy in early times, also promoted and paid for expeditions, including The Holy Roman Emperor Charles V’s backing of Ferdinand Magellan’s circumnavigation and allegedly the English Queen Elizabeth’s backing of Francis Drake is privateering in 1577. The role of Prince Henry the Navigator in sponsoring exploration in Portugal

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is legendary. Spanish authorities in Mexico and South America also sponsored local voyages along the Pacific coast and across the Pacific, including the governor of Peru’s backing of the first voyage of Alvaro Mendaña in 1567. Spain also sent Pedro Sarmiento with 23 ships on the improbable and doomed mission to establish permanent settlement in the Strait of Magellan and thereby control access to the Pacific. It was not an easy task to secure funds for speculative voyages and it took Pedro Quirós six years to procure funding for his two ships and 300 men in 1605. While not funding voyages themselves, the influence of individual theorists, speculative geographers, authors, explorers, and polymaths, such as Charles de Brosses, Alexander Dalrymple, and Joseph Banks, and in Netherlands New Guinea, Hendrikus Colijn, were central to planning and the successful fund-raising for commercial and scientific, as well as naval expeditions. Private patronage was unusual although Louis-Antoine de Bougainville paid personally for one of the two ships to return Ahutoru to Tahiti, and, in the 20th century, the wealthy entrepreneur Richard Archbold funded seven Archbold expeditions in New Guinea. The main patronage, however, when considering all voyages over a 400-year period, came from the navy of the respective powers. As an arm of government policy, or in the pure pursuit of knowledge and contribution to science, charts, and maritime guidance for sailors, it was the admirals, Chiefs of Naval Boards, and returning captains and officers of the respective navies that deserve the most credit for promoting the use of government funds for exploration. In Russia, Ivan Krusenstern and Vasilii Golovnin played this role while George Anson in Britain and Louis-Isidore Duperrey, Elisabeth de Rossel, and Dumont D’Urville in France made voyages themselves and then planned, promoted, and spoke out for the funding of further expeditions. PATTERSON. A British captain in the Elizabeth sailing north out of Sydney, he mapped Arorae and Maiana Atolls in Kiribati and then Jaluit in the Marshall Islands in 1809. Jaluit had probably been seen by the Rolla out of Sydney in 1803. PEYSTER, ARENDT SCHUYLER DE. An American, he crossed from Valparaiso to India in 1819 as captain of a British merchant ves-

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sel Rebecca. He sighted Funafuti and Nukufetau, two atoll groups of islets in the Tuvalu group, which he named Ellice and De Peysters. The name Ellice Islands remained in use for the nine atolls in the archipelago until it became independent as Tuvalu in 1978. PHOTOGRAPHY. Shortly after the camera was invented in Europe in 1839 an apparatus probably traveled on a French voyage and took the world’s earliest expedition photography. However, the dates of early photographs are uncertain and the first recorded photograph, for example, of a Papuan, was not taken until 1876 in Sydney. Although the great age of Pacific exploration was over by the time the camera was invented, photography created a second phase of Euro-American “discovery” as audiences saw harbors, peaks, villages, and Pacific Islanders for the first time in black-and-white prints, lantern slides, and engravings based on photographs. Photography salons opened in port towns across the Pacific but visiting expeditions, missionaries, colonial officials, and later tourists provided most of the published photography. The imagined, romantic Nouvelle Cythère (new paradise), promoted in expedition journals, fiction, and the art of early voyages, became actual, visual evidence from real life in these early blackand-white photographs. The reading public accepted South Sea photographs as factual, as the photographer claimed, and warriors with clubs, palm-fringed lagoons, and picturesque tropical settings confirmed what was already familiar through literature. Expedition photography was offered as evidence in debates on the origin of coral atolls, flora, fauna, Polynesian migration, and the influence of nature-nurture on culture. Illustrated books by returning explorers, naturalists, geographers, anthropologists, private travelers, and resident colonial officials often contained hundreds of photographs. Other visitors such as the Hungarian collector, Lajos Biro, left 300 brilliant glass plate negatives of New Guinea that have been rarely commented on or seen. But others, including the post–World War I photographer/author Thomas McMahon, traveled widely in the southwest Pacific and published thousands of photographs in illustrated magazines and newspapers. Early 20th-century photography was closely linked to the boom in picture postcards and a new interest in discovering human types. Posed individual portraits, villages, material culture, and dance and

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ceremonial costume dominated expedition photography. Then in the 1930s, a fortunate historical and technological coincidence introduced the movie camera at the very moment New Guinea highland people were meeting Europeans for the first time. In the 1930s, Mick Leahy took 5,000 images while exploring the New Guinea highlands and a series of Dutch, American, and British expeditions recorded similar moments on film. At the same time, scientists in submersible machines were probing the Pacific’s deepest trenches with cameras and hundreds of photographically illustrated magazines, legendary in the case of National Geographic, meant that discovering the world could become an armchair pursuit. Photographs of self while traveling, of others encountered, and of places visited are still a major preoccupation of travelers. Revisionist historians rewriting colonial and imperial histories regard these early black-and-white images of the Pacific as significant evidence, but critical historical study of expedition photography has been slow to attract scholarly attention. The extant expedition photography of the Pacific is scattered in small, usually uncataloged collections around the world. The synergy between exploration and photography continues today, despite changing motivations, technologies, trends, and discourses. PIGAFETTA, ANTONIO (ca. 1486–1534). An Italian scholar and survivor of the voyage undertaken by Ferdinand Magellan and completed by Juan Sebastian del Cano in 1519–22, he was a supernumerary and the officially appointed chronicler for the expedition. He distributed lavish handwritten accounts to several monarchs in Europe and eventually sought permission to have his narrative of the voyage printed. The First Voyage around the World included several maps drawn by Pigafetta, including the first use of the word “Pacific” on a map. His account, and the edition published by the Italian historian Giovanni Rumisio, in 1550–59, was mostly about the Marianas and Philippines, the expedition having sighted only two uninhabited islands in the four-month Pacific voyage. PITCAIRN ISLAND, EARLY EUROPEAN CONTACT. In July 1767, Midshipman Robert Pitcairn saw a high rock 80 kilometers away, but when the Swallow under Phillip Carteret approached high

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surf prevented a landing. Carteret named it Pitcairns Island. It remained unsighted for the next 20 years. In 1790, a party of Bounty mutineers settled and burned the Bounty to avoid detection. It remained unsighted again until 1808. When the sealer Mayhew Folger on the Topaz disclosed there were inhabitants on the island, including the sole surviving mutineer, John Adams (alias Alexander Smith), and the world was alerted to another chapter in the mutiny on the Bounty story. In 1815, the Briton and Targus were the next visitors and from that point the Pitcairners became famous. In 1856, as the population had risen to an unsustainable 193, everyone was resettled on Norfolk Island. In 1864, several families returned to Pitcairn. The population in 2003 was 43. Although archaeological records suggest the 47 square kilometer island was inhabited in AD1100, it was deserted when the Bounty mutineers settled there in 1790. POHNPEI, EARLY EUROPEAN CONTACT. One of the eastern Caroline Islands, the single volcanic island of Pohnpei, known first on European charts as Senyavin and later as Ponape, was possibly sighted by Alvaro de Saavedra in 1529 and Pedro Quirós in 1595. In 1686, Francisco Lazcano named the archipelago the Caroline Islands but it was another 100 years before a series of further sightings by whalers and traders took place, including Thomas Read in the Alliance in 1787, the General Graham in 1812, the Marquis of Wellington in 1815, and the John Bull in 1825. In 1828, Fedor Lütke was unable to complete a survey of the island because of an aggressive reception by Pohnpeians in canoes. Two years later, the trader, James O’Connell, became the first European to live successfully on the island, but in 1836, Pohnpei’s reputation among sailors suffered when the whale ship Falcon was pillaged at Madolenihmw harbor and many Pohnpeians and some crew were killed in a local dispute. Pohnpei’s neighboring atolls of Pingelap and Ngatik were sighted and named by the China traders Mugrave and Raven in 1793, but these atolls might have been seen earlier by Saavedra in 1528–29. POLYNESIAN VOYAGING SOCIETY. The Polynesian Voyaging Society was founded in 1975 in Hawaii to acknowledge the traditions of long-distance ocean voyaging that led to the settlement of Hawaii and the scattered islands and archipelago of Oceania. The society built two

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replicas of ancient voyaging canoes, Hokule‘a and Hawai‘iloa, conducted classes, promoted maritime traditions, and stimulated similar canoe-building revivals and associations across the Pacific. Its most famous historical re-enactment was the voyage of the double-hulled Hokule‘a from Hawaii to Tahiti, and then back to Hawaii. It was called a performance-accurate voyage to avoid criticism that it was built using some modern materials. It also made a distinctively Hawaiian indigenous response to the bi-centennial in mainland America in 1976. It continued to voyage widely around the Pacific on educational and performance voyages promoting maritime traditions, long-distance voyaging, and the extraordinary early migration routes across Oceania. PORTABLE SOUP. A soup made from meat extract mixed with oatmeal designed to combat scurvy. It was first issued in 1756 and, by 1762, was on British standing orders to be issued on navy “banyan days” or the three meatless days on navv rations. The two-year voyage of John Byron in 1764–66 proved its effectiveness and by 1768, James Cook was provisioned with 1,000 pounds of glue-like cakes of portable soup, although still regarded as an experiment, along with several other cures. PORTLOCK, NATHANIEL (ca. 1748–1817). An American merchant officer, he served in the British navy on James Cook’s third voyage in 1777–80. Enlisting as an able-seaman, he was quickly promoted to master’s mate on the Discovery. His shipmates with Cook included George Dixon, John Meares, James Colnett, and George Vancouver, later to make their own Pacific voyages. Like his former shipmates, Portlock returned to the merchant navy and was involved in opening the northwest Pacific fur trade and establishing Hawaii as a port of call. The King George, on a pioneering voyage in 1786–89 to establish a fur trade depot at Nootka Sound, was the first British ship to visit Hawaii after Cook’s death. The newly founded King Georges Sound Company sent Portlock and Dixon in two ships to the Northwest coast and Colnett on another commercial expedition in 1787. Portlock’s A Voyage around the World but Particularly to the Northwest Coast of America was published in 1789. Portlock then served as captain of the Assistant on William Bligh’s second breadfruit voyage 1791–93 and was awarded a 500-pound bonus for a successful

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voyage. Bligh received 1,000 pounds and a gold medal. Portlock’s allegation in 1787 that the Spanish had brought smallpox to the Tlingit villages of the Northwest Pacific coast in 1775 created a debate over the origins of the disease that lasted until late in the 20th century. See also QUADRA, JUAN FRANSISCO. PORTUGAL, PACIFIC EXPLORATION. With the invention of the light, fast, flat-bottomed but sturdy caravel, the support of an enthusiastic monarch, geographer, and evangelist, Prince Infante Dom Henrique of Portugal (1394–1460) (known as Henry the Navigator) and his establishment of shipbuilding, map-making, and navigation schools at Sagres, near Cape St. Vincent, the small nation of Portugal led the remarkable exploration period that broke out of the Atlantic. Bartolomeu Diaz (ca. 1450–1500), Alvise Cadamosto (1432–1488), and then Vasco Da Gama (ca. 1469–1525) in 1498 rounded the Cape of Good Hope and created a trade route that led to a Portuguese trading empire extending in the 1520s from Timor, Ternate, Banda, and the Moluccas to China (Macao) and Japan. The first navigator to cross the Pacific was a Portuguese who had already spent eight years in the Moluccas and India, but Ferdinand Magellan, piqued at a refusal by the Portuguese king to support his plans for an expedition, eventually sailed on behalf of Spain. The Pacific was approached from the west following the Portuguese capture of Malacca by Afonso Albuquerque in 1511 and from the east following the Spaniard Vasco Balboa’s sighting of the Pacific from the Isthmus of Panama in 1513. The Portuguese, conscious of the spheres of influences created by the Treaties of Torredesillas (1494) and Zaragoza (1529), explored the Indian Ocean, the Asian coast, and south toward Australia. French copies of secret 16thcentury Portuguese maps, including the famous Dauphin Map (1536), show a southern continent and the explorer Mendonça in 1522 is alleged to have reached well down the east coast of Australia. The Portuguese concentrated on their Indian Ocean trade routes but successive governors of the Moluccas commissioned exploratory voyages into the Pacific. Governor Jorge Meneses en route to the Moluccas was blown off course and sighted New Guinea in 1526 and Governor Antonio Galvano sent Diogo de Rocha in 1525 and Francisco De Castro in 1537 north to the western Carolines.

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Eventually the Portuguese interest in exploration waned as they were overpowered by the Spanish. From their base in the Philippines, Spain established a Manila galleon route north and east across the Pacific in 1565 and finally, in the 17th century, the Portuguese empire in the Moluccas was overwhelmed by the Dutch. On the South American coast, the Portuguese were also overtaken by other nations. PRADO DE TOVAR, DIEGO. A Portuguese navigator, cartographer, and engineer, he served on the Pedro Quirós expedition of 1605–6. He made the first known drawings of Oceanic people in Vanuatu, New Guinea, and the Torres Strait while traveling toward the Moluccas with Luis de Torres. In a series of letters and an account of the voyage or Relación in 1608, he claimed to have made discoveries usually attributed to Torres. PRIBILOV, GAVRIIL (OR GERASIM) LOGINOVICH (?–1796). The captain of a Russian American Company fur trader in 1786–87, he mapped two islands north of the Aleutians, named St. Paul and St. George. They were renamed the Pribilof Islands in 1789. PRIVATEER. A term referring to a privately owned, armed vessel engaged in war service, usually under commission from a government. It was a term used synonymously with buccaneer for those plundering, capturing ships, and raiding along the Spanish–South American coast in the 17th century.

–Q– QUADRA, JUAN FRANCISCO DE LA BODEGA Y (ALSO KNOWN AS BODEGA) (1743–1794). A Spanish captain born in Lima, Peru, he voyaged with Francisco Maurelle along the Northwest Pacific coast in 1774 and after separating reached as far as 58° 30' north. He returned in 1779 and again went as far north as Alaska. These voyages were to counter Russian and British expansion in the fur trade. In 1789, he returned as the senior Spanish officer on the coast and established a base at Nootka in 1792, from which he made several additions to the local charts. Many histories wrongly claim

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his visit to Tlingit villages at Bucareli Sound in August 1775 began the spread of smallpox. The first devasting smallpox epidemic did not occur until early in 1800. He gave valuable advice on northern waters to the Spanish expedition of Alessandro Malaspina in 1789–91 and, because of cordial relations with George Vancouver, when they met at Nootka in 1792 the name Quadra and Vancouver Island was added to charts. It was later shortened to Vancouver Island. ´ S, PEDRO FERNANDEZ DE (1565–1615). A skilled and QUIRO well-known Portuguese pilot, he joined the second Spanish expedition of Alvaro Mendaña in Callao in 1595 as captain and chief pilot. After abandoning a plan to settle at Ndeni in the Santa Cruz Islands and the death of Mendaña and Lorenzo Barreto, he took effective leadership of the expedition and in the San Jerónimo, in what has been called one of the greatest feats in Pacific navigation, Quirós took a rotting ship and dispirited crew to Guam, Manila, and finally back to Peru in 1596. His report provided a detailed account of the expedition. In 1605, with the support of the Spanish monarchy, he departed from Peru with three ships, the pilot Luis de Torres, senior officer Diego de Prado Y Tovar, and six friars to establish a colony and bring Christianity to an alleged southern continent. On the voyage out, they mapped islands in the Tuamotu Archipelago and finally reached Espiritu Santo Island in Vanuatu. After a few weeks, they abandoned the settlement, called New Jerusalem, and Torres headed southwest in the San Pedrico passing through Torres Strait and finally reaching Manila. Quirós in the San Pedro sailed north, mapping Makin Meang in Kiribati and finally recrossed the Pacific to Peru in November 1606. The list of islands added to charts was impressive; nine islands and groups in the Tuamotu Archipelago, Caroline Island, Rakahanga in the Cook Islands, Duff Islands, Tikopia, three islands in the Banks group, two or more islands in Vanuatu, and Makin Meang in Kiribati. Torres and Tovar also added Malekula in Vanuatu and several islands in New Guinea, as well as the important seaway, the Torres Strait. The failure of Quiros as an evangelist and colonizer closed the Spanish period of exploration, but his name is legendary in Pacific exploration.

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–R– RACE TO THE SNOW, WEST NEW GUINEA. The exploration of Dutch New Guinea (now the Indonesian province of West Papua) was stimulated in the 1870s and 1880s by scientific organizations, including the Royal Dutch Geographical Society, the Society for Promotion of Natural History Research in the Netherlands Colonies and the Society for Scientific Research of the Dutch Colonies, and particularly the reports of Hendrikus Colijn after he was sent in 1905–7 to report on the resource potential, appropriate administration policies, and the exploration required to map the interior. Permanent Dutch posts had only been established in 1898 and Catholic and Protestant missions in the early 1900s. The central highlands were unmapped and few Europeans had ventured inland until Colijn’s report led to a series of attempts by Dutch and British expeditions to scale the highest peaks in what became known as the “race to the snow” in 1907–15. Military expeditions led by Hendrikus Lorentz, Franssen Herderschee, Anton Colijn, JT de Wal, JV Opperman, and van Nouhuys explored the river systems running into the interior and trekked into the mountains between 1907 and 1915 but there were 79 deaths among the 800 men involved, the expense was prohibitive and they produced little by way of information about the interior. Only Wilhelmina Top at 15,600 feet was reached in 1913. Colijn called them “costly picnics.” Part of the haste was due to Dutch desire not to be beaten in these discoveries by the British, who had announced two expeditions with the same purpose. The British Ornithologists Union expedition of 300 men led by CG Rawlings and Eric Marshall in 1909–11 was followed by the Alexander Wollaston expedition of 1912–13 with 225 men. Wollaston reached the Carstenz snowline in January 1913. After a halt called during World War I, a limited expedition program resumed. The AJA van Overeem and JHG Kremer expeditions of 1920–22, the Stirling expedition of 1920–26, the AH (Anton) Colijn expedition in 1936–36, and exploration undertaken by companies searching for oil gradually mapped the interior. The Kremer expedition with 800 carriers, the largest mounted in New Guinea, reached Mt. Wilhelmina in 1921. Aerial surveys and food-drops were significant improvements in the logistics of these expeditions.

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Although no anthropologists accompanied the expeditions, valuable records were made of Amungme, Nogullo, and Tapiro people, and a large number of photographs were taken by members of the Dutch and British expeditions. The Grand Valley of the Bailem was not entered by Europeans until the third Archbold expedition in 1938–39 and the Carstenz Pyramide, sighted by Jan Carstenz in 1623, and the highest peak in the Pacific was not reached until 1962. The highland copper and gold deposits at Ersberg and Grasberg were surveyed in the 1960s, leading to Freeport becoming one of world’s richest mines. RAMUSIO, GIOVANNI (1485–1557). An Italian publisher and compiler of voyage journals based in Venice, he published the influential accounts of Ferdinand Magellan’s voyage by Antonio Pigafetta and the voyage of Juan de Villalobos by Juan Gaetano, and others, in a three-volume compilation Navigationi e viaggi in 1550–59. It was edited and republished several times over the next 50 years. RAPANUI/EASTER ISLAND, EARLY EUROPEAN CONTACTS. A member of the crew or possibly Roelof Rosendaal, the captain of the smallest ship in the Jacob Roggeveen expedition in 1721–22, was the first to sight Rapanui on 5 April 1722. The usual practice was for Roggeveen or Rosendaal as captains to be given the credit. Fortyeight years later, the Spanish expedition of Felipe Gonzalez stayed for a week in 1770 and claimed it for Spain followed by Domingo de Boenechea who passed by in 1772, James Cook in 1774, and JeanFrançois de Lapérouse in 1786. Initially, it was mistaken for Davis Land, reported by a British privateer and included in a map in William Dampier’s New Voyage in 1697. Roggeveen and later French and Spanish expeditions had been sent to find the mysterious, but nonexistent, Davis Land, but accidentally came across Rapanui. RAVEN, WILLIAM (1756–1814). Naval officer and later private trader in Sydney, he was the captain of the British East India Company vessel Britannia on a trading voyage from Botany Bay (Sydney) to India. He mapped three islands between New Caledonia and Vanuatu between August 1793 and May 1796. They were the Loyalty Islands of Mare, Lifou, Tiga, and Ouvea. He also gave a firm

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sighting of Ngatik in the Caroline Islands though it had been seen before by Felipe Tompson. RECEVEUR, CLAUDE-FRANÇOIS JOSEPH (1757–1788). A naturalist and priest, he served as chaplain on the Astrolabe during the voyage of Jean-François de Lapérouse in 1785–88. On reaching Botany Bay (Sydney) he died from injuries received in an affray at Fasaga Bay in Samoa and was buried ashore. His natural history collections were lost when the ships were wrecked some time later on Vanikoro. RETES, INNIGO (or Yñigo). A Spanish captain in the expedition of Ruy López Villalobos, he made a failed attempt to sail in the San Juan from Tidore in the Moluccas to Mexico in 1545. He named Nueva Guinea, (New Guinea) on 20 June 1545 as he thought it resembled the Guinea coast in Africa. He continued eastward as far as the Sepik River, sighting islands west of Manus Island that had been sighted by Alvaro de Saavedra 16 years earlier. RINGGOLD, CADWALADER (1802–1867). An American naval officer and coastal geographer, he visited the Pacific in the Vandalia in 1828–32 and then was third in command and captain of the Porpoise on the US South Seas Exploring Expedition led by Charles Wilkes in 1838–42. He carried out surveys in Antarctica (twice), the South American coast, the Tuamotu Archipelago, Tonga, New Zealand, Samoa, and the Northwest Pacific coast. In 1851, he published A Series of Charts with Sailing Directions. Ringgold then led the five ships of the American North Pacific Exploring Expedition in the Vincennes in 1853–55 to survey the Bering Straits and north Pacific waters relevant to American whalers and trading routes. The Act of Congress orders instructed him to carry out surveys to “diminish the hazards of the ocean.” Both the Porpoise, lost in a storm in 1854, and the Vincennes had been used in the Wilkes expedition. Due to ill health he was sent home in September 1854 and replaced by John Rodgers. The Civil War prevented the publication of an account of the voyage. ROCHA, DIOGO DE. A Portuguese captain, he stayed for four months at Ulithi atoll in the western Carolines in 1525. This was the first con-

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tact between Europeans and Micronesians. He possibly visited Yap naming it Islas de Sequeria (after the ship’s pilot) and returned to the Moluccas via Halmahera. An account of the stay in Ulithi was recorded by Portuguese historian Joao de Barros. RODGERS, JOHN (1812–1882). A USA naval officer, he commanded the John Hancock in the American North Pacific Exploring Expedition in 1853–55. After Cadwalader Ringgold fell ill, he took command of the expedition, carrying out surveys in the north Pacific, the Asiatic coast, Hawaii, and Society Islands. In 1865–72, he served on the Vanderbilt and the Colorado in North Pacific and Asian waters protecting American trade interests. ROGERS, WOODES (1678–1732). After serving in the merchant navy, he proposed to investors in Bristol that a privateering voyage to raid Manila galleons in the Pacific would be profitable. He left in the Duke and Duchess in 1708 and, despite mutinies and scurvy, captured valuable prizes and then sailed for Guam, Batavia, and finally home to England in 1711. This was the third British passage around Cape Horn. At Juan Fernandez in January 1709, he also rescued Alexander Selkirk. He published Cruising Voyage around the World in 1717 and this was given to John Clipperton and George Shelvocke on their privateering voyage the next year. It also included an account of finding Selkirk after four years as a castaway. Two years later, Daniel Defoe reworked this story into the classic novel Robinson Crusoe. ROGGEVEEN, JACOB (1659–1729). A Dutch navigator, he served in the East Indies and then returned to the Netherlands and promoted a plan for a Dutch commercial and scientific voyage to the Pacific. It was sponsored by a rival monopoly, the Dutch West Indies Company keen to break the control over the Spice trade held by the Dutch East Indies Company (VOC). The aim was to locate Davis Land, Terra Australias Incognita, and open a western trade route to the Spice Islands. There had been an 80-year gap since the voyage of Abel Tasman to New Zealand and the Pacific. In 1721, Roggeveen left Texel with three ships. After visiting Juan Fernandez, the Africaansche Galey, captained by Roelof Rosendaal, sighted Rapanui/Easter Island where Roggeveen opened a long-running debate on the origins of

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Polynesians by noting “the inability of human understanding is powerless to comprehend by what means they could have been transported to the island.” Although losing the Africaansche Galey on Takapoto Atoll, Roggeveen added six islands to the charts of the Tuamotu Archipelago, two islands in the Society Islands, and four islands in Samoa. The survivors of the wreck of the Africaansche Galey on Takapoto Atoll became some of the first beachcombers when five men remained there in 1722. Roggeveen then sailed through previously charted New Guinea waters and on to Batavia. In this crossing of the Pacific and fruitless search for Terra Australis Incognita, half the crew died of scurvy and others were lost through desertion and violent encounters with indigenous inhabitants. On Maketea he opened fire on a crowded beach and in retaliation the next day Makateans killed 10 of the crew in an ambush on shore. He failed to find the riches supposed to be in the Pacific, lamenting the islands he had charted were not mountainous but low and medium islands that allegedly could not produce fine metals and therefore “these two types are not the object of our expedition and enterprise.” On arrival in Batavia in 1722, the VOC confiscated the Arend and Theinhoven for trespassing on the VOC’s monopoly and Roggeveen was sent back to the Netherlands. A long lawsuit in the Netherlands ended with the VOC compensating the expedition for losses and costs. Although motivated by a commercial gain, Roggeveen’s voyage was one of the major exploratory voyages in the 140 years between William Dampier’s New voyage being published in 1627 and the revival of exploration in the 1760s. In that period, only 12 expeditions crossed the Pacific and although records show that 168 French merchant or buccaneer vessels entered the Pacific, they remained in Asian waters or along the South American coast. Roggeveen made no conclusive sightings, but his voyage was often cited in the following century as the search for Terra Australis Incognita continued. The accounts of Roggeveen’s voyage appeared in English and French in John Campbell’s Navigantium atque Itinerantium Bibliotheca in 1744 and Charles de Brosses Histoire in 1756. ROQUEFEUIL, CAMILLE DE (ca. 1780–?). A former French naval officer, he joined the merchant service as captain of the Bordelais. On

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a voyage in 1816–19, seeking sea otter furs and sandalwood for the China trade, he spent two months in the Marquesas and made two voyages to the Northwest coast hoping to profit from the fur trade. He visited Hawaii and finally sailed to China and back to France to complete a circumnavigation. It was not a profitable voyage, but when French and English editions of his two-volume account of the voyage appeared in 1823 it alerted French merchants to the commercial potential in the Pacific. ROSENDAAL, ROELOF (?–1722). The Dutch captain of the Africaansche Galey, the smallest of the three ships in Jacob Roggeveen’s expedition in 1721–23, he was probably the first to sight Rapanui/Easter Island on 5 April 1722. This sighting is usually credited to Roggeveen. ROSSEL, ELISABETH-PAUL-EDOUARD DE (1765–1829). A French naval officer and a protégé of Joseph-Antoine Bruny d’Entrecasteaux, having served with him in India, he was selected as a junior officer on d’Entrecasteaux’s expedition sent to search for JeanFrançois de Lapérouse in 1791. At the age of 28, after d’Entrecasteaux died in July 1793 and the next in command, Hesmivy d’Auribeau, took ill and later died in Java, he took command of the expedition. Another senior officer, Huon de Kermadec, had died in May 1793. After failing to find Lapérouse after two years and dispirited by death and illness, the expedition headed for Asian ports and France. On reaching Jakarta, the expedition broke into royalist and revolutionary parties (the French king and queen had just been beheaded) and the Dutch East Indies Company commandeered the two ships. Returning to Europe on a Dutch ship, Rossel was captured by the British and taken to England. He returned to France in 1802 and became a respected expert on astronomy and magnetism, which he had studied during the voyage. In 1808, he published an atlas and edited d’Entrecasteaux’s journals for the publication of the official two-volume account Voyage D’Entrecasteaux. As rear admiral and member of the Academy of Sciences, his patronage and advice helped in planning the voyages of Louis-Ididore Duperrey and Jules Dumont D’Urville. RULE, GEORGE. An American whaler, he made two whaling voyages to the Pacific. He added one of the last islands to the map of the

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Cook Islands when he mapped Nassau in 1822. He named it Lydra Island, but it was also known later as Mitchell or Newport. RUSSIA, EARLY EXPLORATION. The first Russian to look out on Pacific waters was Mostvitin in an expedition in 1639–42. A hundred years later, the first Russian to sight the American coast was Mikhail Gvozdev in 1732, although this was not confirmed for 12 years due to difficulties in sending reports from the Asiatic coast to St. Petersburg. Several Russian expeditions began exploring the commercial potential of the north Pacific and the Asiatic coast, including Vitus Bering (1728–30), and Aleksei Chirikov (1740–41), and Petr Krenitsyn and Mikhail Levashov (1766–69). The great age of Russian exploration occurred between 1803 and 1833. Thirty-three voyages were made in this period, including Ivan Krusenstern and Yurii Lisianskii (1803–6), Leontii Hagemeister (1806–9), Vasilii Golovnin (1809–14 and 1816), Mikhail Lazerev (1813–14 and 1819–21), Otto Kotzebue (1815–18), Thaddeus Bellingshausen (1920), and Fedor Lütke in the Senyavin in 1827–29. Further voyages investigating oceangraphy and meteorology were undertaken, including the Vitiaz captained by Stepan Makárov in 1886–89. These voyages were motivated by scientific and geographical concerns and amassed huge natural history collections, contributed to ethnography, and finalized the charting of much of the Pacific. A secondary motivation was the desire to link the Russian empire in Europe to its Pacific shores and to expand the Russian monopoly of Asiatic and North American Pacific coast commerce. Men like Krusenstern and Golovnin made several voyages, published books and charts, and after promotion, used their patronage to sponsor younger officers and the planning of voyages in the following decades.

–S– SAAVEDRA, ALVARO DE (ALSO KNOWN AS CERON) (??–1529). A Spanish captain, he left Acapulco in 1527 with three ships to search for the expedition of seven ships under the command of Garcia Jofre de Loiasa, lost in 1525. He was also commissioned secretly by Hernan Cortes, the governor of Mexico, to bring back spice plants and

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seedlings. Although losing two of his locally built ships, he reached the Philippines and Moluccas in the Florida. This was the first east-to-west crossing in the North Pacific and an amazing feat in a small ship with a crew of 12 sailors. It also opened the westward route using the prevailing trade winds in the 10° to 13° north latitudes, a route followed until 1815 by Manila galleons. In Tidore, he found some survivors of the Loiasa expedition and, after a failed attempt to return to Mexico by passing south of the equator in June 1528, he tried again in May 1529 by following a course north of New Guinea. He then backtracked north across the equator and through the Caroline Islands to try and catch the easterly winds at 40° north. He died at sea at 26° north in 1529. The expedition returned to the Moluccas after failing to find an eastward route. The Portuguese captured the crew and eventually only eight made it back to Spain in 1534. Saavedra had optimistically named Biak the Isla del Oro (Island of Gold), sighted the Admiralty Islands, and named Urrais la grande or Manus Island. Although positions in his journal are vague, he added six islands in the Marshalls and four islands in the Caroline Islands, as well as many others that cannot be confirmed with certainity. SAILORS. See CREW; PATRONAGE; SHIPMATES; SHIPS. SALAZAR, TORIBO ALONSO DE (?–1526). A Spanish captain who took command of the Santa Maria de la Victoria after Garcia Jofre de Loiasa and Juan del Cano died during the Loiasa expedition of 1525–26. Salazar visited the Marianas and was the first to sight Bokak atoll (formerly Taongi) in the Marshall Islands in August 1526. Bokak was known as San Bartolome for a long time, after the saint whose feast was celebrated the day Salazar sighted land. Although unable to find an anchorage, this was the first European visit to the Marshall Islands. SAN LESMES. An 80-ton Spanish caravel with a crew of 53, it was lost during the Garcia Jofre de Loiasa expedition 1525–26. After four cannon were found on Amanu Reef near Tahiti in 1929 and 1969, it was claimed they came from the San Lesmes. A long archival search by historian Robert Langdon resulted in two controversial books on the possible fate of the “lost caravel” being published in 1975 and 1988.

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SANDWICH, JOHN MONTAGU, FOURTH EARL OF (1718–1792). A British politician and First Lord of the Admiralty in 1748–51 and 1771–82, he was involved in sponsoring and organizing several naval voyages in the expansionary period after the Seven Years War. He defended the navy and ensured James Cook remained commander of his three expeditions, despite the plea by the civilians, Alexander Dalrymple and Joseph Banks, that they take command. He supported Cook, nominated him for promotion and, after Cook’s first voyage, arranged an audience with the King, an unusual privilege for a lowerranked officer. He was a patron and initimate friend of Joseph Banks, sent the Tongan, New Zealand, and other Pacific curiosities given to him by Cook to Oxford University and met Omai in London. He took Omai to a country estate for a week and gave him a specially built suit of mail to take back to the islands. After being named in his honor by Cook, the Sandwich Islands later took the name Hawaiian Islands. Cook had briefly named islands in Tonga after the earl of Sandwich, but changed the names when he discovered the more impressive Hawai‘i. SARMIENTO, PEDRO Y GAMBA (ALSO KNOWN AS GAMBOA) (1532–1592). A Spanish mathematician, promoter of Spanish expansion, and historian of the Incas, he promoted the presence of a Terra Australis nondum cognita marked on Ortelius’s world map in 1570. Regarded as the best navigator in Peru, he then promoted, helped organize, and served as captain of the Capitana Los Reyes on the voyage led by Alvaro de Mendaña in 1567–69. This failed to find the great Southland, to “conquer infidels,” or to find gold in lands allegedly between New Guinea and the coast of Chilea. An attempt to establish a colony in the Solomon Islands was a failure. With the pilot Hernán Gallego in the Santiago, a small ship built for surveying in the Solomon Islands, he made several trips and charted nearby islands. He was involved in several violent incidents, stealing food, taking hostages, and killing and burning in revenge. After the settlement at San Christobal was abandoned, the two ships made a long and rough passage back to Callao. In 1579–80, to forestall an anticipated incursion into the “Spanish lake” by Francis Drake, Sarmiento surveyed the southern Chile coast and the Strait of Magellan and then sailed to Spain. He was sent back to the Strait as governor in 1581–86 with a fleet of 23 ships to

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establish a permanent Spanish presence. This improbable venture to establish cities and dominate passage through the Straits failed and on returning to Spain he was captured by the British. He was treated well and, despite Spanish policy of keeping all maps secret, exchanged cartographic knowledge with British geographers. In 1590, he finally made it back to Spain after also being captured and held for ransom in France for three years. Sarmiento was the first to sight the Solomon Islands and, along with Mendaña, in historian Oscar Spate’s opinion, “was indeed one of the most remarkable men of his age . . . seaman and soldier, navigator and cosmographer, scholar and explorer, poet of sorts.” He died at sea on an expansionary expedition to the West Indies. SCHAPENHAM, GHEEN HUYGEN (OR GEEN HUGO) (?–1625). A Dutch captain, he had already voyaged to the East Indies in 1615 before joining the Nassau Fleet of 11 ships and 1,600 men under Jacques l’Hermite in 1623–25. When l’Hermite died in June 1624, he took command of the expedition. After mediocre success raiding on the South American coast and failing to capture a rich Manila galleon, he crossed the Pacific to Guam, the Moluccas, and Batavia. The expedition broke up and he died in Sunda Strait while heading back to Europe with two ships from the original fleet. SCHOUTEN, JAN. See SCHOUTEN, WILLEM. SCHOUTEN, WILLEM CORNELISZ VAN (ca. 1567–1625). A Dutch captain who had been to the East Indies three times, he captained the two vessels, Eendracht and Hoorn, with his younger brother Jan Schouten, on the expedition led by Jacob Le Maire in 1615–16. Jan Schouten died on 9 March 1616 just after the Eendracht left Juan Fernandez. The expedition was sent to search for the Terra Australis Incognita suggested by Pedro Quirós and to find a western passage to the Spice Islands to challenge the monopoly of the Dutch East Indies Company (VOC). Willem discovered a more southern, faster, and safer route around Cape Horn in 1616, which he named Le Maire Strait. Le Maire in turn named Cape Hoorn (now Cape Horn) after Schouten’s birthplace. After the Hoorn was lost in a fire and the crew transferred, the

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Eendracht crossed the Pacific alone using a very southerly route and discovered Pukapuka, Manihi, Rangiroa, and Takapoto atolls in the Tuamotu Archipelago and then Tafahi, Niuafou, Horne, and Niuatobutabu in the Tonga group, and finally Alofi and Futuna (Wallis and Futuna). Schouten then mapped the Schouten Islands north of New Guinea, reaching Ternate in September 1616. The circumnavigation of nearly two years had not added many new islands, but Abel Tasman later used Shouten’s charts while sailing along the north coast of New Guinea. The expedition had visited Juan Fernandez and it soon became a port-of-call for trans-Pacific voyagers and buccaneers not wanting to rely on Spanish ports on the South American coast. Willem Schouten noted tree trunks well out to sea indicating the mouth of a large river, the Sepik, on the New Guinea coast. His description of calm waters and the absence of a swell, suggesting the presence of a large land mass south of the Tuamotu Archipelago, also attracted attention from promoters of the Terra Australis Incognita theory. A drawing done on May 8, 1616, of a double-hulled Tongan canoe with lateen sails is often cited and reproduced in debates about Oceanic voyaging. His account The Relation of a Wonderful Voyage was published in 1619 but he praised his own achievements over Le Maire. An account by Joris Spilbergen in 1619 and the official account Speighel der Australische Navigatie in 1622 provided a more balanced record. The Schouten and Le Maire voyage was achieved with the loss of only three men, and none from scurvy. In the islands the record was less favorable, as they sailed on leaving behind perhaps hundreds of dead Pacific Islanders. Schouten has not been acknowledged historically as the practice has been to attribute discoveries to the leader of an expedition. Their voyage, with Schouten as the captain and navigator and Le Maire as the expedition leader, awakened Dutch and British interest in the Pacific, opened a new southerly path to the Pacific, challenged the power of monopoly companies, contributed to the mystery surrounding a southern continent and made one of most signifigant voyages of exploration in the 17th century. SCIENCE AND EXPLORATION. The acquisition of new colonies, minerals, spices, and trade motivated many early exploratory voyages by the Portuguese, Spanish, and Dutch, and there was a sense of

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adventure in the quest to go to the furthermost end of the earth just to see what was there. Gradually, geographical and scientific knowledge became an important motivation. The first scientist on a Pacific voyage was Georg Stellar with Vitus Bering in 1741–42. Louis-Antoine de Bougainville’s expedition in 1766–69 only carried the natural history expert or naturalist Philibert Commerson and the cartographer Charles Romainville, but James Cook’s three voyages beginning in 1768 set a new standard. The historian Bernard Smith succinctly summed up the scientific impact of Cook’s three voyages by noting the first was botanical par excellence, the second meteorological, and the third ethnographic. They were first and foremost surveying expeditions and should be considered as founding the sciences of hydrology and hydrography. The names of the scientists and artists who traveled with Cook are legendary; the astronomer Charles Green, naturalists Joseph Banks, Daniel Solander, and Herman Spöring and artists Sydney Parkinson and Alexander Buchan on the first voyage; the astronomers William Bayly and William Wales, naturalists Johann and Georg Forster and Anders Sparrman and the artist William Hodges on the second voyage; the astronomer Joseph Billings and the artists John Webber and William Ellis on the third voyage. In the 19th century, voyages were planned with scientific research as a main purpose. This was evident in the Nicolas-Thomas Baudin expedition of 1800–1804, which included five zoologists, five gardeners, four artists, four astronomers and hydrographers, three botanists, and two mineralogists. Other 19th-century scientific expeditions included Frederick Beechey on the Blossom in 1825–28, Robert Fitzroy on the Beagle in 1831–36, Charles Wilkes and the American South Seas Exploring Expedition in 1838–42, George Belknap and the Tuscarora expedition in 1873–74, and George Nares and the Challenger expedition in 1872–76. The Challenger and the Tuscarora expeditions surveyed the ocean floor and produced a mass of data for the new science of oceanography. The voyages previously labeled as a search for trade, souls, and colonies in unknown lands, and later labeled as scientific and geographical voyages, are now argued historically to be equally about the emerging natural and physical sciences, as well as about ego, theater, art, literature, philosophy, and humanity.

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SCURVY. The scurvy suffered by sailors on long voyages was thought to be an infectious disease like cholera or typhoid but numerous causes were suggested, including contact by breath and inactivity. Bloodletting was regarded as a cure for over a century. Scurvy caused swelling in the gums and legs, sores, and listlessness, and, although fatal, could be reversed quickly if sailors were put on a diet that included vitamin C. The death rate from scurvy was high, usually 40 percent in the early expeditions and often as high as 70 percent. Ship log books regularly recorded not having enough men fit to raise sails or weather violent storms. It was an accepted evil on long voyages, and sailors therefore looked expectantly to reaching land where fresh food would again be available. The earliest recorded incident occurred when European ships made the first long voyages out of the Atlantic to India. From Vasco Da Gama’s rounding of Cape Horn in 1494 to the declaration that all British shipping would carry cures containing ascorbic acid (vitamin C) in 1795, perhaps two million sailors died from scurvy. Although many accidental discoveries of the curative powers of lime and lemon juice were made, the problem was not diagnosed as a dietary disease caused by vitamin deficiency until the mid-18th century. In an effort to discover a supplement to salted meat and the standard ship biscuits, numerous experiments were carried out— portable soup, citrus fruit, lemon kob, sauerkraut, Kerguélen cabbage, malt wort (based on a paste promoted by David Macbride in his Experimental essays (1764), a book that James Cook carried on the Endeavour), and saloup, a popular drink. Maintaining regular access to fresh supplies was eventually identified as the best cure. In 1753, Dr. James Lind (1716–94) published a Treatise on scurvy that identified citrus fruit as the best vitamin supplement, and although it went to three editions in 1757 and 1772, and he published other works on the health of seamen, it was the voyages of John Byron in 1764–66 and James Cook in 1768–79 that proved a strict dietary regime and fresh supplies at each port-of-call, such as onions, celery, citrus fruits, green vegetables, as well as sauerkraut and portable soup could save sailors from scurvy. In 1776, Cook gave a paper to the Royal Society in London on his methods of combating scurvy but the credit for solving the problem was shared by the many ship’s officers, captains, doctors, and re-

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searchers who eventually solved the riddle of scurvy and in particular the efforts of the Scottish physician Gilbert Blane (1749–1834), who introduced lime juice as a cure and led to its compulsory issue on British ships (the origin of the phrase “Limey” for Britain and British sailors). In 1780, Blane published the influential On the Most Effectual Means for Preserving the Health of Seamen. The American navy began issuing lime juice in 1808. SELKIRK, ALEXANDER (1676–1721). During the privateering expedition of William Dampier in 1703, he served as master under Thomas Stradling on the Cinque Ports. He asked to be set ashore on Juan Fernandez Island, unhappy with the quarreling, mutinies, and conflict over prizes during the voyage along the American coast. He remained alone until found by Woodes Rogers and Dampier in 1709. He was taken on board, promoted shortly after, given command of prizes captured by Rogers, and eventually returned to England in 1711, where he was rewarded with an 800-pound share of the 170,000-pound booty. Rogers told his story in an account published in 1717 and Selkirk became a celebrity. His story appeared in newspapers and pamphlets and was embellished as the basis for Daniel Defoe’s The Life and Strange and Surprising Adventures of Robinson Crusoe in 1719. Selkirk married twice and, in 1720, enlisted in the navy, only to die of fever on a voyage to West Africa in 1721. SEPIK RIVER. The second largest river in Papua New Guinea, the Sepik flows for 1,100 kilometers from the central cordillera to enter the Bismarck Sea at Cape Girgir. The huge outflow of brown water from the mouth had been noticed by Jacob Le Maire, Willem Schouten, Abel Tasman, and Jules Dumont d’Urville between 1616 and 1827, but the mouth was not explored by Otto Finsch until 1885. He named it the Kaiserin Augusta River. The next year, Dallmann sailed 56 kilometers and then von Schleinitz 380 kilometers up stream. In 1887, another German expedition in the Samoa reached 600 kilometers upstream. The German governor Albert Hahl traveled 320 kilometers upstream in the cruiser Cormoran and Georg Thilenius during the German South Sea Expedition also explored upstream in 1909. The first volume of the 29 published by the South Sea expedition was Otto Reche’s Kaiserin-Augusta Fluss, a study of the people

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of the Sepik River basin. In 1910, a German–Dutch border expedition reached the 960 kilometers mark and in 1912–13 another expedition extended the chart of the river a further 32 kilometers. SEVEN YEARS WAR. The Seven Years War was fought from 1756 to 1763 and ended in victory for the British, with Prussia as an ally, against France, with Spain, Austria, and Russia as allies. As well as the War of Spanish Succession (1702–13), Britain had gone to war with Spain three times between 1714 and 1750 and, in 1756, it challenged France for control of North America. The Seven Years War was fought in the colonies in North America, Caribbean, India, and Africa, and in Europe. Known in North America as the “French and Indian War,” it was perhaps the first world war and it certainly changed the global balance of power. The Treaty of Paris made Britain the paramount power in eastern North America and India, as well as obtaining small gains in the West Indies and Africa. France ceded its holdings west of the Mississippi River to Spain, and France, the most populous industrial nation in Europe and the acknowledged center of arts, science, and intellectual life, was humbled. The British assumed a global dominance of trade, colonies, industry, the merchant marine, and strategic control of the seas. The British merchant fleet trebled in size between 1700 and 1766, but the war temporarily ended schemes of Pacific expansion and exploration. Now freed from war, Britain set about to establish trade routes to the “South Sea” and Asia and in a burst of exploration between 1764 and 1779 sent the voyages of John Byron, Samuel Wallis, Philip Carteret, and the three voyages of James Cook to the Pacific. France, in an attempt to regain lost prestige and acquire new territories, sent the voyages of Louis-Antoine de Bougainville, Jean-François-Marie de Surville, Marc-Joseph Marion Dufresne, Jean-François de Lapérouse, Joseph-Antoine Bruny d’Entrecasteaux, Yves Kerguélen, and Huon de Kermadec to the Pacific between 1766–93. SEVER, WILLIAM. A British captain sailing in the Lady Penrhyn, one of the First Fleet ships now freed to trade with India and China, he was the third to take the Eastern or Outer Passage route from Sydney to Macao in China and pioneered the use of Tahiti as a port town for re-

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freshing crews and reprovisioning. In 1788, Sever or an officer named Watts sighted and named Penrhyn’s Island, now known as Tongareva in the northern Cook Islands, sighted or visited Lord Howe Island, Saipan and Macauley’s Island, and Curtis’s Island in the Kermedec group. Sever, as captain, is usually credited with these first sightings. SHIPS. The technical definition of a ship is a three-masted vessel. The Portuguese had invented three-masted vessels to replace the medieval oared galley and single-masted coastal vessel. However, most Pacific exploration was made in vessels like the caravel, a small, fast but strongly built ship developed by the Portuguese for the Atlantic coastal trade. It had a raised forecastle and aft-castle and, in a spectacular improvement on the earlier large sails, the caravel carried many smaller sails of both lateen (inverted triangular) and square shape. These allowed better steering and performance sailing into the wind. In the fleet of four ships under Vasco Da Gama in 1497–98, for example, the three largest were 240 tons, square rigged on the two main masts and lateen rigged in the mizzenmast. After 1550, a larger version, the Spanish galleon, became more popular. By 1660, the difference between merchant and warships was marked and ships generally became less cumbersome. The Dutch merchant version, the shallow-draft, flat-bottomed Fluyt or Fluit (flute or flyboat), enabled it to dominate world commerce. Around 1700, the replacement of a horizontal tiller by a top-deck wheel allowed for greater control of the rudder and less manpower was needed for steering. The two-masted British brig (brigantine) combined square-rigged foremasts with either fore-and-aft sails or a boom on the mainmast. The smaller sloop, bark, and frigate with guns only on the top deck, were fore-and-aft single-masted vessels. These types are at best a guide and numerous variations existed. All types of ships were used for Pacific exploration. Copper bottoms, first experimented with in 1761, were later added as a protective sheath below the water line to reduce damage from worms. Freshwater distillers and lightning conductors were small but significant innovations, as were the 17th- and 18th-century inventions of the sextant, in 1731, the telescope, Hadley’s quadrant, verniers, micrometers, Wright-Mercator charts, logarithms, lunar tables, and, most importantly, John Harrison’s chronometer in 1764, copied by

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Larcum Kendall for the voyages of James Cook. Meat extract, known as portable soup, sauerkraut, and finally lime and lemon juice were major dietary innovations in the cure for scurvy. Few ships were designed for long-distance voyaging and most were modified prior to departure to accommodate special needs. The former coal boat or collier that became James Cook’s Endeavour is a well-known example of these modified vessels. The conditions, under which the crew worked, slept, and rested during a voyage of two to six years ranged from barely tolerable to uncomfortable. Steamships were not used until the mid-19th century. SHIPMATES. A feature of exploration in the Pacific was the number of officers and crew who gained Pacific experience while serving as junior officers and crew on early voyages and who made subsequent voyages with former shipmates or commanded voyages on their own account. Many officers were promoted to command due to the patronage of their former captains. For example, Nathaniel Portlock, George Dixon, John Meares, and James Colnett served on one or more of James Cook’s voyages, later teamed up to exploit the Nootka fur trade in 1785–94, added several new islands to the charts, and published separate accounts of their voyages between 1788–98. Other shipmates included William Clerke who sailed on the three Cook’s voyages and John Gore who made four circumnavigations. Auguste Bérard, Charles Jacquinot, Victor Lottin, Jules Dumont d’Urville, Louis Freycinet, Jean Quoy, Elisabeth-Paul-Edouard Rossel, and Louis-Isidore Duperrey commanded, served as junior officers under each other’s command, or ensured their former shipmates appointment to a series of French expeditions in 1800–1840. A similar network linked the Russian Ivan Krusenstern and his junior officers Otto Kotzebue and Thaddeus Bellingshausen and Vasilii Golovnin and his junior officers Fedor Lütke and Ferdinand Wrangel. Reliance on former shipmates led many expedition commanders to select protégés and former crewmates for subsequent voyages and created a sense of belonging to a special group of experienced Pacific voyagers. SHORTLAND, JOHN (1739–1803). After sailing in the First Fleet to Botany Bay (Sydney), he commanded a convoy of traders bound for

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China and mapped Gatutaki, Simbo, Shortland, Pavuvu, and Russell Islands in the Solomons in 1788. SOUTH SEAS EXPEDITION, GERMANY. The German Süd-See expedition of 1908–10, also known as the Hamburg South Seas Expedition, carried out an exhaustive ethnographic survey of the indigenous subjects in the Pacific under German rule. In the Peiho the team visited German New Guinea (Kaiser Wilhelmsland), Caroline Islands, Marshall Islands, Solomon Islands, and Nauru. In Micronesia, the expedition collection 8,000 items, including specimens, photographs, drawings, and phonogram recordings. The 29 volumes of ethnographic reports, the Ergnebnisse der Südsee-Expedition 1908–1910, edited by the expedition’s founder and leader, Georg Thilenius of the Hamburg Museum of Ethnology, were published in 1913–54. The first volume was a study of Sepik River people by Otto Reche. Augustin Krämer wrote volumes on Palau, Chuuk (then known as Truk), the central Carolines, and the Marshalls, and Paul Hambruch wrote the volumes on Nauru and Pohnpei (then known as Ponape). SOUTH SEAS EXPLORING EXPEDITION, AMERICAN. Referred to as the “US Ex Ex” or the “Wilkes expedition,” it was led by Charles Wilkes in 1838–42 with six ships, nine civilian “scientifics,” a taxidermist, gardener, and artists, and carried 29 chronometers. By circumnavigating and defining the shape of Antarctica, it completed the mapping of the Pacific Ocean littoral zones. The expedition was “not for conquest but discovery. Its objects are peaceful; they are to extend the empire of commerce and science.” It also was conducted in the America’s national interest, with potential trade rewards, and it created a shift of public attention toward the Pacific. By the early 19th century, not many islands were left to name or rename, but gaps still existed on maps and there was still an avid audience for accounts of Pacific Island people and cultures. The expedition carried a library, including the 19th-century voyage accounts of Louis Freycinet, Louis-Isidore Duperrey, Jules Dumont d’Urville, James Cook, Frederick Beechey, and George Vancouver and a large number of charts, including some by Aaron

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Arrowsmith. To fill gaps and correct earlier errors was one of the expedition’s tasks. The Seagull was lost at sea after entering the Pacific, the Peacock was lost on a bar at the Columbia River, and the Flying Fish was sold in decrepit state in Singapore, but the expedition continued and carried out surveys, ethnographic and scientific reports, and corrected charts in Hawaii, Wake Island, Australia, New Zealand, Antarctica, Tuamotu Archipelago, Society Islands, Samoa, Uvea (Wallis) and Futuna, Tonga, Fiji, Phoenix Islands, the Northwest Pacific coast, Tokelau, Tuvalu, Kiribati, and the Marshall Islands. Among the many activities of the expedition, it created an observatory on the top of Manua Kea volcano in Hawaii to observe lava flows and gather meteorological data. The expedition produced 180 charts and returned with 59,000 birds, mammals, corals, crustaceans, plants, fossils, minerals, rocks, and artifacts, which led to the founding of the Smithsonian Institution. It was an exhaustive and long itinerary and brought to an end the era of exploration begun with Ferdinand Magellan. In less praiseworthy incidents, it carried out a reprisal for theft by burning a Fiji village, on another occasion killing a Fijian chief and six men, and, in Kiribati, carrying out punitive action in which more than 12 iKiribati were killed. Of the 345 crew, there had been 127 desertions, 23 deaths, and 62 signed-off in ports along the way. Twenty of the planned 24 official volumes were eventually published. As well as Wilke’s five-volume narrative, Joseph Clark published Lights and Shadows of Sailor Life . . . Including the More Thrilling Events of the US Exploring Expedition in 1847 and James Dana separate volumes on geology, molluscs, and Zoophytes (1846). James Dana became a key figure in North American geology and Cadwalader Ringgold, one of the junior officers later led expeditions in the Pacific. SPAIN, EXPLORATION IN THE PACIFIC. Spain opened the era of European exploration in the Pacific with Vasco Balboa’s sighting of the Pacific in 1513 and the breathtaking trans-Pacific crossing of Ferdinand Magellan in 1519–22. Within 50 years, the Spanish established the breadth of the Pacific, suggested the presence of archipelagos and larger continents of alleged riches, and opened a Spanish

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base in the Philippines, but more important opened up a west-to-east northern route to the American coast. This became the famous Manila galleon route. Although expansion was approved by the crown in Madrid, the subsequent Spanish presence in the “South Sea” was haphazard. Magellan was followed by Garcia Jofre de Loiasa, Alavaro Saavedra, Miguel Legazpi, Alonso Arellano, and Andrés de Urdaneta. Private expeditions also sought gold and speculative colonies in the Pacific. From their bases in Mexico in the east and the Philippines in the west, Spain had the appearance in the 16th century of ruling the seas, but securing the South American continent took precedence over rumored lands in the South Sea. Within 50 years of Christopher Columbus’s landing in 1492 in the Caribbean, the Pacific coast from Lower California to northern Chile was charted, but a safe passage from the Atlantic to the Pacific was not achieved until 1539 when a fleet of three ships were sent to survey the strait that Magellan had found in 1519. Later, the voyages of Juan Fernández Ladrillero in 1558–59 and Pedro Y Gamba Sarmiento de Gamboa in 1579–80 opened a regular sea route to the rich South American Pacific coast. It was nearly a century after Magellen’s discovery before expeditions were undertaken to colonize the Pacific Islands. In the process, the voyages of Alvaro Mendaña, Pedro Quirós (1606), and Luis de Torres (1610) made important additions to the charts. Phillip II of Spain claimed an impressive overseas empire in Mexico and South America and the Pacific was described in the 16th century as a “Spanish lake.” However, conservative policies and decline in Europe, the defeat of the Spanish Armada in 1588, British and Dutch attacks on Spanish galleons and ports along the South American coast, and withdrawal from Ternate in the Moluccas in 1663 eventually saw Spain’s influence decline. Although many islands had been sighted, without longitude the revisiting of these alleged lands was difficult. A second brief period of Spanish exploration occurred as a response to the British expedition of Samuel Wallis in 1766–68, as this seemed to Spain to herald a new phase of British interest in the Pacific. From Callao and Manila, several expeditions were sent to forestall British and then French expansion. Felipe Gonzalez, Domingo Boenechea, Tomas Gayangos, and Francisco Maurelle mapped

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some islands but mostly reconfirmed the sightings of earlier voyages. In the North Pacific the Spanish response to British and Russian voyages led to the voyages of Juan Perez, Juan Quadra, Francisco Maurelle, Ignacio de Arteaga, and Juan Martinez between 1774 and 1794. These voyages defined the Pacific Northwest coast well into the Arctic Circle. The most impressive of the later Spanish voyages was the scientific voyage of Alessandro Malaspina in 1789–94. By then, Spanish imperial interest in the Pacific had waned. Spain retained a nominal hold in the Carolines and Marianas, but these passed to Germany and the USA in 1899 after defeat in the Spanish–American War. SPANBERG, MARTIN (OR MORTEN) (ca. 1700–1761). A Danishborn naval officer, he served as second-in-command on the two Great Northern Expedition voyages of Vitus Bering in 1728–30 and 1740–41. In 1738, 1739, and 1742, he made three voyages south from Kamchatka to explore Japan, the Kurile Islands, and Sakhalin. These charts were influential in the mapping of the Asiatic coast. On his return, he assisted cartographers and worked on the atlases produced by the expedition. SPICE ISLANDS. See MOLUCCAS. SPILBERGEN, JORIS VAN (1568–1620). A Dutch admiral, he led an expedition of six ships in 1614–16 to attack Spanish ports and ships on the Pacific coast and then sailed across the Pacific to the Moluccas. Five ships safely entered the Pacific through the Strait of Magellan in 1615. They fought the Spanish off Callao, Patya, Acapulco, and Navidad and sailed to the Marianas, Philippines, and eventually arrived in Ternate in March 1616 without making any new discoveries. STANLEY, OWEN (1811–1850). A British naval officer, he carried out surveys in New Guinea waters on the Rattlesnake in 1849, accompanied by CB Yule on the Bramble. The names of Yule Island, Bramble Bay, Bramble reef, and the Owen Stanley Range commemorate their voyage. Thomas Huxley, the ship’s surgeon and later a famous biologist, published Diary of the Voyage of HMS Rattlesnake in 1850 and the naturalist John MacGillivwray, who had served earlier

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with Francis Blackwood on the Fly, published Narrative of the Voyage of the Rattlesnake in 1852. STARBUCK, OBED (1797–1882). An American Nantucket whaler, he sighted Starbuck Island in the Line Islands during a voyage in 1822–24. On the next voyage in 1824–26, he sighted Baker Island and completed the mapping of Tuvalu begun by George Barrett. He made further whaling voyages in 1829–30 and 1843–46. STELLAR, GEORG WILHELM (1709–1746). A German naturalist, botanist, surgeon, and scientist, he served on Vitus Bering’s second Kamchatka expedition in 1741–42. The first scientist to travel with a Pacific voyage, he wrote many reports and his name was given to several birds, as well as the now-extinct Stellar’s sea cow or dugong. STOKES, JOHN LORT (1811–1885). A British naval officer, he was second in command of the Beagle under Robert Fitzroy in 1831–36 and, after several promotions, later commanded the Beagle for a long period, including surveys of the Great Barrier Reef. In 1846, he published Discoveries in Australia with an Account of the Coasts and Rivers Explored and Surveyed in 1837–43. He then commanded the steamer Acheron in 1848–51 on a hydrography survey to map the complete New Zealand coast. This was one of 26 surveys around the world under the auspices of the British Hydrography Office. The voyage also investigated mineral deposits and natural resources, and negotiated between Maori and English settlers. Due to a cut in the expedition’s budget, the Acheron was recalled in 1851 and a smaller brig, the Pandora, completed the survey between 1851 and 1856. The junior officers FH Richards and FJ Evans published the New Zealand Pilot in 1856. The charts by Stokes remain in use today. SURVILLE, JEAN-FRANÇOIS-MARIE DE (1717–1770). A captain with the French East Indies Company, he sailed on a commercial voyage in a specially built 650-ton ship the Jean-Baptiste in 1769–70. The aim was to secure new markets and territories after the French defeat in the Seven Years War and the collapse of the French East Indies Company in India. Similar commercial motivations, backed by a syndicate

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of investors, also led to the voyages of Louis-Antoine de Bougainville and Marc-Joseph Marion Dufresne in the same period. Surville hoped to secure new trade opportunities in Tahiti, Peru, and other allegedly rich islands, including the mysterious Davis Land, before the British made a similar claim. The size of the Solomon Island archipelago was confirmed when he sighted Choiseul, Santa Isabel, Malaita, Ulawa, Makira, Santa Ana, and Santa Catalina. After losing 60 men to scurvy, he visited New Zealand at the same time as James Cook, without seeing each other, and was involved in a violent incident with Maori at Tokerua (named Doubtless Bay by Cook). He then sailed to Peru after kidnapping a Maori chief, Naginoui (Ranginui), who died at sea near Juan Fernandez. A man kidnapped in the Solomons, Lova Saregua, survived to learn some French in Peru and was eventually presented to the French Minister for the Navy. No islands were charted after leaving New Zealand. While crossing a bar in rough surf on the Chilean coast, Surville drowned in a small boat. The Jean-Baptiste was impounded by the Spanish and did not reach France for another two years. Pierre-Antoine Monneron and Abbé Rochon both wrote accounts of the voyage. The historian Oscar Spate described it as a “muddled and unhappy voyage” motivated by a “strange mixture of commercial and geographical speculation.” Although a commercial failure, geographers used Surville’s charts to confirm the size of the Solomon Islands’ archipelago, the vastness of the ocean in the North Pacific, and the size of New Caledonia. The voyage also contributed important ethnographic details about New Zealand. Surville introduced pigs, potatoes, rice, wheat, and peas to New Zealand. Davis Land was shown to be nonexistent and Terra Australis Incognita faded further into the realm of fantasy.

–T – TAHITI, EARLY EUROPEAN CONTACT. A high volcanic island in the Society Islands situated in the Tuamotu-Tahiti corridor (see Map 8) in the direct path of ships rounding Cape Horn and heading for China ports, Tahiti was first sighted and visited for five weeks by Samuel Wallis in June 1767. However, it was the 10-day visit of Louis Bougainville and Philibert Commerson in April 1768 that led

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to Tahiti’s association with the Nouvelle Cythère, Denis Diderot’s essays on noble savages, and the following three centuries of literary construction of a fabled “South Seas.” The next visitor remained for 12 weeks. James Cook built an observatory during his first voyage to observe the transit of Venus and, during his next two voyages, returned to Tahiti four more times, staying from two to seven weeks. In between Cook’s visits, Domingo Boenechea on the Aguila visited Tahiti briefly in December 1772. In this 10-year period up to Cook’s fifth visit in August 1777, 15 ships had visited Tahiti. No more ships visited Tahiti for 11 years, but the initial contacts had cemented Tahiti’s place as a port-of-call and to Euro-American audiences, it quickly became the most identifiable island in the Pacific. The early contacts between Tahitians and Europeans involved a mixture of uncertainty, hospitality, bartering, and acts of violence, along with fears, by the European visitors, about the spread of venereal disease. When Ahutoru, Omai, Hitihiti, and Tupai’a headed for Europe with Bougainville and Cook and four Tahitians volunteered or were kidnapped by Boenechea and taken to Peru for training as catechists, it began another phase in the rapid expansion of Tahitian– European relationships, with both negative and positive consequences. Tahiti’s fame was further enhanced after the mutiny of the Bounty in 1789 and in 1797, the arrival of the London Missionary Society vessel, the Duff, the first missionary incursion into Oceania. TASMAN, ABEL JANSZOON (1603–1659). A Dutch merchant captain for the Dutch East Indies Company (VOC), he explored the north Pacific with Matthijs Quast in 1838–39 before being given command of the Heemskerk and Zeehan and sent in 1642–43 to explore a route to Chile, investigate the trading potential of lands in the south, and finally discover Terra Australis Incognita. After visiting Tasmania, which he named Van Diemans Land after the director of the VOC, he became the first European to visit New Zealand and Fiji. In the first recorded violent clash with Maori, four Dutch sailors were killed at Golden Bay, named “Murderer’s Bay” by Tasman. The expedition returned to Batavia using the northern New Guinea coastal route. On a shorter second expedition in 1644 to confirm the size of Australia, he made charts of northern Australia and western New Guinea without

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seeing the Torres Strait. His cautious approach to exploration, compared to the more daring plans of his pilot, Frans Visscher, prevented his voyages from having a greater impact. The VOC decided in 1645 to curtail exploration in the south and focus on trade in Asia. Tasman’s geographical record in the Pacific was impressive and the ethnographic record of great importance as he recorded indigenous people at the point of first contact with Europeans. The list of islands first sighted by Tasman includes New Zealand, eight islands in Tonga, four islands in Fiji, Ontong Java, three islands in the Bismarck Archipelago and New Britain, and he proved that Australia did not extend indefinitely into southern waters. Visscher published Memoir concerning the discovery of the South land in 1642 and, although Tasman’s detailed journal was not published until 1898, his charts and descriptions were circulated (for example, in D’Exiles Prévost’s 20-volume compilation of voyages Histoire générale des voyages in 1746–70) and used by most subsequent expeditions. TATAU or TATOO. One of the enduring legacies of the Pacific Islands in Euro-American culture is the tatoo or body art, known as tatau in Tahitian and moko (facial tattoo) in Maori. The word tatoo entered the English language after it was noted by James Cook in 1769. Europeans sailors and officers were tatooed in the Pacific using local patterns and signifiers and then it became a form of body ornamentation worldwide but without the gender, rank, ritual, sacred, and status meanings of the original Oceanic tatau. TE WEHERUA (OR TIAROOA). A young Maori male of 17 years and the son of a chief killed in local wars, he went as Omai’s companion to Huahine with James Cook in 1777, accompanied by a servant, Coaa (or Loa) a boy of 10 to 12 years. Initially grieving over their departure, they recovered and were enthusiastic about the voyage. They probably died two years after landing on Huahine with Omai but no record has been found of their fate. TERRA AUSTRALIS INCOGNITA. The speculation that a large land mass existed in the open ocean between Australia and the South American coast was linked to ideas of a global counterweight to the land masses of the northern hemisphere, romantic and commercial

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notions of fabled lands yet to discovered, and the vagueness of early voyage accounts that saw signs of large land masses in calm waters, cloud banks, floating tree trunks, and discolored waters. In the mid18th century, the geographers and compilers of voyage journals, Charles de Brosses and Alexander Dalrymple, argued for a southern land mass on the basis of voyages by Juan Fernandez (1574–76), Willem Schouten and Jacob Le Maire (1615–16), Abel Tasman (1642–43), and others. Every small reference, including the alleged Davis Land and Fernandez’s claim that the Juan Fernandez Islands were the edge of a great continent, inspired British, French, and Dutch voyages, including those of Jacob Roggeveen, Yves Kerguélen, Philip Carteret, and others. The voyages of James Cook and Jean-François-Marie de Surville in 1769–79 brought to a close the searching, although some armchair geographers and a few more voyages continued to be inspired by the alleged great southland. TEXEL. Dutch port and departure point for most Dutch voyages in the Pacific. THOMPSON, FRANK TURLE (1829–ca. 1884). A British naval officer, he took command during the last two years (1875–76) of the Challenger expedition when George Nares was transferred. Under Thompson’s command the expedition carried out hydrological and ethnographic research in the north Pacific, Hawaii, and Tahiti. He was a consultant for the publishing of the 50-volume scientific report of the expedition. TOKELAU, EARLY EUROPEAN CONTACT. The Tokelau group consists of three atolls. Atafu was first visited and named Duke of York’s Island in 1765 by John Byron and Nukunonu atoll visited and named Duke of Clarence’s Island by Edward Edwards in 1791. A captain named Paulding landed and met Tokelauns in 1825, but did not know which island he was on. The third atoll in the Tokelau group, Fakaofo, was not sighted and named until 1835 by the whaleship General Jackson. Crude maps of the three atolls were drawn in 1839 when the General Jackson made a return visit. Fakaofo was renamed Bowditch Island by the American South Seas Exploring Expedition in 1841.

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TOMPSON, FELIPE. A Spanish naval officer, he commanded a private voyage in the Consolación sent east from Manila to Acupulco and San Blas in Mexico in 1773. He sighted New Guinea and then gave Spanish names to Helen Reef in the Palau group and Ngatik and Oroluk in the Caroline Islands. These reefs and atolls had probably been seen by Alvaro de Saavedra in 1528, Alonso Arellano in 1565, and Woodes Rogers in 1710, but Tompson confirmed their position. TONGA, EARLY EUROPEAN CONTACT. The first European visitors to Tonga were Willem Schouten and Jacob Le Maire in 1615 during the first voyage to pass south around Cape Horn through Le Maire Strait. On a voyage under the auspices of the Dutch East India Company (VOC) in 1642, Abel Tasman also mapped several islands and made a lengthy stay. The next sightings were during the British voyage of Samuel Wallis in 1767 and the French voyage of Marc-Joseph Marion Dufresne in 1772. The mapping and renaming of islands was added to by James Cook, who visited Tonga on three separate occasions in 1773–77, staying for two and half months during the third visit. Subsequent visits included the Spanish expedition of Francisco Maurelle in 1781, Jean-François de Lapérouse in 1787, William Bligh in 1789, Edward Edwards in 1791, and Joseph-Antoine Bruny d’Entrecasteaux in 1793. Alessandro Malaspina claimed Vavau for Spain in 1793 but this was never endorsed. The mapping of Tonga was not completed until the British naval surveys of the Egeria and Penguin in 1888 and 1898. TORRE, BERNADO DE LA. A Spanish captain on the Ruy López Villalobos expedition in 1542–44, he was sent in August 1543 in the San Juan to explore a route from Manila to Peru, but rough seas forced him to return in October. He mapped three islands in the Marianas, Iwo Jima in the Bonin Islands and Minami-Torishima and completed the first circumnavigation of Mindanao in the Philippines. The San Juan was refitted and used by Ynigo de Retes in 1545 on another unsuccessful attempt to sail back across the Pacific from Manila to Mexico. TORREDESILLAS, TREATY OF (1494). Rivalry between the superpowers Spain and Portugal had begun early in the 15th century,

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and a Papal Bull, Pontifax Romanus in 1455, had granted Portugal the rights to Catholic evangelism and commerce south of Cape Bojador (26° north) and in lands eastward to the Indies. These demarcations were disturbed in the easterly direction by Batholomew Diaz’s voyage to the Cape of Good Hope in 1488 and in the west by Christopher Columbus’s addition of the “New World” to the world map in 1492. The Treaty of Tordesillas in July 1494 separated the new Spanish expansion westward from Portuguese imperialism in the east. Everything to the west of a north–south line west of the Azores Islands would be open to Spanish exploitation and control, and eastward to the corresponding longitude in the Pacific passing right through the valuable Spice Islands, to the Portuguese. Portugal paid Spain for a 17°-degree extension eastward in 1529. Apart from the absurd inability to determine longitude (not made possible for another 250 years), this division was challenged and made redundant by Vasco Balboa’s sighting of the Pacific in 1513, Ferdinand Magellan’s trans-Pacific crossing in 1521, and a series of Spanish and Portuguese voyages by Alvaro de Saavedra, Gracia Jofre de Loaisa, Hernándo Grijalva, Ruy López Villalobos, and Miguel Legazpi. The Treaty of Tordesillas was finally made obsolete by the Treaty of Zargoza in 1529, when Spain relinquished its claims on the Spice Islands to the Portuguese for a cash payment. TORRES, LUIS DE. A Spanish official on Guam, he became an informant to several subsequent visitors to the Carolines and Marianas, including Otto Kotzebue and Adelbert Chamisso in 1817 and later Louis de Freycinet, Jacques Arago, and Fedor Lütke. His geographical knowledge of the islands, their location, and particularly indigenous navigation came from a voyage made to Woleai in 1804 on the Maria with Samuel Boll, an American trepang or beche-de-mer trader, and from contacts made with Caroline Islanders he met in Guam. A private voyage in 1804, not in his role as Vice-governor of Guam, convinced Carolineans to resume their traditional voyaging back and forth to Guam and the Marianas. TORRES, LUIS VAEZ DE (ca. 1570–ca. 1613). A Spanish captain on the expedition led by Pedro Quirós to establish a colony in the Santa Cruz Islands in 1606, he proceeded in the San Pedro on secret orders

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after the colony was abandoned to search for the supposed southern continent and to check the north coast of New Guinea that had been reported 50 years earlier by Alvaro de Saavedra, Ynigo Retes, and others. Torres or possibly Prado de Tovar first sighted the Louisiade Archipelago and then after sailing along the south coast of New Guinea passed through the narrow passage that bears his name, the Torres Strait, confirming that New Guinea was an island. His fate after reaching the Moluccas is unknown. In the following years Pradode Tovar attempted to claim much of the credit for this extraordinary voyage. TRANSCULTURITES. The name transculturite is given historically to indigenous men and women who took the initiative provided by European voyages to travel abroad and live on other islands as far away as Asia and Europe. Islander women made temporary marriages with sailors and traveled regularly and many men pleaded to stay on board when ships departed to continue the voyage. This term distinguishes them from European beachcombers and castaways. For example, four Solomon Islanders were taken by Alvaro Mendaña to Mexico in 1568, and two centuries later, four Tahitians volunteered or were kidnapped by Domingo Boenechea on the Aguila in 1774 to travel to Peru to become Catholic evangelists. Tipititia and Oheiau died but Thomas Paautu and Manuel Tetuanui returned to Tahiti in 1774. They were unsuccessful as evangelists. Puhoro, who was taken from Makatea to Peru by the Aguila in 1774, returned and was more successful by using trade goods to gain influence. Islanders also traveled involuntarily when they were kidnapped to work as ship’s crew, as “specimens” to be taken back to Europe, as hostages during incidents of theft or to be used as informants. In 1769, Jean-FrancoisMarie de Surville kidnapped Lova Saregua in the Solomon Islands and shortly afterward a Maori chief, Ranginui. Lova Saregua safely made it to France to meet the Minister for Navy, but Ranginui died at sea before reaching Peru. Historian David Chappell decribes these experiences in the limen as a complex interplay “between global process and local initiative.” See also AHUTORU; LEE BOO; FREEWILL, JOSEPH; HITIHITI; KA’IANA; OMAI; TE WEHERUA; TUPAI’A.

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TRENCHES, DEEP SEA EXPLORATION OF. The exploration of the ocean floor did not begin until the British scientific expedition of the Challenger in 1873–76 measured 4,475 fathoms in the Marianas Trench and 3,900 fathoms in the Japan Trench. At the same time, a major U.S. expedition in the Tuscarora in 1873–74 surveyed the ocean floor off Japan for an undersea cable and discovered the Aleutian Trench. The American expedition of the Nero in 1899 made the first detailed ocean survey and recorded a trench near the Marianas at 5,269 fathoms, the deepest then measured and still known by its name “Nero Deep.” In 1960, American navy divers descended to the bottom of the Marianas Trench, at 5,966 fathoms. The Kermedec Trench and Kermadec Ridge near New Zealand commemorate the French explorer Huon de Kermadec. TROBRIAND, JEAN-FRANCOIS-SILVESTRE-DENIS DE (1765– 1799). A French naval officer, he was a junior officer with Huon de Kermadec on the Espérance on the voyage of Joseph-Antoine Bruny d’Entrecasteaux in 1791–93. In the latter stage of the long voyage he assumed command after both Kermedec and Bruny d’Entrecasteaux died. The Trobriand Islands, in eastern New Guinea, were later made famous in a series of books by the pioneering social anthropologist and fieldworker Bronislaw Malinowski. TUAMOTU ARCHIPELAGO, EARLY EUROPEAN CONTACTS. Once a passage around Cape Horn was found through the Strait of Magellan in 1520 and Le Maire Strait in 1616, it was inevitable that the Tuamotu Archipelago, comprising 75 low-lying atolls and one raised coral island (Makatea), would be the earliest to be charted, as they lay on the direct north-west passage from the Atlantic to the Moluccas. Three atolls were sighted by Ferdinand Magellan in 1521, a further 10 by Pedro Quirós in 1606, and five more by Willem Schouten and Jacob Le Maire in 1616. After a 150-year gap, a rush of atolls were charted in the 1760s, with two sighted and named by John Byron in 1765, five by Samuel Wallis in 1767, four by Philip Carteret also in 1767, seven by Louis-Antoine de Bougainville in 1768, six by James Cook in 1769–1774, and three by Jacob Roggeveen in 1772. The charting of the remaining 30 atolls was not completed until the voyage

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of Robert Fitzroy in 1835, when he sighted and named King and Vincennes Islands, now known as Taiaro and Kauehi Atolls. Most of the expansionary European powers were involved with Spanish, British, French, and Dutch ships in the early period, and Russia (Otto Kotzebue and Thaddeus Bellingshausen) and the America (Nathaniel Cary) involved in the final stages. The southernmost group of atolls was also known separately as the Gambier Islands. Mururoa Atoll is the most infamous, being the site of French atmospheric and underground nuclear testing from 1963 to 1996. TUPAI’A (OR TUPIA) (?–1770). Tupai’a, a young male ari’i (high priest or chief) from Raiatea was the principal attendant and advisor of Queen Purea. He was intelligent, possessed a good knowledge of local voyaging, and came from a family of legendary Tahitian seamen. With his servant, a child called Taiatea, he headed for Europe with James Cook in 1769. He proved useful on the voyage, establishing friendly relations on Huahine and giving direction to 130 other islands in the area. Cook was able to chart 74 on a rough map. Tupai’a acted as an interpreter, mediator, and storyteller on a long circumnavigation of New Zealand, including seven weeks ashore. On the voyage to England, during a stay for ship repairs and recuperation in Batavia (Jakarta), most of the crew fell ill, and Tupai’a and Taiatea died of malaria in November 1770. He is one of the transculturites who took advantage of visiting ships to head for Europe, although his fame came mostly from his usefulness to Europeans in passing on knowledge of indigenous voyaging and navigation. TUSCARORA EXPEDITION. Under Commander George Belknap the steamer Tuscarora surveyed two routes in 1873–74 for an underwater ocean cable across the ocean floor from the American West Coast to Japan. While making 500 ocean floor soundings, they discovered the depth of the Japan and Aleutian Trenches and compiled both surface and deep-water temperatures. Combined with the data produced by the British Challenger expedition in 1873–76, it began a new era of scientific oceanography. TUVALU, EARLY EUROPEAN CONTACT. The charting of Tuvalu spreads across the era of European exploration, starting with possible sightings by Alvaro de Saavedra in 1527–28 and possible sightings by

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Ferdinand Magellan of Nanomaga (Nanomanu), Nanumea, Niutao, and Nui in 1568, and Niulakita (Nurakita) in 1595. A gap of two centuries occurred before Francisco Maurelle sighted Nanomaga and Nanumea in 1781. In 1819, the merchant vessel Rebecca under captain Arendt de Peyster sighted Nukufetau and Funafuti, which were named respectively Ellice’s group (the owner of his cargo) and De Peyster’s Islands. Nukulaelae and Niulakita were sighted by George Barrett in the Independence in 1821; two years later, the whaler Obed Starbuck in the Hero sighted Niutao and Vaitapu. The last atoll, Nui, was charted by two Dutch naval vessels in 1825. In 1841, the American South Sea Exploring Expedition made a thorough chart of the group, three centuries after the nine atolls were first sighted. The name Ellice Islands was used for the archipelago until it gained independence as Tuvalu in 1978.

–U– URDANETA, ANDRE´ S DE (1508–1568). A Spanish friar, pilot, expedition organizer, and theoretician, he was rewarded by Spain for charting the westerly winds in the north Pacific that allowed ships to return west–east in the Manila galleon trade between the Spice Islands and Mexico. After surviving the Garcia Jofre de Loiasa expedition of 1525–29, he stayed in the Moluccas until 1535. After returning to Spain, he helped plan the Ruy López Villalobos expedition of 1542–43 and was then appointed pilot on the Miguel Legazpi expedition of 1564–65. His advice on routes, currents, and winds enabled Alonso Arellano in the San Lucas, which separated from the Legazpi expedition, to make the first east–west voyage, which Urdaneta also completed four months later in the San Pablo in October 1565. A Spanish Board of Inquiry gave the credit for discovering the northern route from the Philippines to Mexico to Urdaneta, even though the now disgraced Arellano had been the first.

–V – VANCOUVER, GEORGE (1757–1798). A British naval officer, he sailed on James Cook’s second and third voyages as a teenager. He claimed to have gone farther south than any man, jokingly standing

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on the bowsprit while Cook remained at the stern as they headed into Antarctica pack ice. Although he credited with adding only one island to the charts, Rapa in the Austral Archipelago, he was highly regarded as a navigator because of his meticulous surveys of the California and Northwest Pacific coast. In 1791–94, in command of the Discovery, the Chatham under William Broughton, and the supply ship Daedalus under Richard Hergest, he was sent to recover land and buildings seized by the Spanish during the “Nootka incident,” to chart the coast up to 60° north and to search for the alleged Northwest Passage. He visited Australia, New Zealand, Tahiti, and Hawaii, Juan Fernandez and Galapagos Islands, and spent three years on the Northwest coast. No men were lost to scurvy. Due to the planning and patronage of Joseph Banks, a naturalist, Archibald Menzies accompanied the expedition and with Vancouver’s assistance collected a substantial natural history collection. This was sent back to Britain along with Vancouver’s observations of Hawaiians and Northwest Indians. In Juan de Fuca Strait, Vancouver met Bodega Y Quadra and they sailed together for three weeks, after which the name “Quadra and Vancouver Island” (later shortened to Vancouver Island) was given to the island they were the first to circumnavigate. He proved finally that a Northwest Passage did not cut through the North American continent and made the first survey of the Hawaiian Islands. The length and variety of his contact with Pacific Islanders between 1772 and 1794 was remarkable but not more than others who voyaged through the Pacific for an equal or greater length of time. For example, William Dampier made many visits to the Pacific and four circumnavigations between 1679 and 1711 and Jules Dumont d’Urville’s voyages and amazing publishing output encompassed 22 years to 1840. Vancouver’s time in the Pacific must be judged in comparison with the length of service of ordinary sailors, including the shipmates who served for 10 and a half years at sea on Cook’s three voyages. He has attracted the attention of historians because of his surveying, accounts of Hawaii and the northwest coast, the availability of records from this period, and his name is commemorated by a major city. He died before his three-volume account, A Voyage of Discovery to the North Pacific Ocean and Round the World, completed by his brother, was published in 1798. It was translated into four languages and a new edition released in 1801.

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VAN NOORT, OLIVIER (ca. 1558–1627). A Dutch merchant captain, he sailed with four ships into the Pacific in 1598–1601 to raid Spanish shipping on the South American coast during the worldwide power struggle between Spain and the Netherlands. The largest ship, the Hendrick Frederick, took prizes and crossed the Pacific to Ternate in the Moluccas, where it was wrecked and sold. Van Noort in the Maurice and a second smaller ship, after failing to take prizes, sailed across the Pacific to Guam between May and September 1600, and then became engaged in battles with the Spanish in the Philippines. He eventually returned to the Netherlands in 1601 after three years with only 45 of the original crew of 248. Although a commercial failure, it was the first Dutch circumnavigation and raised interest in the “South Sea.” Voyages by Jacques Mahu, Joris Spilbergen, Willem Schouten, and Jacob Le Maire soon followed. VENEREAL DISEASE. Various forms of venereal disease, first carried from the Americas to Europe during Christopher Columbus’s expeditions, were prevalent in European and Asian ports before Samuel Wallis and then Louis-Antoine de Bougainville arrived in Tahiti in 1767–68. In June 1767, Wallis departed without recording any cases on board, but after his 18-day visit, Bougainville found 20 men on the Boudeuse and 12 on the Etoile had venereal disease. A still-unresolved debate developed over who had brought the disease to Tahiti. The French blamed Wallis’s visit and the English blamed Bougainville. James Cook in April 1769 carried out full inspections for the presence of the disease before allowing the crew to fraternize with women in Tahiti, but still departed with a third of his crew affected. In Tonga in 1773, Cook refused to let sailors go ashore if they were suffering with the disease or to allow Tongan women on board his two ships, but elsewhere traders, whalers, and naval commanders exercised less control. From these first recorded incidents, venereal diseases spread quickly as an increasing number of ships carried the disease from port to port and island to island. By 1791, when the East India Company trader McCluer left Pohnpei with 32 of his crew affected, venereal diseases had reached epidemic proportions on some islands. In the 1850s, visiting ships often reported half the population of islands like Pohnpei and Kosrae, much visited by traders and whalers, were affected. Yaws, a similar condition, had existed in the Pacific before European contact

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and many early reports of venereal disease may have confused the symptoms. However, the evidence is strong that sexually transmitted diseases were introduced by Europeans into the Pacific, and ultimately caused depopulation through mortality and reduced fertility rates. VEREERINGDE OOSTINDISCHE COMPAGNIE. See DUTCH EAST INDIES COMPANY. VILLALOBOS, RUY LOPEZ DE (?–1546). A Spanish captain, he was sent in 1542 with six ships to challenge Portuguese control of the spice trade in the Moluccas, colonize new lands, and establish a Spanish Pacific trade route. This was one of the largest fleets to cross the Pacific, but with high death rates, lost ships, and limited new lands to report, it repeated the failures of Ferdinand Magellan, Gracia Jofre de Loiasa, and Alvaro de Saavedra. He named the Philippines and when crossing the Pacific recorded Fais, Ulithi, and Yap in Carolines and eight atolls in the Marshall Islands in 1543. In an often-quoted incident Villalobos was greeted by Fais or Yap Islanders with “Buenos días matelotes,” probably learned during Saavedra’s visit 16 years earlier. The San Juan under Bernado de la Torre in 1543 and Ynigo Retes in 1545 also made separate discoveries. An account of the voyage by an Italian sailor, Juan Gaetano, was published by the Italian historian Giovanni Ramusio in a three-volume compilation of voyages Delle navigationi e viaggi in 1550–59. One of first maps of the early voyages in the north Pacific, dated 1575 by Juan Lopez de Velasco, was copied and later published by Antonio de Herrera in Historia general in 1601. VOYAGING, POLYNESIAN. See AUSTRONESIAN DIASPORA; MYTHOLOGY AND INDIGENOUS EXPLORATION; POLYNESIAN VOYAGING SOCIETY.

–W– WALLIS, SAMUEL (1728–1795). A British naval officer, he served under John Byron in 1764–65 and, after being promoted to captain of the Dolphin, joined an expedition with Philip Carteret in

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1766–68. After entering the Pacific via the Strait of Magellan, the Dolphin and Swallow were separated in a storm and completed a circumnavigation independently. Wallis named and renamed six atolls in the Tuamotu Archipelago, and six islands in the Society Islands, including Tahiti. He also recorded Rongerik and Rongelap (previously sighted by Alvaro de Saavedra) in the Marshalls and named Uvea (Wallis) and Futuna before sailing to Tinian in the Marianas and finally Jakarta and home via the Cape of Good Hope in 1768. The Dolphin stayed in Tahiti for a month and began the legendary association between Matavai Bay and visiting ships, later immortalized by Louis-Antoine de Bougainville’s naming of Tahiti as the Nouvelle Cythère. WEATHERHEAD, MATTHEW. The British captain of the Matilda, he was wrecked on an atoll in the Tuamotu Archipelago in 1792. The atoll was recorded as the “Matilda Rocks” by William Bligh, who was then in Tahiti. Frederick Beechey on the Blossom confirmed this was Mururoa Atoll when he found wreckage there in 1826. WHALING AND EXPLORATION. There was a long list of whaling captains who charted islands, gave vague sightings of other islands, and renamed islands seen hundreds of years before by the Spanish and Portuguese. This occurred between the 1780s and the 1870s in their normal commercial operations as they hunted whales along the littoral coasts and then after 1820, “along the line” (the equator) and in Japanese waters famous for offshore whaling. Their contributions to existing charts were incidental even accidental, but because of newspaper reporting on the whaling industry the names of islands were quickly added to the charts and checked by subsequent voyagers. Most of the sighting of new islands occurred in the middle phase of the Pacific whaling industry. For example, an American whaler, Joseph Allen mapped Gardner’s Island to the northwest of Hawaii in 1820. In 1821, the Nantucket whaler, George Barrett named Mitchell’s group (now Tuvalu). George Rule added the last of the Cook group to charts when he mapped Lydra Island (Nassau) in 1822. In 1824, Gardner in the Maria mapped Maria Island in the Australs in 1824 and George Joy in the Boston mapped Ebon Atoll in the Marshall Islands. John Clerk in the British whaler John Palmer mapped Onotoa, Tamana,

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and Beru atolls in Kiribati in 1826. In 1832, the American whaler Nathaniel Cary mapped one of the last remaining uncharted islands, Morane atoll in the Gambier Archipelago. The logs of the whalers are full of detailed chart positions, but also many brief and vague sightings. As the number of islands added to charts by whalers was substantial, acknowledgment of the whaling industry’s contribution to the age of exploration needs further attention. The completion of Pacific charts was as much the result of commercial whaling as it was of disinterested geographic and scientific exploration. WILKES, CHARLES (1798–1877). A U.S. naval officer and hydrologist, he led the first American government sponsored scientific expedition to the Pacific, the American South Sea Exploring Expedition in 1838–42. He was director of the Depot of Charts and Instruments, only a lieutenant and 40 years old when given the commission to lead the expedition. An amazing, wandering, and productive four-year expedition, it created careers, provided plots for novels, created an institution (the Smithsonian), and left a legacy of 20 volumes of scientific reports. An authoritarian and martinet, he was publically censured by a naval tribunal for excessive punishment when the expedition returned to America. He published a five-volume narrative in 1845 that went to 15 editions by 1858 and also wrote the volumes on meteorology (1851), Atlas of charts (1858), and hydrography (1873). Wilke’s charts continued to be used until the 1940s. WILKINSON. The captain of the China trader Indispensable out of Botany Bay (Sydney), he reported seeing two islands in 1790, later confirmed as Bellona and Rennell in the Solomons and shown on Aaron Arrowsmith’s chart of the Pacific Ocean in 1798. He also sighted five atolls in the Caroline Islands in 1797. WILSON, HENRY (?–1810). The captain of a British East India Company merchant ship out of Macao, the Antelope, he was wrecked in Palau (Pelew as it was then known) in 1783. After three months on the island the survivors built a small schooner from the wreckage with the help of Palauans, and finally returned to Britain in July 1784. A Palauan chief approved of his son going to Britain with

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Wilson. Lee Boo quickly reached celebrity status but unfortunately died of smallpox five months after arriving in London. The author George Keate spoke to Wilson in London and published the bestselling An account of the Pelew Island. WILSON, JAMES (1769–1814). The captain of a British ship Duff carrying the first London Missionary Society missionaries to their new postings in the Tahiti, Tonga, and the Marquesas, he crossed the Pacific and mapped or confirmed Vanua Balavu, Ogea Levu, and Fulaga in Fiji, Pukarua in the Tuamotu Archipeligo, Mangereva, and Timoe in the Gambier Islands in 1797, and Satawal, Lamotrek, Elato, Ifalek, and Wolei in the Western Caroline Islands. These were incidental discoveries as his main purpose after delivering the missionaries was to engage in the China trade. An account, A missionary voyage to the Southern Pacific Ocean, was published in 1799. WOMEN AND EXPLORATION. The leadership, crew, and civilian scientists involved in Pacific exploration were nearly an exclusively male European affair. The exceptions are few, including Ysabel Barreto, the wife of Alvaro Mendaña, who took command of the expedition when he died in 1595 and therefore became the first woman to cross the Pacific. Jeanne Baret, a woman disguised as the botantist Philibert Commerson’s assistant on the voyage of LouisAntoine de Bougainville in 1766–69, eventually circumnavigated the world after Commerson’s death, remarrying, and settling in Mauritius, and eventually returning to France. Her identity was not revealed until Ahutoru immediately noted her gender when Bougainville anchored in Tahiti. In 1787, Frances Barkley, the wife of the fur trader Charles Barkley, was the first European woman to visit the Northwest coast of America. Her “Reminiscences,” although never published, was used as a useful source of information on the coast. Twenty-two-year old Rose de Freycinet, the wife of Louis de Freycinet, was smuggled aboard the Uranie in 1817–1820 against naval orders. She survived the foundering of the Uranie in the Falkland Islands. She appears in several paintings by the voyage artist Jacques Arago, including a formal greeting by the governor when the Uranie visited Timor. Her journal A Woman of Courage was not published until 1927.

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In the 19th century, intrepid women travelers created a literary niche and Constance Gordon Cumming’s (1837–1924) account At Home in Fiji in 1881 is a typical example. This continued in the Pacific in the 20th century with books by Evelyn Cheeseman, Rosita Forbes, Emma Hadfield on the Loyalty Islands, Caroline EdgeworthDavid on Tuvalu, Beatrice Grimshaw on New Guinea, and Osa Johnson on the Solomon Islands. WRANGEL, FREDINAND PTROVICH (1796–1870). The Russian captain of the Krotkii, he sailed with Vasilii Golovnin and then commanded an expedition in 1825–27 that circumnavigated the world, corrected many errors and false claims in early charts, and carried out valuable surveys and observations on the Arctic and Siberian coastline. He later became an admiral and eminent geographer.

–Y – YULE, CHARLES BAMFIELD (1806–1878). A British naval officer, he commanded the support vessel Bramble in the surveying voyage of Frances Blackwood in 1842–45. He continued surveying the southeast coast of New Guinea in 1846 and then supported the survey by Owen Stanley in New Guinea waters in 1848–49. He claimed possession of New Guinea for Britain, but this was not endorsed. Britain eventually claimed southeastern New Guinea in 1884. Yule Island in Papua New Guinea was named after him, although it probably had been sighted by Luis Torres and Prado Y Tovar in 1606. He published the four-volume sailing directions, Australian Directory, in 1853–68.

–Z– ZARAGOZA, TREATY OF (1529). In a struggle with Portugal to gain control of trade in the Spice Islands and Moluccas, three Spanish voyages headed westward across the Pacific between 1519 and 1529. The voyages of Ferdinand Magellan, Garcia Jofre de Loiasa, and Alvaro de Saavedra were judged failures and suffered

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a heavy loss of ships and men. Because a route back eastward to the Americas was not yet established, Spain ceded its rights in the Spice Islands to the more-dominant Portugal for a cash payment in the Treaty of Zargoza in April 1529, the first treaty to deal with the Pacific. The new power balance drew the Moluccas into the Portuguese Indian Ocean trade network and ended the role of the Spice Islands as a motivation for Pacific voyaging. In Spain, it was regarded as a shameful retreat. Spain did not establish a base in the Philippines until 1565. ZHENG HE (Cheng Ho) (1371–1433). A Chinese admiral during the Ming dynasty, he led seven large expeditions to Africa, Arabia, South Asia, and Southeast Asia in 1405–43 with fleets ranging from 41 to 318 ships. Although his reports were lost, a colleague, Ma Huan, published The Overall Survey of the Ocean’s Shores in 1433. A map dated 1426, found in 1932, indicates a southern land similar in shape to early European maps of Australia. If these expeditions took the outer circle route from China to India, later used by European traders in the 19th century, it is possible they also visited islands in the western Pacific, New Guinea, or northern Australian waters.

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Bibliography

Section 1: Reference Works A. B. C. D. E. F.

Encyclopedia Bibliographies Biographies Atlases Chronologies Shipping Lists

Section 2: People A. B. C. D. E.

Explorers Whalers and Sealers Sea Otter Traders Buccaneers Beachcombers, Sandalwood, and Other Traders

Section 3: Places A. B. C. D. E.

Pacific Islands and Islanders Melanesia Micronesia Polynesia New Zealand

Section 4: Histories of Exploration in the Pacific A. B. C. D. E.

Sixteenth Century Seventeenth Century Eighteenth Century Nineteenth Century Twentieth and Twenty-First Centuries

Section 5: Works on Other Aspects of Exploration A. Art B. Cartography 183

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Literary Myths Science South Sea Company

Section 6: Maps and Charts of the Pacific Section 7: Hakluyt Society and Bibliotheca Australiana Publications

INTRODUCTION In compiling in a bibliography of exploration and discovery in the Pacific Islands the meaning or interpretation of several concepts and words needed to be addressed—what does “discovery” mean—discovery by whom? What are the academic boundaries of the Pacific? What years open and close an exploration period in history? As the Pacific Islands were already inhabited by Pacific Islanders before the arrival of Europeans, “discovery” in relation to an island is used here to indicate the first knowledge by Europeans, their fixing the location of the island on charts and making known its existence to the outside world. This bibliography does not include the exploits of indigenous voyages prior to the point of first contact with Europeans. To adequately cover the precontact diaspora of people over the ocean, known also as The Prehistory of the Pacific, would take a dictionary of its own. Occasional references are listed here on this momentous period in history of exploration and discovery and there are references for the period of initial contact and the reports produced in European journals and logs from which important information about early Pacific Island history, culture, and society has been gathered. A common misconception about the European exploration of the Pacific is that it was carried out by official naval expeditions acting for governments and led by navigators, such as Ferdinand Magellan, James Cook, and Jean Francois Lapérouse. In fact, private patronage of scientific voyages, commercial profit, and spiritual interests made an equally significant contribution. Whaling, sealing, and trading for sea otter pelts and sandalwood also brought ships to the Pacific and, in many cases, they were the first to visit islands and establish contact with the local inhabitants. In some cases, as with the sea otter traders in Hawai’i, the visitors played a crucial role in local affairs and had a profound effect on the subsequent history of the islands. In nearly all cases, the journals and art of the voyage, reports of new islands, and merchant news were published, reprinted in new editions and other languages, and often plagiarised. Europe also brought its religion to the Pacific and many of the early Spanish ships carried Catholic priests on board, but it was only after 1797, when the Lon-

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don Missionary Society sent the Duff to the eastern Pacific, that Christianity took hold in the region with the arrival of missionaries. The journals of the early missionaries are a valuable source of information for place names, topographical features, and charts, maps, and nautical detail. Australia, New Zealand, Antarctica, and the northwest American coast are dealt with in companion volumes in the Scarecrow Dictionary series, so this bibliography concentrates on the hundreds of islands located in the Pacific and otherwise known as Oceania. It includes Melanesia or the southwest Pacific, Micronesia to the north of the Equator, and the huge spread of Polynesia from Hawai’i to Easter Island (Rapanui) and New Zealand. The term “South Sea” was initially used for Oceania to distinguish it from the “North Sea” or the North Atlantic. The term “South Pacific” was a literary phrase used to indicate the islands generally. Oceania is now the preferred term. The bibliography includes some activities that mostly took place on the perimeter of Oceania. The sea otter trade of the northwest coast of America, the mapping of Antarctica, and the search for the Northwest Passage are included. The starting point in the exploration of Oceania is uncertain, but archaeological evidence indicates the first Oceanic people arrived in New Guinea about 40,000 years ago. Vasco Niñez Balboa’s sighting in 1513 of what he termed the “Mar del Sur,” and Magellan’s passage through the Strait of Magellan eight years later into what he called “Mar Pacifica,” form a suitable beginning for the European history of the mapping and exploration of Oceania. When the age of European exploration and discovery ended is more difficult to determine. Evidence suggests that the last island to have its position fixed correctly was Midway, in a chain of islands stretching northwest from Hawai’i, in 1859. This date has, therefore, been chosen as a convenient point to close for most of islands under consideration. Only two or three important naval expeditions after that date have been included. New Guinea is an exception because it was large enough to make the exploration of its interior far more difficult. Material about the internal exploration of New Guinea has been included up to the 1960s, by which time most of the island had been mapped. Having decided on the parameters concerning what can be included, it should be noted that the literature covering exploration of Oceania is extensive. Wherever possible, all original published narratives (of which there are hundreds) have been included, together with later facsimile and edited reprints. Space considerations have forced some material to be excluded and it was decided to concentrate on monographs rather than journal articles. As most historical work published in journal form is also later reworked and incorporated into books, information is provided about where to locate recently published articles and conference proceedings. The bibliography includes book reviews, indexes, and bibliographies such as the Pacific History Bibliography and “Recent Literature in Discovery History” in Terrae Incognitae.

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20TH-CENTURY PACIFIC-BASED WRITERS In the middle of the 20th century, a new development took place. The study of the history and anthropology of the Pacific began to merge and at the same time to be challenged by scholars who were born, educated, and lived in and beyond the region. The histories of Oceania began to demonstrate more empathy, involvement, and feeling for indigenous subjects and the acknowledged historians of the early voyages, such as JC Beaglehole, Andrew Sharp, Bernard Smith, and Oscar Spate, were challenged and expanded on by Greg Dening, John Dunmore, Jonathon Lamb, Anne Salmon, Nicholas Thomas, and Glyn Williams and others. In the 1960s, anthropologists began reassessing the implications of European arrival in the Pacific. They reexamined the journals and narratives and reconsidered indigenous oral traditions and through a cross-disciplinary approach, summarized by the phrase cross-cultural encounters, attempted to gain a better understanding of what initial contact meant to both indigenous people and the Euro-American visitors. It has not always led to agreement, as is the case with the debate between Marshall Sahlins and Gananeth Obeyesekere concerning James Cook, the Hawaiians, Lono, and Cook’s death. By the end of the 20th century, the dominant paradigm meant historians were investigating historical events from the point of view of Pacific Island peoples who lived in oral societies. The indigenous point of view during the period of initial contact had not been recorded but the oral traditions continued and some versions are now being published. Peter Buck (Te Rangi Hiroa), the Maori historian, was a lone Pacific voice in earlier times but in recent years others have followed him. As the 21st century begins, Pacific Islander historians are now writing histories of their own nations and the region.

FACSIMILE AND OTHER REPRODUCTIONS In the late 1960s and early 1970s, the publishing houses of N. Israel in Amsterdam and De Capo Press in New York undertook a project, the Bibliotheca Australiana, which led to about 70 works being published as facsimile editions. Nearly all the works chosen were journals and logs of voyagers to the South Pacific. Suddenly, a range of material, previously only present in a limited number of libraries, was readily available. The works were reproduced as facsimiles without critical editing and without modern introductions. The other major series of note is that of the Hakluyt Society, a British organization that for 150 years has published critical editions of explorers’ journals and narratives. Although not all of their titles cover the South Pacific, a significant number do and all of the major explorers to the Pacific have been included. The scholarly introductions, background notes, and use of footnotes often make these titles the definitive sources for particular people and voyages. The Uni-

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versity of Hawai’i Press also deserves mention for the quantity and quality of works it has published. It has regularly brought out titles reflecting new research as well as publishing new critical editions of earlier works.

MAPS AND CHARTS Maps and charts represent an important part of the literature of discovery and exploration. A list of some of the more important and interesting maps has been included. In the reference section, lists of atlases relevant to the Pacific and books that describe the history of cartography in the Pacific have been included.

ONLINE LIBRARY CATALOGS Most university and public libraries now provide access to online databases, which allow searching and, in many cases, the opportunity to read articles full-text. The advent of the Internet has had a dramatic effect on research. The catalogs of most significant libraries with Pacific collections may now be searched online. A list of National Libraries with relevance to the Pacific has been reproduced with links to their online catalogs.

ORGANIZATION OF THE BIBLIOGRAPHY A more-detailed contents list precedes each section of the bibliography. The five sections, divided into five to seven subsections, are in alphabetical order where applicable; for example, under Section 2, People, and subsection A, Voyagers, the Dutch are listed before French voyagers, and under the Dutch, Roggeveen is listed before Schouten.

SECTION 1: REFERENCE WORKS The section covers works that provide overviews and starting points for research into the Pacific, its history, exploration, and discovery. A. Encyclopedias B. Bibliographies 1. General 2. Melanesia

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3. Micronesia 4. Polynesia Biographies Atlases 1. Exploration 2. Historical 3. Specific locations 4. General Chronologies Shipping lists

A. Encyclopedias Baker, Daniel B., ed. Explorers and Discoverers of the World. Detroit: Gale Research, 1993. Bohlander, Richard E., ed. World Explorers and Discoverers. New York: Macmillan, 1992. Craig, Robert D., comp. Historical Dictionary of Polynesia. 2nd ed. Lanham, Md.: Scarecrow Press, 2002. Craig, Robert D., and Frank P. King, eds. Historical Dictionary of Oceania. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1981. Day, Alan. Historical Dictionary of the Discovery and Exploration of Australia. Lanham, Md.: Scarecrow Press, 2003. ———. Historical Dictionary of the Search for the Northwest Passage. Lanham, Md.: Scarecrow Press, 2005. Delpar, Helen, ed. The Discoverers: An Encyclopedia of Explorers and Exploration. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1980. Denoon, Donald, and Philippa Mein-Smith. A History of Australia, New Zealand, and the Pacific. Oxford: Blackwell, 2000. Gavet-Imbert, Michèle, ed. The Guinness Book of Explorers and Exploration. Enfield, U.K.: Guinness, 1991. Grimbly, Shona, ed. Encyclopedia of the Ancient World. London: Fitzroy Dearborn, 2000. Howgego, Raymond John. Encyclopedia of Exploration to 1800: A Comprehensive Reference Guide to the History and Literature of Exploration, Travel and Colonization from the Earliest Times to the Year 1800. Potts Point, N.S.W.: Hordern House, 2003. Lal, Brij V., and Kate Fortune, ed. The Pacific Islands: An Encyclopedia. Honolulu: University of Hawai’i Press, 2000. Turner, Ann, comp. Historical Dictionary of Papua New Guinea. 2nd ed. Lanham, Md.: Scarecrow Press, 2001. The Western Pacific Archive: Selected Documents. London: Foreign and Commonwealth Office, 2002.

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Wuerch, William L., and Dirk Anthony Ballendorf, comps. Historical Dictionary of Guam and Micronesia. Metuchen, N.J.: Scarecrow Press, 1994.

B. Bibliographies 1. General Cox, Edward Godfrey. A Reference Guide to the Literature of Travel: Including Voyages, Geographical Descriptions, Adventures, Shipwrecks and Expeditons. 3 vols. Seattle: University of Washington, 1935–1949. (Vol. 1. The Old World; Vol. 2. The New World; Vol. 3. Great Britain.). Fry, Gerald W., and Rufino Mauricio, comps. Pacific Basin and Oceania. Oxford: Clio Press, 1987. Jackson, Miles M., ed. Pacific Island Studies: A Survey of the Literature. New York: Greenwood Press, 1986. Moore, Clive, comp. Pacific History Journal Bibliography. Canberra: Pacific Manuscripts Bureau, Research School of Pacific Studies, Australian National University, 1992. (Available online: http://coombs.anu.edu.au/WWWVLPacific/ Pac-Jrnl-Bibliography.html). National Maritime Museum (Great Britain). Library. Catalogue of the Library. 5 vols. London: H.M.S.O., 1968–. (Biography. 2 vols.; Voyages & Travel. 1 vol.). South Pacific Bibliography, 1981– . Suva, Fiji: University of the South Pacific Library, Pacific Information Centre, 1982–.

2. Melanesia Edridge, Sally, comp. Solomon Islands Bibliography to 1980. Suva, Fiji: Institute of Pacific Studies, University of the South Pacific, 1985. Gorman, G. E., and J.J. Mills, comps. Fiji. Oxford: Clio Press, 1994. McConnell, Fraiser, comp. Papua New Guinea. Oxford: Clio Press, 1988. Pisier, Georges, comp. Bibliographie méthodique, analytique et critique de la Nouvelle-Calédonie, 1955–1982. Nouméa: Société d’études historiques de la Nouvelle-Calédonie, 1983.

3. Micronesia Krauss, N.L.H., comp. Bibliography of Nauru, Western Pacific. Honolulu: N.L.H. Krauss, 1970. ———. Bibliography of Ocean Island (Banaba), Western Pacific. Honolulu: N.L.H. Krauss, 1969. ———. Bibliography of the Line Islands, Central Pacific. Honolulu: N.L.H. Krauss, 1970.

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Pollock, Nancy J., comp. Nauru Bibliography. Rev ed. Wellington: Department of Anthropology, Victoria University of Wellington, 1994. Storie, Monique Carriveau, and William L. Wuerch, comps. Micronesia. Oxford: Clio Press, 1999.

4. Polynesia Daly, Martin, comp. Tonga. Oxford: Clio Press, 1999. Forbes, David W., comp. Hawaiian National Bibliography, 1780–1900. 3 vols. Honolulu: University of Hawai’i Press, 1998–2002. Goldsmith, Michael, comp. Bibliography of Tuvalu. Hamilton, N.Z.: M. Goldsmith, 1998. Howell, Lowell Don, comp. Samoan Islands Bibliography. Wichita, Kans.: Poly Concepts, 1984. Hughes, H.G.A., comp. Samoa (American Samoa, Western Samoa, Samoans Abroad), Oxford: Clio Press, 1997. Jackson, Keith, and Alan McRobie, comps. Historical Dictionary of New Zealand. Lanham, Md.: Scarecrow Press, 1996. Krauss, N.L.H., comp. Bibliography of the Ellice Islands, Western Pacific. Honolulu: N.L.H. Krauss, 1969. ———. Bibliography of Tikopia, Solomon Islands. Honolulu: N.L.H. Krauss, 1971. ———. Bibliography of the Tokelau or Union Islands, Central Pacific. Honolulu: N.L.H. Krauss, 1969. Morris, Nancy J., and Love Dean, comps. Hawaii. Oxford: Clio Press, 1992. O’Reilly, Patrick, and Édouard Reitman, comps. Bibliographie de Tahiti et de la Polynésie française. Paris: Société des Océanistes, 1967. Patterson, Brad, and Kathryn Patterson, comps. New Zealand. Rev. ed. Oxford: Clio Press, 1998. Todd, Chris, ed. Tokelau National Bibliography  Fakamaumauga o na tuhituhiga o Tokelau, 2nd ed. Wellington: Bibliographic Services, National Library of New Zealand, 2002.

C. Biographies Davidson, J.V., and Deryck Scarr, eds. Pacific Islands Portraits. Canberra: Australian National University Press, 1970. Dunmore, John. Who’s Who in Pacific Navigation. Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 1991. McCormick, Eric Hall. Omai: Pacific Envoy. Auckland: Auckland University Press, 1977. Marshall, John. Royal Naval Biography, or, Memoirs of the Services of All the FlagOfficers, Superannuated Rear-Admirals, Retired-Captains, Post-Captains, and Commanders, Whose Names Appeared on the Admiralty List of Sea Officers at

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the Commencement of the Present Year 1823, or Who Have Since Been Promoted. 8 vols. London: Longman, Rees, Orme, Brown, and Green, 1823–35. Mediavilla, Victor Herrero, ed. Australasian Biographical Archive (ANZO-BA). Supplement. Munich: K.G. Saur, 1995– . ———. Australasian Biographical Index, edited and compiled by Victor Herrero Mediavilla. 3 vols. München: K.G. Saur, 1996. Mediavilla, Victor Herrero, and L. Rosa Aguayo Nayle, eds. Australasian Biographical Archive (ANZO-BA). Munich: K.G. Saur, 1991. Pike, Douglas, ed. Australian Dictionary of Biography. Melbourne: Melbourne University Press, 1977–. (Volume 1. 1788–1850, A–H. 1977; Volume 2. 1788–1850, I–Z. 1979.). Scarr, Deryck, ed. More Pacific Islands Portraits. Canberra: Australian National University Press, 1979. Stephen, Leslie, and Sidney Lee, eds. Dictionary of National Biography. 22 vols. London: Smith, Elder & Co., 1908–09. Waldman, Carl, and Alan Wexler. Who Was Who in World Exploration. New York: Facts on File, 1992.

D. Atlases 1. Exploration Atlas of Exploration. New York: Oxford University Press, 1997. Debenham, Frank. Discovery and Exploration: An Atlas-History of Man’s Journeys into the Unknown. London: Hamlyn, 1960. Fernández-Armesto, Felipe, ed. The Times Atlas of World Exploration. London: Times Books, 1991. Grimbly, Shona, ed. Atlas of Exploration. London: Fitzroy Dearborn, 2001. Newby, Eric. The Mitchell Beazley World Atlas of Exploration. London: Mitchell Beazley, 1975. Philip’s Atlas of Exploration. London: Philip, 1996.

2. Historical Atlas of World History. London: Dorling Kindersley, 1999. McEvedy, Colin. The Penguin Historical Atlas of the Pacific. New York: Penguin Books, 1998. O’Brien, Patrick K., ed. Atlas of World History. New York: Oxford University Press, 1999.

3. Specific locations Atlas de la Nouvelle Calédonie et dépendances. Paris: Editions de l’Office de la recherche scientifique et technique outre-mer, 1981.

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Atlas de la Polynésie française. Paris: Éditions de l’Office de la recherche scientifique et technique outre-mer, 1993. Atlas of the South Pacific. 2nd ed. Wellington: Government Printing Office, 1986. Chandra, Rajesh, and Keith Mason, ed. An Atlas of Fiji. Suva, Fiji: Dept. of Geography, School of Social and Economic Development, University of the South Pacific, 1998. Juvik, Sonia P., and James O. Juvik, ed. Atlas of Hawai’i. 3rd ed. Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 1998. Karolle, Bruce G. Atlas of Micronesia. 2nd ed. Honolulu: Bess Press, 1993. Kennedy, Thomas Fillans. A Descriptive Atlas of the Pacific Islands: New Zealand, Australia, Polynesia, Melanesia, Micronesia, Philippines. 3rd ed. Wellington: Reed Education, 1974. Merceron, François, ed. Atlas de Tahiti et de la Polynesie Francaise. Singapore: Times Editions, 1988. Quanchi, Max. Jacaranda Atlas of the Pacific Islands. Milton, Queensland: John Wiley & Sons, Australia, 2002. Ridgell, Reilly. Pacific Nations and Territories: The Islands of Micronesia, Melanesia, and Polynesia. 3rd ed. Honolulu: Bess Press, 1995. Ward, R. Gerard, and David A.M. Lea, ed. An Atlas of Papua and New Guinea. Port Moresby: Dept. of Geography, University of Papua and New Guinea, 1970.

4. General Nile, Richard, and Christian Clerk. Cultural Atlas of Australia, New Zealand, and the South Pacific. New York: Facts on File, 1996. The Times Atlas of the World. 9th comprehensive ed. London: Times Books, 1998. Wurm, S.A., and Shirô Hattori, eds. Language Atlas of the Pacific Area. 2 vols. Canberra: Australian Academy of the Humanities, 1981.

E. Chronologies Brownstone, David M., and Irene M. Franck. The Wilson Chronology of Asia and the Pacific. New York: H.W. Wilson, 1999. Dunmore, John. Chronology of Pacific History. Auckland: Heritage Press, 2000. Farquhar, Francis Peloubet. A Brief Chronology of Discovery in the Pacific Ocean from Balboa to Capt. Cook’s First Voyage, 1513 to 1770. San Francisco: The Grabhorn Press, 1943. Williams, Neville. The Expanding World: 1492–1775. Rev. ed. Oxford: Helicon, 1999.

F. Shipping Lists Broxam, Graeme, and Ian Nicholson. Shipping Arrivals and Departures, Sydney. Volume III, 1841 to 1844 and Gazetteer. Canberra: Roebuck Books, 1988.

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Jones, A.G.E. Ships Employed in the South Seas Trade 1775–1859 (Part I), and, Admiralty Protections from Impressment 1777–1811 (Part II), and, Aspects of the South Seas Trade (Part III). Canberra: A.G.E. Jones, jointly with The Australian Association for Maritime History, Inc., 1991. ———. Ships Employed in the South Seas Trade 1775–1861 (Parts I and II), and, Registrar General of Shipping and Seamen. Transcripts of Registers of Shipping 1787–1862 (Part III). Canberra: Roebuck Books, 1986. Nicholson, Ian Hawkins. Gazetteer of Sydney Shipping, 1788–1840: Being a Geographical Index of Ports of Origin and Destination and Places Discovered, Visited or Remarked upon by Sydney Shipping of the Period. Canberra: Roebuck Book, 1981. ———. Log of Logs. A Catalogue of Logs, Journals, Shipboard Diaries, Letters, and All Forms of Voyage Narratives, 1788 to 1998, for Australia and New Zealand, and Surrounding Oceans. 3 vols. Yaroomba, Queensland: I. Nicholson, 1990–1999. Sherman, Stuart C., comp. Whaling Logbooks and Journals, 1613–1927: An Inventory of Manuscript Records in Public Collections, originally compiled by Stuart C. Sherman; revised and edited for publication by Judith M. Downey and Virginia M. Adams. New York: Garland, 1986.

SECTION 2: PEOPLE The second deals more with different groups who visited the Pacific in the period under consideration. It begins with the explorers, who are organised by nationality. The more important explorers, whalers, sealers, and traders are accorded their own entry under their nationality. A. Explorers 1. American: General 2. American: Specific Voyages 3. Austrian: General 4. British: General 5. British: Specific Voyages 6. Dutch: General 7. Dutch: Specific Voyages 8. French: General 9. French: Specific Voyages 10. Italian: General 11. Portuguese: General 12. Russian: General 13. Russian: Specific Voyages 14. Spanish: General 15. Spanish: Specific Voyages

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B. Whalers and Sealers 1. General 2. Specific Voyages and Events 3. Other Individual Voyages C. Sea Otter Traders D. Buccaneers E. Beachcombers, Sandalwood and Other Traders

A. Explorers 1. American: General Gibson, Arrell Morgan. Yankees in Paradise: The Pacific Basin Frontier. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1993. Ingraham, Joseph. Joseph Ingraham’s Journal of the Brigantine Hope on a Voyage to the Northwest Coast of North America, 1790–92. Barre, Mass.: Imprint Society, 1971. Iselin, Isaac. Journal of a Trading Voyage around the World, 1805–1808. New York: McIlroy nd Emmet, n.d. ———. Journal of a Trading Voyage around the World, 1805–1808. Fairfield, Wash.: Ye Galleon Press, 1999. Johnson, Donald Dalton. The United States in the Pacific: Private Interests and Public Policies, 1784–1899. Westport, Conn.: Praeger, 1995. King, Thomas Worthington. Journal of a Voyage around the World: A Year on the Ship Helena (1842–1842), edited by Steven E. Kagle. Columbus: Ohio State University Press, 2003. Melvin, John L. A Narrative of a Voyage round the World, Commenced in 1816, and Ended in 1824; in Which Is Contained Some Account of the Natives of the Sandwich Islands, and Likewise of the Inhabitants of Chili and Peru; with Some Remarks on the Public Conduct of Lord Cochrane. Georgetown, Washington D.C., 1825. Patterson, Samuel. Narrative of the Adventures and Sufferings of Samuel Patterson, Experienced in the Pacific Ocean, and Many Other Parts of the World, with an Account of the FeeGee, and Sandwich Islands. Palmer, Mass.: 1817. Paulding, Hiram. Journal of a Cruise of the United States Schooner Dolphin among the Islands of the Pacific Ocean and a Visit to the Mulgrave Islands in Pursuit of the Mutineers of the Whale Ship Globe. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1970. Porter, David. Journal of a Cruise Made to the Pacific Ocean by Captain David Porter in the United States Frigate Essex, in the Years 1812, 1813, and 1814. Philadelphia: Bradford, 1815. Reynolds, Jeremiah N. Pacific and Indian Oceans: or, The South Sea Surveying and Exploring Expedition: Its Inception, Progress, and Objects. New York: Harper, 1841. Reynolds, Stephen. The Voyage of the New Hazard to the Northwest Coast, Hawaii and China, 1810–1813, edited by Judge F.W. Howay. Salem, Mass.: Peabody Museum, 1938.

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———. The Voyage of the New Hazard to the Northwest Coast, Hawaii, and China, 1810–1813, edited by F.W. Howay. Fairfield, Wash.: Ye Galleon Press, 1970. Ruschenberger, W.S.W. A Voyage round the World in 1835, 1836, and 1837 Including Sketches in the Sandwich Islands. Philadelphia: Carey, Lea, and Blanchard, 1838. Stewart, Charles Samuel. Journal of a Residence in the Sandwich Islands, during the Years, 1823, 1824, and 1825: Including Remarks on the Manners and Customs of the Inhabitants. With an Introduction and Occasional Notes by William Ellis. Facsimile reproduction of 3rd ed. of 1830. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press for Friends of the Library of Hawaii, 1970. ———. A Visit to the South Seas, in the U.S. Ship Vincennes, during the Years 1829 and 1830: With Scenes in Brazil, Peru, Manilla, the Cape of Good Hope, and St. Helena. 2 vols. New York: John P. Haven, 1831. ———. A Visit to the South Seas, in the U.S. Ship Vincennes, during the Years 1829 and 1830; with Scenes in Brazil, Peru, Manila, the Cape of Good Hope, and St. Helena. 2 vols. in 1. New York: Praeger, 1970. Strauss, Wallace Patrick. Americans in Polynesia, 1783–1842. East Lansing: Michigan State University Press, 1963. Twyning, John P. Wreck of the Minerva. Fairfield, Wash.: Ye Galleon Press, 1996. Ward, R. Gerard, ed. American Activities in the Central Pacific, 1790–1870; A History, Geography, and Ethnography Pertaining to American Involvement and Americans in the Pacific Taken from Contemporary Newspapers etc. 9 vols. Ridgewood, N.J.: Gregg Press, 1966–1967. Wilson, John. The Cruise of the “Gipsy”: The Journal of John Wilson, Surgeon on a Whaling Voyage to the Pacific Ocean, 1839–1843, edited by Honore Forster. Fairfield, Wash.: Ye Galleon Press, 1991.

2. American: Specific Voyages John Downes Reynolds, Jeremiah N. Voyage of the United States Frigate Potomac, under the Command of Commodore John Downes, during the Circumnavigation of the Globe, in the Years 1831, 1832, 1833, and 1834. New York: Harper, 1835. Warriner, Francis. Cruise of the United States Frigate Potomac round the World: During the Years 1831–34; Embracing the Attack on Quallah-Battoo. New York: Leavitt, Lord., 1835.

Benjamin Morrell Jacobs, Thomas Jefferson. Scenes, Incidents, and Adventures in the Pacific Ocean, or, The Islands of the Australasian Seas, during the Cruise of the Clipper Margaret Oakley, under Capt. Benjamin Morrell. New York: Harper & Bros., 1844.

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Morrell, Abby Jane. Narrative of a Voyage to the Ethiopic and South Atlantic Ocean, Indian Ocean, Chinese Sea, North and South Pacific Ocean, in the Years 1829, 1830, 1831. New York: J. & J. Harper, 1833. ———. Narrative of a Voyage to the Ethiopic and South Atlantic Ocean, Indian Ocean, Chinese Sea, North and South Pacific Ocean. Upper Saddle River, N.J., Gregg Press, 1970. Morrell, Benjamin. A Narrative of Four Voyages: to the South Sea, North and South Pacific Ocean, Chinese Sea, Ethiopic and Southern Atlantic Ocean, Indian and Antarctic Ocean; from the Year 1822 to 1831. New York: J. & J. Harper, 1832. ———. A Narrative of Four Voyages. Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Gregg Press, 1970.

Charles Wilkes Clark, Joseph G. Lights and Shadows of Sailor Life, as Exemplified in Fifteen Years’ Experience, Including the More Thrilling Events of the U.S. Exploring Expedition, and Reminiscences of an Eventful Life on the “Mountain Wave.” Boston: John Putnam, 1847. Haskell, Daniel Carl, comp. The United States Exploring Expedition, 1838–1842 and Its Publications, 1844–1874: A Bibliography. Mansfield Centre, Conn.: Martino, 2002. Joyce, Barry Alan. The Shaping of American Ethnography: The Wilkes Exploring Expedition, 1838–1842. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2001. Philbrick, Nathaniel. Sea of Glory; America’s Voyage of Discovery, the U.S. Exploring Expedition 1838–1842. New York: Viking, 2003. Stanton, William Ragan. The Great United States Exploring Expedition of 1838–1842. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1975. Viola, Herman J., and Carolyn Margolis, eds. Magnificent Voyagers: The U.S. Exploring Expedition, 1838–1842. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1985. Wilkes, Charles. Narrative of the United States Exploring Expedition during the Years 1838, 1839, 1840, 1841, 1842. 5 vols. Philadelphia: Lea and Blanchard, 1845. ———. Narrative of the United States Exploring Expedition. 5 vols. Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Gregg Press, 1970.

3. Austrian: General Hochstetter, Ferdinand von. Reise der Österreichischen Fregatte Novara um die Erde in die Jahren 1857, 1858, 1859 unter den Befehlen des Commodore B. von Wüllerstorf-Urbair. Geologischer Theil. 2 vols. in 3. Wien: In Commission bei K. Gerold’s Sohn, 1864–67. Saunders, Otley, and Co., 1861–1863. Scherzer, Karl. Narrative of the Circumnavigation of the Globe by the Austrian Frigate Novara (Commodore B. von Wullerstorf-Urbair), Undertaken by Order

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of the Imperial Government, in the Years 1857, 1858, & 1859, under the Immediate Auspices of His I. and R. Highness the Archduke Ferdinand Maximilian, Commander-in-Chief of the Austrian Navy. 3 vols. London:

4. British: General Bassett, Marnie. Behind the Picture; H.M.S. Rattlesnake’s Australia–New Guinea Cruise, 1846 to 1850. Melbourne: Oxford University Press, 1966. Bayly, George. A Life on the Ocean Wave: The Journals of Captain George Bayly, 1824–1844, introduced and edited by Pamela Statham and Rica Erickson. Carlton, Victoria: Miegunyah Press, 1998. Campbell, Archibald. A Voyage round the World, from 1806 to 1812; in Which Japan, Kamschatka, the Aleutian Islands, and the Sandwich Islands, Were Visited. Edinburgh: A. Constable, 1816. ———. A Voyage round the World, from 1806 to 1812; in Which Japan, Kamschatka, the Aleutian Islands, and the Sandwich Islands Were Visited; Including a Narrative of the Author’s Shipwreck on the Island of Sannack, and His Subsequent Wreck in the Ship’s Long-Boat; with an Account of the Present State of the Sandwich Islands, and a Vocabulary of Their Language. Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press for Friends of the Library of Hawaii, 1967. Cleveland, Richard J. A Narrative of Voyages and Commercial Enterprises. 2 vols. Cambridge: John Owen, 1842. Collins, David. An Account of the English Colony in New South Wales from Its First Settlement in January 1788, to August 1801: With Remarks on the Dispositions, Customs, Manners, &c. of the Native Inhabitants of that Country. To Which are Added, Some Particulars of New Zealand; Compiled, by Permission, from the Mss. of Lieutenant-Governor King; And an Account of a Voyage Performed by Captain Flinders and Mr. Bass . . . Abstracted from the Journal of Mr. Bass. 2nd ed. London: Printed by A. Strahan for T. Cadell and W. Davies, 1798–1802. ———. An Account of the English Colony in New South Wales [from Its First Settlement in January 1788, to August 1801]: With Remarks on the Dispositions, Customs, Manners, &c. of the Native Inhabitants of that Country. To Which are Added, Some Particulars of New Zealand; Compiled by Permission, from the Mss. of Lieutenant-Governor King; [and an Account of a Voyage Performed by Captain Flinders and Mr. Bass Abstracted from the Journal of Mr. Bass]. 2 vols. Adelaide: Libraries Board of South Australia, 1971. Cooke, Edward. A Voyage to the South Sea and round the World in the Years 1708 to 1711. 2 vols. Amsterdam: N. Israel, 1969. Dampier, Robert. To the Sandwich Islands on H.M.S. Blonde, edited by Pauline King Joerger. Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press for Friends of the Library of Hawaii, 1971. David, Andrew. The Voyage of HMS Herald to Australia and the South-West Pacific, 1852–1861 under the Command of Captain Henry Mangles Denham. Carlton, Victoria: Miegunyah Press, 1995.

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Davis, John. The Voyages and Works of John Davis, the Navigator, edited with an introduction and notes by Albert Hastings Markham. New York: B. Franklin, 1970. Goodenough, James Graham. Journal of Commodore Goodenough, R.N., C.B., C.M.G., during His Last Command as Senior Officer on the Australian Station, 1873–1875, edited, with a memoir, by his widow. London: Henry S. King, 1876. Great Britain. Challenger Office. Report on the Scientific Results of the Voyage of H.M.S. Challenger during the Years 1873–76 under the Command of Captain George S. Nares and the Late Captain Frank Tourle Thomson, R.N. Prepared under the Superintendence of the Late Sir C. Wyville Thomson. 44 vols. Edinburgh: Printed for H.M. Stationery Office, 1880–95. Holman, James. A Voyage round the World: Including Travels in Africa, Asia, Australasia, America, etc. etc.: From MD.C.CCXXVII to MD.C.CCXXXII. 4 vols. London: Smith, Elder, 1834–1835. Hunter, John. An Historical Journal of the Transactions at Port Jackson, and Norfolk Island, Including the Journals of Governors Phillip and King, Since the Publication of Phillip’s Voyage, with an Abridged Account of the New Discoveries in the South Seas to Which is Prefixed A Life of the Author. London: Stockdale, 1793. ———. An Historical Journal of Events at Sydney and at Sea, 1787–1792, with Further Accounts by Governor Arthur Phillip, Lieutenant P. G. King, and Lieutenant H. L. Ball, edited by John Bach. Sydney: Angus and Robertson in association with the Royal Australian Historical Society, 1968. Keate, George. An Account of the Pelew Islands, Situated in the Western Part of the Pacific Ocean: Composed from the Journals and Communications of Captain Henry Wilson, and Some of His Officers, Who, in August 1783, Were There Shipwrecked, in the Antelope, a Packet Belonging to the Honourable East India Company. London: G. Nicol, 1788. ———. An Account of the Pelew Islands, edited by Karen L. Nero and Nicholas Thomas. London: Leicester University Press, 2002. Linklater, Eric. The Voyage of the Challenger. Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1972. Martin, Henry Byam. The Polynesian Journal of Captain Henry Byam Martin, R.N./Illustrated with Water Colors, Wash Drawings, and Decorative Pen and Ink Sketches from the Originals by Captain Martin. Salem, Mass.: Peabody Museum of Salem, 1981. Mathison, Gilbert F. Narrative of a Visit to Brazil, Chile, Peru, and the Sandwich Islands during the Years 1821 and 1822. London: C. Knight, 1825. Mortimer, George. Observations and Remarks Made during a Voyage to the Islands of Teneriffe, Amsterdam, Maria’s Island Near Van Diemen’s Land, Otaheite, Sandwich Islands, Owhyhee, the Fox Islands on the North West Coast of America, Tinian, and from Thence to Canton in the Brig Mercury Commanded by John Henry Cox. Amsterdam: N. Israel, 1975. ———. Observations and Remarks Made during a Voyage. Fairfield, Wash.: Ye Galleon Press, 1988.

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Phillip, Arthur. The Voyage of Governor Phillip to Botany Bay: With Contributions by Other Officers of the First Fleet and Observations on Affairs of the Time by Lord Auckland, with an introduction and annotations by James J. Auchmuty. London: Angus & Robertson, 1970. Porteus, Stanley David. The Restless Voyage; Being an Account by Archibald Campbell, Seaman, of His Wanderings in Five Oceans from 1806 to 1812; Written and Published in Edinburgh in 1816 and Supplemented & Re-indited in 1948 from Documents Dealing with His Further History in Scotland and America. London: Harrap, 1949. Spry, William James Joseph. The Cruise of Her Majesty’s Ship “Challenger”: Voyages over Many Seas, Scenes in Many Lands. London: Sampson Low, Marston, Searle & Rivington, 1876. Turnbull, John. A Voyage round the World, in the Years 1800, 1801, 1802, 1803, and 1804: in Which the Author Visited Madeira, the Brazils, Cape of Good Hope, the English Settlements of Botany Bay and Norfolk Island; and the Principals Islands in the Pacific Ocean, with a Continuation of Their History to the Present Period. 2nd ed. London: A. Maxwell, 1813. The Voyage of Governor Phillip to Botany Bay: With an Account of the Establishment of Port Jackson and Norfolk Island; Compiled from Authentic Papers to Which Are Added Journals of Lieuts. Shortland, Watts, Ball & Capt. Marshall, with an Account of Their New Discoveries. London: Printed for John Stockdale, 1789. Walpole, Fred. Four Years in the Pacific in Her Majesty’s Ship “Collingwood” from 1844 to 1848. London: Richard Bentley, 1850.

5. British: Specific Voyages George Anson Anson, George. A Voyage round the World: In the Years MD.C.CXL, I, II, III, IV, compiled from his papers and materials by Richard Walter. 5th ed. London: G. Anson, 1749. ———. A Voyage round the World in the Years MD.C.CXL, I, II, III, IV, edited with an introduction by Glyndwr Williams. London: Oxford University Press, 1974. Saumarez, Philip. Log of the Centurion, Based on the Original Papers of Captain Philip Saumarez on Board HMS Centurion, Lord Anson’s Flagship During His Circumnavigation, 1740–44, edited by Leo Heaps. London: Hart-Davis, MacGibbon, 1973. Thomas, Pascoe. A True and Impartial Journal of a Voyage to the South-Seas and round the Globe, in His Majesty’s Ship the Centurion, under the Command of Commodore George Anson. London: Printed and sold by S. Birt, J. Newbery, J. Collyer, 1745.

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———. Journal of a Voyage to the South-Seas. Amsterdam: N. Israel, 1971. Walter, Richard. Anson’s Voyage round the World. London: M. Hopkinson, 1928. Wilcox, Leslie A. Anson’s Voyage. London, Bell, 1969. Williams, Glyndwr. Documents Relating to Anson’s Voyage round the World, 1740–1744. Greenwich: Navy Records Society, 1967. ———. The Prize of All the Oceans: The Triumph and Tragedy of Anson’s Voyage round the World. London: HarperCollins, 1999.

Frederick Beechey Beechey, Frederick William. Narrative of a Voyage to the Pacific and Beering’s Strait, to Co-operate with the Polar Expeditions: Performed in His Majesty’s Ship Blossom, under the Command of Captain F. W. Beechey in the Years 1825, 26, 27, 28. 2 vols. London: H. Colburn and R. Bentley, 1831. ———. Narrative of a Voyage to the Pacific and Beering’s Strait. 2 vols. Amsterdam: N. Israel, 1969. Peard, George. To the Pacific and Arctic with Beechey; the Journal of Lieutenant George Peard of H.M.S. Blossom, 1825–1828, edited by Barry M. Gough. Cambridge: Hakluyt Society, 1973. Richardson, J. The Zoology of Captain Beechey’s Voyage: Compiled from the Collections and Notes Made by Captain Beechey, the Officers and Naturalist of the Expedition, during a Voyage to the Pacific and Behring’s Straits Performed in His Majesty’s Ship Blossom, under the Command of Captain F.W. Beechey in the Years 1825, 26, 27 and 28. London: H.G. Bohn, 1839. Wolfe, James. Journal of a Voyage in HMS Blossom 1825–1928. 1 microfilm. Canberra: Pacific Manuscripts Bureau, 19–.

William Belcher Belcher, Edward. Narrative of a Voyage round the World: Performed in Her Majesty’s Ship Sulphur, during the Years 1836–1842, Including Details of the Naval Operations in China, from Dec. 1840, to Nov. 1841; Published under the Authority of the Lords Commissioners of the Admiralty. 2 vols. London: Henry Colburn, 1843. ———. Narrative of a Voyage round the World Performed in Her Majesty’s Ship Sulphur during the Years 1836–1842, Including Details of the Naval Operations in China from Dec. 1840 to Nov. 1841. 2 vols. Folkestone: Dawsons, 1970.

Charles Bishop Bishop, Charles. The Journal and Letters of Captain Charles Bishop on the NorthWest Coast of America, in the Pacific and in New South Wales, 1794–1799; edited by Michael Roe. Cambridge: Hakluyt Society, 1967.

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William Bligh Bligh, William. Bligh’s Narrative of the Mutiny on Board H.M. Ship Bounty and the Subsequent Voyage Written by Lieutenant William Bligh. Minutes of the Court Martial Held at Portsmouth August 12, 1792 with an Appendix Containing a Full Account of the Real Causes and Circumstances of That Unhappy Transaction, the Most Material of Which Have Hitherto Been Withheld from the Public. Bligh’s answer to Certain Assertions Contained in the Appendix. Edward Christian’s Short Reply to Captain William Bligh’s Answer. Melbourne: Georgian House for the Australiana Society, 1953. ———. The Log of H.M.S. Bounty, 1787–1789. Guildford, U.K.: Genesis Publications, 1975. ———. The Log of H.M.S. Providence 1791–1793. Guildford, U.K.: Genesis Publications, 1976. ———. The Mutiny on Board H.M.S. Bounty, 1789. Guildford, U.K.: Pageminster Press in association with Argot Press & M. Beazley, 1981. ———. A Narrative of the Mutiny, on Board His Majesty’s Ship Bounty: and the Subsequent Voyage of Part of the Crew, in the Ship’s Boat, from Tofoa, One of the Friendly Islands, to Timor, a Dutch Settlement in the East Indies. London: Printed for George Nicol, 1790. ———. A Voyage to the South Sea, Undertaken by Command of His Majesty, for the Purpose of Conveying the Bread-Fruit Tree to the West Indies in His Majesty’s Ship the Bounty, Including an Account of the Mutiny on Board the Said Ship. London: George Nicol, 1792. ———. A Voyage to the South Sea, Undertaken by Command of His Majesty, for the Purpose of Conveying the Bread-Fruit Tree to the West Indies, in His Majesty’s Ship the Bounty, Commanded by Lieutenant William Bligh: Including an Account of the Mutiny on Board the Said Ship, and the Subsequent Voyage from Tofoa to Timor. Facsimile edition. Richmond, Victoria: Hutchinson of Australia, 1979. ———. A Voyage to the South Sea, Undertaken by Command of His Majesty, for the Purpose of Conveying the Bread-Fruit Tree to the West Indies in His Majesty’s Ship the Bounty, Including an Account of the Mutiny on Board the Said Ship. Facsimile edition. Adelaide: Libraries Board of South Australia, 1969. Dening, Greg. Mr Bligh’s Bad Language: Passion, Power, and Theatre on the Bounty. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992. Kennedy, Gavin. Bligh. London: Duckworth, 1978. Lee, Ida. Captain Bligh’s Second Voyage to the South Sea. London: Longmans, Green, 1920. Mackaness, George. The Life of Vice-Admiral William Bligh, R.N., F.R.S. 2 vols. Sydney: Angus & Robertson, 1931. Oliver, Douglas Llewellyn. Return to Tahiti: Bligh’s Second Breadfruit Voyage. Carlton, Victoria: Melbourne University Press, 1988.

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William Bligh: Mutiny on the Bounty Barrow, John. The Eventful History of the Mutiny and Piratical Seizure of HMS Bounty: Its Causes and Consequences, edited and with an introduction by Stephen W. Roskill. London: Folio Society, 1976. Belcher, Diana Jolliffe. The Mutineers of the Bounty and Their Descendants in Pitcairn and Norfolk Islands. London: J. Murray, 1870. Christian, Glynn. Fragile Paradise: The Discovery of Fletcher Christian, Bounty Mutineer. London: H. Hamilton, 1982. Hough, Richard. Captain Bligh & Mr. Christian: The Men and the Mutiny. London: Hutchinson, 1972. Morrison, James. The Journal of James Morrison, Boatswain’s Mate of the Bounty: Describing the Mutiny & Subsequent Misfortunes of the Mutineers: Together with an Account of the Island of Tahiti, with an introduction by Owen Rutter. London: Golden Cockerel Press, 1935. Murray, Thomas Boyles. Pitcairn: The Island, the People, and the Pastor: With a Short Account of the Mutiny of the Bounty. London: Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge, under the direction of the Committee of General Literature and Education, 1853. Young, Rosalind Amelia. Mutiny of the Bounty and Story of Pitcairn Island, 1790–1894. Mountain View, Calif.: Pacific Press, 1894.

William Broughton Broughton, William Robert. A Voyage of Discovery to the North Pacific Ocean: Performed in His Majesty’s Sloop Providence, and Her Tender, in the Years 1795, 1796, 1797, 1798. London: Printed for T. Cadell and W. Davies, 1804. ———. A Voyage of Discovery to the North Pacific Ocean. Amsterdam: N. Israel, 1967.

George Byron Bloxam, Andrew. Diary of Andrew Bloxam, Naturalist of H.M.S. Blonde on Her Trip from England to the Hawaiian Islands, 1824–1825. Honolulu: Bernice P. Bishop Museum, 1925. Byron, George A. Voyage of H.M.S. Blonde to the Sandwich Islands, 1824–1825, Captain the Right Honourable Lord Byron [George Anson], Commander, compiled by Maria Graham. London: John Murray, 1826. Macrae, James. With Lord Byron at the Sandwich Islands in 1825: Being Extracts from the MS Diary of James Macrae, Scottish Botanist. Honolulu: W.F. Wilson, 1922.

John Byron Bulkeley, John. A Voyage to the South-Seas in the Years 1740–1: Containing a Faithful Narrative of the loss of His Majesty’s Ship the Wager, the Whole Compiled by

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Philip Carteret Carteret, Philip. Carteret’s Voyage round the World, 1766–1769, edited by Helen Wallis. 2 vols. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, for the Hakluyt Society, 1965.

Thomas Cavendish The Capture of the Santa Ana, Cabo San Lucas, November, 1587. The Accounts of Francis Pretty, Antonio de Sierra, and Tomás de Alzola, transcribed, translated, and annotated by W. Michael Mathes. Los Angeles: Dawson’s Book Shop, 1969.

Andrew Cheyne Cheyne, Andrew. A Description of Islands in the Western Pacific Ocean, North and South of the Equator, with Sailing Directions: Together with Their Productions, Manners and Customs of the Natives, and, Vocabularies of Their Various Languages. Ann Arbor, Mich.: University Microfilms, 1980. ———. Sailing Directions from New South Wales, to China, & Japan: Including the Whole Islands and Dangers in the Western Pacific Ocean, the Coasts of New Guinea and Safest Route through Torres Strait. London: J. D. Potter, 1855. ———. The Trading Voyages of Andrew Cheyne, 1841–1844, edited by Dorothy Shineberg. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1971.

James Cook: General Anderson, George William. A New, Authentic and Complete Collection of Voyages round the World, Undertaken and Performed by Royal Authority. Containing a

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James Cook: First Voyage 1768–1771 Banks, Joseph. The Endeavour Journal of Joseph Banks: 1768–1771, edited by J.C. Beaglehole. Sydney: The Trustees of the Public Library of New South Wales in association with Angus and Robertson, 1962. Cook, James. A Journal of a Voyage round the World in H.M.S. Endeavour 1768–1771. Amsterdam: N. Israel, 1967. ———. The Journals of Captain James Cook on His Voyages of Discovery. Volume One: The Voyage of The Endeavour 1768–1771, edited by J.C. Beaglehole. Cambridge: Hakluyt Society, 1955. David, Andrew, ed. The Charts & Coastal Views of Captain Cook’s Voyages. Volume One: The Voyage of The Endeavour 1768–1771. London: Hakluyt Society, 1988. Joppien, Rudiger, and Bernard Smith. The Art of Captain Cook’s Voyages. Volume One: The Voyage of The Endeavour 1768–1771. Melbourne: Oxford University Press, 1985.

James Cook: Second Voyage 1772–1775 Cook, James. The Journals of Captain James Cook on His Voyages of Discovery. Volume Two: The Voyage of The Resolution and Adventure 1772–1775, edited by J.C. Beaglehole. Cambridge: Hakluyt Society, 1961.

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James Cook: Third Voyage 1776–1780 Cook, James, and James King. A Voyage to the Pacific Ocean: Undertaken, by the Command of His Majesty, for Making Discoveries in the Northern Hemisphere: Performed under the Direction of Captains Cook, Clerke, and Gore, in His Majesty’s Ships the Resolution and Discovery: in the Years 1776, 1777, 1778, 1779, and 1780. Vol. I and II Written by James Cook; vol. III by James King. 3 vols. London: Printed by W. and A. Strahan for G. Nicol and T. Cadell, 1784. ———. The Journals of Captain James Cook on His Voyages of Discovery. Volume Three: The Voyage of The Resolution and Discovery 1776–1780, edited by J.C. Beaglehole. 2 vols. Cambridge: Hakluyt Society, 1967. David, Andrew, ed. The Charts & Coastal Views of Captain Cook’s Voyages. Volume Three: The Voyage of The Resolution and Discovery 1776–1780. London: Hakluyt Society, 1997. Joppien, Rudiger, and Bernard Smith. The Art of Captain Cook’s Voyages. Volume Three: The Voyage of The Resolution and Discovery 1776–1780. Melbourne: Oxford University Press, 1987.

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Charles Darwin and Robert FitzRoy Barlow, Nora, ed. Charles Darwin and the Voyage of the Beagle. London: Pilot Press, 1945. Darwin, Charles Robert. The Zoology of the Voyage of H.M.S. Beagle during the Years 1832–1836. London; Smith, Elder & Co., 1838. ———. The Zoology of the Voyage of H.M.S. Beagle, under the Command of Captain Fitzroy, R.N., during the Years 1832 to 1836, Edited and Superintended by Charles Darwin. Facsimile edition. 5 pts. in 4 vols. London: C.I.L., 1994. FitzRoy, Robert. Narrative of the Surveying Voyages of His Majesty’s Ships Adventure and Beagle, between the Years 1826 and 1836, Describing Their Examination of the Southern Shores of South America, and the Beagle’s Circumnavigation of the Globe. 3 vols. London: H. Colburn, 1839. ———. A Narrative of the Voyage of H. M. S. Beagle: Being Passages from the Narrative Written by Captain Robert FitzRoy, R. N., Together with Extracts from His Logs, Reports and Letters, Additional Material from the Diary and Letters of Charles Darwin, Notes from Midshipman Philip King and Letters from Second Lieutenant Bartholomews Sulivan, selected and edited by David Stanbury. London: Folio Society, 1977. Lindsay, Lionel. Conrad Martens: The Man and His Art. Rev. ed. Sydney: Angus & Robertson, 1968. Moorehead, Alan. Darwin and the Beagle. London: Hamilton, 1969.

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Thomas Gilbert and John Marshall Gilbert, Thomas. Voyage from New South Wales to Canton, in the Year 1788: With Views of the Islands Discovered. London: Printed by George Stafford for J. Debrett, 1789.

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Samuel Wallis Robertson, George. The Discovery of Tahiti: A Journal of the Second Voyage of H.M.S. Dolphin round the World, under the Command of Captain Wallis, R.N., in the Years 1766, 1767 and 1768, edited by Hugh Carrington. London: Hakluyt Society, 1948. Rowe, Newton A. Voyage to the Amorous Islands: The Discovery of Tahiti. London: Deutsch, 1955.

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Dutch: Specific Voyages Jacob Roggeveen Roggeveen, Jacob. Dagverhaal der ontdekkings-reis van Mr. Jacob Roggeveen in de jaren 1721 en 1722. Middelberg, Netherlands: Abrahams, 1838. ———. The Journal of Jacob Roggeveen, edited and translated from the Dutch MS. by Andrew Sharp. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1970. The Voyage of Captain Don Felipe Gonzalez in the Ship of the Line San Lorenzo, with the Frigate Santa Rosalia in Company, to Easter Island in 1770–1: Preceded by an Extract from Mynheer Jacob Roggeveen’s Official Log of His Discovery of and Visit to Easter Island in 1722, transcribed, translated, and edited by Bolton Glanvill Corney. Cambridge: Hakluyt Society, 1908.

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Abel Tasman Abel Janszoon Tasman & the Discovery of New Zealand. Wellington: Department of Internal Affairs, 1942. Anderson, Grahame. The Merchant of the Zeehaen: Isaac Gilsemans and the Voyages of Abel Tasman. Wellington: Te Papa Press, 2001. Sharp, Andrew. The Voyages of Abel Janszoon Tasman. London: Clarendon Press, 1968. Slot, B.J. Abel Tasman and the Discovery of New Zealand. Amsterdam: Otto Cramwinckel, 1992. Tasman, Abel Janszoon. Abel Janszoon Tasman’s Journal of His Discovery of Van Diemens Land and New Zealand in 1642: With Documents Relating to His Exploration of Australia in 1644, Being Photo-lithographic Facsimiles of the Original Manuscript in the Colonial Archives at The Hague, with an English Translation and Facsimiles of Original Maps to Which are Added Life and Labours of Abel Janszoon Tasman by J.E. Heeres and Observations Made with the Compass on Tasman’s Voyage by Dr. W. van Bemmelen. Amsterdam: Frederick Muller, 1898. ———. Abel Janszoon Tasman’s Journal of His Discovery of Van Diemens Land and New Zealand in 1642, with Documents Relating to His Exploration of Australia in 1644, Being Photo-lithographic Facsimiles of the Original Manuscript in the Colonial Archives at The Hague with an English Translation and Facsimiles of Original Maps to Which Are Added Life and Labours of Abel Janszoon Tasman by J.E. Heeres and Observations Made with the Compass on Tasman’s Voyage by Dr. W. van Bemmelen. Los Angeles: N.A. Kovach, 1965. Walker, James Backhouse. Abel Janszoon Tasman: His Life and Voyages. Hobart, Tasmania: W. Grahame, 1896.

Joris van Spilbergen The East and West Indian Mirror: Being an Account of Joris van Speilbergen’s Voyage round the World (1614–1617) and the Australian Navigations of Jacob Le Maire, translated with notes and an introduction by J.A.J. de Villiers. London: Hakluyt Society, 1906.

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Olivier Van Noort Van Noort, Olivier. De Reis om de wereld door Olivier van Noort 1598–1601, mit inleiding en aanteekeningen uitgegeven door J.W. Ijzerman. 2 vols. The Hague, Netherlands: Martinus Nijhoff, 1926. ———. De Reis om de wereld van Olivier van Noort, 1598–1601, uitgegeven door J.C. Mollema. Amsterdam: P.N. van Kampen, 1937.

8. French: General Bériot, Agnès. Grands voiliers autour du monde: les voyages scientifiques 1760–1850. Paris: Editions du Pont Royal, 1962. Brossard, Maurice de. Moana, oceán cruel, les dieux meurent à la grande mer du sud. Paris: Editions France-Empire, 1966. Chapuis, Olivier. A la mer comme au Ciel; Beautemps Beaupré et la naissance de l’hydrographie moderne 1700–1850, Sorbonne: Collection Histoire Maritime, 1999 Dahlgren, Erik Wilhelm. L’Expédition de Martinet et la fin du commerce français dans la mer du sud. Paris: Edouard Champion, 1913. ———. Les Relations commerciales et maritimes entre la France et les côtes de l’océan Pacifique (commencement du XVIIIe siècle). Paris: H. Champion, 1909. ———. Voyages français à destination de la mer du sud avant Bougainville, (1695–1749). Paris: Imprimerie nationale, 1907. Dunmore, John. French Explorers in the Pacific. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1965–1969 (Volume 1. The Eighteenth Century. 1965; Volume 2. The Nineteenth Century. 1969). Fleurieu, Charles Pierre Claret. Découvertes des François, en 1768 & 1769, dans le sud-est de la Nouvelle Guinée: et reconnoissances postérieures des mêmes terres par des navigateurs Anglois; precédés de l’abrégé historique des navigations & des découvertes des Espagnols dans les mêmes parages /par M. ***, ancien capitaine de vaisseau. Paris: de l’Imprimerie Royale, 1790. ———. Discoveries of the French in 1768 and 1769, to the South-East of New Guinea. London: Printed for John Stockdale, 1791. La France et le Pacifique: études, publiées sous la direction de Paul de Deckker, et de Pierre-Yves Toullelan. Paris: Société française d’histoire d’outre-mer, 1990. Grasset, Arthur. Journal d’un voyageur [A. Grasset], ou Recueil de Notes pendant un voyage autour du monde, mis en ordre par S. Berthelot. Marseille: impr. de Barlatier-Feissat, 1879.

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9. French: Specific Voyages Hyacinthe de Bougainville Bougainville, Hyacinthe de. Atlas, Journal de la navigation autour du globe de la frégate la Thétis et de la corvette l’Espérance. Alburgh, U.K.: Archival Facsimiles, 1987. Bougainville, Hyacinthe de. Journal de la navigation autour du globe de la frégate La Thétis et de la corvette l’Espérance pendant les années 1824, 1825 et 1826, publié par ordre du Roi sous les auspices du Départment de la Marine. 3 vols. Paris: Arthus Bertrand, 1837.

Louis-Antoine de Bougainville Bougainville, Louis-Antoine de. Pacific Journal of Louis-Antoine De Bougainville, 1767–1768. Editor, John Dunmore. London: Hakluyt Society, 2003. ———. Voyage autour du monde par la frégate du roi La Boudeuse, et la flûte L’Étoile, en 1766, 1767, 1768, & 1769. Paris: Chez Saillant & Nyon: De l’imprimerie de Le Breton, 1771. ———. A Voyage round the World, Performed by Order of His Most Christian Majesty, in the Years 1766, 1767, 1768 and 1769 in the Frigate La Boudeuse, and the Store-Ship L’Etoile. Translated from the French by John Reinhold Forster. London: J. Nourse and T. Davies, 1772.

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———. A Voyage round the World. Translated from the French by John Reinhold Forster. Amsterdam: N. Israel, 1967. ———. Voyage autour du monde par la Frigate, La Boudeuse et La Flute L’Étoile. Paris: La Decouverte, 1997. ———. Voyage autour du monde, edited by Michel Bideaux et Sonia Faessel. Paris: Presses de l’universite? de Paris-Sorbonne. 2001 Kimbrough, Mary. Louis-Antoine de Bougainville, 1729–1811: A Study in French Naval History and Politics. Lewiston: E. Mellen Press, 1990. Martin-Allanic, Jean E´tienne. Bougainville, navigateur et les découverts de son temps. 2 vols. Paris: Presses universitaires de France, 1964. Mollat, M., and E. Taillemite, eds. L’Importance de l’Exploration maritime au Siècle des lumières: à propos du voyage de Bougainville: table ronde. Paris: Editions de Centre national de la recherche scientifique, 1982 Taillemite, E´tienne. Bougainville in Tahiti. Paris: Société des océanistes, 1972. ———. Sur des mers inconnues: Bougainville, Cook, Lapérouse. Paris: Decouvertes Gallimard, 1997. Taillemite, E´ tienne, ed. Bougainville et ses compagnons autour du monde: 1766–1769, journaux de Navigation. 2 vols. Paris: Imprimerie Nationale, 1977. Thiéry, Maurice. Bougainville, soldat et marin. Paris: Roger, 1930. Touchard, Michel Claude. Les Voyages de Bougainville. Papeete, Tahiti: Les Editions du Pacifique, 1974. Waggaman, Beatrice Elisabeth. Le Voyage autor du monde de Bougainville: droit et imaginaire. Nancy: Presses universitaires de Nancy, 1992.

Auguste Bernard Duhaut-Cilly Duhaut-Cilly, Auguste Bernard. A Voyage to California, the Sandwich Islands & around the World in the Years, 1826–1829, translated and edited by August Frugé and Neal Harlow. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1999.

Jules-Sébastien-César Dumont d’Urville: General Dumont d’Urville, Jules-Sébastien-César. An Account in Two Volumes of Two Voyages to the South Seas by Captain Jules S-C Dumont D’Urville to Australia, New Zealand, Oceania 1826–1829 in the Corvette Astrolabe and to the Straits of Magellan, Chile, Oceania, South East Asia, Australia, Antarctica, New Zealand and Torres Strait 1837–1840 in the Corvettes Astrolabe and Zélée, translated from the French and edited by Helen Rosenman. 2 vols. Melbourne: Melbourne University Press, 1987. ———. Mémoire sur les îles Loyalty, par M. J. Dumont d’Urville, Partie hydrographique du Voyage de ?l’Astrolabe.? Paris: J. Tastu, 1829.

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Jules-Sébastien-César Dumont d’Urville: Voyage in 1826–1829 Dumont d’Urville, Jules-Sébastien-César. New Zealand, 1826–1827, from the French of Dumont d’Urville, an English Translation of the Voyage de l’Astrolabe in New Zealand Waters, with an introductory essay by Olive Wright. Wellington: Printed by the Wingfield Press for Olive Wright, 1950. ———. Voyage de découvertes de l’Astrolabe exécuté par ordre du Roi, pendant les années 1826–1827–1828–1829, sous le commandement de M.J. Dumont D’Urville. 14 vols. in 15  atlas (7 vols.). Paris: J. Tastu, 1830–1835. ———. Voyage de découvertes de l’Astrolabe exécuté par ordre du Roi, pendant les annees 1826–1827–1828–1829, sous le commandement de M.J. Dumont D’Urville. 13 vols.  4 atlases. Paris: J. Tastu, 1830–1835. (5 vols.  1 atlas. Histoire du voyage; 4 vols.  1 atlas. Zoologie by Mm. Quoy et Gaimard; 1 vol.  1 atlas. Faune entomologique de l’Ocean Pacifique, by Docteur Boisduval. Première partie. Lépidopteres. Deuxième partie. Coleoptères; 1 vol.  1 atlas. Botanique, by A. Lesson et A. Richard; 1 vol. Philologie, by M. D’Urville; 1 vol. Observations nautiques, météorologiques, hydrographiques et de physique, by M. D’Urville). ———. Voyage pittoresque autour du monde: résumé général des voyages de découvertes de Magellan, Tasman, Dampier, Anson publié sous la direction de M. Dumont d’Urville; accompagné de cartes et de nombreuses gravures d’après les dessins de M. de Sainson. 2 vols. Paris: L. Tenré, 1834–1835.

Jules-Sébastien-César Dumont d’Urville: Voyage in 1837–1840 Dumont d’Urville, Jules-Sébastien-César. The Voyage of the Astrolabe, 1840: An English Rendering of the Journals of Dumont d’Urville and His Officers of Their Visit to New Zealand in 1840, Together with Some Account of Bishop Pompallier and Charles, Baron de Thierry by Olive Wright. Wellington: A.H. & A.W. Reed, 1955. ———. Voyage au pôle sud et dans l’Océanie sur les corvettes l’Astrolabe et la Zélée exécuté par ordre du roi pendant les annees 1837–1838–1839–1840, sous le commandement de M.J. Dumont d’Urville, capitaine de vaisseau. 10 vols. in 5. Paris: Gide, 1841–1846.

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———. Voyage au Pole Sud et dans l’Océanie: sur les corvettes l’Astrolabe et la Zélée, exécuté endant les annees 1837–1838–1839–1840, sous le commandement de M.J. Dumont d’Urville /publié par rdonnance de sa Majeste sous la direction supérieure de M. Jacquinot. 23 vols.  6 atlases. Paris: Gide, 1841–1855. (Histoire du voyage, par M. Dumont d’Urville. 10 vols.  atlas; Zoologie, par Mm. Hombron et Jacquinot. 5 vols.  atlas; Botanique, par C. Montagne et J. Decaisne. 2 vols.  atlas; Anthropologie, par M. le Docteur Dumoutier. 1 vol.  atlas; Géologie, minéralogie et géographie physique du voyage, par M.J. Grange. 1 vol.  atlas; Physique, par Mm. VincendonDumoulin et Couprent-Desbois. 1 vol.; Hydrographie, par M. VincendonDumoulin. 2 vols.  atlas). Le Guillou, Eli. Voyage autour du monde de l’Astrolabe et de la Zélée, sous les ordres du Contre-Amiral Dumont-d’Urville, pendant les années 1837, 38, 39 et 40. Ouvrage enrichi de nombreux dessins et de notes scientifiques, mis en ordre par J. Arago. 2nd ed. 2 vols. Paris: Berquet et Petion, 1844.

Louis Isidore Duperrey Duperrey, Louis Isidore. Mémoire: sur les opérations géographiques faites dans la campagne de la corvette de S.M. la Coquille, pendant les années 1822, 1823, 1824 et 1825. Paris: Huzard-Courcier, 1827. ———. Voyage autour du monde, exécuté par ordre du Roi, sur la corvette de Sa Majesté, La Coquille, pendant les années 1822, 1823, 1824, et 1825, sous le Ministère et conformément aux instructions de S. E. M. le marquis ClermontTonnerre, ministre de la marine; et publié sous les auspices de son excellence mgr le cte de Chabrol, ministre de la marine et des colonies, par m. L. I. Duperrey. 6 vols. in 7. Paris: A. Bertrand, 1825–30. ———. Voyage autour du monde, exécuté par Ordre du Roi, sur La Corvette de Sa Majesté, La Coquille, pendant les années 1822, 1823, 1824 et 1825. Histoire naturelle, zoologie Atlas. Paris: Arthus Bertrand, 1826. ———. Voyage autour du monde, exécuté par Ordre du Roi, sur La Corvette de Sa Majesté, La Coquille, pendant les années 1822, 1823, 1824 et 1825. Botanique Atlas. Paris: Arthus Bertrand, 1831. Extracts from New Zealand Journals Written on Ships under the Command of d’Entrecasteaux and Duperry 1793 and 1824, transcribed and translated by Isabel Ollivier. Wellington: Alexander Turnbull Library Endowment Trust, 1986. Lesson, René Primevère. Voyage médical autour du monde: éxécuté sur La Corvette du Roi La Coquille, commandeé par M.L.I. Duperrey pendant les annees 1822, 1823, 1824, et 1825. Paris: Roret, 1829. ———. Voyage autour du monde, entrepris par ordre du gouvernement sur la corvette la Coquille. 2 vols. Paris: P. Pourrat frères, 1839.

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Abel Aubert Dupetit-Thouars Dupetit-Thouars, Abel Aubert. Voyage autour du monde sur la frégate La Vénus, pendant les années 1836–1839, publié par ordre du Roi, sous les auspices du Ministre de la Marin. 2 vols. Paris: Gide, 1840–41. ———. Voyage autour du monde sur la frégate La Vénus, pendant les années 1836–1839. 10 vols.  4 atlases. Paris: Gide, 1840–46.

Antoine Raymond Joseph de Bruni d’Entrecasteaux Beautemps-Beaupré, Charles François. Atlas du voyage de Bruny-Dentrecasteaux, Contre-Admiral de France, commandant les Frégates la Recherche et l’Espérance, fait par ordre du Gouvernement en 1791, 1792 et 1793. Paris: Dépôt Général des Cartes et Plans de la Marine et des Colonies, 1807. Entrecasteaux, Antoine Raymond Joseph de Bruni. Voyage to Australia & the Pacific, 1791–1793, edited and translated by Edward Duyker and Maryse Duyker. Carlton South, Australia: Melbourne University Press, 2001. Extracts from New Zealand Journals Written on Ships under the Command of d’Entrecasteaux and Duperry 1793 and 1824, transcribed and translated by Isabel Ollivier. Wellington: Alexander Turnbull Library Endowment Trust, 1986. Horner, Frank. Looking for La Pérouse: D’Entrecasteaux in Australia and the South Pacific, 1792–1793. Carlton South, Victoria: Miegunyah Press, 1995. Fremenville, xxx de. Nouvelle relation du voyage à la recherche de La Pérouse exécuté par ordre du roi pendant les années 1791, 1792, 1793 et 1794 par M. D’Entrecasteaux, rédigé d’après les journaux particuliers de plusieurs personnes de l’expédition par le Cher. De Fréminville. Brest, France: J.-B. Lefournier, 1838. Labillardière, Jacques Julien Houton de. An Account of a Voyage in Search of La Pérouse: Undertaken by Order of the Constituent Assembly of France, and Performed in the Years 1791, 1792, and 1793 in the Recherche and Espérance, Ships of War, under the Command of Rear-Admiral Bruni D’Entrecasteaux, translated from the French of M. Labillardière; illustrated by engravings, and a chart exhibiting the track of the Ships. 3 vols. London: Printed for J. Debrett, 1800. ———. Relation du voyage à la recherche de La Pérouse: fait par ordre de l’Assemblée Constituante pendant les années 1791, 1792 et pendant la 1ère. et la 2de. année de la République françoise. 2 vols. Paris: Chez H.J. Jansen, ImprimeurLibraire, 1800. ———. Voyage in Search of La Pérouse: Performed by Order of the Constituent Assembly during the Years 1791, 1792, 1793, and 1794, translated from the French. 2 vols. London: Printed for John Stockdale, 1800.

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Richard, Hélène. Le Voyage de d’Entrecasteaux à la recherche de Lapérouse: une grande expédition scientifique au temps de la Révolution française, préface de Michel Mollat du Jourdin. Paris: Comité des travaux historiques et scientifiques, 1986. Rossel, Elizabeth-Paul-Edouard de. Voyage de Dentrecasteaux, envoyé à la recherche de La Pérouse. 2 vols.  atlas. Paris: De L’Imprimerie imperiale, 1808. ———. The Voyage of Dentrecasteaux, translated by John Joseph Smith. [manuscript]. 2 vols. Paris: Imperial Press, 1808.

Louis de Freycinet Arago, Jacques. Promenade autour du monde. 2 vols.  atlas. Paris: Publication de Leblanc, imprimeur, 1822. ———. Narrative of a Voyage round the World: in the Uranie and Physicienne Corvettes, Commanded by Captain Freycinet, 1817, 1818, 1819, and 1820 in Letters to a Friend to Which is Prefixed the Report Made to the Academy of Sciences. London: Treuttel, 1823. ———. Narrative of a Voyage around the World. Amsterdam: N. Israel, 1971. Bassett, Marnie. Realms and Islands: The World Voyage of Rose de Freycinet in the Corvette Uranie, 1817–1820: From Her Journal and Letters and the Reports of Louis de Saulces de Freycinet, Capitaine de Corvette. London: Oxford University Press, 1962. The Casuarina Journals of Louis de Freycinet and Léon Brevedent, with the associated Itinerary from Voyage de découvertes aux Terres Australes by Louis Freycinet, Translated by Robert T. Sexton. The Schooner Casuarina: A Voyage of Exploration, 1802–1803. Robert T. Sexton. Unley, South Australia: Bookends Books, 2001. Freycinet, Louis de. Voyage autour du monde: entrepris par ordre du roi exécuté sur les corvettes l’Uranie et la Physicienne, pendant les années 1817, 1818, 1819 et 1820. 8 vols. Paris: Chez Pillet Aîné, Imprimeur-Libraire, 1824–1839.

Jean-François de Galaup de Lapérouse Bicentenaire du Voyage de Lapérouse: Actes du Colloque d”Albi, Mars 1985. Albi: Association Lapérouse, 1988. Davidson, J.V. Peter Dillon of Vanikoro: Chevalier of the South Seas, edited by O.H.K. Spate. Melbourne: Oxford University Press, 1975. Dunmore, John. Pacific Explorer: The Life of Jean-François de Lapérouse, 1741–1788. Palmerston North, NZ: Dunmore Press, 1985. Fleuriot de Langle, Paul. La Tragique expédition de Lapérouse et Langle. Paris: Hachette, 1954.

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Gaziello, Catherine. L’Expédition de Lapérouse, 1785–1788: réplique française aux voyages de Cook. Paris: C.T.H.S., 1984. Horner, Frank. Looking for La Pérouse: D’Entrecasteaux in Australia and the South Pacific 1792–1793. Melbourne: Miegunyah Press, 1995. Lapérouse, Jean-Francois de Galaup de. The Journal of Jean-Francois de La Pérouse 1785–1788, translated and edited by John Dunmore. 2 vols. London: Hakluyt Society, 1994. ———. Voyage de La Pérouse autour du Monde, publié conformément au décret du 22 avril 1791, et rédigé par M.L.A. Milet-Mureau. 4 vols. Paris: Imprimerie de la République, an V., 1797. ———. Le Voyage de Lapérouse: 1785–1788, récits et documents originaux présentés par John Dunmore, Maurice de Brossard. 2 vols. Paris: Impr. nationale, 1985. ———. Voyage round the World, Performed in the Years 1785, 1786, 1787, and 1788. Published by Order of the National Assembly, under the Superintendence of L.A. Milet-Mureau, translated by A. Hamilton. 3 vols. Facsimile Edition. Amsterdam: N. Israel, 1968. ———. Voyages and Adventures of La Pérouse, translated from the French by Julius S. Gassner. Honolulu: Friends of the Library of Hawaii, 1969. Taillemite, E´tienne. Sur des mers inconnues. Bougainville, Cook, Lapérouse. Paris: Découvertes Gallimard, 1997.

Cyrille Pierre Theodore Laplace Laplace, Cyrille Pierre Theodore. Campagne de circumnavigation de la frégate l’Artemise pendant les années 1837, 1838, 1839 et 1840 sous le commandement de M. Laplace. 6 vols. Paris: Arthur Bertrand, 1841–54. ———. Laplace in New Zealand, 1831, translated with introduction and notes by Keith V. Sinclair. Waikanae: Heritage Press, 1998. ———. Voyage autour du monde par les mers de l’Inde et de Chine exécuté sur la corvette de l’état la Favorite pendant les années 1830, 1831 et 1832 sous le commandement de M. Laplace. 5 vols. Paris: Imprimerie royale, 1833–39. ———. Voyage around the World on the Corvette La Favorite, 1830, 1831, 1832 under the Command of Captain Laplace, translated by Jane Foreman; edited by Barbara Earman. Singapore: Antiques of the Orient, 1991.

E´tienne Marchand Fleurieu, Charles Pierre Claret. Voyage round the World, Performed during the Years 1790, 1791, and 1792 by Étienne Marchand, Preceeded by a Historical Introduction. London: printed for T.N. Longman and O. es, T. Cadell, jun. and W. Davies 1801. Saint-Yves, G. Le Voyage autour du monde du capitaine Étienne Marchand. Paris: 1897.

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Marc-Joseph Marion Dufresne Buffet, Henri-François. L’Explorateur Malouin Marion du Fresne. Rennes, France: s.n., 1959. ———. L’Explorateur port-louisien Julien Crozet: éponyme des Iles Crozet dans la mer des Indes, 1728–1780. Rennes, France: Imprimeries Oberthur, 1944. Crozet, Julien Marie. Nouveau voyage à la mer du Sud, commencé sous les ordres de M. Marion & achevé, après la mort de cet officier, sous ceux de M. le Chevalier Duclesmeur. Cette relation a été rédigée d’après les plans & journaux de M. Crozet. On a joint à ce voyage un extrait de celui de M. de Surville dans les mêmes parages. Paris: Chez Barrois l’aine, 1783. ———. Crozet’s Voyage to Tasmania, New Zealand, the Ladrone Islands, and the Philippines in the Years 1771–1772, translated by H. Ling Roth; with a preface and a brief reference to the literature of New Zealand, by Jas. R. Boosé. London: Truslove & Shirley, 1891. ———. Crozet’s Voyage to Tasmania, New Zealand, the Ladrone Islands, and the Philippines in the Years 1771–1772, translated by H. Ling Roth; with a preface and a brief reference to the literature of New Zealand by Jas. R. Boosé. Facsimile edition. Christchurch, N.Z.: Kiwi Publishers, 1999. Duyker, Edward. An Officer of the Blue: Marc-Joseph Marion Dufresne, South Sea Explorer, 1724–1772. Carlton, Victoria: Melbourne University Press, 1994. Extracts from Journals Relating to the Visit to New Zealand in May–July 1772 of the French Ships Mascarin and Marquis de Castries under the Command of M.-J. Marion du Fresne, transcription and translation by Isabel Ollivier; with an appendix of charts and drawings compiled by Jeremy Spencer. Wellington: Alexander Turnbull Library Endowment Trust, 1985. Kelly, Leslie George. Marion Dufresne at the Bay of Islands. Wellington: Reed, 1951.

Camille de Roquefeuil Roquefeuil, Camille de. Journal d’un voyage autour du monde, suivi d’un vocabulaire des termes de Marine. 2 vols. Paris: Imprimere de Bethune et Plon, 1823. ———. A Voyage round the World between the Years 1816–1819. London: Printed for R. Phillips, 1823. ———. Voyage around the World, 1816–1819, and Trading for Sea Otter Fur on the Northwest Coast of America. Fairfield, Wash.: Ye Galleon Press, 1981.

Jean Francois de Surville Buffet, Henri-François. Voyage à la découverte du port-louisien Surville. Rennes, France: Mémoires de la Société d’histoire et d’archéologie de Bretagne, 1950. Dunmore, John. The Fateful Voyage of the St. Jean Baptiste: A True Account of M. de Surville’s Expedition to New Zealand & the Unknown South Seas in the Years 1769–70. Christchurch: Pegasus, 1969.

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Auguste-Nicolas Vaillant Gaudichaud, Charles. Voyage autour du monde exécuté pendant les années 1836 et 1837 sur la corvette La Bonite, commandée par M. Vaillant. Botanique. 4 vols. Paris: Arthus Bertrand, 1851–1866. La Salle, Amédé de. Voyage autour du Monde exécuté pendant les Années 1836 et 1837 sur la Corvette La Bonite. 3 vols.  atlas. Paris: A. Bertrand, 1845–52.

10. Italian: General Carletti, Francesco. My Voyage around the World, translated from the Italian by Herbert Weinstock. London: Methuen, 1965. Gemelli Careri, Giovanni Francesco. A Voyage round the World. London: 1704. ———. A Voyage to the Philippines, with an introduction and notes by Mauro Garcia. Manila: Filipiniana Book Guild, 1963.

11. Portuguese: General Baiao, Antonio. Historia da expansao portugeusa no mundo. 3 vols. Lisbon: Editorial Atica, 1937–40. Dutra, Francis A., and João Camilo dos Santos, eds. Proceedings of the International Colloquium on the Portuguese and the Pacific, University of California, Santa Barbara, October 1993. Santa Barbara, Calif.: Center for Portuguese Studies, University of California, Santa Barbara, 1995. Hervé, Roger. Chance Discovery of Australia and New Zealand by Portuguese and Spanish Navigators between 1521 and 1528, translated by John Dunmore. Palmerston North, N.Z.: Dunmore, 1983. McIntyre, Kenneth Gordon. The Secret Discovery of Australia: Portuguese Ventures 250 Years before Captain Cook. Rev. ed. Sydney: Pan Books, 1987. Richardson, W.A.R. The Portuguese Discovery of Australia: Fact or Fiction?: A Lecture Delivered at the National Library of Australia. Canberra: National Library of Australia, 1989.

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12. Russian: General Andreyev, A.I., ed. Russian Discoveries in the Pacific and in North America in the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries: A Collection of Materials. Translated from the Russian by Carl Ginsburg. Ann Arbor, Mich.: J.W. Edwards, 1952. Barratt, Glynn. Russia and the South Pacific, 1696–1840. 4 vols. Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press, 1988–92. (Volume 2: Southern and Eastern Polynesia. 1988; Volume 3: Melanesia and the Western Polynesian Fringe. 1990; Volume 4: The Tuamotu Islands and Tahiti. 1992). ———. Russia in Pacific Waters, 1715–1825: A Survey of the Origins of Russia’s Naval Presence in the North and South Pacific. Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press, 1981. Coxe, William. Account of the Russian Discoveries between Asia and America: to Which Are Added, the Conquest of Siberia, and the History of the Transactions and Commerce between Russia and China. 4th ed. London: Cadell and Davies, 1803. Ivashintsov, Nikolai Alekseevich. Russian round-the-World Voyages, 1803–1849: With a Summary of Later Voyages to 1867, translated by Glynn R. Barratt; edited by Richard A. Pierce. Kingston, Ontario: Limestone Press, 1980. Lazarev, Aleksei Petrovich. Zapiski o plavanii voennogo shliupa Blagonamerennogo, edited by A.I. Solovev. Moscow: 1950. Makarova, Raisa Vsevolodovna. Russians on the Pacific, 1743–1799, translated and edited by Richard A. Pierce and Alton S. Donnelly. Kingston, Ontario: Limestone Press, 1975.

13. Russian: Specific Voyages Faddei Faddeevich Bellingshausen Barratt, Glynn. Bellingshausen, a Visit to New Zealand, 1820. Palmerston North, N.Z.: Dunmore Press, 1979. Bellingshausen, Faddei Faddeevich. Dvukratnye izyskaniia v IUzhnom Ledovitom okeanie i plavaniie vokrug svieta, v prodolzheniii 1819 20 i 21 godov: sovershennyia na shliupakh Vostokie i Mirnom, pod nachal’stvom Kapitana Bellinsgauzena, Komandira Shiupa Vostoka. Shiupom Mirnym nachal’stoval Leitenant Lazarev. 2 vols.  atlas. Sanktpeterburg: Tip. I. Glazunova, 1831. ———. The Voyage of Captain Bellingshausen to the Antarctic Seas 1819–1821, translated from the Russian; edited by Frank Debenham. 2 vols. London: Hakluyt Society, 1945.

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———. The Voyage of Captain Bellingshausen to the Antarctic Seas, 1819–1821, translated from the Russian; edited by Frank Debenham. Millwood, N.Y.: Kraus Reprint, 1986.

Vasilii Mikhailovich Golovnin Golovnin, Vasilii Mikhailovich. Around the World on the Kamchatka, 1817–1819, translated, with an introduction and notes, by Ella Lury Wiswell. Honolulu: Hawaiian Historical Society, 1979.

Otto von Kotzebue Chamisso, Adelbert von. A Voyage around the World with the Romanzov Exploring Expedition in the Years 1815–1818 in the Brig Rurik, Captain Otto von Kotzebue, translated and edited by Henry Kratz. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1986. Choris, Louis. Voyage pittoresque autour du monde, avec des portraits de sauvages d’Amérique, d’Asie, d’Afrique et des îles du grand océan: des paysages, des vues maritimes et plusieurs objets d’histoire naturelle accompagné de descriptions par M. le baron Cuvier et M. A. de Chamisso, et d’observations sur les crânes humains par M. le docteur Gall. Paris: Imprimerie de Firmin Didot, 1822. ———. Vues et paysages des régions équinoxiales: recueillis dans un voyage autour du monde. Paris: Paul Renouard, 1826. Kotzebue, Otto von. A New Voyage round the World, in the Years 1823, 24, 25, and 26. 2 vols. London: H. Colburn & R. Bentley, 1830. ———. A New Voyage round the World in the Years 1823–1826. 2 vols. Amsterdam, N. Israel, 1967. ———. Russian Exploration in the Mariana Islands, 1817–1828, translated and edited by Glynn Barratt. Saipan: Micronesian Archaeological Survey, 1984. ———. A Voyage of Discovery, into the South Sea and Beering’s Straits, for the Purpose of Exploring a North-East Passage, Undertaken in the Years 1815–1818, at the Expense of His Highness Count Romanzoff, in the Ship Rurick, under the Command of the Lieutenant in the Russian Imperial Navy. 3 vols. London: Longman, Hurst, Rees, Orme, and Brown, 1821. ———. A Voyage of Discovery into the South Sea and Beering’s Straits. 3 vols. Amsterdam, N. Israel, 1967.

Ivan Fedorovich Kruzenshtern Kruzenshtern, Ivan Fedorovich. Atlas de l’Océan Pacifique. St. Petersbourg: Publié par ordre de sa Majesté Impériale, 1824.

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———. Voyage round the World in the Years 1803, 1804, 1805, and 1806, translated from the original German by Richard Belgrave Hoppner. 2 vols. Amsterdam: N. Israel, 1968. Langsdorff, George Heinrich von. Voyages and Travels in Various Parts of the World, during the Years 1803, 1804, 1805, 1806, and 1807. 2 vols. London: H. Colburn; 1813–14. ———. Voyages and Travels in Various Parts of the World, during the Years 1803, 1804, 1805, 1806, and 1807. Amsterdam: N. Israel; 1968.

Urey Lisiansky Lisiansky, Urey. A Voyage round the World, in the Years 1803, 4, 5, & 6; Performed, by Order of His Imperial Majesty Alexander the First, Emperor of Russia, in the Ship Neva. London: Booth, 1814. ———. Voyage round the World in the Years 1803, 1804, 1805 and 1806. Amsterdam: N. Israel, 1968.

Fedor Petrovich Lütke Litke, Fedor Petrovich. A Voyage around the World, 1826–1829, translated from the French edition by Renee Marshall; supplemented with a parallel account by E.H. Baron von Kittlitz, translated from the German, with an introduction, by Joan Moessner; edited by Richard A. Pierce. Kingston, Ontario: Limestone Press, 1987. ———. Voyage autour du monde, exécuté par ordre de Sa Majeste l’empereur Nicolas Ier, sur la corvette Le Seniavine, dans les années 1826, 1827, 1828 et 1829; partie historique, avec un atlas, lithographie d’après les dessins originaux d’Alexandre Postels et du Baron Kittlitz, traduit du russe sur le manuscrit original par F. Boye. Paris: F. Didot, 1835. ———. Voyage autour du monde, 1826–1829. 3 vols.  atlas. Amsterdam: N. Israel, 1971.

14. Spanish: General Corney, Bolton Glanvill, ed. The Voyage of Captain Don Felipe Gonzalez in the Ship of the Line San Lorenzo, with the Frigate Santa Rosalia in Company, to Easter Island in 1770–1: Preceded by an Extract from Mynheer Jacob Roggeveen’s Official Log of His Discovery of and Visit to Easter Island in 1722, transcribed, translated, and edited by Bolton Glanvill Corney. Cambridge: Hakluyt Society, 1908. Cushner, Nicholas P. The Isles of the West; Early Spanish Voyages to the Philippines, 1521–1564. Quezon City, Philippines: Ateneo de Manila University Press, 1966.

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Gschaedler, André. Mexico and the Pacific, 1540–1565: The Voyages of Villalobos and Legazpi and the preparations Made for them. Microform. Ann Arbor, Mich.: University Microfilms. ———. Spanish Voyages to the South-West Pacific, 1519–1607. M.A. thesis. Melbourne: University of Melbourne, 1946. Herve, Roger. Chance Discovery of Australia and New Zealand by Portuguese and Spanish Navigators between 1521 and 1528, translated by John Dunmore. Palmerston North, N.Z.: Dunmore, 1983. Higueras Rodriguez, Dolores. Catalogo critico de los Documentos de la expedicion Malaspina (1789–1794) del Museo Naval. 3 vols. Madrid: Museo Naval, 1985–94. Kelly, Celsus, ed. Calendar of Documents: Spanish Voyages in the South Pacific from Alvaro de Mendaña to Alejandro Malaspina 1567–1794 and the Franciscan Missionary Plans for the Peoples of the Austral Lands 1617–1794: Compiled from Manuscripts and Other Documents in the Archives and Libraries of Spain, America, Rome, Paris, London, Sydney, etc., by Celsus Kelly. Madrid: Franciscan Historical Studies, 1965. Langdon, Robert. The Lost Caravel. Sydney: Pacific Publications, 1975. ———. The Lost Caravel Re-explored. Canberra: Brolga Press, 1988. Mitchell, Mairin. Elcano: The First Circumnavigator. London: Herder Publications, 1958. ———. Friar Andrés de Urdaneta. London: Macdonald and Evans, 1964. Navarrette, Martín Fernández de. Biblioteca maritime espanola: obra postuma. 2 vols. Madrid: Imprenta de la Viuda de Calero, 1851. ———. Colección de los viajes y descubrimientos que hicieron por mar los españoles desde fines del siglo XV: con varios documentos inéditos concernientes á la historia de la marina castellana y de los establecimientos españoles en Indias. 5 vols. Madrid: Imprenta Nacional, 1829–59. Schurz, William Lytle. The Manila Galleon. New York: Dutton, 1959. ———. The Manila Galleon, with a preface by Pedro Ortiz Armengol. Manila, Philippines: Historical Conservation Society, 1985.

15. Spanish: Specific Voyages Vasco Núñez de Balboa Anderson, Charles H.G. Life and Letters of Vasco Núñez de Balboa, Including the Conquest and Settlement of Darien and Panama, the Odyssey of the Discovery of the South Sea, a Description of the Splendid Armada to Castilla del Oro, and the Execution of the Adelantado at Acla; A History of the First Years of the Introduction of Christian Civilization on the Continent of America. New York: Fleming H. Revell Company, 1941.

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Romoli, Kathleen. Balboa of Darién: Discoverer of the Pacific. New York: Doubleday, 1953.

Magellan (Fernão de Magalhães) Bergren, Laurence. Over the Edge of the World; Magellan’s Terrifying Circumnavigation of the Globe, London, HarperCollins, 2003. Cameron, Ian. Magellan and the First Circumnavigation of the World. London: Wiedenfeld and Nicolson, 1973. The First Voyage round the World by Magellan, translated from the accounts of Pigafetta, and other contemporary writers, accompanied by original documents, with notes and an introduction by Lord Stanley of Alderley. London: Hakluyt Society, 1874. Lagoa, Joao Antonio. Fernao de Magalhais: A sua vida e a sua viagem, com um estudo nautico do roteiro, pelo J. Freitas Ribeiro. 2 vols. Lisbon: Seara Nova, 1938. Pigafetta, Antonio. Magellan’s Voyage; A Narrative Account of the First Circumnavigation. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1969. ———. Magellan’s Voyage: A Narrative Account of the First Navigation, translated and edited by R.A. Skelton from the manuscript in the Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library of Yale University. London: Folio Society, 1975. ———. The Voyage of Magellan; the Journal of Antonio Pigafetta. A translation by Paula Spurlin Paige from the edition in the William L. Clements Library, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1969. Roditi, Edouard. Magellan of the Pacific. London: Faber, 1972.

Alessandro Malaspina Malaspina, Alessandro. La Expedicion Malaspina 1789–1794: viaje a America y Oceania de las corbetas “Descubierta y Atrevida.” Madrid: Ministerio de Cultura, 1984. ———. Viaje politico-cientifico alrededor del mundo por las corbetas Descubierta y Atrevida al mando de los capitanes de navio D. Alejandro Malaspina y Don Jose de Bustamante y Guerra, desde 1789 a 1794, publicado con una introduccion por Pedro de Novo y Colson. Madrid: Impr. de la viuda y hijos de Abienzo, 1885. ———. Viaje cientifico y politico a la America Meridional, a las costas del Mar Pacifico y a las Islas Marianas y Filipinas, verificado en los anos de 1789, 90, 91, 92, 93 y 94 a bordo de las corbetas Descubierta y Atrevida de la Marina Real, mandadas por los capitanes de navio D. Alejandro Malaspina y D. Jose F. Bustamante: diario de viaje. Madrid: Museo Universal, 1984. ———. The Voyage of Alejandro Malaspina to the Pacific, 1789–1794, edited by Andrew David. London: Hakluyt Society, 2001. Kendrick, John C. Alejandro Malaspina: Portrait of a Visionary. Montreal: McGillQueen’s University Press, 1999.

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Tova, Antonio de. The Diary of Antonio de Tova on the Malaspina Expedition, 1789–1794, edited by Enrique J. Porrúa. Lewiston, N.Y.: E. Mellen Press, 2001.

Alvaro de Mendaña Amherst, Lord, and Basil Thomson, eds. The Discovery of the Solomon Islands by Alvaro de Mendaña in 1568. London: Hakluyt Society, 1901.

Fransisco Antonio Maurelle Carrasco, Amancio Landin. Mourelle de la Rua, Explorador del Pacifico. Madrid: Ediciones Cultura Hispanica del Centro Iberoamericano de Cooperacion, 1978.

Pedro Fernandez de Quiros Munilla, Martin de. La Austrialia del Espiritu Santo: The Journal of Fray Martin de Munilla O.F.M. and Other Documents Relating to the Voyage of Pedro Fenandez de Quiros to the South Sea (1605–1606) and the Franciscan Missionary Plan (1617–1627), translated and edited by Celsus Kelly. 2 vols. Cambridge: Hakluyt Society, 1966. Quirós, Pedro Fernandes de. Terra Australis Incognita, or A New Southerne Discouerie, Containing a Fifth Part of the World. Lately Found Out by Ferdinand de Quir, a Spanish Captaine. Neuer before Published, translated by W.B. London: Printed for Iohn Hodgetts, 1617. ———. Terra Australis Incognita; or, A New Southerne Discoverie. Amsterdam: Theatrum Orbis Terrarum, 1970. ———. The Voyages of Pedro Fernandez de Quiros, 1595 to 1606, translated and edited by Sir Clements Markham. 2 vols. London: Hakluyt Society, 1904. Zaragoza, Justo. Historia del descubrimiento de las regiones austriales: hecho por el general Pedro Fernández de Quirós: el Pacífico hispano y la búsqueda de la “Terra Australis.” Madrid: Dove, 2000.

Luis Vaez deTorres Hilder, Brett. The Voyage of Torres: The Discovery of the Southern Coastline of New Guinea and Torres Strait by Captain Luis Báez de Torres in 1606. St. Lucia: University of Queensland Press, 1980. Tovar, Diego de Prado y. New Light on the Discovery of Australia: As Revealed by the Journal of Captain Don Diego de Prado y Tovar, edited by Henry N. Stevens; with annotated translations from the Spanish by George F. Barwick. London: Hakluyt Society, 1930.

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B. Whalers and Sealers 1. General Dakin, William John. Whalemen Adventurers in Southern Waters: The Story of Whaling in Australian Waters and Other Southern Seas Related Thereto, from the Days of Sails to Recent Times. Sydney: Angus and Robertson, 1977. Dodge, Ernest S. New England and the South Seas. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1965. Dow, George Francis. Whale Ships and Whaling: A Pictorial History. New York: Dover Publications, 1985. Du Pasquier, Jean Thierry. Les Baleiniers français au XIXe siècle, 1814–1868. Grenoble, France: Terre et mer, 1982. Forster, Honore, comp. More South Sea Whaling: A Supplement to The South Sea Whaler, an Annotated Bibliography of Published Historical, Literary and Art Material Relating to Whaling in the Pacific Ocean in the Nineteenth Century. Canberra: Division of Pacific and Asian History, Research School of Pacific Studies, Australian National University, 1991. ———. The South Sea Whaler: An Annotated Bibliography of Published Historical, Literary, and Art Material Relating to Whaling in the Pacific Ocean in the Nineteenth Century. Sharon, Mass.: Kendall Whaling Museum, 1985. French, Thomas. The Missionary Whaleship. New York: Vantage Press, 1961. Grady, Don. Sealers & Whalers in New Zealand Waters. Auckland: Reed Methuen, 1986. Jackson, Gordon. The British Whaling Trade. London: A. and C. Black, 1978. Langdon, Robert, ed. American Whalers and Traders in the Pacific: A Guide to Records on Microfilm. Canberra: Pacific Manuscripts Bureau, Research School of Pacific Studies, Australian National University, 1978. ———. Where the Whalers Went: An Index to the Pacific Ports and Islands Visited by American Whalers, and Some Other Ships, in the 19th Century. Canberra: Pacific Manuscripts Bureau, Research School of Pacific Studies, Australian National University, 1984. Mawer, Granville Allen. Ahab’s Trade: The Saga of South Seas Whaling. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1999. Maynard, Felix. Les Baleiniers: voyage aux terres antipodiques: journal du Docteur Maynard. Nouvelle édition. 2 vols. Paris: Calmann Lévy, 1877. ———. The Whalers, the translation by F.W. Reed. London: Hutchinson, 1937. Morton, Harry. The Whale’s Wake. Dunedin: McIndoe for the University of Otago Press, 1982. Richards, Rhys. American Whaling on the Chathams Grounds: Viewed from an Antipodean Perspective. Nantucket, Mass.: Nantucket Historical Association, 1971. ———. Samoa’s Forgotten Whaling Heritage: American Whaling in Samoan Waters, 1824–1878: A Chronological Selection of Extracts from Primary Sources, Mainly

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Whaling Logbooks, Journals and Contemporary News Items. Wellington: Lithographic Services, 1992. Sherman, Stuart C., comp. Whaling Logbooks and Journals, 1613–1927: An Inventory of Manuscript Records in Public Collections. Revised and edited for publication by Judith M. Downey and Virginia M. Adams. New York: Garland, 1986. Stackpole, Eduard A. The Sea-Hunters: The New England Whalemen during Two Centuries, 1635–1835. Philadelphia: Lippincott, 1953. ———. Whales & Destiny; The Rivalry between America, France, and Britain for Control of the Southern Whale Fishery, 1785–1825. Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1972. Starbuck, Alexander. History of the American Whale Fishery. Secaucus, N.J.: Castle, 1989. Whipple, Addison Beecher Colvin. Yankee Whalers in the South Seas. Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1954.

2. Specific Voyages and Events Samuel Comstock and the Globe Mutiny Comstock, William. The Life of Samuel Comstock, the Terrible Whaleman Containing an Account of the Mutiny, and Massacre of the Officers of the Ship Globe, of Nantucket; with His Subsequent Adventures, and His Being Shot at the Mulgrave Islands. Also, Lieutenant Percival’s Voyage in Search of the Survivors. Boston: J. Fisher, 1840. Gibson, Gregory. Demon of the Waters: The True Story of the Mutiny on the Whaleship Globe. Sydney: Hodder Headline, 2002. Hefferman, Thomas Farel. Mutiny on the Globe: The Fatal Voyage of Samuel Comstock. New York: W. W. Norton, 2002. Hoyt, Edwin Palmer. Mutiny on the Globe. London: Barker, 1976. Lay, William, and Cyrus M. Hussey. The Eyewitness Story of the Mutiny Aboard the Whaleship Globe of Nantucket Island in the Pacific Ocean, January, 1824 and the Journal of Two Years Captivity on the Mulgrave Islands. Nantucket Island, Mass.: Nantucket Town Crier Press, 1950. ———. A Narrative of the Mutiny, on Board the Ship Globe, of Nantucket, in the Pacific Ocean, Jan. 1824: and the Journal of a Residence of Two Years on the Mulgrave Islands, with Observations on the Manners and Customs of the Inhabitants. New London, Conn.: W. Lay and C.M. Hussey, 1828.

Owen Chase and the Wreck of the Essex Chase, Owen. Narrative of the Most Extraordinary and Distressing Shipwreck of the Whaleship Essex: With Supplementary Accounts of Survivors and Herman Melville’s Memoranda on Owen Chase. London: Pimlico, 2000.

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———. The Wreck of the Whaleship Essex: A First-Hand Account of One of History’s Most Extraordinary Maritime Disasters by Owen Chase, First Mate. London: Headline, 1999. Philbrick, Nathaniel. In the Heart of the Sea: The Epic True Story that Inspired Moby Dick. London: HarperCollins, 2000.

Amasa Delano Delano, Amasa. A Narrative of Voyages and Travels in the Northern and Southern Hemispheres: Comprising Three Voyages round the World Together with a Voyage of Survey and Discovery, in the Pacific Ocean and Oriental Islands. Boston: Printed by E.G. House for the author, 1817. ———. Delano’s Voyages of Commerce and Discovery: Amasa Delano in China, the Pacific Islands, Australia, and South America, 1789–1807, edited and with an introduction by Eleanor Roosevelt Seagraves. Stockbridge, Mass.: Berkshire House Publishers, 1994.

Edmund Fanning Fanning, Edmund. Voyages round the World: With Selected Sketches of Voyages to the South Seas, North and South Pacific Oceans, China, etc. New York: Collins & Hannay, 1833. ———. Voyages & Discoveries in the South Seas, 1792–1832. New York: Dover, 1989. ———. Voyages to the South Seas, Indian and Pacific Oceans, China Sea, Northwest Coast, Feejee Islands, South Shetlands, &c. Fairfield, Wash.: Ye Galleon Press, 1970.

3. Other Individual Voyages Bays, Peter. A Narrative of the Wreck of the Minerva, Whaler of Port Jackson, New South Wales, on Nicholson’s Shoal. Cambridge: B. Bridges, 1831. Beale, Thomas. The Natural History of the Sperm Whale. To Which Is Added a Sketch of a South-Sea Whaling Voyage, in Which the Author Was Personally Engaged. 2nd ed. London: J. Van Voorst, 1839. Bennett, Frederick Debell. Narrative of a Whaling Voyage round the Globe from the Year 1833 to 1836. 2 vols. Amsterdam: N. Israel, 1970. Browne, John Ross. Etchings of a Whaling Cruise: With Notes of a Sojourn on the Island of Zanzibar, and a Brief History of the Whale Industry. London: John Murray, 1846. ———. Etchings of a Whaling Cruise, ed. John Seelye. Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1968.

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Butler, Thomas. Observations by Capt. Thomas Butler of the Walpole East-Indiaman Relative to His Passage from the Cape of Good-Hope to China round New Holland in 1794, to Accompany the New Chart of the Western Part of the Pacific Ocean. London: Laurie and Whittle, 1795. Cary, William S. Wrecked on the Feejees: Experience of a Nantucket Man a Century Ago, Who Was Sole Survivor of Whaleship ‘Oeno’ and Lived for Nine Years among Cannibals of South Sea Islands. Nantucket, Mass.: Inquirer and Mirror Press, 1928. Cheever, Henry Theodore. The Whale and His Captors, or, The Whaleman’s Adventures and the Whale Biography, as Gathered on the Homeward Cruise of the “Commodore Preble.” Fairfield, Wash.: Ye Galleon Press, 1991. ———. The Whaleman’s Adventures in the Southern Ocean as Gathered, by Henry T. Cheever, on the Homeward Cruise of the Commodore Preble, edited by W. Scoresby. London: Sampson Low, 1850. Dalton, William. The Dalton Journal: Two Whaling Voyages to the South Seas, 1823–1829, ed. Niel Gunson. Canberra: National Library of Australia, 1990. Holden, Horace. A Narrative of the Shipwreck, Captivity & Sufferings of Horace Holden & Benj. H. Nute. Fairfield, Wash.: Ye Galleon Press, 1975. Jarman, Robert. Journal of a Voyage to the South Seas, in the “Japan” Employed in the Sperm Whale Fishery, under the Command of Capt. John May. Beccles, U.K.: R.E. Jarman, 1838. Jorgenson, Jorgen. Jorgen Jorgenson’s Observations on Pacific Trade and Sealing and Whaling in Australian and New Zealand Waters before 1805. Wellington: Paremata Press, 1996. Lawrence, Mary Chapman. The Captain’s Best Mate: The Journal of Mary Chipman Lawrence on the Whaler Addison, 1856–1860, edited by Stanton Garner. Hanover, N.H.: University Press of New England, 1986. Olmsted, Francis Allyn. Incidents of a Whaling Voyage, to Which are Added Observations on the Scenery, Manners and Customs, and Missionary Stations of the Sandwich and Society Islands. Rutland, Vt., C. E. Tuttle, 1969. Rhodes, William Barnard. The Whaling Journal of Captain W.B. Rhodes: barque Australian of Sydney 1836–1838. Christchurch, N.Z.: Whitcombe and Tombs, 1954. Ross, John O’C. William Stewart: Sealing Captain, Trader and Speculator. Canberra: Roebuck Society, 1987. Thiercelin, Louis. Travels in Oceania: Memoirs of a Whaling Ship’s Doctor, translated and edited by Christiane Mortelier. Dunedin, N.Z.: University of Otago Press, 1995.

C. Sea Otter Traders The Northwest Coast of North America is a littoral zone in Oceania but a short list pertaining to the sea otter or fur trade is included as most of the vessels sighted and

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visited islands on new routes to and from Europe, USA, Australia (Sydney and Hobart), and China. As well as having a direct economic, political, and cultural impact on events on many islands, the fur traders also left charts and descriptions of variable quality and usefulness of these people and places. Beresford, William. A Voyage round the World: but More Particularly to the NorthWest Coast of America, Performed in 1785, 1786, 1787 and 1788, in the King George and Queen Charlotte, Captains Portlock and Dixon. London: Geo. Goulding, 1789. Facsimile edition, Amsterdam: N. Israel, 1968. Colnett, James. A Voyage to the South Atlantic and round Cape Horn into the Pacific Ocean: for the Purpose of Extending the Spermaceti Whale Fisheries, and Other Objects of Commerce, by Ascertaining the Ports, Bays, Harbours, and Anchoring Births, in Certain Islands and Coasts in Those Seas, at Which the Ships of the British Merchants Might be Refitted Undertaken and Performed by Captain James Colnett, of the Royal Navy, in the Ship Rattler. London: Printed for the author by W. Bennett, 1798. (Facsimile edition. Amsterdam: N. Israel, 1968.) Cook, Warren L. Flood Tide of Empire: Spain and the Pacific Northwest, 1543–1819. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1973. Howay, Frederic William. “The ‘Caroline’and the ‘Hancock’ at Hawaii in 1799.” Annual Report of the Hawaiian Historical Society 46, 1937. ———. The Hawaiian Islands. Early Relations with the Pacific Northwest. Paper Read during the Captain Cook Sesquicentennial Celebration, Honolulu, August 17, 1928, edited by Albert P. Taylor. Honolulu: Captain Cook Sesquicentennial Commission, 1930. ———. A List of Trading Vessels in the Maritime Fur Trade, 1785–1825. Kingston, Ontario: Limestone Press, 1973. ———. “The Ship ‘Eliza’ at Hawaii in 1799.” Annual Report of the Hawaiian Historical Society 42, 1933. Meares, John. Voyages Made in the Years 1788 and 1789, from China to the North West Coast of America: to Which are Prefixed, an Introductory Narrative of a Voyage Performed in 1786, from Bengal, in the Ship Nootka; Observations on the Probable Existence of a North West Passage; and Some Account of the Trade between the North West Coast of America and China; and the Latter Country and Great Britain. London: Printed at the Logographic Press, 1790. (Facsimile edition. Amsterdam: N. Israel, 1967.) Nokes, J. Richard. Almost a Hero: The Voyages of John Meares, R.N. to China, Hawaii and the Northwest Coast. Pullman, Wash.: WSU Press, 1998. Portlock, Nathaniel. A Voyage round the World, but More Particularly to the NorthWest Coast of America: Performed in 1785, 1786, 1787, and 1788, in the King George and Queen Charlotte, Captains Portlook and Dixon. London: Printed for John Stockdale and George Goulding, 1789. (Facsimile edition. Amsterdam: Israel, 1968.) Scofield, John. Hail, Columbia!: Robert Gray, John Kendrick, and the Pacific Fur Trade. Portland: Oregon Historical Society Press, 1992.

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D. Buccaneers Ayres, Philip. The Voyages and Adventures of Capt. Barth. Sharp and Others in the South Sea: Being a Journal of the Same. Also Capt. Van Horn with His Buccanieres Surprizing of la Veracruz; to Which Is Added the True Relation of Sir Henry Morgan His Expedition against the Spaniards in the West Indies, and His Taking Panama; Together with the President of Panama’s Account of the Same Expedition; and Col. Beeston’s Adjustment of the Peace between the Spaniards and English in the West Indies. London: Printed by B.W. for R.H. and S.T., 1684. Bulkeley, John, and John Cummins. A Voyage to the South Seas in His Majesty’s Ship the Wager in the Years 1740–1741, by John Bulkeley and John Cummins, Gunner and Carpenter of the Wager; with an introduction by Arthur D. Howden Smith. 3rd ed. New York: Robert M. McBride, 1927. ———. A Voyage to the South-Seas in the Years 1740–1: Containing a Faithful Narrative of the Loss of His Majesty’s Ship the Wager, the Whole Compiled by Persons Concerned in the Facts Related, viz. John Bulkeley and John Cummins. London: Printed for Jacob Robinson, 1743. Cooke, Edward. A Voyage to the South Sea, and around the World, Perform’d in the Years 1708, 1709, 1710, and 1711: Containing a Journal of All Memorable Transactions during the Said Voyage the Taking of the Towns of Puna and Guayaquil, and Several Prizes. A Description of the American Coasts, from Tierra del Fuego in the South, to California in the North. An Historical Account of All Those Countries from the Best Authors. With a New Map and Description of the Mighty River of the Amazons. Wherein an Account Is Given of Mr. Alexander Selkirk during the Four Years and Four Months He Liv’d upon the Uninhabited Island of Juan Fernandes. London: Printed by H. M. for B. Lintot and R. Gosling, A. Bettesworth, and W. Innys, 1712. ———. A Voyage to the South Sea and round the World in the Years 1708 to 1711. 2 vols. Amsterdam: N. Israel, 1969. Dampier, William. Capt. Dampier’s Vindication of His Voyage to the South-Seas in the Ship St. George with Some Small Observations on Mr. Funnel’s Chimerical Relation of the Voyage round the World. London: printed by J. Bradford, 1707. Dampier’s Voyage: Consisting of a New Voyage round the World; A Supplement to the Voyage round the World; Two Voyages to Campeachy; A Discourse of Winds; A Voyage to New Holland; and, a Vindication in Answer to the Chimerical Relation of William Furnell, edited by John Masefield. 2 vols. London: Richards, 1906. Exquemelin, Alexandre Olivier. Bucaniers of America, or, A True Account of the Most Remarkable Assaults Committed of Late Years upon the Coasts of the WestIndies by the Bucaniers of Jamaica and Tortuga, both English and French: Wherein Are Contained More Especially the Unparallel’d Exploits of Sir Henry Morgan. 2 vols. London: Printed for William Crooke, 1684. Frézier, Amedée François. Relation du voyage de la Mer du Sud aux cotes du Chily et du Perou, fait pendant les annees 1712, 1713 & 1714. Paris: Chez J.-G. Nyon, 1716.

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———. A Voyage to the South-Sea, and Along the Coasts of Chili and Peru in the Years 1712, 1713, and 1714: Particularly Describing the Genius and Constitution of the Inhabitants, as Well Indians as Spaniards. London: Printed for Jonah Bower, 1717. Froger, François. A Relation of a Voyage Made in the Years 1695, 1696, 1697, on the Coasts of Africa, Streights of Magellan, Brasil, Cayenna, and the Antilles, by a Squadron of French Men of War, under the Command of M. de Gennes. London: Printed for M. Gillyflower; W. Freeman, M. Wotton; J. Walthoe; and R. Parker, 1698. Funnell, William. A Voyage round the World: Containing an Account of Captain Dampier’s Expedition into the South-Sea in the Ship St. George, in 1703 and 1704: Together with the Author’s Voyage from Amapalla on the West-Coast of Mexico, to East-India with Divers Maps, Draughts, Figures of Plants and Animals. London: Printed by W. Botham for James Knapton, 1707. ———. A Voyage round the World, Containing an Account of Captain Dampier’s Expedition into the South-Seas in the Ship St. George in the Years 1703 and 1704. Amsterdam: N. Israel, 1969. Ringrose, Basil. Bucaniers of America the Second Volume: Containing the Dangerous Voyage and Bold Attempts of Captain Bartholomew Sharp, and Others, Performed upon the Coasts of the South Sea, for the Space of Two Years, &c.: From the Original Journal of the Said Voyage. London: Printed for William Crooke, 1685. ———. A Buccaneer’s Atlas: Basil Ringrose’s South Sea Waggoner: A Sea Atlas and Sailing Directions of the Pacific Coast of the Americas, 1682, edited by Derek Howse and Norman J.W. Thrower. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992. Rogers, Woodes. A Cruising Voyage round the World: First to the South-Seas, Thence to the East-Indies, and Homewards by the Cape of Good Hope. Begun in 1708, and Finish’d in 1711 with the Ships Duke and Dutchess of Bristol. London: Printed for A. Bel, and B. Lintot, 1712. Welbe, John. An Answer to Captain Dampier’s Vindication of His Voyage to the South-Seas, in the Ship St. George. With Observations on His Barbarous Usage to His Ship’s Crew. London: 1705.

E. Beachcombers, Sandalwood, and Other Traders Boultbee, John. Journal of a Rambler: The Journal of John Boultbee, edited by June Starke. Auckland: Oxford University Press, 1986. Churchward, William Brown. “Blackbirding” in the South Pacific; or, the First White Man on the Beach. London: S. Sonnenschein, 1888. Clune, Frank. Captain Bully Hayes—Blackbirder and Bigamist. Sydney, Angus & Robertson, 1970. Davidson, James Wightman. Peter Dillon of Vanikoro: Chevalier of the South Seas, edited by O.H.K. Spate. Melbourne: Oxford University Press, 1975.

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Diaper, William. Cannibal Jack: The True Autobiography of a White Man in the South Seas, by William Diapea; Printed from the Manuscript in the Possession of the Rev. James Hadfield. London: Faber & Gwyer, 1928. ———. Cannibal Jack: The New Zealand Journal of William Diaper, 1846–1847, edited by William W. Emilsen and Susan Emilsen. Orewa, N.Z.: ColCom Press, 1996. Dillon, Peter. Narrative and Successful Result of a Voyage in the South Seas: Performed by Order of the Government of British India, to Ascertain the Actual Fate of La Pérouse’s Expedition, Interspersed with Accounts of the Religion, Manners, Customs and Cannibal Practices of the South Sea Islanders. 2 vols. London: Hurst, Chance, 1829. ———. Narrative of La Pérouse’s Expedition. 2 vols. Amsterdam: N. Israel, 1972. Hammatt, Charles H. Ships, Furs, and Sandalwood: A Yankee Trader in Hawai’i, 1823–1825, edited by Sandra Wagner-Wright. Honolulu: University of Hawai’i Press, 1999. Lockerby, William. The Journal of William Lockerby, Sandalwood Trader in the Fijian Islands during the Years 1808–1809: With an Introduction & Other Papers Connected with the Earliest European Visitors to the Islands, edited by Sir Everard Im Thurn and Leonard C. Wharton. London: Hakluyt Society, 1925. ———. The Journal of William Lockerby, Sandalwood Trader in the Fijian Islands during the Years 1808–1809, edited by Sir Everard Im Thurn and Leonard C. Wharton. Fiji: Fiji Times & Herald, 1982. Lubbuck, Basil. Bully Hayes, South Sea Pirate. London: Martin Hopkinson, 1931. Ralston, Caroline. Grass Huts and Warehouses: Pacific Beach Communities of the Nineteenth Century. Canberra: Australian National University Press, 1977. Shineberg, Dorothy. They Came for Sandalwood; A Study of the Sandalwood Trade in the South-West Pacific, 1830–1865. Melbourne: Melbourne University Press, 1967.

SECTION 3: PLACES This section begins with references covering the whole region at the time of the arrival of the Europeans, the indigenous people and their dispersal through the islands. The three broad ethnographic groupings are considered with general works on history and culture followed by specialist works on individial islands and island groups. A. Pacific Islands and Islanders 1. History and Culture 2. Culture Contact 3. Indigenous Voyaging and Navigation B. Melanesia 1. History and Culture 2. Specific Places

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C. Micronesia 1. General History and Culture D. Polynesia 1. General History and Culture E. New Zealand 1. General History 2. Early Settlement 3. Early European Contact and Exploration 4. Chatham Islands 5. Other Offshore Islands

A. Pacific Islands and Islanders 1. History and Culture Bellec, François. Océans des hommes. Rennes: Ouest France, 1987. Bellwood, Peter S. Man’s Conquest of the Pacific: The Prehistory of Southeast Asia and Oceania. Auckland: Collins, 1978. Bellwood, Peter S., James J. Fox, and Darrell Tryon, eds. The Austronesians: Historical and Comparative Perspectives. Canberra: Department of Anthropology, Australian National University, 1995. Bensa, Alban, and Jean-Claude Rivierre. Le Pacifique, un monde épars. Paris: Harmattan, 1998. Best, Simon. Lapita: A View from the East. Auckland: New Zealand Archaeological Association, 2002. Buck, Peter Henry. (Te Rangi Hiroa). Explorers of the Pacific: European and American Discoveries in Polynesia. Honolulu: Bernice P. Bishop Museum, 1953. ———. An Introduction to Polynesian Anthropology. Honolulu: Bernice P. Bishop Museum, 1945. Campbell, Ian Christopher. A History of the Pacific Islands. Christchurch, N.Z.: University of Canterbury Press, 1989. Colbert, Evelyn. The Pacific Islands: Paths to the Present. Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 1997. Collingridge, George. Pacifika: The Antediluvian World. 3 vols. Hornsby, N.S.W.: Geo. Collingridge, 1928–30. Davidson, Janet, ed. Oceanic Culture History: Essays in Honour of Roger Green. Dunedin, N.Z.: New Zealand Journal of Archaeology, 1996. Denoon, Donald, ed. The Cambridge History of the Pacific Islanders. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997. Denoon, Donald, Philippa Mein-Smith, and Maravic Wyndham, A History of Australia, New Zealand and the Pacific. London: Blackwell, 2000. Fischer, Steven Roger. A History of the Pacific Islands. Basingstoke: Palgrave, 2002. Flint, John E., and Glyndwr Williams, eds. Perspectives of Empire: Essays Presented to Gerald S. Graham. London: Longman, 1973.

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Frost, Alan, and Jane Samson, eds. Pacific Empires: Essays in Honour of Glyndwr Williams. Carlton South, Victoria: Melbourne University Press, 1999. Galipaud, Jean-Christophe, and Ian Lilley, eds. Le Pacifique de 5000 à 2000 avant le présent: suppléments à l’histoire d’une colonisation: actes du colloque Vanuatu, 31 juillet-6 août 1996  The Pacific from 5000 to 2000 BP: Colonisation and Transformations. Paris: Editions de IRD/Institut de recherche pour le developpement, 1999. Green, R.C., and M. Kelly, eds. Studies in Oceanic Culture History; Papers from the Wenner-Gren Symposium on Oceanic Culture History. Honolulu: Dept. of Anthropology, Bernice Pauahi Bishop Museum, 1970. Hill, Adrian V.S., and Susan W. Serjeantson, eds. The Colonization of the Pacific: A Genetic Trail. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1989. Howard, Alan, and Robert Borofsky, eds. Developments in Polynesian Ethnology. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1989. Howe, Kerry Ross. Nature, Culture and History: The “Knowing” of Oceania. Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 2000. ———. The Quest for Origins: Who First Discovered and Settled New Zealand and the Pacific Islands? Auckland: Penguin, 2003. ———. Where the Waves Fall: A New South Sea Islands History from First Settlement to Colonial Rule. Sydney: Allen & Unwin, 1991. Irwin, Geoffrey. The Prehistoric Exploration and Colonisation of the Pacific. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992. Kirch, Patrick Vinton. The Lapita Peoples: Ancestors of the Oceanic World. Cambridge, Mass.: Blackwell, 1997. ———. On the Road of the Winds: An Archaeological History of the Pacific Islands before European Contact. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2000. Kirk, Robert, and Emoke Szathmary, eds. Out of Asia: Peopling the Americas and the Pacific. Canberra: Journal of Pacific History, 1985. Ladefoged, Thegn N., and Michael W. Graves, eds. Pacific Landscapes: Archaeological Approaches. Los Osos, Calif.: Easter Island Foundation; Bearsville Press, 2002. Lewis, David. From Maui to Cook: The Discovery and Settlement of the Pacific. Lane Cove, N.S.W.: Doubleday Australia, 1977. McArthur, Norma. Island Populations of the Pacific. Canberra: Australian National University Press, 1967. Maude, Henry Evans. Of Islands and Men; Studies in Pacific History. Melbourne: Oxford University Press, 1968. Oliver, Douglas L. Oceania: The Native Cultures of Australia and the Pacific Islands. 2 vols. Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 1989. ———. The Pacific Islands. 3rd ed. Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 1989. Peregrine, Peter N., and Melvin Ember, eds. Encyclopedia of Prehistory: vol. 3. East Asia and Oceania. New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum, 2002. Sahlins, Marshall. Islands of History. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1985. Scarr, Deryck. A History of the Pacific Islands: Passages through Tropical Time. Richmond: Curzon, 2001.

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Shutler, Richard, and Mary Elizabeth Shutler. Oceanic Prehistory. Menlo Park, Calif.: Cummings, 1975. Terrell, John. Prehistory in the Pacific Islands: A Study of Variation in Language, Customs, and Human Biology. Cambridge, N.Y.: Cambridge University Press, 1986. Thompson, Virginia McLean, and Richard Adloff. The French Pacific Islands: French Polynesia and New Caledonia. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1971. Thorne, Alan G., and Robert Raymond. Man on the Rim: The Peopling of the Pacific. North Ryde, Australia: Angus & Robertson, 1989. Vayda, Andrew P., ed. Peoples and Cultures of the Pacific: An Anthropological Reader. Garden City, N.Y.: Published for the American Museum of Natural History by the Natural History Press, 1968. Ward, R. Gerard, ed. Man in the Pacific Islands; Essays on Geographical Change in the Pacific Islands, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1972. Yawata, I., and Y.H. Sinoto, eds. Prehistoric Culture in Oceania; A Symposium. Honolulu: Bernice P. Bishop Museum Press, 1968.

2. Culture Contact Baré, Jean-François. Le Malentendu Pacifique: des premières rencontres entre Polynésiens et Anglais et de ce qui s’ensuivit avec les Français jusqu’à nos jours. Paris: Hachette, 1985. Bitterli, Urs, ed. Cultures in Conflict: Encounters between European and nonEuropean Cultures, 1492–1800, translated by Ritchie Robertson. Cambridge: Polity, 1989. Calder, Alex, Jonathan Lamb, and Bridget Orr, eds. Voyages and Beaches: Pacific Encounters, 1769–1840. Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 1999. Creed, Barbara, and Jeanette Hoorn, eds. Body Trade: Captivity, Cannibalism and Colonialism in the Pacific. New York: Routledge, 2001. Flynn, Dennis O., Lionel Frost, and A.J.H. Latham, eds. Pacific Centuries: Pacific and Pacific Rim History Since the Sixteenth Century. Latham, London: Routledge, 1999. Kroller, Eva-Marie. Pacific Encounters: The Production of Self and Others. Vancouver: Institute of Asian Research, University of British Columbia, 1997. Lamb, Jonathan, Vanessa Smith, and Nicholas Thomas, eds. Exploration & Exchange: A South Seas Anthology, 1680–1900. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2000. Lloyd, Christopher. Pacific Horizons: The Exploration of the Pacific before Captain Cook. London: Allen & Unwin, 1946. Obeyesekere, Gananath. The Apotheosis of Captain Cook: European Mythmaking in the Pacific. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1992. Quanchi, Max, and Ron Adams, eds. Culture Contact in the Pacific: Essays on Contact, Encounter and Response. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993.

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Sahlins, Marshall David. How “Natives” Think: About Captain Cook, for Example. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1995. Salmond, Anne. Between Worlds: Early Exchanges between Maori and Europeans, 1773–1815. Auckland: Viking, 1997. ———. Two Worlds: First Meetings between Maori and Europeans, 1642–1772. Auckland: Viking, 1991. Snow, Philip, and Stefanie Waine. The People from the Horizon: An Illustrated History of the Europeans among the South Sea Islanders. Oxford: Phaidon, 1979. Sturma, Michael. South Sea Maidens: Western Fantasy and Sexual Politics in the South Pacific.Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 2002.

3. Indigenous Voyaging and Navigation ° kerblom, Kjell. Astronomy and Navigation in Polynesia and Micronesia: A SurA vey. Stockholm, Etnografiska Museet, 1968. Buck, Peter H. (Te Rangi Hiroa). Vikings of the Sunrise. New York: Frederick A. Stokes, 1938. Conte, Eric. Tereraa: Voyaging and the Colonization of the Pacific Islands. Pirae, Tahiti: Polymages-Scoop, 1992. Dodd, Edward. Polynesian Seafaring: A Disquisition on Prehistoric Celestial Navigation and the Nature of Seagoing Double Canoes, with Illustrations Reproducing Original Field Sketches, Wash Drawings, or Prints by Artists on the Early Voyages of Exploration and Occasional Written Reports from on-the-Scene Observers. New York: Dodd, Mead, 1972. Evans, Jeff. The Discovery of Aotearoa. Auckland: Reed, 1998. Finney, Ben R. From Sea to Space. Palmerston North, N.Z.: Massey University, 1992. ———. Hokule‘a: The Way to Tahiti. New York: Dodd, Mead, 1979. ———. Voyage of Rediscovery: A Cultural Odyssey through Polynesia. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1994. Finney, Ben R., comp. Pacific Navigation and Voyaging. Wellington: Polynesian Society, 1976. Gille, Bernard, and Pierre-Yves Toullelan. De la conquête à l’exode: histoire des Océaniens et de leurs migrations dans le Pacifique. 2 vols. Tahiti: Au Vent des Iˆles, 1999. Gladwin, Thomas. East Is a big Bird: Navigation and Logic on Puluwat Atoll. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1970. Goetzfridt, Nicholas J., comp. Indigenous Navigation and Voyaging in the Pacific: A Reference Guide. New York: Greenwood Press, 1992. Golson, Jack, ed. Polynesian Navigation: A Symposium on Andrew Sharp’s Theory of Accidental Voyages. Rev. ed. Wellington, N.Z.: Polynesian Society, 1963. Haddon, Alfred C., and James Hornell. Canoes of Oceania. Honolulu: Bishop Museum Press, 1975.

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Heyerdahl, Thor. American Indians in the Pacific: The Theory behind the Kon-Tiki Expedition. London: Allen & Unwin, 1952. ———. Early Man and the Ocean. London: Allen & Unwin, 1978. ———. The Kon-tiki Expedition: By Raft across the South Seas, translated by F.H. Lyon. London: Allen & Unwin, 1950. ———. Sea Routes to Polynesia. London: Allen & Unwin, 1968. Lewis, David. The Voyaging Stars: Secrets of the Pacific Island Navigators. New York: W.W. Norton, 1978. ———. We, the Navigators: The Ancient Art of Landfinding in the Pacific. Canberra: Australian National University Press, 1972. Sharp, Andrew. Ancient Voyagers in the Pacific. Wellington: Polynesian Society, 1956. Sharp, Andrew. Ancient Voyagers in Polynesia. Auckland: Paul’s Book Arcade, 1963. Weisler, Marshall I., ed. Prehistoric Long-Distance Interaction in Oceania: An Interdisciplinary Approach. Auckland: New Zealand Archaeological Association, 1997.

B. Melanesia 1. History and Culture Barratt, Glynn. Melanesia and the Western Polynesian Fringe. Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press, 1990. Brookfield, H.C. Melanesia: A Geographical Interpretation of an Island World. London: Methuen, 1971. Carrier, James G., ed. History and Tradition in Melanesian Anthropology. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992. Chowning, Ann. An Introduction to the Peoples and Cultures of Melanesia. 2nd ed. Menlo Park, Calif.: Cummings Pub., 1977. Codrington, Robert Henry. The Melanesians: Studies in Their Anthropology and Folk-Lore. Oxford: Clarendon, 1891. ———. The Melanesians; Studies in Their Anthropology and Folk-Lore. New York: Dover Publications, 1972. The History of Melanesia; Papers Delivered at a Seminar Sponsored Jointly by the University of Papua and New Guinea [and Others], and Held at Port Moresby from 30 May to 5 June 1968. Port Moresby: University of Papua and New Guinea, 1969. Knauft, Bruce M. From Primitive to Postcolonial in Melanesia and Anthropology. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1999. O’Hanlon, Michael, and Robert L. Welsch, eds. Hunting the Gatherers: Ethnographic Collectors, Agents and Agency in Melanesia, 1870s–1930s. New York: Berghahn Books, 2000. Rivers, William Halse. The History of Melanesian Society. 2 vols. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1914. Spriggs, Matthew. The Island Melanesians. Oxford: Blackwell, 1997.

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2. Specific Places Fiji Burton, John Wear, and Wallace Dean. A Hundred Years in Fiji. London: Epworth Press, 1936. Cargill, David. The Diaries and Correspondence of David Cargill, 1832–1843, edited, with an introduction and annotations by Albert J. Schütz. Canberra: Australian National University Press, 1977. Derrick, Ronald Albert. A History of Fiji. Suva, Fiji: Government Printer, 1946. Eason. W.J.E. A Short History of Rotuma. Suva, Fiji: Government Printing Department, 1951. Henderson, George Cockburn. The Discoverers of the Fiji Islands: Tasman, Cook, Bligh, Wilson, Bellingshausen. London: John Murray, 1933. Jagger, Thomas James. Unto the Perfect Day: The Journal of Thomas James Jaggar, Feejee, 1838–1845, edited by Esther Keesing-Styles and William Keesing-Styles. Auckland: Solent Publishing, 1988. Rowe, George Stringer. James Calvert of Fiji. London: C.H. Kelly, 1893. Scarr, Deryck. Fiji: A Short History. Laie, Hawaii: Institute for Polynesian Studies, Brigham Young University, 1984. Thomson, Basil. The Fijians: A Study of the Decay of Custom. London: William Heinemann, 1908. ———. The Fijians: A Study of the Decay of Custom. Facsimile edition. London: Dawsons, 1968. Williams, Thomas. The Journal of Thomas Williams: Missionary in Fiji, 1840–1853, edited by G.C. Henderson. 2 vols. Sydney: Angus & Robertson, 1931. Williams, Thomas, and James Calvert. Fiji and the Fijians, edited by George Stringer Rowe. New York: D. Appleton, 1860. ———. Fiji and the Fijians, edited by George Stringer Rowe. 2 vols. New York: AMS Press, 1977.

New Caledonia Brou, Bernard. Histoire de la Nouvelle-Calédonie. Réédition. Nouméa: Le Santal, 1989. ———. Préhistoire et société traditionnelle de la Nouvelle Calédonie. Nouméa: Société d’études historiques de la Nouvelle Calédonie, 1977. Douglas, Bronwen. A History of Culture Contact in North-Eastern New Caledonia 1774–1870. Unpublished thesis submitted to the Australian National University. Canberra: Australian National University, 1972. Histoire Nouvelle-Calédonie, France: le manuel scolaire d’histoire. Noumea: Graphoprint, 1992.

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Howe, Kerry Ross. The Loyalty Islands: A History of Culture Contacts, 1840–1900. Canberra: Australian University Press, 1977. Marion, Denis, ed. Encyclopédie de la Nouvelle-Calédonie.10 vols. Nouméa: Nefo diffusion, 1983. Mariotti, Jean. Nouvelle Calédonie: le livre du centenaire 1853–1953. Paris: Horizons de France, 1953. Person, Yves. La Nouvelle Calédonie et l’Europe. De la découverte, 1774, á la fondation de Nouméa, 1854. Paris, 1953. Pisier, Georges. Les Aventures du Capitaine Cheyne dans l’Archipel calédonien, 1841–1842, documents présentés, traduits et annotés par Georges Pisier. Nouméa: Société d’études historiques de la Nouvelle-Calédonie, 1975. ———. La Découverte de la Nouvelle-Calédonie, Septembre 1774: documents présentés, traduits et annotés. Réédition. Nouméa: Société d’études historiques de la Nouvelle-Calédonie, 1983. ———. D’Entrecasteaux en Nouvelle-Calédonie: 1792 et 1793. Nouméa: Société d’études historiques de la Nouvelle-Calédonie, 1976. ———. Kunie, or, The Isle of Pines: A Short History, translated from the French by John Dunmore. Nouméa: Publications de la Société d’études historiques de la Nouvelle-Calédonie, 1978. Savoie, Clovis. Histoire de la Nouvelle-Calédonie et de ses dépendances: sous les gouverneurs militaires, 1853–1884. Nouméa: Imprimerie Nationale, 1922.

New Guinea: History Clark, Jeffrey L. Steel to Stone: A Chronicle of Colonialism in the Southern Highlands of Papua New Guinea, edited by Chris Ballard and Michael Nihill. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000. La Colonie libre de Port-Breton Nouvelle-France (Océanie): exposé sommaire. Marseille: Blanc & Bernard, 1881. Gash, Noel, and June Whittaker. Pictorial History of New Guinea. Milton, Queensland: Jacaranda, 1975. Goode, John. Rape of the Fly. West Melbourne: Thomas Nelson Australia, 1977. Lucas-Dubreton, Jean. L’Eden du Pacifique. Paris: Gallimard, 1929. Markham, Clements Robert. Progress of Discovery on the Coasts of New Guinea. Mansfield Centre, Conn.: Martino Publishing, 2003. Moore, Clive. New Guinea: Crossing Boundaries and History. Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 2003. Romily, Hugh Hastings. The Western Pacific and New Guinea: Notes on the Natives, Christian and Cannibal, with Some Account of the old Labour Trade. London: J. Murray, 1886. Ryan, Peter, ed. Encyclopaedia of Papua and New Guinea. 3 vols. Melbourne: Melbourne University Press in association with the University of Papua and New Guinea, 1972.

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Souter, Gavin. New Guinea: The Last Unknown. Sydney: Angus and Robertson, 1963. Van der Veur, Paul W. Search for New Guinea’s Boundaries: From Torres Strait to the Pacific. Canberra: Australian National University Press, 1966. Waiko, John Dademo. A Short History of Papua New Guinea. Melbourne: Oxford University Press, 1993. Whittaker, J.L., ed. Documents and Readings in New Guinea History: Prehistory to 1899. Milton, Queensland: Jacaranda, 1975.

Early Settlement Gewertz, Deborah, and Edward Schieffelin, eds. History and Ethnohistory in Papua New Guinea. Sydney: University of Sydney, 1985. Seligman, Charles Gabriel. The Melanesians of British New Guinea. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1910. Swadling, Pamela. Papua New Guinea’s Prehistory: An Introduction. Boroko, Papua New Guinea: National Museum & Art Gallery, 1981. White, John Peter. A Prehistory of Australia, New Guinea, and Sahul. Sydney: Academic Press, 1982.

First Contact and Nineteenth-Century Exploration Bauerlen, William. The Voyage of the Bonito: An Account of the Fly River Expedition to New Guinea. Sydney: Gibbs, Shallard, 1886. Bevan, Theodore F. Toil, Travel, and Discovery in British New Guinea. London: K. Paul, Trench, Trubner, 1890. Bloemen, Fons. First Contact: Original Reports of Initial Encounters between Europeans and Papuas of South New Guinea from the 17th until the Early 20th Century. Netherlands: F. Bloemen, 1998. Cayley-Webster, H. Through New Guinea and the Cannibal Countries. London: T. Fisher Unwin, 1898. D’Albertis, Luigi Maria. New Guinea: What I Did and What I Saw. 2 vols. London: Low, 1880. Finsch, Otto. Archipelago of the Contented People: Madang (FriedrichWilhelmshafen) in 1884, translated by Christiane Harding; edited by Mary R. Mennis. Madang, PNG: Kristen Press, 1996. ———. Samoafahrten: Reisen in Kaiser Wilhelms-Land und Englisch-Neu-Guinea in den Jahren 1884 u. 1885 an Bord des deutschen Dampfers “Samoa.” Leipzig: Ferdinand Hirt & Sohn, 1888. Forrest, Thomas. A Voyage to New Guinea, and the Moluccas, from Balambangan: Including an Account of Magindano, Sooloo, and Other Islands; and Illustrated with Thirty Copper Plates: Performed in the Tartar Galley, Belonging to the Honourable East India Company, during the Years 1774, 1775, and 1776 by Thomas

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Forrest; to Which Is Added, a Vocabulary of the Magindano Tongue. London: Printed by G. Scott, 1779. ———. A Voyage to New Guinea and the Moluccas, 1774–1776, with an introduction by D. K. Bassett. Kuala Lumpur: Oxford University Press, 1969. Hope, Penelope. Long Ago Is Far Away: Accounts of the Early Exploration and Settlement of the Papuan Gulf Area. Canberra: Australian National University Press, 1979. Hunter, John. An Historical Journal of the Transactions at Port Jackson, and Norfolk Island, Including the Journals of Governors Phillip and King, Since the Publication of Phillip’s Voyage, with an Abridged Account of the New Discoveries in the South Seas to Which Is Prefixed a Life of the Author. London: Stockdale, 1793. Huxley, Thomas Henry. T. H. Huxley’s Diary of the Voyage of H.M.S. Rattlesnake. London: Chatto and Windus, 1935. Jukes, J. Beete. Narrative of the Surveying Voyage of H.M.S. Fly, Commanded by Capt. F. P. Blackwood in Torres Strait, New Guinea and Other Islands of the Eastern Archipelago Java. 2 vols. London: T. & W. Boone, 1847. Lee, Ida. Commodore Sir John Hayes: His Voyage and Life (1767–1831): With Some Account of Admiral D’Entrecasteaux’s Voyage of 1792–3. London: Longmans Green, 1912. MacGillivray, John. Narrative of the Voyage of H.M.S. Rattlesnake: Commanded by the Late Captain Owen Stanley during the Years 1846–1850 Including Surveys and Discoveries in New Guinea and the Louisiade Archipelago etc. Australia: Gaston Renard, 2002. ———. Narrative of the Voyage of H.M.S. Rattlesnake: Commanded by the Late Captain Owen Stanley during the Years 1846–1850, Including Discoveries and Surveys in New Guinea, the Louisiade Archipelago, etc., to Which Is Added the Account of Mr. E. B. Kennedy’s Expedition for the Exploration of the Cape York Peninsul. 2 vols. Adelaide: Libraries Board of South Australia, 1967. Mackay, Kenneth. Across Papua: Being an Account of a Voyage round, and a March across, the Territory of Papua, with the Royal Commission. London: Witherby, 1909. Macmillan, David Stirling. A Squatter Went to Sea: The Story of Sir William Macleay’s New Guinea Expedition (1875) and His Life in Sydney. Sydney: Currawong, 1957. Malinowski, Bronislaw. Argonauts of the Western Pacific: An Account of Native Enterprise and Adventure in the Archipelagoes of Melanesian New Guinea, with a preface by Sir James George Frazer. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1922. ———. Argonauts of the Western Pacific: An Account of Native Enterprise and Adventure in the Archipelagoes of Melanesian New Guinea, preface by James G. Fraser. Prospect Heights, Ill.: Waveland Press, 1984. Miklouho-Maclay, and Nikolai Nikolaevich. Travels to New Guinea: Diaries, Letters, Documents, translated from the Russian. Moscow: Progress Publishers, 1982.

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Twentieth-Century Exploration Champion, Ivan F. Across New Guinea from the Fly to the Sepik. Melbourne: Lansdowne Press, 1966.

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Connolly, Bob, and Robin Anderson. First Contact. New York: Penguin Books, 1988. Gammage, Bill. The Sky Travellers: Journeys in New Guinea 1938–1939. Carlton, Victoria: Melbourne University Press, 1998. Hides, Jack Gordon. Papuan Wonderland. London: Blackie, 1936. ———. Through Wildest Papua. London: Blackie, 1935. Kramer, Joel P. Beyond Fear: A Journey across New Guinea, edited by Diane Kulkarni. Brigham City, Utah: Above & Beyond, 1995. Leahy, Michael J. Explorations into Highland New Guinea, 1930–1935, edited by Douglas E. Jones. Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 1991. Leahy, Michael J. and Maurice Crain. The Land That Time Forgot: Adventures and Discoveries in New Guinea. New York: Funk and Wagnall, 1937. Leahy, Tommy. Markham Tom: Memoirs of a Pioneer Expatriate in Papua New Guinea, edited by Chris Ashton. Belair, South Australia: Crawford House, 2002. McCarthy, J.K. Patrol into Yesterday: My New Guinea Years. Melbourne: Cheshire, 1963. Murray, Hubert. Papua of Today, or, An Australian Colony in the Making. London: P. S. King, 1925. ———. Papua or British New Guinea, with an introduction by Sir William McGregor. London: T. Fisher Unwin, 1912. ———. Recent Exploration in Papua. Sydney: Turner and Henderson, 1923. Overell, Lilian. A Woman’s Impressions of German New Guinea. London: John Lane, the Bodley Head, 1923. Sinclair, James. Last Frontiers: The Explorations of Ivan Champion of Papua: A Record of Geographical Exploration in Australia’s Territory of Papua between 1926 and 1940. Broadbeach Waters, Queensland: Pacific Press, 1988. ———. Wings of Gold: How the Aeroplane Developed New Guinea. Sydney: Pacific Publications, 1978.

West Papua (Formerly Irian Jaya) Baal, Jan van. West Irian: A Bibliography. Dordrecht, Holland: Cinnaminson, 1984. Ballard, Chris, and Steven Vink and Anton Ploeg. The Race to the Snow; Photography and the Exploration of Dutch New Guinea 1907–1936.Amsterdam: Royal Tropical Institute, 2001. Bohane, B. Irian Jaya: The Promised Land. London: C. Hurst, 2002. Colijn, A.H. Naar de eeuwige sneeuw van Nieuw Guinee: de bestijging van het Carstenszgebergte. 5th ed. Amsterdam: Scheltens & Giltay, 1951. Gardner, Robert, and Karl G. Heider. Gardens of War; Life and Death in the New Guinea Stone Age. New York: Random House, l969. Kolff, Dirk Hendrik. Voyages of the Dutch Brig of War Dourga: Through the Moluccan Archipelago, and Along the Previously Unknown Southern Coast of New Guinea during the Years 1825 & 1826, translated from the Dutch by George Windsor Earl. London: James Madden, 1840.

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Mitton, Robert. The Lost World of Irian Jaya. Melbourne: Oxford University Press, 1983. Schultze, Leonhard. Forschungen im Innern der Insel Neuguinea: Bericht des Führers über die wissenschaftlichen Ergebnisse der deutschen Grenzexpedition in das westliche Kaiser-Wilhelmsland. 1910. Berlin: E.S. Mittler, 1914. Temple, Philip. The Last true Explorer: Into Darkest New Guinea. Auckland: Godwit, 2002. Wollaston, Alexander. Pygmies & Papuans; The Stone Age To-day in Dutch New Guinea. London: Smith, Elder & Co., 1912.

Fictional Narratives Lawson, John A. Wanderings in the Interior of New Guinea. London: Chapman & Hall, 1875. Trégance, Louis. Adventures in New Guinea: The Narrative of Louis Trégance: A French Sailor, Nine Years in Captivity among the Orangwöks, a Tribe in the Interior of New Guinea, edited, and with an introduction, by the Rev. Henry Crocker. London: Sampson Low, 1888.

Norfolk Island Anderson, Atholl, and Peter White, eds. The Prehistoric Archaeology of Norfolk Island, Southwest Pacific. Sydney: Australian Museum, 2001. Clark, Ralph. The Journal and Letters of Lt. Ralph Clark, 1787–1792, edited by Paul G. Fidlon and R.J. Ryan. Sydney: Australian Documents Library, 1981. Hoare, Merval. The Discovery of Norfolk Island. Canberra: Australian Government Publishing Service for the Department of the Capital Territory, 1974. ———. Norfolk Island: A Revised and Enlarged History 1774–1981. 5th ed. Rockhampton, Queensland: Central Queensland University Press, 1999. King, Philip Gidley. The Journal of Philip Gidley King: Lieutenant, R. N., 1787–1790, edited by Paul G. Fidlon and R.J. Ryan. Sydney: Australian Documents Library, 1980. Paine, Daniel. The Journal of Daniel Paine, 1794–1797: Together with Documents Illustrating the Beginning of Government Boat-Building and Timber-Gathering in New South Wales, 1795–1805, edited by R.J.B. Knight and Alan Frost. Sydney: Library of Australian History, 1983. Tamati, Tiakihana. Norfolk Island: Being a Brief History of the Descendants of the “Bounty” Mutineers and Other Settlers of Pitcairn on both Pitcairn and Norfolk Islands. Rotorua, N.Z.: United Publishing and Printing, 1966.

Solomon Islands Bennett, Judith A. Wealth of the Solomons: A History of a Pacific Archipelago, 1800–1978. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1987.

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The Discovery of the Solomon Islands by Alvaro de Mendaña in 1568, translated from the original Spanish manuscripts, edited with introduction and notes by Lord Amherst of Hackney and Basil Thomson. London: Hakluyt Society, 1901. Fox, Charles Elliot. The Story of the Solomons. Rev. ed. Sydney: Pacific Publications, 1975. Golden, Graeme A. The Early European Settlers of the Solomon Islands. Melbourne: G. Golden, 1993. Green, Kaye Chandler. Historical Outline of European Contacts and Bibliography for Use of Project Collaborators and Researchers in the Eastern District, British Solomon Islands. Auckland: Department of Anthropology, University of Auckland, 1974. Green, Roger Curtis. A First Culture History of the Solomon Islands. Dunedin: University of Otago, 1980. Guppy, Henry Brougham. The Solomon Islands and Their Natives. London: Swan Sonnenschein, Lowry, 1887. Jack-Hinton, Colin. The Search for the Islands of Solomon 1567–1838. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1969. Kent, Janet. The Solomon Islands. Newton Abbot: David and Charles, 1972. MacNeill, Ian. Sweet Horizons: A History of the Solomon Islands. Elsternwick, Australia: Acland Press, 2000. Ples blong iumi: Solomon Islands, the Past Four Thousand Years. Suva, Fiji: Institute of Pacific Studies of University of the South Pacific, 1989.

Vanuatu (New Hebrides) Adams, Ron. In the Land of Strangers: A Century of European Contact with Tanna, 1774–1874. Canberra: Australian National University, 1984. Campbell, F.A. A Year in the New Hebrides, Loyalty Islands, and New Caledonia, with an Account of the Early History of the New Hebrides Missions, by A.J. Campbell; A Narrative of the Voyages of the “Dayspring,” by D. M’Donald, D.D.; And an Appendix, Containing a Contribution to the Phytography of the New Hebrides, by Baron von Mueller. Geelong, Victoria: G. Mercer, 1873. Hilliard, David Lockhart. God’s Gentlemen: A History of the Melanesian Mission, 1849–1942. St. Lucia: University of Queensland Press, 1978. Humphreys, Clarence Blake. The Southern New Hebrides: An Ethnological Record. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1926. MacClancy, Jeremy. To Kill a Bird with Two Stones: A Short History of Vanuatu. Vila, Vanuatu: Vanuatu Cultural Centre, 1981. Markham, Albert Hastings. The Cruise of the Rosario amongst the New Hebrides and Santa Cruz Islands, Exposing the Recent Atrocities Connected with the Kidnapping of Natives in the South Seas. London: Dawsons, 1970. Parsonson, Gordon Stewart. Early Protestant Missions in the New Hebrides, 1839–1865. Dunedin: University of Otago, 1952.

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Patterson, George. Missionary Life among the Cannibals: Being the Life of the Rev. John Geddie, D.D., First Missionary to the New Hebrides: With a History of the Nova Scotia Presbyterian Mission on That Group. Toronto: James Campbell & Son, 1882.

C. Micronesia General History and Culture Alkire, William H. An Introduction to the Peoples and Cultures of Micronesia. 2nd ed. Menlo Park, Calif.: Cummings, 1977. Bradley, William Paul. The History of the Marianas, Caroline, Pelew, and Marshall Islands to the Year 1922. A Master of Arts thesis presented to the Faculty of the Department of History, University of Southern California, 1937. Crawford, David, and Leona Crawford. Missionary Adventures in the South Pacific. Rutland, Vt.: Tuttle, 1967. Goetzfridt, Nicholas J., and Karen M. Peacock. Micronesian Histories: An Analytical Bibliography and Guide to Interpretations. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 2002. Knudsen, Karen, ed. History of the U.S. Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands: Conference Proceedings: The Ninth Annual Pacific Islands Studies Conference. Honolulu: Pacific Islands Studies Program, University of Hawaii at Manoa, 1985. Lessa, William Armand. Drake’s Island of Thieves: Ethnological Sleuthing. Honolulu: University Press of Hawaii, 1975. Lévesque, Rodrigue, ed. History of Micronesia: A Collection of Source Documents. Rodrigue 18 vols. Gatineau, Quebec: Éditions Lévesque, 1992–2001. v. 1. European Discovery 1521–1560. v. 2. Prelude to Conquest 1561–1595. v. 3. First Real Contact. v. 4. Religious Conquest, 1638–1670. v. 5. Focus on the Mariana Mission, 1670–1673. v. 6. Revolts in the Marianas, 1673–1678. v. 7. More Turmoil in the Marianas 1679–1683. v. 8. Last Chamorro Revolt 1683–1687. v. 9. Conquest of the Gani Islands, 1687–1696. v. 10. Exploration of the Caroline Islands, 1696–1709. v. 11. French Ships in the Pacific, 1708–1717. v. 12. Carolinians Drift to Guam, 1715–1728. v. 13. Failure at Ulithi Atoll, 1727–1746. v. 14. Full Census of the Marianas, 1746–1773. v. 15. Mostly Palau, 1783–1793. v. 16. The Malaspina Expedition, 1773–1795. v. 17. Last Discoveries:10 Islands, 1795– 1807. v. 18. Russian Expeditions, 1808–1827. ———. Ships through Micronesia: A Chronological Listing of Significant Ships that Passed through Micronesian Waters from Magellan’s Time to the Present, 1521–1993. 2nd ed. Gatineau, Quebec: Éditions Lévesque, 1994. Tetens, Alfred. Among the Savages of the South Seas: Memoirs of Micronesia, 1862–1868, translated from the German by Florence Mann Spoehr. Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1958.

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2. Specific Places Caroline Islands and Palau Duperrey, Louis. The European Discovery of Kosrae Island, translated and edited by Lynn Takata Ritter and Philip L. Ritter. Saipan: Micronesian Archaeological Survey, 1982. Hezel, Francis X. The First Taint of Civilization: A History of the Caroline and Marshall Islands in Pre-Colonial days, 1521–1885. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1983. ———. Foreign Ships in Micronesia: A Compendium of Ship Contacts with the Caroline and Marshall Islands 1521–1885. Saipan, Mariana Islands: Published in co-operation with the Trust Territory Historic Preservation Office and the U.S. Heritage Conservation and Recreation Service, 1979. Keate, George. An Account of the Pelew Islands, Situated in the Western Part of the Pacific Ocean: Composed from the Journals and Communications of Captain Henry Wilson, and Some of His Officers, Who, in August 1783, Were There Shipwrecked, in the Antelope, a Packet Belonging to the Honourable East India Company. London: G. Nicol, 1788. ———. An Account of the Pelew Islands, edited by Karen L. Nero and Nicholas Thomas. London: Leicester University Press, 2002. Miguel, D. Gregorio. Estudio sobre las islas Carolinas: comprende la historia y geografía de los 36 grupos que forman el archipiélago Carolino, seguido de la descripción de todas las islas del Océano Pacífico, situadas entre el Ecuador y el Paralelo 10 N. 2 vols. Madrid: Imprenta de José Perales y Martinez, 1887. Palau Community Action Agency. A History of Palau. Koror, Palau: The Agency, 1976. Rechebei, Elizabeth Diaz, and Samuel F. McPhetres. History of Palau: Heritage of an Emerging Nation. Koror, Republic of Palau: Ministry of Education, 1997.

Kiribati (and Banaba, Line and Phoenix Islands) Arundel, John T. The Phoenix Group and Other Islands of the Pacific. Auckland: New Zealand Herald, 1890. Bailey, Eric. The Christmas Island Story. London: Stacey International, 1977. Binder, Pearl. Treasure Islands; The Trials of the Banabans. London: Blond and Briggs, 1977. Grimble, Arthur. A Pattern of Islands. London: John Murray, 1952. Macdonald, Barrie. Cinderellas of the Empire: Towards a History of Kiribati and Tuvalu. Canberra: Australian National University Press, 1982; revised edition, Suva, Fiji: Institute of Pacific Studies, University of the South Pacific, 2001. Sabatier, Ernest. Astride the Equator: An Account of the Gilbert Islands, translated by Ursula Nixon. Melbourne: Oxford University Press, 1977. Sigrah, Raobeia, and Stacey King. Te rii ni Banaba, Suva, Fiji: Institute of Pacific Studies and University of the South Pacific, 2001.

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Silverman, Martin. Disconcerting Issue; Meaning and Struggle in a Resettled Pacific Community Chicago, Ill.: University of Chicago Press, 1971. Talu, Alaima. Kiribati: Aspects of History. Suva, Fiji: Institute of Pacific Studies and Extension Services, University of the South Pacific, 1979. Woodburn, Susan. Where Our Hearts Still Lie; A Life of Harry and Honor Maude in the Pacific Islands. Adelaide: Crawford House, 2003.

Mariana Islands and Guam Beardsley, Charles. Guam: Past and Present. Rutland, Vt.: Tuttle, 1964. Carano, Paul, and Pedro C. Sanchez. A Complete History of Guam. Rutland, Vt.: Tuttle, 1964. Carter, Lee D., William L. Wuerch, and Rosa Roberto Carter, eds. Guam History: Perspectives. Mangilao: Richard F. Taitano Micronesian Area Research Center, University of Guam, 1997. Hezel, Francis X. From Conquest to Colonization: Spain in the Mariana Islands, 1690–1740. Saipan: Commonwealth of Northern Mariana Islands, Division of Historic Preservation, 1989. Ibáñez y García, Luís de. The History of the Marianas: With Navigational data: And of the Caroline, and Palau Islands: From the Time of Their Discovery by Magellan in 1521 to the Present, translated and annotated by Marjorie G. Driver. Mangilao: Micronesian Area Research Center, University of Guam, 1992. Kotzebue, Otto von. Russian Exploration in the Mariana Islands, 1817–1828, translated and edited by Glynn Barratt. Saipan: Micronesian Archaeological Survey, 1984. Le Gobien, Charles. Histoire des isles Marianes, nouvellement converties a la religion chrestienne, & de la mort glorieuse des premiers missionnaires qui y ont preche la foy. Paris: Chez Nicolas Pepie, 1700. Marche, Antoine-Alfred. The Mariana Islands, translated from the French by Sylvia E. Cheng; edited by Robert D. Craig. Guam: Micronesian Area Research Center, 1982. Thompson, Laura. Guam and Its People. 3rd ed. Princeton, N.J., Princeton University Press, 1947. ———. The Native Culture of the Marianas Islands. New York: Kraus, 1971.

Marshall Islands Dye, Tom, ed. Marshall Islands Archaeology. Honolulu: Department of Anthropology, Bernice Pauahi Bishop Museum, 1987. Hezel, Francis X. The First Taint of Civilization: A History of the Caroline and Marshall Islands in Pre-Colonial Days, 1521–1885. Honolulu: Pacific Islands Studies Program, Center for Pacific and Asian Studies, University of Hawaii; University of Hawaii Press, 1983.

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———. Foreign Ships in Micronesia: A Compendium of Ship Contacts with the Caroline and Marshall Islands 1521–1885. Saipan, Mariana Islands: Published in cooperation with the Trust Territory Historic Preservation Office and the U.S. Heritage Conservation and Recreation Service, 1979. Hart, Kevin. Sung for Anidreb: A Brief History of the Marshall Islands. Majuro: Marshall Islands Pub., 1998. Knight, Gerald. A History of the Marshall Islands. 3rd ed. Majuro: The Republic of the Marshall Islands, 1999.

Nauru Ellis, Albert Fuller. Ocean Island and Nauru; Their Story. Sydney: Angus and Robertson, 1935. Ellis, Abert Fuller. Adventuring in Coral Seas. Sydney: Angus and Robertson, 1937. Viviani, Nancy. A History of Nauru. Thesis. Canberra: Australian National University, 1967.

D. Polynesia General History and Culture Barratt, Glynn. Southern and Eastern Polynesia. Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press, 1988. Bellwood, Peter S. The Polynesians: Prehistory of an Island People. London: Thames and Hudson, 1987. Bryan, Edwin Horace. American Polynesia: Coral Islands of the Central Pacific. Honolulu: Tongg Publishing, 1941. Buck, Peter H. (Te Rangi Hiroa). An Introduction to Polynesian Anthropology. Honolulu, Hawaii: Bernice P. Bishop Museum, 1945. Gleizal, Christian, ed. Encyclopédie de la Polynésie. 9 vols. 2nd ed. Tahiti: C. Gleizal, 1990. Goldman, Irving. Ancient Polynesian Society. Chicago, Ill.: University of Chicago Press, 1970. Highland, Genevieve A., ed. Polynesian Culture History: Essays in Honor of Kenneth P. Emory. Honolulu, Hawaii: Bishop Museum Press, 1967. Jennings, Jesse D., ed. The Prehistory of Polynesia. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1979. Kirch, Patrick Vinton, and Roger C. Green. Hawaiki, Ancestral Polynesia: An Essay in Historical Anthropology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001. Maude, Henry Evans. Slavers in Paradise: The Peruvian Labour Trade in Polynesia, 1862–1864. Canberra: Australian National University Press, 1981. Oliver, Douglas L. Polynesia in Early Historic Times. Honolulu: Bess Press, 2002.

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Austral, Gambier, and Tuamotu Islands Emory, Kenneth Pike. Archaeology of Mangareva and Neighboring Atolls. New York: Kraus, 1971. Green, Roger C., and Marshall I. Weisler. Mangarevan Archaeology: Interpretations using New data and 40 Year Old Excavations to Establish a Sequence from 1200 to 1900 AD. Dunedin, N.Z.: Department of Anthropology, University of Otago, 2000. ´ tablissement territorial Vallaux, François. Mangareva et les Gambier. Tahiti: E d’achats groupés, 1994.

Cook Islands Duff, Roger. Prehistory of the Southern Cook Islands, edited by Michael M. Trotter. Christchurch: Canterbury Museum Trust Board, 1974. Gilson, Richard P. The Cook Islands, 1820–1950, edited by Ron Crocombe. Wellington: Victoria University Press in association with the Institute of Pacific Studies of the University of the South Pacific, 1980. Henry, Howard. The Coming of Tomorrow: European Exploration and “Discovery” of the Cook Islands. Auckland: Sovereign Pacific Publishing, 2002. Kloosterman, Alphons M.J. Discoverers of the Cook Islands and the Names They Gave. 2nd ed. Rarotonga: Cook Islands Library and Museum, 1976.

Easter Island (Rapa Nui) Archaeology: Proceedings of the First International Congress on Easter Island and East Polynesian Archeology, Hanga Roa, Easter Island, 1984. Santiago: Universidad de Chile, Facultad de Arquitectura y Urbanismo, Instituto de Estudios Isla de Pascua, 1988. Bahn, Paul, and John Flenley. Easter Island, Earth Island. London: Thames and Hudson, 1992. Barthel, Thomas S. The Eighth Land: The Polynesian Discovery and Settlement of Easter Island. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1978. Casanova, Patricia Vargas, ed. Easter Island and East Polynesian Prehistory: Proceedings of the Second International Congress on Easter Island and East Polynesian Archaeology. Santiago: Universidad de Chile, Facultad de Arquitectura y Urbanismo, Instituto de Estudios Isla de Pascua, 1998.

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Hawai‘i Barnes, Phil. A Concise History of the Hawaiian Islands. Hilo, Hawai‘i: Petroglyph Press, 1999. Barratt, Glynn. The Russian Discovery of Hawai’i: The Ethnographic and Historic Record. Honolulu: Editions, 1987. Bingham, Hiram. A Residence of Twenty-One Years in the Sandwich Islands; or, The Civil, Religious, and Political History of Those Islands. 3rd ed. rev. New York: Praeger, 1969. ———. Selected Writings of Hiram Bingham (1814–1869): To Raise the Lord’s Banner, edited by Char Miller. Lewiston, N.Y.: E. Mellen Press, 1988. Boelen, Jacobus. A Merchant’s Perspective: Captain Jacobus Boelen’s Narrative of His Visit to Hawai’i in 1828, translated by Frank J.A. Broeze. Honolulu: The Hawaiian Historical Society, 1988. Cahill, Emmett. The Life and Times of John Young: Confidant and Advisor to Kamehameha the Great. Aiea, Hawai‘i: Island Heritage, 1999. Dahlgren, Erik Wilhelm. Were the Hawaiian Islands Visited by the Spaniards before Their Discovery by Captain Cook in 1778? A Contribution to the Geographical History of the North Pacific Ocean Especially of the Relations between America and Asia in the Spanish Period. New York: AMS Press, 1977. Daws, Gavin. Shoal of Time; A History of the Hawaiian Islands. New York: Macmillan, 1968. Dibble, Sheldon. A History of the Sandwich Islands. Honolulu: T.G. Thrum, 1909. Dye, Tom. Tales of Two Cultures: Traditional Historical and Archaeological Interpretations of Hawaiian Prehistory: Population—Hawaii, Archaeology. Honolulu: Bishop Museum, 1989. Ellis, William. A Journal of a Tour around Hawaii. Boston: Orocker and Brewster, 1825. ———. Journal of William Ellis: A Narrative of a Tour through Hawaii in 1823. Honolulu: Hawaiian Gazette, 1916.

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Stannard, David E. Before the Horror: The Population of Hawai‘i on the Eve of Western Contact. Honolulu: Social Science Research Institute, University of Hawaii, 1989. Stepien, Edward R. Ni‘ihau: A Brief History. 2 vols. Honolulu: Center for Pacific Islands Studies, School of Hawaiian, Asian & Pacific Studies, University of Hawaii at Manoa, 1988.

Marquesas Crook, William Pascoe. Account of the Marquesas Islands, 1799. [microform]. Dening, Greg. Islands and Beaches: Discourse on a Silent Land: Marquesas, 1774–1880. Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 1980. Deschamps, Emmanuel. L’Archipel des Marquises. Boulogne: les Éditions. le Motu, 1994. Ferdon, Edwin N. Early Observations of Marquesan Culture, 1595–1813. Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1993. Fleurieu, C.P. Claret. Voyage round the World, Performed during the Years 1790, 1791, and 1792, by Étienne Marchand, translated from the French of C P Claret Fleurieu. London: Longman, Rees, Cadell and Davies, 1801. Handy, E.S. Craighill. The Native Culture in the Marquesas. Honolulu: Bishop Musuem Press, 1923. Ingraham, Joseph. Joseph Ingraham’s Journal of the Brigantine Hope on a Voyage to the Northwest Coast of North America, 1790–92. Barre, Mass.: Imprint Society, 1971. Porter, David. A Voyage in the South Seas, in the Years 1812, 1813, and 1814: With Particular Details of the Gallipagos [sic] and Washington Islands. London: Sir R. Phillips, 1823. Robarts, Edward. The Marquesan Journal of Edward Robarts, 1797–1824, edited, with an Introduction by Greg Dening. Canberra: Australian National University Press, 1974. Thomas, Nicholas. Marquesan Societies: Inequality and Political Transformation in Eastern Polynesia. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1990. Thomson, Robert. The Marquesas Islands: Their Description and Early History, introduction and notes by Robert D. Craig. 2nd ed. Laie, Hawaii: Institute for Polynesian Studies at Brigham Young University, 1980.

New Zealand 1. General History Beaglehole, John Cawte. The Discovery of New Zealand. 2nd ed. London: Oxford University Press, 1961.

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Belich, James. Making Peoples: A History of the New Zealanders: From Polynesian Settlement to the End of the Nineteenth Century. Auckland: Penguin Press, 1996. Carrick, Ro., ed. Historical Records of New Zealand South Prior to 1840. Facsimile edition. Christchurch, N.Z.: Kiwi Publishers, 1998. The Dictionary of New Zealand Biography. 5 vols. Wellington: Allen & Unwin, 1990–2000. (Volume 1: 1769–1869. 1990). Gazel, Armand Félix. French Navigators and the Early History of New Zealand. Wellington: Harry H. Tombs, 1946. McNab, Robert. From Tasman to Marsden: A History of Northern New Zealand from 1642 to 1818. Dunedin: J. Wilkie, 1914. ———. From Tasman to Marsden: A History of Northern New Zealand from 1642 to 1818. Facsimile edition. Christchurch, N.Z.: Kiwi Publishers, 2000. McNab, Robert, ed. Historical Records of New Zealand. 2 vols. Facsimile edition. Wellington, N.Z.: Govt. Printer, 1973. Morton, Harry, and Carol Morton Johnston. The Farthest Corner: New Zealand, a Twice Discovered Land. Auckland: Century Hutchinson, 1988. Oliver, W.H., ed. The Oxford History of New Zealand. Oxford: Clarendon Press; Wellington: Oxford University Press, 1981. Saunders, Alfred. History of New Zealand. 2 vols. Christchurch: Whitcombe & Tombs, 1896. Sinclair, Keith. A History of New Zealand. Harmondsworth, Middlesex: Penguin, 1959. Wright, Harrison M. New Zealand, 1769–1840: Early Years of Western Contact. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1959.

2. Early Settlement Brown, John Macmillan. Ma¯ori and Polynesian; Their Origin, History and Culture. London: Hutchinson, 1907. ———. Ma¯ori and Polynesian: Their Origin, History and Culture. Facsimile edition. Christchurch, N.Z.: Kiwi Publishers, 2000. Buck, Peter H. (Te Rangi Hiroa). The Coming of the Ma¯ori. Wellington, N.Z.: Ma¯ori Purposes Fund Board: Whitcombe and Tombs, 1949. ———. Vikings of the Sunrise. Philadelphia: J.B. Lippincott, 1938. Davidson, Janet. The Prehistory of New Zealand. Auckland: Longman Paul, 1984. Grey, George. Polynesian Mythology and Ancient Traditional History of the New Zealand Race, as Furnished by Their Priests and Chiefs. London: John Murray, 1855. ———. Polynesian Mythology and Ancient Traditional History of the New Zealand Race: As Furnished by Their Priests and Chiefs. Hamilton, N.Z.: University of Waikato Library, 1995. Simmons, D.R. The Great New Zealand Myth: A Study of the Discovery and Origin Traditions of the Ma¯ori. Wellington: A. H. & A. W. Reed, 1976.

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Smith, S. Percy. Hawaiki: The Original Home of the Ma¯ori, with a Sketch of Polynesian History. 2nd ed. Christchurch, N.Z.: Whitcombe and Tombs, 1904. ———. Hawaiki: The Original Home of the Ma¯ori: With a Sketch of Polynesian History. Facsimile edition. Christchurch, N.Z.: Kiwi Publishers, 2000. Sorrenson, Maurice Peter Keith. Ma¯ori Origins and Migrations: The Genesis of Some Pa¯keha¯ Myths and Legends. Auckland: Auckland University Press, 1990. Sutton, Douglas G., ed. The Origins of the First New Zealanders. Auckland: Auckland University Press, 1994. White, John. The Ancient History of the Ma¯ori, His Mythology and Traditions. 6 vols. Wellington: Government Printer, 1887–1891. ———. The Ancient History of the Ma¯ori. cdrom. 13 vols. Hamilton, N.Z.: University of Waikato Library, 2001.

3. Early European Contact and Exploration ———. The Treaty of Waitangi. Wellington: Bridget Williams Books, 1992. Bawden, Patricia M. The Years before Waitangi: A Story of Early Maori European Contact in New Zealand. Auckland: P.M. Bawden, 1987. Bogle, Archibald Hugh. Links in the Chain: Field Surveying in New Zealand. Wellington: N.Z. Institute of Surveyors, 1975. Byrnes, Giselle. Boundary Markers: Land Surveying and the Colonisation of New Zealand. Wellington: Bridget Williams Books, 2001. Cruise, Richard Alexander. Journal of a Ten Months’ Residence in New Zealand. London: Longman, Hurst, Rees, Orme and Brown, 1823. ———. Journal of a Ten Months’ Residence in New Zealand. Christchurch, N.Z.: Kiwi Publishers, 1998. Dieffenbach, Ernst. Travels in New Zealand: With Contributions to the Geography, Geology, Botany and Natural History of that Country. 2 vols. London: J. Murray, 1843. Douglas, Charlie. Mr. Explorer Douglas, edited by John Pascoe. Wellington: A.H. & A.W. Reed, 1957. ———. Mr Explorer Douglas: John Pascoe’s New Zealand Classic, revised by Graham Langton. Christchurch, N.Z.: Canterbury University Press, 2000. Easdale, Nola. Kairuri: The Measurer of Land: The Life of the 19th Century Surveyor Pictured in His Art and Writings. Petone, N.Z.: Highgate/Price Milburn, 1988. Ell, Gordon, and Sarah Ell, comps. Great Journeys in Old New Zealand: Travel and Exploration in a New Land. Auckland: Bush Press, 1995. Grey, Alan Hopwood. Aotearoa & New Zealand: A Historical Geography. Christchurch, N.Z.: Canterbury University Press, 1994. Heaphy, Charles. Narrative of a Residence in Various Parts of New Zealand: Together with a Description of the Present State of the Company’s Settlements. London: Smith, Elder, 1842.

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———. Narrative of a Residence in Various Parts of New Zealand: Together with a Description of the Present State of the Company’s Settlements. Christchurch, N.Z.: Kiwi Publishers, 1998. Hochstetter, Ferdinand von. New Zealand: Its Physical Geography, Geology, and Natural History: With Special Reference to the Results of Government Expeditions in the Provinces of Auckland and Nelson, translated from the German original, published in 1863, by Edward Sauter, with Additions up to 1866 by the author. Stuttgart: J.G. Cotta, 1867. ———. New Zealand: Its Physical Geography, Geology, and Natural History: With Special Reference to the Results of Government Expeditions in the Provinces of Auckland and Nelson, translated from the German original published in 1863, by Edward Sauter; with additions up to 1866 by the author. Facsimile edition. Christchurch, N.Z.: Kiwi Publishers, 1997. McClymont, William Graham. The Exploration of New Zealand. 2nd ed. London: Oxford University Press, 1959. Marsden, Samuel. The Letters and Journals of Samuel Marsden, 1764–1838, Senior Chaplain in the Colony of New South Wales and Superintendent of the Mission of the Church Missionary Society in New Zealand, edited by John Rawson Elder. Dunedin: Coulls, Somerville Wilkie, and A.H. Reed for the Otago University Council, 1932. Meade, Herbert. A Ride through the Disturbed Districts of New Zealand: Together with Some Account of the South Sea Islands: Being Selections from the Journals and Letters of Lieut. the Hon. Herbert Meade, R.N., edited by his brother. London: John Murray, 1870. ———. A Ride through the Disturbed Districts of New Zealand: Together with Some Account of the South Sea Islands: Being Selections from the Journals and Letters of Lieut. the Hon. Herbert Meade, R.N., edited by his brother. Christchurch, N.Z.: Kiwi Publishers, 1998. Orange, Claudia. An Illustrated History of the Treaty of Waitangi. Wellington: Allen & Unwin, 1990. Pascoe, John. Explorers and Travellers: Early Expeditions in New Zealand. Rev. ed. Wellington: Reed, 1983. ———. Great Days in New Zealand Exploration: The Bush and the Rain. Wellington: A.H. & A.W. Reed, 1959. Rochfort, John. The Adventures of a Surveyor in New Zealand. Christchurch, N.Z.: Kiwi Publishers, 1998. Smith, S. Percy. An 1858 Journey into the Interior. New Plymouth, N.Z.: Taranaki Herald, 1953. Taylor, Nancy M., ed. Early Travellers in New Zealand. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1959. Temple, Philip. New Zealand Explorers: Great Journeys of Discovery. Christchurch, N.Z.: Whitcoulls, 1985. Walker, Ranganui Joseph. Struggle without End—Ka whawhai tonu matou. Auckland: Penguin, 1990.

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4. Chatham Islands Cambridge, Caroline, and Peter Tremewan. L’Affaire Jean Bart; The Jean Bart Obser. Christchurch, N.Z.: University of Canterbury, 1998. Holmes, Fiona. Chatham Islands Rekohu, 1791–1984. Waitangi, Chatham Islands: F. Holmes, 1984. King, Michael. A Land Apart: The Chatham Islands of New Zealand. Auckland: Random Century, 1990. ———. Moriori: A People Rediscovered. Rev. ed. Auckland: Viking, 2000. Mills, Stanley Matthews. A History of the Chatham Islands and Their Inhabitants. New Zealand: 1933. Richards, Rhys. Whaling and Sealing at the Chatham Islands. Canberra: Roebuck Book, 1982.

5. Other Offshore Islands Carrick, Ro. New Zealand’s Lone Lands: Being Brief Notes of a Visit to the Outlying Islands of the Colony. Wellington: Government Printer, 1892. ———. New Zealand’s Lone Lands: Being Brief Notes of a Visit to the Outlying Islands of the Colony. Facsimile edition. Christchurch, N.Z.: Kiwi Publishers, 1997. Dingwall, P.R., ed. Enderby Settlement Diaries: Records of a British Colony at the Auckland Islands, 1849–1852; Diarists, William Augustus Mackworth, William John Munce. Wellington: Wild Press, 1999. Fell, Derek. Campbell Island: Land of the Blue Sunflower. Auckland: David Bateman, 2002. Johnson, Leigh. A History and Archaeological Survey of Raoul Island, Kermadec Islands. Auckland: Department of Conservation, Auckland Conservancy, 1991. Kerr, Ian S. Campbell Island: A History. Wellington: Reed, 1976. Loveridge, Donald M. The Settlement of the Auckland Islands in the 1840s and 1850s: The Maungahuka Colony, the Enderby Colony and the Crown. New Zealand: 1955. McLaren, Fergus Blair. The Auckland Islands: Their Eventful History. Wellington: A.H. & A.W. Reed, 1948. Redwood, Rosaline. Forgotten Islands of the South Pacific: The Story of New Zealand’s Southern Islands. Wellington: Reed, 1950.

Niue King, Joseph. W. G. Lawes of Savage Island and New Guinea. London: Religious Tract Society, 1909. Loeb, Edwin Meyer. History and Traditions of Niue. Honolulu: Bernice P. Bishop Museum, 1926.

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———. History and Traditions of Niue. New York: Kraus, 1971. McDowell, Keith. A History of Niue. Wellington; Victoria University, 1961 (Unpublished M.A. thesis). Niue: A History of the Island. Suva, Fiji: Institute of Pacific Studies, University of the South Pacific, 1982. Ryan, Thomas F. Narratives of Encounter: The Anthroplogy of History on Niue. Auckland: University of Auckland, 1994 (Unpublished Ph.D. thesis). Ryan, Thomas F., comp. Palagai Views of Niue: Historical Literature, 1774–1899. Auckland: Auckland University Bindery, 1984. Smith, S. Percy. Niue-Fekai (or Savage) Island and Its people. Wellington: Whitcombe & Tombs, 1903. ———. Niue: The Island and Its People. Suva, Fiji: Institute of Pacific Studies, University of the South Pacific, 1983. Thomson, Basil C. Savage Island: An Account of a Sojourn in Niue and Tonga. London: John Murray, 1902. ———. Savage Island: An Account of a Sojourn in Niue and Tonga. Papakura, N.Z.: R. McMillan, 1984.

Pitcairn Benton, Tim, and Tom Spencer, eds. The Pitcairn Islands: Biogeography, Ecology and Prehistory. London: Academic Press, 1995. Lummis, Trevor. Life and Death in Eden: Pitcairn Island and the Bounty Mutineers. London: Phoenix, 2000. Nicolson, Robert Bryan. The Pitcairners. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1997.

Samoa (including Samoa and American Samoa) Gilson, Richard P. Samoa 1830 to 1900; the Politics of a Multi-Cultural Community, with an introduction and conclusion by J. W. Davidson. Melbourne: Oxford University Press, 1970. ———. Samoa 1830–1900 Drafts and Research Materials on the Cook Islands, Fiji, French Polynesia, GEIC, Niue and Papua New Guinea. 9 microfilms. Canberra: Pacific Manuscripts Bureau, Australian National University, 1989. Henry, Fred. History of Samoa. Apia, Western Samoa: Commercial Printers, 1992. ———. Samoa, an Early History. Pago Pago: Dept. of Education, American Samoa, 1980. Kramer, Augustin F. The Samoan Islands, Vol. 1, translated from the German by Theodore Verhaaren. Auckland: Polynesian Press, 1994. Masterman, Sylvia. An Outline of Samoan History. Apia, Western Samoa: Commercial Printing, 1980.

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Turner, George. Samoa, a Hundred Years Ago and Long Before: Together with Notes on the Cults and Customs of Twenty-Three Other Islands in the Pacific, with a preface by E. B. Tylor. London: Macmillan, 1884. ———. Samoa, a Hundred Years Ago and Long Before. Suva, Fiji: Institute of Pacific Studies, University of the South Pacific, 1984. ———. Samoa, a Hundred Years Ago and Long Before. Papakura, N.Z.: Southern Reprints, 199x.

Tahiti and Society Islands Bare, Jean-François. Tahiti, Les Temps et les Pouvoirs; pour une anthropologie historique du Tahiti Post-Européen. Paris: Editions de l’ORSTOM, 1987. Barratt, Glynn. The Tuamotu Islands and Tahiti. Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press, 1992. Bitter, Maurice. Histoire de Tahiti et ses îles. Paris: J. Grancher, 1992. Bovis, Edmond de. Tahitian Society before the Arrival of the Europeans, translated from the French by Robert D.Craig. Laie, Hawaii: Brigham Young University, 1976. Buchet, Christian. Christian Buchet présente la découverte de Tahiti. Paris: Editions France-Empire, 1993. Dodd, Edward. The Rape of Tahiti: A Typical Nineteenth-Century Colonial Venture Wherein Several European Powers with Their Iron, Pox, Creed, Commerce, and Cannon Violate the Innocence of a Cluster of Lovely Polynesian Islands in the South Pacific Ocean. New York: Dodd, Mead, 1983. Dunmore, John. Visions & Realities: France in the Pacific, 1695–1995. Waikanae, N.Z.: Heritage Press, 1997. Encyclopedie de la Polynésie. 9 vols. Tahiti: C. Glizal/Multipress, 1986–1988. Ferdon, Edwin N. Early Tahiti as the Explorers Saw It, 1767–1797. Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1981. Handy, E.S. Craighill. History and Culture in the Society Islands. Honolulu: Bishop Musuem Press, 1930. Henry, Teuira. Ancient Tahiti, based on material recorded by J.M. Orsmond. Honolulu: Bernice P. Bishop Museum, 1928. ———. Ancient Tahiti. New York: Kraus Reprint, 1985. Howarth, David. Tahiti: A Paradise Lost. London: Harvill Press, 1983. Langdon, Robert. Tahiti, Island of Love. 5th ed. Sydney: Pacific Publications, 1978. Martin, Henry Byam. Tahiti and the Society Islands 1846–7: The Polynesian Journal of Captain Henry Byam Martin R.N., edited by Christine Liava’a. Auckland: C. Liava’a, 2001. Mordier, Jean-Pierre. Tahiti 1767–1842: des premiers Contacts au protectorat. Noumea: Polyedre Culture, CTRDP, 1992. Newbury, Colin. Tahiti Nui: Change and Survival in French Polynesia, 1767–1945, Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 1980.

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Oliver, Douglas L. Ancient Tahitian Society. 3 vols. Honolulu: University Press of Hawai‘i, 1974. O’Reilly, Patrick and Edouard Reitman, comps. Bibliographie de Tahiti et de la Polynésie Française. Paris: Musée de l’Homme, 1967. Pollock Nancy and Ron Crocombe, eds, French Polynesia; A Book of Selected Readings, Suva, Institute of Pacific Studies, 1988. Taillemite, E´tienne. Bougainville in Tahiti. Paris: Société des océanistes, 1972.

Tokelau Huntsman, Judith, and Antony Hooper. Tokelau: A Historical Ethnography. Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 1996. MacGregor, Gordon. Ethnology of Tokelau Islands. Honolulu: Bernice P. Bishop Museum, 1937.

Tonga Bott, Elizabeth. Tongan Society at the Time of Captain Cook’s Visits: Discussions with Her Majesty Queen Sälote Tupou. Wellington: Polynesian Society, 1982. Campbell, Ian Christopher. Island Kingdom: Tonga Ancient and Modern. 2nd. rev. ed. Christchurch, N.Z.: Canterbury University Press, 2001. Cargill, David. The Diaries and Correspondence of David Cargill, 1832–1843, edited, with an introduction and annotations by Albert J. Schütz. Canberra: Australian National University Press, 1977. Ferdon, Edwin N. Early Tonga: As the Explorers Saw It 1616–1810. Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1987. Herda, Phyllis, Jennifer Terrell, and Niel Gunson, eds. Tongan Culture and History: Papers from the 1st Tongan History Conference Held in Canberra, 14–17 January 1987. Canberra: Department of Pacific and Southeast Asian History, Australian National University, 1990. Luckcock, Janet Louisa. Thomas of Tonga, 1797–1881: The Unlikely Pioneer. Peterborough: Methodist Publishing House, 1990. McKern, Will Carleton. Archaeology of Tonga. Honolulu: Bernice P. Bishop Museum, New York: Kraus Reprint, 1971. Mariner, William. An Account of the Natives of the Tonga Islands in the South Pacific Ocean: With an Original Grammar and Vocabulary of Their Language, compiled and arranged from the extensive communications of William Mariner, several years resident in those islands, by John Martin. 2 vols. London: John Murray, 1817. ———. An Account of the Natives of the Tonga Islands in the South Pacific Ocean: With an Original Grammar and Vocabulary of Their Language, compiled and arranged from the extensive communications of Mr. William Mariner, several

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Years resident of those islands, by John Martin. 3rd ed., considerably improved. 2 vols. New York: AMS Press, 1979. ———. Tonga Islands: William Mariner’s Account: An Account of the Natives of the Tonga Islands in the South Pacific Ocean, with an Original Grammar and Vocabulary of Their Language, compiled and arranged from the extensive communications of William Mariner, several years resident in those islands by John Martin. 4th ed., with addition. Neiafu, Vava’u, Tonga: Vava’u Press, 1981. Poulsen, Jens. Early Tongan Prehistory: The Lapita Period on Tongatapu and Its Relationships. 2 vols. Canberra: Department of Prehistory, Research School of Pacific Studies, Australian National University, 1987. Rutherford, Noel, ed. Friendly Islands: A History of Tonga. Melbourne: Oxford University Press, 1977. Wood, Alfred Harold. A History and Geography of Tonga. Nuku’alofa, Tonga: Government Printer, 1932.

Tuvalu Lifuka, Neli. Logs in the Current of the Sea: Neli Lifuka’s Story of Kioa and the Vaitupu Colonists, edited and introduced by Klaus-Friedrich Koch. Canberra: Australian National University Press, 1978. Macdonald, Barrie. Cinderellas of the Empire: Towards a History of Kiribati and Tuvalu. Suva, Fiji: Institute of Pacific Studies, University of the South Pacific, 2001. Munro, Doug. The Lagoon Islands: A History of Tuvalu, 1820–1908. Microfiche. Sydney: W. & F. Pascoe, 1996. Tuvalu: A History, by Simati Faaniu et al. Suva, Fiji: Institute of Pacific Studies and Extension Services, University of the South Pacific, 1983.

Wallis et Futuna Poncet, Alexandre. Histoire de l’île Wallis. Paris: Musée de l’homme, 1972.

Juan Fernandez Island Souhami, Diane. Selkirk’s Island. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 2001. Woodward, Ralph Lee. Robinson Crusoe’s Island: A History of the Juan Fernández Islands. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1969.

SECTION 4: HISTORIES OF EXPLORATION IN THE PACIFIC Section 4 lists, by century, the general and collected works written in Europe covering the European exploration of the Pacific. Often prepared by writers who never

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ventured near the Pacific, many are compilations, commentaries, and interpretations of earlier published material. A. B. C. D. E.

Sixteenth Century Seventeenth Century Eighteenth Century Nineteenth Century Twentieth and Twenty-First Centuries

A. Sixteenth Century Acosta, José de. Historia natvral y moral de las Indias, en que se tratan las cosas notables del cielo, y elementos, metales, plantas, y animales dellas: y los ritos, y ceremonias, leyes, y go?ierno, y guerras de los Indios. Seuilla, Impr. en casa de I. de Leon, 1590. ———. The Natvrall and Morall Historie of the East and West Indies: Intreating of the Remarkeable Things of Heaven, of the Elements, Metalls Plants, and Beasts Which Are Proper to That Country. Together with the Manners, Ceremonies, Lawes, Governements and Warres of the Indians, translated into English by Edward. Grimston London: E. Blount and W. Aspley, 1604. ———. Natural and Moral History of the Indies, edited by Jane E. Mangan; with an introduction and commentary by Walter Mignolo; translated by Frances López Morillas. Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 2002. Galvao, Antonio. The Discoveries of the World, from Their First Original unto the Year of Our Lord 1555; corrected, quoted, and published in England by Richard Hakluyt, (1601); now reprinted, with the original Portuguese text, and edited by Vice-Admiral Bethune. London: Hakluyt Society, 1862. Hakluyt, Richard. The Principall Navigations, Voiages, and Discoveries of the English Nation, Made by Sea or ouer Land, to the Most Remote and Farthest Distant Quarters of the Earth at Any Time within the Compasse of These 1500 Yeeres; Deuided into Three Seuerall Parts, According to the Positions of the Regions Whereunto They Were Directed. Whereunto Is Added the Last Most Renowmed English Navigation, round about the Whole Globe of the Earth. London: Imprinted by G. Bishop and R. Newberie, deputies to C. Barker, printer to the Queenes Most Excellent Maiestie, 1589. ———. The Principal Navigations, Voiages, Traffiqves and Discoueries of the English Nation, Made by Sea or Ouer-Land, to the Remote and Farthest Distant Quarters of the Earth, at Any Time within the Compasse of These 1500 Yeeres, Deuided into Three Seuerall Volumes, According to the Positions of the Regions, Whereunto They Were Directed. This First Volume Containing the Woorthy Discoueries, &c. of the English toward the North and Norteast by Sea Together with Many Notable Monuments and Testimonies of the Ancient Forren Trades, and of the Warrelike and Other Shipping of This Realme of England in Former Ages.

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Whereunto is Annexed Also a Briefe Commentarie of the True State of Island, and of the Northern Seas and Lands Situate that Way. And Lastly, the Memorable Defeate of the Spanish Huge Armada, anno 1588, and the Famous Victorie Atchieued at the Citie of Cadiz, 1596, are Described. 3 vols. London: Imprinted by G. Bishop, R. Newberie and R. Barker, 1598–1600. ———. The Principal Navigations, Voyages, Traffiques & Discoveries of the English Nation, Made by Sea or Over-Land to the Remote and Farthest Distant Quarters of the Earth at Any Time within the Compass of These 1600 Yeeres. 12 vols. Glasgow: J. MacLehose, 1903–1905. ———. The Principall Navigations, Voiages, and Discoveries of the English Nation. Imprinted at London, 1589. 2 vols. Cambridge: Hakluyt Society, 1965. Ramusio, G.B. Delle naviagioni et viaggi in molti Ivoghi corretta, et ampliata, nella qvale si contengono la descrittione dell’Africa, & del paese del Piete Ianni, con varij uiaggi, dalla citta di Lisbona, & del Mar Rosso a Calicut, & insin’all’isole Molucche. 2nd ed. 3 vols. Venetia: Nella Stamperia de Givnti, 1554–1606.

B. Seventeenth Century Foigny, Gabriel de. A New Discovery of Terra Incognita Australis, or the Southern World, by James Sadeur, a French-man, Who Being Cast There by a Shipwrack, Lived 35 Years in that Country, and Gives a Particular Description of the Manners, Customs, Religion, Laws, Studies, and Wars, of Those Southern People; And of Some Animals Peculiar to that Place: With Several Other Rarities: These Memoirs Were Thought So Curious, That They Were Kept Secret in the Closet of a Late Great Minister of State, and Never Published Till Now Since His Death, translated from the French copy, printed at Paris, by publick authority, April 8, 1693. London: Printed for John Dunton, 1693. Hall, John. The Discovery of a New World, translation of Bishop Hall’s Mundus alter et idem. Facsimile edition. London: Da Capo Press, 1969. Narborough, John. An Account of Several Late Voyages and Discoveries to the South and North towards the Streights of Magellan, the South Seas, Also towards Nova Zembla, Greenland or Spitsberg By Sir J. Narborough, Captain J. Tasman, Captain J. Wood, and F. Marten of Hamburgh. To Which Are Annexed a Large Introduction and Supplement, Giving an Account of Other Navigations to Those Regions, etc. 2 vols. London, 1694. Purchas, Samuel. Hakluytus Posthumus: or Purchas His Pilgrimes: Contayning a History of the World in Sea Voyages and Lande Travells by Englishmen and Others. 20 vols. New York: AMS Press, 1965. ———. Pvrchas His Pilgrimes. 4 vols. London: Printed by William Stansby for Henrie Fetherstone, 1625. Thévenot, Melchisédech. Relations de divers voyages curieux, qui n’ont point esté publiées, et qu’on a traduit ou tiré des originaux des voyageurs françois, espag-

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nols, allemands, portugais, anglois, hollandois, persans, arabes & autres orientaux, données au public par les soins de feu Melchisedec Thevenot; le tout enrichi de figures, de plantes non décrites, d’animaux inconnus à l’Europe, & de cartes geographiques, qui n’ont point encore été publiées. Nouvelle edition, augmentée de plusieurs relations curieuses. 4 pts. in 2 vols.Paris: Chez Thomas Moette, 1696.

C. Eighteenth Century Anderson, George William. A New, Authentic, and Complete Collection of Voyages round the World, Undertaken and Performed by Royal Authority of Capt. Cook’s First, Second, Third and Last Voyages for Making Discoveries in the Southern and Northern Hemispheres, &c. &c. &c. and Successively Performed in the Years 1768 . . . 1780: The First Voyage Together with Capt. Furneaux’s Narrative of His Proceedings in the Adventure During the Separation of the Ships in the Second Voyage: To Which Will be Added Genuine Narratives of Other Voyages viz Lord Byron, Capt. Wallis, the Whole of These Voyages of Capt. Cook &c. Now Publishing under the Direction of George William Anderson Assisted by a Principal Officer Who Sailed in the Resolution Sloop and by Many Other Gentlemen of the Most Distinguished Naval Abilities. London: Alex. Hogg, 1784. Brosses, Charles de. Histoire des navigations aux terres australes: Contenant ce que l’on sçait des moeurs & des productions des contrées découvertes jusqu’à ce jour; & où il est traité de l’utilité d’y faire de plus amples découvertes, & des moyens d’y former un établissement: 2 vols. Paris: Chez Durand, 1756. Callander, John. Terra australis cognita, or, Voyages to the Terra australis. 3 vols. Amsterdam: N. Israel, 1967. Churchill, Awnsham. A Collection of Voyages and Travels, Some Now First Printed from Original Manuscripts, Others Now First Published in English in Six Volumes: With a General Preface, Giving an Account of the Progress of Navigation, from Its First Beginning. 6 vols. London: Printed by assignment from Messrs. Churchill for John Walthoe, 1732. A Collection of Voyages: in Four Volumes, Illustrated with Maps and Draughts: Also Several Birds, Fishes, and Plants, Not Found in This Part of the World: Curiously Engraven on Copper-Plates. 4 vols. London: Printed for James and John Knapton, 1729. Dalrymple, Alexander. An Account of the Discoveries Made in the South Pacifick Ocean, Previous to 1764. Part I Containing I. A Geographical Description of Places. II. An Examination of the Conduct of the Discoverers in the Tracks They Pursued. III. Investigations of What May Be Further Expected. London: [s.n.], 1767. ———. A Historical Collection of the Several Voyages and Discoveries in the South Pacific Ocean. 2 vols. Amsterdam: N. Israel, 1967. Fleurieu, Charles Pierre Claret. Discoveries of the French in 1768 and 1769, to the South-East of New Guinea. London: Printed for John Stockdale, 1791.

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Fréville, Anne François Joachim. Histoire des nouvelles découvertes faites dans la Mer du Sud en 1767, 1768, 1769 & 1770. 2 vols. Paris: Chez de Hansy le jeune, 1774. Hacke, William. A Collection of Original Voyages, with an introduction by Glyndwr Williams. Facsimile edition. Delmar, New York: Published for the John Carter Brown Library by Scholars’ Facsimiles & Reprints, 1993. Harris, John. Navigantium atque Itinerantium bibliotheca; Or, A Complete Collection of Voyages and Travels: Consisting of Above Six Hundred of the Most Authentic Writers Containing Whatever Has Been Observed Worthy of Motice in Europe, Asia, Africa, and America the Climate, Soil and Produce of Each Country: Likewise the Religion, Manners, and Customs to Which Is Prefixed a Copious Introduction Comprehending the Rise and Progress of the Art of Navigation Together with the Invention and Use of the Loadstone. 2 vols. London: Printed for T. Woodward, 1744–48. ———. Navigantium atque Itinerantium Bibliotheca: or, a Compleat Collection of Voyages and Travels, Consisting of Above Four Hundred of the Most Authentick Writers. Revised, with Large Additions, and Continued Down to the Present Time, etc. by John Campbell. 2 vols. London: T. Osborne, 1764. Hawkesworth, John. An Account of the Voyages Undertaken by the Order of His Present Majesty, for Making Discoveries in the Southern Hemisphere, and Successively Performed by Commodore Byron, Captain Wallis, Captain Carteret, and Captain Cook, in the Dolphin, the Swallow, and the Endeavour: Drawn up from the Journals Which Were Kept by the Several Commanders and from the Papers of Joseph Banks, Esq. London: Printed for W. Strahan and T. Cadell, 1773. Laborde, Jean Benjamin de. Histoire abregee de la Mer du Sud. 3 vols. Paris: Chez P. Didot L’Aine, 1791. Marvor, William. Historical Account of Voyages, Travels and Discoveries from the Time of Columbus to the Present. 20 vols. London: n.p., 1796–1801. Prevost d”Exiles, abbé. Histoire generale des voyages: ou, Nouvelle collection de toutes les relations de voyages par mer et par terre, qui ont ete publiees jusqu’a present dans les differentes langues de toutes les nations connues pour former un systeme Complet d’histoire et de geographie moderne, qui represente l’etat actuel de toutes les nations, enrichi de cartes geographiques et de figures. 80 vols. Paris: Didot, 1746–1789. Trusler, John. A Descriptive Account of the Islands Lately Discovered in the SouthSeas Giving a Full Detail of the Present State of the Inhabitants, Their Government, Religion. London: printed for the author, 1778.

D. Nineteenth Century Burney, James. A Chronological History of the Discoveries in the South Sea or Pacific Ocean, Illustrated with charts. 5 vols. G. & W. Nicol: London, 1803–17.

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———. A Chronological History of Voyages and Discoveries in the South Seas. 5 vols. Amsterdam: N. Israel, 1967. Jenkins, John Stilwell. Recent Exploring Expeditions to the Pacific and the South Seas, under the American, English, and French Governments. London: T. Nelson and sons, 1853. Kerr, Robert. A General History and Collection of Voyages and Travels, Arranged in Systematic Order: Forming a Complete History of the Origin and Progress of Navigation, Discovery, and Commerce, by Sea and Land, from the Earliest Ages to the Present Time. 18 vols. Edinburgh: W. Blackwood, 1811–17. Montemont, Albert. Bibliotheque universelle des voyages effectués par mer ou par terre dans les diverses parties du monde, depuis les premières découvertes jusqu’à nos jours: contenant la description des moeurs, coutumes, gouvernement, cultes, sciences et arts, industrie et commerce, productions naturelles et autres. 46 vols. Paris: Armand-Aubrée, 1833–37. ———. Voyages autour du monde et en Océanie par Bougainville, Cook, La Pérouse, Marion, Baudin, Freycinet, Duperrey, Dumont-D’Urville, revus et traduits par M. Albert-Montemont. Paris: Bry Aine, 1853. Navarrete, Martin Fernandez de. Coleccion de los viajes y descubrimientos que hicieron por mar los españoles desde fines del siglo XV, con varios documentos ineditos concernientes a la historia de la marina castellana y de los establecimientos espanoles en Indias. 5 vols. Madrid: En la Imprenta Nacional, 1837–1880. ———. Coleccion de documentos y manuscriptos compilados. 32 vols. in 39. Nendeln, Liechtenstein: Kraus-Thomson, 1971. ———. Viajes y descubrimientos españoles en el Pacifico Magellanes, Elcano, Loaysa, Saavedra. Madrid: Tip. Renovacion, 1919. Prior, Samuel. All the Voyages round the World, from the First by Magellan in 1520, to That of Krusenstern in 1807. London: Printed by W. Lewis for Sir Richard Phillips, 1820.

E. Twentieth and Twenty-First Centuries Allen, Oliver E. The Pacific Navigators. Alexandria. Amsterdam: Time-Life Books, 1980. Bach, John. The Australia Station: A History of the Royal Navy in the South West Pacific, 1821–1913. Kensington, N.S.W.: New South Wales University Press, 1986. Badger, Geoffrey. The Explorers of the Pacific. 2nd ed. Kenthurst, N.S.W.: Kangaroo Press, 1996. Beaglehole, J.C. The Exploration of the Pacific. London: Black, 1934. Bellec, François. Unknown Lands: The Log Books of the Great Explorers. South Yarra, Victoria: Hardie Grant Books, 2002.

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Blank, Paul W., and Fred Spier, eds. Defining the Pacific: Opportunities and Constraints. Aldershot, U.K.: Ashgate, 2002. Borofsky, Robert, ed. Remembrance of Pacific Pasts: An Invitation to Remake History. Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 2000. Boxer, Charles Ralph. The Dutch Seaborne Empire, 1600–1800. London: Hutchinson, 1965. ———. The Portuguese Seaborne Empire, 1415–1825. London: Hutchinson, 1969. Brosse, Jacques. Great Voyages of Exploration: The Golden Age of Discovery in the Pacific. Buderim, Queensland: David Bateman, 1983. Cameron, Ian. Lost Paradise: The Exploration of the Pacific. London: Century, 1987. Daws, Gavan. A Dream of Islands: Voyages of Self-Discovery in the South Seas: John Williams, Herman Melville, Walter Murray Gibson, Robert Louis Stevenson, Paul Gauguin. Brisbane: Jacaranda, 1980. Dodge, Ernest Stanley. Beyond the Capes; Pacific Exploration from Captain Cook to the Challenger, 1776–1877. Boston: Little, Brown, 1971. ———. Islands and Empires: Western Impact on the Pacific and East Asia. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1976. Dousset, Roselène, and E´tienne Taillemite. The Great Book of the Pacific; translated by Andrew Mouravieff-Apostol. Dee Why West, Australia: Books for Pleasure, 1978. Eisler, William. The Furthest Shore: Images of Terra Australis from the Middle Ages to Captain Cook. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995. Eisler, William, and Bernard Smith, eds. Terra Australis: The Furthest Shore. Sydney: International Cultural Corporation of Australia, 1988. Faivre, Jean-Paul. L’Expansion française dans le Pacifique de 1800 à 1842. Paris: Nouvelles Éditions latines, 1953. Flynn, Dennis O., Arturo Giráldez, and James Sobredo, eds. European Entry into the Pacific: Spain and the Acapulco-Manila Galleons, Aldershot, U.K.: Ashgate, 2001. ———. Studies in Pacific History: Economics, Politics and Migration. Aldershot, U.K.: Ashgate, 2002. Foucrier, Annick, ed. The French and the Pacific World, 17th–19th Centuries: Discoveries, Migrations and Cultural Exchanges. Aldershot, U.K.: Ashgate, 2003. Friis, Herman R., ed. The Pacific Basin; A History of Its Geographical Exploration. New York: American Geographical Society, 1967. Grattan, Clinton Hartley. The Southwest Pacific to 1900: A Modern History Australia, New Zealand, the Islands, Antarctica. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1963. Guadalupi, Gianni, and Anthony Shugaar. Latitude Zero: Tales of the Equator. New York: Carroll & Graf, 2001. Giuart, Jean. Découverte de L’Océanie. Tome 1, Connaissance des îles. Noumea: Rocher-à-la-Voile et Editions Haere Po no Tahiti, 2000.

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Hardy, John, and Alan Frost, eds. European Voyaging towards Australia. Canberra: Australian Academy of the Humanities, 1990. Howse, Derek, ed. Background to Discovery: Pacific Exploration from Dampier to Cook. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990. Jobé, Joseph, ed. The Great Age of Sail, translated by Michael Kelly. Lausanne: Edita, 1967. Jore, Léonce. L’Océan Pacifique au temps de la Restauration et de la Monarchie de juillet (1815–1848). 2 vols. Paris: Besson et Chantemerle, 1959. Jost, Christine, ed. The French-Speaking Pacific: Population, Environment and Development Issues. Mt. Nebo, Queensland: Boombana Publications, 1998. Julien, Charles-André. Histoire de l’Océanie. 4e éd. rev. et mise à jour par Jean Guiart. Paris: Presses universitaires de France, 1971. Lewis, David. From Maui to Cook: The Discovery and Settlement of the Pacific. Lane Cove, N.S.W.: Doubleday Australia, 1977. Moorehead, Alan. The Fatal Impact: An Account of the Invasion of the South Pacific, 1767–1840. London: Hamish Hamilton, 1966. Morrell, William Parker. Britain in the Pacific Islands. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1960. ———. Pacific Voyages. Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1973. Parry, John Horace. The Spanish Seaborne Empire. London: Hutchinson, 1966. Rainaud, Armand. Le Continent austral: hypothèses et découvertes. Amsterdam: Meridian, 1965. Samson, Jane, ed. British Imperial Strategies in the Pacific, 1750–1900. Aldershot, U.K.: Ashgate, 2003. Scarr, Deryck. A History of the Pacific Islands: Passages through Tropical Time. Richmond, U.K.: Curzon, 2001. Sharp, Andrew. The Discovery of the Pacific Islands. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1960. Sherry, Frank. Pacific Passions: The European Struggle for Power in the Great Ocean in the Age of Exploration. New York: W. Morrow, 1994. Spate, Oscar Hermann Khristian. The Pacific Since Magellan. Canberra: Australian National University Press, 1979–1987. (Volume I: The Spanish Lake. 1979; Volume II: Monopolists and Freebooters. 1983; Volume III: Paradise Found and Lost. 1987). Stewart Stokes, Hamish I. Del mar del Norte al mar del Sur: navegantes británicos y holandeses en el Pacífico Suroriental, 1570–1807. Valparaíso: Centro de Estudios de la Cuenca del Pacífico, Universidad de Playa Ancha, 2000. Thompson, Virginia, and Richard Adloff. The French Pacific Islands: French Polynesia and New Caledonia, Berkeley: University of California Press, 1971. Van Loon, Hendrik Willem. The Story of the Pacific. New York: Harcourt, Brace, 1940. Wallis, Helen M. The Exploration of the South Sea, 1519 to 1644; A Study of the Influence of Physical Factors, with a Reconstruction of the Routes of the Explorers. Microform.

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Ward, John Manning. British Policy in the South Pacific (1786–1893): A Study in British Policy towards the South Pacific Islands Prior to the Establishment of Governments by the Great Powers. Sydney: Australasian Publishing, 1948. Williams, Glyndwr. The Great South Sea: English Voyages and Encounters, 1570– 1750. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1997.

SECTION 5: WORKS ON OTHER ASPECTS OF EXPLORATION This section includes works about the art, botany, map-making, science, fiction, and poetry associated with European voyaging in Oceania. A. Art B. Cartography C. Literary 1. General 2. Specific Authors 3. Imaginary Voyages D. Myths E. Science 1. General 2. Botany 3. Noble Savage F. South Sea Company

A. Art Bell, Leonard. Colonial Constructs: European Images of Maori, 1840–1914. Auckland: Auckland University Press, 1992. ———. The Maori in European Art: A Survey of the Representation of the Maori by European Artists from the Time of Captain Cook to the Present Day. Wellington: Reed, 1980. Carr, D.J., ed. Sydney Parkinson: Artist of Cook’s Endeavour Voyage. London: British Museum (Natural History) in association with Croom Helm, 1983. Earle, Augustus. A Narrative of a Nine Months’ Residence in New Zealand in 1827: Together with a Journal of a Residence in Tristan D’Acunha, an Island Situated between South America and the Cape of Good Hope. London: Longman, 1832. ———. Narrative of a Residence in New Zealand. Journal of a Residence in Tristan da Cunha, edited by E.H. McCormick. London: Clarendon Press, 1966. ———. A Narrative of a Nine Month’s Residence in New Zealand in 1827. Christchurch: Kiwi Publishers, 1999.

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Eisler, William, The Furthest Shore; Images of Terra Australis from the Middle Ages to Captain Cook, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995. Eisler William, and Bernard Smith, eds., Terra Australis; the Furthest Shore. Sydney: Art Gallery of New South Wales, 1988. Forbes, David W. Encounters with Paradise: Views of Hawaii and Its People, 1778–1941. Honolulu: Honolulu Academy of Arts, 1992. Hemming, Christine A. The Art of the French Voyages to New Zealand 1769–1846. Auckland: Heritage Press, 2000. Joppien, Rüdiger, and Bernard Smith. The Art of Captain Cook’s Voyages. 3 vols. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1985–87. Les Sauvages de la mer Pacifique: Manufactured by Joseph Dufour et Cie 1804–05 after a design by Jean-Gabriel Charvet. Sydney: Art Gallery of New South Wales, 2000. Minson, Marian. Encounter with Eden: New Zealand 1770–1870: Paintings & Drawings from the Rex Nan Kivell Collection, National Library of Australia. Wellington: National Library of New Zealand, 1990. Murray-Oliver, Anthony. Augustus Earle in New Zealand. Christchurch: Whitcombe & Tombs, 1968. Murray-Oliver, Anthony, comp. Captain Cook’s Artists in the Pacific 1769–1779. Christchurch: Avon Fine Prints, 1969. Rainaud, Armand, Le continent Austral; hypothèses et découertes, Paris: 1893. Smith, Bernard. European Vision and the South Pacific. 2nd ed. Publisher: Sydney: Harper & Row, 1985. ———. Imagining the Pacific in the Wake of the Cook Voyages. Carlton, Victoria: Melbourne University Press at the Miegunyah Press, 1992. Stafford, Barbara Maria. Voyage into Substance: Art, Science, Nature, and the Illustrated Travel Account, 1760–1840. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1984. Thomas, Nicholas. Entangled Objects: Exchange, Material Culture, and Colonialism in the Pacific. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1991. ———. In Oceania: Visions, Artifacts, Histories. Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1997. Thomas, Nicholas, and Diane Losche, eds. Double Vision: Art Histories and Colonial Histories in the Pacific. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999.

B. Cartography Baker, John Norman Leonard. A History of Geographical Discovery and Exploration. Rev. ed. London: Harrap, 1937. Butler, Thomas. Observations by Capt. Thomas Butler of the Walpole East-Indiaman Relative to His Passage from the Cape of Good-Hope to China round New Holland in 1794, to Accompany the New Chart of the Western Part of the Pacific Ocean. London: Laurie and Whittle, 1795.

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Clancy, Robert. The Mapping of Terra Australis. Macquarie Park, N.S.W.: Universal Press, 1995. Collingridge, George. The Discovery of Australia: A Critical, Documentary, and Historic Investigation Concerning the Priority of Discovery in Australasia by Europeans before the Arrival of Lieut. James Cook, in the “Endeavour,” in the Year 1770. 1895. Facsimile edition, Gladesville, N.S.W.: Golden Press, 1983. The Complete East-India Pilot; or, Oriental Navigator. New ed. 2 vols. London: Robert Laurie and James Whittle, 1804. Day, Archibald. The Admiralty Hydrographic Service, 1795–1919. London: H.M.S.O., 1967. Findlay, Alexander George. A Directory for the Navigation of the South Pacific Ocean: With Descriptions of Its Coasts, Islands etc., from the Strait of Magalhaens to Panama, and Those of New Zealand, Australia, etc., Its Winds, Currents and Passages. 5th ed. with addenda. London: Richard Holmes Laurie, 1884. Great Britain. Hydrographic Department. Pacific Islands Pilot. 28 vols. London, Sold by J.D. Potter, 1885–1982. Great Britain. Hydrographic Department. Pacific Islands Pilot. 9th ed. 3 vols. Taunton, U.K.: Hydrographer of the Navy, 1970. Hearn, Chester G. Tracks in the Sea: Matthew Fontaine Maury and the Mapping of the Oceans. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2002. Heawood, Edward. A History of Geographical Discovery in the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1912. Hooker, Brian. Dictionary of New Zealand Map-Makers: & An Appendix, Early Cartography in New Zealand—A Guide. Orewa, N.Z.: DelZur Research, 2002. ———. Early New Zealand Printed Maps. Orewa, N.Z.: DelZur Research, 2000. Horsburgh, James. Directions for Sailing to and from the East Indies, China, New Holland, Cape of Good Hope, and the Interjacent Ports, Compiled Chiefly from Original Journals at the East India House and from Journals and Observations. 2 vols. London: Printed for the author, 1809–1811. Maling, Peter. Historic Charts & Maps of New Zealand, 1642–1875. Auckland: Reed, 1999. Marshall, Peter James, and Glyndwr Williams. The Great Map of Mankind: British Perceptions of the World in the Age of Enlightenment. London: Dent, 1982. Meinicke, Carl E. Die Inseln des stillen Oceans: eine geographische Monographie. 2 vols. Amsterdam: Meridian, 1969. Motteler, Lee S. Pacific Island Names: A Map and Name Guide to the New Pacific. Honolulu: Bishop Museum Press, 1986. Nebenzahl, Kenneth. Maps from the Age of Discovery: Columbus to Mercator. London: Times Books, 1990. Purdy, John. The Oriental Navigator: or, Directions for Sailing to, from, and upon the Coasts of, the East-Indies, China, Australia, or New Holland, New SouthWales, &c. 3rd ed., with considerable additions, revised and corrected by John Stevens. London: R.H. Laurie, 1826.

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———. Tables of the Positions, or of the Latitudes and Longitudes, of Places, Composed to Accompany the ‘Oriental Navigator,’ or Sailing Directions for the EastIndies, China, Australia. London: Whittle and Laurie, 1816. Shirley, Rodney W. The Mapping of the World: Early Printed World Maps, 1472– 1700. London: Holland Press, 1983. Skelton, Raleigh Ashlin. Explorers’ Maps: Chapters in the Cartographic Record of Geographical Discovery. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1958. Suavez, Thomas. Early Mapping of the Pacific: The Epic Story of Seafarers, Adventurers, and Cartographers who Mapped the Earth’s Ocean. Singapore: Périplus Editions, 2004. Tooley, Ronald Vere. The Mapping of Australia. London: Holland Press, 1979. Whitfield, Peter. The Charting of the Oceans: Ten Centuries of Maritime Maps. London: British Library, 1996. ———. New Found Lands: Maps in the History of Exploration. London: British Library, 1998. Woodward, David, and G. Malcolm Lewis, ed. The History of Cartography, Volume Two, Book Three: Cartography in the Traditional African, American, Arctic, Australian, and Pacific Societies. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1998 (see Traditional Cartography in the Pacific Basin, pp. 417–536). Wroth, Lawrence Counselman. The Early Cartography of the Pacific. New York: Kraus, 1963.

C. Literary 1. General Atkinson, Geoffrey. The Extraordinary Voyage in French Literature. 2 vols. New York: B. Franklin, 1964. Edmond, Rod. Representing the South Pacific: Colonial Discourse from Cook to Gauguin. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997. Edmond, Rod, and Vanessa Smith, eds. Island, Histories and Representations. London: Routledge, 2003. Edwards, Philip. The Story of the Voyage: Sea-Narratives in Eighteenth-Century England. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994. Fausett, David. Writing the New World: Imaginary Voyages and Utopias of the Great Southern Land. Syracuse, N.Y.: Syracuse University Press, 1993. Lamb, Jonathan. Preserving the Self in the South Seas, 1680–1840. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2001. Lamb, Jonathan, Robert Maccubbin, and David Morrill, eds. The South Pacific in the Eighteenth Century. Williamsburg, Va.: Department of English, College of William & Mary, 1994. Margueron, Daniel. Tahiti dans toute sa littérature: essai sur Tahiti et ses îles dans la littérature française de la découverte à nos jours. Paris: L’Harmattan, 1989.

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Nisbet, Anne-Marie. Littérature néo-calédonienne. Sherbrooke, Québec: Éditions Naaman, 1985. Pearson, Bill. Rifled sanctuaries: Some Views of the Pacific Islands in Western Literature to 1900. Auckland: Auckland University Press, 1984. Rennie, Neil. Far-Fetched Facts: The Literature of Travel and the Idea of the South Seas. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1995. Smith, Vanessa. Literary Culture and the Pacific: Nineteenth-Century Textual Encounters. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998. Speake, Jennifer, ed. Literature of Travel and Exploration: An Encyclopedia, 3 vols. Chicago: Fitzroy Dearborn, 2002.

2. Specific Authors Ballantyne, Robert Michael. The Coral Island. London: Ward, Lock, 1901. Dumas, Alexandre. Captain Marion, translated by F.W. Reed. Christchurch: Cadsonbury, 1998.

Samuel Taylor Coleridge Coleridge, Samuel Taylor. The Annotated Ancient Mariner. The Rime of the Ancient Mariner, with an introduction and notes by Martin Gardner. Illustrated by Gustave Doré. New York: C. N. Potter, 1965. ———. The Rime of the Ancient Mariner and Other Poems. New York: Dover Publications, 1992.

Daniel Defoe Defoe, Daniel. The Life and Strange Surprizing Adventures of Robinson Crusoe, of York, Mariner. London: Printed for W. Taylor, 1719. ———. A New Voyage round the World, by a Course Never Sailed Before. London: Printed for A. Bettesworth & W. Mears, 1724. Spaas, Lieve, and Brian Stimpson, eds. Robinson Crusoe: Myths and Metamorphoses. Basingstoke, U.K.: Macmillan Press, 1996.

Herman Melville: By Melville, Herman. Mardi: And a Voyage Thither. 2 vols. New York: Harpers, 1849. ———. Moby-Dick; or, The Whale. New York: Harpers, 1851. (UK. as The Whale. 3 vols. London: Richard Bentley, 1851). ———. Omoo: A Narrative of Adventures in the South Seas. New York: Harpers, 1847.

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———. Typee: A Peep at Polynesian Life. 2 vols. New York: Wiley & Putnam, 1846. (U.K. as Narrative of a Four Months’ Residence among the Natives of a Valley of the Marquesas Islands, 2 vols. London: John Murray, 1846).

Herman Melville: About Anderson, Charles Robert. Melville in the South Seas. New York: Columbia University Press, 1939. Herbert, Thomas Walter. Marquesan Encounters: Melville and the Meaning of Civilization. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1980.

Jonathan Swift Swift, Jonathan. The Annotated Gulliver’s Travels: Gulliver’s Travels, edited with a biographical introduction and notes by Isaac Asimov. New York: C. N. Potter, 1980. ———. Travels into Several Remote Nations of the World. In Four Parts. By Lemuel Gulliver, First a Surgeon, and Then a Captain of Several Ships. 2 vols. London: Printed for Benj. Motte, 1726.

Robert Louis Stevenson: By Stevenson, Robert Louis. The Ebb-Tide; A Trio and a Quartette. London: Heinemann, 1894. ———. A Footnote to History: Eight Years of Trouble in Samoa. London: Cassell, 1892. ———. In the South Seas. London: Chatto & Windus, 1896. ———. Island Nights’ Entertainments: Consisting of The Beach of Falesá, The Bottle Imp, The Isle of Voices. London: Cassell, 1893. ———. The Wrecker. London: Cassell, 1892.

Robert Louis Stevenson: About Hillier, Robert Irwin. The South Seas Fiction of Robert Louis Stevenson. New York: Peter Lang, 1989. Knight, Alanna, ed. R.L.S. in the South Seas: An Intimate Photographic Record. Edinburgh: Mainstream Publishing, 1986.

Mark Twain: By Twain, Mark. Following the Equator. Hartford, Conn.: American Publishing, 1897. (U.K. as More tramps abroad. London: Chatto & Windus, 1897).

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———. The Innocents Abroad, or The New Pilgrims’ Progress. Hartford, Conn.: American Publishing Company, 1867. ———. Mark Twain in the Sandwich Islands, foreword by A. Grove Day. Honolulu: Mutual, 1990. ———. Mark Twain’s Letters from Hawaii, edited with an introduction by A. Grove Day. London: Chatto & Windus, 1967. ———. Roughing It; and, The Innocents at Home. London: Chatto & Windus, 1928.

Mark Twain: About Frear, Walter Francis. Mark Twain and Hawaii. Chicago: Lakeside Press, 1947. Shillingsburg, Miriam Jones. At Home Abroad: Mark Twain in Australasia. Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 1988.

Jules Verne Verne, Jules. The Explorations of the World; Famous Travels and Travellers. New York: Scribners, 1879. ———. The Exploration of the World. New York: Scribners, 1879. ———. The Great Navigators of the Eighteenth Century. New York: Scribners, 1879. ———. The Great Navigators of the Eighteenth Century. London: Duckworth, 2001. ———. Twenty Thousand Leagues under the Sea. Boston: George M. Smith, 1873.

Johann David Wyss Wyss, Johann David. Der Schweizerische Robinson. (edited by Johann Rudolf Wyss), 1812–27. ———. The Swiss Family Robinson. London: 1820.

3. Imaginary Voyages Bowman, Hildebrand: The Travels of Hildebrand Bowman, Esquire, into Carnovirria, Taupiniera, Olfactaria, and Auditante, in New-Zealand; In the Island of Bonhommica, and in the Powerful Kingdom of Luxo-Volupto, on the Great Southern Continent/Written by Himself; Who Went on Shore in the Adventure’s Large Cutter, at Queen Charlotte’s Sound New-Zealand, the Fatal 17th of December 1773; And Escaped Being Cut Off, and Devoured, with the Rest of the Boat’s Crew, by Happening to be a-Shooting in the Woods; Where He Was afterwards Unfortunately Left Behind by the Adventure. London: Printed for W. Strahan; and T. Cadell, 1778.

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D. Myths Brown, John Macmillan. The Riddle of the Pacific. Kempton, Ill.: Adventures Unlimited Press, 1996. Cervé, Wishar Spenle. Lemuria: The Lost Continent of the Pacific. San Jose, Calif.: Grand Lodge of the English Language Jurisdiction, AMORC, 1997. Childress, David Hatcher. Ancient Micronesia & the Lost City of Nan Madol, Including Palau, Yap, Kosrae, Chuuk & the Marianas. Kempton, Ill.: Adventures Unlimited Press, 1998. ———. Ancient Tonga and the Lost City of Mu’a: Including Samoa, Fiji, & Rarotonga. Selle, Ill.: Adventures Unlimited Press, 1996. ———. Lost Cities of Ancient Lemuria & the Pacific. Stelle, Ill.: Adventures Unlimited Press, 1988. Churchward, James. The Lost Continent of Mu: The Motherland of Man. Albuquerque, N.M.: BE Books, 1995. Wilcox, Elizabeth G. MU—Fact Or Fiction. New York: Pageant Press, 1963. Williams, Mark R. In Search of Lemuria: The Lost Pacific Continent in Legend, Myth and Imagination. San Mateo, Calif.: Golden Era Books, 2001.

E. Science 1. General Benson, Keith R., and Philip F. Rehbock, ed. Oceanographic History: The Pacific and Beyond. Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2002. Couper-Johnston, Ross. El Niño: The Weather Phenomenon That Changed the World. London: Hodder & Stoughton, 2000. Crawford, Peter. Nomads of the Wind: A Natural History of Polynesia. London: BBC Books, 1993. Cuppage, Francis. James Cook and the Conquest of Scurvy. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1994. Darwin, Charles. Diary of the Voyage of H.M.S. “Beagle,” edited from the MS by Nora Barlow. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1933. Dodson, John, ed. The Naive Lands: Prehistory and Environmental Change in Australia and the South-West Pacific. Melbourne: Longman Cheshire, 1992. Duyker, Edward. Citizen Labillardière: A Naturalist’s Life in Revolution and Exploration (1755–1834). Carlton South, Victoria: Miegunyah Press, 2003. Forster, Johann Reinhold. The Language of the Noble Savage, compiled by Karl H. Rensch. Canberra: Archipelago Press, 2000. Grenfell Price, Archibald. The Western Invasions of the Pacific and Its Continents: A Study of Moving Frontiers and Changing Landscapes, 1513–1958. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1963.

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Keynes, Richard Darwin, ed. The Beagle Record: Selections from the Original Pictorial Records and Written Accounts of the Voyage of H.M.S. Beagle. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1979. Lincoln, Margarette, ed. Science and Exploration in the Pacific: European Voyages to the Southern Oceans in the Eighteenth Century. Woodbridge, Suffolk: Boydell Press, 1998. Mackay, David. In the Wake of Cook: Exploration, Science & Empire, 1780–1801. London: Croom Helm, 1985. MacKenzie, John M., ed. Imperialism and the Natural World. Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1990. MacLeod, Roy, and Philip F. Rehbock, ed. Nature in Its Greatest Extent: Western Science in the Pacific. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1988. Moorehead, Alan. Darwin and the Beagle. London: Hamilton, 1969. Morris, Roger. Pacific Sail: Four Centuries of Western Ships in the Pacific. Southampton, U.K.: Ashford Press, 1987. Moseley, Henry Nottidge. Notes by a Naturalist. An Account of Observations Made during the Voyage of H.M.S. “Challenger” round the World in the Years 1872–1876 under the Command of Capt. Sir. G.S. Nares and Capt. F.T. Thomson. London: T.W. Laurie, 1944. Philander, George. El Niño, La Niña, and the Southern Oscillation. San Diego: Academic Press, 1990. Rice, Tony. Voyages of Discovery; Three Centuries of Natural History Exploration. London: Natural History Museum, 2000. Ward, Peter Douglas. In Search of Nautilus: Three Centuries of Scientific Adventures in the Deep Pacific to Capture a Prehistoric, Living Fossil. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1988. Woolf, Harry. The Transits of Venus; A Study of Eighteenth-Century Science. Princeton N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1959.

2. Botany Adams, Brian. The Flowering of the Pacific: Being an Account of Joseph Banks’ Travels in the South Seas and the Story of His Florilegium. Sydney: Collins, 1986. Bentham, George. The Botany of the Voyage of H.M.S. Sulphur, under the Command of Captain Sir Edward Belcher during the Years 1836–42, edited and superintended by Richard Brinsley Hinds. London, New York and Codicote, Herts., U.K.: Wheldon & Wesley and Stechert-Hafner, 1844, rev. 1968. Carter, Harold Burnell. Sir Joseph Banks, 1743–1820. London: British Museum of Natural History, 1988. Hooker, William Jackson. The Botany of Captain Beechey’s Voyage Comprising an Account of the Plants Collected by Messrs. Lay and Collie, and Other Officers of the Expedition, during the Voyage to the Pacific and Bering’s Strait, Performed

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in His Majesty’s Ship Blossom, under the Command of Captain F.W. Beechey, R.N., F.R.S., & A.S., in the Years 1825, 26, 27, and 28. London: H.G. Bohn, 1839. Miller, David Philip, and Peter Hanns Reill, ed. Visions of Empire: Voyages, Botany, and Representations of Nature. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996. Williams, Roger L. French Botany in the Enlightenment: The Ill-Fated Voyages of La Pérouse and His Rescuers. Boston, Mass.: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 2003.

3. Noble Savage Carino, Socorro Barbaran. Eighteenth Century Voyagers to the Pacific and the South Seas and the Rise of Cultural Primitivism and the Noble Savage Idea. [microform]. Ann Arbor, Mich.: University Microfilms, 19—. Diderot, Denis. Supplément au Voyage de Bougainville, avec une postface de Laurent. Jézéquel. Paris: Editions Mille et une nuits, 1996. Ellingson, Ter. The Myth of the Noble Savage. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2001. Fairchild, Hoxie Neale. The Noble Savage; A Study in Romantic Naturalism. New York: Russell & Russell, 1961. Rousseau, Jean-Jacques. Discours sur l’origine et les fondements de l’inégalité parmi les hommes. Amsterdam: Chez Marc Michel Rey, 1755. ———. Discours sur l’origine et les fondements de l’inégalité parmi les hommes, introduction, commentaires et notes explicatives par J.-L. Lecercle. Paris: Editions sociales, 1971. ———. Discourse on the Origin of Inequality, translated by Franklin Philip; edited with an introduction by Patrick Coleman. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1994.

F. South Sea Company Carswell, John. The South Sea Bubble. Rev. ed. Dover, N.H.: Alan Sutton, 1993. Moll, Hermann. A View of the Coasts, Countries and Islands within the Limits of the South-Sea-Company Containing an Account of the Discoveries, Settlements, Progress, and Present State: From the River Aranoca to Terra del Fuego: To Which is Added an Account of Former Projects in England for a Settlement and the Accomplishment of the Last in the Establishing the New Company, with a List of the Commissioners Names Appointed by Her Majesty to Take the Subscriptions: As also Some Useful Observations on the Several Voyages that Have Been Hitherto Publish’d: The Whole Collected from the Best Authors; Illustrated with a General Map and Particular Draughts of the Most Important Places by Herman Moll. London: Printed for J. Morphew, 1711. Sperling, John G. The South Sea Company: An Historical Essay and Bibliographical Finding List. Boston: Baker Library, Harvard Graduate School of Business Administration, 1962.

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SECTION 6: MAPS AND CHARTS OF THE PACIFIC The maps in the following list indicate, in chronological order, the gradual delineation of the outline of the Pacific Ocean and its many islands and atolls. Ferdinand Magellen set out in 1519 with 24 charts, but none were of the “South Sea.” By 1859, the date chosen in this book to end the era of discovery and exploration, many thousands of maps existed. Those listed here represent the more important or interesting in terms of published charts and general maps of the islands, coastlines, routes, and passages east and west into Oceania. Many of the maps depict, approximately, the tracks taken by European ships while traversing the Ocean. Fine, Oronce. Nova, et integra universi orbis descriptio. 1532. Agnese, Battista. Two World Maps. Venice: 1536. Rotz, Jean. Map of the World. London: 1542. Carte du Dauphin. 1542. Mercator, Gerard. Nova et aucta orbis terrae descriptio ad usum na. 1569. Ortelius, Abraham. Typus orbis terrarum. Antwerp: 1570. López de Velasco, Juan. Demarcacion y Navegaciones de Yndias. Madrid: 1575. ———. Descripcion de las Yndias del Poniente. Madrid: 1575. Ortelius, Abraham. Maris Pacifici (quod vulgo mar del zur) cum regionibus circumiacentibus, insulisque in eodem passim sparsis, novissima descriptio. Anvers: 1589. Jode, Cornelis de. Novae Guineae forma, & situs. Antwerp: Gerard de Jode, 1593. Mercator, Rumold. Orbis terrae compendiosa descrptio. 1595. Plancius, Peter. Insulae Moluccae. Amsterdam: 1595. ———. Orbis terrarvm typvs de integro multis in locis emendatus. Amsterdam: 1599. Gerritsz, Hessel. Map of the Pacific.1622. Hondius, Henrik. Nova totius terrarium orbis geographica ac hydrographica tabula. Amsterdam: 1630. Blaeu, Willem Janszoon. India quae orientalis dicitur et insulae adiacentes. Amsterdam: 1634. Hondius, Henrik. Polus Antarcticus Terra Australis Incognita. Amsterdam: 1642. Dudley, Robert. Carta secon generale del’ Asia. 1646. ———. Carta terza generale del’ Asia. 1646. Jansson, Jan. Mar del zvr hispanis mare pacificum. Amsterdam: 1657. Eckebrecht, Philip. Noua orbis terrarum delineatio singulari ratione accommodata meridiano tabb, rudolphi astronomicarum. Ulm: 1659. Doncker, Hemdrik. Pas-caart van de Oost Zee, verthoonende alle de ghelegentheyt tusschen ‘t Eylandt Rugen en Wyborg. Amsterdam: 1659. Goos, Pieter. Pascaerte vande Zuyd-Zee tussche California, en Ilhas de Ladrones. Amsterdam: 1663. Thevenot, Melchisedich. Hollandia Nova detecta 1644; Terre Australe decouuerte l’an 1644. Paris: 1663.

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Du Val, Pierre. La Mer de Sud dite autrement Mer Pacifique. Paris: 1679. Coronelli, Vincenzo. Mare del Sud, ditto altrimenti Mare Pacifico. Venice: 1696. Hondius, Hendrik. Polus Antarcticus Terra Australis Incognita. Amsterdam: 1700. Valentijn, Francois. Kaart der Reyse van Abel Tasman volgens syn eygen opstel. Te Dordrecht, Netherlands: 1726. Dampier, William. A Map of the East Indies. London: 1729. Leth, Hendrik de. Carte nouvelle de la Mer du Sud dressee par ordre des principaux Directeurs & tiree des Memoirs le plus recent et des Relations des Navigateurs les plus Modernes. Amsterdam: 1740. Bowen, Emanuel. A Complete Map of the Southern Continent Survey’d by Capt. Abel Tasman & Depicted by Order of the East India Company in Holland in the Stadt House at Amsterdam. Amsterdam: 1744. Wit, Frederick de. Magnum Mare del Zur cum insula California  De Goote ZuydZee en’t eylandt California. Amsterdam: 1745. Bellin, Jacques Nicolas. Carte reduite des terres Australes pour servir a l’Histoire des voyages. Paris: 1753. ———. Carte reduite de la Mer du Sud. Paris: 1753. Buache, Philippe. Carte physique de la Grande Mer ci-devant nommée Mer du Sud Pacifique avec la représentation de ce que l’on conjecture sur la mer Glaciale Antarctique. Paris: 1754. Robert de Vaugondy, Gilles. Carte Générale. Paris: 1756. ———. Carte reduite de l’Australasia, pour servir a la lecture de l’histoire des terres Australes. Paris: 1756. Dalrymple, Alexander. Chart of the South Pacifick Ocean, Pointing out the Discoveries Made Therein Previous to 1764. London: 1767. Romainville, Charles. Dévelopement de la Route des Vaisseaux du Roy la Boudeuse et l’Etoile autour du Monde. Paris: 1771. Cook, James. Chart of the Society Isles. London: 1773. ———. Chart of New-Zealand, Explored in 1769 and 1770. London: 1773. ———. Chart of Part of the South Sea, Shewing the Tracts & Discoveries Made by His Majestys Ships Dolphin, Commodore Byron, & Tamer, Capn Mouat 1765. Dolphin, Capn Wallis, & Swallow, Capn Carteret, 1767 and Endeavour, Lieutenant Cooke, 1769. London: 1773. ———. Chart of the Southern Hemisphere Shewing the Track and Discoveries Made by the Resolution under the Command of Js Cook. London. ———. Chart of the Friendly Isles. London. ———. Chart of the New Hebrides Explored in July & August 1774 by Captn Cook. London. Chart Containing the Greater Part of the South Sea to the South of the Line, with the Islands Dispersed thro’ the Same South America with the Adjacent Islands in the Southern Ocean and South Sea. London: 1775. Robert de Vaugondy, Giles. Hemisphère austral ou antarctique projetté sur un horizon Augmenté en 1776 des découvertes faites par le capit. Cook en 1773, 74 et 75. Paris: 1776.

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Zatta, Antonio. Nuove Scoperte fatte nel 1765, 67 e 69 nel: mare del sud. Venice: 1776. Djurberg, Daniel. Karta over Polynesien eller femte delen af jordklotet Carte de la Polynesie ou la cinquieme partie de la terre. Stockholm: 1780. Bowen, Thomas. A New & Accurate Chart of the Discoveries Made by the Late Capt. Js. Cook and Other Distinguished, Modern Navigators, Exhibiting Botany Bay, with the Whole Coast of New South Wales in New Holland, also New Zealand, Norfolk and the Various Other Islands Situated in the Great Pacific Ocean, & the Northern & Southern Hemispheres. London: 1780. Kitchin, T. A Chart of the Discoveries Made by the Late Capt. Cook, & Other European Navigators, in the Great Pacific Ocean between Asia & America. London: 1780. Roberts, Henry. A General Chart Exhibiting the Discoveries Made by Captn. James Cook in This and His Two Preceeding Voyages, with the Tracks of the Ships under His Command. London: 1784. Fleurieu, C.M.F. de. Carte Réduite des Découvertes des François. Paris: 1790. Laborde, Jean Benjamin de. Carte pour servir au voyage de M. de Surville capitaine du vaisseaux. Paris: 1791. Arrowsmith, Aaron. Map of the World on a Globular Projection. London: 1794. Reilly, Franz Johann Joseph von. Karte von des Inselwelt Polynesien oder der Funften Welttheile nach Djurberg und Roberts. Vienna: 1795. Karte von Australien oder Polynesien nach den Zeichnungen Reisebeschreibungen, und Tagebucher der vorzuglichsten Seefahrer bis 1789 entworfen im Jahr 1792, vermehrt 1796. Nuremberg: 1796. Laperouse, Jean-François de Galaup de. Carte du Grand Océan ou Mer du Sud dressée pour la relation du voyage de découvertes faites par les frégates francaises la Boussole et l’Astrolabe dans les années 1785, 86, 87 et 88. Paris: 1797. A New chart of the World on Wright’s or Mercator’s Projection in Which are Exhibited All the Parts Hitherto Explored or Discovered with the Tracks of the British Circumnavigators Byron, Wallis, Carteret and Cook, &c. and the Track of La Perouse in the Pacific Ocean. London: Laurie & Whittle, 1799. Palmer, W. A New Map of the World, with Captain Cook’s Tracks, His Discoveries and Those of the Other Circumnavigators. London: 1800. Laurie, Richard, and J. Whittle, New Chart of the Indian and Pacific Oceans between the Cape of Good Hope, New Holland and Japan Comprehending New Zealand, New Caledonia, New Britain, New Ireland, New Guinea &c., Louisiade and New Georgia; also The Pelew, New Caroline, Ladrone and Philippine Islands &c. with the Most Remarkable tracks of the English, Spanish, French and Dutch Navigators and Chiefly the Track of the Walpole, EastIndiaman, Captn. Thos. Butler, 1794 from the Cape of Good Hope to Van Diemen’s Land and from Thence to China, and the Track of the Royal Admiral Captn. Henr. Bond in 1792 and 93 from the Cape to Port Jackson and China. Map. London: 1803. Beautemps-Beaupre, Charles. Carte générale de la Nouvelle Hollande et des Archipels du Grand Océan. Paris: 1807.

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Wilkinson, Robert. New South Wales, New Zealand, New Hebrides and the Islands Adjacent. London: 1808. Espinosa y Tello, Josef. Carta general para las navegaciones a la India Oriental por el mar del sur y el grande Oceano que separa el Asia de la America. London: 1814. Lapie, Pierre. Océanie ou Australasie et Polynésie. Paris: 1816. Walch, Johannes. Australien (Sudland) auch Polynesien oder inselwelt, insgemein der Funften Welttheile gennant, nach den neuesten und bewahrtesten Hulfsmitteln entworfen. Augsburg: 1820. Norie, John William. A New Chart of Part of the Pacific Ocean Exhibiting the Various Straits, Islands and Dangers, between the Latitudes of 56° South and 22° North, and from the Longitude of 141° to 180° East, Correctly Drawn & Regulated from the Astronomical Observations and Surveys of Cook, Flinders, D’Entrecasteaux, Bougainville, Bligh, King, Kotzebue, Freycinet, & Other Distinguished Navigators. London: 1820. Butler, Thomas. This Chart of the Western Part of the Pacific Ocean Comprised between the Latitudes of 48p°s South and 17p°s North from 146p°s to 176p°s of East Longitude and Exhibiting the Track of the Walpole, from the S.W. Cape of New Holland, to the Isle of Tinian. Improved ed. with Various Additions, Including New Tracks by Captn. Abm. Bristow, and Others, to May, 1822. London: 1822. Dumont d’Urville, Jules-Sebastien-Cesar. Carte de la partie de l’Océan Pacifique parcourue par la Corvette l’Astrolabe. Paris: 1833. Krusenshtern, Ivan Fedorovich. Carte générale de l’océan Pacifique hemisphère Austral dediée au Capitaine Horsburgh Hydrographe de la Compagnie Britannique des Indes 1824. St. Petersbourg: 1835. Wilkes, Charles. Map of the World Shewing the Tracks of the U.S. Exploring Expedition in 1838, 39, 40, 41 & 42. 1844.

SECTION 7: HAKLUYT SOCIETY AND BIBLIOTHECA AUSTRALIANA PUBLICATIONS RELEVANT TO THE EXPLORATION OF THE SOUTH PACIFIC A. Hakluyt Society Publications Relevant to the Pacific 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

First Series Second Series Extra Series Occasional Booklets Third Series

B. Bibliotheca Australiana

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A. Hakluyt Society Publications Relevant to the Pacific 1. First Series Maynarde, Thomas. Sir Francis Drake His Voyage, 1595, by Thomas Maynarde, Together with the Spanish Account of Drake’s Attack on Puerto Rico, edited, from the Original Manuscripts, by W. D. Cooley. First series, no. 4. London: Hakluyt Society, 1849. Narratives of Voyages towards the North-West, in Search of a Passage to Cathay and India. 1496 to 1631. With Selections from the Early Records of the Honourable the East India Company and from MSS. in the British Museum, edited by Thomas Rundall. First series, no. 5. London: Hakluyt Society, 1849. The World Encompassed by Sir Francis Drake; Being His Next Voyage to that to Nombre de Dios. Collated with an Unpublished Manuscript of Francis Fletcher, Chaplain to the Expedition, edited with appendices illustrative of the same voyage, and introduction, by William Sandys Wright Vaux. First series, no. 16. London: Hakluyt Society, 1854. Early Voyages to Terra Australis, Now Called Australia: A Collection of Documents, and Extracts from Early Manuscript Maps, Illustrative of the History of Discovery on the Coasts of that Vast Island, from the Beginning of the Sixteenth Century to the Time of Captain Cook, edited, with an introduction, by R. H. Major. First series, no. 25. London: Hakluyt Society, 1859. Galvano, Antonio. The Discoveries of the World, from Their First Original unto the Year of Our Lord 1555, by Antonio Galvano, Governor of Ternate. Corrected, Quoted and Published in England, by Richard Hakluyt. Now reprinted, with the original Portuguese text; and edited by Vice-Admiral Bethune, C.B. First series, no. 30. London: Hakluyt Society, 1862. Morga, Antonio de. The Philippine Islands, Moluccas, Siam, Cambodia, Japan, and China, at the Close of the Sixteenth Century. Translated from the Spanish, with notes and a preface, and a letter from Luis Vaez de Torres describing his voyage through the Torres Straits. By the Hon. Henry E. J. Stanley. First series, no. 39. London: Hakluyt Society, 1868. The First Voyage Round the World, by Magellan. Translated from the Accounts of Pigafetta, and Other Contemporary Writers. Accompanied by Original Documents, with notes and an introduction, by Lord Stanley of Alderley. First series, no. 52. London: Hakluyt Society, 1874.

2. Second Series The Discovery of the Solomon Islands by Alvaro de Mendaña in 1568, translated from the Original Spanish Manuscripts, edited, with introduction and notes, by Lord Amherst of Hackney, and Basil Thomson. 2 vols. Second series, no. 7–8. London: Hakluyt Society, 1901.

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The Voyages of Pedro Fernandez de Quiros, 1595 to 1606, translated and edited by Sir Clements Markham. 2 vols. Second series, no. 14–15. London: Hakluyt Society, 1904. The Voyage of Captain Don Felipe Gonzalez in the Ship of the Line San Lorenzo, with the Frigate Santa Rosalia in Company, to Easter Island in 1770–1: Preceded by an Extract from Mynheer Jacob Roggeveen’s Official Log of His Discovery and Visit to Easter Island in 1722, transcribed, translated, and edited by Bolton Glanvill Corney. Second series, no. 13. Cambridge: Hakluyt Society, 1908. Early Spanish Voyages to the Strait of Magellan, translated and edited, with a Preface, Introduction and Notes, by Sir Clements Markham. Second series, no. 28. London: Hakluyt Society, 1911. The Quest and Occupation of Tahiti by Emissaries of Spain during the Years 1772–1776. Told in Despatches and Other Contemporary Documents, translated into English and compiled, with notes and an introduction, by Bolton Glanvill Corney. 3 vols. Second series, no. 32, 36, 43. London: Hakluyt Society, 1913–1919. New Light on Drake/A Collection of Documents Relating to His Voyage of Circumnavigation, 1577–1580, translated and edited by Zelia Nuttall. Second series, no. 34. London: Hakluyt Society, 1914. Lockerby, William. The Journal of William Lockerby/Sandalwood Trader in the Fijian Islands during the Years 1808–1809: With an Introduction & Other Papers Connected with the Earliest European Visitors to the Islands, edited by Sir Everard Im Thurm, and Leonard C. Wharton. Second series, no. 52. London: Hakluyt Society, 1925. Prado y Tovar, Diego. New Light on the Discovery of Australia as Revealed by the Journal of Captain Don Diego de Prado y Tovar, edited by Henry N. Stevens, with annotated translations from the Spanish by George F. Barwick. Second series, no. 64. London: Hakluyt Society, 1930. Wafer, Lionel. A New Voyage and Description of the Isthmus of America by Lionel Wafer, Surgeon on Buccaneering Expeditions in Darien, the West Indies, and the Pacific from 1680 to 1688. With Wafer’s Secret Report (1698), and Davis’s Expedition to the Gold Mines (1704), edited, with introduction, notes and appendices, by L. E. Elliot Joyce. Second series, no. 73. London: Hakluyt Society, 1934. The Voyage of Captain Bellingshausen to the Antarctic Seas, 1819–1821. Translated from the Russian, edited by Frank Debenham. 2 vols. Second series, no. 91–92. London: Hakluyt Society, 1945. Robertson, George. The Discovery of Tahiti. A Journal of the Second Voyage of H.M.S. Dolphin Round the World, under the Command of Captain Wallis, R.N., in the Years 1766, 1767, and 1768. Written by her Master, George Robertson. edited by Hugh Carrington. Second series, no. 98. London: Hakluyt Society, 1948. Davies, John. The History of the Tahitian Mission, 1799–1830, Written by John Davies, Missionary to the South Sea Islands, with Supplementary Papers from the correspondence of the Missionaries, edited by C. W. Newbury. Second series, no. 116. Cambridge: Hakluyt Society, 1961.

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Byron, John. Byron’s Journal of His Circumnavigation, 1764–1766. edited by Robert E. Gallagher. Second series, no. 122. Cambridge: Hakluyt Society, 1964. Carteret, Philip. Carteret’s Voyage Round the World, 1766–1769, edited by Helen Wallis. 2 vols. Second series, no. 124–125. Cambridge: Hakluyt Society, 1965. Munilla, Martín de. La Austrialia del Espíritu Santo: The Journal of Fray Martín de Munilla O.F.M. and Other Documents Relating to The Voyage of Pedro Fernández de Quirós to the South Sea (1605–1606) and the Franciscan missionary plan (1617–1627), translated and edited by Celsus Kelly; with ethnological introduction, appendix, and other contributions by G. S. Parsonson. 2 vols. Second series, no. 126–127. Cambridge: Hakluyt Society, 1966. Bishop, Charles. The Journal and Letters of Captain Charles Bishop on the NorthWest Coast of America, in the Pacific, and in New South Wales, 1794–1799, edited by Michael Roe. Second series, no. 131. Cambridge: Hakluyt Society, 1967. Peard, George. To the Pacific and Arctic with Beechey; The Journal of Lieutenant George Peard of H.M.S. ‘Blossom’ 1823–8, edited by Barry M. Gough. Second series, no. 143. Cambridge: Hakluyt Society, 1973. The Expedition of the St. Jean-Baptiste to the Pacific, 1769–1770; From Journals of Jean de Surville and Guillaume Labé, translated and edited by John Dunmore. Second series, no. 158. London: Hakluyt Society, 1981. Forster, Johann Reinhold. The Resolution Journal of Johann Reinhold Forster, 1772–1775, edited by Michael E. Hoare. 4 vols. Second series, no. 152–155. London: Hakluyt Society, 1982. Vancouver, George. A Voyage of Discovery to the North Pacific Ocean and Round the World, 1791–1795, with an introduction and appendices; edited by W. Kaye Lamb. 4 vols. Second series, no. 163–166. London: Hakluyt Society, 1984. Laperouse, Jean-François de la Galaup de. The Journal of Jean-François de Galaup de la Pérouse, 1785–1788, translated and edited by John Dunmore. 2 vols. Second series, no. 179–180. London: Hakluyt Society, 1994–95.

3. Extra Series Cook, James. The Journals of Captain James Cook on His Voyages of Discovery: The Voyage of the Endeavour, 1768–1771, edited by J.C. Beaglehole. Extra series, no. 34a. London: Hakluyt Society, 1955. Reprinted, with addenda and corrigenda, 1968. The Journals of Captain James Cook on His Voyages of Discovery: Charts & Views, Drawn by Cook and His Officers and Reproduced from the Original Manuscripts, edited by R. A. Skelton. Extra series, no. 34b. London: Hakluyt Society, 1955, second edition 1969. Cook, James. The Journals of Captain James Cook on His Voyages of Discovery: The Voyage of the Resolution and Discovery 1776–1780, edited by J.C. Beaglehole. 2 vols. Extra series, no. 36a–b. London: Hakluyt Society, 1967.

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Cook, James. The Journals of Captain James Cook on His Voyages of Discovery: The Voyage of the Resolution and Adventure 1772–1775, edited by J.C. Beaglehole. Extra series, no. 35. London: Hakluyt Society, 1961. Reprinted, with addenda and corrigenda, 1969. Beaglehole, J.C. The Life of Captain James Cook, extra series, no. 37. London: Hakluyt Society, 1974. The Charts & Coastal Views of Captain Cook’s Voyages. Volume One: The Voyage of the Endeavour, 1768–1771, with a Descriptive Catalogue of All the Known Original Surveys and Coastal Views and the Original Engravings Associated with Them; Together with Original Drawings of the Endeavour and Her Boats. Chief Editor: Andrew David. Assistant Editors for the Views: Rüdiger Joppien and Bernard Smith Extra series, no. 43. London: Hakluyt Society, 1988. The Charts & Coastal Views of Captain Cook’s Voyages. Volume Two: The Voyage of the Resolution and Adventure, 1772–1775, with a Descriptive Catalogue of All the Known Original Surveys and Coastal Views and the Original Engravings Associated with Them. Chief Editor: Andrew David. Assistant Editors for the Views: Rüdiger Joppien and Bernard Smith Extra series, no. 44. London: Hakluyt Society, 1992. The Charts & Coastal Views of Captain Cook’s Voyages. Volume Three: The Voyage of the Resolution and Discovery, 1776–1780, with a Descriptive Catalogue of All the Known Original Surveys and Coastal Views and the Original Engravings Associated with Them; Together with the Running Journal of James King 1779–80. Chief Editor: Andrew David. Assistant Editors for the Views: Rüdiger Joppien and Bernard Smith Extra series, no. 46. London: Hakluyt Society, 1997.

4. Occasional Booklets Cook and the Russians: An Addendum to the Hakluyt Society’s Edition of the Voyage of the Resolution and Discovery, 1776–1780, edited by J.C. Beaglehole. Occasional booklet, no. London: Hakluyt Society, 1973.

5. Third Series The Malaspina Expedition 1789–1794. The Journal of the Voyage by Alejandro Malaspina. Vol. I. Cadiz to Panama, edited by Andrew David, Felipe FernandezArmesto, Carlos Novi and Glyndwr Williams. Third series. London: Hakluyt Society, 2001. Bougainville, Louis-Antoine de. Pacific Journal of Louis-Antoine De Bougainville, 1767–1768, edited by John Dunmore. Third series. London: Hakluyt Society, 2003.

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B. Bibliotheca Australiana This is a listing in the series numerical order. Only volumes relevant to exploration in the Pacific are listed. Volumes that have been advertised but not published in this series are not listed. Brosses, Charles de. Histoire des Navigations aux Terres Australes. Contenant ce que l’on sçait des moeurs et des productions des Contrées découvertes jusqu’e à ce jour. Bibliotheca Australiana, vol. 1–2. 2 vols. Amsterdam: N. Israel, 1967. [Paris: Durand, 1756.] Burney, James. A Chronological History of Voyages and Discoveries in the South Sea, or Pacific Ocean. Bibliotheca Australiana, vol. 3–7. 5 vols. Amsterdam: N. Israel, 1967. [London: Luke Hansard, 1803–17.] Callander, John. Terra Australis Cognita; or Voyages to the Terra Australis or Southern Hemisphere, during the Sixteenth, Seventeenth, and Eighteenth Centuries. Bibliotheca Australiana, vol. 8–10. 3 vols. Amsterdam: N. Israel, 1967. [Edinburgh: A. Donaldson, 1766–68.] Dalrymple, Alexander. An Historical Collection of the Several Voyages and Discoveries in the South Pacific Ocean. Bibliotheca Australiana, vol. 11. 2 vols. in 1. Amsterdam: N. Israel, 1967. [London: A. Dalrymple, 1770–71.] Bougainville, Louis de. A Voyage round the World. Performed by Order of His Most Christian Majesty, in the Years 1766–9, translated from the French by John Reinhold Forster. Bibliotheca Australiana, vol. 12. Amsterdam: N. Israel, 1967. [London: J. Nourse, 1772.] Broughton, William Robert. A Voyage of Discovery to the North Pacific Ocean in Which the Coast of Asia, from the Lat. of 35’ North to the Lat. of 52’ North, the Island if Insu (Commonly known under the Name of the Land of Jesso), the North, South and East Coasts of Japan, the Lieuchieux and the Adjacent Isles, as well as the Coast of Corea, Have Been Examined and Surveyed. Performed in His Majesty’s Sloop Providence, and Her Tender in the Years 1795–98. Bibliotheca Australiana, vol. 13. Amsterdam: N. Israel, 1967. [London: T. Cadell and W. Davies, 1804.] Cook, James. A Journal of a Voyage round the World in H.M.S. Endeavour, in the Years 1768–71. Containing All the various Occurrences of the Voyage with Descriptions of Several Newly Discovered Countries in the Southern Hemisphere (etc.). To Which is Added a Concise Vocabulary of the Language of Otaheite. Bibliotheca Australiana, vol. 14. Amsterdam: N. Israel, 1967. [London: 1771.] Marra, John. Journal of the Resolution’s Voyage, in 1771–1775. On Discovery to the Southern Hemisphere, by Which the Non-existence of an Undiscovered Continent, between the Equator and the 50th Degree of Southern Latitude, Is Demonstratively Proved. Also a Journal of the Adventure’s Voyage in 1772–1774. Bibliotheca Australiana, vol. 15. Amsterdam: N. Israel, 1967. [London: 1775.] Rickman, John. Journal of Captain Cook’s Last Voyage to the Pacific Ocean, on Discovery; Performed in the Years 1776–1779. Faithfully Narrated from the

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Original MS. Bibliotheca Australiana, vol. 16. Amsterdam: N. Israel, 1967. [London: 1781.] Kotzebue, Otto von. A Voyage of Discovery, into the South Sea and Beering’s Straits, for the Purpose of Exploring a North-East Passage. Bibliotheca Australiana, vol. 17–19. 3 vols. Amsterdam: N. Israel, 1967. [London: Longman, Hurst, Rees, Orme and Brown, 1821.] Kotzebue, Otto von. A New Voyage round the World in the Years 1823–1826. With an Introduction by A.J. von Krusenstern. Bibliotheca Australiana, vol. 20–21. 2 vols. Amsterdam: N. Israel, 1967. [London: Henry Colburn and Richard Bentley, 1830.] Meares, John. Voyages Made in the Years 1788 and 1789, from China to the NorthWest Coast of America. To Which Are Prefixed, an Introductory Narrative of a Voyage Performed in 1786, from Bengal, in the Ship Nootka; Observations on the probable Existence of a North-West Passage; and Some Account of the Trade between the North-West Coast of America and China; and the Latter Country and Great Britain. Bibliotheca Australiana, vol. 22. Amsterdam: N. Israel, 1967. [London: Logographic Press, 1790.] Fleurieu, Charles Pierre Claret. A Voyage round the World, Performed during the Years 1790–92 by E´tienne Marchand, preceded by a Historical Introduction. Bibliotheca Australiana, vol. 23–24. 2 vols. Amsterdam: N. Israel, 1969. [London: Longman and Rees, 1801.] Pérouse, Jean F. G. de la. A Voyage round the World, Performed in the Years 1785, 1786, 1787, and 1788, by the Boussole and Astrolabe, under the Command of J.F.G. de la Pérouse: Published by Order of the National Assembly, under the Superintendence of L. A. Milet-Mureau. Bibliotheca Australiana, vol. 27–29. 2 vols.  atlas. Amsterdam: N. Israel, 1968. [London: A. Hamilton, 1799.] Vancouver, George. A Voyage of Discovery to the North Pacific Ocean, and round the World. Bibliotheca Australiana, vol. 30–33. 3 vols.  atlas. Amsterdam: N. Israel, 1967. [London: Robinson, 1798.] Beechey, Frederick William. Narrative of a Voyage to the Pacific and Beering’s Strait. Bibliotheca Australiana, vol. 34–35. 2 vols. Amsterdam: N. Israel, 1968. [London: Henry Colburn and Richard Bentley, 1831.] Colnett, James. A Voyage to the South Atlantic and round Cape Horn into the Pacific Ocean, for the Purpose of Extending the Spermaceti Whale Fisheries, and Other Objects of Commerce, by ascertaining the Ports, Bays, Harbours, and Anchoring Berths in Certain Islands and Coasts in Those Seas at Which the Ships of the British Merchants Might be Refitted. Bibliotheca Australiana, vol. 36. Amsterdam: N. Israel, 1968. [London: J. Colnett, 1798.] Dixon, George. A Voyage round the World; But More Particularly to the North-West Coast of America. Bibliotheca Australiana, vol. 37. Amsterdam: N. Israel, 1968. [London: Geo. Goulding, 1789.] Krusenstern, A.J. von. Voyage round the World in the Years 1803, 1804, 1805 & 1806. Bibliotheca Australiana, vol. 38–39. 2 vols. Amsterdam: N. Israel, 1968. [London: John Murray, 1813.]

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Langsdorff, G.H. von. Voyages and Travels in Various Parts of the World, during the Years 1803, 1804, 1805, 1806 and 1807. Bibliotheca Australiana, vol. 40–41. 2 vols. Amsterdam: N. Israel, 1968. [London: Henry Colburn, 1813–14.] Lisiansky, Urey. A Voyage round the World in the Years 1803, 1804, 1805 & 1806. Bibliotheca Australiana, vol. 42. Amsterdam: N. Israel, 1968. [London: John Booth, 1814.] Portlock, Nathaniel. A Voyage round the World; but More Particularly to the NorthWest Coasts of America. Bibliotheca Australiana, vol. 43. Amsterdam: N. Israel, 1969. [London: John Stockdale, 1789.] Gilbert, Thomas. Voyages from New South Wales to Canton, in the Year 1788, with Views of the Islands Discovered. Bibliotheca Australiana, vol. 44. Amsterdam: N. Israel, 1968. [London: J. Debrett, 1789.] Arago, Jacques. Narrative of a Voyage round the World, in the Uranie and Physicienne Corvettes, Commanded by Captain Freycinet, during the Years 1817–1820. Bibliotheca Australiana, vol. 45. Amsterdam: N. Israel, 1970. [London: 1823.] Bennett, Frederick D. Narrative of a Whaling Voyage round the Globe, from the Year 1833 to 1836. Comprises Sketches of Polynesia, California, the Indian Archipelago, etc. With an Account of Southern Wales. Bibliotheca Australiana, vol. 46–47. 2 vols. Amsterdam: N. Israel, 1970. [London: 1840.] Burney, James. A Chronological History of the North-Eastern Voyages of Discovery; and of the Early Eastern Navigations of the Russians. Bibliotheca Australiana, vol. 49. Amsterdam: N. Israel, 1969. [London: 1819.] Campbell, Archibald. A Voyage round the World from 1806 to 1812; in Which Japan, Kamchatka, the Aleutian Islands, and the Sandwich Islands Were Visited (etc.). With an Account of the Present State of the Sandwich Islands, and a vocabulary of Their Language. Bibliotheca Australiana, vol. 50. Amsterdam: N. Israel, 1970. [Edinburgh: 1816.] Cooke, Edward. A Voyage to the South Sea, and round the World, Perform’d in the Years 1708–11. By the Ships Duke and Dutchess of Bristol. Containing a Journal of All Memorable Transactions (etc.). A Description of the American Coasts, from Tierra del Fuego to California. Bibliotheca Australiana, vol. 51–52. 2 vols. Amsterdam: N. Israel, 1971. [London: 1712.] Dillon, Peter. Narrative and Successful Result of a Voyage in the South Seas, to Ascertain the Actual Fate of La Pérouse’s Expedition. Bibliotheca Australiana, vol. 53–54. 2 vols. Amsterdam: N. Israel, 1971. [London: Hurst, Chance and Co., 1829.] Ellis, William. An Authentic Narrative of a Voyage Performed by Captain Cook and Captain Clerke, in H.M. Ships Resolution and Discovery during the Years 1776–1780; In Search of a North-West Passage between the Continents of Asia and America. Including a Faithful Account of All Their Discoveries, and the Unfortunate Death of Captain Cook. Bibliotheca Australiana, vol. 55–56. 2 vols. Amsterdam: N. Israel, 1970. [London: 1782.] Funnell, William. A Voyage round the World. Containing an Account of Captain Dampier’s Expedition into the South-Seas in the Ship St. George, in the Years

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1703 and 1704. Together with the Author’s Voyage from Amapalla on the WestCoast of Mexico, to East-India. Bibliotheca Australiana, vol. 57. Amsterdam: N. Israel, 1971. [London: 1707.] Litke, Fyodor P. Voyage Autour du Monde, exécuté par ordre de Sa Majesté Nicolas Ier, sur la Corvette La Séniavine dans les années 1826–1829. Bibliotheca Australiana, vol. 58–61. 3 vols,  atlas. Amsterdam: N. Israel, 1971. [Paris: 1835–36.] Narborough, John. An Account of Several Late Voyages and Discoveries to the South and North. Towards the Streights of Magellan, The South Seas, the Vast Tracts of Land beyond Hollandia Nova, edited by Tancred Robinson. Bibliotheca Australiana, vol. 62. Amsterdam: N. Israel, 1970. [London: 1694.] Rogers, Woodes. A Cruising Voyage round the World; First to the South Seas, Thence to the East Indies, and Homeward by the Cape of Good Hope. Begun in 1708, and Finished in 1711. Bibliotheca Australiana, vol. 63. Amsterdam: N. Israel, 1970. [London: 1712.] Labillardiere, Jacques-Julien H. An Account of a Voyage in Search of La Pérouse, Undertaken by Order of the Constituent Assembly of France, and Performed in the Years 1791–1793, in the Recherche and Espérance, Ships of War, under the Command of Rear-Admiral Bruni d’Entrecasteaux. Bibliotheca Australiana, vol. 67. Amsterdam: N. Israel, 1971. [London: John Stockdale, 1800.] Mortimer, George. Observations and Remarks Made during a Voyage to the Islands of Teneriffe, Amsterdam, Maria’s Island Near van Diemen’s Land; Otaheite, Sandwich Islands; Owyhee, the Fox Islands on the North-West Coast of America, Tiniam, and from Thence to Canton. In the Brig Mercury, Commanded by John Henry Cox. Bibliotheca Australiana, vol. 68 Amsterdam: N. Israel, 1975. [London: 1791.] Péron, François. Mèmoires du Capitaine Péron, sur ses Voyages aux Côtes d’Afrique, en Arabie, à l’île d’Amsterdam, aux îles d’Anjouan et de Mayotte, aux Côtes Nord-Ouest de l’Amèrique, aux îles Sandwich, à la Chine, (etc.). Bibliotheca Australiana, vol. 69–70. 2 vols. Amsterdam: N. Israel, 1971. [Paris: 1824.] Shelvocke, George. A Voyage round the World by the Way of the Great South Sea, Perform’d in the Years 1719–1722 in the Speedwell of London. Bibliotheca Australiana, vol. 71. Amsterdam: N. Israel, 1971. [London: 1726.] Thomas, Pascoe. A True and Impartial Journal of a Voyage to the South-Seas, and round the Globe in H.M. Ship the Centurion, under the Command of George Anson. Bibliotheca Australiana, vol. 72. Amsterdam: N. Israel, 1971. [London: S. Birt, 1745.] Zimmermann, Heinrich. Heinrich Zimmermanns Reise um die Welt mit Capitain Cook. Bibliotheca Australiana, vol. 73. Amsterdam: N. Israel, 1973. [Mannheim: 1781.] Wakefield, Edward J. Adventure in New Zealand from 1839 to 1844; with Some Account of the Beginnings of the British Colonization of the Islands. Bibliotheca Australiana, vol. 74–75. 2 vols. Amsterdam: N. Israel, 1971. [London: 1845.] Krusenstern, A.J. von. Atlas to Captain Krusenstern’s Voyage round the World (Russian text). Bibliotheca Australiana, vol. 76. Amsterdam: N. Israel, 1974. [St. Petersburg: 1813.]

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Appendix Associations, Libraries, and Societies

1. Hakluyt Society

The objective of the Hakluyt Society is to publish and promote public knowledge of records of voyages, travels, and geographical discovery. The Society is strongly recommended to everyone interested in the history of exploration and travel, geographical discovery, and worldwide cultural encounter. Several edited versions of explorers’ journals are published each year, many of which are relevant to the Pacific. c/o Map Library, The British Library, 96 Euston Road, London NW1 2DB, United Kingdom. Homepage: http://www.hakluyt.com/ 2. Society for the History of Discoveries

The Society for the History of Discoveries was formed to stimulate interest in teaching, research, and publishing the history of geographical exploration. Founded in 1960, the Society includes members from several academic disciplines as well as archivists, nonaffiliated scholars, and laypersons with an interest in history. The Society’s program of publications includes Terrae Incognitae, a journal of research papers and book reviews published annually since 1969, and five volumes in the series Studies in the History of Discovery. Every issue of Terrae Incognitae: The Journal for the History of Discoveries contains a section entitled “Recent Literature in Discovery History.” The section comprises a comprehensive listing of new monographs and recent journal articles, regularly including Pacific material. The journal also carries many book reviews. The Society for the History of Discoveries c/o Secretary-Treasurer, 5502 Laurel Ridge Drive, Alpharetta, GA 30005, USA. Homepage: http://www.sochistdisc.org/

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3. The Polynesian Society

The Polynesian Society was formed in New Zealand in 1892 to promote the scholarly study of past and present New Zealand Maori and other Pacific Island peoples and cultures. It publishes the Journal of the Polynesian Society quarterly. It contains articles, reviews, correspondence, shorter communications, and other news. Secretary: Centre for Pacific Studies, University of Auckland, Private Bag 92019, Auckland, New Zealand. Homepage: http://www.arts.auckland.ac.nz/ant/JPS/polsoc.html 4. La Société des Océanistes

This society, based in Paris, has published extensively about the Pacific, especially the French part and has included material about exploration and discovery. It publishes the Journal de La Société des Océanistes twice a year. Société des Océanistes, Musée de l’Homme, Paris 16e, France. Homepage: http://www.mnhn.fr/oceanist/ nal de l 5. The Journal of Pacific History

The Journal of Pacific History serves historians, prehistorians, anthropologists, and others who are interested in the study of history in the Pacific Islands (including Hawaii and New Guinea), and is concerned generally with political, economic, religious, and cultural factors affecting human presence. The Journal has been published in Melbourne three times a year since 1966. The Journal of Pacific History has, for many years, also published an excellent bibliography about the Pacific. It has appeared under several titles: 1979–80 Pacific History Bibliography; 1981–87 Pacific History Bibliography and Comment and 1988– The Journal of Pacific History Bibliography. The Editors: The Journal of Pacific History, c/o Division of Pacific and Asian History, Research School of Pacific and Asian Studies, Australian National University, Canberra, ACT 0200, Australia. Homepage: http://sunsite.anu.edu.au/ spin/RSRC/HISTORY/jphsite.htm.

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NATIONAL LIBRARIES AND THEIR CATALOGS The advent of the Internet and the availability of library catalogs online has allowed researchers to search worldwide for information. The following list provides links to the national library Catalogs of countries with special interest to the exploration of the Pacific. The material listed in this bibliography can be accessed in at least one of these catalogs. Australia: National Library of Australia Catalogue, http://ilms.nla.gov .au/webpac/ Australia: State Library of New South Wales, http://www.slnsw.gov.au/ France: Bibliothèque nationale de France, http://www.bnf.fr/ Germany: Deutsche Bibliothek Frankfurt, http://www.ddb.de/ Netherlands: Koninklijke Bibliotheek, the Royal Library, http://www .kb.nl/ New Zealand: National Library of New Zealand, http://www.natlib .govt.nz/ Russia: Rossiiskaia Natsional’naia Biblioteka (Russian National Library, St. Petersburg), http://www.nlr.ru:8101/ Spain: Biblioteca Nacional España, http://www.bne.es/ United Kingdom: British Library Public Catalogue, http://blpc.bl.uk/ United States: Library of Congress Online Catalog, http://catalog.loc .gov/ United States; University of Hawai‘i Libraries, http://uhmanoa.lib .hawaii.edu/

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About the Authors

Max Quanchi teaches Pacific island history at Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, Australia. He is author or coauthor of Pacific People and Change (CUP, 1991), Culture Contact in the Pacific (with Ron Adams, CUP, 1993), Messy Entanglements (with Alaima Talu, PHA, 1995), Fiji in the Pacific (with Terry Donnelly and Graeme Kerr, Jacaranda, 1994), Imaging, Representation and Photography of the Pacific Islands (a special issue of Pacific Studies, 1997), and the Atlas of the Pacific Islands (Jacaranda, 2002). He has contributed articles on the Pacific history, photography, and exploration to the Historical Dictionary of Oceania (Greenwood, 1981), The Pacific Islands; An Encyclopaedia (University of Hawai‘i Press, 2000), The Literature of Travel and Exploration (Fitzroy Dearborn, 2003), and The Oxford Companion to Photography (OUP, 2005). His current research focuses on colonial photography, particularly postcards and the history of Australia’s relations with the Pacific, and has appeared in History of Photography, Pacific Studies, Journal of Pacific History, Journal of Australian Studies, Australian Historical Studies and Meanjin and in edited collections. John Robson was born at Stockton-on-Tees in County Durham in the United Kingdom. He became interested in Captain James Cook at a very early age and, through Cook, the exploration of the Pacific. He lives in Hamilton, New Zealand, with his three corgis and a house full of James Cook books and Cookabilia. He has traveled extensively in his career, first as a mining geologist and later as a librarian, which allowed him to visit many of the locations associated with Cook. He is the map librarian at the University of Waikato in Hamilton, president of the New Zealand Map Society, a member of the Captain Cook Society, and New Zealand representative for the Hakluyt Society. His books include Captain Cook’s World and The Captain Cook Encyclopaedia. 299

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Captain Wallis on his arrival at O’Tahiete. Printed by Alexander Hogg, London, ca. 1773.

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Habitations and people of the island of Atooi, an engraving based on an original pen and watercolor by John Webber, Hawaii, 1778 (also printed in Joseph Banks, New System of Geography, London).

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A dance at Ulitea one of the Society Islands, an engraving based on an original pen and wash in 1772 by G.B. Cipriani, A view of the inside of a house (also printed in J. Hawsworth, An Account of the Voyages Undertaken, London, 1773).

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Austrealier und Ozenische Volker 11 illustration from Meyer, published in Leipzig, ca. 1903. Typical layout of many ethnographic representations in late 19th- and early 20th-century publications. Private collection of Max Quanchi.

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European explorers were fascinated by Oceanic’s dance, costume, and women. Genista Kadannged, 14 years old, Yap, 1998. Photography by Max Quanchi.

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The world-famous Are pan pipe dancers performing, Cultural Centre and Gallery, Honiara, 1998.

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European explorers were fascinated by Oceanic religion, custom, art, and craft. Door post, case (house), Mare Island, Loyalty Islands, 2000. Photography by Max Quanchi.

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Case (house), Mare Island, Loyalty Islands, 2000. Photography by Max Quanchi.

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What explorers found in the 18th and 19th centuries can still be photographed—just; coastline, Manono Island, Samoa, 2002. Photography by Max Quanchi.

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Soso Bay and Soso village, Naviti Island, Yasawa Achipelago, Fiji, 2004.

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Oceanic people maintain the maritime traditions noted by European explorers, but now in craft of imported design and materials, Lautoka harbor, Fiji, 2004.

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The aftermath of discovery and exploration: beach communities, port towns, and modern cities, Port Vila, Vanuatu, 2004.

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