Handbook of OSHA Construction Safety and Health, Second Edition

Handbook of OSHA Construction Safety and Health Second Edition © 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC Handbook of OSH...

Author: Charles D. Reese | James Vernon Eidson

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Handbook of OSHA Construction Safety and Health Second Edition

© 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Handbook of OSHA Construction Safety and Health Second Edition

Charles D. Reese James Vernon Eidson


Published in 2006 by CRC Press Taylor & Francis Group 6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300 Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742 © 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group No claim to original U.S. Government works Printed in the United States of America on acid-free paper 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 International Standard Book Number-10: 0-8493-6546-5 (Hardcover) International Standard Book Number-13: 978-0-8493-6546-1 (Hardcover) Library of Congress Card Number 2005054898 This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. Reprinted material is quoted with permission, and sources are indicated. A wide variety of references are listed. Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and the publisher cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials or for the consequences of their use. No part of this book may be reprinted, reproduced, transmitted, or utilized in any form by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying, microfilming, and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without written permission from the publishers. For permission to photocopy or use material electronically from this work, please access www.copyright.com (http://www.copyright.com/) or contact the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc. (CCC) 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, 978-750-8400. CCC is a not-for-profit organization that provides licenses and registration for a variety of users. For organizations that have been granted a photocopy license by the CCC, a separate system of payment has been arranged. Trademark Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Reese, Charles D. Handbook of OSHA construction safety and health / [Charles D. Reese, James V. Eidson].-- 2nd ed. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 0-8493-6546-5 1. Building--United States--Safety measures. 2. Construction industry--Safety regulations--United States. I. Eidson, James V II. Title TH443.R434 2005 363.11'96900973--dc22

2005054898

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Dedication This book is dedicated to my deceased parents, Charles R. Reese and Irene M. Reese, in memory of their support through my good and bad times, and to those construction workers who had to give their lives, health, and well-being to generate the need for this book. Last, but by no means least, to that special person, my loving wife, E. Carol Reese, who has shared my journey through life.


Preface The construction industry has always been viewed as unique. Although it shares many aspects with other industries, it certainly has its share of unique hazards. The intent of this book is to provide a tool that can be used to address the occupational safety and health issues faced by those working in the construction industry; this includes contractors, workers, safety and health professionals, project managers, suppliers, and manufactures of equipment and materials. A vast range of issues are addressed in this book, and some of those issues are as follows: people issues, program development, safety and health program implementation, intervention and prevention of construction incidents, regulatory interpretations, understanding, and compliance, Occupational Safety and Health Administration’s (OSHA’s) expectations, health and safety hazards faced by those working in the construction industry, and sources of information. From the start of this book it has been my vision to provide a comprehensive approach to construction safety and health. This is manifested by addressing issues which are seldom discussed in the construction arena; some of these issues are such topics as perceptions and motivation. Also included in this book are those issues gleaned from the safety and health disciplines, such as the analyzing of incidents and accident prevention techniques that may be viewed as “stuff” that does not apply to construction. A great effort was also undertaken to discuss construction safety and health hazards and the regulations promulgated by the OSHA in order to alleviate these hazards. This comprehensive application of safety and health to the many facets of the construction industry is fostered by a strong belief by the authors that construction safety and health on the jobsite are critical factors in good business practices, productivity, and cost containment. As a guide and source reference for safety and health in the construction industry, this book becomes the foundation upon which to build stronger safety and health initiatives within the construction industry, while intervening and preventing jobsite deaths, injuries, and illnesses. Charles D. Reese, Ph.D.


Acknowledgments I thank my dedicated wife, Carol, for her patience and perseverance in proofreading and editing my work each step of the way; she makes a great teammate. Also, I want to thank Kay Warren of BarDan Associates for her efforts in formatting and developing the camera-ready copy; her work has been invaluable. It certainly took a load off of me to have my coauthor, James V. Eidson, a safety and health consultant and previous OSHA senior industrial hygienist write the chapters relevant to occupational health and personal protective equipment. A special thanks to my longtime friend and colleague, John Forte, who has for many years always been ready to fulfill my requests for help. It is a pleasure to have Dr. Rodney Allen, who is dedicated to occupational safety and health, support this effort by providing a chapter on workers’ compensation which was beyond my expertise. The previous works of many agencies, organizations, industries, and individuals have resulted in the information, illustrations, and materials which make this book possible. Contributions by courtesy or permission have come from: Building and Construction Trades Department Bureau of Labor Statistics The Crosby Group, Inc. Department of Commerce Department of Energy International Union of Operating Engineers, Local No. 487 Laborers–AGC Education and Training Fund National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health National Mine Health and Safety Academy Occupational Safety and Health Administration O&G Industries, Inc. Professional Safety and Health Consultants Scaffold Industry Association, Inc. Suffolk Construction Company Walsh Construction Management Company Certain individual professionals made unique contributions with their experience and knowledge. They were: Donna Civitello John Forte James Lapping Bruce Ottman Nicholas Warren


Authors Charles D. Reese For 25 years Dr. Charles D. Reese has been involved with occupational safety and health as an educator, manager, and consultant. In Dr. Reese’s early days in occupational safety and health, he held the position of industrial hygienist at the National Mine Health and Safety Academy. He later assumed the responsibility of manager for the nation’s occupational trauma research initiative at the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health’s (NIOSH) Division of Safety Research. Dr. Reese has had an integral part in trying to assure that workplace safety and health is provided for all those within the workplace. As the managing director for the Laborers’ Health and Safety Fund of North American, his responsibilities were aimed at protecting the 650,000 members of the laborers’ union in the United States and Canada. He has developed many occupational safety and health training programs which run the gamut from radioactive waste remediation to confined space entry. Dr. Reese has written numerous articles, pamphlets, and books related to safety and health issues. At present Dr. Reese is a member of the graduate and undergraduate faculty at the University of Connecticut, where he teaches courses on OSHA regulations, safety and health management, accident prevention techniques, industrial hygiene, and ergonomics. As Professor of occupational safety and health, he coordinates the bulk of the safety and health efforts at the University. He is often called upon to consult with industry on safety and health issues and also asked for expert consultation in legal cases. Also, Dr. Reese is the principal author of the Handbook of OSHA Construction Safety and Health; Material Handling Systems: Designing for Safety and Health; Annotated Dictionary of Construction Safety and Health; Accident/Incident Prevention Techniques; Occupational Health and Safety Management: A Practical Approach and Office Building Safety and Health. James V. Eidson Mr. Eidson is currently conducting industrial hygiene and safety investigations in construction and the general industry. He also serves as the director of Professional Health and Safety Consultants. His primary responsibilities are conducting workplace health and safety walk-around inspections, exposure monitoring, and hazard training. Objectives also include developing technical, instructional, and procedural material for training curricula and monitoring a variety of workplace health and safety hazards. He serves as a master trainer for programs including hazardous waste, hazard communication, lead abatement, radiation safety, blood-borne pathogens, and asbestos abatement. He is an adjunct professor for the University of Connecticut specializing in industrial hygiene and OSHA standards classes, and has Connecticut State licences as an asbestos inspector, management planner, project designer, and project manager.


Table of Contents Chapter 1

Introduction ............................................................................................................

1

Construction Industry ..................................................................................................................... Construction as a Business............................................................................................................. Contractor Liability ........................................................................................................................ Management/Professional Positions............................................................................................... Supervisors ..................................................................................................................................... The Competent Person(s) ............................................................................................................... Women in Construction ................................................................................................................. The Construction Trades ................................................................................................................ Unions of the Building and Construction Trades Department...................................................... Why the Hazards ............................................................................................................................ Cost of Accidents/Incidents ........................................................................................................... Why do Accidents Occur ............................................................................................................... Construction Deaths ....................................................................................................................... Construction Injuries ...................................................................................................................... Construction Illnesses..................................................................................................................... Construction Hazards ..................................................................................................................... Construction’s Relationship to OSHA........................................................................................... Intent of this Book ......................................................................................................................... References.......................................................................................................................................

1 4 4 6 6 6 7 7 11 12 13 13 14 15 16 17 19 19 20

Chapter 2

Perceptions in the Construction Industry ........................................................... 21

Survey ............................................................................................................................................. Agreement....................................................................................................................................... Disagreement .................................................................................................................................. Contractors and Mixed Views ....................................................................................................... Other Areas..................................................................................................................................... How to Use this Survey ................................................................................................................. Example...................................................................................................................................... Using the Results............................................................................................................................ Summary......................................................................................................................................... Chapter 3

22 24 25 26 26 26 26 27 27

The People Issue in Construction Safety and Health ........................................ 29

Setting the Stage............................................................................................................................. Defining Motivation................................................................................................................... Summary of the Principles of Motivation ................................................................................. The Motivational Environment ...................................................................................................... Structuring the Motivational Environment ................................................................................ Reacting to the Motivational Environment ............................................................................... Motivational Environment — Examples ................................................................................... Goal Setting .................................................................................................................................... Goals and You............................................................................................................................ Rationale behind Goals .............................................................................................................. Goals and Their Many Forms....................................................................................................


29 30 30 31 31 33 34 35 35 35 36

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Self-motivation ............................................................................................................................... You are the One ......................................................................................................................... People are Amazing ................................................................................................................... Losing the Self in Motivation.................................................................................................... Dealing with People Along the Continuum................................................................................... The People Issue ........................................................................................................................ Changing Values ........................................................................................................................ Needs Move Mountains and People .......................................................................................... Motivational Leadership................................................................................................................. Describing Leadership................................................................................................................ Role Models ............................................................................................................................... Leadership Characteristics ......................................................................................................... Applying Leadership .................................................................................................................. The Key Person.......................................................................................................................... The Ever-Changing Motivational Plan .......................................................................................... The Plan...................................................................................................................................... Feedback/Reinforcement............................................................................................................ Criticism ..................................................................................................................................... Modifying or Changing Behavior.............................................................................................. Supervisory Motivational Initiatives.............................................................................................. Different Approaches ................................................................................................................. Joint Labor/Management Committees ....................................................................................... Committee Makeup ................................................................................................................ Recordkeeping........................................................................................................................ Do’s and Don’ts of L/M Committees.................................................................................... Organizing a Joint Committee ............................................................................................... Expectations ........................................................................................................................... Outcomes................................................................................................................................ Joint Labor/Management Occupational Safety and Health Committees .................................. Summary................................................................................................................................. Peer Pressure .............................................................................................................................. Family Pressure .......................................................................................................................... The Worker Challenge ............................................................................................................... Rewards ...................................................................................................................................... Motivational Techniques ................................................................................................................ Training ...................................................................................................................................... More about Rewards .................................................................................................................. Reinforcement ............................................................................................................................ Incentives as Rewards................................................................................................................ Incentive Programs..................................................................................................................... Safety Incentive Program for XYZ Contractor ............................................................................. Special Emphasis........................................................................................................................ Contests ...................................................................................................................................... Gimmicks and Gadgets .............................................................................................................. Visuals ........................................................................................................................................ Conferences/Seminars ................................................................................................................ Nonfinancial Incentives.............................................................................................................. Summary......................................................................................................................................... References.......................................................................................................................................


36 36 37 37 37 37 38 39 40 40 41 41 41 43 43 43 44 44 45 47 47 47 48 49 49 50 50 51 51 52 53 53 54 54 55 55 55 56 56 56 57 58 58 59 59 60 60 60 63

Table of Contents

Chapter 4

Construction Safety and Health Programs ......................................................... 65

Reasons for a Comprehensive Safety Program ............................................................................. Building a Safety and Health Program.......................................................................................... Rules ........................................................................................................................................... Communications......................................................................................................................... Training ...................................................................................................................................... Accident Investigation................................................................................................................ Evaluation................................................................................................................................... Explaining the Requirements and Elements of OSHA Guidelines for a Safety and Health Program ................................................................................................ Management Commitment and Leadership............................................................................... Assignment of Responsibility .................................................................................................... Identification and Control of Hazards ....................................................................................... Training and Education.............................................................................................................. Recordkeeping and Hazard Analysis......................................................................................... First Aid and Medical Assistance.............................................................................................. Emergency and Firefighting Procedures.................................................................................... Model Construction Safety and Health Program........................................................................... Management Safety and Health Policy Statements................................................................... Accountability and Responsibility ............................................................................................. Discipline Policy ........................................................................................................................ Supervisory Involvement ........................................................................................................... Employee Responsibility............................................................................................................ Jobsite Inspections...................................................................................................................... Accident Investigations .............................................................................................................. Recordkeeping............................................................................................................................ Training ...................................................................................................................................... First Aid and Medical Availability............................................................................................ Emergency Procedures and Response ....................................................................................... Safety and Health Program Evaluation.......................................................................................... Evaluation of Your Responses....................................................................................................... Other Required Written Programs ................................................................................................. References.......................................................................................................................................

Chapter 5

xv

67 67 68 68 70 71 73 74 74 75 75 76 77 77 78 78 78 80 80 81 82 82 83 83 83 85 87 87 87 90 96

Analyzing Construction Hazards and Accidents/Incidents............................... 97

Preconstruction Conference............................................................................................................ 97 Worksite Hazard Analysis..............................................................................................................100 Accident/Incident Analysis ............................................................................................................102 Accidents: Why They Happen...................................................................................................102 Analyzing Accidents/Incidents ..................................................................................................104 Direct Causes..............................................................................................................................104 Indirect Causes ...........................................................................................................................104 Basic Causes...............................................................................................................................105 Job Safety Analysis ........................................................................................................................108 Management Controls ................................................................................................................110 Establishing a Method for Selecting Jobs .................................................................................110 Selection of Tasks for Analysis .................................................................................................110


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Prioritization of Tasks................................................................................................................111 Conducting a Job Safety Analysis .............................................................................................112 Considering Human Problems in the JSA Process ...................................................................113 Hazards Elimination or Control.................................................................................................114 Methods of Performing a JSA ...................................................................................................115 Review the Analysis and Potential Solutions............................................................................117 Implementing the JSA in an Operational System .....................................................................117 Monitoring a JSA Program ........................................................................................................117 Hazard Analysis..............................................................................................................................118 Analyzing Accident Data ...............................................................................................................118 Summary.........................................................................................................................................120 References.......................................................................................................................................120

Chapter 6

Construction Accident Prevention Techniques................................................... 121

Safety and Health Management .....................................................................................................121 Communications .............................................................................................................................122 Toolbox Talks.................................................................................................................................122 Training...........................................................................................................................................123 Hazard Identification ......................................................................................................................123 Safe Operating Procedures (SOPs) ................................................................................................125 When an Engineer is Needed.........................................................................................................128 Focused Inspections ...................................................................................................................128 Identify the Need for an Engineer .............................................................................................129 Engineer Requirements ..............................................................................................................129 Stated Engineering Requirements..............................................................................................129 Implied Engineering Requirements ...........................................................................................131 Consensus Standards ..................................................................................................................132 Inconsistent Reference to Engineers..........................................................................................133 Special Programs ............................................................................................................................135 Preventive Maintenance Programs.................................................................................................135 Fleet Safety Program......................................................................................................................137 Accident Investigation....................................................................................................................138 Purpose of Accident Investigations ...........................................................................................138 Potential Risks............................................................................................................................139 Investigations Benefit the Supervisor ........................................................................................141 Reporting Accidents...................................................................................................................141 Ten Reasons for Not Reporting Accidents................................................................................141 Good Accident Investigations....................................................................................................143 Determining Accident Types .....................................................................................................144 Designing a Report/Investigation Form.....................................................................................144 Organizing/Assigning Responsibilities ......................................................................................144 Explaining Accident Investigations ...........................................................................................145 Controlling and Follow-Up........................................................................................................145 Sources of Information...............................................................................................................146 The Interview Process................................................................................................................146 Reenacting Accidents.................................................................................................................148 The Accident Report ..................................................................................................................148


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xvii

Job Safety Observations .................................................................................................................149 Benefits of Job Safety Observations..........................................................................................150 Planned Safety Observations .....................................................................................................151 Frequency and Extent of Observations......................................................................................152 The Incidental Safety Observation ............................................................................................153 Indirect Types of Unsafe Procedures ........................................................................................154 The Planned Safety Observation ...............................................................................................155 Supervisory Preparation for Job Safety Observations...............................................................156 Making the Observation.............................................................................................................158 Recording the Observation.........................................................................................................159 Post-observation Conference......................................................................................................159 Follow-up Procedures ................................................................................................................160 Dealing with Unsafe Performance.............................................................................................161 Safety and Health Audits ...............................................................................................................162 References.......................................................................................................................................165

Chapter 7

Construction Safety: A through H....................................................................... 167

Abrasive Grinding (1926.303) .......................................................................................................167 Aerial Lifts (1926.556)...................................................................................................................168 Air Receivers (1926.306) ...............................................................................................................169 Alarms (1926.159 and .602) ..........................................................................................................170 Arc Welding and Cutting (1626.351) ............................................................................................171 Barricades (1926.202) ....................................................................................................................173 Barriers ...........................................................................................................................................173 Batteries (1926.441) .......................................................................................................................174 Change Rooms (1926.51)...............................................................................................................174 Compressed Air, Use of (1926.302) ..............................................................................................174 Compressed Air, Working Under .................................................................................................175 Compressed Gas Cylinders (1926.350) .........................................................................................176 Compressed Gas Welding ..............................................................................................................178 Concrete Construction (1926.701) .................................................................................................179 Concrete Cast-in-Place (1926.703) ................................................................................................181 Confined Spaces (1910.146 and 1926.21) .....................................................................................183 Construction Masonry (1926.706) .................................................................................................188 Conveyors (1926.555) ....................................................................................................................188 Cranes and Derricks (1926.550) ....................................................................................................189 Rated Loads................................................................................................................................189 Hand Signals ..............................................................................................................................190 Crane Inspections .......................................................................................................................190 Wire Rope ..................................................................................................................................190 Guarding .....................................................................................................................................194 Fueling........................................................................................................................................195 Electrical Concerns ....................................................................................................................195 Modifications..............................................................................................................................196 Crawler, Locomotive, and Truck Cranes ..................................................................................196 Hammerhead Tower Cranes.......................................................................................................196 Overhead and Gantry Cranes.....................................................................................................196


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Derricks ......................................................................................................................................197 Floating Cranes and Derricks ....................................................................................................197 Crane- and Derrick-Suspended Personnel Platforms ................................................................197 Platform Operations ...............................................................................................................197 Platform Specifications ..........................................................................................................198 Rigging ...................................................................................................................................198 Inspection and Proof Test ......................................................................................................199 Work Practices .......................................................................................................................199 Traveling.................................................................................................................................200 Prelift Meeting........................................................................................................................200 Demolition (1926.850) ...................................................................................................................200 Chutes (1926.852) ......................................................................................................................201 Removal of Materials through Floor Openings (1926.853)......................................................201 Removal of Walls, Masonry Sections, and Chimneys (1926.854)...........................................201 Manual Removal of Floors (1926.855) .....................................................................................202 Removal of Walls, Floors, and Material with Equipment (1926.856) .....................................202 Storage (1926.857) .....................................................................................................................202 Removal of Steel Construction (1926.858) ...............................................................................202 Mechanical Demolition (1926.859) ...........................................................................................203 Selective Demolition by Explosives (1926.860) .......................................................................203 Disposal Chutes (1926.252) ...........................................................................................................203 Diving (1926.1071) ........................................................................................................................204 Drinking Water...............................................................................................................................208 Eating and Drinking Areas (1926.51)............................................................................................208 Egress (1926.34).............................................................................................................................208 Electrical (1926.400) ......................................................................................................................208 General Requirements (1926.403) .............................................................................................208 Working Distances .................................................................................................................209 Guarding Electrical Equipment..............................................................................................211 Conductors Exceeding 600 Volts ..........................................................................................211 Installations Accessible to Unqualified Persons....................................................................212 Lighting Outlets......................................................................................................................213 Wiring Design and Protection (1926.404).................................................................................213 Ground-Fault Circuit Interrupters ..........................................................................................213 Assured Grounding Program .................................................................................................213 Requirements for Outlets .......................................................................................................216 Outdoor Conductors ...............................................................................................................216 Disconnects.............................................................................................................................217 Overcurrent Protection ...........................................................................................................217 Fuses and Circuit Breakers ....................................................................................................218 Grounding...............................................................................................................................218 Separately Derived Systems...................................................................................................218 Portable- and Vehicle-Mounted Generators ..........................................................................219 Neutral Conductor Bonding ...................................................................................................219 Ground Connections...............................................................................................................219 Supports and Enclosures for Conductors ..............................................................................220 Nonelectrical Equipment........................................................................................................221 Effective Grounding...............................................................................................................221 Bonded Conductors ................................................................................................................221


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xix

Made Electrodes.....................................................................................................................221 Grounded High Voltage .........................................................................................................221 Wiring Methods, Components, and Equipment for General Use (1926.405) ..........................222 General Requirements ............................................................................................................222 Temporary Wiring..................................................................................................................222 General Requirements for Temporary Wiring ......................................................................222 Receptacles Must be of the Grounding Type........................................................................222 Temporary Lights...................................................................................................................223 Boxes ......................................................................................................................................223 Flexible Cords and Cables .....................................................................................................223 Guarding .................................................................................................................................224 Cabinets, Boxes, and Fittings ................................................................................................225 Knife Switches .......................................................................................................................225 Switchboards and Panelboards...............................................................................................225 Wet or Damp Locations.........................................................................................................225 Conductors..............................................................................................................................225 Fixtures ...................................................................................................................................226 Receptacles .............................................................................................................................226 Appliances ..............................................................................................................................226 Motors.....................................................................................................................................227 Transformers...........................................................................................................................228 Fire Protection ........................................................................................................................228 Transformer Guidelines..........................................................................................................228 Capacitors ...............................................................................................................................228 Specific Purpose Equipment and Installation (1926.406) .........................................................228 Elevators, Escalators, and Moving Walks .............................................................................229 Electric Welder Disconnects..................................................................................................229 X-ray Equipment ....................................................................................................................229 Hazardous (Classified) Locations (1926.407) ...........................................................................230 Special Systems (1926.408).......................................................................................................231 Installations Emerging from the Ground ...............................................................................231 Interrupting and Isolating Devices.........................................................................................232 Mobile and Portable Equipment ............................................................................................232 Guarding Live Parts ...............................................................................................................232 Tunnel Installations ................................................................................................................232 Classification: Class 1, Class 2, or Class 3 Remote Control, Signaling, or Power-Limited Circuits ..............................................................................................233 Communications Systems ......................................................................................................233 Electrical Work Practices (1926.416)........................................................................................234 Lockout/Tagging of Circuits (1926.417) ...................................................................................234 Safety-Related Maintenance and Environmental Considerations .............................................235 Maintenance of Equipment (1926.431) .................................................................................235 Environmental Deterioration of Equipment (1926.432) .......................................................235 Employee Emergency Action Plans (1926.35)..............................................................................236 Excavations/Trenches (1926.650) ..................................................................................................236 Specific Excavation Requirements (1926.651) .........................................................................237 Utilities ...................................................................................................................................237 Egress Ramps and Runways ..................................................................................................237 Equipment and Loads.............................................................................................................238


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Hazardous Atmospheres.........................................................................................................239 Water Accumulation ..............................................................................................................239 Below Level Excavations.......................................................................................................240 Loose Materials ......................................................................................................................240 Inspections..............................................................................................................................240 Walkways and Barriers ..........................................................................................................241 Requirements for Protective Systems (1926.652) .....................................................................241 Slopes .....................................................................................................................................241 Support, Shield, and Other Protective Systems.....................................................................242 Shield Systems .......................................................................................................................244 Explosives and Blasting (1926.900) ..............................................................................................244 Blaster Qualifications (1926.901) ..............................................................................................245 General Provisions .....................................................................................................................245 Transporting Explosives (1926.902)..........................................................................................246 Use of Explosives (1926.904 and 905) .....................................................................................247 Electrical Blasting (1926.906) ...................................................................................................248 Safety Fuse (1926.907) ..............................................................................................................249 Using Detonating Cord (1926.908) ...........................................................................................250 Firing a Blast (1926.909) ...........................................................................................................250 Handling Misfires (1926.911)....................................................................................................251 General Guidelines.....................................................................................................................251 Eye and Face Protection (1926.102)..............................................................................................251 Fall Protection (1926.500–503) .....................................................................................................252 Scope, Application, and Definitions Applicable to This Subpart (1926.500)..........................252 Duty to Have Fall Protection (1926.501) ..................................................................................253 Fall Protection Systems Criteria and Practices (1926.502).......................................................255 Guardrail Systems ..................................................................................................................255 Safety Nets .............................................................................................................................257 Personal Fall Arresting System .............................................................................................258 Warning Lines ........................................................................................................................261 Safety Monitoring System .....................................................................................................263 Covers.....................................................................................................................................263 Overhead Protection...............................................................................................................263 Fall Protection Plan................................................................................................................265 Training Requirements (1926.503) ............................................................................................266 Fire Protection and Prevention (1926.150)....................................................................................266 Fire Prevention — Storage (CFR 1926.151).............................................................................269 Flammable and Combustible Liquids (1926.152) .....................................................................270 Flagperson (1926.201)....................................................................................................................273 Floor and Wall Openings (1926.501) ............................................................................................273 Food Handling (1926.51) ...............................................................................................................273 Foot Protection (1926.96) ..............................................................................................................273 Hand Protection ..............................................................................................................................274 Hand and Power Tools/Guarding (1926.300)................................................................................274 Hand Tools (1926.301) ..................................................................................................................275 Hazard Communications (1926.59) ...............................................................................................276 Written Hazard Communication Program .............................................................................277 Information Provided by the Employer .................................................................................277 Training Provided by the Employer ......................................................................................277


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Multiple Employer Sites ........................................................................................................278 Owner’s/Contractor’s Responsibilities ..................................................................................278 Hazardous Waste Operations (1926.65) ........................................................................................278 Written Safety and Health Program ......................................................................................279 Site Safety and Health Plan ...................................................................................................280 Site Evaluation .......................................................................................................................280 Site Control ............................................................................................................................282 Training ..................................................................................................................................282 Medical Surveillance..............................................................................................................284 Hazard Controls......................................................................................................................285 Personal Protective Equipment ..............................................................................................286 Monitoring..............................................................................................................................286 Handling and Transporting Hazardous Materials..................................................................287 Lab Packs ...............................................................................................................................288 Drum or Container Staging....................................................................................................288 Decontamination.....................................................................................................................288 Emergency Response Plan .....................................................................................................289 Sanitation................................................................................................................................290 New Technologies..................................................................................................................290 RCRA .....................................................................................................................................290 Emergency Response .............................................................................................................291 Emergency Response Training ..............................................................................................294 Head Protection (1926.100) ...........................................................................................................294 Hearing Protection — Occupational Noise Exposure (1926.52) ..................................................295 Heating Devices (Temporary) (1926.154) .....................................................................................296 Heavy Equipment, Preventing Slips and Falls ..............................................................................296 Helicopters (1926.551) ...................................................................................................................297 Hoist, Base-Mounted Drum (1926.553) ........................................................................................299 Hoists, Material (1926.552) ...........................................................................................................299 Hoist, Overhead (1926.554) ...........................................................................................................301 Hoist, Personnel ............................................................................................................................301 Housekeeping (1926.25).................................................................................................................303 Chapter 8

Construction Safety: I through W ....................................................................... 305

Illumination (1926.56)....................................................................................................................305 Jacks (1926.305).............................................................................................................................305 Ladders (1926.1053).......................................................................................................................306 Fixed Ladders.............................................................................................................................307 Rules for All Ladders.................................................................................................................309 Lift-Slab Construction (1926.705) .................................................................................................313 Liquid-Fuel Tools (1926.302) ........................................................................................................314 Liquid Petroleum Gas (1926.153)..................................................................................................314 Lockout/Tagout (1910.147)............................................................................................................315 Energy Control Program ............................................................................................................316 Lockout/Tagout Devices ............................................................................................................317 Periodic Inspections ...................................................................................................................317 Training and Communications...................................................................................................318 Energy Isolation .........................................................................................................................319


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Established Procedure ................................................................................................................319 Lockout or Tagout Device Application .....................................................................................319 Stored Energy.............................................................................................................................319 Release from Lockout or Tagout ...............................................................................................320 Testing or Positioning ................................................................................................................320 Outside Personnel (Subcontractors, etc.)...................................................................................320 Group Lockout or Tagout ..........................................................................................................321 Shift or Personnel Changes........................................................................................................321 Marine Equipment (1926.605) .......................................................................................................321 Material Handling and Storage (1926.250) ...................................................................................322 Material Handling Equipment (1926.602) .....................................................................................323 Medical Services and First Aid (CFR 1926.23 and .50)...............................................................326 Motor Vehicles and Mechanized Equipment (1926.601)..............................................................327 Nonpotable Water (1926.51)..........................................................................................................328 Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) (1926.95)...........................................................................328 Pile Driving (1926.603) .................................................................................................................328 Pneumatic Tools (1926.302) ..........................................................................................................330 Potable Water (1926.51) ................................................................................................................331 Powder-Actuated Guns (1926.302)................................................................................................331 Power Tools (1926.300).................................................................................................................333 Power Tools, Electrical (1926.302) ...............................................................................................333 Power Tools, Fuel Driven (1926.302) ...........................................................................................334 Power Tools, Hydraulic (1926.302)...............................................................................................334 Power Transmission and Distribution (1926.950).........................................................................335 Tools and Protective Equipment (1926.951).............................................................................335 Mechanical Equipment (1926.952)............................................................................................336 Material Handling (1926.953)....................................................................................................336 Grounding for Protection of Employees (1926.954).................................................................336 Overhead Lines (1926.955)........................................................................................................337 Metal Tower Construction .....................................................................................................337 Stringing and Removing De-energized Conductors..............................................................338 Stringing Adjacent to Energized Lines..................................................................................338 Live-Line Bare-Hand Work ...................................................................................................339 Underground Lines (1926.956)..................................................................................................339 Construction in Energized Substations (1926.957) ...................................................................340 External Load Helicopters (1926.958).......................................................................................340 Lineman’s Body Belts, Safety Straps, and Lanyards (1926.959).............................................340 Precast Concrete (1926.704) ..........................................................................................................340 Process Chemical Safety Management (1926.64) .........................................................................341 Requirements..............................................................................................................................342 Process Hazard Analysis............................................................................................................343 Employer Responsibility ............................................................................................................344 Contractor Responsibility...........................................................................................................345 The Process ................................................................................................................................345 New Operations..........................................................................................................................346 Hot Work....................................................................................................................................346 Management Change..................................................................................................................346 Emergency Action Plan .............................................................................................................347 Compliance Certification ...........................................................................................................347 Radiation, Ionizing (1926.53) ........................................................................................................347 © 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

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Radiation, Nonionizing (Lasers) (1926.54) ...................................................................................347 Rigging (1926.251).........................................................................................................................348 Rigging Equipment for Material Handling (1926.251).............................................................348 Welded Alloy Steel Chains (1926.251).....................................................................................349 Wire Ropes (1926.251) ..............................................................................................................350 Synthetic Rope (1926.251) ........................................................................................................352 Web Slings (1926.251) ..............................................................................................................353 Shackles and Hooks (1926.251) ................................................................................................354 Rollover Protective Structures (1926.1000) ..................................................................................355 Safety Harness ................................................................................................................................356 Safety Nets (1926.105 and 502) ....................................................................................................356 Scaffolds (1926.450) ......................................................................................................................357 General Requirements (1926.451) .............................................................................................358 Platforms.................................................................................................................................358 Scaffold Components .............................................................................................................359 Supporting Scaffolds ..............................................................................................................360 Suspension Scaffolds..............................................................................................................361 Accessing Scaffolds ...............................................................................................................363 Stairrails..................................................................................................................................364 Stairways and Ramps .............................................................................................................364 Integrated Scaffold Access.....................................................................................................364 Access During Erecting or Dismantling................................................................................365 Other Scaffold Rules..............................................................................................................365 Fall Protection ........................................................................................................................366 Falling Object Protection .......................................................................................................368 Additional Requirements Applicable to Specific Types of Scaffolds (1926.452) ...................369 Pole Scaffolds.........................................................................................................................369 Tubular and Coupler Scaffolds ..............................................................................................370 Fabricated Frame Scaffolds ...................................................................................................371 Plasterers’, Decorators’, and Large Area Scaffolds ..............................................................371 Bricklayers’ Square Scaffolds................................................................................................371 Horse Scaffolds ......................................................................................................................371 Form Scaffolds and Carpenters’ Bracket Scaffolds ..............................................................372 Roof Bracket Scaffolds ..........................................................................................................372 Outrigger Scaffolds ................................................................................................................372 Pump Jack Scaffolds ..............................................................................................................373 Ladder Jack Scaffolds ............................................................................................................373 Window Jack Scaffolds..........................................................................................................374 Crawling Boards (Chicken Ladders) .....................................................................................374 Step, Platform, and Trestle Ladder Scaffolds .......................................................................374 Single-Point Adjustable Suspension Scaffolds......................................................................374 Boatswains’ Chair ..................................................................................................................374 Two-Point Adjustable Suspension Scaffolds (Swing Stages)...............................................375 Multipoint Adjustable Suspension Scaffolds, Stonesetters’ Multipoint Adjustable Suspension Scaffolds, and Masons’ Multipoint Adjustable Suspension Scaffolds..................................................................................................375 Catenary Scaffolds .................................................................................................................375 Float (Ship) Scaffolds ............................................................................................................375 Interior Hung Scaffolds..........................................................................................................376 Needle Beam Scaffolds..........................................................................................................376 © 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

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Multi-Level Suspended Scaffolds..........................................................................................376 Mobile Scaffolds ....................................................................................................................376 Repair Bracket Scaffolds .......................................................................................................377 Stilts........................................................................................................................................378 Training Requirements (1926.454) ............................................................................................378 Signs, Signals, and Barricades .......................................................................................................379 Accident Prevention Signs/Tags ................................................................................................379 Site Clearance (1926.604) ..............................................................................................................380 Slips, Trips, and Falls.....................................................................................................................381 Stairways (1926.1052)....................................................................................................................383 Steel Erection (1926.750)...............................................................................................................385 Site Layout, Site-Specific Plan and Construction Sequence (1926.752)..................................387 Approval to Begin Steel Erection..........................................................................................387 Commencement of Steel Erection .........................................................................................387 Site Layout .............................................................................................................................387 Pre-planning of Overhead Hoisting Operations ....................................................................387 Site-specific Erection Plan .....................................................................................................387 Hoisting and Rigging (1926.753) ..............................................................................................388 Pre-shift Visual Inspection of Cranes....................................................................................388 Working under Loads.............................................................................................................388 Multiple Lift Rigging Procedure ...........................................................................................389 Structural Steel Assembly (1926.754) .......................................................................................389 Walking/Working Surfaces ....................................................................................................389 Plumbing-up ...........................................................................................................................390 Hoisting, Landing and Placing of Metal Decking Bundles ..................................................390 Covering Roof and Floor Openings ......................................................................................390 Installation of Metal Decking ................................................................................................391 Derrick Floors ........................................................................................................................391 Column Anchorage (1926.755)..................................................................................................391 General Requirements for Erection Stability ........................................................................391 Repair, Replacement or Field Modification of Anchor Rods (Anchor Bolts)............................................................................................................392 Beams and Columns (1926.756)................................................................................................392 General ...................................................................................................................................392 Diagonal Bracing....................................................................................................................392 Double Connections at Columns and/or at Beam Webs over a Column .............................392 Column Splices ......................................................................................................................392 Perimeter Columns.................................................................................................................392 Open Web Steel Joists (1926.757) ............................................................................................393 General ...................................................................................................................................393 Field-Bolted Joists..................................................................................................................393 Attachment of Steel Joists and Steel Joist Girders ...............................................................394 Erection of Steel Joists...........................................................................................................394 Erection Bridging ...................................................................................................................395 Landing and Placing Loads ...................................................................................................396 System-Engineering Metal Buildings (1926.758) .....................................................................396 Falling Object Protection (1926.759) ........................................................................................397 Securing Loose Items Aloft ...................................................................................................397 Protection from Falling Objects other than Materials Being Hoisted ..................................397


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Fall Protection (1926.760) .........................................................................................................397 General Requirements ............................................................................................................397 Connectors..............................................................................................................................397 Controlled Decking Zone (CDZ)...........................................................................................397 Criteria for Fall Protection Equipment ..................................................................................398 Custody of Fall Protection .....................................................................................................398 Training (1926.761) ...................................................................................................................398 Training Personnel .................................................................................................................398 Fall Hazard Training ..............................................................................................................398 Special Training Programs.....................................................................................................399 Temporary Sleeping Quarters (1926.51) .......................................................................................399 Tire Cages (1926.600)....................................................................................................................399 Toeboards .......................................................................................................................................399 Toilets (1926.51) ............................................................................................................................399 Transportation.................................................................................................................................400 Tunnels/Shaft (Underground Construction) (1926.800)................................................................401 Underground Construction (1926.800) ......................................................................................401 Egress and Access..................................................................................................................402 Check-In/Check-Out...............................................................................................................402 Communications.....................................................................................................................402 Emergencies ...........................................................................................................................402 Gassy Operations....................................................................................................................403 Air Quality..............................................................................................................................404 Hydrogen Sulfide ...................................................................................................................404 Flammable Gases ...................................................................................................................405 Ventilation ..............................................................................................................................405 Illumination ............................................................................................................................406 Fire Prevention .......................................................................................................................406 Unstable Formations ..............................................................................................................407 Explosives and Blasting .........................................................................................................408 Drilling ...................................................................................................................................410 General Guidelines.................................................................................................................410 Power Haulage .......................................................................................................................410 Electrical Safety .....................................................................................................................411 Cranes .....................................................................................................................................411 Caissons (1926.801) ...................................................................................................................414 Cofferdams (1926.802) ..............................................................................................................414 Compressed Air (1926.803).......................................................................................................414 Medical Requirements............................................................................................................414 Medical Lock..........................................................................................................................415 Identifying Workers ...............................................................................................................415 Communications.....................................................................................................................416 Signs and Records..................................................................................................................416 Compression ...........................................................................................................................416 Decompression .......................................................................................................................417 Manlocks ................................................................................................................................417 Special Decompression Chamber ..........................................................................................418 Compressor Plant and Air Supply .........................................................................................418 Compressed Air Ventilation and Air Quality........................................................................419


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Sanitation................................................................................................................................420 Fire Prevention .......................................................................................................................420 Bulkheads and Safety Screens ...............................................................................................421 Vermin Control (1926.51)..............................................................................................................421 Washing Facilities (1926.51) .........................................................................................................421 Welding (1926.350)........................................................................................................................422 Fire Prevention (1926.352) ........................................................................................................422 Ventilation and Protection in Welding, Cutting, and Heating (1926.353) ...............................424 Welding, Cutting, and Heating of Preservative Coatings (1926.354) ......................................425 Woodworking Tools (1926.304) ....................................................................................................426 Working over Water (1926.106)....................................................................................................427 Chapter 9

Industrial Hygiene Activities in Construction .................................................... 429

Background.....................................................................................................................................429 Construction Industrial Hygiene ....................................................................................................431 Physical Hazards ............................................................................................................................431 Ergonomic Hazards ....................................................................................................................432 Noise...........................................................................................................................................433 The Ear ...................................................................................................................................434 Biological Effects of Noise Exposure ...................................................................................436 Heat Stress..................................................................................................................................436 Cold Stress..................................................................................................................................441 Radiation.....................................................................................................................................442 Health Hazards ...............................................................................................................................444 Acute Health Effects ..................................................................................................................445 Chronic Health Effects...............................................................................................................447 Chronic Disease..........................................................................................................................448 Birth Defects/Infertility ..............................................................................................................448 Biological Hazards .....................................................................................................................449 Routes of Entry and Modes of Action...........................................................................................450 The Cell ......................................................................................................................................450 Eyes ............................................................................................................................................450 Eye Hazards............................................................................................................................450 Lungs and Inhalation..................................................................................................................451 Respiration..............................................................................................................................453 Natural Defenses ....................................................................................................................454 Skin Absorption..........................................................................................................................455 Ingestion .....................................................................................................................................456 Personal Exposure Guides .........................................................................................................457 Chemical Exposure Guidelines ......................................................................................................458 Time-Weighted Average (TWA) ...............................................................................................459 Short-Term Exposure Limits (STELs) ......................................................................................460 Ceiling Limit ..............................................................................................................................460 Skin Absorption Notation ..........................................................................................................460 Types of Airborne Contaminants...................................................................................................461 Dusts ...........................................................................................................................................461 Fumes .........................................................................................................................................462 Gases...........................................................................................................................................463


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Mists ...........................................................................................................................................464 Vapors.........................................................................................................................................464 Typical Hazardous Chemicals in Construction .............................................................................465 Solvents ......................................................................................................................................465 Cleaners ......................................................................................................................................466 Acids and Bases .........................................................................................................................466 Adhesives and Sealants..............................................................................................................468 Fuels ...........................................................................................................................................468 Wood ..........................................................................................................................................470 Exposure Monitoring......................................................................................................................471 Biological Monitoring ....................................................................................................................475 Medical Questionnaire ...............................................................................................................475 Pulmonary Function Tests .........................................................................................................476 Electrocardiogram ......................................................................................................................476 Chest X-rays...............................................................................................................................477 Known Cancer-Causing Chemicals and Hazardous Construction Materials................................478 Construction Training Requirements .............................................................................................478 Chapter 10

Personal Protective Equipment .......................................................................... 489

Introduction.....................................................................................................................................489 Protective Equipment for Noise.................................................................................................489 Eye Protection ............................................................................................................................490 Head Protection ..........................................................................................................................491 Foot Protection ...........................................................................................................................491 Hand Protection..........................................................................................................................492 Chemical-Protective Equipment Standards....................................................................................492 Chemical-Protective Clothing ........................................................................................................497 Protective-Clothing Applications ...................................................................................................498 The Clothing Ensemble..................................................................................................................499 Level of Protection .........................................................................................................................500 EPA Levels of Protection ......................................................................................................500 Ensemble Selection Factors ...........................................................................................................503 Chemical Hazards ......................................................................................................................503 Physical Environment ................................................................................................................503 Duration of Exposure .................................................................................................................504 Protective Clothing.....................................................................................................................504 Classification of Protective Clothing.........................................................................................504 Performance................................................................................................................................505 Design.........................................................................................................................................506 Service Life ................................................................................................................................508 Protective Clothing Selection Factors............................................................................................508 Clothing Design..........................................................................................................................508 Design Considerations................................................................................................................508 Material Chemical Resistance....................................................................................................508 Permeation..................................................................................................................................509 Degradation ................................................................................................................................510 Penetration..................................................................................................................................510 Sources of Information...............................................................................................................510


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Physical Properties .....................................................................................................................511 Ease of Decontamination ...........................................................................................................511 Cost.............................................................................................................................................511 General Guidelines .........................................................................................................................511 Decide if the Clothing Item is Intended to Provide Vapor, Liquid-Splash, or Particulate Protection.................................................................................................511 Determine if the Clothing Item Provides Full Body Protection ...............................................512 Evaluate Manufacturer Chemical Resistance Data Provided with the Clothing ......................512 Obtain and Examine the Manufacturer’s Instruction or Technical Manual .............................514 Obtain and Inspect Sample Clothing Item Garments................................................................514 Field Selection of Chemical-Protective Clothing......................................................................514 Management Program ....................................................................................................................515 Written Management Program...................................................................................................515 Program Review and Evaluation ...............................................................................................515 Types of Standard Operating Procedures ..................................................................................515 Selection of Protective Clothing Components ..........................................................................516 Clothing Donning, Doffing, and Use.............................................................................................516 Donning the Ensemble ...............................................................................................................516 Doffing an Ensemble .................................................................................................................517 Sample Donning Procedures......................................................................................................517 Sample Doffing Procedures .......................................................................................................518 User Monitoring and Training ...................................................................................................519 Work Mission Duration .............................................................................................................519 Decontamination Procedures..........................................................................................................519 Definition and Types..................................................................................................................519 Prevention of Contamination .....................................................................................................520 Contamination Due to Permeation.............................................................................................520 Decontamination Methods .........................................................................................................521 Testing the Effectiveness of Decontamination..........................................................................521 Decontamination Plan ................................................................................................................522 Decontamination for Protective Clothing Reuse .......................................................................522 Emergency Decontamination .....................................................................................................523 Inspection, Storage, and Maintenance ...........................................................................................523 Inspection ...................................................................................................................................523 Records .......................................................................................................................................524 Storage........................................................................................................................................525 Maintenance ...............................................................................................................................525 Training...........................................................................................................................................525 Heat Stress Due to Clothing ..........................................................................................................526 Body Water Loss........................................................................................................................527 Respiratory Protection ....................................................................................................................527 Respiratory Protection Physical Limitations .............................................................................527 Air-Purifying Respirators...........................................................................................................528 Limitations of Air-Purifying Respirators (APRs) .....................................................................529 Respirator Fit..............................................................................................................................529 Qualitative Fit Testing ...........................................................................................................529 Quantitative Fit Testing .........................................................................................................530 Routine Personal Fit Tests .........................................................................................................530 Medical Fitness to Wear a Respirator .......................................................................................530


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Facial Hair and Respiratory Protection .....................................................................................530 Care and Cleaning of Respirators..............................................................................................531 Inspection ...............................................................................................................................531 Cleaning and Disinfecting......................................................................................................531 Repairs....................................................................................................................................532 Storage....................................................................................................................................532 Respirator Program ....................................................................................................................532 NIOSH Recommendation ..........................................................................................................533 Chapter 11

Ergonomics in Construction ............................................................................... 535

Back Injury Prevention ..................................................................................................................535 Back Injury — Background.......................................................................................................535 Preventive Actions .....................................................................................................................539 Good Health and a Healthy Back ..............................................................................................541 Anatomy of Back Structure .......................................................................................................542 Back Injury Management...........................................................................................................543 First Aid: Taking Care of Your Own Back...............................................................................544 Warm-Up and Stretching Exercises...........................................................................................545 Use of Back Belts ......................................................................................................................545 Preventing Back Injuries............................................................................................................546 Back Injury Prevention Program ...............................................................................................546 Summary.....................................................................................................................................547 Cumulative Trauma Disorders in Construction .............................................................................548 Preventing CTDs ........................................................................................................................552 Construction Tasks and Ergonomic Risks.....................................................................................552 Tools and Their Design..................................................................................................................556 Hand Tool Design to Reduce CTDs..........................................................................................556 Existing Equipment/Tools and Their Applications ...................................................................560 Conducting Ergonomics Assessments ...........................................................................................562 Ergonomics Regulations.................................................................................................................563 Ergonomics Programs ....................................................................................................................563 Summary.........................................................................................................................................563 References.......................................................................................................................................563 Chapter 12

Construction Safety and Health Manual........................................................... 565

Cover...............................................................................................................................................565 Safety and Health Policy................................................................................................................567 Table of Contents or Index ............................................................................................................567 Responsibility and Accountability .................................................................................................567 Company Policies and Procedures.................................................................................................568 Parking Facilities and Site Access.............................................................................................568 Identification...............................................................................................................................568 Driving Rules .............................................................................................................................568 Security.......................................................................................................................................569 Employment ...............................................................................................................................569 Hours of Work ...........................................................................................................................569 Checking in and out ...................................................................................................................569 Payday ........................................................................................................................................569


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A Full Day’s Work ....................................................................................................................569 Issuing, Care, and Use of Materials and Equipment.................................................................570 Visits to the Doctor ....................................................................................................................570 Coffee, Smoking, and Vending Machines.................................................................................570 Drinking Water...........................................................................................................................570 Sanitary Facilities.......................................................................................................................570 Remaining in the Work Area.....................................................................................................570 Absence from Work ...................................................................................................................570 A Category-One Violation .....................................................................................................571 A Category-Two Violation ....................................................................................................571 Some Cardinal Safety and Health Rules .......................................................................................571 Special Emphasis Programs and Permit-Required Procedures/Initiatives ....................................572 Special Section on First Aid ..........................................................................................................572 Other Sections ................................................................................................................................573 Rules and SOPs for Construction-Specific Tasks .........................................................................573 Reference Materials, Diagrams, and Illustrations..........................................................................583 Acknowledgment of Receipt of S&H Handbook/Manual.............................................................583 Chapter 13

OSHA Compliance ............................................................................................... 585

OSHA Standards ............................................................................................................................586 Protections Under the OSHAct ......................................................................................................587 National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) .................................................588 Occupational Safety and Health Review Commission (OSHRC) ................................................590 Employer Responsibilities Under the OSHAct .............................................................................591 Workers’ Rights and Responsibilities Under the OSHAct ...........................................................591 Discrimination Against Workers....................................................................................................592 Right to Information.......................................................................................................................593 Assuring a Safe and Healthy Workplace.......................................................................................593 Workers’ Complaints......................................................................................................................594 OSHA Inspections ..........................................................................................................................594 Workers’ Complaints and Requests for Inspections .....................................................................596 Citations, Penalties, and other Enforcement Measures .................................................................596 State OSHA Plans ..........................................................................................................................598 Worker Training .............................................................................................................................599 Occupational Injuries and Illnesses ...............................................................................................599 Medical and Exposure Records .....................................................................................................605 Posting ............................................................................................................................................607 What to do When OSHA Comes Knocking..................................................................................607 Inspection Process ......................................................................................................................609 Mitigating the Damage...............................................................................................................609 Closing Conference ....................................................................................................................610 After the Inspector Leaves.........................................................................................................610 Make the Inspection a Positive Experience...............................................................................610 Focused Inspections in Construction .............................................................................................611 Specific Guidelines ....................................................................................................................613 Multi-Employer Worksites.............................................................................................................615 Summary.........................................................................................................................................616 References.......................................................................................................................................616


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xxxi

Construction Standards....................................................................................... 619

Federal Laws ..................................................................................................................................619 OSHAct...........................................................................................................................................619 The Content of the OSHAct ..........................................................................................................619 The Regulatory Process..................................................................................................................622 The Federal Register ......................................................................................................................624 The Code of Federal Regulations ..................................................................................................624 Regulation Paragraph Numbering System.....................................................................................626 29 CFR 1926 — Safety and Health Regulations for Construction ..............................................628 Subpart A — General ................................................................................................................628 Subpart B — General Interpretations ........................................................................................628 Subpart C — General Safety and Health Provisions ................................................................629 Subpart D — Occupational Health and Environmental Controls.............................................630 Subpart E — Personal Protective and Life Saving Equipment ................................................632 Subpart F — Fire Protection and Prevention ............................................................................633 Subpart G — Signs, Signals, and Barricades............................................................................634 Subpart H — Materials Handling, Storage, Use, and Disposal................................................634 Subpart I — Tools: Hand and Power ........................................................................................635 Subpart J — Welding and Cutting ............................................................................................636 Subpart K — Electrical..............................................................................................................637 Subpart L — Scaffolding...........................................................................................................639 Subpart M — Fall Protection ....................................................................................................640 Subpart N — Cranes, Derricks, Hoists, Elevators, and Conveyors..........................................641 Subpart O — Motor Vehicles, Mechanized Equipment, and Marine Operations....................642 Subpart P — Excavations ..........................................................................................................643 Subpart Q — Concrete and Masonry Construction ..................................................................644 Subpart R — Steel Erection ......................................................................................................645 Subpart S — Tunnels, Shafts, Caissons, Cofferdams, and Compressed Air ...........................646 Subpart T — Demolition ...........................................................................................................647 Subpart U — Blasting and Use of Explosives..........................................................................648 Subpart V — Power Transmission and Distribution ................................................................649 Subpart W — Rollover Protective Structures, Overhead Protection........................................650 Subpart X — Stairways and Ladders ........................................................................................651 Subpart Y — Commercial Diving Operations ..........................................................................652 Subpart Z — Toxic and Hazardous Substances........................................................................653 More Detailed and Other Sources of Regulatory Information......................................................654 Chapter 15

Workers’ Compensation...................................................................................... 655

Employers’ Liability.......................................................................................................................655 Workers’ Compensation as an Exclusive Remedy........................................................................656 Covered Employment.....................................................................................................................657 Covered Events...............................................................................................................................657 Selecting the Physician ..................................................................................................................658 Benefits ...........................................................................................................................................659 Cash Benefits..................................................................................................................................659 Benefits for Total Disability ......................................................................................................660 Benefits for Partial Disability ....................................................................................................661 Survivor Benefits........................................................................................................................661


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Medical Benefits.............................................................................................................................662 Rehabilitation..................................................................................................................................662 Background.................................................................................................................................662 Medical Rehabilitation ...............................................................................................................662 Vocational Rehabilitation...........................................................................................................663 Administration ................................................................................................................................663 Risk Management...........................................................................................................................664 Insurance.....................................................................................................................................664 Loss Control ...............................................................................................................................665 Summary.........................................................................................................................................666 References.......................................................................................................................................666 Chapter 16

Resources and Information Access .................................................................... 667

The Computer.................................................................................................................................668 Professional Organizations and Agencies......................................................................................668 Federal Government Sources .........................................................................................................670 Construction-Related Associations ................................................................................................671 Electronic Sources (Internet)..........................................................................................................674 Government ................................................................................................................................675 Other Sources .............................................................................................................................675 Consultants .................................................................................................................................675 Construction Organizations........................................................................................................676 Books ..............................................................................................................................................676 Selecting Consultants .....................................................................................................................677 Chapter 17

Construction Terms and Slang........................................................................... 679

Construction Terms ........................................................................................................................679 Construction Slang .........................................................................................................................714 Reference ........................................................................................................................................719 Chapter 18

Summary ............................................................................................................... 721

Planning the Safety and Health Initiative......................................................................................722 The People in Construction Safety and Health .............................................................................722 Construction Workers ................................................................................................................722 Supervisors .................................................................................................................................723 The Supervisor’s Ten Commandments of Safety .....................................................................724 Safety and Health Professionals ................................................................................................725 Contractors .................................................................................................................................725 People .....................................................................................................................................726 Programs.................................................................................................................................726 Hazards ...................................................................................................................................727 OSHA/Regulations .................................................................................................................727 This Book is for You .....................................................................................................................728 Incorporate Safety and Health .......................................................................................................728 Appendix A

NAICS versus SIC .............................................................................................. 729


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Appendix B

Construction Training Requirements............................................................... 733

Appendix C

Sample of Written Hazard Communication Program ................................... 755

Company Policy .............................................................................................................................755 Company Commitment ..................................................................................................................755 Employee Responsibility................................................................................................................756 Program Manager/Coordinator.......................................................................................................756 Chemical Inventory ........................................................................................................................756 Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS) Policy ..................................................................................756 Container Labeling Policy..............................................................................................................757 Employee Information....................................................................................................................757 Hazardous Nonroutine Tasks .........................................................................................................758 Emergency Procedures ...................................................................................................................758 Multi-Employer Jobsites ................................................................................................................758 Appendix D

29 CFR 1926 Construction Standards — Jobsite Audit Instruments.......... 759

Safety-Related Work Practices ......................................................................................................767 Safety-Related Maintenance and Environmental Considerations .................................................767 Safety Requirements for Special Equipment .................................................................................767 Appendix E

Electrical Hazardous Location Classification.................................................. 777

Appendix F

Rigging — The Crosby User’s Lifting Guide .................................................. 783

Appendix G

Jobsite Rules........................................................................................................ 795

Appendix H

Ergonomics Program Survey Instruments ...................................................... 799

Appendix I

OSHA Regional Offices and Offices of State-Approved Plans....................... 817

Appendix J

29 CFR 1926 Key Words .................................................................................... 823

Appendix K

Definitions for Subparts of 29 CFR 1926 ........................................................ 831

Appendix L

Crane Illustrations .............................................................................................. 873

Appendix M

Scaffolds and Aerial Lift Illustration .............................................................. 881


1 Introduction The construction industry is the builder of our modern world. From dams to skyscrapers, all that we have and see was in some way fashioned by construction contractors and workers. But construction can be a dangerous work. People in the construction industry not only face the dangers of being the first on a jobsite, but face potential health risks and exposures throughout the building process. Year after year construction is one of the most dangerous industries, with approximately 1,050 construction workers dying on the job each year. Although construction employment equals just over 5% of the workforce, construction injuries account for in excess of 17% of all occupational deaths.1 One out of every seven construction workers is injured each year and one out of every fourteen will suffer a disabling injury. These statistics are high for any industrial sector.2 The occupational illnesses affecting construction workers have not been accurately measured, but an educated guess is that construction workers suffer both acute (short-term) and chronic (long-term) illnesses from their exposure to chemicals, dusts, fibers, noise, radiation, vibration, and temperature extremes. For many specific construction trades, specific related occupational illnesses have been documented — such as asbestosis and cancer for asbestos workers — but no complete census as to the prevalence of occupational illnesses among construction workers has been undertaken. Precautions need to be taken to limit exposures which have the potential to cause detrimental health effects to construction workers since accurate exposures often cannot be determined due to the transient nature of the work. The following introduction to the construction industry sets the stage to delve more deeply into the industry’s inherent dangers, to break down its constituents, issues, and problems, and to look more closely at its components. The introduction provides the foundation for the primary function of this book — to assist those who are concerned with the development and implementation of safety and health programs on construction sites in order to protect those working within the construction industry.

CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY When the term “construction industry” is relayed, the vision conjured up is usually one of an all-inclusive contractor whose workforce performs all construction functions. But in actuality, construction contractors markedly vary in their areas of specialization, and only the largest companies have the resources and personnel to handle all aspects of construction. The continuum is diverse, ranging from the building of single family dwellings to tunnel construction. This diversity is best seen by studying the Standard Industrial Classification (SIC). The SIC system was developed by the US Department of Commerce. It provides numerical codes to identify the functions of every business, profession, and institution in the United States. The system is organized into 10 major business and professional classifications. It is composed of numeric codes that allow for organizing and retrieving information in a clear logical way. The system classifies industries from the general to the specific based upon how goods and services are provided in the real world. 1 © 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

2

Handbook of OSHA Construction Safety and Health

The SIC code is composed of one to six digits, and in some categories, an alphabetical character is used. The first two digits represent the ten major industry groups (see Table 1.1). Each construction contractor falls into a specific SIC depending upon the type of construction and work most frequently performed. A summary of these SICs can be found in Table 1.2.

TABLE 1.1 Standard Industrial Classiﬁcation 2-digit Classiﬁcation Code 01–09 Agriculture, forestry, and fishing 10–14 Mining 15–17 Contractors/construction 20–39 Manufacturing 40–49 Communication, transportation, and utilities 50–51 Wholesalers 52–59 Retailers 60–67 Finance, insurance, and real estate 70–89 Services 90–99 Government offices

TABLE 1.2 Construction Contractors’ SICs3 SIC 15 152 1521 1522 153 1531 154 1541 1542 16 161 1611 162 1622 1623 1629 17 171 1711 172 1721 173 1731 174

Types of Construction Building construction — General contractors and operative builders General building contractors — Residential buildings General contractors — Single family houses General contractors — Residential buildings, other than single family Operative builders Operative builders General building contractors — Nonresidential buildings General contractors — Industrial building and warehouses General contractors — Nonresidential buildings, other than industrial buildings and warehouses Construction other than building construction — General contractors Highway and street construction, except elevated highways Highway and street construction, except elevated highways Heavy construction, except highway and street construction Bridge, tunnel, and elevated highway construction Water, sewer, Pipeline, communication and power line construction Heavy construction, not elsewhere classified Construction — Special trade contractors Plumbing, heating (except electrical), and air conditioning Plumbing, heating (except Electrical), and air conditioning Painting, paper hanging, and decorating Painting, Paper hanging, and decorating Electrical work Electrical work Masonry, stonework, tile setting, and plastering


Introduction

3

TABLE 1.2 (continued) 1741 1742 1743 175 1751 1752 176 1761 177 1771 178 1781 179 1792 1793 1794 1795 1796 1799

Masonry, stones setting, and plastering Plastering, drywall, acoustical, and insulation work Terrazzo, tile, marble, and mosaic work Carpentering and flooring Carpentering Floor laying and other floorwork, not elsewhere classified Roofing and sheet metal work Roofing and sheet metal work Concrete work Concrete work Water well drilling Water well drilling Miscellaneous special trade contractors Structural steel erection Glass and glazing work Excavating and foundation work Wrecking and demolition work Installation or erection of building equipment, not elsewhere classified Special trade contractors, not elsewhere classified

As can be seen, construction contractors widely vary. This variation is noted in many different ways. Some are as follows: 1. Contractors perform their specialties at unique worksites, such as building skyscrapers or paving highways. 2. The equipment varies with the task being performed, from small tools to large earthmoving equipment. 3. The variety of materials needed to complete the project greatly varies and can include anything from 2 × 4 studs to large steel I-beams. 4. There is a great variety of procedures used during the work being performed, like tying rebar (Figure 1.1) or digging a trench. 5. Each construction process has its own safety or health hazards which can dictate different precautions, from the need for fall protection to the need for respirators for asbestos abatement. 6. The workers or trades (electricians, roofers, etc.) possess special skills and training to perform their specific tasks. This might include operating engineers using cranes or carpenters performing framing. The above examples are illustrations of why the variations in the industry exist and why a need exists to classify and identify the specific types of work performed by contractors. As of January 1997, the US Department of Commerce instituted a new industry classification system brought on by the passage of the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA). The North American Industry Classification System (NAICS) was developed to allow the comparison of industries within Canada, Mexico, and the United States. The new system utilizes a six-digit code maximum instead of the SIC four-digit maximum. In order to determine a contractor’s NAICS classification and number use Appendix A — NAICS versus SIC or http://www.census.gov.


4


FIGURE 1.1 Ironworker tying rebar on a lattice

CONSTRUCTION AS A BUSINESS The construction industry is definitely a business. The US Department of Commerce lists the value of the construction industry in excess of $600 billion a year. There have been estimates that at least 850,000 different contractors exist in the United States. As of the 1990 census information, SIC 15 had 186,676 contractors and $220 billion of work per year, SIC 16 employed 37,189 contractors and did $98.6 billion of work per year, and SIC 17 was the largest in number of contractors and dollars with 367,250 and $220 billion dollars, respectively.4 Contractors employ some 4,500,000 workers. Given such numbers, it seems safe to say construction is an integral part of the US business community and, as such, must adhere to the normal practices of those doing business within the United States. Many of the larger construction companies also conduct their business in the international arena. With this in mind, the amount of dollars, number of employers, and multitude of workers involved in construction indicates that it should be managed as a business from all aspects, including profit/loss, organizationally, and personnel, as well as the job safety and health component. Thus, the construction industry should be viewed as another responsible US business.

CONTRACTOR LIABILITY Construction contractors are faced with a myriad of potential problems when a project contract is awarded to the contractor. These problems range from organizational to legal issues. Of course, legal liability is always faced by contractors. This is especially true since the construction industry has the reputation of being among the most dangerous industries. The majority of contractors on construction sites are subcontractors who have been hired by other entities such as prime contractors, owners, architects, and engineer or construction managers. Subcontractors are often held accountable for the safety of their companies and employees, while the individual who hired them is protected from third party litigation. Thus, there is no shared accountability for safety and health on the jobsite. Recently this has begun to change and prime contractors, owners, and managers have been forced to share accountability and responsibility.


Introduction

5

All parties need to control safety and health on the construction site. With this shared responsibility come the following problems: 1. Workers often file liability claims against parties other than just the subcontractor, when the prime contractor, owner or manager does not expect this action. 2. Courts and juries feel contractors, general contractors (GCs), site managers, and owners who have or should have had control of the construction worksite are accountable and responsible for safety and health. 3. Any parties who fail to exercise control can be legally accountable. 4. The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) tends to hold all parties responsible for citations and penalties, even though they may not have created the violation(s). If all parties do not assume control of safety and health on the construction worksite, the owners, construction managers, contractors, and subcontractors may face some very serious problems. 1. Hazardous conditions may go unchecked, which can cause death or serious injuries. 2. Subcontractors who have bad safety records or perform their work in an unsafe manner are very culpable. 3. Courts may take a jaundiced view of prime contractors, owners, or managers who cannot separate their control and responsibility over production and safety. 4. Legal actions can result in large awards. 5. Legal fees, increased insurance costs, and loss of other resources (e.g., lost time, lost production) are outcomes of poor control. However, there are some actions that can be undertaken to mitigate legal liability. 1. Make sure that all parties are aware of the content of the contract and knowledgeable of everyone’s responsibilities regarding safety. 2. Maintain the power to inspect and monitor safety and health, and work practices to assure safe completion of the project. 3. Hold each contractor and subcontractor accountable for the daily activities of its workforce and the workers’ safety. 4. Employ only reputable contractors who can verify their work quality and safety practices. 5. Have a safety policy in place with job safety and health provisions clearly spelled out. 6. Use Hold Harmless/Indemnity provision to waive worker’s compensation while assuring certification of insurance and worker’s compensation programs. 7. Comply with OSHA Regulations and require all others to do so. 8. As a GC, do not relinquish total control but limit control as much as possible, which creates a “Catch-22” since the GC is ultimately responsible. As can be seen, a lot of thought should go into organizing safety and health on construction worksites. This includes how much control of production and safety should be exercised by the GC and how much responsibility should be entrusted to the subcontractors without relinquishing control of the project. Courts should start assessing liability based upon neglect to control workplace hazards rather than proper assumption of control. Thus, if one of the parties is following proper safety and production procedures or exhibiting control to assure a safe workplace in accordance with the contractual language, then there should be a degree of immunity for that party.


6


MANAGEMENT/PROFESSIONAL POSITIONS The construction industry has many employees and a great variety of individuals who have unique skills related to construction. These individuals include estimators, expeditors, safety engineers, civil engineers, architect engineers, field engineers, construction project engineers, draftspersons, and inspectors. On the management side, many positions are necessary such as project managers, financial managers, office managers, marketing managers, and purchasing agents. Although every contractor may not employ all of these types of professionals or managers, many employ more than one. The determining factor is often the size of the contractor or magnitude of the project. As seen, it takes a variety of personnel to staff the construction industry.

SUPERVISORS Supervisors are the employees of the contractor and may include general forepersons, job superintendents, forepersons, and some lead journeypersons/craftspersons. Contractors need to choose supervisors carefully. Just because individuals have excellent knowledge of the construction processes and are good workers does not assure they will make good supervisors. Surely supervisors need to be knowledgeable about the construction processes, but even more important are their people’s skills and leadership qualities. Since supervisors are on the front line, they are key people in communicating information in both directions — both from contractors to workers and from workers to contractors. For example, messages from the contractor are conveyed to workers by the supervisor. Most of what affects construction workers, such as training, job assignments, policy enforcement, decision making, and care of or tending to their needs, comes from the supervisor. Many times supervisors are given responsibility without much authority, which mitigates their effectiveness. Often their professional development, such as proper training, is overlooked. Supervisors are the work horses on construction projects and should be held accountable for production, safety, and health. But supervisors must be provided with adequate resources to accomplish what is expected of them.

THE COMPETENT PERSON(S) The construction industry is unique in that the OSHA construction standards (29 CFR 1926) require that contractors have a designated competent person or persons who are to conduct frequent and regular worksite inspections. The term “designated” means one or more authorized person(s) who are approved or assigned by the contractor to perform a specific type of duty or duties or to be present at a specific location or locations at the jobsite. This person should be qualified in the process he or she is overseeing which means he or she should possess a recognized degree, certification, professional standing or have extensive knowledge, training, and experience. Also, this individual must have demonstrated the ability to solve or resolve problems related to the subject matter, type of work being performed, or the project. To be in compliance with the requirements for a competent/qualified person, each project will have a project-competent person capable of identifying existing and predictable hazards with the authority to take prompt corrective action to eliminate them. This individual may designate other competent persons to perform certain job tasks, such as inspecting an excavation or directing scaffold building. In some cases, the OSHA spells out, within the regulations, the duties and responsibilities of the competent person, but seldom are the training requirements delineated or discussed. If and


Introduction

7

when OSHA promulgates a regulation, it should include experience level, responsibilities, and training levels needed by an individual deemed as the competent person for the requirements of that particular regulation. This would be very useful for contractors in determining individuals who would act as competent person(s). Each project should have a designated competent/qualified person who will be listed on the safety and health competent/qualified person form (see Figure 1.2). Although this form is circa 1982 and additional standards have been added, it is still a viable example. The competent person is often a supervisor, but there are many experienced construction workers who have the knowledge and expertise to act as a competent person on a jobsite.

WOMEN IN CONSTRUCTION In recent years, more and more women have been entering the construction industry. These women are said to be entering nontraditional occupations. The construction industry does not have the luxury of making special allowances for female workers who are performing construction tasks. What is expected, whether a male or female is doing a specific type of work or task, is that both perform as equals (see Figure 1.3). Of course, male or female hygiene facilities may be needed in many cases. This may include separate showers, changing rooms, toilets, etc. Also, the sizing of Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) may be an issue at times due to differences in the body structure of males and females. Whether it is a woman or a man performing the job, each individual must be capable of performing all of the tasks of his or her trade. Work expectations are the same for all workers. Most women or men who enter the construction industry soon discover if this is the type of work they really want to do. If it is, then it makes little difference what the individual’s sex is. It is expected that more women will find their way into the construction industry for all of the same reasons that men do: the pay is usually higher, benefits exist, high job satisfaction prevails, pride of work accomplished, and there is opportunity to become skilled workers.

THE CONSTRUCTION TRADES Construction workers found in the construction industry are classified according to the unique task they are trained to perform. Many of these trade workers started as apprentices and received training and on-the-job experience before being classified as journeypersons/craftspersons. The trades are classified as follows: Asbestos Workers/Insulators — Cover pipes and other types of equipment with insulation materials. Bricklayers — Do all the brick construction such as walls, fireplaces, and chimneys as well as concrete blocks and structural tiles. Boilermakers — Erect, build and repair boilers, blast furnaces, pressure vessels, and tanks at steel mills, refineries, chemical plants, and power plants. Carpenters — Cut, fasten, erect, join, mill, assemble, and align with a variety of materials including wood, plastic, metal, fiber, cork, and other structural materials. This is the most versatile trade, including framing walls, building concrete forms, installing dry wall, hanging ceilings, installing cabinets/fixtures, hanging doors, and laying floors. Cement Masons/Finishers — Produce the finish on freshly poured concrete floors, slabs, and sidewalks.


8

SAFETY AND HEALTH COMPETENT PERSON ASSIGNMENTS Project Contractor/Subcontractor Senior Supervisor SUBPARTS 1926 Job Site Inspections .20 1926 Medical Services/ .50 First Aid 1926 Ionizing Radiation .53 Technician Laser Operators0

1926 .550 1926 .552 1926 .556 1926 .601 Note: 0

Cranes – Annual Inspection

Safety Program Coordinator DESIGNATED PERSON

Industrial Hygienist/ Technician Hearing Protection – Fitting Respiratory Protection Fire Protection Sling/Wire Rope Inspections Powder-Actuated Tools-Trainer Welding-Industrial Hygienist Assured Equip. Grounding Conductor Program Scaffolding Roofing – MSS

Hoists – Inspections & Tests Aerial lifts – Operations Motor Vehicles – Daily Inspections Denotes requirement of Qualified Persons, all others shall be Competent Persons.

Date Area/Shift Supervisor SUBPARTS 1926 Pile Driving – .603 Signalmen 1926 Excavations – .650 Inspections 1926 Excavations – .651 Inspections 1926 .651 1926 .700 1926 .752 1926 .800 1926 .800 1926 .800 1926 .803 1926 .803 1926 .850 1926 .859 1926 .900

Excavations – Design0 Concrete – Inspection Iron Work – Supervision Tunnels –

1926 .900 1926 .900 1926 .950 1926 .955

Blasters0

Area/Shift Competent Person DESIGNATED PERSON

Tunnels – Inspection0 Tunnels – Equipment Compressed Air – Senior Designee Compressed Air – Gauge Tender Demolition – Pre-Job Survey Demotion – Site Surveys Blaster-in-Charge

Blasting – Program Power Transmission – Safety Designee Live-Line Bare-Hand Supervisor 0

FIGURE 1.2 Safety and health competent person assignment sheet (circa 1982) with permission of the Building and Construction Trades Department



1926 .54 1926 .55 1926 .101 1910 .134 1926 .155 1910 .184 1926 .302 1926 .354 1926 .400 1926 .451 1926 .500

Area/Shift

Introduction

FIGURE 1.3 Female carpenter at work on a construction site

Construction Laborers — Carry materials to other trades, assist other trades, do excavation and compacting, perform environmental remediation, and perform clean-up tasks (see Figure 1.4). Electricians — Install the conduit, wiring, and all other items that make up an electrical system. Elevators Constructors — Install elevators, escalators, and dumbwaiters. Floor-covering Installers — Place materials such as carpeting, linoleum, and vinyl/rubber tile. Glaziers — Cut, fit, and install glass in windows, doors, and other types of glass units. Ironworkers — Assemble or install fabricated structural metal products, usually large beams or columns in the erection of industrial and commercial buildings. Structural ironworkers erect the steel framework for steel-framed buildings. Reinforcing ironworkers place reinforcing steel bars and wire mesh used in reinforced concrete construction (see Figure 1.5). Lathers — Install the base wall such as wire or perforated gypsum boards to which plaster and stucco is applied. Mill-cabinet Workers — Build custom cabinets, store fixtures, and other specialized items. Millwrights — Set up pumps, turbines, generators, conveyors, and other mechanical systems. Operating Engineers — Operate and maintain heavy construction machinery such as bulldozers, cranes, pumps, pile drivers, derricks, tractors, and ditch witches.


9

10


FIGURE 1.4 Laborer mixing mud

FIGURE 1.5 Ironworkers preparing to rig

Painters — Mix paints, prepare surfaces, and apply paints, varnishes, lacquers, shellacs, or similar materials to surfaces using brushes, spray gun, or roller, as well as apply all types of decorative wall coverings, murals, etc. Pile Drivers — Work on highways, buildings, dams, and bridges including divers who do underwater work. Pipefitters — Usually work on industrial and commercial facilities installing pipe systems that carry hot water, steam, and various types of liquids and gases. Plasters — Apply plaster and stucco to buildings.


Introduction

11

Plumbers — Place all pipes for water, gas, sewage, and drainage systems. This also includes fixtures such as sinks, bathtubs, and toilets. Roofers — Apply and install roof coverings on buildings such as wood, asphalt, slate, or tile shingles. Sheet Metal Workers — Build and install sheet metal products such as the ducts used for heating and air-conditioning. They also make and install gutters and flashing. Stonemasons — Work on buildings which have solid stone or stone-veneered walls. Teamsters — Drive trucks which are entering and leaving the construction site. Tilesetters — Place ceramic and other types of tiles on floors and walls using materials such as marble and terrazzo. All of these trades at one time or another are an integral part of the construction industry and the possibility exists that all trades could be represented on one jobsite. Many of these trades are unionized.

UNIONS OF THE BUILDING AND CONSTRUCTION TRADES DEPARTMENT Although organized labor is responsible, according to 1995 Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS) data, for only 17.7% of the construction work occurring in the United States, organized (union) workers are usually more highly represented on large construction projects as well as being affiliated with large national/international construction companies. The 17.7% figure is higher than for the total organized workforce, which is 14.9%.5 The unions’ contributions to the construction industry include providing productive, quality, and highly trained workers. All of the Building and Construction Trade Unions are dedicated to selecting the best individuals to enter their apprentice training programs and assuring that those individuals coming out of their programs are highly trained and some of the most skilled and productive workers in the world. A contractor who uses a union crane operator knows that operating a crane is what that worker does for a living on a regular basis and is not a nonunion laborer who only operates a crane at times. Thus, contractors who use union workers have a sense of confidence that they have experienced and trained workers to do specific tasks at the jobsite. The unions that are part of the Building and Construction Trades Department are as follows: • International Association of Heat and Frost Insulators and Asbestos Workers International Brotherhood of Boilermakers, Iron Ship Builders, Blacksmiths, Forgers, and Helpers • International Union of Bricklayers and Allied Craftworkers • United Brotherhood of Carpenters and Joiners of America • International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers • International Union of Elevator Constructors • International Association of Bridge, Structural, and Ornamental Iron Workers • Laborers’ International Union of North America • International Union of Operating Engineers (see Figure 1.6) • Operative Plasterers’ and Cement Masons’ International Association of the United States and Canada • International Brotherhood of Painters and Allied Trades • United Union of Roofers, Waterproofers, and Allied Workers • Sheet Metal Workers’ International Association • International Brotherhood of Teamsters • United Association of Journeymen and Apprentice of the Plumbing and Pipe Fitting Industry of the United States and Canada.


12


FIGURE 1.6 Operating engineer operating heavy equipment

WHY THE HAZARDS It is often asked why construction hazards exist. Construction is a very unique industry and very unlike a stationary or fixed workplace or factory situation, which may help explain the safety and health problems it faces. Some of the reasons why construction differs from other industries are as follows: 1. Worksites are dynamic (constantly changing) and temporary as work progresses and other construction trade workers enter the process (see Figure 1.7). 2. Each worksite may involve several small contractors (subcontractors) performing different types of work in close proximity to each other. 3. Several trades may be present on the worksite at the same time, bring with them the specific hazards of their trade, such as operating engineers with heavy equipment or

FIGURE 1.7 The always changing construction site


Introduction

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

13

painter with their exotic paints. Thus, there is the potential for exposure to all workers at the worksite not just those of that specific trade. At times, on small sites one trade ends up doing all of the tasks usually performed by another trade; therefore, the workers may not be familiar with the hazards involved in performing tasks that are not part of their normal job. Working surfaces, equipment, machinery, trenching, and scaffolding are regularly being moved, being assembled and disassembled, or modified. Thus, new hazards are constantly emerging. Construction workers frequently change worksites and employers over the course of a year. This results in using new procedures and equipment for which they have not been trained. The work is often seasonal which results in both contractors and workers feeling rushed due to a sense of urgency to quickly complete projects. This increases the chances that an accident might occur or that occupational exposure to harmful agents will go unnoticed. Construction regulations are often difficult to understand. Sometimes the safety standards or standards governing chemicals do not exist for construction or are designed for factory workplaces, such as the use of asphalt, for which no specific regulation exists.

COST OF ACCIDENTS/INCIDENTS All accidents/incidents affect the bottom line (profit). Accidents/incidents are those occurrences that result in loss of production, illness or injury, damage to equipment or property, and near misses. Incidents cannot just be measured simply in workers’ compensation costs. These incidents damage the continuity of the jobsite, which causes lost time, lost wages, the breakup of a crew or the loss of a key person, property loss in the form of damage to machines and equipment, and culminates in the supervisor’s time lost during an incident investigation or an OSHA investigation/inspection which results in the cost of citations and violations, as well as the cost in the form of legal issues and fees. Also, insurance premiums, as well as worker’s compensation experience rates, will be increased. There is also the cost of damaged property, new procedures, new equipment, labor issues, and the contractors’ valuable time. As can be seen, the cost of accidents/incidents is not fully measurable, but the picture is very clear. These costs can definitely impact the efficiency and effectiveness of a construction operation, but oftentimes could be avoided by giving safety and health some attention and support on construction jobsites.

WHY DO ACCIDENTS OCCUR There are some safety and health factors which are unique to construction and some which are not. Awareness of these factors will help in preventing the occurrence of occupationally related construction incidents. 1. Actual physical hazards such as an unstable wall that is being erected. 2. Environmental hazards such as toxic atmospheres, oxygen deficiency, noise, radiation, and dust. 3. Human factors such as a supervisor’s or worker’s failure to follow safe work practices (Figure 1.8). 4. Lack of or poorly designed safety standards such as no standard for confined space entry or a construction standard or a chemical that is never used in the construction industry.


14


FIGURE 1.8 Unsafe act — worker riding in bucket

5. Failure to communicate within a single trade such as one equipment operator not following the standard travelway rules and colliding with another operator’s equipment, resulting in potential injuries and damage. 6. Failure to communicate between two or more trades such as a crane operator contacting high voltage lines while another trade (construction worker) is guiding the piece with a tagline on the material being hoisted.6

CONSTRUCTION DEATHS The occurrence of traumatic occupational fatalities is unique in that they provide readily accessible information as to their cause and prevention. This is very different than occupational illnesses, which often have a long latency period between exposure and symptoms. There are many reasons why dealing with traumatic deaths has advantages. • Deaths occur in real time with no latency period; thus, an immediate sequence of events exists. • The events are usually readily observable, and the reconstruction of minutes or hours rather than days, months, or years is an advantage. • The roots of basic causes are more clearly identified. • It is easier to detect cause-and-effect relationships. • There is no difficulty in diagnosing the outcome (death). • In most cases, traumatic deaths are highly preventable. In 1990, OSHA analyzed a group of construction deaths from 1985–1989 and discovered, probably to no one’s surprise, that four causes of deaths prevailed in the construction industry. The information indicated that • • • •

33% 22% 18% 17%

occurred occurred occurred occurred

from from from from


falls struck by caught in/between electrocution.7

Introduction

15

When viewing these cases of death, no relationship was noted between the day of the week, the age group, the size of the company, or whether the workers were union or nonunion when compared with the demographics of populations which comprise the construction industry. There were, however, some differences between the major construction SICs. Special trade contractors (SIC 17) accounted for 53% of the occupational fatalities, while heavy construction, other than building construction (SIC 16), accounted for 34% and building construction (SIC 15) for 13%. When looking at falls, the greater the fall distance, the greater the probability of death, but there are enough deaths starting at falls from six feet to justify the protection of workers. Most of the falls from elevation are from roof and scaffolds — thus, the emphasis in recent years on fall protection and scaffold safety. These usually occur in the special trades. Struck by deaths are most frequently caused by heavy construction equipment such as trucks, graders, cranes, or scrapers and also from materials poorly rigged or improperly stored. The caught in/between fatalities, such as the collapse of excavation or trenches, occurs in trenches between 5 and 15 feet. Caught between a moving piece of equipment and another surface does not occur as often as caught in accidents. Electrocutions occur at voltages below 480 volts. In most cases, this involves contact with live electrical parts. In the study, the contact most frequently was with high voltage lines, usually contacted by a piece of construction equipment such a crane or an aerial lift. OSHA has begun what they call focused inspections which are keying in on the prevention of these four most frequent types of traumatic construction deaths. When one focuses on these types of accidents, specific known interventions can be taken. As the saying goes, “this is not rocket science.” As examples of this, the following is provided: 1. Falls — Use fall protection, practice ladder and scaffold safety, guard openings, practice walking/working surface safety as well as stairway safety, and provide guardrails/handrails. 2. Struck by — Establish traffic patterns, have functional warning devices, train operators, practice proper rigging procedures, stack and store materials properly. 3. Caught in/between — Assure that all excavations/trenches are sloped, shored, or properly supported. Train workers to avoid placing themselves between equipment and other objects. 4. Electrocutions — Provide electrical safety training to workers, use lockout/tagout, use PPE, practice safe operating procedures (SOPs) around voltage sources and especially high voltage lines, and follow safe distance requirements. The OSHA inspector will use a check sheet to determine if a focused inspection is appropriate. By focusing on these types of construction deaths that could occur on a specific construction project site, preventive approaches can be contracted for and taken prior to beginning the project. Each project has it own hazards which can potentially cause a fatality. Some of the projects may have fall hazards, while others may have electrical hazards, and still others may combine all four hazards on the same project. Thus, it is prudent to address any hazards that have the potential to cause construction deaths, not just those most frequently fatality-causing factors.

CONSTRUCTION INJURIES Many of the same types of accidents that cause construction deaths also cause serious injuries. Some insights into construction injuries were acquired by OSHA when they analyzed worker’s


16


compensation data from 1985 to 1988. The frequency of occurrence of construction injuries is higher than the frequency rate for the aggregate of all other industries.8 There are many similarities between construction deaths and injuries. The major difference is that the most frequent cause of construction injuries is overexertion (24%) followed by struck by (22%) and then falls from elevation (14%). The remainder is composed of: • • • • •

Struck against Fall (same level) Bodily reaction Caught in/between Rubbed/abraded.

As could be expected for the types of injuries occurring within the construction industry, the nature of these injuries in order of decreasing magnitude are: • • • • • • •

Sprains/strains Cut/laceration/punctures Fractures Contusions/crushes, bruises Scratches/abrasions Multiple injuries Dislocations.

There are differences in the SICs that have accidents which result in injuries on construction sites. The OSHA data indicates the following percentages of injuries occur in the major SICs. • Special Trades (SIC 17) — 56% • Heavy Construction other than Building Construction (SIC 16) — 19% • Building Construction (SIC 15) — 25%. Within these SICs, the trades (construction workers) that are most frequently injured are the carpenters and the laborers. These two trades encompass the greatest numbers on construction worksites. Construction workers who are 20–24 years of age have more injuries than expected and those who have been on the job less than a year have greater numbers of injuries irrespective of their age. The most frequent part of the body injured is the back/trunk followed by lower extremities, fingers, upper extremities, and eyes. Understanding that each trade has a propensity to be exposed to different hazards and thus suffer injuries unique to their trade, the more that is known regarding the trades, the hazards, and the injuries occurring, the better the opportunity for the development of intervention and prevention strategies which can mitigate and prevent construction injuries.

CONSTRUCTION ILLNESSES As stated earlier, the numbers of occupational illnesses in construction have not been well documented. From OSHA’s worker compensation analysis, a cursory look at the types of illnesses which are most often reported to workers’ compensation indicates that acute illnesses such as dermatitis, toxic poisoning, welder’s flash, etc. predominate. Only 4% of the construction claims reported to workers’ compensation are recorded as illnesses. Due to the dynamic and transient nature of construction work, it is very difficult to determine


Introduction

17

Type of illnesses Dermatitis

14.1%

Inflam. & Irritation

10.6%

Welders flash

10.4%

Eye

8.9%

Toxic poisoning

7.8%

Heart conditions

6.5%

Nerves, ganglia

5.9%

Heat (Environmental)

5.6%

Influenza, pneumonia

4.3%

Mental disorders

Total illnesses 13,166

3%

Other

22.9% 0%

5%

10%

15%

20%

25%

Percent of total (1) “Illness” defined as per Appendix C codes in SDS manual. (2) Illness frequency 2 feet positioning device

X X

X

X

Fences, covers, barricades Equipment guards

X

X

X

Controlled access zone

X

X

X

Warning lines 6 feet from edge, guardrails, safety nets, PFAS, Safety monitors (most common)

Steep pitch Precast Residential (24 feet)

X X X

X X X

X X X

Wall openings 18 inch wide

X

X

X

FPP Slope

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