Handbook of Facility Assessment

Handbook of Facility Assessment James Piper THE FAIRMONT PRESS, INC. Lilburn, Georgia MARCEL DEKKER, INC. New York an...

Author: James E. Piper

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Handbook of Facility Assessment James Piper

THE FAIRMONT PRESS, INC. Lilburn, Georgia

MARCEL DEKKER, INC. New York and Basel

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Piper, James E. Handbook of facility assessment/James Piper p. cm. Includes index. ISBN 0-88173-321-0 (print) 0-88173-473-X (electronic) 1. Building inspection--Handbooks, manuals, etc. I. Title TH439.P573 2004 658.2--dc22 2003064271

Handbook of facility assessment/Piper, James E. ©2004 by The Fairmont Press, Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher. Fairmont Press, Inc. 700 Indian Trail, Lilburn, GA 30047 tel: 770-925-9388; fax: 770-381-9865 http://www.fairmontpress.com Distributed by Marcel Dekker, Inc. 270 Madison Avenue, New York, NY 10016 tel: 212-696-9000; fax: 212-685-4540 http://www.dekker.com Printed in the United States of America

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0-88173-321-0 (The Fairmont Press, Inc.) 0-8247-0932-2 (Marcel Dekker, Inc.) While every effort is made to provide dependable information, the publisher, authors, and editors cannot be held responsible for any errors or omissions.

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Contents Chapter

Page

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The Facility Assessment Process ......................................... 1

2

General Forms ...................................................................... 15

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The Building Site ................................................................. 25

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The Building Envelope ....................................................... 79

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The Building Interior ........................................................ 167

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Mechanical Systems ........................................................... 231

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Pumbing Systems ............................................................... 295

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Electrical Systems ............................................................... 347

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Transportation Systems ..................................................... 393

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Outdoor Recreational Facilities ....................................... 421

Index ..................................................................................................... 449

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THE FACILITY ASSESSMENT PROCESS

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Chapter 1

The Facility Assessment Process

rom the very moment that a new building is placed into service, it’s systems and components undergo a process of deterioration. When the building is new, the deterioration process is slow and goes unnoticed. As the building ages, the process accelerates. In some cases, such as with building finishes, the deterioration is easily noticed. In other cases, the deterioration is not so obvious and may go unnoticed even by those who are responsible for maintaining the building. With time and use, the deterioration process continues and accelerates until eventually steps have to be taken to renew or replace the deteriorating building systems and components. Over the life of a typical facility, this cycle of deterioration and renewal will be repeated several times. While good maintenance practices can reduce the rate of deterioration and extend the time between renewal efforts, they cannot stop the process. It is a fact of life that building systems and components wear out and require attention. Just as good maintenance practices extend the time between renewal efforts, deferring and neglecting maintenance will shorten the interval. Deferring maintenance, particularly in mechanical and electrical systems, frequently turns minor problems into major system failures. As the number of system failures increases, building owners and occupants push to have those systems replaced. Those facilities that have implemented comprehensive preventive maintenance programs have found that not only are the operation of their systems more reliable, but also those systems last longer. Routine wear and tear is not the only factor that contributes to the need to replace building systems and components. Buildings and the

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functions they support are not static. Change is a way of life for facility managers. Occupant needs are always changing. People are routinely being moved from one area in the facility to another. New technology is regularly being introduced that requires changing and upgrading support infrastructures. Building code and life safety requirements may require that significant changes be made to the building and it systems. While many of these changes, when taken individually, are routine and do not require major renovation or renewal efforts, taken collectively, they typically require that significant alterations be made to the building and it systems. In those cases, a major renovation or renewal program may become the only option.

THE FACILITY ASSESSMENT One of the problems that facility managers face when trying to determine if systems or components should be renovated, renewed, or replaced is that they have no specific standards with which to evaluate the existing systems and components. At best, systems and components may be subjectively rated as being in good, fair, or poor condition. More likely, renovation, renewal, and replacement decisions are made primarily on the basis of who is complaining and the available budget. In most cases, since there is rarely enough funding to correct all problems, this means that funding for repairing and replacing building systems and components is allocated on the basis of who is complaining the loudest and how highly they are placed in the organization. Compounding the problem is the fact that in most cases the rate of deterioration is so slow that it will go unnoticed until there is an emergency. At this point, the facility manager can only react to the problem. Reactive maintenance is by its nature costly and disruptive. When the maintenance department operates in a reactive mode, everything is handled as a crisis. There is no time for planning the repairs, scheduling the work, or for considering options. As a result, some systems and components are replaced when they could have been repaired. Others are repaired when they should have been replaced. Even when the correct decision is made to replace a system, it is usually replaced in kind with little or no consideration of alternatives. Failure to consider alternative solutions simply perpetuates existing problems and eliminates the opportunity for making long-term improvements.


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For example, when a building’s 350-ton chiller fails, it is usually replaced with a new, single 350-ton chiller even though the original chiller may have been over or under sized. Operating in a crisis mode, there is no time to consider options such as replacing that single chiller with a 200-ton centrifugal chiller and a 200-ton direct-fired absorption chiller. Such a combination would reduce peak electrical demand while providing system redundancy. Evaluating options such as these requires planning and careful consideration, something that is difficult to do in a crisis situation. To help maintenance managers break free of the crisis mode of operation, they need a straightforward, systematic approach that objectively evaluates and rates the condition of each system and component within the building. With such a system, facility managers can determine priorities for repair, renewal, and replacement projects based on need. Cost estimates can be completed and budgets established for future years based on those priorities. Facility managers would no longer be forced to operate in a reactive mode. Maintenance activities can be planned, managed, and budgeted for. One approach that has been used successfully to provide that information and more is the facility assessment. A facility assessment is a formal process used to identify, evaluate, and report on the condition of a facility’s physical plant. Its purpose is to evaluate existing condition within the facility and to identify exiting deficiencies. With this information, maintenance managers can identify existing maintenance problems, develop budgets for future maintenance and capital renewal projects, and track deferred maintenance backlogs. Facility assessments examine all building components and infrastructures, including mechanical equipment, electrical equipment, the building shell, interior structures and finishes, transportation systems, and the building site. A complete facility assessment provides the facility manager with a snapshot of the conditions that exist within the facility. Having that information available allows the facility manager to quantify the renewal and replacement effort required to put the facility and like new condition. It identifies areas where maintenance attention is needed to prevent minor problems from escalating into major headaches and expenses. It identifies both long and short-term maintenance and renewal needs. It helps in establishing both renewal and replacement priorities. Most importantly, it allows the facility manager to switch from a reactive mode

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of operation to one where activities are planned and scheduled. And if the assessment is repeated on a regular basis, it allows the facility manager to track deterioration over time.

THE NEED FOR ASSESSMENTS Conducting a facility assessment requires a significant investment of both time and resources. Some would argue that practically all of the information provided by the assessment is already available to the maintenance organization. Maintenance personnel regularly work with the building equipment and systems. Since they already know where the current and developing problems are, why should facility managers invest in an assessment? In many cases maintenance personnel do know the condition of the systems and equipment that they are responsible for maintaining. However, lacking a formal inspection and assessment process, this information is widely spread out across the entire maintenance organization. Practically all of it is maintained informally in a mental database. Over time as the facility changes and maintenance personnel change assignments or leave, much of this information becomes lost, distorted, or inaccurate. One of the most frequently cited reasons for conducting assessments is that maintenance has historically been under funded in most organizations. In 1994, the National Science Foundation conducted a study of scientific and engineering space. The study found that for every dollar spent on building repair and renovation, more than four dollars in needed repairs was being deferred; an increase of approximately 20 percent since 1988. Faced with these high deferral rates, maintenance managers have learned that only the most critical projects will be funded. Many have simply stopped requesting funding for those projects that have little chance of being completed. As a result, maintenance organizations themselves are deferring maintenance. Deferred maintenance has become a way of life for them. Deferring maintenance only allows minor deterioration to involve into major repairs were total replacement becomes the only option. The lack of proper funding cannot be blamed totally on upper management. While maintenance managers are quick to complain that upper management does not understand their needs, many have failed


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to make the proper case for their budget requests. Few people in upper management have a technical background or a thorough understanding of what it takes to maintain a building. Needs that may be obvious to maintenance personnel may not be understood by upper management, nor may the consequences of deferring maintenance be understood. It doesn’t help when maintenance managers have had previous requests for funding turned down and the equipment has continued to operate. They do not see that the equipment may not be operating as efficiently or as reliably as it should be, only that it is still operating. As a result upper management develops the mindset that maintenance was just crying wolf and their budget requests are always inflated. If maintenance managers are to change this perception, they must do a better job of presenting their requests to upper management. They must learn to speak the language that upper management understands, to talk in terms that have meaning to them. Simply stating that an item needs to be overhauled or replaced is not sufficient. The maintenance manager must identify what the item is, what function it serves, why it needs overhauled or replaced, what the overhaul or replacement will accomplish, the economic and maintenance benefits of the action, and the consequences of no action. If a return on investment can be determined, it is essential that it be included with the request for funding. The facility assessment, through its systematic approach to evaluating current conditions, will provide much of the information that maintenance managers need to present their case to upper management. But facility assessments can do much more. Facility assessments provide the facility manager with a detailed picture of the condition of their facility, including all of the deficiencies and their relative impact on operations. Knowing this information allows facility managers to make decisions on how best to commit limited resources. The information provided by facility assessments can also be used to improve the way in which budgets are prepared. Traditionally future maintenance budgets are prepared based on past levels of spending rather than actual needs. This method of budgeting uses several false assumptions. First, it assumes that past levels of funding were adequate and no needed maintenance was deferred. As the National Science Foundation study demonstrated, more maintenance is being deferred than is being performed. Second, it assumes that the building and the operations it supports are static. Buildings are anything but static. Building occu-

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pants are constantly changing the way in which they use the facility, resulting in changing demands on the building systems. Finally, this method of budgeting assumes building systems and components have an infinite life. All equipment and building components age, and as they age, their need for maintenance increases. The net result is that the level of under funding increases as buildings age resulting in more and more deferred maintenance. The alternative to historical budgeting techniques is one based on facility assessments. By knowing the condition and rate of deterioration of the systems and components in a building, the facility manager can plan future budgets based on demonstrated need. Data from the facility assessment can be used to project budget needs anywhere from one to ten years in advance. Finally, the information provided by facility assessments will allow facility managers to combine a number of small maintenance and replacement projects into a single, larger renovation effort. Combining several individual projects into one effort provides economy of scale, minimizes the disruption to building occupants, and allows implementation of solutions that might otherwise be impossible.

THE NEED FOR STANDARDS If assessments are to provide usable and accurate information, they must be uniform in both their content and the procedures used. In order for the data produced by an assessment to be used in ranking renewal and replacement priorities, the system used must be qualitative. The system must be designed to be independent from the prejudices and preferences of the people conducting the inspections. The system or component’s rating cannot be influenced by who is conducting the inspection, when the inspection is being conducted, or where the inspection is being completed. Only by designing the assessment to be independent as possible of these influences can facility manager be assured that the results are uniform. The most important step that facility manager can take to ensure consistency in the assessment process is the development and application of standards. There are two areas where standards must be applied; the data collection forms and the rating system. Using standardized data collection forms requires that individuals


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who are conducting the inspection of building systems and components examine and evaluate specific factors on each item being assessed. Without the forms, each inspector would examine only those factors that they felt were important. Different inspectors would examine different items leading to different assessment ratings. There would be no consistency from inspector to inspector, system to system, or year to year. The data collection forms presented in the following chapters of this book is intended to function as the starting point for an assessment program. Facility managers may choose to modify them to match the specific needs of their facility. The standardized rating system is equally important for producing consistent results. Without the standardized system, the rated condition of any building system or component would be subjective not objective. The condition rating given to a particular component would be greatly influenced by who was completing the rating and their personal likes and dislikes. Again, there would be no consistency from inspector to inspector, system to system, or year to year. The data collection forms presented in the following chapters include a standardized rating system that can be used to evaluate the condition of the item being assessed. Facility managers may change this system to meet the specific needs of their facility as long as the rating system is changed uniformly for all items of that type.

WHAT TO ASSESS Facilities consist of a seemingly endless number of components. The more thorough the assessment program, the greater the number of different systems and components that will be included in the program. Ideally, the assessment program will include items from all building infrastructures, including the building site, the shell, the interior, HVAC systems, plumbing systems, electrical systems, utility service connections, transportation systems, safety systems, and the grounds. Within each of these infrastructures will be numerous systems and components. Most facilities will even have additional specialized systems that not fall into these infrastructures. Since it will be difficult or impossible to include all of these systems and components, particularly while the assessment program is being established, the facility manager must make decisions as to what to include in the program.

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There are a number of criteria that can be used to help in the decision-making process. Consider the nature of the activity performed or supported by the particular system or component. How critical is it to the operation of the facility? Would its failure result in extensive downtime or significant financial loss to the facility? Is there a backup system or component that can be operated in the event of a failure? What has been the operating history of that item? How old is that item? By examining these and other criteria, facility managers can identify the highpriority items that must be included in the assessment program both initially and as the program evolves. In addition to addressing the question of what to assess, facility managers must consider when is the best time to assess a particular item. Some equipment, such building chillers and boilers, can be assessed only when they are operating. In other cases, such as with cooling towers, part of the assessment must be completed while the equipment is operating and part of the assessment must be completed while the equipment is shut down. Therefore, it is important that facility managers carefully schedule assessments around the seasonal and daily operating schedules of equipment. It should be noted that assessments are typically performed on an annual basis. One exception is for roofing systems. It is recommended that roofing systems be inspected twice each year, once in the early spring and again in the early fall. Scheduling roof inspections at these times allows roof conditions to be evaluated after the roof has been subjected to the stresses of summer heating and winter cooling.

IMPLEMENTING A FACILITY ASSESSMENT PROGRAM Conducting a facility assessment program requires a significant commitment of resources. In most cases it will mean reassigning maintenance personnel from their current duties to assessment duties. If the facility manager is to justify this lost maintenance time, then steps must be taken to help ensure the success of the assessment program. Similarly, if outside consultants are used to complete all or a portion of the assessment, the facility manager must carefully plan how those consultants will be used in order to gain the most value from the investment. The first step in implementation is to identify the goals and objectives for the assessment program. How is information developed by the


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program going to be used? Typical uses included quantifying deferred maintenance needs, prioritizing outstanding maintenance needs, identifying maintenance deficiencies, estimating renewal and replacement costs, evaluating maintenance performance, evaluating the overall condition of a building, determining if a building should be replaced, and developing future budgets. The focus and efforts of the program will depend to a great extent on how the facility manager intends to use the information. The next step is identifying the scope of the assessment. Ideally, the assessment would be designed to examine all building systems and components once each year, with the exception of roofs which should be assessed twice each year. However, many facility managers do not have the resources to implement a complete assessment program. In those cases, the frequency of the inspections and the scope of what is being inspected will have to be limited. Start by examining what it is you want to accomplish. Are some systems more important than others? If your facility has more than one building, should be assessments be completed in all buildings or should they be limited to only specific ones? Once the assessment program is operating, additional systems, components, and buildings can be added as resources permit. Before an assessment is started, a review should be made of all available information for the systems and buildings that will be included in the program. Construction drawings, maintenance records, equipment and building inventories, equipment operating manuals, building occupancy schedules, lists of past renovation projects, identification of planned renovation projects; all will help in conducting the assessment. Compiling these and other records ahead of time will make it easier to identify equipment and components to be included in the assessment program, and will help in assessing their current condition. Assessment teams will need a number of tools and pieces of test equipment in order to perform their duties. Most of the items needed, such as cameras, flashlights, tape measures, light meters, and ammeters, are low-cost and readily available. Some items that are used for inspecting and testing specialized equipment and systems, such as building chillers, are fairly expensive and may not be readily available. Facility managers have the option of purchasing those items, renting them, or contracting out those portions of the assessment. Before any of the assessment teams are sent into any buildings, the facility manager should notify building occupants about the assessment

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program. Since inspectors will be visiting all areas within the facility, it is a good idea to forewarn occupants as to what the inspectors are doing. Some of the inspections and equipment tests that are performed during the assessment process can cause disruptions to the occupants. Prior notification will help facility managers schedule those inspections and tests so that the impact of the disruptions can be minimized. Notifying building occupants also gives them the opportunity to provide information on conditions within their areas. Occupants often are more familiar with ongoing problems than many maintenance personnel. Giving them the opportunity to participate in the assessment process adds another source of information while helping to gain their cooperation in the process.

ASSEMBLING THE ASSESSMENT TEAM An important step in setting up an assessment program is the selection of the assessment team. Since assessments will be made of so many different systems, it is important that the team members have a mix of backgrounds and experience, including mechanical systems, electrical systems, and structural components. In addition, and least some team members must have experience in developing cost estimates for maintenance and renewal projects. Start the process with the identification and appointment of a program manager. It is important that the program manager be assigned full-time to the program. Attempting to use an individual on a part-time basis will seriously hinder the performance of the program, as other duties will always detract from the assessment program. The ideal program manager would be an individual who has a background in maintenance, understands the assessment process, has experience in developing budget requests, and has exceptional organizational skills. Once the program manager is in place, the remainder of the assessment team can be assembled. Facility managers have the option of conducting the assessment using in-house personnel, outside consultants, or some combination of both. In most cases, outside consultants are used when the in-house staffing is insufficient to complete the assessment tasks in a timely manner or when the in-house staff lacks the necessary skills. In-house personnel have the advantage of already being familiar with the facility and many


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of its deficiencies. Outside consultants offer the advantage of bringing specialized knowledge that may not be available with in-house staff. Regardless of which staffing approach is used, it is important that the individuals who will be conducting the inspections and assessments be familiar with the operation and maintenance of facilities. It is equally important that all personnel who will be working on the assessment program be properly trained even if they are already familiar with assessment programs. Proper training will help to ensure that all of those involved in the program fully understand what is being done and how. Training will increase the chances that the data collected will be accurate and the assessment ratings will be objective.

GETTING THE MOST OUT OF AN ASSESSMENT Collecting inspection and test data on thousands of building systems and components without follow-through is a waste of time and resources. To be an effective tool in helping to manage the operation of a facility, the raw data collected during an assessment must be processed and presented in a usable manner. How and to what extent it is processed depends on how the information is intended to be used. For example, reports can be developed that show the rated condition of all building chillers throughout the facility. Similarly, reports for individual buildings can be compiled that identify what needs to be done to restore the building to like new condition. The level of detail to include in the report depends upon how the report is intended to be used. For example, if the maintenance manager is requesting funding to replace or overhaul a number of building chillers, the report must go well beyond simply identifying those chillers to be replaced and their estimated replacement costs. More detailed information should be drawn from the inspection and test data to show exactly why those chillers need replacement, and which of those chillers are in most need of replacement. In cases where the deficiency is readily visible, including photographs of the existing conditions can greatly improve the chances for getting the funding approved by upper management. Photographs also are useful in tracking a slowly deteriorating condition, such as is commonly found with sidewalks and parking lot surfaces. As experience is gained with running the assessment program,

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facility managers will recognize new ways in which the information the program compiles can be used. Facility assessment data can serve as the basis for a self-evaluation program. Conditions found in one building can be compared to those found and other similar buildings. If some equipment is maintained by in-house personnel and other equipment is maintained under contract, the assessment program will provide a means of evaluating the relative performance of the two methods. Similarly, facility assessment data will also allow comparisons in performance of different systems that perform the same function, such as how well two different types of roofing systems perform. Depending on the size of the facility and what equipment is included in the program, the assessment manager may be forced to deal with a large quantity of paperwork. Inspection forms, equipment inventories, maintenance histories, summary reports, cost estimates; all contribute to the paperwork that must be reviewed, processed, and filed. The assessment program that is described in this book is designed to be operated manually, and it is recommended that any facility manager who is establishing an assessment program, initiate it manually. Manual operation allows the facility manager to easily test and modify the inspection forms, the rating system, and all assessment procedures. Once the system has been tested satisfactorily, it can be computerized using a wide range of database manager software products. Computerization speeds the information filing and retrieval processes as well as the development of a wide range of specialized reports.

EVALUATING THE PROGRAM’S PERFORMANCE Once the assessment program is up and running, it is important for facility managers to regularly review and evaluate its performance. There are two primary areas that must be reviewed and evaluated regularly; the assessment process and the assessment accomplishments. Without these regular reviews, programs can be side tracked and become ineffective. Items can be incorrectly evaluated. Inspection schedules can slip. Findings can be ignored. Too much time and effort is being invested in the assessment program to allow it to fail. Building equipment and component inspection and assessment sheets should be reviewed a regular basis for completeness and accuracy.


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Deficiencies that are found in filling out the assessment forms are generally indications of the need for additional training. It is equally important that inspection and assessment sheets be reviewed for consistency. After a number of different inspections have been completed on the same component, the results of those inspections should be compared. If the assessment program is to be effective and meaningful, those inspections must be consistent. When discrepancies are found, they should be investigated to see if they are the result of changes to the component or system or if they are the result of inconsistencies in inspection techniques. Inconsistencies in inspection techniques also indicate that need for additional training. Regular reviews and evaluations help to ensure that the program is accomplishing what it was intended to. Most maintenance organizations operate in a fully reactive mode. Facility assessments can help them shift their operation to one where maintenance is planned. By tracking the quantity of work performed in both a reactive and a planned mode, facility managers can develop an understanding of how effective the assessment program is an identifying maintenance requirements. When the program is new, practically 100 percent of maintenance activities will be reactive and nature. As the program matures, more and more maintenance activities will be performed as planned maintenance. The program will never achieve 100 percent planned maintenance, as there still will be emergencies and breakdowns, but many programs can achieve a 50-70 percent level. While it will several take years for organizations to achieve this level, their performance can be tracked by evaluating the ratio of planned to reactive maintenance. Another effective means of evaluating the effectiveness of the program is to track the quantity of funding received each year for maintenance tasks identified by the assessment program. Not all maintenance projects will be funded, but if the program is effective in identifying deficiencies and quantifying the funds needed to correct them, maintenance funding should increase with time. Most assessment programs start out small, including only a limited number of items in the initial assessments. Equipment and building components are ranked in order of their importance to the proper operation of the facility, and the most critical components are included in the initial assessments. If too much is included in the first assessment for the resources available, the assessments will not be completed in the desired timeframe resulting in lowered expectations and missed budget dead-

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lines. Therefore it is important to closely monitor progress during the first round of assessments. If the program is falling behind schedule, additional resources will be needed or the program will have to be scaled back. Once the first assessments have been completed and the information on the deficiencies compiled, it is time to consider expanding the program to include other equipment and components. Expand the program slowly, being careful to not overload the capabilities of those who are completing the assessments.

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Chapter 2

General Forms

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he maintenance process is a balancing act. Given unlimited resources of funding and staffing, maintenance managers would not have to defer maintenance activities. All building systems and components would be on a scheduled maintenance program that would keep them operating in like-new condition throughout their rated lives. Building occupant complaints would be minimized. Equipment performance would be optimized. Breakdowns would be a rare occurrence. But maintenance resources are not unlimited. Few organizations can keep up with even the routine maintenance of their facilities. Fewer still have the resources needed to implement even the most basic preventive maintenance program. As a result, maintenance managers find themselves having to balance the maintenance needs of their facilities with their resources. To help them achieve this balance, maintenance managers must weigh the cost of performing maintenance activities against the consequences of deferring it. Nobody purposely ignores maintenance requirements, but lacking the resources to do everything, priorities must be established; priorities that determine the what, when, and how often of maintenance. Following these priorities means that some systems will perform better than others. Some equipment will fail before it has reached its rated life. But if the priorities are established correctly, the overall performance of the facility and its components will be acceptable. Most equipment will perform satisfactorily. Most occupants will be reasonably happy with the operation of the facility. Most systems will continue to operate reasonably reliably. Overall, while things could be better, they could also be much worse. The same balancing act must be applied when developing a facility assessment program. Unless the facility is very small, maintenance man15

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agers will not have the resources to assess all elements of all buildings at the same time. In larger facilities, it will take years for the first assessment to be completed in all buildings. But if assessments are not quickly completed, their benefits of reduced maintenance requirements and improved system performance will not be achieved. How does the maintenance manager achieve this balance between assessment needs and available resources? The same way that other maintenance needs are balanced against available resources; by establishing.

ASSESSMENT PRIORITIES Depending on the facility and the needs of the maintenance organization, several different methods can be used in establishing priorities to determine the order in which building assessments are to be completed. Some buildings may rate a high-priority using one method, while rating a low priority with another. There is no one given rating system that can be applied to all facilities. Maintenance managers must be familiar with the different methods for rating priorities, and then select the ones that are most appropriate for use in their facility. In many cases, the system that they will use to rate assessment priorities will make use of more than one of these rating methods. One of the most commonly used methods for rating the assessment priority for a particular building is its maintenance history. Buildings that have a history of maintenance problems can benefit from being included in an assessment program. The equipment operating in those buildings may already have exceeded its useful life. Poor maintenance practices in the past may have contributed to frequent breakdowns or to excessive wear and tear. Harsh operating conditions may have contributed to early component failures. Whatever the cause, frequent and recurring maintenance problems are an indication that the building is a good candidate for assessment program. Meet with maintenance personnel and building occupants to get an understanding of how well the building systems are performing. Review maintenance records to identify patterns in maintenance requirements. How widespread are the problems? Are they confined to a single system, or are they evenly spread out throughout the entire building? Is their frequency increasing or is it remaining constant? Based on the conditions

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found, rate the building’s priority based on its maintenance history as low, medium, or high. Another commonly used method for rating potential benefit of conducting a facility assessment is the age of the facility. All building components have finite lives. Even with good maintenance, time takes its toll on building systems and components. Roof materials dry out with exposure to the sun and heat. Heat, moisture, and dirt cause electrical contacts in motors and switchgear to wear and fail. Repeated cycles of expansion and contraction stress building sealants, eventually leading to leaks. Finite building component life expectancies are not the only factor to consider when looking at a building’s age. Building code requirements, such as those addressing accessibility and life safety requirements, are continually evolving. The standards that must be adhered to today far exceed the standards that were in place when the vast majority of today’s inventory of buildings was designed. As a result, practically all buildings more than 10 years old have significant code deficiencies when examined from the perspective of current code requirements. In these buildings, even if all equipment and components were restored to like new conditions, the facilities would not measure up to today’s standards. Identify the age of the existing buildings. If a building has undergone a significant renovation that has replaced many of the building’s systems and components, and the renovation brought the facility into compliance with building standards in effect at the time of renovation, calculate the age of the building from the date of the renovation. Based on the age of the building, rate its assessment priority as low, medium, or high. Another method used for rating the assessment priority for a particular building is the nature of the activities being performed in that building. Different activities require different levels of support from building systems. Some activities can tolerate a wide range of support levels, while other activities require very specific operating conditions, and may not be able to tolerate equipment downtime. For example, areas such as office spaces and conference rooms can continue to be used even if the building’s HVAC system is not properly operating and is allowing temperatures and relative humidity to drift from the desired set points. But areas supporting computers and electronic equipment cannot tolerate temperature changes of more than a few degrees or relative humidity

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changes greater than 10 or 15 percent before operations are impacted. For these areas, equipment failures or improper operation can lead to significant downtime. Identify those areas in buildings that include critical operations. How extensive are those operations within the building? What impact would a building system failure have on those operations? If those operations had to be temporarily closed down until repairs could be made to the supporting building systems, what impact would there be on safety, security, and the overall operation of the organization? Based on the critical nature of the operations being carried out, rate the building’s assessment priority as low, medium, or high. Another factor that must be considered when rating the assessment priority of a building is any future renovation plans. When buildings undergo either a minor or an extensive renovation, many of the building’s original systems and components go untouched. While some of these systems and components may still be in good working order, some are not and should be replaced or renovated as part of the overall building renovation program. Unfortunately, they are often overlooked, resulting in a renovation project that when completed still suffers from many of the same problems that were found in the original structure. A thorough building assessment when completed on a building scheduled for an upcoming renovation can help to identify those systems and components that are in need of renovation or replacement, and should be included in the program. Identifying those items before the renovation program is initiated will prevent maintenance managers from having to renovate a recently renovated building. Based on the renovation schedule for the facility, rate the building’s assessment priority as low, medium, or high, with a high rating being given to those buildings approaching a scheduled renovation. A fifth method that can be used in rating the assessment priorities for a building is the building’s public exposure. Some buildings are highly public places, where appearance and the condition of the building’s infrastructures are particularly important. Others, such as corporate headquarters, play an important role in furthering the image of the organization. As a result, many organizations pay particular attention to these types of facilities in order to maintain the desired public image. A building assessment program conducted on facilities that play an important public role can help to maintain a certain public image. By

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identifying building systems and components that are deteriorating and in need of renovation, maintenance managers can correct deficiencies before they reflect adversely on the organization. Based on the exposure that the facility receives, rate the building’s assessment priority as low, medium, or high. The key to successfully implementing an assessment program is careful selection of candidate buildings. By evaluating buildings on the basis of priorities that are meaningful to the organization, maintenance managers can quickly show a return for their assessment investment, a return that will gain support in the form of additional resources that can be used to expand the program into additional buildings.

BUILDING INVENTORY The starting point for scheduling building assessments is the building inventory list. The building inventory list includes all buildings owned or leased by the organization, regardless of their age or size. By including all buildings in the facility, the inventory list will serve as a guide in assigning assessment priorities and in scheduling individual assessments. With all buildings included in a single list, assessment managers can begin developing a schedule of when each building is to be assessed. Use Figure 2-1 to develop the building inventory list. Figure 2-1 can also be used in determining the order in which buildings should be assessed based on the priorities for each building. List each building on a separate line on the form. For each building, identify the priority for including the building based on its maintenance history, its age, the type of functions it supports, how soon it is scheduled for renovation, and how important the appearance of the building is. Rate each priority as being low, medium, or high. Not all priority ratings will apply to each building. For those buildings where a particular priority rating does not apply, enter “n/a.” Once all buildings have been listed, closely examine their priority ratings. The goal is to identify the buildings that are to be assessed first. While there is no set number of buildings that should be selected, it is good practice to select several high priority buildings. Scheduling conflicts may prevent a particular high priority building from being assessed right away. Having several buildings selected will allow the program to be started without delay.

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Figure 2-1. Building Assessment Priority Ratings ———————————————————————————————— Priority (H/M/L) ————————————————————— Building

Maint. History

Age

Support Function

Future Renovation

Public Image

———————————————————————————————— _________________ ____ ____ _____ _______ ____ _________________

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_________________ ____ ____ _____ _______ ____ ————————————————————————————————

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21

COLLECTING BUILDING INFORMATION Before the assessment is started in any building, it is important that background information be gathered concerning the building and its operation. Gathering this information before conducting the walkthrough portion of the assessment will not only speed the process, but also help the inspection team in gathering relevant information. Without that information, the assessment team members may not be fully aware of existing conditions and problems. Unless the organization has a centralized maintenance management system, information will be scattered throughout various departments and locations. Maintenance work orders will be stored in the work control system for the facility. Preventive and scheduled maintenance records will be stored in their respective manual or computerized systems. Building construction documents and drawings will be stored in a central location, typically in the office that is responsible for construction. Building equipment lists may be scattered across several different maintenance shops. For the assessment program to make the best use of this information, it must be made readily accessible to those conducting the assessment. While most of this information already exists in the maintenance department, compiling it in a single location will help those conducting the assessment, will save time in completing the assessment, and will help to ensure that the assessment results are accurate. It is suggested that a separate file be set up for each building being assessed, and that all information related to that building be stored in that file. What is needed is an information base for each building that can be referred to by the assessment team. Use Figure 2-2 to record a summary of general building information that will help in completing the assessment. The form is not intended to record all-important building information. Rather, it is designed to record only summary information that will assist maintenance managers in estimating the time and resources required to complete the assessment. In addition to gathering information on the building that is to be assessed, a number of pre-assessment activities must be completed. Use Figure 2-3 as a checklist to indicate available resources and preassessment activities that have been completed. As section 3 of the checklist is completed, if it is found that many of the needed resources are not

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available, the assessment manager may want to consider selecting a different building, particularly if the program is still under development. Attempting to complete an assessment without this information will make the process more difficult and time consuming. Activities identified in section 4 of the checklist will greatly simplify the assessment process and must be completed before any of the inspectors enter the building. Each can provide an insight into the operation of the building and its systems, an insight that is not available to inspectors on a walk-through type inspection.

Figure 2-2. General Building Data ———————————————————————————————— 1. Building: __________________________ 3. Address:

2. Number:

______

____________________________________________

4. Date Constructed: _______________ 5. Original Cost: _______________ 6. Replacement value: _______________ 7. Gross area (sf): _______________ 8. Net Area (sf): _______________ 9. Type of construction:

❑

(concrete

❑ (masonry

❑

(metal

❑ (wood frame

other: _______________ 10. Number of floors: _______________ 11. Primary use of building:

_________________________________

12. Heated space (%): ________ 13. Air conditioned space:

_________

14. Dates and descriptions of major renovations: _________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________

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23

Figure 2-3. Building Pre-Assessment Checklist ———————————————————————————————— 1. Building: __________________________

2. Number:

______

3. Resources available: Yes

No

Up-to-date building drawings

❑

❑

Manufacturer’s equipment sheets

❑

❑

Up-to-date equipment inventory Previous inspection reports

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

Five year maintenance history

❑

❑

4. Activities completed:

❑ Set up building assessment file ❑ Met with building manager ❑ Requested feedback from building occupants ❑ Reviewed building maintenance history ❑ Identified special requirements ❑ Identified past renovation projects ❑ Notified building occupants of assessment ❑ Arranged access to secure areas 5. Notes: _______________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

SUMMARY The time that maintenance managers invest in preparation for the assessment is time well spent. By examining the inventory of buildings, and identifying those that have a high priority to the organization, they will help to ensure that assessment efforts are focused on

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those buildings that are important to the operation of the organization. By collecting data from a number of different sources before looking at the various building systems and components, they will gain a better understanding of the conditions that exist in the building. By keeping a central file for each building being assessed, they will provide the assessment team with ready access to that information throughout the assessment process.

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Chapter 3

The Building Site

A

well-maintained building site helps to promote a positive image of a facility and its operations. The condition of the roads, parking areas, sidewalks, and landscaping influences the opinions that employees, visitors, and customers form about the facility organization and the businesses it supports. But a well-maintained building site goes far beyond just maintaining one’s image. A well-maintained building site helps to maximize the return made on investments in site improvements. Good site maintenance will increase the safety and security of the facility and its occupants. And a well-maintained building site will help to sell, lease, or rent the property. Conducting regular assessments of building site components is an important factor in both properly maintaining those items and approaching their service lives. Site components are subjected to a wide range of weather conditions. Depending on the climate, conditions can range from well below freezing to over 100 degrees. Under these conditions, thermal stresses alone can lead to early failure of site components. Factor in the additional stresses caused by vehicular traffic, lawn maintenance equipment, deicing chemicals, snow removal equipment, rain, and hail, and one can easily understand why many building site components simply do not last. The building site assessment begins with a brief walk around. The purpose of the walk around is to identify what site components exist and to develop an overall understanding for the facility. If site drawings are available, their accuracy should be confirmed during the walk around. Note any changes or additions at this time. After the walk around has been completed, meet with the facility’s maintenance personnel and management to identify known problems 25

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and planned modifications. Identify the forms from this chapter that will be needed and make the necessary copies. Site assessments can be performed at any time of the year, as long as the items being assessed are readily visible and accessible. Although dry conditions are generally required for most items, follow-up site work during or immediately following rain may be required, particularly when assessing items such as drainage from walkways and facility parking lots. The forms presented in this chapter are for those items most frequently found in commercial and institutional building sites. These forms can be modified to meet the specific requirements of a particular application, or the can be modified for other components as needed. For each item, an average service life is given. Depending on the climate and the conditions found at the site being assessed, it might be necessary to modify these values. The recommended assessment frequencies presented in this chapter are considered to be the ideal assessment schedules for typical systems and components subjected to normal use. Facility managers may find that it is necessary to modify those assessment schedules based on the conditions found in their particular facility. If conditions are deteriorating, or if particular elements of the site facilities are subjected to above normal use, then the number of times that those components are assessed should be increased.

SIDEWALKS Facility sidewalks are generally a low maintenance item. Most problems that occur develop so slowly that they go undetected. Unfortunately, if the problems are allowed to develop uncorrected, they can become tripping hazards to building occupants and visitors. Therefore it is important that all facility sidewalks be inspected on a regular basis, typically once a year. Although sidewalks can be inspected at any time, the best time is in the spring so that any damage caused by winter weather, deicing chemicals, or snow removal equipment can be identified. Unfortunately, little can be done to repair damage other than removal and replacement of the impacted sections of sidewalk. Properly installed and maintained, the expected service lives for various sidewalk materials are as follows:

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Asphalt Concrete Brick pavers Concrete pavers Flagstone

27

15 35 25 25 20

years years years years years

Factors that will change the expected service life include the quality of the construction, the climate, and how the sidewalks are used. For example, sidewalks that are exposed to regular vehicular traffic will have a significantly shorter service life, unless they were constructed to withstand the weight of the traffic. The most common defects in sidewalks include the following: 1.

Cracks. Sidewalk cracks can range from hairline cracks that are barely visible to ones where the two sections of sidewalk have separated and moved apart. Minor hairline cracks are normal and generally required no corrective action. When cracks extend throughout the entire section of sidewalk, and those sections of sidewalk have separated, it may be a tripping hazard. For most applications, a tripping hazard exists when the height difference between two adjacent sections of concrete is greater than one-half inch. All sections with tripping hazards should be identified for replacement.

2.

Spalling. Spalling is a defect that occurs in concrete sidewalks and pavers when the surface of the concrete deteriorates and separates, exposing the aggregate. Spalling can be the result of over-working the concrete during installation, inadequate protection of the concrete during curing, or simply wear. When the spalling is minor, it does not pose a significant problem. However, when the spalling results in rough and uneven surfaces, it can pose a tripping hazard. All areas where the concrete asphalt has spalled sufficiently to create a tripping hazard should be identified for replacement.

3.

Heaving. Heaving occurs when one section of sidewalk moves vertically relative to the adjacent section of sidewalk. There are a number of causes of heaving, including the undermining of the material under the sidewalk section by water, uplifting of a section of sidewalk by tree roots, or improper preparation of the sidewalk’s base material. Heaving generally results in the creation of a tripping hazard.

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4.

Pop outs. Pop outs are the loss of individual pieces of large aggregate from concrete sidewalks. Most are caused by the use of poor quality aggregates that do not properly bond with the other materials in the concrete. In most cases, pop outs do not pose a tripping hazard and can be ignored unless they lead to spalling concrete.

5.

Poor drainage. Poor drainage sections include areas of sidewalks where water ponds. The major causes of ponding are sections of sidewalk that have settled and poor grading of surrounding areas. In cases where the ponding is limited, poor drainage is only an inconvenience and not a serious problem. However, if the ponding is deeper than one inch or covers an area large enough so that the sidewalk cannot be used, it will require replacement of the concrete sections or regrading of the surrounding area. Additionally, in climates where poor drainage can lead to the formation of ice, the ponding will have to be eliminated. The correction of sidewalk drainage problems typically requires replacement of entire sections of sidewalk or re-grading the surrounding area.

Use Figure 3-1 to assess the condition of the sidewalks. Use a separate form for each different type of sidewalk installed at the site. The tools needed to perform the assessment include a tape measure to accurately measure to width of the sidewalk, a measuring wheel for sidewalk length, and a camera to photograph overall conditions and major defects. The photographs will help during future assessments to identify areas that are slowly deteriorating. Complete the sidewalk assessment as follows: Item 1:

Enter the name of the building or facility that is being assessed.

Item 2:

Enter a unique section number for the sidewalk that is being assessed. The section number is useful in identifying a particular section of sidewalk in larger facilities. Using a unique section number will allow users to track the condition and rate of deterioration of that particular section with future assessments.

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Figure 3-1. Sidewalks ———————————————————————————————— 1. Location: _____________________________________________________ 2. Section: _______________ 3. Year installed: _______________ 4. Width (ft): ______________ 6. Material:

5. Length (ft): ______________

❑ asphalt ❑ concrete

❑ brick pavers ❑ flagstone

❑ other: ____________________ 7. Defects None

Minor

Moderate

Extensive

Heaving

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

Pop outs

❑

❑

❑

❑

Spalling

❑

❑

❑

❑

Staining

❑

❑

❑

❑

Tripping hazards

❑ ❑ poor

❑ ❑ fair

❑

❑

❑ good

❑ excellent

Cracks

8. Overall condition:

9. Estimated remaining useful life (yr): _______________ 10. Comments: _________________________________________________ ———————————————————————————————— ———————————————————————————————— ———————————————————————————————— 11. Inspector: ____________________________

Date: _______________

————————————————————————————————

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Item 3:

Enter the year when the sidewalk was installed. If portions of the sidewalk have been replaced, enter the year of the original installation.

Item 4:

Using a tape measure for accuracy, measure and enter the width of the sidewalk in feet.

Item 5:

Using a measuring wheel, measure and enter the length of the sidewalk in feet.

Item 6:

Identify the material used to construct the sidewalk.

Item 7:

For each defect listed, rate how often that defect occurs in the sidewalk. Use an average rating for all sections of the sidewalk being assessed.

Item 8:

Rate the overall condition of the sidewalk. Use an average rating for all sections of the sidewalk being assessed.

Item 9:

Estimate the remaining useful life of the sidewalk in years. The rating should be based on the overall condition of the sidewalk, its age, and its exposure to harsh service conditions.

Item 10:

Enter comments related to the conditions found during the assessment.

Item 11:

Enter the name of the person who conducted the assessment and the date on which the assessment was completed.

EXTERIOR STEPS Exterior steps, like sidewalks, are low maintenance. Because of the potential hazard that they pose, it is critical that exterior steps be kept in excellent condition. Problems with steps also develop so slowly that they frequently go unnoticed. For these reasons, regular assessment of exterior steps is particularly important in order to maintain a safe facility. Depending on the construction, location, and the condition of the steps,

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repairs can be made to some types of exterior steps. In other cases, it will be necessary to replace the steps. The best time to conduct an assessment of exterior steps is during the spring so that any damages caused by winter weather or snow removal equipment can be identified. An additional quick inspection conducted immediately following a rainfall will help to identify ponding problems. Properly installed and maintained, the expected service lives for exterior steps are as follows: Brick pavers Concrete Flagstone Metal

15 30 15 25

years years years years

Factors that will change the expected service life include the quality of construction, the climate, how frequently deicing chemicals are used, and the type of traffic that the steps are regularly exposed to. The most common defects in exterior steps include the following: 1.

Corrosion. Metal steps, being exposed to the elements, are subject to corrosion. The use of certain deicing chemicals accelerates this corrosion. If the corrosion is allowed to progress, eventually it weakens the structure of the steps, requiring their replacement. All areas with corrosion should be cleaned to bare metal and painted.

2.

Cracks. Cracks can develop in concrete, brick paver, and flagstone steps. Like with sidewalks, cracks in steps can range from hairline cracks that are barely visible to ones where the sections have separated and moved apart. Most hairline cracks do not require corrective action. Larger cracks will require repair or replacement of that section of the steps to prevent having sections break off, creating a tripping hazard.

3.

Pop outs. Pop outs are the loss of individual pieces of large aggregate from concrete steps. Most are caused by the use of poor quality aggregates that do not properly bond with other materials in the concrete. Depending on the location of the pop out, it can pose a tripping hazard. Pop outs can be filled.

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4.

Spalling. Spalling is a defect that occurs in concrete steps when the surface of the concrete deteriorates and separates, exposing the aggregate. Spalling can be the result of over-working the concrete during installation, inadequate protection of the concrete during curing, or simply wear. If the spalling is minor and is located away from the edge of the step, it does not pose a significant problem. However, when the spalling results in a rough or uneven edge to the steps, it can pose a tripping hazard. Badly spalled sections of concrete steps must be replaced.

5.

Tripping hazards. The most common tripping hazards associated with steps are rough surfaces and edges resulting from cracking, pop outs, spalling, and wear. In addition, steps with riser heights that are greater than 8.25 inches are considered to be tripping hazards. Eliminating tripping hazards requires replacement of those sections of concrete.

Use Figure 3-2 assesses the condition of exterior steps. Use a separate form for each different type of step installed at the site. If multiple sections of steps are installed, use a separate form for each section of steps. The tools needed to perform the assessment include a tape measure to accurately measure the height of the step riser and the width of the step, and a camera to photograph overall conditions and major defects. The photographs will help during future assessments to identify areas that are slowly deteriorating. Complete the step assessment as follows: Item 1:

Enter the name of the building or facility that is being assessed.

Item 2:

Enter a unique section number for that particular section or sections of exterior steps being assessed. The section number is useful in identifying a particular section of steps in larger facilities, and will allow users to track the condition and rate of deterioration of that particular section with future assessments.

Item 3:

Enter the year when the steps were installed. If portions of the steps have been replaced, enter the year of the original installation.

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Figure 3-2. Exterior Steps ———————————————————————————————— 1. Location: ____________________________________________ 2. Section: _______________ 3. Year installed: _______________ 4. Number of steps: ____________ 6. Material:

5. Width (ft): _____________

❑ brick pavers

❑ concrete

❑ flagstone

❑ metal

❑ other: ____________________ 7. Defects: None

Minor

Moderate

Extensive

Corrosion

❑

❑

❑

❑

Cracks

❑

❑

❑

❑

Pop outs

❑

❑

❑

❑

Spalling

❑

❑

❑

❑

Staining

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ poor

❑ fair

❑ good

❑ excellent

Tripping hazards 8. Overall condition:

9. Estimated remaining useful life (yr): _______________ 10. Comments: _________________________________________________ ———————————————————————————————— ———————————————————————————————— ———————————————————————————————— 11. Inspector: _________________________ Date: _____________ ————————————————————————————————

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Item 4:

Enter the number of steps.

Item 5:

Enter the width of the steps. If the steps in the section are of varying width, use the average width.

Item 6:

Identify the material used to construct the steps.

Item 7:

For each defect listed, rate how often that defect occurs in the steps. Use an average rating for all steps being assessed.

Item 8:

Rate the overall condition of the steps. Use an average rating for all sections being assessed.

Item 9:

Estimate the remaining useful life of the steps in years. The rating should be based on the overall condition of the steps, their age, and their exposure to harsh service conditions.

Item 10:

Enter comments related to conditions found during the assessment.

Item 11:


CURBS AND GUTTERS Although curbs and gutters are low maintenance items, they are subject to abuse from delivery vehicles and snow removal equipment that can leave sections cracked or broken. In addition, more slowly developing problems, such as heaving, settlement, and spalling can result in areas of curb and gutter that need to be replaced. Although many of the more common defects are cosmetic in nature, some can create hazards for pedestrians. Most damaged sections of curb and gutters must be replaced rather than repaired. The two most common materials used for curb and gutter construction are concrete and asphalt. Properly installed, concrete curbs and gutters have an expected service of 35 years. Asphalt curb and gutters have an expected service life of 10 to 15 years. Factors that will change the expected service life include the quality of the construction, the cli-

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35

mate, and how frequently vehicles are driven over the curbs. The most common defects in curbs and gutters include the following: 1.

Cracks. The development of cracks is more common in concrete than asphalt curbs and gutters. Cracks can range from hairline cracks to complete breaks in the concrete. Minor hairline cracks are normal and generally require no corrective action. Broken sections will require replacement.

2.

Heaving. Heaving occurs when one section of curb and gutter moves vertically relative to the adjacent section. There are a number of causes of heaving, including the undermining of a section by water, improper preparation of the base material under the section, and driving vehicles over a section. Heaving is a concern only when the difference in height between the sections exceeds one inch and creates a tripping hazard. Heaving is corrected by replacement of one or both of the adjacent sections of curb and gutter.

3.

Impact damage. Typical impact damage includes broken and chipped sections. Most impact damage is the result of lawn care and snow removal equipment. Impact damage is a concern only if it creates a tripping hazard or if it is sufficient to destroy the integrity of the section of curb and gutter. In those cases, the damaged sections must be replaced.

4.

Broken sections. Broken sections are the result of a wide range of factors, including impact with vehicles and equipment or heavy loading of the section. Cracking can develop into broken sections. Replacement is the only suitable corrective action for broken sections.

5.

Spalling. Spalling is a defect that occurs when the surface of the concrete deteriorates and separates, exposing the aggregate. Spalling can be the result of over-working the concrete during installation, inadequate protection of the concrete during curing, or simply wear. If the spalling is minor, it does not pose a problem. Extensive spalling will require replacement of the damaged sections.

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Settlement. Settlement occurs when one or more sections of the curb and gutter become lower than the surrounding surfaces, such as sidewalks or asphalt roads and parking. Settlement creates two problems; tripping hazards and ponding water. Settlement is corrected by replacing the section of curb and gutter, or by replacing the adjacent surface material.

Use Figure 3-3 to assess the condition of the curbs and gutters. Use a separate form for each different type of curb and gutter installed at the site. The tools needed to perform the assessment include a measuring wheel and a camera to photograph overall conditions and major defects. The photographs will help during future assessments to identify areas that are slowly deteriorating. Item 1:

Enter the name of the building or facility where the curbs and gutters are being assessed.

Item 2:

Enter a unique section number for that particular section or sections of curb and gutter being assessed. The section number is useful in identifying a particular section in larger facilities, and will allow users to track the condition and rate of deterioration of that particular section with future assessments.

Item 3:

Enter the year when the curb and gutter were installed. If portions of the curb and gutter have been replaced, enter the year of the original installation.

Item 4:

Enter the length of the curb and gutter.

Item 5:

Identify the material used to construct the curb and gutter.

Item 6:

For each defect listed, rate how often that defect occurs in the section being assessed. Use an average rating for all curb and gutter being assessed.

Item 7:

Rate the overall condition of the curb and gutter. Use an average rating for all sections being assessed.

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Figure 3-3. Curbs and Gutters ———————————————————————————————— 1. Location: _____________________________________________________ 2. Identifier: _______________ 3. Year installed: ____________

4. Length (ft): _____________

❑ concrete ❑ asphalt ❑ other: ____________________

5. Material:

6. Defects None

Minor

Moderate

Extensive

Heaving

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

Impact damage

❑

❑

❑

❑

Broken sections

❑

❑

❑

❑

Spalling

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ poor

❑ fair

❑ good

❑ excellent

Cracks

Settlement 7. Overall condition:

8. Estimated remaining useful life (yr): _______________ 9. Comments: ___________________________________________________ ———————————————————————————————— ———————————————————————————————— ———————————————————————————————— 10. Inspector: ________________________________ Date: _____________ ————————————————————————————————

Item 8:

Estimate the remaining useful life of the curb and gutter in years. The rating should be based on the overall condition of the curb and gutter, its age, and its exposure to harsh service conditions.

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Item 9:


Item 10:


ASPHALT ROADS The majority of roads owned and maintained by facilities are made from asphalt. Asphalt roads represent a significant investment, one that must be protected through good maintenance practices. Few other elements in the facility inventory can benefit as much from maintenance as asphalt surfaces. With a good maintenance program consisting of regularly scheduled inspections, spot repairs to damaged areas, and periodic application of a sealer, asphalt roads will have an expected service life of 20 to 25 years. If maintenance is ignored, the service life of an asphalt road can be as short as 10 years. When asphalt is new it is resilient and flexible. The sun, heat, and traffic take their toll on the asphalt, causing it to lose some of this flexibility, resulting in small separations between the asphalt material and the aggregate. Eventually these separations build into a pattern of cracks. The cracks allow water to penetrate the asphalt’s base, undermining the asphalt and creating potholes. Small cracks almost always develop into larger problems. The key to long life for asphalt is early detection. By conducting two assessments each year, one in the spring and one in the fall, defects can be detected early and corrected while they are still minor, long before they lead to the failure of the asphalt. The assessments identify the overall condition of the asphalt and locations where spot repairs are required. It is also recommended that a sealer be applied every five years to slow the rate of loss of oils from the asphalt due to heat and exposure to the sun. Before applying the sealer, all cracks should be cleaned and sealed to prevent the entry of water into the underlying base. By slowing the rate of loss of oils, sealers will also help limit the penetration of water into the asphalt while helping it to maintain its flexibility. The most common defects in asphalt roads include the following: 1.

Alligatoring. One of the most common failures of asphalt surfaces is alligatoring. Alligatoring is the development of a pattern of inter-

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39

connected cracks the take on the appearance of an alligator’s skin. Alligatoring occurs most frequently in areas that are subjected to heavy traffic or heavy loads. It is typically caused by a combination of loss of flexibility in the asphalt and exceeding the loads carrying capacity of the pavement. Alligatoring should be considered to be an early warning sign of asphalt pavement failure. Sealing an area that is alligatoring is a temporary solution that may delay having to replace the asphalt for several years. A more permanent repair would be to replace the alligatored section. 2.

Buckling. Buckling occurs when a section of asphalt is heaved upwards as the result of thermal expansion of the asphalt or shifting in the asphalt’s base material. If water has penetrated the base material and frozen, the result can be buckling. Buckled areas are repaired by replacement.

3.

Random cracks. Random cracks are those that appear in areas other than seams or joints in the asphalt. They follow no particular pattern and can be caused by a wide range of factors, including thermal expansion and contraction or movement of the base material. All random cracks must be thoroughly cleaned, dried, and filled.

4.

Reflection cracks. When asphalt is installed over other layers of asphalt or over sections of concrete, the cracks and joints in the underlying layer often appear in the surface layer. Known as reflection cracks, they are generally caused by movement in the underlying layer brought on by thermal expansion and contraction. Little can be done to eliminate reflection cracks. They should, however, be filled with a crack sealer to limit penetration of water.

5.

Shrinkage cracks. Shrinkage cracks are similar in appearance to alligatoring, except that the pattern is much larger. In alligatoring, the distance between cracks is measured in inches. The distance between shrinkage cracks is typically a foot or more. Shrinkage cracks are the result of the asphalt becoming brittle due to drying of the asphalt material and the lack of traffic. Shrinkage cracks, like alligatoring, are a sign that the asphalt is nearing the end of its service life.

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6.

Crumbling. Crumbling is the final stage in asphalt failure. At this point, water has penetrated and damaged the base, leading the asphalt unsupported. The asphalt then breaks into small, loose fragments. The only solution to crumbling asphalt is removal and replacement.

7.

Graying. Exposure to heat and sunlight evaporates some of the oils in the asphalt, bleaching it to a light gray color. As the asphalt dries out, it loses its flexibility and becomes more susceptible to cracking, shrinking, and alligatoring. Sealing the asphalt will help to slow the process, extending the life of the asphalt. For most locations, the asphalt should be sealed once every five years.

8.

Oil spills. Oil and gasoline spills break down asphalt materials, leading to early failure. Oil and gasoline spills should be cleaned as soon as possible and the area treated with an asphalt sealant.

9.

Potholes. Potholes are bowl shaped areas where the base material under the asphalt has failed causing the asphalt to disintegrate. The potholes generally are the result of neglected maintenance. Water enters the base material through cracks in the asphalt, breaking it down. Eventually the base material is washed away allowing the asphalt to disintegrate. Once a pothole forms, the only option is to remove that section of asphalt and failed base material, install and compact new base material, and install an asphalt patch.

10.

Raveling. Raveling is the slow disintegration of the asphalt pavement from the surface down or from the edges inward. It is generally caused by the use of poor materials or by improper compaction during installation. Raveling is corrected at the time of replacement of the asphalt surface.

11.

Ruts. Ruts can form in asphalt for a number of reasons. The base material may not have been properly compacted during construction. Heavy traffic in a particular area may exceed the load carrying capabilities of the asphalt or the base material. High temperatures may soften the asphalt allowing loads to gradually displace some of the asphalt. Ruts can be repaired only by removing the damaged section of asphalt, compacting the base material, and installing an asphalt patch.

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Use Figure 3-4 to assess the condition of asphalt roads. Use a separate form for each major section of road installed at the site. The tools needed to perform the assessment include a measuring wheel and a camera. Photographs of different sections of the asphalt road will make it easier to detect changes in the condition of the asphalt between assessments. Complete the asphalt road assessment as follows: Item 1:

Enter the name of the building or facility where the road is being assessed.

Item 2:

Enter a unique section number for that particular section of road being assessed. The section number is useful in identifying a particular section in larger facilities, and will allow users to track the condition and rate of deterioration of that particular section with future assessments.

Item 3:

Enter the year when the road was installed.

Item 4:

Enter the length and the width of the road in feet.

Item 5:

Check the appropriate box based on whether the asphalt road is original or has an overlay. If there is an overlay, enter its thickness in inches.

Item 6:

Check the appropriate box based on whether or not the road has been seal coated. If the road has been seal coated, enter the year of the most recent application.

Item 7:

For each defect listed, rate how extensive that defect is in the section being assessed. Use an average rating for the section of road being assessed.

Item 8:

Rate the overall condition of the asphalt road. Use an average rating for the section being assessed.

Item 9:

Estimate the remaining useful life of the asphalt road in years. The rating should be based on its overall condition, its age, and its exposure to harsh service conditions.

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Figure 3-4. Asphalt Roads ———————————————————————————————— 1. Location: ____________________________________________________ 2. Identifier: _____________

3. Year installed: ______________

4. Length (ft): ____________

Width (ft): _________________

5. Overlay:

❑ yes ❑ no

Thickness (in): ______________

6. Sealcoated:

❑ yes ❑ no

Year applied: ______________

7. Defects None

Minor

Moderate

Extensive

Alligatoring

❑

❑

❑

❑

Buckling

❑

❑

❑

❑

Cracks, random Cracks, reflection

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

Cracks, shrinkage

❑

❑

❑

❑

Crumbling

❑

❑

❑

❑

Disintegration

❑

❑

❑

❑

Graying Oil/gas spills

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

Potholes

❑

❑

❑

❑

Raveling

❑

❑

❑

❑

Ruts

❑

❑

❑

❑

❑ poor ❑ good

❑ fair ❑ excellent


9. Estimated remaining useful life (yr): _______________ 10. Comments: _________________________________________________ ———————————————————————————————— ———————————————————————————————— ———————————————————————————————— 11. Inspector: ________________________________ Date: _____________

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Item 10:


Item 11:


ASPHALT PARKING AREAS Asphalt is the material of choice for constructing parking areas. As with roads, asphalt parking areas represent a significant investment, one that must be protected through good maintenance practices. With a good maintenance program consisting of regularly scheduled inspections, spot repairs to damaged areas, and periodic application of a sealer, asphalt roads will have an expected service life of 20 to 25 years. If maintenance is ignored, the service life of an asphalt parking area can be as short as 10 years. Asphalt parking areas require nearly identical maintenance to what is required for asphalt roads. As with asphalt roads, asphalt-parking areas should be assessed twice each year; once in the spring and once in the fall. Repairs should be made as quickly as possible to prevent damage to the underlying base for the asphalt. Sealing the asphalt every five years is even more important for parking areas than for roads as parking areas are subjected to greater exposure to oil and gasoline spills. Use Figure 3-5 to assess the condition of asphalt parking areas. Use a separate form for each major section of asphalt parking installed at the site. For a detailed discussion of the types of defects commonly found in asphalt parking areas, see the previous section on asphalt roads. The tools needed to perform the assessments include a measuring wheel and a camera. Photographs of different sections of the asphalt parking areas will make it easier to detect changes in the condition of the asphalt between assessments. Complete the asphalt parking assessment as follows: Item 1:

Enter the name of the building or facility where the parking area is being assessed.

Item 2:

Enter a unique section number for that particular section of parking being assessed. The section number is useful in identifying a particular section in larger facilities, and will

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Figure 3-5. Asphalt Parking Areas ———————————————————————————————— 1. Location:

__________________________________________

2. Identifier: _____________

3. Year installed: ______________

4. Area (sq ft): _______________ 5. Overlay:

❑ yes ❑ no

Thickness (in): ______________

6. Sealcoated:

❑ yes ❑ no

Year applied: ______________

7. Defects None

Minor

Moderate

Extensive

Alligatoring

❑

❑

❑

❑

Buckling

❑

❑

❑

❑

Cracks, random Cracks, reflection

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

Cracks, shrinkage

❑

❑

❑

❑

Crumbling

❑

❑

❑

❑

Graying

❑

❑

❑

❑

Oil/gas spills Potholes

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

Raveling

❑

❑

❑

❑

Ruts

❑

❑

❑

❑

Wheel stops

❑

❑

❑

❑

❑ poor ❑ good




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allow users to track the condition and rate of deterioration of that particular section with future assessments. Item 3:

Enter the year when the parking area was installed.

Item 4:

Enter the area of the parking area in square feet.

Item 5:

Check the appropriate box based on whether the asphalt parking area is original or has an overlay. If there is an overlay, enter its thickness in inches.

Item 6:

Check the appropriate box based on whether or not the parking area has been seal coated. If the parking area has been seal coated, enter the year of the most recent application.

Item 7:

For each defect listed, rate how extensive that defect is in the section being assessed. Use an average rating for the section being assessed.

Item 8:

Rate the overall condition of the asphalt parking area. Use an average rating for the section being assessed.

Item 9:

Estimate the remaining useful life of the asphalt parking area in years. The rating should be based on its overall condition, its age, and its exposure to harsh service conditions.

Item 10:


Item 11:


CONCRETE SLABS Concrete slabs, like concrete sidewalks, are relatively low maintenance items. Unlike most sidewalks, slabs can be exposed to heavy loads

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that can result in damage. As long as the slab was properly installed and properly sized for the loads experienced, its expected service life is between 20 and 30 years. Depending on the use of the slab and the nature and extent of the damage, damaged slabs can pose a hazard to both people and equipment. Therefore, it is recommended that all concrete slabs be inspected on a regular basis, typically once each year. Inspections can be performed at any time of the year, as long as the slab is fully accessible and visible. The most common defects found in concrete slabs include the following: 1.

Cracks. Cracks can range from hairline cracks to ones that result in the complete separation of sections of the slab. When the cracks extend through the entire thickness of the slab, the slab sections can shift. The cracks also allow water to penetrate the base material, resulting in further damage to the concrete. If the slab is subjected to heavy loads, cracking can lead to the eventual breakup of the slab. Minor hairline cracks are normal and do not require corrective action. Larger cracks can pose tripping hazards and require replacement.

2.

Heaving. Heaving occurs when one section of the concrete slab moves vertically relative to the adjacent section. It is caused by the undermining of the material under the slab, uplifting of a section of the slab by root growth, or improper compaction of the base material. Heaving of slabs can create a tripping hazard or lead to an uneven surface that interferes with placing loads flat on the slab. Heaving is corrected by replacing one or both of the adjacent sections of slab.

3.

Poor drainage. Poor drainage results in the ponding of water on all or part of the slab. It is generally caused by settlement or by poor grading of the surrounding area. In cases where the ponding is limited, poor drainage is only an inconvenience and not a serious problem. However, if the slab is used by people walking and if the ponding is deeper than one inch or covers an area large enough so that the water cannot be avoided, it will require corrective action. Additionally, in climates where poor drainage can lead to the formation of ice, the ponding will have to be eliminated. The correc-

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tion of slab drainage problems typically requires replacement of the slab or re-grading the surrounding area. 4.

Spalling. Spalling is a defect that occurs in concrete slabs when the surface of the concrete deteriorates and separates, exposing the aggregate. Spalling can be the result of over-working the concrete during installation, inadequate protection of the concrete during curing, or simply wear. If the spalling is minor, it does not pose a problem. Deeply spalled sections of concrete slab will require replacement.

5.

Staining. Concrete staining is generally caused by gasoline and oil spills from vehicles, overflow and drainage from trash containers, or from corrosion dripping from overhead metal structures. While staining does not impact the structural integrity of the slab, it can be sufficient to warrant cleaning or replacement of the slab for aesthetic purposes, depending on the slab’s location.

6.

Tripping hazards. Tripping hazards occur when the height difference between two adjacent sections of concrete is greater than onehalf inch. Tripping hazards are corrected by replacement of one or both of the adjacent sections of concrete.

Use Figure 3-6 to assess the condition of concrete slabs. Use a separate form for each major slab or area of slabs installed at the site. The tools needed to perform the assessment include a measuring wheel and a camera. Photographs of different sections of the concrete slab will make it easier to detect changes in the condition of the slab between assessments. Complete the concrete slab assessment as follows: Item 1:

Enter the name of the building or facility where the concrete slab is being assessed.

Item 2:

Enter a unique section number for that particular section of slab being assessed. The section number is useful in identifying a particular section in larger facilities, and will allow users to track the condition and rate of deterioration of that particular section with future assessments.

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Figure 3-6. Concrete Slabs ———————————————————————————————— 1. Location: __________________________________________ 2. Identifier: _____________

3. Year installed:

______________

Thickness (in):

______________

4. Area (sq ft): _____________ 5. Function:

❑ drive

❑ equipment pad

❑ dumpster pad

❑ walkway


Minor

Moderate

Extensive

Heaving

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

Poor drainage

❑

❑

❑

❑

Spalling

❑

❑

❑

❑

Staining

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ poor

❑ fair

❑ good

❑ excellent

Cracks

Tripping hazards 7. Overall condition:

8. Estimated remaining useful life (yr): _______________ 9. Comments: _________________________________________________ ———————————————————————————————— ———————————————————————————————— ———————————————————————————————— 10. Inspector: ________________________________ Date: _____________ ———————————————————————————————— Item 3:

Enter the year when the slab was installed. If portions of the concrete slab have been replaced, enter the year of the original installation.

Item 4:

Enter the area of the slab in square feet.

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Item 5:

Check the appropriate box for the function served by the slab.

Item 6:

For each defect listed, rate how extensive that defect is in the section being assessed. Use an average rating for the slab being assessed.

Item 7:

Rate the overall condition of the concrete slab. Use an average rating for the section being assessed.

Item 8:

Estimate the remaining useful life of the concrete slab in years. The rating should be based on its overall condition, its age, and its exposure to harsh service conditions.

Item 9:


Item 10:


ASPHALT PATHS The use of asphalt to construct walkways and paths in facilities has been rapidly increasing as a lower first cost option to concrete. But while they are lower in first costs, asphalt paths require significantly more maintenance and offer a much shorter service life than concrete. A wellconstructed asphalt path or walkway will have an expected service life of 15 to 20 years. Most problems that occur with asphalt paths can be attributed to improper installation techniques. Their location and narrow widths make them more difficult to construct. Topsoil may not be fully removed. Base materials often are not well compacted. The result is that the asphalt is subjected to movement and subsurface water, both of which contribute to rapid deterioration of the asphalt material. Another factor that contributes to the relatively short service life of an asphalt path is the physical properties of the asphalt material itself. Asphalt is a flexible, pliable material that is self-healing. When small, hairline cracks form in asphalt roads and parking areas, the weight of the

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vehicle traffic causes the asphalt to move slightly, helping minor cracks to seal. Asphalt paths do not carry traffic with enough weight to cause the surface to sufficiently flex and heal. Asphalt paths, like other asphalt surfaces, require periodic maintenance in order to obtain the longest possible service life. Asphalt paths should be inspected once a year, generally in the spring. All cracks should be cleaned and filled to prevent the entry of water into the underlying base. It is also recommended that a sealer be applied every five years to slow the rate of loss of oils from the asphalt due to heat and exposure to the sun. The most common defects in asphalt paths include the following: 1.

Buckling. Buckling occurs when a section of asphalt is heaved upwards as the result of thermal expansion of the asphalt or shifting in the asphalt’s base material, such as from tree roots. If water has penetrated the base material and frozen, the result can be buckling. Buckling is corrected by removing and replacing the section of asphalt.

2.

Random cracks. Random cracks are those that appear in areas other than seams or joints in the asphalt. They follow no particular pattern and can be caused by a wide range of factors, including thermal expansion and contraction or movement of the base material. All random cracks must be thoroughly cleaned, dried, and filled.

3.

Longitudinal cracks. Longitudinal cracks are those that run parallel to the length of the path. They are the result of unequal movement in the base material due to improper compaction. Longitudinal cracks should be cleaned, dried, and filled. If they continue to develop, the asphalt will have to be removed, the base material compacted or replaced, and new asphalt installed.

4.

Crumbling. Crumbling is the final stage in asphalt failure. At this point, water has penetrated and damaged the base, leaving the asphalt unsupported. The asphalt then breaks into small, loose fragments. The only solution to crumbling is removal and replacement.

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5.

Graying. Exposure to heat and sunlight evaporates some of the oils in the asphalt, bleaching it to a light gray color. The problem is that has the asphalt dries out, it loses its flexibility and becomes more susceptible to cracking. Sealing the asphalt will help to slow this process, extending the life of the asphalt. For most locations, the asphalt should be sealed once every five years. Regularly sealing asphalt paths is particularly important, as the surface is not self-healing.

6.


7.

Physical damage. Physical damage includes damage from vehicles, falling tree limbs, or any other source that results in sufficient damage to the surface of the asphalt to create a tripping hazard. Repair of physical damage generally requires replacement of that section of asphalt.

Use Figure 3-7 to assess the condition of asphalt paths. Use a separate form for each section of asphalt path installed at the site. The tools needed to perform the assessment include a measuring wheel and a camera. Photographs of different sections of the path will make it easier to detect changes in the condition of the path between assessments. Complete the asphalt path assessment as follows: Item 1:

Enter the name of the building or facility where the asphalt path is being assessed.

Item 2:

Enter a unique section number for that particular section of path being assessed. The section number is useful in identifying a particular section in larger facilities, and will allow users to track the condition and rate of deterioration of that particular section with future assessments.

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Figure 3-7. Asphalt Paths ———————————————————————————————— 1. Location: _____________________________________________________ 2. Identifier: _____________

3. Year installed: ______________

4. Length (ft): _____________

❑ yes

5. Overlay:

❑ no

Width (ft): _______________ Thickness (in): ______________

6. Defects None

Minor

Moderate

Extensive

Buckling

❑

❑

❑

❑

Cracks, random

❑

❑

❑

❑

Cracks, longitudinal

❑

❑

❑

❑

Crumbling Graying

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

Pot holes

❑

❑

❑

❑

Physical damage

❑

❑

❑

❑

❑ poor

❑ fair

❑ good

❑ excellent


8. Estimated remaining useful life (yr): _______________ 9. Comments: __________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________ Item 3:

Enter the year when the path was installed. If an overlay has been installed, enter the year of the overlay.

Item 4:

Enter the length and width of the path in feet.

Item 5:

Check the appropriate box based on whether the asphalt path is original or has an overlay. If there is an overlay, enter its thickness in inches.

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Item 6:

For each defect listed, rate how extensive that defect is in the section being assessed. Use an average rating for the path being assessed.

Item 7:

Rate the overall condition of the asphalt path. Use an average rating for the section being assessed.

Item 8:

Estimate the remaining useful life of the asphalt path in years. The rating should be based on its overall condition, its age, and its exposure to harsh service conditions.

Item 9:


Item 10:


RETAINING WALLS Well-constructed retaining walls are low maintenance items. Their expected service lives depend on the quality of construction, the type of fill material used behind the wall, and how wet the soil is behind the wall. Typical expected service lives are as follows: Masonry Modular block Poured concrete Stone Wood, pressure treated Wood, railroad tie

30 50 35 35 20 10

Maintenance is usually limited to replacing sections of the wall that have become damaged due to failure, movement, or rot. All retaining walls should be inspected once a year, typically in the spring after they have been exposed to freezing winter conditions. The most common defects in retaining walls include the following: 1.

Bowing. Bowing occurs primarily on long, straight sections of retaining wall that are subjected to moderate to severe loading. The pressure of the material being supported by the retaining wall

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causes the wall to curve or bend outward along its length. If the bowing is allowed to continue, eventually it will lead to the failure of the retaining wall. Correcting bowing requires replacement of the sections of retaining wall and installation of better drainage materials behind the wall. 2.

Cracks. When the material behind the retaining wall exerts sufficient force on the wall, cracks can form in the wall material. These cracks can run vertically or horizontally. Once the crack has progressed through the entire wall material, the wall is at risk of failing. Repairing cracks generally requires the complete replacement of that section of retaining wall. Cracks are most common in masonry, poured concrete, and stone retaining walls.

3.

Insufficient height. Improper construction of the retaining wall, or changes in the grading behind the wall after it was installed can result in the material that is behind the retaining wall to be higher than the wall itself. In extreme cases, the additional material can exert sufficient pressure on the wall to cause it to fail. To correct the situation, the wall will have to be extended, or the material behind the wall re-graded.

4.

Leaning. Leaning occurs when the pressure of the material being held in place by the retaining wall is sufficient to cause the wall to shift away from the vertical. Once a retaining wall starts to lean, it is at risk of failing and must be replaced. Leaning can occur in all types of retaining walls.

5.

Loose/missing sections. Occasionally, small portions of retaining walls come loose or sufficiently decay so that they are no longer attached to the wall. Loose and missing sections can cause material behind the wall to overflow the wall, and can lead to additional damage to the wall. Repair of loose or missing sections requires replacement of that section of retaining wall.

6.

Rot. Rotting occurs in both pressure treated and railroad tie retaining walls. When the chemicals used to treat the wood slow the process, they do not completely stop it, particularly if the fill material behind the wall remains damp. Once rotting occurs, those effected sections must be replaced.

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Use Figure 3-8 to assess the condition of retaining walls. Use a separate form for each section of retaining wall installed at the site. The tools needed to perform the assessment include a measuring wheel, a three or four foot level, and a camera. Photographs of different sections of the retaining wall will make it easier to detect changes in the condition of the wall between assessments. Figure 3-8. Retaining Walls ———————————————————————————————— 1. Location: _____________________________________________________ 2. Identifier: __________________ 3. Year installed: __________________ 4. Height (ft): _________________ 5. Material:

Length (ft): __________________

❑ masonry ❑ modular block

❑ stone ❑ wood

❑ poured concrete ❑ other: ____________________ 6. Defects None

Minor

Moderate

Extensive

Bowing

❑

❑

❑

❑

Cracking

❑

❑

❑

❑

Insufficient height

❑

❑

❑

❑

Leaning

❑

❑

❑

❑

sections

❑

❑

❑

❑

❑

❑

❑

❑ poor

❑ fair

❑ good

❑ excellent

Loose/missing

❑ Rot 7. Overall condition:

8. Estimated remaining useful life (yr): _______________ 9. Comments: _________________________________________________ ———————————————————————————————— ———————————————————————————————— 10. Inspector: ________________________________ Date: _____________

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Complete the retaining wall assessment as follows: Item 1:

Enter the name of the building or facility where the retaining wall is being assessed.

Item 2:

Enter a unique section number for that particular section of retaining wall being assessed. The section number is useful in identifying a particular section in larger facilities, and will allow users to track the condition and rate of deterioration of that particular section with future assessments.

Item 3:

Enter the year when the retaining wall was installed.

Item 4:

Enter the average height and length of the retaining wall in feet.

Item 5:

Check the appropriate box for the type of material used to construct the retaining wall.

Item 6:

For each defect listed, rate how extensive that defect is in the section being assessed. Use an average rating for the section of retaining wall being assessed.

Item 7:

Rate the overall condition of the retaining wall. Use an average rating for the section being assessed.

Item 8:

Estimate the remaining useful life of the retaining wall in years. The rating should be based on its overall condition, its age, and its exposure to harsh service conditions.

Item 9:


Item 10:


FENCING The maintenance requirements for fencing varies greatly with the type of materials used in the fence construction, how the fence is being used, and where the fence is installed. Defects in fences that are used

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primarily for decoration can often be tolerated, while even minor defects in ones that serve a security function cannot. Therefore, the inspection and maintenance program for specific sections of fence must be developed based on the purpose served by the fence. For most applications, fencing should be inspected once a year. For applications where maintaining facility security is a high priority, monthly inspections may be required. Maintenance is usually limited to replacing damaged sections of fencing and posts, or reinstalling posts that have become loose in the ground. Properly installed and maintained, the expected service lives for various types of fencing are as follows: Alternate board Chain link Picket, aluminum Picket, iron Picket, wood Plastic Split rail Stockade

20 25 30 30 20 30 15 20

The most common defects in fencing include the following: 1.

Broken sections. Broken sections of fencing are the result of high wind, snow loads, impact from vehicles, the leaning of materials against fencing, and a wide range of other factors. In most cases, repair is accomplished by replacing that section of fencing.

2.

Cracked components. Cracking of fencing components can be caused by factors ranging from weather conditions to abuse. Depending on the type of fencing installed, the individual component can be replaced, or that entire section of fencing must be replaced.

3.

Leaning. Leaning occurs when the fencing is no longer vertical. Leaning can be the result of physical damage to the fencing, instability in the ground supporting the fence posts, insufficient support of the fence posts, damage to the fence posts, or high wind loads. In most cases correcting leaning requires removal and reinstallation of the fence posts.

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4.

Loose posts. Loose fence posts are those that are not properly supported by the ground. As a result, the posts can be readily moved. Loose posts can be the result of physical damage, poorly compacted supporting materials, or high wind loads. Uncorrected, loose posts can result in leaning or fallen sections of fencing. Loose posts must be removed and reinstalled.

5.

Physical damage. Any damage to fencing, such as broken boards or bent chain link fabric, that interferes with the function that it performs is considered to be physical damage. Depending on the nature and the extent of the physical damage, repairs can be minor or they may require replacement of sections of the fencing.

6.

Rot/corrosion. Practically all materials used in fence construction deteriorate as a result of exposure to the elements. The rate and the extent of the deterioration depend on the materials used and the protective measures in place at the time of construction. Although rot and corrosion can be slowed, eventually they will require replacement of the fencing.

7.

Undermining. Undermining occurs when the ground on which the fencing is installed erodes or settles, allowing a larger than normal gap to appear between the ground and the fencing. Undermining creates security concerns and allows small animals or objects to pass under the fencing. Undermining is corrected simply by regrading the ground under and leading up to the fencing.

Use Figure 3-9 to assess the condition of facility fencing. Use a separate form for each section of fencing installed at the site. The tools needed to perform the assessment include a measuring wheel, a tape measure, a three or four foot level, and a camera. Photographs of different sections of the fencing will make it easier to detect changes in the condition of the wall between assessments. Complete the fencing assessment as follows: Item 1:

Enter the name of the building or facility where the fencing is being assessed.

Item 2:

Enter a unique section number for that particular section of fencing being assessed. The section number is useful in

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Figure 3-9. Fencing ———————————————————————————————— 1. Location:

__________________________________________

2. Identifier: ____________________

3. Year installed: ______________

4. Height (ft): ___________________

Length (ft): ________________

5. Type of fence:

❑ alternate board

❑ picket, wood

❑ chain link

❑ split rail

❑ picket, aluminum ❑ picket, iron

❑ stockade


Minor

Moderate

Extensive

❑ Cracked components ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

Leaning

❑

❑

❑

❑

Loose pickets

❑

❑

❑

❑

Physical damage

❑

❑

❑

❑

Rot/corrosion

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ poor

❑ fair

❑ good

❑ excellent

Broken sections

Undermining 7. Overall condition:

8. Estimated remaining useful life (yr): _______________ 9. Comments: _________________________________________________ ———————————————————————————————— ———————————————————————————————— ———————————————————————————————— 10. Inspector: ________________________________ Date: _____________ ————————————————————————————————

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identifying a particular section in larger facilities, and will allow users to track the condition and rate of deterioration of that particular section with future assessments. Item 3:

Enter the year when the fencing was installed.

Item 4:

Enter the height and length of the fencing in feet.

Item 5:

Check the appropriate box for the type of material used to construct the fencing.

Item 6:

For each defect listed, rate how extensive that defect is in the section being assessed. Use an average rating for the section of fencing being assessed.

Item 7:

Rate the overall condition of the fencing. Use an average rating for the section being assessed.

Item 8:

Estimate the remaining useful life of the fencing in years. The rating should be based on its overall condition, its age, and its exposure to harsh service conditions.

Item 9:


Item 10:


BULKHEADS Bulkheads are used to reduce erosion at shorelines and to protect construction next to bodies of water. Due to the wide range of environments in which bulkheads are expected to perform, a similarly wide range of bulkhead materials has been used. Maintenance requirements vary widely based on the materials used and the exposure that the bulkhead receives. Properly installed and maintained, the expected service lives for various types of bulkheads are as follows:

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Concrete Plastic lumber Sand/cement bag Steel Wood

61

40 30 30 15 20

Bulkheads should be inspected twice a year, once in the spring and once in the fall. Additional inspections may be required following a severe storm or flooding. The most common defects in bulkheads include the following: 1.

Broken sections. Broken sections of bulkhead are generally the result of the pressure of the ground being supported by the bulkhead, the action of water and waves, or deterioration of the bulkhead materials. Broken sections typically are replaced rather than repaired.

2.

Caving in. When the material being supported by a bulkhead caves in, it is a sign that the bulkhead is failing due to undermining by water. Caving in can be corrected only by replacing any fill material under the bulkhead that has been eroded.

3.

Leaning/bowing. Leaning occurs when the bulkhead is no longer vertical. Bowing occurs when the sections of the bulkhead move horizontally. Both are the result of excessive pressure from the material behind the bulkhead or from the undermining of the bulkhead’s support. Correcting for both leaning and bowing requires replacement of the sections of bulkhead.

4.

Rot/corrosion. Rot and corrosion are natural byproducts of the environment in which bulkheads exist. The rate at which materials deteriorate depends on the materials used, the exposure to water, and if the water is fresh or salty. Eventually, both rot and corrosion lead to the failure of the bulkhead, requiring its replacement.

Use Figure 3-10 to assess the condition of bulkheads. Use a separate form for each different type of bulkhead installed at the site. The tools needed to perform the assessment include a measuring wheel, a tape measure, a three or four foot level, and a camera. Photographs of differ-

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ent sections of the fencing will make it easier to detect changes in the condition of the wall between assessments.

Figure 3-10. Bulkheads ———————————————————————————————— 1. Location: _____________________________________________________ 2. Identifier: __________________

3. Year installed: _________________

4. Height (ft): ________________ 5. Material:

Length (ft): ___________________

❑ concrete ❑ masonry

❑ sand/cement bag ❑ steel

❑ plastic lumber

❑ wood


Minor

Moderate

Extensive

Caving in

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

Leaning/bowing

❑

❑

❑

❑

Rot/corrosion

❑

❑

❑

❑

Undermining

❑ ❑ poor

❑ ❑ fair

❑

❑

❑ good

❑ excellent

Broken sections



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Complete the fencing assessment as follows: Item 1:

Enter the name of the building or facility where the bulkhead is being assessed.

Item 2:

Enter a unique section number for that particular section of bulkhead being assessed. The section number is useful in identifying a particular section in larger facilities, and will allow users to track the condition and rate of deterioration of that particular section with future assessments.

Item 3:

Enter the year when the bulkhead was installed.

Item 4:

Enter the height and length of the bulkhead in feet.

Item 5:

Check the appropriate box for the type of material used to construct the bulkhead.

Item 6:

For each defect listed, rate how extensive that defect is in the section being assessed. Use an average rating for the section of bulkhead being assessed.

Item 7:

Rate the overall condition of the bulkhead. Use an average rating for the section being assessed.

Item 8:

Estimate the remaining useful life of the bulkhead in years. The rating should be based on its overall condition, its age, and its exposure to harsh service conditions.

Item 9:


Item 10:


EXTERIOR LIGHTING Exterior lighting systems require routine maintenance in order to maintain their efficiency and effectiveness, but like many other building systems, the rate of deterioration is slow, that deficiencies often go unnoticed. The result can be systems that provide uneven or inadequate light-

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ing levels that interfere with night operations or compromise security. Most lighting system components have an expected service life of 25 to 30 years. Assessment of exterior lighting systems should be performed once each year. Each assessment will require two inspections. The first inspection is performed during daylight hours to assess the condition of the lighting system components. The second inspection is performed at night to assess the effectiveness of the lighting system. The most common defects found in exterior lighting systems include the following: 1.

Controls. The most frequently found types of controls used with exterior lighting systems include manual on-off switches, photocell controllers, timers, and building automation systems. All require periodic inspection and testing to ensure proper operation. Photocells can fail or become covered with dirt, allowing the lighting system to operate during daylight hours. Clocks driving timers can lose or gain time, resulting in the operation of lighting systems when they are not needed. Tabs on mechanical timers can wear or fall out of place. Relays can fail in electronic timers. Connections with building automation systems can be interrupted or disabled. In most cases, the defect can be corrected by adjusting or re-programming the control.

2.

Diffusers. With time and exposure, exterior fixture diffusers darken or become cloudy, reducing the light output from the fixture. Diffusers also can crack, break, and fall from the lighting fixture, exposing the lamp and reflector to the elements. Most diffusers cannot be repaired, only replaced.

3.

Fixtures. Exterior lighting fixtures are exposed to a wide range of conditions and can be damaged by high wind, hail, rain, and birds. While minor damage can be repaired, most damaged fixtures will require replacement.

4.

Light distribution. To be effective, exterior lighting fixtures must provide a uniform distribution of light. Uneven light distribution is usually the result of poor system design, the use of the wrong type of fixture, dirty lamps and reflectors, cloudy diffusers, or improperly aimed fixtures. To improve the light distribution from fixtures, all lighting systems components should be cleaned and adjusted.

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5.

Lighting levels. Too much light is just as detrimental to operations as too little light. Too much light creates glare, making it difficult to see. Too little light creates dark spots, compromising security. Lighting levels should be adequate to support the activities being performed in that particular area. Maintaining proper lighting levels in an area requires periodic cleaning and adjustment of fixture components.

6.

Poles. Exterior lighting poles are exposed to the elements and a wide range of physical abuse. As a result, poles can become bent, misaligned, and crushed. Repair of damaged lighting poles generally requires complete replacement.

Use Figure 3-11 to assess the condition of exterior lighting systems. Use a separate form for each different type of lighting system installed at the site. The tools needed to perform the assessment include a three or four foot level and a camera. Photographs of different sections of the lighting system will make it easier to detect changes in the condition of the system components between assessments. Complete the exterior lighting system assessment as follows: Item 1:

Enter the name of the building or facility where the exterior lighting system is being assessed.

Item 2:

Enter a unique section number for that particular section of exterior lighting system being assessed. The section number is useful in identifying a particular section in larger facilities, and will allow users to track the condition and rate of deterioration of that particular section with future assessments.

Item 3:

Enter the year when the exterior lighting system was installed.

Item 4:

Check the appropriate box for the primary function performed by the exterior lighting system.

Item 5:

Check the appropriate box for the type system installed.

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Figure 3-11. Exterior Lighting ———————————————————————————————— 1. Location:

____________________________________________________

2. Identifier: _________________ 4. Function:

3. Year installed: _________________

❑ building entrance

❑ roadway

❑ decorative

❑ security

❑ parking

❑ walkway

❑ other: ____________________ ❑ low pressure sodium 5. Type of system: ❑ fluorescent ❑ high pressure sodium ❑ mercury vapor ❑ incandescent

❑ metal halide


Minor

Moderate

Extensive

Control defects

❑

❑

❑

❑

Diffuser damage

❑

❑

❑

❑

Fixture damage

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

Improper light levels ❑

❑

❑

❑

Pole damage

❑

❑

❑

❑

Uneven light levels

❑

❑

❑

❑

❑ poor ❑ good


Light distribution



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Item 6:

For each defect listed, rate how extensive that defect is in the section being assessed. Use an average rating for the section of exterior lighting system being assessed.

Item 7:

Rate the overall condition of the exterior lighting system. Use an average rating for the section being assessed.

Item 8:

Estimate the remaining useful life of the exterior lighting system in years. The rating should be based on its overall condition, its age, and its exposure to harsh service conditions.

Item 9:


Item 10:


IRRIGATION SYSTEMS Building irrigation systems require a fairly high level of maintenance if they are to operate properly. Underground lines develop leaks. Spray heads clog. Lawn maintenance equipment damages or misaligns spray heads. Control valves develop leaks. Without regular inspections and maintenance, system performance suffers and water is wasted. Most of the components in a building irrigation system can be expected to have a service life of 15 to 20 years. The most common defects in building irrigation systems include the following: 1.

Controls. There are two basic types of controls used in irrigation systems; manual and automatic. Manual controls consist of one or more hand valves to control the flow of water to all or portions of the system. The most common automatic control is a timer connected to a solenoid valve. In both types of systems, the valves tend to leak, resulting in water being wasted. Leaking valves can be rebuilt.

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2.

Flow rate. Any damage to underground lines and fittings can restrict the flow rate to the spray heads. Repair of this type of damage requires replacing those damage sections of underground lines.

3.

Leaks. One of the biggest problems and most difficult to detect is underground leaks. Leaks can occur anywhere in the system as a result of improper installation, freezing, or the use of lawn maintenance equipment. In some cases, the leaks can be easily found as a result of lost pressure in a portion of the system or by finding areas of the irrigated site saturated with water. Other leaks, particularly those that occur in sandy soil, are almost impossible to find without the use of flow meters and isolation valves.

4.

Lines. Underground lines in irrigation systems are prone to leaks and crushing. Both will result in abnormal spray patterns from the spray heads located downstream from the damage. Damaged underground lines can be repaired only by replacing the damaged section.

5.

Spray coverage. Each spray head connected to the irrigation system is designed to supply water to a specific area. Spray heads are easily damaged, can become clogged, or can be knocked out of proper alignment resulting in a changed spray pattern. Spray heads can be readily cleaned and realigned, or replaced if necessary.

6.

Spray heads. Irrigation system spray heads are easily damaged by lawn care equipment, or they can become clogged, altering their spray pattern.

7.

Valves. Both automatic and manual shutoff valves can leak or cannot fully shut off the flow of water to the system.

Use Figure 3-12 to assess the condition of the irrigation system. Use a separate form for each different system installed at the site. The only tool needed to perform the assessment is a camera. Photographs of different sections of the irrigation system and the areas being irrigated will make it easier to detect changes in the condition of the system components between assessments.

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Figure 3-12. Irrigation Systems ———————————————————————————————— 1. Location: _____________________________________________________ 2. Identifier: __________________

3. Year installed: _________________

4. Area served (sq ft): ________________ 5. Number of heads: ________________

❑ automatic

6. Operation:

❑ manual

7. Defects None

Minor

Moderate

Extensive

Control system problems

❑

❑

❑

❑

Flow rate inadequate Leaks

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

Line damage

❑

❑

❑

❑

Spray coverage, improper ❑

❑

❑

❑

Spray head damage

❑

❑

❑

❑

Valve damage

❑ ❑ ❑ poor ❑ fair

❑

❑


❑ good ❑ excellent 9. Estimated remaining useful life (yr): _______________ 10. Comments: _________________________________________________ ———————————————————————————————— ———————————————————————————————— 11. Inspector: ________________________________

Date: ____________

———————————————————————————————— Complete the irrigation system assessment as follows: Item 1:

Enter the name of the building or facility where the irrigation system is being assessed.

Item 2:

Enter a unique section number for that particular section of irrigation system being assessed. The section number is

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useful in identifying a particular section in larger facilities, and will allow users to track the condition and rate of deterioration of that particular section with future assessments. Item 3:

Enter the year when the irrigation system was installed.

Item 4:

Enter the square footage of the area served by the system.

Item 5:

Enter the number of spray heads installed in the system.

Item 6:

Check the appropriate box for the type of operation.

Item 7:

For each defect listed, rate how extensive that defect is in the section being assessed. Use an average rating for the section of irrigation system being assessed.

Item 8:

Rate the overall condition of the irrigation system. Use an average rating for the section being assessed.

Item 9:

Estimate the remaining useful life of the irrigation system in years. The rating should be based on its overall condition, its age, and its exposure to harsh service conditions.

Item 10:


Item 11:


PLANTER BORDERS Border systems for planters and edging can be constructed from a variety of materials, including brick, concrete, stone, modular block, and pressure treated lumber. Maintenance requirements vary with the construction material, but in general are minor. Problems that do occur develop slowly, allowing facility managers time to identify and correct them. In most cases, an annual inspection performed in the spring will identify most maintenance requirements.

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The service lives for various planter border materials are as follows: Brick Concrete Modular block Pressure treated wood Stone

30 35 50 20 35

Factors that will change the expected service life include the quality of the planter border construction, the climate, and physical abuse from vehicles and pedestrians. The most common defects in planter borders include the following: 1.

Misaligned sections. If planter borders are properly constructed with a solid foundation or base, and sections properly adhered to each other, misalignment between adjacent sections is rare. However, in poorly constructed installations, individual sections can shift horizontally or vertically, resulting in misalignment. Misaligned borders made from pressure treated wood or modular block can be realigned and re-anchored. Misaligned borders made from masonry materials will require replacement.

2.

Cracks and splits. In wood borders, some cracking and splitting is considered to be normal as the materials are subjected to repeated cycles of soaking and drying. Unless the crack or split destroys the structural integrity of the section, no corrective action is required. Minor cracks in masonry borders are also considered to be normal. Only when those cracks are sufficiently large to allow sections to shift is there a need to make repairs.

3.

Leaning. Leaning occurs when the border material is not properly anchored and there is sufficient pressure from the material behind the border to cause sections to rotate and lean. Once sections of the border begin to lean, they will have to be rebuilt.

4.

Loose sections. This defect occurs primarily with modular block and pressure treated wood borders. When sections are not properly fastened together or when the fasteners fail, individual sections of the border become loose. In most cases, repairs can be made by dismantling and re-building those sections that have come loose.

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Rot. Even though the wood that is used to construct borders is pressure treated, eventually it will rot, particularly if it is exposed to conditions where it is constantly wet. Once the rot has progressed into the wood, it will be necessary to replace that section of the border.

Use Figure 3-13 to assess the condition of planter borders. Use a separate form for each major section of border installed at the site. The tools needed to perform the assessment include a three or four foot level, a measuring wheel, a tape measure, and a camera. Photographs of different sections of the border will make it easier to detect changes in the condition of the system components between assessments. Complete the planter border assessment as follows: Item 1:

Enter the name of the building or facility where the planter border is being assessed.

Item 2:

Enter a unique section number for that particular section of border being assessed. The section number is useful in identifying a particular section in larger facilities, and will allow users to track the condition and rate of deterioration of that particular section with future assessments.

Item 3:

Enter the year when the border was installed.

Item 4:

Enter the length and the average height of the border in feet.

Item 5:

Check the appropriate box for the type of material used to make the border.

Item 6:

For each defect listed, rate how extensive that defect is in the section being assessed. Use an average rating for the section of border being assessed.

Item 7:

Rate the overall condition of the border. Use an average rating for the section being assessed.

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Figure 3-13. Planter Border ———————————————————————————————— 1. Location: _____________________________________________________ 2. Identifier: __________________

3. Year installed: _________________

4. Length (ft): _________________

Height (ft): ___________________

5. Material:

❑ brick

❑ pressure treated wood

❑ concrete

❑ railroad tie

❑ modular block ❑ stone ❑ other: ____________________ 6. Defects None

Minor Moderate

Extensive

Flow rate inadequate

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

Leaks

❑

❑

❑

❑

Line damage

❑

❑

❑

❑

Spray coverage, improper

❑

❑

❑

❑

Spray head damage

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ poor

❑ fair

❑ good

❑ excellent

Control system problems

Valve damage 7. Overall condition:


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Item 8:

Estimate the remaining useful life of the border in years. The rating should be based on its overall condition, its age, and its exposure to harsh service conditions.

Item 9:


Item 10:


STORMWATER MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS Almost all components of stormwater management systems are low maintenance. Maintenance problems that do occur develop slowly. Periodic inspections, typically performed once every year or once every other year, will help to identify these developing problems and allow corrective maintenance tasks to be scheduled at the convenience of the facility. Properly installed and maintained, the various components of facility stormwater systems will have the following expected service lives: Underground piping

50 years

Riprap

20 years

Stormwater pond (dredging)

15 years

Overflow structure

35 years

Factors that will change the expected service lives include the quality of the construction and the type of soil. The best time to conduct the assessment is during late summer, before frost kills any vegetation growing in stormwater ponds and riprap. System assessments should not be conducted during the local rainy season or immediately following a heavy rain. High water levels in stormwater ponds may hide silting problems. It is also a good practice to evaluate the system’s performance during or immediately following rain, checking for clogged drains and lines. The most common defects in stormwater management systems are as follows:

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1.

Piping breaks. Breaks in the underground piping portion of stormwater management systems are usually caused by uneven settlement of the surrounding ground. If a pipe leaks for a long enough period of time, it may erode the surrounding ground, resulting in a cave in. Repair of piping breaks requires excavation and replacement of the broken section of piping.

2.

Piping blockages. Blockages occur when debris collects in the piping system, or tree roots enter the piping through joints and cracks. Sections of piping that are slow draining during and following rainstorms should be inspected for blockages, and cleaned as necessary.

3.

Riprap silting. With time, silt gets deposited in riprap from flowing water. The silt then provides a base for vegetation to take root, destroying the effectiveness of the riprap. Riprap will require periodic clearing to keep it clear of silt.

4.

Riprap vegetation. Vegetation growing in riprap interferes with the flow of water and promotes silting. All vegetation should be removed from riprap on a regular basis.

5.

Stormwater pond silting. The water flowing into stormwater ponds carries dirt, stones, and other debris from the site. This material is deposited in the pond as silt. With time, the level of the silt can be enough to significantly decrease the storage capacity of the pond, causing water runoff through the pond overflow. To keep stormwater ponds free of silt, they must be periodically dredged.

6.

Stormwater pond fencing. Most stormwater ponds are enclosed by a fence designed to limit access to the pond. Fence sections must be regularly inspected to ensure their integrity.

7.

Overflow structure broken concrete. Stormwater ponds are equipped with overflow structures to allow discharge of water from the pond in order to prevent their overflowing after prolonged periods of rain. With time and exposure to the elements, the concrete overflow structures can deteriorate and will need replacement. Deteriorated overflow structures are generally replaced rather than repaired.

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Overflow structure blocked. With heavy rainfalls, debris gets washed into the stormwater pond. This debris can accumulate in the overflow structure, blocking the flow of water from the stormwater pond. When overflow structures are inspected, any debris that has been trapped in the structure should be removed.

Use Figure 3-14 to assess the condition of the stormwater system. Use a separate form for each system constructed at the site. The tools needed to perform the assessment include a measuring wheel and a camera. Photographs of different sections of the border will make it easier to detect changes in the condition of the system components between assessments. Complete the stormwater assessment as follows: Item 1:

Enter the name of the building or facility where the stormwater system is being assessed.

Item 2:

Enter a unique section number for that particular system being assessed. The section number is useful in identifying a particular system in larger facilities that have more than one system, and will allow users to track the condition and rate of deterioration of that particular system with future assessments.

Item 3:

Enter the year when the system was installed. If the system was constructed over a period of several years, enter the year when the stormwater pond was constructed.

Item 4:

Check the appropriate box for the stormwater system components installed at the site. For underground piping and riprap, enter the approximate length in feet of those components. For the stormwater pond, enter the approximate area of the pond.

Item 5:

For each defect listed, rate how extensive that defect is in the system being assessed. Use an average rating for the stormwater system being assessed.

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Figure 3-14. Stormwater System ———————————————————————————————— 1. Location: _____________________________________________________ 2. Identifier: ___________________

3. Year installed: ________________

4. Components: Underground piping:

❑ yes

❑ no

Riprap:

❑ yes

❑ no

Stormwater pond

❑ yes

❑ no

5. Defects None

Minor

Moderate

Extensive

Piping

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

Silting

❑

❑

❑

❑

Fencing

❑

❑

❑

❑

Silting

❑

❑

❑

❑

Vegetation

❑

❑

❑

❑

Broken concrete

❑

❑

❑

❑

Blocked

❑ ❑ poor

❑ ❑ fair

❑

❑

❑ good

❑ excellent

Breaks Blockages Riprap

Stormwater pond

Overflow structure


8. Estimated remaining useful life (yr): _______________ 9. Comments: _________________________________________________ ———————————————————————————————— ———————————————————————————————— 10. Inspector: ________________________________ Date: _____________

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Item 6:

Rate the overall condition of the stormwater system. Use an average rating for the system being assessed.

Item 7:

Estimate the remaining useful life of the system in years. The rating should be based on its overall condition, its age, and its exposure to harsh service conditions.

Item 8:


Item 9:


AFTER THE FIELDWORK All assessment information should be filed in a way that will allow facility managers easy access. The assessment of the building site provides facility managers with valuable information concerning the condition of the various site components. They will identify areas where improvements are needed. When site assessments are tracked over time, they can be used to track trends in component conditions, allowing facility managers to project when renovations or component replacements will be required. But this information will be useful only if it is saved and made available in an easy to use format.

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Chapter 4

The Building Envelope

he building envelope is one of the most important elements in determining the long-term performance of a facility. The envelope protects the building occupants and all other building systems from outside elements, ranging from the weather to intruders. It provides a framework to contain the climate and working conditions generated for the building occupants, equipment, and operations. Equally important, it generates a pleasing appearance that enhances the operations and functions performed within the building. In spite of these important functions, building envelopes tend to be ignored. Some of the components, such as roofs and foundations, are out of sight to most occupants and maintenance personnel. Many of the components that make up the building envelope tend to have long service lives, resulting in their rates of deterioration being so slow that they go unnoticed until a major problem occurs, such as water entering the facility. Deterioration is normal and it will occur in all building envelope components, regardless of the materials used or how well the building was constructed. Ignoring the deterioration, no matter how slowly it occurs, will only lead to larger and more costly problems in the future, problems arising from material failures, damaged building components, or damaged equipment. The deterioration of the building envelope is the direct result of forces that are acting upon it, forces that the building envelope shields from other building systems and building components. One of these forces is thermal movement. Depending on the climate where the building is located, the envelope is exposed to temperature swings of 100 degrees Fahrenheit or more each day. These temperature swings cause envelope materials to undergo constant expansion and contraction.

T

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While the components are designed to expand and contract, rapid temperature swings can stress materials beyond their design point, causing failures. Other materials can lose their elasticity over time also resulting in failures. The penetration of water into building envelope materials is a major force contributing to their deterioration. Water in liquid form attacks steel and wood materials. Water in vapor form can penetrate well into the envelope materials where it condenses, decreasing their insulating value and accelerating their decomposition. If the building is subjected to repeated freeze/thaw cycles, and water penetrates the envelope materials, it can generate hairline cracks when it freezes. Over time, these cracks will expand and grow, leading to complete failure of the material. Many of the materials used in constructing the building exterior breakdown as a result of exposure to ultraviolet light, pollutants, or repeated wetting/drying cycles. Insects and microorganisms also can attack and break down materials, resulting in decay. Often, the rate at which insects and microorganisms attack is determined by the amount of moisture retained in the building materials. Even the use of the building can contribute to deterioration of the building envelope. Opening and closing of doors and windows causes wear that can lead to poor performance or failure. Vibrations from roof mounted mechanical systems can cause fatigue failures in roofing components. Components can also be damaged by accident or damaged by vandals. It is the combined impact of these forces that contribute to the slow and ongoing deterioration of building envelope materials. While deterioration may be inevitable, its effects can be controlled and in many cases, minimized. The trick is early detection and correction. If the deterioration is allowed to progress unchecked, it will eventually reach the point where repairs are impossible and the item must be replaced. The key to good performance and long service lives for building envelopes is ongoing maintenance driven by detailed inspections conducted on a regular basis. Conducting inspections, typically on an annual basis, will help facility managers to identify those systems that are deteriorating and their rate of deterioration. By tracking inspection results over time, projections can be made as to when a particular component in the building envelope will need a major overhaul or complete replacement before it has a chance to damage other building components.


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There are five key areas to be examined in the building envelope; foundations, roofs, walls, windows, and doors. BUILDING FOUNDATIONS Building foundations require very little maintenance and generally have a life expectancy equal to that of the entire building. However, problems can occur, and when they do, they are very disruptive to the building occupants and expensive to correct. Therefore it is essential that building foundations be inspected thoroughly on a regular basis in order to detect problems while they are still relatively minor. The majority of building foundation problems can be traced to one of two causes, settlement and below grade water. Settlement is usually the result of improper preparation of the site during construction, improper construction of the foundation, or the inability of the foundation to support the loads imposed on it by the building or the surrounding soil. Below grade water problems only make these other problems more severe. If it is suspected that the foundation problem is being caused by below grade water, before taking expensive action to divert water from the sight, make certain that the roof is properly drained away from the building foundation. The most common defects found in building foundations include the following: 1.

Alignment. Foundation alignment problems range from minor misalignments that are cosmetic in nature to ones that threaten the stability of the structure. Most minor misalignments can be traced back to the original building construction. Although in many cases they pose no serious threat, they should be monitored for possible future movement. Most larger alignment problems are the result of settlement or below grade water pressure. They can take the form of settlement or horizontal movement and bulging of the foundation wall. This type of alignment problem must be monitored closely to prevent structural damage to the entire building. Correcting these problems can be very costly and disruptive.

2.

Cracks. Cracks are the most common defect found in building foundations. They range from small hairline cracks that are barely visible to ones where two sections of the foundation have com-

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pletely separated and moved apart. They are caused by a number of factors including settlement of the building, exposure to freeze/ thaw cycles, insufficient or improperly located expansion joints, overloading, or defects in the foundation material itself. Any type of foundation crack can form an opening for water to enter the building, causing additional damage to the foundation wall as well as to the building contents. Minor foundation cracks that are not structural in nature should be sealed to prevent water entry. More serious foundation cracks must be investigated further to determine their cause and repaired as necessary. 3.

Leaks. One of the most common complaints that facility managers face with building foundations is water entry through the foundation wall. Leaks can occur along cracks or other defects in the foundation, or they can be the result of water movement through the masonry materials. Efflorescence, the layer of dusty salts that accumulates on interior foundation walls, is a sign that water is moving through the masonry, or entering the masonry from above. Unfortunately, repairing these types of leaks may require excavation of the foundation and an application of a waterproofing material to the outside surface.

4.

Sill plate rot. In wood frame construction, the sill plate connecting the walls to the foundation can rot if it is exposed to moisture or infestation. The only possible repair for rotted sill plate is removal and replacement. To prevent the rot from reoccurring, steps should be taken to redirect water away from the sill plate, including regrading the adjacent ground to provide sufficient drainage and elevation. All gutters and downspouts should be inspected for leaks and repaired as needed.

Use Figure them 4.1 to assess the condition of the building foundation. Use a separate form for each different type of foundation that exists in the building. The tools needed to perform the assessment include a tape measure to determine the length and height of the foundation, a sharp metal probe to determine the depth of wall cracks and to inspect for rot in the sill plate, and a camera to photograph overall conditions and major defects. The photographs will help during future assessments to identify changes in areas that are slowly deteriorating.


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Figure 4-1. Foundations ———————————————————————————————— 1. Location:

____________________________________________________

2. Section #: ______________________

3. Year built: ________________

4. Length (ft): ____________________

Average height (ft): __________

❑ block

5. Construction:

❑ concrete

❑ brick ❑ stone ❑ other: ____________________ ❑ basement

6. Type:

❑ crawl space

❑ slab

7. Defects None

Minor

Moderate

Extensive

Alignment

❑

❑

❑

❑

Cracks, structural

❑

❑

❑

❑

Cracks, surface

❑

❑

❑

❑

Heaving Leaks

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

Settlement

❑

❑

❑

❑

Sill plate rot

❑

❑

❑

❑

❑ poor ❑ good



9. Estimated remaining useful life (yr): _______________ 10. Comments:

_________________________________________________

———————————————————————————————— ———————————————————————————————— 11. Inspector: ____________________________

Date: ________________

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Completes the foundation assessment as follows: Item 1:

Enter the name of the building that is being assessed.

Item 2:

If the building has more than one type of foundation, enter a unique section number for that particular section of foundation is being assessed. Using a unique section number will allow users to track the condition and rate of deterioration of that particular section with future assessments.

Item 3:

Enter the year when the building was constructed. If the building was constructed in phases over a number of years, enter the year in which that portion of the building was constructed.

Item 4:

Measure and enter the length and average height of the foundation.

Item 5:

Identify the type of construction used for the foundation.

Item 6:

Identify the type of space enclosed by the foundation.

Item 7:

For each defect listed, rate how extensive that defect is in the building’s foundation.

Item 8:

Rate the overall condition of the foundation. Use an average rating for all portions of the foundation being assessed.

Item 9:

Estimate the remaining useful life of the foundation in years. The rating should be based on the overall condition of the foundation, its age, and its exposure to harsh service conditions. In most cases, the remaining useful life will be equal to the life of the building.

Item 10:


Item 11:

Enter the name of the person who conducted the assessment and the date when the assessment was completed.


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BUILDING ROOFS Building roofing systems have long been a major concern for facility managers. For many, roofing problems start before the roof installation is completed. Although roofs are only a small fraction of a building’s total construction cost, they represent 2/3 to 3/4 of all construction litigation. It is estimated that over the life of a building, more money is spent on roof maintenance, repair, and replacement than on any other building system. Roofs are perhaps the most important component in the building envelope. Too often though, they are ignored until something goes wrong. Deferring roof maintenance does not save money. Ignoring roof maintenance contributes to the steady deterioration of the roofing materials until the point is reached where the roof must be replaced. For every dollar spent on roof maintenance, ten dollars in roof renovation and replacement costs are deferred. With such a high payoff for roof maintenance, why then are roofs ignored until it is too late? Part of the problem has to do with the location of the roof. Roofs are not visible to most facility managers or maintenance personnel on a daily basis. As a result, they tend to be forgotten. Many of the decisions concerning roof maintenance funding are made by those who are not directly involved in the maintenance process. To them, if something isn’t broken, it doesn’t need fixing. If the roof isn’t leaking, they will not authorize spending funds for roof maintenance. Even roofing warranties contribute to the problem. For many, there is a belief that any system under warranty does not need maintenance. But when it comes to roof warranties, a close reading of the warranty language will show two things. Warranty language does a better job of limiting the manufacturer’s liability than protecting the building owner. And warranties require building owners to conduct regular inspections of the roof to keep the warranty in effect. Although there are many causes for deterioration of a building’s roof, most can be classified in one of two general categories; natural causes and man-made causes. In all buildings, both are continuously attacking the roof. Natural causes include those that act on the roof as a result of the environment in which the roof must perform. Snow, ice, rain, hail, and wind can cause physical damage to roofing systems. Temperatures as high as 160 degrees harden and break down roofing materials. Tempera-

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tures below zero cause them to become brittle. Repeated freeze/thaw cycles over stress roofing materials, causing them to tear or become brittle. Ultraviolet radiation from the sun chemically alters roofing materials, weakening them. Air pollution combines with rain to form acids that attack roof surfaces. Oxidation weakens materials, allowing thermal stresses to generate tears and splits. Vegetation, fungus, and algae attack roofing materials, breaking them down or causing physical damage that allows water to enter the roofing system. Ponded water can chemically alter and compress materials, reducing their strength and puncture resistance. Man-made causes start with the roof construction. Manufacturing defects and improper installation practices account for a large percentage of the problems facility managers experience with roofs. Once installed, the roof is subjected to other man-made factors that accelerate its deterioration. Equipment installed on the roof that is not properly sealed allows water to penetrate the roofing membrane. Vibrations from roof installed mechanical equipment fatigue flashings and roof membranes. Careless mechanics working on roof-mounted equipment can drop tools and equipment panels that easily penetrate roof membranes. Foot traffic wears paths in roof membranes, popping blisters, displacing ballast, or damaging membrane protective coatings. The net result of this ongoing attack from both natural and manmade forces is that water gains access through the roof membrane. Once water enters, it makes the roof insulation ineffective and attacks other roof components, such as the underlying deck. It leads to the formation of blisters in the roof membrane that can rupture, allowing even more water into the roof. The more water that penetrates the roof membrane, the greater the damage to the roof, and the greater the damage to the roof, the more water that penetrates the roof membrane. The best way to counteract the forces working against building roofs is to conduct regular inspections and to make needed repairs as soon as they are identified. Regular inspections will help to uncover any weaknesses or damage that would make the roof at risk for wind or water damage. Regular inspections will also help to keep roofing warranties in effect. By tracking inspection data, facility managers will be able to extend the life of the existing roof and plan for its eventual replacement based on the actual condition of the roof. For most applications, it is recommended that inspections be completed twice a year, once in the spring and once in the fall. Conducting


87

inspections at these times will help to quickly identify damage caused to the roof during the summer and winter temperature and weather extremes. It is also recommended that additional inspections be conducted immediately following severe storms or the completion of construction projects when the roof may have been exposed to damage. The first roof inspection should be conducted as soon as the roof installation is completed. All roof inspections should start with an examination of the roof’s history. When was it installed? What repairs have been made to the roof? Have any modifications been made to the building that would impact the roof construction? What new equipment has been installed on the roof since its installation? Once the roof’s history is understood, perform a quick overview of the roof. First, examine ceilings and the underside of the roof deck for stains, rusting on steel decks, efflorescence on concrete decks, and rot on wood decks. Next, walk the building perimeter looking for water stains or efflorescence, rusting lintels, and peeling paint; all signs that water may be entering the perimeter walls through the roof. Move to the roof surface, noting the overall condition of the roof. Any areas with standing water should be noted, as it is recommended that all roofs drain completely within 48 hours of a rainfall. Finally, use the checklists to examine the details of the roof construction. With a comprehensive inspection and maintenance program, the expected service lives for roofs are as follows: Aluminum Asphalt shingle Built-up, 3-ply Built-up, 4-ply Cedar shakes Copper Single-ply Slate Sprayed polyurethane Steel

35 20 20 25 20 40 15 50 20 35

years years years years years years years years years years

These values are average values. The actual expected service life will vary with the quality of the installation, the climate, and how access to the roof is controlled.

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Asphalt Shingle Roofs Asphalt shingle roofs are installed over plywood or manufactured wood product sheathing. Typical roof pitches range from 3:12 to 12:12. The most common defects found in asphalt shingle roofs include the following: 1.

Blistering. Blistering in shingle roofs is caused by a combination of a loss of granules from the shingles and the penetration of moisture into the asphalt of the shingle. When blistering occurs, the roof is at the end of its service life.

2.

Buckled shingles. Shingles that have been nailed too tightly can buckle when they expand in the heat of the sun. Buckles also can form as the result of damage from foot traffic on the roof. Buckled shingles is a sign that the roof is approaching the end of its service life.

3.

Cracked shingles. As asphalt shingles age, they lose much of their flexibility. As a result, cracks can form on the shingle tabs. Cracks can also form as the result of personnel walking on the roof. Eventually, the crack will expand and the tab will separate from the shingle. The formation of cracks in asphalt shingles is an early warning that the roof is approaching the end of its service life.

4.

Curled shingles. Exposure to heat and ultraviolet radiation dries the asphalt material in the shingles. As the shingles dry they tend to curl along their edges. Curled shingles is a sign that the roof will require replacement in the near future.

5.

Flashings. The most common defects found in the flashing used with asphalt shingle roofs include corrosion and separation. Flashings should be replaced as part of roof replacement programs. Defective and leaking flashings should be repaired as quickly as possible.

6.

Loss of granules. The granules embedded in the surface of the asphalt shingles can loosen and be carried away as a result of a breakdown of the asphalt material from aging. Granule loss is a gradual process. When the loss is sufficient to result in bare spots in the asphalt shingle, the roof has reached the end of its service life.


89

7.

Missing tabs. Missing tabs can be the result of aging, wind, or localized damage to the roof. If the number of missing tabs is minimal, the damages shingles can be replaced. If a moderate number of tabs are missing from shingles scattered throughout the roof, it is a sign that the roof will require replacement in the near future.

8.

Rotted underlayment. If an asphalt shingle roof has been leaking for some time, the plywood or manufactured wood product underlayment may have rotted. Rotted underlayment is difficult to detect, but often will appear stained from the underside. It will also feel soft or spongy when walked on. Rotted and damaged underlayment requires replacement of all or part of the roof.

Use Figure 4-2 to assess the condition of asphalt roofs. The tools needed to perform this assessment include a tape measure or measuring wheel to determine the area of the roof, and a camera to photograph overall conditions and major defects. The photographs will help during future assessments to identify areas that are slowly deteriorating and track their rate of deterioration. Complete the asphalt shingle roof assessment as follows: Item 1:


Item 2:

Enter unique section number for the roof that is being accessed. The section number is useful in identifying a particular section of roof in larger facilities. Using a unique section number will allow users to track the condition and rated deterioration of that particular section in future assessments.

Item 3:

Enter the year when the roof was installed.

Item 4:

Measure and enter the area of the roof.

Item 5:

For each defect listed, rate how often that defect occurs in the roof. Use an average rating for the section of roof being assessed.

Item 6:

Rate the overall condition of the roof. Use an average rating for the section of roof being assessed.

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Figure 4-2. Asphalt Shingle Roofs ———————————————————————————————— 1. Location: _____________________________________________________ 2. Section #: __________________

3. Year installed: _______________

4. Area (sq ft): ______________ 5. Defects None

Minor

Moderate

Extensive

Blistering

❑

❑

❑

❑

Buckled shingles

❑

❑

❑

❑

Cracked shingles

❑

❑

❑

❑

Curled shingles

❑

❑

❑

❑

Flashing

❑

❑

❑

❑

Granule loss Leaks

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

Missing tabs

❑

❑

❑

❑

Rotted underlayment

❑

❑

❑

❑

❑ poor

❑ fair

❑ good

❑ excellent



_________________________________________________

———————————————————————————————— ———————————————————————————————— 9. Inspector: ____________________________

Date: ________________

Item 7:

Estimate the remaining useful life of the roof in years. The rating should be based on the overall condition of the roof, its age, and its exposure to harsh service conditions.

Item 8:



Item 9:

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Built-up Roofs Built-up roofs consist of multiple layers of reinforcing materials embedded in waterproofing materials. The reinforcing material may be fiberglass, organic, or polyester felts. The waterproofing material is typically asphalt or coal tar bitumen. The most commonly installed built-up roofs use three or four alternating layers of reinforcing and waterproofing materials. To protect the surface from damage from the sun’s UV rays, gravel, ceramic granules, a white or aluminum reflective coating is applied to the top layer. The most common defects found in built-up roofs include the following: 1.

Alligatoring. Alligatoring is the formation of small cracks in the surface of the asphalt material as the result of shrinkage. The pattern of cracks takes on the appearance of dried mud or the skin of an alligator. If alligatoring is left uncorrected, the cracks will grow into splits in the membrane. Minor alligatoring can be corrected by re-coating the area.

2.

Bare spots. Bare spots are areas where the roof’s protective coating is missing and the underlying asphalt materials are exposed to the sun. For gravel and ceramic granule coated roofs, bare spots can be caused by wind, foot traffic, or water. For roofs coated with acrylic or an aluminum coating, it is normal to have to re-coat the roof every four to five years.

3.

Blisters. Blisters are soft, spongy bubbles in the surface of the roof’s membrane that are caused by the expansion of moisture trapped within or under the membrane. Blisters can be any size and are most apparent on hot days. They are easily broken by foot traffic or the expansion of freezing water, resulting in a small opening into the roof. Large areas of blisters indicate that water has penetrated the roof’s membrane. The source of the leak must be identified and corrected as soon as possible. Depending on the size of the individual blisters and extent of the blistering, those portions of the roof may have to be replaced.

4.

Buckles. Buckles form in built-up roofs as the result of the thermal expansion of the roofing material, or the separation of the underly-

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ing insulation from the roof deck. Buckling concentrates stress along the ridge of the buckle, often resulting in a tear. Buckles should be cut out and repaired before the roofing felts split. Excessive buckling in a roof requires replacement of the roof. 5.

Cracks. Cracks form in built-up roofs as the result of movement in the underlying insulation, improper application techniques, or as a result of a breakdown in the roofing materials. All cracks should be investigated as to their cause, and patched or filled as soon as possible to prevent moisture from gaining access to the roof’s insulation.

6.

Expansion joints. Expansion joints are installed in areas where differential movement in underlying materials takes place or in large sections of roofing where thermal expansion would cause damage to the roof surface. They are designed to be flexible and allow roof movement while maintaining water tightness. Typical problems with expansion joints include failed flashings and deterioration of the flexible material. Any damaged expansion joint must be repaired as soon as possible.

7.

Flashings. Flashings are used to provide a watertight seal junctions between the roofing membrane and walls, parapets, and equipment penetrations. They are a high stress point in roofs as they serve as transition points between materials with different rates of thermal expansion. Typical problems with flashings include improper installation, inadequate coverage, punctures, splits, separation, wrinkles, corrosion, loose fasteners, and open laps. Failed flashings allow water direct access to the roof insulation, and therefore should be repaired as soon as possible.

8.

Leaks. Roof leaks are most easily detected by the stains and damage they cause to the building’s interior. They can be the result of a localized problem in the roof or the overall breakdown of roofing materials. Their severity is determined by how often a particular area leaks; leaks during heavy rains, leaks during long periods of rain, or leaks during any rain. The source of any leak must be identified and corrected as quickly as possible.

9.

Physical damage. Physical damage to a roof often results in a punc-


93

ture or tear in the roof membrane, allowing water to enter. Typical causes include foot traffic, items dropped on the roof, vandalism, wind, and hail. Punctures, tears, and other damage must be repaired to prevent water entry into the roof’s insulation. If the physical damage is limited to areas surrounding roof-mounted equipment, roof walkway pads should be installed to prevent further damage in the future. 10.

Ponding. Ponding occurs when the roof does not fully drain within 48 hours of a rainfall. It is an indication that the roof lacks adequate slope or roof drains, or that roof drains may not be properly placed. Ponded water can damage roofing materials by chemically altering their composition. The weight of the water can also cause physical damage to the roof by collapsing the roof’s insulation. Check nearby roof drains to ensure their proper operation. Additional drains may be required to correct ponding.

11.

Ridges. When ridges appear in a roof’s surface, is an indication that the underlying insulation has been damaged by moisture and has peeled away from the roof deck. Repair of ridges requires opening sections of the roof to replace the damaged insulation.

12.

Roof drains. Typical roof drain problems include split felts around the base of the drain, separated flashings, rusted or broken clamping bolts, and missing or broken strainers. Roof drains should be cleaned and inspected closely on a regular basis.

13.

Roof penetrations. Wherever mechanical equipment, vents, or piping penetrates the roof surface, the risk for developing leaks increases. Typical problems included loss of pitch pocket sealant, damaged flashings, excessive traffic wear, physical damage to the roof surface, and erosion of the roof surface. Any opening or damage around roof penetrations must be repaired as quickly as possible. Consider installing roof walkway pads for rooftop-mounted equipment to limit damage to the roof’s membrane.

Use Figure 4-3 to assess the condition of built-up roofs. The tools needed to perform this assessment include a tape measure or measuring wheel to determine the area of the roof, and a camera to photograph

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Figure 4-3. Built-up Roofs ———————————————————————————————— 1. Location: _____________________________________________________ 2. Section #: __________________ 3. Year installed: ________________ 4. Area (sq ft): ______________ 5. Defects None

Minor

Moderate

Extensive

Alligatoring

❑

❑

❑

❑

Bare spots

❑

❑

❑

❑

Blisters Buckles

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

Cracks

❑

❑

❑

❑

Expansion joints

❑

❑

❑

❑

Flashings Leaks

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

Physical damage

❑

❑

❑

❑

Ponding

❑

❑

❑

❑

Ridges

❑

❑

❑

❑

Roof drains Penetrations

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

Stained decks

❑

❑

❑

❑

❑ poor

❑ fair

❑ good

❑ excellent



_________________________________________________

———————————————————————————————— ———————————————————————————————— 9. Inspector: ___________________________

Date: ________________


95

overall conditions and major defects. The photographs will help during future assessments to identify areas that are slowly deteriorating. Complete the built-up roof assessment as follows: Item 1:


Item 2:

Enter a unique section number for the roof that is being accessed. The section number is useful in identifying a particular section of roof in larger facilities. Using a unique section number will allow users to track the condition and the rate of deterioration for that particular section in future assessments.

Item 3:


Item 4:


Item 5:


Item 6:


Item 7:


Item 8:


Item 9:


Cedar Shake Roofs Cedar shake roofs are installed on wood lath or plywood sheathing. Like asphalt shingle roofs, their pitches range from 3:12 to 12:12. The most common defects found in asphalt cedar shake roofs include the following:

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1.

Cracked & split shingles. As cedar shakes age, they dry out and shrink. As a result, cracks and splits can form in the shingles. Cracks can also form as the result of wind damage and from personnel walking on the roof. Eventually, cracks and splits will expand throughout the entire shingle, and may allow sections of the shingle to separate from the roof. While cracking and splitting is normal as the roofs age, extensive development of cracks and splits will result in missing shakes.

2.

Curled shingles. Cedar shakes often curl as the result of frequent cycles of wetting and drying. Curled shingles are subject to lifting by wind and can break off. Minor curling in a limited number of shakes is normal. Badly curled shakes should be replaced to prevent their separation from the roof or lifting other shakes.

3.

Failed fasteners. Due to the water retention in cedar shakes, their fasteners are subject to corrosion. As the corrosion progresses, the fasteners will fail, allowing individual shakes to separate from the roof. A number of failed fasteners is a sign that the roof is approaching the end of its service life.

4.

Flashings. Flashings are used to provide a watertight junction between the roofing material and walls, parapets, and equipment penetrations. They are a high stress point in roofs as they serve as transition points between materials with different rates of thermal expansion. Typical problems with flashings include improper installation, inadequate coverage, punctures, splits, separation, wrinkles, corrosion, loose fasteners, and open laps. Flashings should be closely inspected and replaced as required during roofing replacement. Minor or isolated flashing failures can be repaired by removing and replacing the adjacent section of cedar shakes.

5.

Leaks. Leaks are most easily detected by the stains and damage they cause to the building interior. They can be the result of a localized problem in the roof or the overall breakdown of roofing materials. Their severity is determined by how often a particular area leaks; leaks during heavy rains, leaks during long periods of rain, or leaks during any rain. Leaks can be difficult to trace in cedar shake roofs as the water can travel along the underside of the


97

shingles or roofing deck for some distance before gaining entry to the building interior. 6.

Missing shingles. Cedar shakes can separate from the roof as a result of wind, damage to the shakes, or failure of the fasteners. Missing shingles should be replaced as soon as possible. If more than a few shingles are missing from a roof, it is a warning sign that the fasteners or the shakes are failing and the roof is approaching the end of its service life.

7.

Rotted shingles. Cedar shakes hold water longer than other types of roofing materials. As a result, they are susceptible to the growth of mold and fungi. In addition to discoloring the surface of the roof, this growth will attack the wood shakes, breaking them down. Rot is most noticeable at the end of shakes, particularly those with a northern exposure. Minor rot is normal, but extensive rot weakens the shakes and is an indication that the roof is approaching the end of its service life.

8.

Rotted underlayment. If an asphalt shingle roof has been leaking for some time, the plywood or manufactured wood product underlayment may have rotted. Rotted underlayment is difficult to detect, but will appear stained from the underside. It will also feel soft or spongy when walked on. Rotted and damaged underlayment requires replacement of all or part of the roof.

Use Figure 4-4 to assess the condition of cedar shake roofs. The tools needed to perform this assessment include a tape measure or measuring wheel to determine the area of the roof, a metal probe to check shakes for rot damage, and a camera to photograph overall conditions and major defects. The photographs will help during future assessments to identify areas that are slowly deteriorating. Complete the cedar shake roof assessment as follows: Item 1:


Item 2:

Enter unique section number for the roof that is being accessed. The section number is useful in identifying a particular section of roof in larger facilities. Using a unique

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Figure 4-4. Cedar Shake Roofs ———————————————————————————————— 1. Location: _____________________________________________________ 2. Section #: ___________________

3. Year installed: ________________


Minor

Moderate

Extensive

Curled shingles

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

Failed fasteners

❑

❑

❑

❑

Flashings

❑

❑

❑

❑

Leaks Missing shingles

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

Rotted shingles

❑

❑

❑

❑

Rotted underlayment

❑

❑

❑

❑

❑ poor

❑ fair

❑ good

❑ excellent

Cracks & splits



_________________________________________________

———————————————————————————————— ———————————————————————————————— 9. Inspector: ____________________________

Date: ________________

section number will allow users to track the condition and the rate of deterioration for that particular section in future assessments. Item 3:



99

Item 4:


Item 5:


Item 6:


Item 7:


Item 8:


Item 9:


Metal Roofs There are two categories of metal roofs; structural and architectural. With structural metal roofs, the waterproofing layer and the supporting deck are combined. With architectural metal roofs, the waterproofing layer and supporting deck are separate components. The minimum roof slope is 1/4 inch per foot for structural metal roofs, and three inches per foot for architectural metal roofs. Most metal roofs use a fairly high pitch, generally greater than 4:12. Metal roofs are available in a number of different seam designs, including flat, batten, and standing seam. Metal roofs can be made from aluminum, copper, or steel. Most steel and aluminum roofs use a coating to protect the metal from corrosion and erosion, and to provide a particular finish and appearance to the roof. The most common defects found in metal roofs include the following: 1.

Corrosion. All metal roofs are subject to corrosion. Those located in regions with high levels of acid rain or pollution are at risk for accelerated rates of corrosion. Corrosion of roof components can be limited by making certain that the protective coating is in good condition.

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2.

Damaged panels. Metal roof panels are easily damaged by wind, hail, foot traffic, and debris falling from higher roofs or trees. Improperly installed panels can be damaged by thermal expansion. In many cases, the damage will be cosmetic and will not require corrective action. However, some damage may cause panels to loosen or separate from their fasteners. These panels will require repair or replacement as quickly as possible.

3.

Failed fasteners. Damaged or corroded fasteners allow panels to shift in high winds. Wind can cause vibrations that loosen fasteners or cause them to fail due to metal fatigue. If a sufficient number of fasteners have failed, panels can lift and separate from the roof. Failed fasteners should be replaced whenever they are found.

4.

Failed seams. Seams on metal roofs can be flush or raised. When seams pull apart or open, they can allow water to penetrate the roof, or they can allow panels to become loose. Closely inspect all seams for integrity and water tightness.

5.

Finish. The finish on metal roofs serves to provide a particular architectural appearance to the roof and to protect the metal. Finishes can blister, peal, and erode, exposing the underlying metal. Repairing damaged finishes, unless the damage is isolated, typically requires replacing the entire roof finish.

6.

Flashings. Flashings are used to provide a watertight junction between the roofing surface and walls, parapets, and equipment penetrations. Typical problems with flashings include improper installation, inadequate coverage, punctures, splits, separation, wrinkles, corrosion, loose fasteners, and open laps. Flashings should be closely inspected and replaced as required during roofing replacement. Minor or isolated flashing failures can be repaired by removing and reinstalling the adjacent section of metal roof panels.

7.

Leaks. Leaks are most easily detected by the stains and damage they cause to the building interior. They can be the result of a localized problem in the metal roof, such as a failed panel or damaged fasteners, or the overall breakdown of roofing materials. Their


101

severity is determined by how often a particular area leaks; leaks during heavy rains, leaks during long periods of rain, or leaks during any rain. Leaks can be difficult to trace in metal roofs as the water can travel along the underside of the panels for some distance before gaining entry to the building interior. Use Figure 4-5 to assess the condition of metal roofs. The tools needed to perform this assessment include a tape measure or measuring wheel to determine the area of the roof, and a camera to photograph overall conditions and major defects. The photographs will help during future assessments to identify areas that are slowly deteriorating. Complete the metal roof assessment as follows: Item 1:


Item 2:

Enter unique section number for the roof that is being accessed. The section number is useful in identifying a particular section of roof in larger facilities. Using a unique section number will allow users to track the condition and rated deterioration of that particular section in future assessments.

Item 3:


Item 4:


Item 5:

Identify the type of metal roof installed.

Item 6:

Identify the type of seam used in the roof.

Item 7:

Identify the type of material used for the metal roof.

Item 8:


Item 9:


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Figure 4-5. Metal Roofs ———————————————————————————————— 1. Location: _____________________________________________________ 2. Section #: ___________________

3. Year installed: ________________

4. Area (sq ft): ______________ 5. Type:

❑ structural

❑ architectural

6. Type of seam:

❑ batten

❑ standing

❑ flat

❑: other:

❑ aluminum

❑ steel

❑ copper

❑ other:

7. Material:

________________

________________

8. Defects: None

Minor

Moderate

Extensive

Damaged panels

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

Failed fasteners

❑

❑

❑

❑

Failed seams

❑

❑

❑

❑

Finish

❑

❑

❑

❑

Flashing

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ poor

❑ fair

❑ good

❑ excellent

Corrosion

Leaks 9. Overall condition:


_________________________________________________

———————————————————————————————— ———————————————————————————————— 12. Inspector: ____________________________

Date: ________________

————————————————————————————————


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Item 10:


Item 11:


Item 12:


Polyurethane Roofs Polyurethane roofs are a monolithic foam roof that is sprayed directly on a roof deck, one to two inches thick. The foam acts as both the water barrier and the roof insulation. It is a lightweight roof, typically weighing less than one-half pound per square foot. To protect the polyurethane foam from damage by UV rays, the roofs must be fully coated with a 20 to 30 mil layer of urethane or silicone. To prevent damage from maintenance and other personnel who must have access to the roof, walkway pads must be installed. Foam roofs are often used in re-roofing applications as they can be applied directly over an existing roof. The most common defects found in polyurethane roofs include the following: 1.

Damaged protective coating. The coating that is applied to foam roofs is designed to prevent UV damage from the sun to the foam material. It must be reapplied every three to five years. Any areas where the protective coating is damaged or worn should be recoated immediately.

2.

Flashings. Flashings are used to provide a watertight seal between the roofing foam and walls, parapets, and equipment penetrations. They are high stress points in roofs as they serve as transition points between materials with different rates of thermal expansion. Typical problems with flashings include improper installation, inadequate coverage, punctures, splits, separations, wrinkles, corrosion, loose fasteners, and open laps. Flashings should be closely inspected and replaced as required during roofing replacement. Minor or isolated flashing failures can be repaired by removing and replacing the adjacent section of foam roof.

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3.

Foam degradation. Degradation of the foam is usually caused by the failure of the roof coating. UV rays from the sun then can attack the foam material, breaking it down. Any areas showing degradation of the foam should be removed and replaced, and a new protective coating applied.

4.

Inadequate walkways. The foam material is readily crushed and damaged by foot traffic. Therefore it is important that protective walkways be provided to allow access to roof-mounted mechanical equipment.

5.

Leaks. Leaks in foam roofs are usually the result of physical damage to the roof in the form of punctures, separated flashings, or tears in the foam. The source of all leaks should be identified and repaired immediately.

6.

Physical damage. Objects falling on foam roofs, careless maintenance personnel, and foot traffic can all cause physical damage to the roof. Areas where physical damage has occurred should have the foam cut out and new foam installed along with the protective coating.

7.

Ponded water. Ponding occurs when the roof does not fully drain within 48 hours of a rainfall. It is an indication that the roof lacks adequate slope or roof drains, or that roof drains may not be properly placed. Ponded water can damage foam-roofing materials by chemically altering their composition. The weight of the water can also cause physical damage to the foam roof by collapsing it. Check nearby roof drains to ensure their proper operation. If the slope of the roof is inadequate, those sections of the roof having ponded water should be re-graded with a new layer of foam.

8.

Roof drains. Typical roof drains problems include separation from the roofing foam, separated flashings, rusted or broken clamping bolts, and missing or broken strainers. Roof drains should be cleaned and inspected on a regular basis.

9.

Rough surface. The foam roof should have a smooth surface. A rough surface is an indication that the roof was not properly ap-


105

plied, or that it was applied when temperature, humidity, or wind conditions exceeded those recommended by the manufacturer. Rough surfaces can be corrected by removing the protective coating, and applying an additional layer of foam. Use Figure 4-6 to assess the condition of polyurethane roofs. The tools needed to perform this assessment include a tape measure or measuring wheel to determine the area of the roof, and a camera to photograph overall conditions and major defects. The photographs will help during future assessments to identify areas that are slowly deteriorating. Complete the polyurethane roof assessment as follows: Item 1:


Item 2:

Enter a unique section number for the section of roof that is being accessed. The section number is useful in identifying a particular section of roof in larger facilities. Using a unique section number will allow users to track the condition and rate of deterioration of that particular section in future assessments.

Item 3:


Item 4:


Item 5:

Enter the average thickness of the foam roof.

Item 6:

For each defect listed, rate how often that defect occurs in the roof. Use an average rating for that section of roof being assessed.

Item 7:


Item 8:


Item 9:


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Figure 4-6. Polyurethane Roofs ———————————————————————————————— 1. Location: _____________________________________________________ 2. Section #: ___________________

3. Year installed: ________________

4. Area (sq ft): ______________ 5. Average thickness (inches): _______________ 6. Defects None

Minor

Moderate

Extensive

Flashings

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

Foam degradation

❑

❑

❑

❑

Inadequate walkways

❑

❑

❑

❑

Leaks

❑

❑

❑

❑

Physical damage Ponded water

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

Roof drains

❑

❑

❑

❑

Rough surface

❑

❑

❑

❑

Damaged coating


❑ poor ❑ fair ❑ good ❑ excellent


_________________________________________________

———————————————————————————————— ———————————————————————————————— 10. Inspector: ____________________________

Date: ________________

————————————————————————————————


Item 10:

107


Single-ply Roofs Single-ply roofing uses a flexible membrane to provide waterproofing for the roof. The membrane can be mechanically fastened to the roof, fully adhered with an adhesive, or ballasted. There are three general classes of single-ply roofs, thermoset, thermoplastic, and modified bitumen. Thermoset roofing comes in sheets with widths of up to 30 feet, making them well suited for applications having few roof penetrations. Seams can be solvent-welded, hot-air welded, or adhesive joined. The most common types of thermoset single-ply roofing include ethylene propylene diene monomer (EPDM), chlorosulfonated polyethylene (CSPE), and neoprene. Thermoplastic single-ply roofs is installed in narrower rolls, typically less than ten feet wide, making them better suited for applications having a large number of roof penetrations. Seams are usually joined by heat welding. The most common types include polyvinyl chloride (PVC) and ethylene interpolymer (EIP). Modified bitumen roofs are a hybrid of single-ply and built-up roofs and have the appearance of asphalt roofing systems. The modified bitumen membrane is a multi-layer sheet of asphalt, polyester or fiberglass reinforcement, and plastic or rubber modifiers. Seams can be heatwelded or joined by an adhesive. The most common defects found in single-ply roofs include the following: 1.

Alligatoring. Alligatoring is the formation of small cracks in the surface of the asphalt material as the result of shrinkage. The pattern of cracks takes on the appearance of dried mud or the skin of an alligator. If alligatoring is left uncorrected, the cracks will grow into splits in the membrane. Minor alligatoring can be corrected by re-coating the area.

2.

Attachment failures. Single-ply roofs are subject to uplifting from wind. Any uplifting is the result of failures in the adhesive or fasteners, or inadequate ballasting. Uplifting must be corrected as soon as possible or the roof membrane can be blown or torn off by a strong wind.

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3.

Inadequate ballast. Ballast can shift around on the roof as a result of foot traffic, wind, and heavy rain. Areas that are not adequately covered by ballast are subject to uplifting from the wind and damage from foot traffic. Bare areas should be covered with additional ballast or concrete pavers.

4.

Blisters. Blisters are soft, spongy bubbles in the surface of the roof’s membrane that are caused by the expansion of moisture trapped within or under the membrane. Blisters can be any size and are most apparent on hot days. They are easily broken by foot traffic or the expansion of freezing water, resulting in small openings into the roof. Large areas of blisters indicate that water has penetrated the roof’s membrane. The source of the leak should be identified and corrected as soon as possible. Depending on the size of the individual blisters and extent of the blistering, those portions of the roof may have to be replaced.

5.

Expansion joints. Expansion joints are installed in areas where differential movement in underlying materials takes place or in large sections of roofing where thermal expansion would cause damage to the roof surface. They are designed to be flexible and allow roof movement while maintaining water tightness. Typical problems with expansion joints include failed flashings and deterioration of the flexible material. Any damaged expansion joint must be repaired as soon as possible.

6.

Flashings. Flashings are used to provide watertight junctions between the roofing membrane and walls, parapets, and equipment penetrations. They are a high stress point in roofs as they serve as transition points between materials with different rates of thermal expansion. Typical problems with flashings include improper installation, inadequate coverage, punctures, splits, separation, wrinkles, corrosion, loose fasteners, and open laps. Failed flashings allow water direct access to the roof insulation, and therefore should be repaired as soon as possible.

7.

Leaks. Leaks are most easily detected by the stains and damage they cause to the building interior. They can be the result of a localized problem in the roof or the overall breakdown of roofing


109

materials. Their severity is determined by how often a particular area leaks; leaks during heavy rains, leaks during long periods of rain, or leaks during any rain. The source of any leak must be identified and corrected as quickly as possible to limit damage. 8.

Physical damage. Physical damage to a roof often results in a puncture or tear in the roof membrane, allowing water to enter. Typical causes include foot traffic, items dropped on the roof, vandalism, wind, and hail. Punctures, tears, and other damage must be repaired to prevent water entry into the roof’s insulation. If the physical damage is limited to areas surrounding roof-mounted equipment, roof walkway pads should be installed to prevent further damage in the future.

9.

Ponded water. Ponding occurs when the roof does not fully drain within 48 hours of a rainfall. It is an indication that the roof lacks adequate slope or roof drains, or that roof drains may not be properly placed. Ponded water can damage roofing materials by chemically altering their composition. The weight of the water can also cause physical damage to the roof by collapsing the roof’s insulation. Check nearby roof drains to ensure their proper operation. Additional drains may be required to correct ponding.

10.

Ridges. When ridges appear in a roof’s surface, is an indication that the underlying insulation has been damaged by moisture and has lifted from the roof deck. Repair of ridges requires opening sections of the roof to replace the damaged insulation.

11.

Roof drains. Typical roof drain problems include split felts around the base of the drain, separated flashings, rusted or broken clamping bolts, and missing or broken strainers. Roof drains should be cleaned and inspected closely on a regular basis.

12.

Roof penetrations. Wherever mechanical equipment, vents, or piping penetrates the roof surface, the risk for developing leaks increases. Typical problems included loss of pitch pocket sealant, damaged flashings, traffic wear, physical damage to the roof surface, and erosion of the roof surface. Any opening or damage around roof penetrations must be repaired as quickly as possible to

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limit damage. Consider installing roof walkway pads for rooftopmounted equipment to limit damage to the roof’s membrane. 13.

Seam failures. The most common failure associated with single-ply roofs is the failure of the seams. Most failed seams are the result of improper installation practices, including overheating of the seam, inadequate heating of the seam, use of insufficient adhesive, and stretching of the membrane. Minor seam failures can be repaired by the use of adhesive or reheating. More extensive seam failures will require at least partial replacement of the roof membrane.

Use Figure 4-7 to assess the condition of single-ply roofs. The tools needed to perform this assessment include a tape measure or measuring wheel to determine the area of the roof, and a camera to photograph overall conditions and major defects. The photographs will help during future assessments to identify areas that are slowly deteriorating. Complete the single-ply roof assessment as follows: Item 1:


Item 2:

Enter a unique section number for the section of roof that is being accessed. The section number is useful in identifying a particular section of roof in larger facilities. Using a unique section number will allow users to track the condition and rated deterioration of that particular section in future assessments.

Item 3:


Item 4:


Item 5:

Identify the method of attachment for the membrane.

Item 6:


Item 7:



111

Figure 4-7. Single-ply Roofs ———————————————————————————————— 1. Location: _____________________________________________________ 2. Section #: ___________________

3. Year installed: ________________

4. Area (sq ft): ______________ 5. Method of attachment: ❑ ballasted

❑ mechanically attached

❑ fully adhered ❑ other: ___________ 6. Defects: None

Minor

Moderate

Extensive

Alligatoring

❑

❑

❑

❑

Attachment failures Ballast inadequate

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

Blisters

❑

❑

❑

❑

Expansion joints

❑

❑

❑

❑

Flashings

❑

❑

❑

❑

Leaks Physical damage

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

Ponded water

❑

❑

❑

❑

Ridges

❑

❑

❑

❑

Roof drains Penetrations

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

Seam failures

❑

❑

❑

❑




_________________________________________________

———————————————————————————————— ———————————————————————————————— 10. Inspector: ____________________________

Date: ________________

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Item 8:


Item 9:


Item 10:


Slate Roofs Slate roofs are known for their long service lives, typically 50 years or more. In many cases, it is the nails or the flashing that fails before the slate itself. In spite of their durability and long service lives, slate roofs require maintenance on a regular basis. Slate roofs can be installed over plywood or a solid wood underlayment. Roof pitches range from a minimum of 4 in 12 to 12 in 12 or higher. While a number of different types of nails have been used to secure the slate, the best performing nails are copper or hot dipper galvanized. The most common defects in slate roofs include the following: 1.

Cracked or broken slates. Although slate is a long-lasting roofing material, it is brittle. Individual slates can be easily damaged by wind, falling debris, ice dams, and foot traffic. Slates that are improperly nailed are prone to crack. Damaged slates should be replaced as soon as possible.

2.

Chipping or scaling. The natural weathering of slate is a slow process that appears as chipping or scaling. Thin layers flake off the slate’s surface, and the underlying material becomes soft and spongy, decreasing in strength while increasing in the rate of water absorption. Chipping and scaling is a result of chemical changes in mineral impurities found in the slate. Its rate varies with the quality of the slate, the exposure of the roof to sun and rain, and the pitch of the roof. Excessive chipping or scaling indicates that the slate is in need of replacement.

3.

Flashings. Flashings are used to provide a watertight junction be-


113

tween the roofing membrane and walls, parapets, and equipment penetrations. They are a high stress point in roofs as they serve as transition points between materials with different rates of thermal expansion. Typical problems with flashings include improper installation, inadequate coverage, punctures, splits, separation, wrinkles, corrosion, loose fasteners, and open laps. Failed flashings allow water direct access to the underlying roof materials and therefore should be repaired as soon as possible. 4.

Leaks. Leaks are most easily detected by the stains and damage they cause to the roof’s underlayment. They can be the result of broken or missing slate, failed flashings, or improper roof penetrations. The severity of the leak is determined by how often a particular area leaks; leaks during heavy rains, leaks during long periods of rain, or leaks during any rain. Leaks can be difficult to trace in slate roofs as the water can travel along the underside of the slate for some distance before gaining entry to the building interior.

5.

Missing slates. Roofing slate is a brittle material and is easily damaged by wind, falling debris, ice dams, and foot traffic. Once individual slates have cracked, it is likely that the sections will separate, and the slate will fall from the roof. Nail failure and improper nailing techniques can also lead to the loss of slates. Individual slates should be replaced as soon as possible.

6.

Nail failure. The failure of the nails in a slate roof is usually the result of using the wrong type of nail. Copper or hot dipped galvanized nails will generally last the life of the roofing slate. Other nail types are not as durable and will fail before the slate. If nails are failing in an installation, it is a warning sign that extensive roof repairs will be required in the near future.

7.

Rotted underlayment. If slates have been damaged or improperly installed, water can gain access to the underlayment causing rot. Additionally, as the roof slates age, they tend to chip and scale as a result of chemical changes in mineral impurities found in the slate. This process also increases the rate at which slate absorbs water, leading to rot in the underlayment. Any underlayment found to be rotted must be immediately replaced.

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Use Figure 4-8 to assess the condition of slate roofs. The tools needed to perform this assessment include a tape measure or measuring wheel to determine the area of the roof, and a camera to photograph overall conditions and major defects. The photographs will help during future assessments to identify areas that are slowly deteriorating.

Figure 4-8. Slate Roofs ———————————————————————————————— 1. Location: _____________________________________________________ 2. Section #: ___________________

3. Year installed: ________________


Minor

Moderate

Extensive

Cracked slates

❑

❑

❑

❑

Excessive scaling

❑

❑

❑

❑

Flashings

❑

❑

❑

❑

Leaks Missing slates

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

Nail failures

❑

❑

❑

❑

Rotted underlayment

❑

❑

❑

❑

❑ poor ❑ good




_________________________________________________

———————————————————————————————— ———————————————————————————————— 9. Inspector: ____________________________

Date: ________________

————————————————————————————————


115

Complete the slate roof assessment as follows: Item 1:


Item 2:

Enter a unique section number for the section of roof that is being accessed. The section number is useful in identifying a particular section of roof in larger facilities. Using a unique section number will allow users to track the condition and rated deterioration of that particular section in future assessments.

Item 3:


Item 4:


Item 5:

For each defect listed, rate how often that defect occurs in the roof. Use an average rating for that section of roof being assessed.

Item 6:

Rate the overall condition of the roof. Use an average rating for all sections of roof being assessed.

Item 7:


Item 8:


Item 9:


EXTERIOR WALLS A building’s walls, like the other elements in the building envelope, perform a number of different functions. They help to keep the elements out while protecting the building’s contents and occupants. Equally important, they are the most visible element of the building exterior.

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They often are the first feature that visitors and building occupants see. Keeping the walls in good condition and appearance therefore is important to the operation of the building. The maintenance requirements for the exterior walls depend to a great extent on the materials from which they are constructed. Most problems develop slowly and therefore may go unnoticed in day-to-day operations. Left uncorrected, minor problems can rapidly develop into major and costly ones that are difficult to correct and disruptive to building operations. Early detection and correction is the key to keeping exterior walls in good condition. Regular inspections will help to identify areas where water may be penetrating the walls, allowing repairs to be made before the damage becomes extensive. Regular inspections also will identify signs of stresses building up within and behind the walls allowing corrective action to be taken before the wall is at risk of failure.

Masonry Walls Masonry walls can be solid or brick veneer. Solid masonry consists of an outer layer of brick and an inner layer of brick, block, or concrete. Brick veneer consists of an outer layer of brick over framing and sheathing. When viewed from the outside, brick veneer walls will have weep holes while solid masonry walls usually do not. Solid masonry walls typically have header bricks every five or six rows. Most masonry wall deficiencies are the result of two problems; water penetration and settlement. Water can penetrate the walls through cracks, deteriorated mortar joints, or failed caulking around doors and windows. Even roof leaks will contribute to water penetrating the walls. Settlement can be the result of improper construction of the foundation, or the inability of the soil under the foundation to support the weight of the masonry wall. Visual inspections from ground level will detect the most obvious defects in exterior walls. For walls that are more than five stories, inspections from ground level will require the use of binoculars. When conditions dictate closer inspections, ladders and lifts may be required. It will also be necessary in older and deteriorated walls to probe through openings in the wall to determine underlying conditions. The most common defects found in masonry walls include the following:


117

1.

Bowing. Bowing is the outward swelling or shifting in masonry walls that is the result of incompatible movement of wall materials, improper anchoring of masonry cladding, or corrosion and expansion of steel fasteners that tie the masonry cladding to the wall’s frame. To correct bowing, that portion of the wall must be disassembled and rebuilt.

2.

Cracks. Cracking in masonry walls is the result of a higher level of stresses being applied to wall components than the component has strength or elasticity to resist. They can be caused by a number of different factors, including the lack of sufficient horizontal or vertical expansion joints, improperly installed or failed masonry ties, settlement of the building foundation, or rusting of the underlying steel frame. Vertical expansion cracks can be routed out and sealed. Horizontal expansion cracks, and cracks caused by failed masonry ties or rusting of the building’s steel frame will require that portion of the masonry to be replaced.

3.

Crazing. Crazing is the formation of a pattern of very small cracks in the surface of glazed masonry materials. It is caused by different coefficients of expansion and contraction between the brick materials and the glazing, and is most common in applications where glazed brick is exposed to repeated freeze/thaw cycles. It is not considered to be a serious problem unless the cracks extend into the body of the brick, allowing moisture to penetrate.

4.

Efflorescence. Efflorescence is the formation of a white haze on the surface of masonry materials. It is the result of moisture migration through the masonry materials. As the moisture migrates, it picks up soluble salts and carries them to the surface. When the moisture evaporates, it leaves the salt deposits behind forming the white haze. Efflorescence by itself is not a serious problem. It is, however, an indication that excessive moisture is penetrating the wall or wall cavity. Eliminating efflorescence requires eliminating the moisture at its source.

5.

Leaks. Leaks to the building’s interior can be the result of the porosity of the masonry, cracks, or failed mortar joints. All sources of water must be cut off before they can enter the masonry wall.

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Cracks and failed mortar joints must be repaired. 6.

Mortar joint failures. Freeze/thaw cycles, settlement, movement, physical damage, and acid rain all contribute to damage to mortar joints. Eventually, they can cause the joints to crack, or sections of mortar to deteriorate. Open and deteriorated joints allow water to enter the wall. The most common repair for failed mortar joints is tuckpointing.

7.

Rising damp. Rising damp is the condition when groundwater moves up through the masonry wall as a result of capillary action. As the moisture evaporates from the surface of the masonry, it leaves behind dissolved salts, resulting in efflorescence. Rising damp also causes other water related problems within the masonry wall and to other wall components. It is corrected by redirecting ground water away from the wall.

8.

Settlement. Settlement can be the result of improper preparation of the site during construction, improper construction of the foundation, or the inability of the foundation to support the loads imposed on it by the building or the surrounding soil. It is seen as cracks extending along the mortar joints, or a change in the run of the horizontal mortar joints. The cause for the settlement in a masonry wall must be found and corrected or the wall may fail.

9.

Spalling. Spalling occurs when the outer layers of a masonry material peal or break off. It is caused by a combination of exposure to freeze/thaw cycles and the trapping of moisture and salts within the masonry. Spalling can be accelerated by the improper cleaning of the masonry surface. Once spalling occurs, the masonry loses much of its protection against absorbing more water, leading to even more spalling. Spalling cannot be repaired effectively without replacing the masonry units.

Use Figure 4-9 to assess the condition of masonry walls. The tools needed to perform this assessment include a tape measure or measuring wheel to determine the area of the wall, and a camera to photograph overall conditions and major defects. The photographs will help during future assessments to identify areas that are slowly deteriorating.


119

Figure 4-9. Masonry Walls ———————————————————————————————— 1. Location: _____________________________________________________ 2. Section #: ___________________ 4. Length (ft): ________________

3. Year installed: ________________ Average height (ft): _______________

❑ block

5. Construction

❑ brick & block

❑ brick & brick ❑ veneer brick ❑ other: ____________________ 6. Defects: None

Minor Moderate

Extensive

Bowing

❑

❑

❑

❑

Cracks

❑

❑

❑

❑

Crazing

❑

❑

❑

❑

Efflorescence

❑

❑

❑

❑

Leaks Mortar joint failures

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

Rising damp

❑

❑

❑

❑

Settlement

❑

❑

❑

❑

Spalling

❑ ❑ poor

❑ ❑ fair

❑

❑

❑ good

❑ excellent



_________________________________________________

———————————————————————————————— ———————————————————————————————— 10. Inspector: ____________________________

Date: ________________

————————————————————————————————

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Complete the masonry wall assessment as follows: Item 1:


Item 2:

If the building has more than one type of wall, enter a unique section number for that particular section of wall being assessed. Using a unique section number will allow users to track the condition and rate of deterioration of that section with future assessments.

Item 3:


Item 4:

Measure and enter the length and average height of the wall.

Item 5:

Identify the type of construction used for the wall.

Item 6:

For each defect listed, rate how often that defect occurs in the wall. Use an average rating for that section of wall being assessed.

Item 7:

Rate the overall condition of the wall. Use an average rating for all sections of wall being assessed.

Item 8:

Estimate the remaining useful life of the wall in years. The rating should be based on the overall condition of the wall, its age, and its exposure to harsh service conditions.

Item 9:


Item 10:


Stone Walls Stone walls are constructed either as a solid wall or as a veneer wall over a metal or masonry structure. A variety of building stone types have


121

been used, depending on the availability and cost of the stone, and the desired appearance of the building. Although stone is a very durable building material, it is susceptible to a number of mechanisms that result in its slow decay over time. The most common problems with stone building walls are the result of weathering, water damage, and movement. In some cases, poor maintenance and repair practices have served to make the extent of the damage more severe. Visual inspections from ground level will detect the most obvious defects in exterior stone walls. For walls that are more than five stories tall, inspections from ground level will require the use of binoculars. When conditions dictate closer inspections, ladders and lifts will be required. It will also be necessary in older and deteriorated walls to probe through openings in the wall to determine underlying conditions. The most common defects found in stone walls include the following: 1.

Cracks. Most cracking in stone walls occurs along mortar joints, although individual stones can fail and crack. Most cracks are the result of excessive movement within the wall or settlement of the building foundation. All cracks must be cleaned out and resealed to prevent the entry of moisture into the stone, accelerating deterioration.

2.

Displacement. Excessive horizontal and vertical forces will result in the movement of individual stones in a wall. While minor displacement requires only monitoring, excessive displacement of one or more stones can result in the failure of the entire wall. The repair of displaced sections of a stone wall typically requires removal and replacement of the impacted and surrounding stones.

3.

Erosion. Pollution, primarily in the form of acid rain, can attack and erode many stone materials. While sealants can be used to protect the stone and slow the process, there is no real cure for erosion. Eventually, badly eroded portions of stone will require replacement.

4.

Efflorescence. Efflorescence is the formation of a white haze on the surface of the stone. It is the result of moisture migration through

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the stone. As the moisture migrates, it picks up soluble salts and carries them to the surface. When the moisture evaporates, it leaves the salt deposits behind forming the haze. Efflorescence by itself is not a serious problem. It is, however, an indication that excessive moisture is penetrating the wall or wall cavity. Eliminating efflorescence requires eliminating the moisture at its source. 5.

Flaking. Flaking, or exfoliation, is a natural process by which the outer layers of stone slowly peel off in thin layers. Flaking is similar to spalling in masonry walls and is usually the result of a combination of exposure to freeze/thaw cycles and the trapping of moisture and salts within the stone. It can also be caused by the improper cleaning of the surface. Flaking can be slowed by redirecting water away from the stone, but there is no permanent cure once stone starts flaking.

6.

Mortar joint failures. Freeze/thaw cycles, settlement, movement, physical impacts, and acid rain all contribute to damage to mortar joints. Eventually, they can cause the joints to crack, or sections of mortar to deteriorate and crumble. Open and deteriorated joints allow water to enter the wall. The most common repair for failed mortar joints is tuckpointing.

7.

Settlement. Settlement can be the result of improper preparation of the site during construction, improper construction of the foundation, or the inability of the foundation to support the loads imposed on it by the building or the surrounding soil. It is seen as cracks in the wall, or a change in the run of the horizontal mortar joints. The cause for the settlement in a masonry wall must be found and corrected or the wall can fail.

Use Figure 4-10 to assess the condition of stone walls. The tools needed to perform this assessment include a tape measure or measuring wheel to determine the area of the wall, and a camera to photograph overall conditions and major defects. The photographs will help during future assessments to identify areas that are slowly deteriorating. Complete the stone wall assessment as follows: Item 1:



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Figure 4-10. Stone Walls ———————————————————————————————— 1. Location: _____________________________________________________ 2. Section #: ____________________ 4. Length (ft): ________________

Average height (ft): _______________

❑ stone

5. Construction

3. Year built: ________________

❑ stone veneer

❑ other: ____________________ 6. Defects: None

Minor

Moderate

Extensive

Displacement

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

Erosion

❑

❑

❑

❑

Efflorescence

❑

❑

❑

❑

Flaking

❑

❑

❑

❑

Mortar joint failures

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ poor

❑ fair

❑ good

❑ excellent

Cracks

Settlement 7. Overall condition:


_________________________________________________

———————————————————————————————— ———————————————————————————————— 10. Inspector: ____________________________

Date: ________________

————————————————————————————————

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Item 2:

If the building has more than one type of wall, enter a unique section number for that section of wall being assessed. Using a unique section number will allow users to track the condition and rate of deterioration of that particular section with future assessments.

Item 3:


Item 4:


Item 5:

Identify the type of construction used for the stone wall.

Item 6:

For each defect listed, rate how often that defect occurs in the wall. Use an average rating for the section of wall being assessed.

Item 7:

Rate the overall condition of the wall. Use an average rating for the section of wall being assessed.

Item 8:


Item 9:


Item 10:


Frame Walls with Siding Most walls with siding are of frame construction, with either a steel or wood frame covered by an insulation board or wood sheathing and the siding material. The three most commonly used types of siding today are aluminum, steel, and vinyl. Wood and wood composite materials are also widely used, but they are discussed in the next section.


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Aluminum, steel, and vinyl siding offer the advantages of low first costs, long service lives, and low maintenance requirements. They do, however, require periodic inspection and maintenance, primarily to keep minor defects from developing into larger and more expensive ones. When inspecting siding, it is important to view the material from several different angles. Defects that are hidden from one view may become apparent from another. Similarly, viewing a particular section at different times of the day when the angle of the sun is different will make some defects more obvious. Many of the most common defects that develop in siding can be traced back to poor installation practices. Over-tightening of fasteners prevents sections of siding from properly moving with temperature changes, resulting in a wavy appearance to the siding or the buckling of individual sections. Attaching fasteners to only the wall sheathing rather than to the wall studs results in fasteners that work loose and siding that can sag or separate from the sheathing. In addition, siding can be damaged by hail, high winds, or impact from objects. The most common defects in siding include the following: 1.

Bowing. Bowing occurs when the siding cannot properly move with changes in temperature. As a result, sections bind and bow away from the underlying sheathing. Most bowing problems can be traced back to improper attachment of the siding to the wall. While the impact of bowing in primarily cosmetic, it should serve as an early warning sign of potential attachment problems and warrants further monitoring. There is no cure for bowing other than to remove and reattach the affected area of siding.

2.

Chalked finish. Exposure to ultraviolet light and temperature extremes causes chemical changes in the paint on aluminum or steel siding, and in vinyl siding material. The most common change is the dulling of the finish or the chalking of the paint. Proper cleaning techniques can restore the appearance of the siding in most cases. However, severely chalked paint can lead to corrosion in both aluminum and steel siding. If the finish cannot be restored by cleaning, the siding can be painted to restore its appearance. Once painted though, the process must be repeated every five to seven years in order to maintain the appearance of the siding.

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3.

Corrosion. Both aluminum and steel siding are subject to corrosion. Corrosion occurs when moisture penetrates the finish on the siding, gaining access to the underlying material. Corrosion can also occur when the siding material is in contact with the ground. Any areas showing signs of corrosion should be sanded down to the bare metal, treated, and repainted. Badly corroded siding must be replaced in order to maintain the integrity of the wall.

4.

Cracking and splitting. Temperature changes, wind, improper installation techniques, and impact damage can lead to the development of cracks or splits in siding. Once a crack or split has formed, the section of siding is susceptible to additional damage from the wind. Split or cracked siding must be replaced as soon as possible.

5.

Deteriorated sheathing. Prolonged exposure to moisture from roof leaks, rain driven through gaps in the siding, or from condensation can result in the rotting and deterioration of the underlying sheathing. If deterioration is suspected, several individual sections of the siding should be removed to allow an inspection. Deteriorated sheathing requires removal and replacement.

6.

Loose fasteners. Repeated changes in temperature, high winds, and exposure of the sheathing to moisture can result in the loosening of the fasteners. Fasteners can also work loose if they are not properly attached to the wall studs. Once loose, the siding is as risk of being lifted by the wind. If fasteners have loosened in a particular area of siding, the siding in that area should be unzipped, and the fasteners and sheathing closely inspected to determine the cause.

7.

Separated sections. When one section of siding separates from the adjacent section, it is usually the result of poor installation practices. Separated sections require removal and replacement to prevent additional damage from the wind.

Use Figure 4-11 to assess the condition of the siding. The tools required to perform the assessment include a tape measure to determine the area of the siding, a ladder to reach higher sections, a camera to photograph overall conditions and major defects, and a tool to unzip sections of siding.


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Figure 4-11. Aluminum, Steel & Vinyl Siding ———————————————————————————————— 1. Location: _____________________________________________________ 2. Section #: ___________________ 4. Length (ft): ________________ 5. Finish

3. Year installed: ________________ Average height (ft): _______________

❑ aluminum

❑ steel

❑ vinyl

❑ other:

________________

6. Defects: None

Minor Moderate

Extensive

Bowing

❑

❑

❑

❑

Chalked finish Corrosion

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

Cracks & splits

❑

❑

❑

❑

Deteriorated sheathing

❑

❑

❑

❑

Loose fasteners

❑

❑

❑

❑

Separated sections

❑ ❑ poor

❑ ❑ ❑ fair

❑

❑ good

❑ excellent



_________________________________________________

———————————————————————————————— ———————————————————————————————— 10. Inspector: ____________________________

Date: ________________

————————————————————————————————

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Complete the siding assessment as follows: Item 1: Enter the name of the building that is being assessed. Item 2:

If the building has more than one type of wall, enter a unique section number for that type of wall being assessed. Using a unique section number will allow users to track the condition and rate of deterioration of that particular section with future assessments.

Item 3:


Item 4:


Item 5:

Identify the type of siding material used.

Item 6:


Item 7:


Item 8:


Item 9:


Item 10:


Frame Walls with Wood Siding Wood siding has long been used with frame construction. Traditionally, the siding has been available in boards, shakes, or in sheet form.


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More recently, manufactured wood products have become available for use as siding. Wood and manufactured wood products offer the advantages of low first costs and long service lives. Their primary disadvantage is the requirement that they be painted or stained on a regular basis. Manufactured wood products offer the additional advantage of relative low maintenance. As the material has a very low absorption rate for moisture, paint pealing is practically eliminated. Many of the common defects that develop in wood siding are the result of poor maintenance practices. Leaking roofs and overflowing gutters allow water to flow over the siding, potentially saturating the wood. Pealing paint exposes wood to moisture damage. Deteriorated caulking along window and door frames allows moisture to penetrate the wood. By performing regularly scheduled inspections, many of these maintenance items can be identified and corrected while they are relatively minor and before significant damage occurs to the wood. The most common defects in wood siding include the following: 1.

Cracks and splits. Changes in the moisture content of wood cause shrinking and swelling of the wood. If these changes take place in the direction of the growth rings of the wood, cracks and splits can form in the wood, allowing even more moisture to enter the wood. Left uncorrected, the crack will continue to grow and sections of the wood board will rot. Minor cracks and splits should be sealed and painted to prevent moisture entry. Sections of wood siding with large cracks should be replaced.

2.

Deteriorated sheathing. Prolonged exposure to moisture from roof leaks, rain driven through gaps in the siding, or from condensation can result in the rotting and deterioration of the sheathing. If deterioration is suspected, several individual sections of the wood siding should be removed to allow for an inspection. Deteriorated sheathing requires removal and replacement.

3.

Loose fasteners. Repeated changes in temperature, high winds, and exposure of the sheathing to moisture can result in the loosening of the fasteners. Fasteners can also work loose if they are not properly attached to the wall studs. Once loose, the siding is as risk of warping or being damaged by the wind. If fasteners have loosened in a particular area of siding, the siding in that area should be removed

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and the fasteners and sheathing closely inspected to determine the cause. 4.

Paint pealing. Most instances of paint pealing are the result of moisture that is penetrating the wood siding. Temperature changes in the wood cause the moisture to migrate to the surface, where it exerts pressure on the paint. Eventually, the paint fails and peals. When repairing area with pealing paint, it is important to first identify and eliminate the source of moisture, or the pealing will continue to take place. Areas of pealed paint should be scraped and primed before repainting.

5.

Physical damage. Physical damage to wood siding can range from minor, cosmetic damage to extensive, structural damage. Each area that is damaged should be checked to determine the cause, to make certain that once repaired, the damage won’t recur. Repair of physical damage generally requires replacement of the damaged sections of siding.

6.

Rot/decay. The most common cause of rot and decay in wood siding is excessive moisture. Roof leaks, failed door and window caulking, failed paint, and leaking downspouts all can allow moisture to be absorbed by the wood. Once the wood moisture content rises above 20 percent, conditions are ideal for the growth of decay fungi that feed on the organic material of the wood. Rotted areas must be removed and replaced. To prevent the development of new rot, the source of the moisture must also be eliminated.

7.

Warping. Warping is any change in the surface of the wood siding from that of a flat plane, including twisting, cupping, and bowing. It is caused primarily by improper attachment of the siding, the use of inadequately dried wood or the regular soaking of the wood. If the warping is minor, the section of siding can be straightened by using additional fasteners. Badly warped siding requires replacement.

Use Figure 4-12 to assess the condition of the wood siding. The tools required to perform the assessment include a tape measure to determine the area of the siding, a ladder to reach higher sections, a metal


131

probe to test for soft areas, and a camera to photograph overall conditions and major defects.

Figure 4-12. Wood Siding ———————————————————————————————— 1. Location: _____________________________________________________ 2. Section #: __________________ 4. Length (ft): ________________ 5. Construction:

3. Average height (ft): ___________ Average height (ft): _______________

❑ board

❑ T-111

❑ manufactured

❑ shakes

❑ other: ___________________ 6. Defects: None

Minor Moderate

Extensive

Cracks & splits

❑

❑

❑

❑

Deteriorated sheathing

❑

❑

❑

❑

Loose fasteners

❑

❑

❑

❑

Pealing paint

❑

❑

❑

❑

Physical damage Rot/decay

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

Warping

❑

❑

❑

❑

❑ poor

❑ fair

❑ good

❑ excellent



_________________________________________________

———————————————————————————————— ———————————————————————————————— 10. Inspector: ____________________________

Date: ________________

————————————————————————————————

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Complete the wood siding assessment as follows: Item 1:


Item 2:

If the building has more than one type of wall, enter a unique section number for that particular section of wall being assessed. Using a unique section number will allow users to track the condition and rate of deterioration of that particular section with future assessments.

Item 3:


Item 4:


Item 5:

Identify the type of siding material used.

Item 6:


Item 7:


Item 8:


Item 9:


Item 10:


EIFS The exterior insulation and finishing system, known as EIFS, is an exterior wall finishing system that gives the wall a stucco-like appearance. The system consists of panels of expanded polystyrene foam insu-


133

lation attached to the load bearing component of the exterior wall, a base coat that is troweled over the insulation, a glass fiber reinforcing mesh embedded in the base coat, and a 1/8 to 1/4 inch thick finish coat. There are two general types of EIFS; barrier and water-managed. Barrier EIFS finishes are designed to prevent the penetration of any water through the system. Water-managed finishes recognize that some water will eventually penetrate the finish and therefore builds-in features to allow this water to escape. Two factors that have contributed to the widespread use of EIFS walls are their energy efficiency and their relatively low first costs. Its most serious drawback is with moisture intrusion, particularly in barrier systems. Water that penetrates the surface does not readily evaporate and can penetrate the substrate and wall framing, often causing extensive damage. Uncorrected, the damage can threaten the structural integrity of the building. Unfortunately, the damage can take place with little or no exterior warning signs. The best defense against extensive damage to EIFS wall systems is frequent inspections. Early detection and correction can help to limit the damage from water intrusion. Several non-intrusive scanning meters are available that will give an indication of the moisture content of the substrate. Suspect areas should be then checked with a probe type meter that will give a reading of the moisture content. Unfortunately, the only corrective action for badly damaged substrate is removal and replacement. The most common defects associated with EIFS wall systems include the following: 1.

Cracking. Exposure to repeated cycles of heating and cooling can result in stress cracks in the surface of the EIFS material. Uncorrected, these cracks can penetrate well into or entirely though the material, allowing water to gain access to the substrate. All cracked areas should be checked for moisture content, patched, and sealed.

2.

Delamination. Delamination occurs when the surface material deteriorates and separates from underlying materials. It is generally a result of improper installation practices or water penetration. All areas that are impacted by delamination must have all loose material removed, replaced, and resealed.

3.

Failed flashing. One of the most common sources of water that damages the substrate behind EIFS finish is the building flashing.

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Wall, roof, and chimney flashings can allow large volumes of water to penetrate and saturate the substrate. Flashings should be inspected for water tightness. Any damaged flashings must be repaired and the substrate tested for moisture content. 4.

Leaking wall penetrations. Another common area of water entry in any exterior wall system is wherever there are wall penetrations. Deck attachments, electrical cables, mechanical piping, light fixtures; all are typical wall penetrations that can lead to sources for water penetration. Closely examine all wall penetrations to determine their water tightness. If leaks are suspected, follow-up with a probe type moisture meter to determine the extent of the water penetration.

5.

Rising damp. Rising damp is the condition when groundwater moves up through the EIFS material as a result of capillary action. It can lead to the rapid deterioration of the substrate. Rising damp is corrected by redirecting ground water away from the wall.

6.

Roof leaks. The single most common source of water that damages the substrate behind EIFS materials is a roof leak. Roof leaks tend to allow large volumes of water to penetrate and travel behind the EIFS material, causing widespread damage that often goes undetected for a long period of time. Closely inspect the roof along all EIFS walls for possible leaks. If leaking is suspected, survey the adjacent area with a scanning moisture meter, and if moisture is detected, use a probe type meter to determine the extent of the damage.

7.

Sealant failure. EIFS systems depend on a sealant coating to prevent moisture penetration through the EIFS material. While this coating is durable, it must be reapplied on a regular basis in order to maintain the water tightness of the wall. The coating can also be easily physically damaged. If the sealant is found to be damaged, badly worn, or missing, survey the adjacent area with a scanning moisture meter, and if moisture is detected, use a probe type meter to determine the extent of the damage.

8.

Window leaks. Another source for water that penetrates behind the EIFS material to the substrate is a leaking window. Leaks typically


135

take place in the caulking between the window and the EIFS material, although they can occur within the window itself. Closely inspect all windows and window caulking to determine the water tightness of the installation. If the caulking is found to be deteriorated or if the window is found to be leaking, survey the adjacent area with a scanning moisture meter, and if moisture is detected, use a probe type meter to determine the extent of the damage. Use Figure 4-13 to assess the condition of the EIFS wall system. The tools required to perform the assessment include a tape measure to determine the area of the siding, a ladder to reach higher sections, a scanning moisture meter to test for water penetration, a probe type moisture meter, and a camera to photograph overall conditions and major defects. Complete the EIFS wall system assessment as follows: Item 1:


Item 2:

If the building has more than one type of EIFS wall, enter a unique section number for that particular section of wall being assessed. Using a unique section number will allow users to track the condition and rate of deterioration of that particular section with future assessments.

Item 3:


Item 4:


Item 5:

Identify the type of EIFS construction.

Item 6:

For each defect listed, rate how often that defect occurs in the wall. Use an average rating for the section of wall being assessed.

Item 7:


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Figure 4-13. EFIS Wall System ———————————————————————————————— 1. Location: _____________________________________________________ 2. Section #: ___________________ 4. Length (ft): ________________

3. Year Built: _____________ Average height (ft): _______________

❑ barrier

5. Type:

❑ water managed

6. Defects: None

Minor Moderate

Extensive

Cracking

❑

❑

❑

❑

Delamination Failed flashings

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

Leaking penetrations

❑

❑

❑

❑

Rising damp

❑

❑

❑

❑

Roof leaks

❑

❑

❑

❑

Sealant failure

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ poor

❑ fair

❑ good

❑ excellent

Window leaks 7. Overall condition:


_________________________________________________

———————————————————————————————— ———————————————————————————————— 10. Inspector: ____________________________

Date: ________________

Item 8:


Item 9:



Item 10:

137


WINDOWS Windows cause unique problems for facility managers. They can cause overheating of exterior spaces, even during the winter. On cold, cloudy days, heat loss through the glass or air infiltration around the window frame can result in cold, drafty areas. Wind driven rain can work its way between window components, damaging interior finishes. Condensation on the interior surfaces of the window during cold weather or on the outside surfaces during hot, humid weather can damage window components and interior finishes. Windows contribute significantly to the building’s heating and cooling loads. Depending on the type of materials that the window is made from, periodic painting is required in order to protect the window from the elements. Windows represent a significant investment for building owners. Therefore, window replacement projects should not be entered into lightly. In many cases it is more cost effective to restore the existing windows rather than replace them, particularly in historic buildings. One of the problems that facility managers face when needing to evaluate the condition of the windows in their facility is the number of windows involved. Particularly in facilities having large areas of glass, the sheer number of units involved can make the process very time consuming. Therefore, many choose to assess the condition of a sample of the windows, typically 15 to 20 percent of the total, and project the assessment findings to include all of the windows in the facility. As long as the windows sampled are representative of all of the windows installed in the facility, sampling can be an effective way of determining the overall condition of the windows without having to closely inspect each window. A variety of materials have been used in window construction, including wood, vinyl clad wood, aluminum clad wood, steel, aluminum, and vinyl. Each material has its own maintenance requirements. Wood Windows Wood windows have been widely used in all types of facilities. Traditionally, wood windows have required repainting every five to ten

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years to protect them from the elements. To reduce maintenance requirements, manufacturers offer aluminum and vinyl clad units that require no exterior painting. The majority of problems that occur in wood window installations can be traced to weather factors. Repeated cycles of wetting and drying can cause the wood to dry and split. Exposure to ultraviolet light from the sun breaks down protective paint coatings, allowing water to penetrate into the wood. Additional problems found in operable wood windows are typically caused by wear from frequent operation. The most common problems found in wood windows include the following: 1.

Caulking failure. The caulking between the window frame and the building wall serves as a barrier to water penetration and air infiltration. Failed caulking increases the rate of infiltration of both air and water. Uncorrected, it can lead to the rotting of the window frame and damage to the wall. Failed caulking must be removed and replaced.

2.

Cracking & splitting. When wood components are subjected to repeated wetting and drying cycles, it can cause the wood to crack or split. Once cracking and splitting starts, more water can penetrate the wood resulting in additional cracking and splitting. Minor cracks and splits can be sealed. Larger ones require replacement of the wood.

3.

Fogged glazings. In dual glazed windows, the space between the two glazings is often sealed and filled with an inert gas. If the seal should fail, or if one of the glazings becomes cracked, air and moisture can gain access to this space. With repeated temperature changes, the inner surfaces of the glazings can become fogged. The only solution to fogged glazings is replacement of the entire glazing assembly.

4.

Deteriorated glazing. The flexible material that holds the individual panes of glass in place dries out and cracks with time and exposure. Failed glazing increases the rate of air and water infiltration, and can allow glass to become loose. Deteriorated glazing should be fully removed and replaced.


139

5.

Loose fit. Wood windows and frames are subject to wear. As they wear, the gap between the moveable sash and the frame grows wider, increasing air and water infiltration rates. Repair of a loose fitting wood window requires the rebuilding of the existing sash or replacement of the entire window.

6.

Paint failure. Most instances of paint failure are the result of moisture that has penetrated the wood. Temperature changes in the wood cause the moisture to migrate to the surface, where it exerts pressure on the paint. Eventually, the paint fails. When repairing areas with failed paint, it is important to first identify and eliminate the source of the moisture. Areas of failed paint should be scraped and primed before repainting.

7.

Physical damage. Physical damage to wood windows can range from minor cosmetic defects to extensive, structural damage. All damage must be evaluated to determine if repair or replacement is required.

8.

Rot/decay. The most common cause of rot and decay in wood windows is high levels of moisture in the wood. Moisture can enter the wood through failed caulking and glazing, or through unpainted areas. Once the moisture content of the wood rises above 20 percent, conditions are ideal for the growth of decay fungi that feed on the organic material of the wood. Rotted areas must be removed and replaced.

9.

Sticking sashes. As the moisture level within the wood increases, it causes the wood to warp or swell, resulting in the sashes becoming difficult or impossible to move. To correct sticking sashes, the sash should be removed from the frame and trimmed as necessary. Badly warped sashes require replacement. Sticking sashes can also be the result of broken mechanisms in the window.

Use Figure 4-14 to assess the condition of wood windows. The tools required to perform the assessment include a tape measure to determine the dimensions of the window, a probe to check for rot or decay, and a camera to photograph overall conditions and major defects.

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Figure 4-14. Wood Windows ———————————————————————————————— 1. Building: ____________________________________________________ 2. Year installed: ________________ 4. Type:

3. Size (inches): _____________

❑ awning ❑ casement

❑ fixed ❑ single hung

❑ double hung

❑ other: _______________

5. Glazings:

❑ single ❑ double ❑ separate storm

❑ triple

6. Cladding:

❑ aluminum

❑ none

❑ vinyl

7. Total number installed: _______________ 8. Defects: None

Minor Moderate

Extensive

Caulking failure

❑

❑

❑

❑

Cracking & splitting Fogged glazing

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

Glazing, deteriorated

❑

❑

❑

❑

Loose fit

❑

❑

❑

❑

Paint failure Physical damage

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

Rot/decay

❑

❑

❑

❑

Sticking sashes

❑ ❑ poor

❑ ❑ fair

❑

❑

❑ good

❑ excellent



_________________________________________________

———————————————————————————————— ———————————————————————————————— 12. Inspector: ____________________________

Date: ________________


141

Complete the wood window assessment as follows: Item 1:


Item 2:

Enter the year in which the building was constructed. If the windows were replaced, enter the year when the new windows were installed.

Item 3:

Measure the height and width of the windows.

Item 4:

Identify the type of window installed

Item 5:

Identify the number of installed glazings.

Item 6:

Identify the type of cladding used on the window exteriors.

Item 7:

Enter the number of windows installed of the type being assessed

Item 8:

For each defect listed, rate how often that defect occurs in the windows. Use an average rating for the type of windows being assessed.

Item 9:

Rate the overall condition of the windows. Use an average rating for all windows of the type being assessed.

Item 10:

Estimate the remaining useful life of the windows in years. The rating should be based on the overall condition of the windows, their age, and their exposure to harsh service conditions.

Item 11:


Item 12:


Metal Windows The most common types of metal windows include aluminum and steel. Both offer long service lives if they are properly protected from

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moisture, although protecting steel windows from corrosion is far more critical than protecting aluminum windows. The majority of problems that occur in metal window installations can be traced to failures in the protective finish or the caulking between the window frame and the building’s wall. These failures allow water to penetrate to the surface of the metal window, resulting in corrosion. The most common problems found in wood windows include the following: 1.

Caulking failure. The caulking between the window frame and the building wall serves as a barrier to water penetration and air infiltration. Failed caulking increases the rate of infiltration of both air and water. Uncorrected, it can lead to corrosion of the window frame and damage to the wall. Failed caulking must be removed and replaced.

2.

Corrosion. Exposure of the metal components of the window to water will result in corrosion. Most corrosion is the result of failed paint or caulking that allows water to come in direct contact with the metal components of the window. Minor corrosion can be cleaned and treated. More serious corrosion will require replacement of that component.

3.

Fogged glazings. In dual glazed windows, the space between the two glazings is often sealed and filled with an inert gas. If the seal should fail, or if one of the glazings becomes cracked, air and moisture can gain access to this space. With repeated temperature changes, the inner surfaces of the glazings can become fogged. The only solution to fogged glazings is replacement of the glazing assembly.

4.

Loose fit. Metal windows and frames are subject to wear. As they wear, the gap between the moveable sash and the frame grows wider, increasing air and water infiltration rates. Repair of a loose fitting metal window requires the replacement or upgrading of the windows’ weather-stripping.

5.

Paint failure. Most instances of paint failure are the result of moisture that has penetrated to the surface of the metal window. The


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moisture causes the surface of the metal to corrode, lifting the paint. Moisture can gain access to the surface through physical damage to the paint or through failed caulking. When repairing areas with failed paint, it is important to first identify and eliminate the source of the moisture. Areas of failed paint should be scraped and primed before repainting. 6.

Physical damage. Physical damage to metal windows can range from minor cosmetic damage to extensive, structural damage. Even the slightest physical damage can allow water to gain access to the surface of the metal, resulting in corrosion. All damage must be evaluated to determine if repair or replacement is required.

7.

Sticking sashes. Sticking sashes in metal window installations are typically caused by failed window operators, corrosion, or a buildup of paint. Repair typically requires removal of the window sash.

Use Figure 4-15 to assess the condition of metal windows. The tools required to perform the assessment include a tape measure to determine the dimensions of the window, a probe to check for corrosion or failed caulking, and a camera to photograph overall conditions and major defects. Complete the metal window assessment as follows: Item 1:


Item 2:


Item 3:


Item 4:


Item 5:


Item 6:


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Figure 4-15. Metal Windows ———————————————————————————————— 1. Building:

____________________________________________________

2. Year installed: _______________ 4. Type:

5. Glazings:

3. Size (inches): _____________

❑ awning

❑ fixed

❑ casement

❑ single hung

❑ double hung ❑ single

❑ other: _______________ ❑ double ❑ triple

❑ separate storm 6. Total number installed: _______________ 7. Defects: None

Minor Moderate

Extensive

Caulking failure

❑

❑

❑

❑

Corrosion

❑

❑

❑

❑

Fogged glazing Loose fit

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

Paint failure

❑

❑

❑

❑

Physical damage

❑

❑

❑

❑

Sticking sashes

❑ ❑ poor

❑ ❑ fair

❑

❑

❑ good

❑ excellent



_________________________________________________

———————————————————————————————— ———————————————————————————————— 11. Inspector: ____________________________

Date: ________________

————————————————————————————————


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Item 7:


Item 8:


Item 9:


Item 10:


Item 11:


Vinyl Windows Vinyl windows were first widely used in the residential building market, but have slowly gained acceptance for use in commercial and institutional facilities. They offer the advantages of relatively low first cost and low maintenance requirements. The majority of problems in vinyl window installations are the result of improper installation practices. The units may not have been properly squared when set and have warped, resulting in leaks or difficult operation. The most common problems found in vinyl windows include the following: 1.

Caulking failure. The caulking between the window frame and the building wall serves as a barrier to water penetration and air infiltration. Failed caulking increases the rate of infiltration of both air and water. Uncorrected, it can lead to deterioration of the wall around the window and leaks into the interior space. Failed caulking must be removed and replaced.

2.

Cracking. Cracking is usually the result of changes in the physical properties of the vinyl materials due to exposure to ultraviolet light

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and pollutants. Prolonged exposure can cause the vinyl materials to loose strength and flexibility. Repeated heating and cooling cycles can then result in cracking of the vinyl materials. Cracked windows cannot be repaired in most instances, requiring replacement. 3.

Fogged glazings. In dual glazed windows, the space between the two glazings is often sealed and filled with an inert gas. If the seal should fail, or if one of the glazings becomes cracked, air and moisture can gain access to this space. With repeated temperature changes, the inner surfaces of the glazings can become fogged. The only solution to fogged glazings is replacement of the glazing assembly.

4.

Physical damage. Physical damage to vinyl windows can range from minor cosmetic defects to extensive, structural damage. Minor damage can often be buffed to restore the appearance of the window. Major damage generally requires replacement of the window.

5.

Sticking sashes. Sticking sashes in vinyl window installations are typically caused by poor installation practices, failed window operators, or warping. If the window operators are tested and are in good condition, then it may be necessary to remove and reinstall the window.

6.

Warping. Vinyl windows can warp as the result of poor installation practices, or uneven thermal expansion. Minor warping problems can be corrected by removing the window and reinstalling it. Major warping problems will require the replacement of the window. Complete the vinyl window assessment as follows: Item 1:


Item 2:


Item 3:


Item 4:



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Figure 4-16. Vinyl Windows ———————————————————————————————— 1. Building:

____________________________________________________

2. Year installed: _______________ 4. Type:

5. Glazings:

3. Size (inches):

_____________

❑ awning

❑ fixed

❑ casement

❑ single hung

❑ double hung

❑ other: _______________

❑ single

❑ double

❑ triple

❑ separate storm 6. Total number installed: _______________ 7. Defects: None

Minor

Moderate

Extensive

Caulking failure

❑

❑

❑

❑

Cracking

❑

❑

❑

❑

Fogged glazing

❑

❑

❑

❑

Physical damage

❑

❑

❑

❑

Sticking sashes

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ poor

❑ fair

❑ good

❑ excellent

Warping 8. Overall condition:


_________________________________________________

———————————————————————————————— ———————————————————————————————— 11. Inspector: ____________________________

Date: ________________

————————————————————————————————

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Item 5:


Item 6:


Item 7:


Item 8:


Item 9:


Item 10:


Item 11:


EXTERIOR DOORS Exterior doors are expected to perform a variety of functions, including providing entry to the building, maintaining a barrier to the elements, and enhancing security. Equally important, doors are expected to maintain their appearance while performing these functions, as they often are the first element of the building that visitors come in physical contact with, they help to form their first impression of the facility and its operations. Factor in the daily use and abuse that doors are subjected too, and they suddenly become a priority for the maintenance department. The maintenance required by exterior doors is directly proportional to their level of use and abuse. The service life of these doors is directly proportional to the level of maintenance they receive. The most common types of doors used in facilities include metal, wood, and glass. Each type has its own advantages, disadvantages, and maintenance requirements.


149

Metal Exterior Doors Metal exterior doors are widely used in applications where durability and security take precedence over appearance. With periodic maintenance that includes rust removal, painting, and hardware adjustment, the typical service life for a metal exterior door is 30 years. Harsh service conditions, such as being located in a salt-water environment, can reduce the serve life to as little as ten years. The majority of problems that occur in metal exterior doors are the result of weather and wear factors. Exposure to rain and snow can corrode components. Wind and water can damage door hardware. Hinges and latching mechanisms can become worn, causing doors to go out of alignment and not properly open or close. The most common problems found in metal doors include the following: 1.

Alignment. If door hardware is worn or if it is loose, the door may not hang properly in its frame. Poorly aligned doors increase wear on hardware components, are difficult to operate, and may not fully latch. If the door is not aligned properly, check the hardware for condition and proper operation.

2.

Closer. Most exterior doors have automatic closers to help maintain the security of the facility. Improper operation of the closure can result in the door either closing too quickly, or not at all. While closers that fail to operate at all pose a hazard to building security, ones that close the door too quickly can result in damage to the door, the door frame, or the surrounding walls. All door closers should be tested regularly and adjusted as needed.

3.

Corrosion. One of the most significant long-term maintenance problems associated with steel doors is corrosion. While the finish on steel doors is designed to protect the steel, it can be damaged through normal use and abuse, allowing moisture to gain access to the surface of the steel. Left uncorrected, steel surfaces can become perforated in a relatively short period of time. All exterior steel doors should be inspected closely for corrosion, particularly along their edges and lower surfaces. Any rust found should be removed, the area treated, and the entire door repainted.

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4.

Fit and operation. When doors are properly installed, there is equal spacing on all sides between the door and the frame. Physical damage to the door or frame, warping, and worn or damaged door hardware can allow the door to shift within the frame, resulting in a poor fit and difficult operation of the door. Check the spacing between the frame and the door on all sides. Cycle the door from full open to full closed to check for smooth operation. In many cases, adjustment of the door hardware can bring the door back into proper alignment. If the door cannot be brought into proper fit by adjusting the hardware, it may be necessary to rehang or replace the door.

5.

Frame. Door frames must be in good condition if the door is expected to open and close properly. Frames, however, are subject to damage from normal use, abuse, and weather. Metal frames can corrode. Wood frames can split or rot. Inspect the frame for damage and deterioration. Unless the damage is severe, the frames can be repaired.

6.

Hardware damage. Door hardware in most applications takes a severe beating. Hinges can wear or pull loose from the door or the door jamb, causing the door to sag or bind. Weather stripping can tear or crush, allowing both air and water to enter through openings in the door. Automatic openers can bind or go out of adjustment, resulting in the improper opening or closing of the door. Inspect all door hardware for proper operation. Hardware that is found to be out of adjustment should be adjusted as needed. Improperly operating hardware should be replaced. Door hardware that is in poor condition will frequently lead to damage to the door and door frame.

7.

Locking mechanism. One of the most common problems found in exterior doors is the improper operation of the locking mechanism due to wear or misalignment. The proper adjustment and operation of locksets, panic hardware, and strike plates is necessary to ensure the security of the facility. All door locking mechanisms should be inspected and their operation tested regularly.

8.

Threshold damage. Door thresholds are exposed to wear from pedestrian traffic and damage from snow, water, and dirt. Dam-


151

aged thresholds can prevent proper operation of the door or they can pose a tripping hazard. All door thresholds should be inspected for tightness, damage, and wear. 9.

Physical damage. Physical damage to the door itself can be the result of normal use, abuse, or wind and water damage. Depending on the type and extent of the damage, the operation of the door can be interfered with, compromising the security of the facility.

Use Figure 4-17 to assess the condition of metal doors. Use a separate form for each type of metal door installed in the facility. The tools required to perform the assessment include a tape measure to determine the dimensions of the door and a camera to photograph overall conditions and major defects. Metal doors should be inspected once a year. Complete the metal door assessment as follows: Item 1:


Item 2:

Enter the year in which the building was constructed. If the doors were replaced, enter the year when the new doors were installed.

Item 3:

Measure the height and width of the doors.

Item 4:

Identify the fire rating of the door.

Item 5:

Indicate if the doors include windows.

Item 6:

Enter the number of doors installed of the type being assessed

Item 7:

For each defect listed, rate how often that defect occurs in the doors. Use an average rating for the type of doors being assessed.

Item 8:

Rate the overall condition of the doors. Use an average rating for all doors of the type being assessed.

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Figure 4-17. Metal Doors ———————————————————————————————— 1. Building:

____________________________________________________

2. Year installed: _______________ 4. Fire rating:

5. Glazings:

3. Size (inches):

❑ Class A

❑ Class C

❑ Class B

❑ no rating

❑ yes

❑ no

_____________


Minor Moderate

Extensive

Alignment

❑

❑

❑

❑

Corrosion Fit & operation

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

Frame

❑

❑

❑

❑

Hardware

❑

❑

❑

❑

Locking mechanism

❑

❑

❑

❑

Threshold

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ poor

❑ fair

❑ good

❑ excellent

Physical damage 8. Overall condition:


_________________________________________________

———————————————————————————————— ———————————————————————————————— 11. Inspector: ____________________________

Date: ________________

————————————————————————————————


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Item 9:

Estimate the remaining useful life of the doors in years. The rating should be based on the overall condition of the doors, their age, and their exposure to harsh service conditions.

Item 10:


Item 11:


Wood Exterior Doors Wood exterior doors offer the advantage of long service lives and durability while being more aesthetically pleasing than most metal doors. Like metal exterior doors, wood doors require regular maintenance, including periodic painting and hardware adjustment. Under normal service conditions, the service life of wood exterior doors is between 30 and 40 years. The majority of problems that occur in wood exterior doors are the result of weather and wear factors. Exposure to rain and snow can weaken and rot components. Wind and water can damage door hardware. Hinges and latching mechanisms can become worn, causing doors to go out of alignment and not properly open or close. The most common problems found in wood doors include the following: 1.


2.


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3.

Fit and operation. When doors are properly installed, there is equal spacing on all sides between the door and the frame. Physical damage to the door or frame, warping, and worn or damaged door hardware can allow the door to shift within the frame, resulting in a poor fit and difficult operation of the door. Check the spacing between the frame and the door on all sides. Cycle the door from full open to full closed to check for smooth operation. In many cases, adjustment of the door hardware can bring the door back into proper alignment. If the door cannot be brought into proper fit by adjusting the hardware, it may be necessary to replace the door.

4.

Frame. Door frames must be in good condition if the door is expected to open and close properly. Frames, however, are subject to damage from normal use, abuse, and weather. Metal frames can corrode. Wood frames can split or rot. Inspect the frame for damage and deterioration. Unless the damage is severe, in most cases, the frame can be repaired.

5.


6.


7.

Rot/decay. The most common cause of rot and decay in wood doors is high levels of moisture in the wood. Moisture can enter the wood


155

through cracks and splits in the wood, failed paint, areas of physical damage, or through unpainted areas. Once the moisture content of the wood rises above 20 percent, conditions are ideal for the growth of decay fungi that feed on the organic material of the wood. Depending on the location and extent of the rot, repairs can be made to the door, otherwise it will be necessary to replace the entire door. 8.

Threshold damage. Door thresholds are exposed to wear from pedestrian traffic and damage from snow, water, and dirt. Damaged thresholds can prevent proper operation of the door or they can pose a tripping hazard. All door thresholds should be inspected for tightness, damage, and wear.

9.


Use Figure 4-18 to assess the condition of wood exterior doors. Use a separate form for each type of wood door installed in the facility. The tools required to perform the assessment include a tape measure to determine the dimensions of the door, a sharp metal probe to test for rot and decay, and a camera to photograph overall conditions and major defects. Wood doors should be inspected once a year. Complete the wood door assessment as follows: Item 1:


Item 2:


Item 3:


Item 4:

Identify the type of door installed.

Item 5:

Indicate if the doors include windows.

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Figure 4-18. Wood Doors ———————————————————————————————— 1. Building:

____________________________________________________

2. Year installed: _______________ 4. Fire rating:

5. Glazings:

3. Size (inches): _____________

❑ hollow core

❑ solid core

❑ raised panel

❑ other: _______________

❑ yes

❑ no


Minor Moderate

Extensive

Alignment

❑

❑

❑

❑

Closer

❑

❑

❑

❑

Fit & operation

❑

❑

❑

❑

Frame

❑

❑

❑

❑

Hardware Locking mechanism

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

Rot/decay

❑

❑

❑

❑

Threshold

❑

❑

❑

❑

Physical damage

❑ ❑ poor

❑ ❑ fair

❑

❑

❑ good

❑ excellent



_________________________________________________

———————————————————————————————— ———————————————————————————————— 11. Inspector: ____________________________

Date: ________________

————————————————————————————————


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Item 6:


Item 7:


Item 8:


Item 9:


Item 10:


Item 11:


Glass Exterior Doors This classification of exterior doors includes those doors where the vast majority of the door’s surface area is glass. Most installations are of storefront, sliding, or revolving design. The most commonly used frame material is aluminum. Glass exterior doors are used in a wide range of facilities, particularly retail and office buildings. They are available in a number of configurations, including swinging, sliding, and revolving. Under normal service conditions, the service life of glass exterior doors is 30 years. However, in harsh service applications, service life may be as short as ten years. The majority of problems that occur in glass exterior doors are the result of weather, wear, and abuse factors. Exposure to rain and snow can weaken and rot components. Wind and water can damage door hardware. Hinges and latching mechanisms can become worn, causing doors to go out of alignment and not properly open or close. Glass surfaces and frame finishes can become scratched as the result of impact. The most common problems found in glass doors include the following:

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1.


2.


3.

Corrosion. Although aluminum frames resist corrosion, exposure to high levels of moisture, particularly when combined with ice melting chemicals, can accelerate corrosion of door surface and structural components. In addition to changing the appearance of the door, corrosion can lead to the structural failure of the door. Closely inspect the door surfaces and frame for signs of corrosion.

4.

Fit and operation. When doors are properly installed, there is equal spacing on all sides between the door and the frame. Physical damage to the door or frame, warping, and worn or damaged door hardware can allow the door to shift within the frame, resulting in a poor fit and difficult operation of the door. Check the spacing between the frame and the door on all sides. Cycle the door from full open to full closed to check for smooth operation. In many cases, adjustment of the door hardware can bring the door back into proper alignment. If the door cannot be brought into proper fit by adjusting the hardware, it may be necessary to replace the door.

5.

Glass damage. The glass installed in the doors can be easily damaged as a result of normal operation. The glass surface can become scratched or pitted. It can crack. In applications using sealed glass, the seal can fail allowing moisture to enter and fog the interior surfaces of the glass. Inspect the glass for both cosmetic and structural damage. Most damage can be corrected only by replacing the glass in the door.


159

6.


7.


8.

Threshold damage. Door thresholds are exposed to wear from pedestrian traffic and damage from snow, water, and dirt. Damaged thresholds can prevent proper operation of the door or they can pose a tripping hazard. All door thresholds should be inspected for tightness, damage, and wear.

9.


Use Figure 4-19 to assess the condition of glass exterior doors. Use a separate form for each type of glass door installed in the facility. The tools required to perform the assessment include a tape measure to determine the dimensions of the door, a sharp metal probe to test for corrosion, and a camera to photograph overall conditions and major defects. Glass doors should be inspected once a year. Complete the glass door assessment as follows: Item 1:


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Figure 4-19. Glass Doors ———————————————————————————————— 1. Building:

____________________________________________________

2. Year installed: ________________

3. Size (inches): ______________

4. Type:

❑ revolving ❑ sliding

❑ storefront ❑ other: _______________

5. Automatic opener:

❑ yes

❑ no


Minor Moderate

Extensive

Alignment

❑

❑

❑

❑

Closer

❑

❑

❑

❑

Corrosion Glass damage

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

Hardware damage

❑

❑

❑

❑

Locking mechanism

❑

❑

❑

❑

Threshold damage

❑

❑

❑

❑

Physical damage

❑ ❑ poor

❑ ❑ fair

❑

❑

❑ good

❑ excellent



_________________________________________________

———————————————————————————————— ———————————————————————————————— 11. Inspector: ____________________________

Date: ________________

————————————————————————————————


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Item 2:


Item 3:


Item 4:


Item 5:

Indicate if the doors include automatic closers.

Item 6:


Item 7:


Item 8:


Item 9:


Item 10:


Item 11:


Overhead Doors Overhead doors are widely used in residential, commercial, and industrial applications. Doors can be constructed from steel, aluminum, fiberglass, or wood. Like other doors, they require regular maintenance, including periodic painting and hardware adjustment. Many include electric operators. Maintenance requirements vary with the type of material used and the level of use. Under normal service conditions, the service life for overhead doors is between 20 and 30 years.

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The majority of problems with overhead doors are the result of physical damage to the door itself or from the effects of weather on door components. Door panels and door tracks are easily damaged by vehicular and equipment traffic. Moisture corrodes metal components, including door panels, tracks, and rollers. In general, the service life of the door and the level of maintenance required are directly proportional to its level of use. The most common problems found in overhead doors include the following: 1.

Alignment. If door hardware is worn or if it is not properly adjusted, the door will not track properly. Poorly aligned doors increase wear on hardware components, are difficult to operate, and may not fully open or close. If the door is not aligned properly, check the hardware for condition and proper operation. In most cases, the damaged component can be replaced and the door realigned.

2.

Corrosion/Rot. Although protective coatings are used to reduce the rate of corrosion in metal components and rot in wood components, damage to the surface of the door components allows moisture to gain access where it will corrode metal components and rot wood ones. Closely inspect all door components for corrosion or rot. If the damage is minor, it can be repaired. More advanced damage will typically require the replacement of the door.

3.

Fit and operation. When overhead doors are properly installed, there is equal spacing on all sides between the door and the door frame. Physical damage to the door or frame, warping, and worn or damaged door hardware can allow the door to shift within its track, resulting in a poor fit and difficult operation of the door. Check the spacing between the frame and the door on all sides. Cycle the door from full open to full closed to check for smooth operation. In many cases, adjustment of the door hardware can bring the door back into proper alignment. If the door cannot be brought into proper fit by adjusting the hardware, it may be necessary to replace the door.

4.

Door operators. Many overhead doors are equipped with electric


163

operators for opening and closing. With use and exposure to the conditions typically found in areas where overhead doors are installed, motors can fail, contacts on limit switches can corrode, and automatic sensors and key operated switches can fail. Cycle the door, and inspect the motor and all contacts for corrosion and wear. 5.


6.

Tracks. The tracks that the overhead door rides in can cause the door to not operate properly or bind if they are not in good condition. Closely inspect the tracks for wear, corrosion, and alignment. Make certain that all track sections are securely mounted.

Use Figure 4-20 to assess the condition of overhead doors. Use a separate form for each type of overhead door installed in the facility. The tools required to perform the assessment include a tape measure to determine the dimensions of the door, a sharp metal probe to test for rot or corrosion, and a camera to photograph overall conditions and major defects. Overhead doors should be inspected once a year. Complete the overhead door assessment as follows: Item 1:


Item 2:


Item 3:


Item 4:


Item 5:

Indicate if the doors include automatic openers.

Item 6:


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Figure 4-20. Overhead Doors ———————————————————————————————— 1. Building:

____________________________________________________

2. Year installed: _________________ 4. Type:

5. Automatic opener:

3. Size (ft): _______________

❑ fiberglass

❑ wood

❑ steel

❑ other: _______________

❑ yes

❑ no


Minor

Moderate

Extensive

Alignment

❑

❑

❑

❑

Corrosion/rot

❑

❑

❑

❑

Fit & operation

❑

❑

❑

❑

Operator

❑

❑

❑

❑

Physical damage

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ poor

❑ fair

❑ good

❑ excellent

Tracks 8. Overall condition:


_________________________________________________

———————————————————————————————— ———————————————————————————————— 11. Inspector: ____________________________

Date: ________________

————————————————————————————————


165

Item 7:


Item 8:


Item 9:


Item 10:


Item 11:


AFTER THE FIELDWORK Completion of an assessment of a building’s envelope, particularly in older facilities, will identify a number of components that are in need of repairs or replacement. Relatively minor items can be handled through routine maintenance work orders. More significant items, particularly those with high implementation costs, will require more extensive planning and preparation. Priorities will have to be assigned to different maintenance and upgrade projects based on the needs of the facility and the conditions found during the site inspection. The information gathered during the assessment will help in establishing those priorities.

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THE BUILDING INTERIOR

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Chapter 5

The Building Interior

he building interior is often evaluated in terms of appearance. Discolored and darkened ceiling tile creates a cave-like appearance. Stained and worn carpet and torn or damaged wall covering contributes to an overall sloppy appearance. Damaged interior doors are either ignored or simply propped open. While these are the elements most often considered when looking at the condition of the interior components of a building, the role that they play goes far beyond impacting the appearance of the facility. Interior components help to create an environment that supports the operations of the building, allowing occupants and visitors to function effectively, efficiently, and safely. Unlike some other elements of a building, building interior components tend to not be ignored. Most problems are easily detected. In fact it is difficult to enter an area and not notice problems that exist with interior components. Stained ceiling tile. Torn wall coverings. Damaged gypsum wallboard. Worn carpet. But while these problems are easy to see, few get noticed. Even fewer get corrected. There are two reasons why few interior problems are corrected; familiarity and priorities. Familiarity with a building decreases a person’s ability to see problems with interior components. For example, the person who regularly works in a particular office is much less likely than a visitor to see that office’s stained ceiling tile. Similarly, those who every day pass through a fire door that has been propped open because it is difficult to open will not recognize the hazard that has been created. Maintenance managers must also deal with priorities. Each manager in each facility must determine how to best commit their finite resources in operating the building. Leaking roofs and failed air conditioning systems always will take priority over appearance items.

T

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Maintenance managers must make an effort to overcome these problems with familiarity and higher priorities if they are to properly maintain a building’s interior components. From the moment they are installed, interior components deteriorate. In most cases, the rate of deterioration is slow, often going unnoticed. In other cases, it occurs quickly. Lack of maintenance attention will only increase the rate of deterioration, shortening the service life of the item. Leaks from building HVAC and plumbing systems, physical damage from normal day-to-day operations, changes in the physical layout of the occupied space; all cause immediate and often dramatic changes in the condition of a building’s interior components. Although deterioration and physical damage to interior building components is inevitable, their effects can be controlled and minimized. All that is required is that maintenance managers overcome the obstacles of familiarity and priorities. Regularly scheduled building inspections will help to identify deteriorated areas that would otherwise go unnoticed. Conducting inspections, typically on an annual basis, will help facility managers to identify those components that are damaged or deteriorating. And the results of those inspections can be used as supporting data in justifying committing resources and establishing priorities. There are three major areas to be examined in the building interior; walls, ceilings, and floors.

INTERIOR WALLS Interior walls have a large impact on the appearance and operation of occupied spaces. Dirty, deteriorated, cracked, and damaged walls help to create a very negative appearance of the building’s interior, and can reflect negatively on the operations being conducted. Dirty and darkened wall surfaces do not reflect light as well as clean and light surfaces, decreasing lighting levels. If the deterioration goes beyond being cosmetic and appearance in nature, it can create conditions where the safety of the occupants is endangered. And if wet or damp conditions have allowed mold and other microorganisms to grow on wall surfaces or in wall cavities, the health of building occupants can be put at risk. Most interior walls and wall coverings have a finite service life. Dirt


169

gradually builds on surfaces, darkening their appearance. Impacts with furniture and equipment damage or break surfaces. Building settlement can open cracks in walls. These and other factors result in most interior walls having a finite service life. Depending on the construction and finish, most interior walls will have to be replaced or refinished on a regular basis. Properly scheduling those repairs requires that the walls be inspected on a regular basis to determine their condition and remaining service life. Acoustical Wall Tile Acoustical wall tile is installed in areas where controlling echoes or decreasing sound levels are important to the functions taking place in that space. Typical areas include group office areas, classrooms, lecture halls, and auditoriums. There are two major types of acoustical wall treatments commonly used; acoustical panels and individual tiles. The life expectancy of most acoustical wall tile is between 10 and 20 years. The most common defects found in acoustical tile walls include the following: 1.

Dirt/Stains. The soft, porous surface found on most types of acoustical wall tile results in the ready absorption of dirt and moisture. Unlike other interior surfaces, most acoustical wall tile should not be painted, as the application of paint will change the acoustical properties of the tile. Therefore, dirty or stained acoustical tile will require replacement.

2.

Disintegration. The types of materials used to make acoustical wall tile break and crumble easily. Tiles are easily damaged, and once damaged require replacement in order to maintain the acoustical properties of the space.

3.

Loose tile. The most common means of attaching acoustical wall tile is the use of an adhesive. Over time, adhesives can fail, allowing individual tiles to become loose. Loose tile should be reattached before the tile can come fully detached.

4.

Missing tile. Tile can separate from the wall as a result of physical damage to the tile, vandalism, or failure of the adhesive. Missing tile change the acoustical properties of the space and should be replaced.

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5.

Paint. Acoustical tile is manufactured with an acoustically porous surface to help control the reflection of sound waves. The application of paint to the surface of the tile will alter the acoustical properties of the tile, increasing its reflectivity. Painted tile will require replacement in order to maintain the desired acoustical properties of the space.

6.

Physical damage. Physical damage to acoustical wall tile can be caused by a wide range of factors, including normal wear and tear and vandalism. In most cases, minor damage can be ignored as long as the tile remains intact. More extensive damage will require replacement of the tile.

Use Figure 5-1 to assess the condition of acoustical tile walls. The tools needed to perform this assessment include a tape measure or measuring wheel to determine the area of the acoustical tile, and a camera to photograph overall conditions and major defects. The photographs will help during future assessments to identify areas that are slowly deteriorating. Complete the acoustical tile wall assessment as follows: Item 1:


Item 2:

Enter the room number where the interior wall is located.

Item 3:

Enter the year when the building was constructed. If the building has been renovated and the renovation included replacement of the wall being assessed, enter the year when the renovation took place.

Item 4:

Measure and enter the length and height of the wall that is covered with acoustical tile.

Item 5:

Identify the type of acoustical tile used on the wall.

Item 6:

For each defect listed, rate how often that defect occurs in the tile. Use an average rating for that section of wall being assessed.


171

Figure 5-1. Acoustical Wall Tile ———————————————————————————————— 1. Building: ____________________________________________________ 2. Room #: ___________________

3. Year built: ____________________

4. Average height (ft): ____________ Average width (ft): _____________ 5. Type of tile:

❑ panel/sheet

❑ 12” tile

❑ 9” tile ❑ other: ____________________ 6. Defects None

Minor

Moderate

Extensive

Dirt/stains

❑

❑

❑

❑

Disintegration Loose tile

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

Missing tile

❑

❑

❑

❑

Paint

❑

❑

❑

❑

Physical damage

❑ ❑ poor

❑ ❑ fair

❑

❑

❑ good

❑ excellent


8. Estimated remaining useful life (yr): _______________ 9. Comments: ___________________________________________________ ———————————————————————————————— ———————————————————————————————— 10. Inspector: ____________________________

Date: ________________

Item 7:

Rate the overall condition of the tile. Use an average rating for all sections of wall being assessed.

Item 8:

Estimate the remaining useful life of the tile in years. The rating should be based on the overall condition of the wall, its age, and its exposure to harsh service conditions.

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Item 9:


Item 10:


Brick and Block Walls Brick and block walls can be load bearing or partition in construction. Defects in load bearing walls must be investigated to determine their impact on the structural integrity of the wall. Brick and block interior walls are usually considered to have a life expectancy equal to that of the building. The most common defects found in brick and block interior walls include the following: 1.

Bowing. The outward swelling or shifting in interior brick and block walls is an indication of unusual or unanticipated forces acting on the wall. It can be the result of improper anchoring of the masonry units, corrosion and expansion of the steel fasteners that tie the masonry to the wall’s framing, or settlement in the support structure. To correct bowing, that portion of the wall must be disassembled and rebuilt.

2.

Cracks. Cracking in brick and block walls is the result of more stresses being applied to the wall components than the component has strength or elasticity to resist. They can be caused by a number of different factors, including the lack of sufficient horizontal or vertical expansion joints, improperly installed or failed masonry ties, or settlement of the building foundation. Vertical expansion cracks can be routed out and sealed. Horizontal expansion cracks, and cracks caused by failed masonry ties will require that portion of the masonry to be replaced.

3.

Crazing. Crazing is the formation of a pattern of very small cracks in the surface of glazed masonry materials. It is caused by different coefficients of expansion and contraction between the brick materials and the glazing, and is most common in applications where glazed brick is exposed to repeated wet/dry cycles. It is not considered to be a serious problem unless the cracks extend into the body of the brick, allowing moisture to penetrate.


173

4.

Efflorescence. Efflorescence is the formation of a white haze on the surface of masonry materials. It is the result of moisture migration through the masonry materials. As the moisture migrates, it picks up soluble salts and carries them to the surface. When the moisture evaporates, it leaves the salt deposits behind forming the haze. Efflorescence by itself is not a serious problem. It is, however, an indication that excessive moisture is penetrating the wall or wall cavity. Eliminating efflorescence requires eliminating the moisture at its source.

5.

Mortar joint failures. Temperature cycles, settlement, movement, impacts, and physical damage all contribute to damage to mortar joints. Eventually, they can cause the joints to crack, or sections of mortar to deteriorate and crumble. Open and deteriorated joints can allow individual masonry units to become loose. The most common repair for failed mortar joints is tuckpointing.

6.

Pealing paint. Paint that is pealing from brick and block interior walls is an indication that water has gained access to the wall and is moving through the masonry units. The source of the water must be identified and repaired before the pealing paint can be removed and replaced.

7.

Settlement. Settlement can be the result of improper preparation of the site during construction, improper construction of the foundation, or the inability of the foundation to support the loads imposed on it by the building or the surrounding soil. It is seen as cracks in the wall, or a change in run of the horizontal mortar joints. The cause for the settlement in a masonry wall must be found and corrected or the wall can fail.

8.

Stains. Stains on brick and block walls can come from sources within the room, or from behind or above the wall. Spot stains from within the room can be cleaned or sealed and the wall repainted. Stains that originate from behind or above the wall are usually the result of water that has gained access to the wall. Before cleaning or repainting can be accomplished, the source of the water must be identified and eliminated.

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Use Figure 5-2 to assess the condition of interior brick and block walls. The tools needed to perform this assessment include a tape measure or measuring wheel to determine the area of the wall, and a camera to photograph overall conditions and major defects. The photographs will help during future assessments to identify areas that are slowly deteriorating. Complete the interior brick and block wall assessment as follows: Item 1:


Item 2:


Item 3:


Item 4:


Item 5:

Identify the type of construction used for the wall.

Item 6:


Item 7:


Item 8:


Item 9:


Item 10:



175

Figure 5-2. Interior Brick & Block Walls ———————————————————————————————— 1. Building:

____________________________________________________

2. Room #: ___________________

3. Year built: ____________________


❑ block

❑ glazed brick

❑ brick ❑ other: ____________________ 6. Defects None

Minor

Moderate

Extensive

Bowing

❑

❑

❑

❑

Cracks

❑

❑

❑

❑

Crazing Efflorescence

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

Mortal joint failure

❑

❑

❑

❑

Pealing Paint

❑

❑

❑

❑

Settlement

❑

❑

❑

❑

Stains

❑ ❑ poor

❑ ❑ fair

❑

❑

❑ good

❑ excellent



Date: ________________

————————————————————————————————

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Ceramic Wall Tile Ceramic wall tile offers a long life wall finish in areas subjected to wear, abuse, or frequent exposure to water. Typical applications include restrooms, kitchens, locker rooms, and lobbies. Ceramic wall tile has an expected service life of 25 to 30 years. The most common defects found in ceramic wall tile include the following: 1.

Cracks. Cracks in ceramic tile are the result of either damage to individual tile, or movement in the tile backing. They can occur within the tile itself or in the grout installed between tiles. Depending on the application, minor cracks can be repaired with a grout that has been tinted to match the color of the tile. Larger cracks will require replacement of the damaged tile.

2.

Crazing. Crazing is the formation of a pattern of very small cracks in the surface of glazed materials, such as ceramic tile. It is caused by different coefficients of expansion and contraction between the tile material and the glazing, and is most common in applications where glazed tile is exposed to repeated wet/dry cycles. It is not considered to be a serious problem unless the cracks extend into the body of the tile, allowing moisture to penetrate.

3.

Grout damage. The grout installed between the individual tiles is a low maintenance item. Most damage that occurs is the result of physical abuse or cracking. Damaged grout can be removed and new grout installed.

4.

Loose tile. Once installed properly, the adhesive used to attach ceramic tile to the backing board usually has a service life equal to that of the tile itself. Tile can come loose though as the result of impacts, water penetrating through cracks and damaged grout, or water damage to the backer board. If the backer board has been damaged by water, it will have to be replaced before the tile can be reattached.

5.

Missing tile. Failing to make prompt repairs to ceramic tile walls when tile have come loose or grout has failed can result in the loss of tile. The problem then becomes finding replacement tile that


177

match the remaining tile. Depending on the application and the number of tile missing, it may be necessary to replace the tile. 6.

Physical damage. Physical damage to ceramic tile can be caused by a wide range of factors, including normal wear and tear, and vandalism. Depending on the extent of the damage, it may be necessary to replace portions of the backer board. In most cases, localized damage can be repaired. More extensive damage will require replacement of sections of the tile wall.

7.

Pitting/Roughness. Although the glazed surface found on ceramic wall tile is hard and durable, it can be damaged through normal use or by chemical cleaners. The result can be a rough or pitted surface for the tile. Rough surfaces or pitted tile is an indication the tile is approaching the end of its service life.

Use Figure 5-3 to assess the condition of ceramic tile walls. The tools needed to perform this assessment include a tape measure or measuring wheel to determine the area of the ceramic tile, and a camera to photograph overall conditions and major defects. The photographs will help during future assessments to identify areas that are slowly deteriorating. Complete the ceramic tile wall assessment as follows: Item 1:


Item 2:


Item 3:


Item 4:

Measure and enter the area of the wall that is covered with ceramic tile.

Item 5:

Identify the type of ceramic tile used on the wall.

Item 6:

For each defect listed, rate how often that defect occurs in the tile. Use an average rating for that section of wall being assessed.

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Figure 5-3. Ceramic Wall Tile ———————————————————————————————— 1. Building:

____________________________________________________

2. Room #: ______________________ 3. Year built: ___________________ 4. Average height (ft): _____________ Average width (ft): ____________ 5. Size of tile:

❑ 4”

❑ 12”

❑ 6” ❑ other: ____________________ 6. Defects None

Minor

Moderate

Extensive

Cracks

❑

❑

❑

❑

Crazing Grout damage

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

Loose tile

❑

❑

❑

❑

Missing tile

❑

❑

❑

❑

Physical damage

❑

❑

❑

❑

Pitting/roughness

❑ ❑ poor

❑ ❑ fair

❑

❑

❑ good

❑ excellent



Date: ________________

————————————————————————————————


179

Item 7:

Rate the overall condition of the tile. Use an average rating for all sections of wall being assessed.

Item 8:

Estimate the remaining useful life of the tile in years. The rating should be based on the overall condition of the wall, its age, and its exposure to harsh service conditions.

Item 9:


Item 10:


Gypsum Wallboard By far, the most commonly used interior finish in a wide range of facilities is gypsum wallboard. Installed over wood or metal framing, gypsum wallboard offers a low cost, low maintenance system for interior walls. Gypsum wallboard has a service life of 20 to 30 years in most applications. The most common defects found in gypsum wallboard include the following: 1.

Bowing. The outward swelling or shifting of an interior wall is an indication of unusual or unanticipated forces acting on the wall. It can be the result of improper anchoring to the wall framing, excessive compression forces on the wall framing, or settlement in the support structure. To correct bowing, that portion of the wall must be disassembled and rebuilt.

2.

Cracks. Cracks in gypsum wallboard are usually the result of improper installation techniques, such as not properly aligning the supporting wall studs. If the crack is stable and not growing, it can be patched. Cracks that continue to grow or reappear after patching will require replacement of that section of gypsum wallboard.

3.

Disintegration. Exposure to moisture will cause gypsum wallboard to crumble, delaminate, or disintegrate. Before any repairs are made, the source of the water must be identified and eliminated. Repair requires replacement of that portion of the gypsum wallboard.

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4.

Failed fasteners. Gypsum wallboard is typically hung with nails or screws. Nails can either pull through, leaving a small hole, or pop leaving an exposed nail head. Screws tend to pull through, also leaving a hole. The most common repair is to install a new fastener on either side of the failed one, and cover the exposed hole or remove the popped nail. Minor instances of failed fasteners are considered normal. Extensive failure is typically the result of poor installation practices or movement within the wall structure.

5.

Joint failures. Joints between sections of gypsum wallboard are taped and coated with compound. Movement within the wall structure or inadequate fastening of the gypsum wallboard to the wall framing can cause cracks to open up along these joints. Failed joints are usually patched.

6.

Physical damage. Physical damage to gypsum wallboard can be caused by a wide range of factors, including normal wear and tear, vandalism, or maintenance personnel gaining access to equipment and lines located behind the gypsum wallboard. In most cases, minor damage can be repaired. More extensive damage will require replacement of sections of the wallboard.

7.

Staining. Stains on gypsum wallboard can come from sources within the room, or from behind or above the wall. Spot stains from within the room can be cleaned, sealed, and the wall repainted. Stains that originate from behind or above the wall are usually the result of water that has gained access to the wall. Before cleaning or repainting can be accomplished, the source of the water must be identified and eliminated, and the gypsum wallboard inspected for integrity.

Use Figure 5-4 to assess the condition of gypsum wallboard. The tools needed to perform this assessment include a tape measure or measuring wheel to determine the area of the wall, and a camera to photograph overall conditions and major defects. The photographs will help during future assessments to identify areas that are slowly deteriorating. Complete the gypsum wallboard assessment as follows: Item 1:



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Figure 5-4. Gypsum Wallboard ———————————————————————————————— 1. Building: ____________________________________________________ 2. Room #: ___________________

3. Year built: ____________________

4. Average height (ft): ____________ Average width (ft): _____________ 5. Defects None

Minor

Moderate

Extensive

Bowing

❑

❑

❑

❑

Cracks

❑

❑

❑

❑

Disintegration

❑

❑

❑

❑

Failed fasteners

❑

❑

❑

❑

Joint failures Physical damage

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

Staining

❑

❑

❑

❑

❑ poor

❑ fair

❑ good

❑ excellent



Date: ________________

————————————————————————————————

Item 2:


Item 3:

Enter the year when the building was constructed. If the building has been renovated and the renovation included replacement of the gypsum wallboard being assessed, enter the year when the renovation took place.

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Item 4:


Item 5:


Item 6:


Item 7:


Item 8:


Item 9:


Plaster Walls Until the development of low-cost gypsum wallboard, plaster was the preferred interior wall finish. Installed over wood lath or metal mesh, plaster offers a durable, low maintenance system for interior walls. Plaster has a service life of 30 to 50 years in most applications. The most common defects found in plaster walls include the following: 1.

Bowing. The outward swelling or shifting of an interior wall is generally caused by the failure of the plaster wall’s lath, improper anchoring of the wall framing, excessive compression forces on the wall framing, or settlement in the support structure. To correct bowing, that portion of the plaster wall must be disassembled and rebuilt.

2.

Cracks. Cracks in plaster walls are usually the result of movement in the wall system. If the crack is stable and not growing, it can be patched. Cracks that continue to grow or reappear after patching will require replacement of that section of plaster wall.


183

3.

Disintegration. Exposure to moisture will cause plaster to crumble or disintegrate. Before any repairs are made, the source of the water must be identified and eliminated. Repair generally requires replacement of that portion of the plaster wall.

4.

Physical damage. Physical damage to plaster walls can be caused by a wide range of factors, including normal wear and tear and vandalism. In most cases, minor damage can be repaired. More extensive damage will require replacement of sections of the plaster wall, typically with gypsum wallboard.

5.

Staining. Stains on plaster walls can come from sources within the room, or from behind or above the wall. Spot stains from within the room can be cleaned, sealed, and the wall repainted. Stains that originate from behind or above the wall are usually the result of water that has gained access to the wall. Before cleaning or repainting can be accomplished, the source of the water must be identified and eliminated, and the plaster inspected for integrity.

Use Figure 5-5 to assess the condition of plaster walls. The tools needed to perform this assessment include a tape measure or measuring wheel to determine the area of the wall, and a camera to photograph overall conditions and major defects. The photographs will help during future assessments to identify areas that are slowly deteriorating. Complete the plaster wall assessment as follows: Item 1:


Item 2:


Item 3:

Enter the year when the building was constructed. If the building has been renovated and the renovation included replacement of the plaster walls being assessed, enter the year when the renovation took place.

Item 4:


Item 5:


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Figure 5-5. Plaster Walls ———————————————————————————————— 1. Building:

____________________________________________________

2. Room #: ___________________

3. Year built: ____________________


Minor

Moderate

Extensive

Bowing

❑

❑

❑

❑

Cracks

❑

❑

❑

❑

Disintegration

❑

❑

❑

❑

Physical damage

❑

❑

❑

❑

Staining

❑ ❑ poor

❑ ❑ fair

❑

❑

❑ good

❑ excellent



Date: ________________

————————————————————————————————

Item 6:


Item 7:


Item 8:



Item 9:

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Fabric Wall Coverings The most commonly applied wall covering in commercial and institutional applications is fabric. Other types include foil and paper based wall covering. For most applications, wall coverings have an expected service life of seven to ten years. In high traffic areas, the average service life is five years. The most common defects found in wall coverings include the following: 1.

Dirt. Dirt is by far the most common defect, yet because it is slow in building and uniform in how it changes the appearance of the wall covering, often goes unnoticed. Dirt becomes more noticeable when changes are made to the room, such as the relocation of paintings and other wall hangings. While some wall coverings can be cleaned, most are simply replaced.

2.

Failed wallboard. Fabric wall coverings are typically applied directly to gypsum wallboard. Any defects in the wallboard will show in the wall covering. Typical defects include ridges and splits. Repairing wall coverings that have been damaged by failed sections of wallboard will require removing the wall covering, repairing the wallboard, and installing new wall covering.

3.

Holes. The installation of telecommunications equipment and power wiring, and the hanging of objects on the walls results in a number of holes being made in the wall covering. In most cases, these holes cannot be patched. When the overall appearance of the wall deteriorates sufficiently due to a large number of holes, the wall covering will require replacement.

4.

Pealing. Pealed wall covering is the result of the failure of the adhesive. Adhesives fail due to improper application techniques, incompatibilities between materials, and exposure to excessive moisture. If the wall covering has not been damaged, areas with failed adhesive can be reattached.

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5.

Stains. Stains in wall coverings are the result of exposure to moisture at the surface of the wall covering, or moisture that has made its way through the wallboard. Most stains cannot be removed. Instead, the wall covering must be replaced. If the stains are coming through the wallboard, the source of the moisture must be identified and eliminated before the new wall covering is installed.

6.

Tears. Tears in wall covering are the result of normal wear and tear or abuse. Minor tears can be patched by making certain that the fabric on both sides of the tear is properly attached to the wallboard. Larger tears cannot be easily repaired.

Use Figure 5-6 to assess the condition of wall covering. The tools needed to perform this assessment include a tape measure or measuring wheel to determine the area of the wall covering, and a camera to photograph overall conditions and major defects. The photographs will help during future assessments to identify areas that are slowly deteriorating. Complete the wall covering assessment as follows: Item 1:


Item 2:

Enter the room number where the wall covering is located.

Item 3:

Enter the year when the wall covering was applied.

Item 4:

Measure and enter the length and average height of the wall covering.

Item 5:

For each defect listed, rate how often that defect occurs in the wall. Use an average rating for that section of wall covering being assessed.

Item 6:

Rate the overall condition of the wall covering. Use an average rating for all sections of wall covering being assessed.

Item 7:

Estimate the remaining useful life of the wall covering in years. The rating should be based on the overall condition


187

Figure 5-6. Fabric Covered Walls ———————————————————————————————— 1. Building:

____________________________________________________

2. Room #: ___________________

3. Year built: ____________________


Minor

Moderate

Extensive

Dirt

❑

❑

❑

❑

Failed wallboard

❑

❑

❑

❑

Holes

❑

❑

❑

❑

Pealing

❑

❑

❑

❑

Stains

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ poor

❑ fair

❑ good

❑ excellent

Tears 6. Overall condition:


Date: ________________

————————————————————————————————

of the wall covering, its age, and its exposure to harsh service conditions. Item 8:


Item 9:


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Wood Walls Wood finished walls include both wood paneling and wood plank. Both can be installed on wall studs, firing strips, or gypsum wallboard. Wood paneling has an expected service life of 15 to 20 years, while the service life for wood plank walls ranges from 20 to 50 years, depending on the type of wood. The most common defects in wood walls include the following: 1.

Bowing. The outward swelling or shifting in wood walls is usually caused by excessive forces in the wall framing. Wall studs may have warped, or they may have detached from their anchors. To correct bowing, the wood will have to be removed and the wall studs brought back into alignment.

2.

Cracks and splits. The two major contributors to cracks and splits in wood finishes are moisture and movement. As humidity levels within the building change, the wood absorbs and releases moisture. As moisture levels change, so will the dimensions of the wood. Given enough of a change or a high number of cycles of changes in moisture levels, the wood will eventually split. Wood can also crack or split as a result of movement in other wall components. Minor cracks and splits require no action. Larger cracks and splits will require replacing the impacted portion of the wall.

3.

Holes. Holes in wood finished walls can range from those made by nails and picture hangers, to cutouts for relocated utility and telecommunications connections. In many applications, minor holes can be ignored. Larger holes will require cutting similar materials and patching them into the existing wall.

4.

Loose sections. Loose sections of wood planking or paneling are the result of the failure of the adhesive or the fasteners. In most cases, the loose panel can be reattached to the backing material or the wall’s framing.

5.

Physical damage. Physical damage can range from gouges caused by the impact of objects with the wood to holes punched through the wood. Scratches, gouges, and other minor physical damage can be repaired by refinishing the affected area. More extensive damage will require replacing sections of the wood.


189

6.

Rot. Rot is caused by exposure of the wood to wet conditions over an extended period of time. Once the wood moisture content rises above 20 percent, conditions are ideal for the growth of decay fungi that feed on the organic material of the wood. The first signs of rot generally are a discoloration of the surface of the wood. Rotted areas must be removed and replaced. To prevent the development of new rot, the source of the moisture must also be eliminated.

7.

Stains. Most stains in wood finished interior walls are the result of water spills, from within the occupied space or from mechanical systems behind or above the wall. Many stains can be removed by a light sanding followed by refinishing the wood.

Use Figure 5-7 to assess the condition of wood wall finishes. The tools needed to perform this assessment include a tape measure or measuring wheel to determine the area of the wall, a sharp metal probe to test areas for rot, and a camera to photograph overall conditions and major defects. The photographs will help during future assessments to identify areas that are slowly deteriorating. Complete the wood wall finish assessment as follows: Item 1:


Item 2:

Enter the room number where the wall is located.

Item 3:

Enter the year when the wood was applied to the wall.

Item 4:


Item 5:

Identify the type of material used to finish the wall.

Item 6:


Item 7:


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Figure 5-7. Wood Walls ———————————————————————————————— 1. Building: ____________________________________________________ 2. Room #: ___________________

3. Year built: ____________________

4. Average height (ft): ____________ Average width (ft): _____________ 5. Type of finish:

❑ panel

❑ plank


Minor

Moderate

Extensive

Bowing

❑

❑

❑

❑

Cracks & splits Holes

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

Loose sections

❑

❑

❑

❑

Physical damage

❑

❑

❑

❑

Rot

❑

❑

❑

❑

Stains

❑ ❑ poor

❑ ❑ fair

❑

❑

❑ good

❑ excellent



Item 8:

Date: ________________

Estimate the remaining useful life of the wood wall finish in years. The rating should be based on the overall condition of the wall, its age, and its exposure to harsh service conditions.


191

Item 9:


Item 10:


CEILINGS Ceilings in buildings have long been evaluated primarily on their appearance. Ceilings were selected for new installations based on how the facility designers felt they would interact with other interior components. Ceilings were renovated or replaced when facility managers believed their appearance deteriorated from the overall appearance of the facility. But ceilings do more than just improve appearance. They can help control noise levels. They can help to reflect light to the areas where it is needed, reducing lighting energy requirements. They help to create plenum areas that house HVAC system components, electrical cabling, and telecommunications equipment; and they allow access to the plenum area for maintenance and upgrades of that equipment. Deterioration in ceilings impacts all of these functions, not just the appearance of the building interior. Deterioration can even impact the health and safety of the building occupants. Ceilings, particularly those that have been exposed to leaks from building roofs or mechanical systems, can provide a surface on which mold, mildew, and bacteria can grow Maintenance requirements for ceilings vary with the type of material used and the finish. Rough surfaces tend to catch and hold dirt more readily than smooth surfaces. Smooth surfaces also are easier to clean. Porous surfaces, such as those found with most acoustical tile, tend to hold dirt and moisture, and allow microorganisms to grow more rapidly than non-porous surfaces. Rough finished wood ceilings also catch and hold dirt more readily than sealed and smooth finished wood ceilings. All ceiling materials have a finite service life. The gradual accumulation of dirt on ceiling surfaces alters their appearance, light reflectivity, and sound absorption properties. Ceilings in areas with high humidity levels can soften or crack. These and other factors will impact the actual service lives that are experienced.

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Acoustical Ceiling Tile Acoustical ceiling tile is installed in areas where controlling echoes or decreasing sound levels are important to the functions taking place in that space. Typical areas include group office areas, classrooms, lecture halls, auditoriums, and corridors. Tiles can be adhered directly to a supporting structure, or they can be suspended from framing. The life expectancy of most acoustical ceiling tile is 20 years. The most common defects found in acoustical ceiling tile include the following: 1.

Damaged tile. Physical damage to acoustical ceiling tile can be caused by a wide range of factors, including normal wear and tear, maintenance personnel accessing equipment and wiring located above the ceiling, and vandalism. In most cases, minor damage can be ignored as long as the tile remains intact. More extensive damage will require replacement of the tile.

2.

Dirt/stains. Acoustical ceiling tile, particularly tile that is porous, readily accumulates dirt that stains the surface of the tile. Porous and soft materials also are readily damaged by water and other liquids, resulting in stains. In some cases, dirt and stains can be removed by cleaning the tile with a special cleaning solution that contains bleach. It is not recommended that acoustical ceiling tile be painted. Paint will alter the acoustical properties of the tile. The best solution for dirty or stained acoustical tile ceilings is replacement of the tile.

3.

Discolored tracks. The mounting tracks used with many types of acoustical ceiling tiles often become discolored as the result of dirt buildup. If cleaning cannot restore the tracks to their original color, they will have to be covered or replaced.

4.

Disintegration. The types of materials used to make acoustical ceiling tile break and crumble easily. Tiles are easily damaged, and once damaged require replacement in order to maintain the acoustical properties of the space. The most common area of the tile where disintegration is found is at the corners.

5.

Loose tile. Some types of acoustical ceiling tile are attached to a


193

subsurface or furring strips by staples, nails, or an adhesive. When the method of attachment begins to fail, individual tiles can become loose and eventually fall. If the number of loose tiles is relatively small, the ceiling can be repaired. 6.

Missing tile. Individual tiles can be missing from attached acoustical tile ceilings as the result of failure of the method of attachment, damage to the ceiling, or maintenance activities. When individual tiles are replaced, it is difficult to find ones that match the existing tiles in both texture and color. In addition, exposure and aging result in minor but noticeable changes in the appearance of the tile that is difficult to match. When the number of tiles missing reaches a certain level, it will be necessary to replace the entire ceiling.

7.

Sagging. Sagging in suspended acoustical ceilings is caused by failure of the suspension system, or long-term exposure of the tile to moisture. Correcting both will require replacement of the impacted area of tile. Sagging in attached acoustical ceilings is the result of failure of the substrate. Correction will require replacement of the ceiling and the substrate.

8.

Track damage. Suspended acoustical ceiling tile uses either a visible or hidden track to support the individual tiles. These tracks can be damaged by normal wear and tear, maintenance personnel, water, and vandalism. Damaged sections of track generally require replacement.

Use Figure 5-8 to assess the condition of acoustical ceiling tile. The tools needed to perform this assessment include a tape measure or measuring wheel to determine the area of the acoustical tile, and a camera to photograph overall conditions and major defects. The photographs will help during future assessments to identify areas that are slowly deteriorating. Complete the acoustical ceiling tile assessment as follows: Item 1:


Item 2:

Enter the room number where the acoustical ceiling is located.

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Figure 5-8. Acoustical Ceiling Tile ———————————————————————————————— 1. Building:

____________________________________________________

2. Room #: ___________________

3. Year built: ____________________


❑ attached

❑ suspended


Minor

Moderate

Extensive

Dirt/stains

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

Discolored tracks

❑

❑

❑

❑

Disintegration

❑

❑

❑

❑

Loose tile

❑

❑

❑

❑

Missing tile

❑

❑

❑

❑

Sagging

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ poor

❑ fair

❑ good

❑ excellent

Damaged tile

Track damage 7. Overall condition:


Date: ________________

————————————————————————————————


195

Item 3:

Enter the year when the building was constructed. If the building has been renovated and the renovation included replacement of the ceiling being assessed, enter the year when the renovation took place.

Item 4:

Measure and enter the area of the ceiling that is covered with acoustical tile.

Item 5:

Identify the type of acoustical tile used on the ceiling.

Item 6:

For each defect listed, rate how often that defect occurs in the tile. Use an average rating for that section of ceiling being assessed.

Item 7:

Rate the overall condition of the tile. Use an average rating for all sections of ceiling being assessed.

Item 8:

Estimate the remaining useful life of the tile in years. The rating should be based on the overall condition of the ceiling, its age, and its exposure to harsh service conditions.

Item 9:


Item 10:


Gypsum Wallboard Ceilings In most applications, gypsum wallboard has replaced plaster in ceiling construction. It offers the advantages of low installation cost, ease of construction, and low maintenance requirements. Its primary disadvantage is that it does not allow easy access to equipment, piping, and wiring installed above the ceiling. In most applications, gypsum wallboard has a service life of 20 to 30 years. The most common defects found in gypsum wallboard ceilings include the following: 1.

Bowing. The outward swelling or bowing in an interior ceiling is an indication of unusual forces acting on the ceiling. It can be the

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result of improper anchoring of the ceiling framing, excessive compression forces on the ceiling framing, or settlement of the support structure. To correct bowing, that portion of the ceiling must be disassembled and rebuilt. 2.

Cracks. Cracks in gypsum wallboard are usually the result of improper installation techniques, such as not properly aligning the supporting studs. If the crack is stable and not growing, it can be patched. Cracks that continue to grow or reappear after patching will require replacement of that section of gypsum wallboard.

3.

Disintegration. Exposure to moisture will cause gypsum wallboard to crumble, delaminate, or disintegrate. Before any repairs are made, the source of the water must be identified and eliminated. Repair generally requires replacement of that portion of the gypsum wallboard.

4.

Failed fasteners. Gypsum wallboard is typically hung with nails or screws. Nails can either pull through, leaving a small hole, or pop leaving an exposed nail head. Screws tend to pull through, also leaving a hole. The most common repair is to install a new fastener on either side of the failed one, and covering the exposed hole or removing the popped nail. Minor instances of failed fasteners are considered normal. Extensive failure is typically the result of poor installation practices or movement within the wall structure.

5.

Joint failures. Joints between sections of gypsum wallboard are taped and coated with compound. Movement within the building’s structure or inadequate fastening of the gypsum wallboard to the ceiling framing can cause cracks to open up along these joints. Failed joints are usually patched.

6.

Physical damage. Physical damage to gypsum wallboard can be caused by a wide range of factors, including normal wear and tear, vandalism, or maintenance personnel gaining access to equipment and lines located above the ceiling. In most cases, minor damage can be repaired. More extensive damage will require replacement of sections of the wallboard.


7.

197

Staining. Stains on gypsum wallboard can come from sources within the room, or from above the ceiling. Spot stains from within the room can be cleaned, sealed, and the ceiling repainted. Stains that originate from above the ceiling are usually the result of water that has gained access to the ceiling. Before cleaning or repainting can be accomplished, the source of the water must be identified and eliminated, and the gypsum wallboard inspected for integrity.

Use Figure 5-9 to assess the condition of gypsum wallboard ceilings. The tools needed to perform this assessment include a tape measure or measuring wheel to determine the area of the wall, and a camera to photograph overall conditions and major defects. The photographs will help during future assessments to identify areas that are slowly deteriorating. Complete the gypsum wallboard ceiling assessment as follows: Item 1:


Item 2:

Enter the room number where the ceiling is located.

Item 3:

Enter the year when the building was constructed. If the building has been renovated and the renovation included replacement of the gypsum wallboard ceiling being assessed, enter the year when the renovation took place.

Item 4:

Measure and enter the length and width of the ceiling.

Item 5:

For each defect listed, rate how often that defect occurs in the wall. Use an average rating for that section of ceiling being assessed.

Item 6:

Rate the overall condition of the ceiling. Use an average rating for the section of ceiling being assessed.

Item 7:

Estimate the remaining useful life of the ceiling in years. The rating should be based on the overall condition of the ceiling, its age, and its exposure to harsh service conditions.

Item 8:


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Figure 5-9. Gypsum Wallboard Ceilings ———————————————————————————————— 1. Building: ____________________________________________________ 2. Room #: ___________________

3. Year built: ____________________


Minor

Moderate

Extensive

Bowing

❑

❑

❑

❑

Cracks

❑

❑

❑

❑

Disintegration

❑

❑

❑

❑

Failed fasteners

❑

❑

❑

❑

Joint failures Physical damage

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

Staining

❑

❑

❑

❑

❑ poor

❑ fair

❑ good

❑ excellent



Item 9:

Date: ________________


Plaster Ceilings Plaster ceilings are most commonly found in older facilities and facilities where the construction of the ceiling does not allow the use of gypsum wallboard. Plaster ceilings offer the advantages of durability, low maintenance, and the ability to be finished in a number of different


199

textures. Plaster ceilings have a life expectancy of 35 to 50 years. The most common defects found in plaster ceilings include the following: 1.

Bowing. The outward swelling or shifting in a ceiling is generally caused by the failure of the plaster ceiling’s lath, improper anchoring of the ceiling the framing, excessive compression forces on the ceiling framing, or settlement in the support structure. To correct bowing, that portion of the plaster ceiling must be disassembled and rebuilt.

2.

Cracks. Cracks in plaster ceilings are usually the result of movement in the ceiling system. If the crack is stable and not growing, it can be patched. Cracks that continue to grow or reappear after patching will require replacement of that section of the plaster ceiling.

3.

Disintegration. Exposure to moisture will cause plaster to crumble, delaminate, or disintegrate. Before any repairs are made, the source of the water must be identified and eliminated. Repair generally requires replacement of that portion of the plaster ceiling.

4.

Physical damage. Physical damage to plaster walls can be caused by a wide range of factors, including normal wear and tear and vandalism. In most cases, minor damage can be repaired. More extensive damage will require replacement of sections of the plaster ceiling, typically with gypsum wallboard.

5.

Staining. Stains on plaster ceilings can come from sources within the room, or from above the ceiling. Spot stains from within the room can be cleaned, sealed, and the ceiling repainted. Stains that originate from above the ceiling are usually the result of water that has gained access to the ceiling. Before cleaning or repainting can be accomplished, the source of the water must be identified and eliminated, and the plaster inspected for integrity.

Use Figure 5-10 to assess the condition of plaster ceilings. The tools needed to perform this assessment include a tape measure or measuring wheel to determine the area of the ceiling and a camera to photograph

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overall conditions and major defects. The photographs will help during future assessments to identify areas that are slowly deteriorating. Figure 5-10. Plaster Ceilings ———————————————————————————————— 1. Building: ____________________________________________________ 2. Room #: ___________________

3. Year built: ____________________


Minor

Moderate

Extensive

Bowing

❑

❑

❑

❑

Cracks

❑

❑

❑

❑

Disintegration

❑

❑

❑

❑

Physical damage

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ poor

❑ fair

❑ good

❑ excellent

Staining 6. Overall condition:


Date: ________________

Complete the plaster ceiling assessment as follows: Item 1:


Item 2:


Item 3:

Enter the year when the building was constructed. If the building has been renovated and the renovation included


201

replacement of the plaster ceiling being assessed, enter the year when the renovation took place. Item 4:

Measure and enter the length and width of the ceiling.

Item 5:

For each defect listed, rate how often that defect occurs in the wall. Use an average rating for that section of ceiling being assessed.

Item 6:

Rate the overall condition of the ceiling. Use an average rating for the section of ceiling being assessed.

Item 7:

Estimate the remaining useful life of the ceiling in years. The rating should be based on the overall condition of the ceiling, its age, and its exposure to harsh service conditions.

Item 8:


Item 9:


Wood Ceilings Wood finished ceilings include both wood paneling and wood plank. Both paneling and planks can be installed on ceiling joists, firing strips, or gypsum wallboard. Wood paneling has an expected service life of 15 to 20 years, while the service life for wood planks ceilings ranges from 20 to 50 years, depending on the type of wood and the particular application The most common defects in wood ceilings include the following: 1.

Cracks and splits. The two major contributors to cracks and splits in food finishes are moisture and movement. As humidity levels within the building change, the wood absorbs and gives up moisture. As moisture levels change, so will the dimensions of the wood. Given enough of a change or a high number of cycles of changes in moisture levels, the wood will eventually split. Wood can also crack or split as a result of movement in framing components. Minor cracks and splits require no action. Larger cracks and splits will require replacing the impacted portion of the ceiling.

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2.

Holes. Holes in wood finished ceilings can range from those made by nails and hangers, to cutouts for access to utility and telecommunications equipment located above the ceiling. In many applications, minor holes can be ignored. Larger holes will require cutting similar materials and patching them into the existing ceiling.

3.

Loose sections. Loose sections of wood planking or paneling are the result of the failure of the adhesive or the fasteners. In most cases, the loose panel can be reattached to the backing material or the ceiling’s framing.

4.

Physical damage. Physical damage can range from gouges caused by the impact of objects with the wood to holes punched through the wood. Scratches, gouges, and other minor physical damage can be repaired by refinishing the affected area. More extensive damage will require replacing sections of the wood.

5.

Rot. Rot is caused by exposure of the wood to wet conditions over an extended period of time. Once the wood moisture content rises above 20 percent, conditions are ideal for the growth of decay fungi that feed on the organic material of the wood. The first signs of rot generally are a discoloration of the surface of the wood. Rotted areas must be removed and replaced. To prevent the development of new rot, the source of the moisture must also be eliminated.

6.

Sagging. Sagging is caused by excessive loads on the support framing, or failure of the adhesive or fasteners used to attach the wood ceiling to the framing. Sagging must be corrected by removing the impacted wood and installing additional bracing as required.

7.

Stains. Most stains in wood finished ceilings are the result of leaks from roofing, mechanical equipment and piping, or from the space directly above the ceiling. Many stains can be lightly sanded, and the wood refinished.

Use Figure 5-11 to assess the condition of wood ceilings. The tools needed to perform this assessment include a tape measure or measuring wheel to determine the area of the wall, a sharp metal probe to test areas for rot, and a camera to photograph overall conditions and major defects.


203

Figure 5-11. Wood Ceilings ———————————————————————————————— 1. Building:

____________________________________________________

2. Room #: ___________________

3. Year built: ____________________


Minor

Moderate

Extensive

Cracks & splits

❑

❑

❑

❑

Holes

❑

❑

❑

❑

Loose sections

❑

❑

❑

❑

Physical damage

❑

❑

❑

❑

Rot Sagging

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

Stains

❑

❑

❑

❑

❑ poor

❑ fair

❑ good

❑ excellent



Date: ________________

The photographs will help during future assessments to identify areas that are slowly deteriorating. Complete the wood ceiling assessment as follows: Item 1:


Item 2:


Item 3:

Enter the year when the wood was applied to the ceiling.

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Item 4:

Measure and enter the length and average width of the ceiling.

Item 5:

For each defect listed, rate how often that defect occurs in the ceiling. Use an average rating for that section of ceiling being assessed.

Item 6:

Rate the overall condition of the ceiling.

Item 7:

Estimate the remaining useful life of the wood ceiling finish in years. The rating should be based on the overall condition of the ceiling, its age, and its exposure to harsh service conditions.

Item 8:


Item 9:


FLOORING Of all of the components that make up a building’s interior finish, flooring is the one that receives the most daily wear. Foot traffic, dirt, spills, equipment, and furniture all contribute to the wear and tear that all flooring must endure on a daily basis, while maintaining its appearance and function. As a result, facility managers must routinely invest maintenance funds for cleaning and maintenance of floors. Floors play a key role in the appearance of the facility to building occupants and visitors alike. Floors that are poorly maintained or that are in poor condition are a bad reflection on the facility’s maintenance operation as well as the operations that take place within the facility. And the condition of a facility’s floors is readily noticed by anyone entering the facility. The impact of deteriorated flooring goes beyond appearance. Deteriorated flooring can create tripping hazards for building occupants. Carpet that has been damaged by water can provide a medium for the growth of mold and other microorganisms. Crumbling floor tile and


205

exposed tile adhesive can release asbestos fibers into the environment. Wood flooring that has had its protective finish worn off readily absorbs moisture, causing the wood to swell or split. Ceramic tile flooring with failed grout and vinyl flooring that has splits and punctures allows water to penetrate the flooring surface. Maintenance requirements vary with the type of flooring installed and its exposure to traffic. Smooth finish surfaces are easier to clean than rough or patterned surfaces. Most wood surfaces will require periodic refinishing and sealing. Vinyl tile requires periodic stripping and refinishing. Carpet Carpet is widely used in all types of facilities. Carpet offers the advantages of availability in a wide range of patterns and colors, while offering good sound control. The service life of carpet varies widely depending on the application. In most applications, the service life will range from seven to ten years. In high traffic areas, service life is on average five years. The most common defects in carpet include the following: 1.

Crushing or matting. Crushing and matting is a texture change in the carpet as a result of the untwisting of the yarn of a carpet. Practically all types of carpet will crush to some extent. How much crushing takes place depends on the level of traffic on the carpet and the level of maintenance performed.

2.

Discoloration or fading. Although carpet today is very durable and fade resistant, it still can be damaged by a number of factors. UV light from the sun can cause colors to fade. Spills, particularly of liquids containing bleach, can destroy carpet color. Heavy traffic can cause damage to carpet fibers, resulting in fading. Frequent cleanings, particularly with a cleaner that is not compatible with the carpet materials can cause discoloration. When discoloration and fading become extensive, the only corrective action is replacement of the carpet.

3.

Holes. Holes in carpet can be the result of relocating office furniture or telecommunications equipment, normal wear and tear, or physical damage. How well the hole can be repaired depends on the type

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of carpet installed and its overall condition. It is generally easier to repair carpet tile than it is to repair roll carpet. If the carpet is relatively new and not worn, repairs will be more successful than if it is faded or badly worn. 4.

Seam separations. The separation of carpet along its seams is caused by wear, shrinkage, or failure of the seaming material. Separate seams pose a tripping hazard to building occupants. In most cases, when seams separate, the carpet is in need of replacement.

5.

Stains. Carpet can be stained by spills and equipment leaks. If the carpet is promptly cleaned, staining can be avoided in most cases. But if the material is allowed to remain on the carpet, it can penetrate the carpet backing, forming a stain that reappears even after cleaning. Badly stained carpet will require replacement.

6.

Tears. Physical damage to the carpet or excessive wear can result in tears in the carpet. Tears, like seam separations, pose a tripping hazard to building occupants. Some tears can be repaired if the carpet is in good condition, and the tear is identified quickly. In most cases though, it will be necessary to replace the carpet.

7.

Unraveling. Snags in carpet that pull on the carpet fibers can cause the carpet material to unravel, leaving the carpet backing exposed. Once unraveling occurs, the carpet cannot be repaired.

8.

Wear. Wear occurs primarily as the result of normal use. Dirt tracked onto the carpet can scratch and damage the carpet’s fibers, creating a dull appearance. Badly worn carpet will require replacement.

Use Figure 5-12 to assess the condition of the carpet. The tools needed to perform this assessment include a tape measure or measuring wheel to determine the area of the carpet, and a camera to photograph overall conditions and major defects. The photographs will help during future assessments to identify areas that are slowly deteriorating. Complete the carpet assessment as follows: Item 1:


Item 2:

Enter the room number where the carpet is located.


207

Figure 5-12. Carpet ———————————————————————————————— 1. Building:

____________________________________________________

2. Room #: ___________________

3. Year built: ____________________


❑ broadloom

❑ tile

6. Carpet fiber:

❑ Olefin

❑ wool

❑ nylon

❑ other:

________________

7. Defects None

Minor

Moderate

Extensive

Crushing/matting

❑

❑

❑

❑

Discoloration/fading

❑

❑

❑

❑

Holes Seam separations

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

Stains

❑

❑

❑

❑

Tears

❑

❑

❑

❑

Unraveling

❑

❑

❑

❑

Wear

❑ ❑ poor

❑ ❑ fair

❑

❑

❑ good

❑ excellent



Date: ________________

————————————————————————————————

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Item 3:

Enter the year when the carpet was installed.

Item 4:

Measure and enter the length and width of the carpet.

Item 5:

Identify the type of carpet installed.

Item 6:

Identify the carpet fiber material.

Item 7:

For each defect listed, rate how often that defect occurs in the carpet.

Item 8:

Rate the overall condition of the carpet.

Item 9:

Estimate the remaining useful life of the carpet in years. The rating should be based on the overall condition of the carpet, its age, and its exposure to harsh service conditions.

Item 10:


Item 11:


Ceramic Tile Ceramic tile is one of the most durable flooring materials available today. Made primarily from clay and other inorganic materials, the tile is available in both glazed and unglazed finishes. They are widely used in areas that are subjected to heavy wear or heavy dirt loading. They offer the advantages of low maintenance, ease of cleaning, and resistance to physical damage. The typical service life for ceramic tile flooring ranges from 25 to 30 years. The most common defects in ceramic tile include the following: 1.

Cracks. Cracks in ceramic and clay tile are the result of damage to individual tile, or movement in the tile underlayment. They can occur within the tile itself or in the grout installed between tiles. Depending on the application, minor cracks can be repaired with a grout that has been tinted to match the color of the tile. Larger cracks will require replacement of the damaged tile.


209

2.

Crazing. Crazing is the formation of a pattern of very small cracks in the surface of glazed materials, such as ceramic tile. It is caused by different coefficients of expansion and contraction between the tile material and the glazing, and is most common in applications where glazed tile is exposed to repeated wet/dry cycles and moderate temperature swings. Crazing increases the rate at which tile holds dirt, and can discolor the tile. Extensive crazing is an indication that the tile is approaching the end of its service life.

3.

Grout damage. The grout installed between the individual tiles is a low maintenance item. Most damage that occurs is the result of physical abuse or cracking. Damaged grout can be removed and new grout installed.

4.

Loose tile. Once installed properly, the adhesive used to attach tile to the backing board usually has a service life equal to that of the tile itself. Tile can come loose though as the result of impacts, water penetration through cracks and damaged grout, or water damage to the underlayment. Individual loose tile can be removed, cleaned, reset, and new grout installed. If there are more than just a few tiles that have come loose, it is an indication that the adhesive is failing and that the floor is in need of replacement.

5.

Missing tile. Failing to make prompt repairs to ceramic and clay tile floors when tile have come loose or the grout has failed can result in the loss of tile. The problem then becomes finding replacement tile that match the remaining tile. Depending on the application and the number of tile missing, it may be necessary to replace the tile floor.

6.

Physical damage. Physical damage to ceramic and clay tile, such as chips and gouges, can be caused by a wide range of factors, including normal wear and tear, and the moving of equipment and furniture. Depending on the extent of the damage, it may be necessary to replace individual tiles. More extensive damage will require replacement of the tile floor.

7.

Stains and discoloration. Although the glazed finish on ceramic floor tile is very durable, the tile can be stained by certain materials,

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particularly if the glazing is worn or damaged. Clay tile is more easily stained due to its porous construction. Once stains have penetrated the tile, little can be done to restore it to its previous appearance. 8.

Wear. Natural wear, particularly in areas with heavy traffic, can abrade the surface of ceramic tile flooring. This can result in uneven surfaces and cupping in areas such as building entrances, and the loss of the pattern in patterned tile. How rapidly the tile wears depends on the type of materials used to make the tile, their hardness, and the types of pigments used to add color to the tile. Loss of surface in ceramic floor tile is an indication that the tile has reached the end of its service life.

Use Figure 5-13 to assess the condition of the floor tile. The tools needed to perform this assessment include a tape measure or measuring wheel to determine the area of the tile and a camera to photograph overall conditions and major defects. The photographs will help during future assessments to identify areas that are slowly deteriorating. Complete the ceramic or clay tile floor assessment as follows: Item 1:


Item 2:

Enter the room number where the floor tile is located.

Item 3:

Enter the year when the floor tile was installed.

Item 4:

Measure and enter the length and width of the tile.

Item 5:

Identify the type of tile installed.

Item 6:

Identify the size of the tile installed.

Item 7:

For each defect listed, rate how often that defect occurs in the tile.

Item 8:

Rate the overall condition of the tile.

Item 9:

Estimate the remaining useful life of the tile in years. The rating should be based on the overall condition of the tile, its age, and its exposure to harsh service conditions.


211

Figure 5-13. Ceramic Floor Tile ———————————————————————————————— 1. Building:

____________________________________________________

2. Room #: ___________________

3. Year built: ____________________


❑ ceramic ❑ clay ❑ other: ____________________

6. Size of tile: _______________ 7. Defects None

Minor

Moderate

Extensive

Cracks

❑

❑

❑

❑

Crazing

❑

❑

❑

❑

Grout damage

❑

❑

❑

❑

Loose tile Missing tile

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

Physical damage

❑

❑

❑

❑

Pitting/roughness

❑

❑

❑

❑

❑ poor ❑ good




Date: ________________

————————————————————————————————

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Item 10:


Item 11:


Concrete Floors Concrete floors are a very low maintenance flooring. They are used primarily in industrial, warehouse, and other applications where appearance is not important. Floors can be unfinished or finished, with the most common finish being an epoxy coating. Coatings are used to protect the concrete against abrasion and chemical spills, as well as to improve the appearance of the flooring. The service life of concrete flooring is generally the life of the structure. The service life of the coating applied to a concrete floor ranges from five to 20 years, depending on the application. The most common defects found in concrete flooring include the following: 1.

Cracks. Cracks are the most common defect found in concrete flooring. They range from small hairline cracks that are barely visible to ones where two sections of the floor slab have completely separated and moved apart. They are caused by a number of factors including settlement of the building, insufficient or improperly located expansion joints, overloading, or defects in the concrete material itself. Any type of concrete floor crack can form an opening for water to enter the flooring, causing additional damage to the floor. Minor floor cracks that are not structural in nature should be sealed to prevent water entry. More serious concrete floor cracks must be investigated further to determine their cause and repaired as necessary.

2.

Deterioration. Concrete floors that are exposed to heavy traffic, abuse, chemicals, and frequent wetting, can deteriorate. Small pieces of concrete can wear off or break away from the flooring, resulting in a rough surface. Once the surface is damaged, the rate of deterioration will accelerate. Rough concrete floor surfaces create tripping hazards and make it difficult to move equipment or supplies over the floor. Deteriorated concrete floors can be top coated to restore their surface. Badly deteriorated concrete floors may require replacement.


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3.

Failed coating. The coatings that are applied to concrete floors have a finite life, and will require replacement on a regular basis. As the coatings wear, bare spots can form, and the coating can flake or peal. Once bare concrete is exposed, the water tightness of the floor and the protection provided by the coating is compromised. Failed coatings require replacement as soon as possible.

4.

Heaving. Heaving occurs when unequal forces on different sections of concrete floors cause one of the sections to shift in height with respect to the surrounding sections. Heaving can be caused by improper construction techniques or the floor being subjected to loads that exceed its capacities. Heaving creates uneven floors that result in tripping hazards and problems in moving equipment. Correction of heaved floors requires replacement of the damaged section of flooring.

5.

Spalling. Spalling occurs when the outer layers of a concrete floor peals or break off. It is caused by exposure to repeated wetting/ drying cycles, improper construction techniques, or by the improper cleaning of the concrete surface. Once spalling occurs, the concrete loses much of its protection against absorbing more water, leading to even more spalling. Spalling cannot be repaired effectively without replacing the section of concrete.

6.

Stains. Due to the porosity of concrete, liquids can easily penetrate and stain concrete. While cleaning can remove many stains, some stains are permanent. If the appearance of the concrete is important, a tinted finish can be applied. The best defense against staining is to apply a sealant to the concrete floor.

7.

Visible moisture. Visible moisture occurs primarily on concrete flooring that is part of the building’s floor slab. Assuming that there have been no spills on the concrete flooring, moisture that is visible on the surface of the concrete is the result of moisture that migrates through the concrete from below. It is typically the result of failed moisture barriers installed under the flooring. Sealing the concrete flooring will reduce the quantity of visible moisture in many applications.

8.

Wear. Natural wear, particularly in areas with heavy traffic, can abrade the surface of concrete flooring. This can result in uneven

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surfaces and pitting of the concrete. How rapidly the floor wears depends on the type of traffic that the floor is exposed to and the quality of the concrete used in the floor construction. Use Figure 5-14 to assess the condition of the concrete flooring. The tools needed to perform this assessment include a tape measure or measuring wheel to determine the area of the floor and a camera to photograph overall conditions and major defects. The photographs will help during future assessments to identify areas that are slowly deteriorating. Complete the concrete floor assessment as follows: Item 1:


Item 2:

Enter the room number where the concrete floor is located.

Item 3:

Enter the year when the floor was installed.

Item 4:

Measure and enter the length and width of the floor.

Item 5:

Identify the type of finish used on the concrete floor.

Item 6:

For each defect listed, rate how often that defect occurs in the floor.

Item 7:

Rate the overall condition of the floor.

Item 8:

Estimate the remaining useful life of the floor in years. The rating should be based on the overall condition of the floor, its age, and its exposure to harsh service conditions.

Item 9:


Item 10:


Stone Flooring The most commonly used types of stone flooring in facilities include granite, limestone, marble, and slate. Granite is a very hard rock


215

Figure 5-14. Concrete Flooring ———————————————————————————————— 1. Building:

____________________________________________________

2. Room #: ___________________

3. Year built: ____________________

4. Average height (ft): ____________ Average width (ft): _____________ 5. Type of finish:

❑ epoxy

❑ sealed

❑ painted

❑ unsealed


Minor

Moderate

Extensive

Cracks

❑

❑

❑

❑

Deterioration

❑

❑

❑

❑

Failed coating Heaving

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

Spalling

❑

❑

❑

❑

Stains

❑

❑

❑

❑

Visible moisture

❑

❑

❑

❑

Wear

❑ ❑ poor

❑ ❑ fair

❑

❑

❑ good

❑ excellent



Date: ________________

————————————————————————————————

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that is more resistant to damage than the other stone flooring types, but is more difficult to restore should it become damaged. Granite is relatively easy to maintain. Limestone is a highly porous rock that can be polished to a very high luster. Marble is a soft stone that also can be polished to a high luster. Slate is a fine grain material that is readily split into slabs and thin plates. Stone flooring generally has a long service life, typically 40 to 100 years. To maintain the finish of the flooring, it is important that the flooring be keep clean. Dirt can cause scratching and marring of the surface, reducing its reflective ability and producing a dull finish. The porous nature of many of the flooring types makes them prone to staining by rust, acids, and grease. Periodically, to restore the luster of the floor finish, stone flooring must be honed and polished. The most common defects found in stone flooring include the following: 1.

Chips and Cracks. Stone flooring offers moderate resistance to impacts, and can be easily chipped along its edges. Cracks can form as a result of temperature changes in the flooring as well as shifting in the flooring’s underlayment. Minor chips and cracks can be ignored. When chips and cracks are large enough to present a safety hazard, they will require replacement of those portions of the flooring.

2.

Discoloration. Most stone flooring can become discolored as a result of a build-up of old finishes, improper cleaning practices, or staining from spills containing acids or oils. In most cases, the original color can be restored by stripping the floor to its original surface, cleaning, and resealing. Depending on the cause of the discoloration, not all discolored areas can be restored.

3.

Dullness. Dullness in stone flooring is the result of a buildup of minor scratches and abrasions to the surface of the floor. Honing the floor with fine screens will remove the scratches and abrasions, and buffing the floor will restore it to its original luster.

4.

Scratches. Most scratches are caused by dirt, sand, and small stones that are tracked in on the soles of shoes. Minor scratches can be removed by stripping and refinishing the floor. Deeper scratches


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will require a thin layer of the stone flooring be removed to expose a new surface. 5.

Wear. Wear, particularly in areas with heavy traffic, can abrade the surface of stone flooring over time. This can result in uneven surfaces and cupping in areas such as building entrances. How rapidly the flooring wears depends on the type of stone used to make the flooring, the traffic pattern, and how well the floor has been maintained through good cleaning practices.

Use Figure 5-15 to assess the condition of the stone flooring. The tools needed to perform this assessment include a tape measure or measuring wheel to determine the area of the floor and a camera to photograph overall conditions and major defects. The photographs will help during future assessments to identify areas that are slowly deteriorating. Complete the stone flooring assessment as follows: Item 1:


Item 2:

Enter the room number where the stone floor is located.

Item 3:


Item 4:


Item 5:

Identify the type of stone flooring installed.

Item 6:

For each defect listed, rate how often that defect occurs in the tile.

Item 7:


Item 8:


Item 9:


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Figure 5-15. Stone Flooring ———————————————————————————————— 1. Building: ____________________________________________________ 2. Room #: ___________________

3. Year built: ____________________

4. Average height (ft): ____________ Average width (ft): _____________ 5. Type of stone:

❑ granite

❑ limestone

❑ marble

❑ slate


Minor

Moderate

Extensive

Chips/cracks

❑

❑

❑

❑

Discoloration Dullness

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

Scratches

❑

❑

❑

❑

Wear

❑

❑

❑

❑


❑ poor ❑ good



Item 10:

Date: ________________


Terrazzo Floors Terrazzo flooring is a mixture of marble or limestone chips and a binder that are formed into individual tiles or a seamless floor. Older terrazzo floors used a cement binder. Newer style floors use an epoxy or


219

urethane binder that resists stains more readily than terrazzo floors that use cement. Although terrazzo floors are very durable, they have several characteristics that will impact their service life and appearance, including a relatively high absorption rate for liquids, low resistance to chemical spills, low impact resistance, and low temperature fluctuation tolerance. The service life for terrazzo floors ranges between 35 and 50 years, depending in part on exposure to these conditions. The most common defects found in terrazzo flooring include the following: 1.

Chips and Cracks. Terrazzo floors do not resist impacts very well, and can be easily chipped. Cracks can form as a result of temperature changes in the flooring as well as shifting in the flooring’s underlayment. Minor chips and cracks can be ignored. When chips and cracks are large enough to present a safety hazard, they can be repaired using a cement grout or epoxy resin, depending on the type of terrazzo flooring installed.

2.

Discoloration. Terrazzo floors can become discolored as a result of a build-up of old finishes, improper cleaning practices, dirt being ground into the finish, or staining from spills containing oils. In most cases, the original color can be restored by stripping the floor to its original surface, cleaning, and resealing. Depending on the cause of the discoloration, not all discolored areas can be restored.

3.

Scratches. Minor scratches caused by ground-in dirt can be removed in some cases by stripping and refinishing the floor. Deeper scratches will require a thin layer of the terrazzo be ground off to expose a new surface.

4.

Sealant failure. Terrazzo is a porous material that quickly absorbs moisture that can stain. To decrease the chances that the terrazzo can be permanently stained, a penetrating sealant is applied to new terrazzo floors. As this sealant can wear off or become damaged, it must be periodically reapplied. If dirt and stains are difficult to remove from the flooring, most likely the terrazzo is in need of stripping and resealing.

5.

Wear. Wear, particularly in areas with heavy traffic, can abrade the surface of terrazzo flooring. This can result in uneven surfaces and

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cupping in areas such as building entrances. How rapidly the terrazzo wears depends on the type of materials used to make the flooring, the traffic pattern, and how well the floor has been maintained through good cleaning practices. Use Figure 5-16 to assess the condition of the terrazzo flooring. The tools needed to perform this assessment include a tape measure or measuring wheel to determine the area of the floor and a camera to photograph overall conditions and major defects. The photographs will help during future assessments to identify areas that are slowly deteriorating. Figure 5-16. Terrazzo Flooring ———————————————————————————————— 1. Building:

____________________________________________________

2. Room #: ___________________

3. Year built: ____________________


Minor

Moderate

Extensive

Chips/cracks

❑

❑

❑

❑

Discoloration

❑

❑

❑

❑

Scratches

❑

❑

❑

❑

Sealant failure

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ poor

❑ fair

❑ good

❑ excellent

Wear 6. Overall condition:


Date: ________________

————————————————————————————————


221

Complete the terrazzo floor assessment as follows: Item 1:


Item 2:

Enter the room number where the terrazzo floor is located.

Item 3:


Item 4:


Item 5:

For each defect listed, rate how often that defect occurs in the floor.

Item 6:


Item 7:


Item 8:


Item 9:


Resilient Flooring Resilient flooring, commonly referred to as vinyl or linoleum, is a category of flooring that includes a number of different flooring types, including vinyl, vinyl composition, and rubber. Their popularity is due in part to their availability in a wide range of colors and patterns, and their durability and low maintenance requirements. Resilient flooring is available in both tile and wide rolls. Special purpose flooring is available for applications requiring slip-resistance or anti-static flooring. The service life for resilient flooring ranges between 20 and 35 years, depending on the application. The most common defects found in resilient flooring include the following: 1.

Adhesive failure. The most common cause of adhesive failure is moisture in the underlayment, particularly if the resilient flooring

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is installed over a concrete slab at ground level. Before resilient flooring can be installed over a new concrete floor, the floor must be allowed to cure for at least six weeks. If adhesive failure occurs, then the existing flooring must be removed, and the concrete sealed before now flooring is installed. 2.

Curling. Curling occurs primarily in tile, and results in the slight raising of the edges of the tile. Curling results in increased wear of the tile, the formation of tripping hazards, and can lead to tile coming loose. Curling is an indication that the tile has reached the end of its service life.

3.

Efflorescence. Efflorescence is the formation of a white haze on the surface of resilient flooring primarily along the joints. It is the result of moisture migration through the concrete flooring under the resilient flooring. As the moisture migrates, it picks up soluble salts and carries them to the surface. When the moisture evaporates, it leaves the salt deposits behind forming the haze. Efflorescence by itself is not a serious problem. It is, however, an indication that excessive moisture is present in the concrete floor. Eliminating efflorescence requires eliminating the moisture at its source.

4.

Physical damage. Although resilient flooring is very durable, it can be damaged. Common damage includes cuts, tears, broken tile, scratches, and indentations. Depending on their location and severity, the damage can pose a tripping hazard to building occupants. While individual tiles can be replaced, and sheet flooring can be patched, most patches will not match the surrounding flooring.

5.

Shrinkage. Shrinkage occurs primarily in tile, and results in formation of gaps between individual tiles. It is the result of chemical changes that take place within the tile as it ages. Shrinkage is an indication that the tile has reached the end of its expected service life.

6.

Wear. Wear occurs primarily as the result of normal use. Heavy foot traffic patterns can cause uneven wear of the flooring, resulting in uneven flooring and changes in the appearance of the tile. Extreme wear can extend through the color pattern of the tile.


223

Use Figure 5-17 to assess the condition of the resilient flooring. The tools needed to perform this assessment include a tape measure or measuring wheel to determine the area of the floor and a camera to photograph overall conditions and major defects. The photographs will help during future assessments to identify areas that are slowly deteriorating.

Figure 5-17. Resilient Flooring ———————————————————————————————— 1. Building:

____________________________________________________

2. Room #: ___________________

3. Year built: ____________________

4. Average height (ft): ____________ Average width (ft): _____________ 5. Type of flooring: ❑ rubber

❑ vinyl

❑ vinyl composition ❑ other: _____________

6. Defects None

Minor

Moderate

Extensive

Adhesive failure

❑

❑

❑

❑

Curling

❑

❑

❑

❑

Efflorescence

❑

❑

❑

❑

Physical damage

❑

❑

❑

❑

Shrinkage

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ poor

❑ fair

❑ good

❑ excellent

Wear 7. Overall condition:


Date: ________________

————————————————————————————————

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Complete the resilient floor assessment as follows: Item 1:


Item 2:

Enter the room number where the resilient floor is installed.

Item 3:


Item 4:


Item 5:

Identify the type of resilient flooring installed.

Item 6:

For each defect listed, rate how often that defect occurs in the flooring.

Item 7:


Item 8:


Item 9:


Item 10:


Wood Floors Wood flooring is available in a number of different types, the most common being solid hardwood, longstrip plank, parquet, and engineered hardwood. Of these, solid hardwood flooring remains the most commonly used type although engineered hardwoods are gaining in popularity. The planks used in solid hardwood flooring are constructed as one solid piece of hardwood from top to bottom. Individual planks range from one and one-half inches to seven inches in width. Most boards are three-quarters of an inch thick. Of the various types of wood flooring, solid hardwood is the one most susceptible to damage from moisture.


225

Hardwood longstrip plank is a form of engineered wood flooring in which the upper most layers of the planks consist of individual slats that are glued together. Most installations are a floating floor, installed without the use of nails or other fasteners, although some installations are glued down. Hardwood longstrip planks typically are less than eight feet long, with widths available between five and seven and one-half inches. Thickness varies between one-quarter and nine-sixteenths of an inch. Hardwood longstrips are better suited for areas where moisture is present. Parquet flooring is also a form of an engineered wood floor. Unlike other flooring types, parquet flooring comes in sections rather than planks, the most common size being a 12 by 12 inch square. A wide range of different patterns is available. Flooring sections are typically glued down. Engineered hardwood flooring consists of three to five layers of wood bonded together into a single plank. Since the layers are bonded in a cross grain method, engineered hardwood flooring is very dimensionally stable and not as easily damaged by moisture as conventional hardwood flooring. Planks can be allowed to float, or they can be glued or stapled down. Planks come in lengths ranging from 12 to 72 inches, and widths between two and one-quarter and seven inches. Thickness range from one-quarter to nine-sixteenths of an inch. The most common defects found in wood flooring include the following: 1.

Buckling. Buckling occurs when wood flooring swells and changes its dimension. It can be caused by exposure to excessive moisture or by improper installation techniques, including improper nailing techniques, poor adhesion to the underlayment, or the lack of a perimeter relief gap. Minor buckling can be corrected by sanding. More extensive buckling will require replacement of the flooring.

2.

Cracks and Shrinkage. Cracking within individual board, and shrinkage of boards that causes cracks between individual boards are the result of changes in the moisture content of the flooring material. If boards were installed before they reached moisture equilibrium with the space in which they are being installed, widespread shrinkage and cracking can occur. Similarly, if the floor is not properly protected from moisture after installation, cracks and

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shrinkage can also occur. If the cracks extend throughout the wood floor, the floor will require replacement. 3.

Crowning. Crowning occurs when wood flooring planks are exposed to repeated cycles of wetting and drying. As the planks dry unevenly, they warp, causing their center to rise. Crowning occurs if moisture levels were too high when the flooring was installed, or if the planks are not properly protected from moisture once installed. Minor cases of crowning can be corrected through sanding and refinishing. Major crowning will require replacement of the flooring.

4.

Cupping. Cupping is the mirror image of crowning. When cupping occurs, the edge of the wood planks become raised relative to the center of the plank. Cupping is caused by frequent swings in the moisture content within the wood, particularly if the wood is exposed to moisture from below. When cupping is relatively minor, the raised edges can result in uneven spots that form tripping hazards. Major cupping can cause the wood planks to separate from adjoining planks. Minor cupping can be repaired by sanding and refinishing the wood. Major cupping requires replacement of the flooring.

5.

Squeaks. The majority of squeaks that occur in wood flooring are the result of movement of the floor and floor underlayment. This movement can be the result of an inadequate thickness of underlayment, or inadequate support of the underlayment. Isolated squeaks can be corrected by installing additional bracing under the area surrounding the squeak to limit movement.

6.

Staining. Staining is the discoloration of the wood planks. In most cases, a sound finish will protect the planks from staining. However, repeated exposure to moisture can discolor the wood, particularly if the moisture penetrates the wood through cracks and seams, or from below. Once the source of the moisture has been removed, staining can be corrected by lightly sanding the flooring and refinishing.

7.

Surface damage. Most surface damage in wood flooring takes the form of scratches and gouges. They are the result of normal daily


227

wear and tear. Left uncorrected, they can result in further and more expensive damage to the floor. Most minor surface damage can be corrected by refinishing the floor. More extensive damage will require sanding, resealing, and refinishing. Use Figure 5-18 to assess the condition of the wood flooring. The tools needed to perform this assessment include a tape measure or measuring wheel to determine the area of the floor and a camera to photograph overall conditions and major defects. The photographs will help during future assessments to identify areas that are slowly deteriorating. Complete the wood flooring assessment as follows: Item 1:


Item 2:

Enter the room number where the wood flooring is installed.

Item 3:


Item 4:

Identify the type of wood flooring installed.

Item 5:


Item 6:

For each defect listed, rate how often that defect occurs in the flooring.

Item 7:


Item 8:


Item 9:


Item 10:


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Figure 5-18. Wood Flooring ———————————————————————————————— 1. Building:

____________________________________________________

2. Room #: ___________________

3. Year built: ____________________

4. Average height (ft): ____________ Average width (ft): _____________ 5. Type of flooring: ❑ engineered

❑ parquet

❑ plank ❑ solid

❑ other: _____________ 6. Defects None

Minor

Moderate

Extensive

Buckling

❑

❑

❑

❑

Cracks/shrinkage

❑

❑

❑

❑

Crowning

❑

❑

❑

❑

Cupping Squeaks

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

Staining

❑

❑

❑

❑

Surface damage

❑

❑

❑

❑

❑ poor ❑ good




Date: ________________

————————————————————————————————


229

AFTER THE FIELDWORK Completion of an assessment of a building’s interior, particularly in older facilities, will identify a number of components that are in need of repairs or replacement. Relatively minor items can be handled through routine maintenance work orders. More significant items, particularly those with relatively high implementation costs, will require more extensive planning and preparation. In many cases, the upgrades of separate interior items will be lumped together into remodeling projects that target specific areas within the building. Priorities will have to be assigned to different upgrade projects based on the needs of the facility and the conditions found during the site inspection. The information gathered during the assessment can help in establishing those priorities.

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MECHANICAL SYSTEMS

231

Chapter 6

Mechanical Systems

W

hile the condition of many of the other building components in a facility can be determined through simple inspection or examination, the condition of most mechanical systems cannot. The problem is that while mechanical system components may look fine and may seem to be operating properly, they may be in very poor condition. Building mechanical systems are designed to perform specific functions in support of building operations. In order to perform these support functions, they must be properly designed, installed, operated, and maintained. When changes are made to the building, the mechanical systems must be modified so that they can support those changed operations. One of the most important reasons why mechanical systems must be assessed on a regular basis is a history of inadequate maintenance. Mechanical systems are not install-and-forget components of the building. Normal wear and tear can cause systems to drift from their design condition operations. Since these changes take place slowly, without regular assessments, they will go unnoticed. This is particularly true when it comes to system efficiency. Systems drift out of calibration. Dirt accumulates on heat transfer surfaces. Damper seals tear and leak. Controls malfunction. The net result of these changes is that system performance and efficiency suffers. One can rarely tell the efficiency of a system simply by looking at it. And while the age of many other building components can be used to predict their condition and remaining service life, age has only limited success in predicting mechanical system component condition. The condition of mechanical system components depends on a number of factors that must be considered in assessing the system, in231

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cluding the quality of the installation, the number of hours the equipment is operated each year, the level of maintenance performed on the equipment, and the appropriateness of that particular piece of equipment for that application. In order to determine the condition of mechanical systems, the system installations will have to be surveyed. Data will have to be collected on the equipment installed. Maintenance records will have to be reviewed. And in some cases, operating tests will have to be conducted on the equipment. Bypassing any of these steps will reduce the accuracy and effectiveness of the mechanical system assessment. There are an almost unlimited variety of mechanical systems installed in facilities. The items included in this chapter are some of the most common ones found, including central heating equipment, central cooling equipment, and distribution equipment.

BOILERS Commercial boilers that are most widely used for heating in buildings are hot water or low-pressure steam units. Hot water boilers generally operate at 160 psi or less. Low-pressure steam boilers have a maximum operating pressure of 15 psi. In large facilities, typically those with multiple buildings, there are two other types of boilers commonly found. High-pressure steam boilers operate at pressures greater than 15 psi, and high-temperature, hot water boilers operate at pressures greater than 160 psi and temperatures greater than 250°F. Perhaps more so than with any other building system, boilers require ongoing preventive maintenance in order to provide reliable, efficient service. Unfortunately, boiler maintenance is often ignored until something goes wrong. It has been estimated that two-thirds of all boiler failures and interruptions in service are the result of the lack of maintenance. The resulting cost in repairs and lost revenue typically cost facilities ten times what a comprehensive boiler maintenance program would have cost in the first place. The energy penalty that organizations pay for not properly maintaining their boilers is even higher. A well maintained boiler typically uses ten to 30 percent less energy than one that is poorly maintained. To put this in perspective, for each one percent increase in operating efficiency, for a boiler producing 50,000 pounds of steam per hour burning

MECHANICAL SYSTEMS

233

oil at one dollar per gallon translates into an annual energy savings of $55,000. There are two key elements to properly maintaining all boilers; the operating log and regular inspections. The operating log can help operators recognize changes in boiler performance that influence operation, and diagnose their causes. To be an effective tool, entries must be complete and must be made on a regular basis. In most facilities, this means daily entries. For larger boilers, entries should be made on an hourly basis. Low-pressure Boilers Low-pressure steam or water boilers are the most widely used in small to medium facilities. Units are available in capacities ranging from 100,000 Btu/hr to several million Btu/hr. Units can be fueled by natural gas, propane, oil, or wood. It is common practice to connect several smaller units in parallel, allowing operators to add boilers as the load increases. The service life of low-pressure boilers varies with the application and with the level of maintenance performed on the unit. A well-maintained unit has an expected service life of 40 to 50 years. The most common defects found in low-pressure boilers include the following: 1.

Burner adjustment. Proper operation of the burner is essential for both safety and efficiency. Changes in combustion air temperature and fuel pressure can alter burner performance. Wear and the accumulation of dirt in the burner can also change performance. To check the burner, observe the burner’s flame over a wide range of loads. The flame should remain constant in shape, color, and sound over the normal operating range of the boiler. Larger units should be adjusted using a flue gas analyzer.

2.

Control calibration. Typical low-pressure boiler controls include operating, limit, safety, and interlock controls. All must be tested to ensure safe operation of the boiler. Identify and correct any controls that have been bypassed or overridden.

3.

Low efficiency. Follow the manufacturer’s recommended procedure to determine the boiler’s operating efficiency. Compare that

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reading to the rated efficiency for the boiler. Older boilers typically operate with a full-load efficiency of 80 to 85 percent. New generation, condensing boilers will operate with a full-load efficiency of 90 to 92 percent. 4.

Maintenance requirements. Review the maintenance history of the boiler. All boilers will require routine maintenance. Look instead for non-routine items, such as component failure and breakdowns that lead to an interruption of service, and determine if their frequency is increasing. Increasing maintenance requirements is an indication that the boiler is in need of an overhaul or is approaching the end of its service life.

5.

Soot buildup. The buildup of soot and other deposits on the interior surfaces of boilers is typically the result of improperly adjusted burners. At a minimum, soot buildup will decrease the operating efficiency of the boiler. In more serious cases, it can cause localized overheating of boiler surfaces, leading to failure of the tubes or refractory.

6.

Refractory damage. Cycles of heating and cooling can crack boiler refractory material. Improper flame adjustment can erode the refractory. Inspect all refractory material for even minor damage.

7.

Tube failure. Boilers should be opened every one to two years to inspect the condition of the tubes. Tubes can fail from erosion, corrosion, deposits, cracking, or overheating.

Use Figure 6-1 to assess the condition of the low-pressure boiler. The tools needed to perform this assessment include a flue gas analyzer, temperature gauges either permanently or temporarily installed on the boiler, and the boiler’s maintenance log. Complete the low-pressure boiler assessment as follows: Item 1:


Item 2:

Enter the identification number of the boiler.

Item 3:

Enter the name of the manufacturer of the boiler.

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Figure 6-1. Low Pressure Boilers ———————————————————————————————— 1. Building: _____________________________________________________ 2. Boiler #: __________________ 3. Manufacturer: ___________________ 4. Type of boiler:

❑ steam

❑ water

5. Boiler construction:

❑ firetube

❑ watertube

❑ other: ____________________ 6. Type of fuel:

❑ natural gas

❑ propane

❑ oil 7. Year installed: _______________ 8. Defects None Minor

Moderate

Extensive

Burner adjustment

❑

❑

❑

❑

Control calibration

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

Maintenance requirements ❑

❑

❑

❑

Soot buildup

❑

❑

❑

❑

Refractory damage

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

Low efficiency

Tube failure 9. Overall condition:


10. Estimated remaining useful life (yr): _______________ 11. Comments: __________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ 12. Inspector: ______________________________ Date: _______________

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Item 4:

Identify the type of boiler.

Item 5:

Identify the construction of the boiler.

Item 6:

Identify the type of fuel used by the boiler.

Item 7:

Enter the year when the boiler was installed.

Item 8:

For each defect listed, rate the seriousness of that defect in the boiler.

Item 9:

Rate the overall condition of the boiler.

Item 10:

Estimate the remaining useful life of the boiler in years. The rating should be based on the overall condition of the boiler, its age, and its exposure to harsh service conditions.

Item 11:


Item 12:


High-pressure Boilers High-pressure steam or water boilers are most widely used in large, multi-building facilities. Units are available in capacities ranging from one million Btu/hr upwards. It is common practice to install several smaller units in parallel, allowing operators to add boilers as the load increases. The service life of high-pressure boilers varies with the application and with the level of maintenance performed on the unit. Units can be fueled by natural gas, propane, or oil. A well-maintained unit has an expected service life of 40 to 50 years. The most common defects found in high-pressure boilers include the following: 1.

Blowdown controls. Even with an effective water treatment program, it is essential that a portion of the boiler’s water be bled off and replaced with city water. This blowdown helps to control the level of solids present in the system as well as to make up for losses

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within the distribution system. The amount of blowdown drawn from a boiler directly impacts its operating efficiency. Too high a blowdown rate and losses will increase as will chemical water treatment requirements. Too low a rate, and there will be a buildup of solids in the boiler, decreasing performance and increasing the risk of damage to the boiler. Most blowdown systems are automatic and will require regular calibration and adjustment. 2.

Burner adjustment. Proper operation of the burner is essential for both safety and efficiency. Changes in combustion air temperature and fuel pressure can alter burner performance. Wear and the accumulation of dirt in the burner can also change performance. To check the burner, observe the burner’s flame over a wide range of loads. The flame should remain constant in shape, color, and sound over the normal operating range of the boiler. Burner adjustment should be performed using a flue gas analyzer.

3.

Control calibration. One of the most important factors in boiler efficiency is regulating the amount of excess air introduced into the boiler. All boilers require higher air levels than the theoretical minimum to ensure complete combustion of the fuel. Too little air and the fuel will not be fully burned, creating soot and the potential for an explosion. Too much air and the efficiency of the boiler will be decreased. As a rule of thumb, natural gas fueled boilers operate with 10 percent excess air. Number two oil-fired boilers operate with 12 percent excess air. Number six oil-fired boilers operate with 15 percent excess air. Oxygen trim controls can reduce these values by one-third to one-half.

4.

Low efficiency. Follow the manufacturer’s recommended procedure to determine the boiler’s full-load operating efficiency. Compare that reading to the rated efficiency for the boiler. Older boilers typically operate with a full-load efficiency of 80 to 85 percent. New generation, condensing boilers will operate with a full-load efficiency of 90 to 92 percent.

5.

Maintenance requirements. Review the maintenance history of the boiler. All boilers will require routine maintenance. Look instead for non-routine items, such as component failure and breakdowns that lead to an interruption of service, and determine if their fre-

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quency is increasing. Increasing maintenance requirements is an indication that the boiler is in need of an overhaul or is approaching the end of its service life. 6.

Safety controls. All high-pressure boilers are equipped with a number of safety devices, including low-water cutoff, high temperature and pressure cutoffs, safety valves, and flame scanner. All safety controls should be checked for proper operation and to ensure that they have not been bypassed.

7.

Soot buildup. The buildup of soot and other deposits on the interior surfaces of boilers is typically the result of improperly adjusted burners. At a minimum, soot buildup will decrease the operating efficiency of the boiler. In more serious cases, it can cause localized overheating of boiler surfaces, leading to failure of the tubes or refractory. The interior surfaces of the boiler should be checked for soot buildup during its annual inspection.

8.

Refractory damage. Cycles of heating and cooling can crack boiler refractory material. Improper flame adjustment can erode the refractory. All boiler refractory material must be closely inspected during the boiler’s annual inspection.

9.

Tube failure. Tube failure is the leading cause of boiler failures and downtime. Tubes can fail from erosion, corrosion, deposits, stress, cracking, or overheating.

10.

Water treatment. Water treatment is a necessity to control or remove impurities in the boiler makeup water. Without water treatment, scale would quickly coat waterside surfaces, decreasing efficiency and generating hotspots in boiler tubes that cause tube failures. A scale thickness of only one thirty-second of an inch will decrease boiler efficiency by approximately four percent. Water treatment systems must be tested for proper chemical addition rates.

Use Figure 6-2 to assess the condition of the high-pressure boiler. The tools needed to perform this assessment include a flue gas analyzer, temperature gauges either permanently or temporarily installed on the boiler, and the boiler’s maintenance log.

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Figure 6-2. High Pressure Boilers ———————————————————————————————— 1. Building: _____________________________________________________ 2. Boiler #: __________________ 3. Manufacturer: ___________________ 4. Type of boiler:

❑ steam

❑ high pressure water

5. Boiler construction:

❑ firetube

❑ watertube

❑ other: ____________________ 6. Type of fuel:

❑ natural gas ❑ oil

❑ propane

7. Year installed: _______________ 8. Defects None Minor

Extensive

Burner adjustment

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

Control calibration

❑

❑

❑

❑

Low efficiency

❑

❑

❑

❑

Maintenance requirements

❑

❑

❑

❑

Safety controls Soot buildup

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

Refractory damage

❑

❑

❑

❑

Tube failure

❑

❑

❑

❑

Water treatment


❑

❑

Blowdown controls

9.

Moderate

Overall condition:

❑ good ❑ excellent 10. Estimated remaining useful life (yr): _______________ 11. Comments: __________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ 12. Inspector: ______________________________ Date: _______________

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Complete the high-pressure boiler assessment as follows: Item 1:


Item 2:

Enter the identification number of the boiler.

Item 3:

Enter the name of the manufacturer of the boiler.

Item 4:

Identify the type of boiler.

Item 5:

Identify the construction of the boiler.

Item 6:

Identify the type of fuel used by the boiler.

Item 7:

Enter the year when the boiler was installed.

Item 8:


Item 9:

Rate the overall condition of the boiler.

Item 10:

Estimate the remaining useful life of the boiler in years. The rating should be based on the overall condition of the boiler, its age, and its exposure to harsh service conditions.

Item 11:


Item 12:


CENTRAL CHILLERS Building chillers represent the single largest user of electricity in facilities. On an annual basis, between 25 and 35 percent of the total facility electricity use can be traced back to the building chiller. Equally important to the quantity of electricity used by the chiller is when that use occurs. High chiller electrical loads occur during times when electric-

MECHANICAL SYSTEMS

241

ity rates are at their highest, resulting in the chiller’s accounting for an even higher percentage of the electricity budget. And with real-time pricing of electricity gaining momentum as part of the deregulation of the electricity industry, chiller efficiency is becoming even more important in controlling energy costs. For these reasons, keeping a chiller operating at its peak efficiency should be a major goal of building managers. While high operating efficiency is an important objective, it is not the only one that facility managers should be concerned with. Building air conditioning has become essential in many facilities in order to support both equipment and operations. It is even more essential in buildings that do not have operable windows. Therefore, facility managers must focus on making certain that the operation of the central chillers is reliable as well as efficient. One of the most important factors to consider when assessing the condition of any chiller is its maintenance history. How reliable has the chiller been? Does it require frequent maintenance beyond routine tasks? By reviewing the chiller’s maintenance log, facility managers will gain insight into the operation and condition of the chiller. Unlike many other building systems and components, the chiller may be in great operating condition and yet not meet the needs of the facility. For example, it might be undersized and not capable of meeting cooling loads imposed on it. It might be oversized and not able to effectively throttle back under low load operations. Therefore it is important that in evaluating the chiller, the evaluation take place in the context of the facility where it is operating. There are four types of central building chillers commonly used today, absorption, centrifugal, reciprocating, and rotary. Absorption Chillers Absorption chillers, once considered a maintenance nightmare, are making a comeback today. With their ability to use steam, waste heat, or natural gas as an alternative fuel to electricity, they have become the chiller of choice in areas faced with high electricity use and demand charges. Absorption chillers are available as single or two-stage units in capacities from 100 to 5,000 tons. Improvements in system designs have also decreased their size by an average of 20 percent over earlier generation units, making them suitable for use in an even wider range of applications.

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The service life of absorption chillers varies with the application and with the level of maintenance performed on the unit. A well-maintained unit has an expected service life of 20 to 25 years. The most common defects found in absorption chillers include the following: 1.

Air leaks. Absorption chillers operate under a vacuum so that the refrigerant can vaporize at a low saturation temperature. Any loss of vacuum and the capacity and the efficiency of the absorber are greatly reduced. Loss of vacuum allows air to enter the absorber, resulting in a corrosive mix that can rapidly damage the steel in the absorber. The rate at which air leaks into the absorber can be determined by monitoring the operation of the absorber’s purge unit. High purge unit run times indicate a leak in the absorber or its piping.

2.

Low efficiency. To test the efficiency of the absorber, the absorber should be operated at full-load under design conditions. Energy use should be monitored and compared to the manufacturer’s specifications for that unit when it was new. While efficiency will decrease with absorber age, it should remain fairly close to the manufacturer’s specified value. Single-stage absorption chillers have an operating efficiency of approximately 18 pounds of steam per hour per ton of refrigeration. Two-stage units have an operating efficiency of approximately 11 pounds of steam per hour, per ton of refrigeration. Low efficiency values are an indication that the absorber is in need of an overhaul or is approaching the end of its expected service life.

3.

Maintenance requirements. Review the maintenance history of the absorber. All absorbers will require routine maintenance. Look instead for non-routine items, such as component failure and breakdowns that lead to an interruption of service, and determine if their frequency is increasing. Increasing maintenance requirements is an indication that the absorber is in need of an overhaul or is approaching the end of its service life.

4.

Oversizing. All chillers operate at reduced efficiency levels if they are oversized for the application. This is particularly true for absorption chillers that can have serious operational problems if they

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run for extended periods of time at low loads. Oversizing can be corrected only by replacing the absorber with a properly sized one. 5.

Refrigerant leaks. An absorption chiller will require some refrigerant replacement as a normal process. For most applications, a loss rate of less than one percent is considered to be normal.

6.

Tube damage. When the absorber is open for inspection, the chiller tubes should be tested using an eddy current tester to determine if there is any erosion, pitting, corrosion, or cracking of the heat exchanger tubes. Minor damage should be monitored for further development. More extensive damage is an indication that the absorber may require tube replacement.

7.

Undersizing. Building chillers can be too small for the loads imposed on them by the facility as a result of errors made in the design process, or changes made in the facility after the chiller was installed. As a result of this undersizing, the chiller will not be able to meet the peak cooling loads. The greater the undersizing, the more often the chiller will not be able to meet the cooling load.

Use Figure 6-3 to assess the condition of the absorption chiller. The tools needed to perform this assessment include either permanently or temporarily installed metering on the chiller, and the chiller’s maintenance log. Complete the absorption chiller assessment as follows: Item 1:


Item 2:

Enter the identification number of the chiller.

Item 3:

Enter the name of the chiller manufacturer.

Item 4:

Identify the type of fuel used by the chiller.

Item 5:

Enter the chiller’s rated capacity.

Item 6:

Identify the type of absorption chiller.

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Figure 6-3. Absorption Chillers ———————————————————————————————— 1. Building: _____________________________________________________ 2. Chiller #: __________________ 3. Manufacturer: ___________________ 4. Type of fuel:

❑ natural gas

❑ waste heat

❑ other: _______________ 5. Capacity (tons): _______________ 6. Type of chiller:

❑ single stage

❑ two stage


Moderate

Extensive

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

Maintenance requirements ❑

❑

❑

❑

Oversizing

❑

❑

❑

❑

Refrigerant leaks Tube failure

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

Under sizing

❑

❑

❑

❑

Air leaks Low efficiency




Item 7:

Enter the year in which the chiller was installed.

Item 8:

For each defect listed, rate the seriousness of that defect in the chiller.

Item 9:

Rate the overall condition of the chiller.

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Item 10:

Estimate the remaining useful life of the chiller in years. The rating should be based on the overall condition of the chiller, its age, and its exposure to harsh service conditions.

Item 11:


Item 12:


Centrifugal Chillers Centrifugal chillers have long been the workhorse in medium to large facilities. Units are available in capacities ranging from 100 to 8,000 tons. While electric drive is the most common type of centrifugal chiller, units are available with gas-engine and steam turbine drives. The service life of centrifugal chillers varies with the application and with the level of maintenance performed on the unit. A well-maintained unit has an expected service life of 20 to 25 years. The most common defects found in centrifugal chillers include the following: 1.

Air leaks. Any air that gets into the refrigerant system reduces the capacity and efficiency of the chiller. While air is removed through the purge unit, excessive run times for the purge unit are an indication that there is a leak in the system. Monitor the run time of the purge unit to determine the air leakage rate.

2.

Low efficiency. To test the efficiency of the centrifugal chiller, the chiller should be operated at full-load under design conditions. Energy use should be monitored and compared to the manufacturer’s specifications for that unit when it was new. While efficiency will decrease with the age of the chiller, it should remain fairly close to the manufacturer’s specified value. New centrifugal chillers have a full-load operating efficiency of 0.5 to 0.6 kW per ton. Low efficiency values are an indication that the chiller is in need of an overhaul or is approaching the end of its expected service life.

3.

Maintenance requirements. Review the maintenance history of the chiller. All chillers will require routine maintenance. Look instead

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for non-routine items, such as component failure and breakdowns that lead to an interruption of service, and determine if their frequency is increasing. Increasing maintenance requirements is an indication that the chiller is in need of an overhaul or is approaching the end of its service life. 4.

Motor insulation breakdown. In order to rate the condition of the motor insulation, it is necessary to perform an insulation resistance test, or a DC high-potential test on the motor. Test the motor according to the motor manufacturer’s recommendations. Rate the condition of the motor insulation based on the results of the insulation test. Deteriorating motor insulation is an early warning sign of chiller motor failure.

5.

Noise and vibrations. While all centrifugal chillers generate noise and vibrations, excessive noise and vibration levels are an indication of problems developing within the chiller.

6.

Oil contamination. As chillers operate, contaminants including metals and acids become suspended in the chiller’s oil. The types and concentration of different contaminants are an indicator of conditions within the chiller. Contamination levels are checked by sampling the oil at regular intervals and sending the samples to a lab for analysis. By tracking contamination levels over time, one can determine wear levels within the chiller.

7.

Oil use rate. Identify the oil use rate that is determined by the chiller manufacturer to be normal. Compare the normal oil use rate to the actual use.

8.

Oversized. All chillers operate at reduced efficiency levels if they are oversized for the application. This is particularly true for centrifugal chillers whose efficiency drops off rapidly under part-load conditions. Oversizing can be corrected by installing a variable frequency drive on the chiller, or by replacing the chiller with a properly sized unit.

9.

Refrigerant leaks. A well maintained centrifugal chiller will loose less than one percent of its refrigerant charge each year. Review the

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maintenance log for the chiller to determine how much refrigerant must be added to the chiller. 10.

Tube damage. When the chiller is open for an annual inspection, the chiller tubes should be tested using an eddy current tester to determine if there is any erosion, pitting, corrosion, or cracking of the heat exchanger tubes. Minor damage should be monitored for further development. Individual tubes that are damaged can be patched or plugged. More extensive damage is an indication that the chiller may require an overhaul of its tubes.

11.

Undersized. Building chillers can be too small for the loads imposed on them by the facility as a result of errors made in the design process, or changes made in the facility after the chiller was installed. As a result of this undersizing, the chiller will not be able to meet the peak cooling loads. The greater the undersizing, the more often the chiller will not be able to meet the cooling load.

Use Figure 6-4 to assess the condition of the centrifugal chiller. The tools needed to perform this assessment include either permanently or temporarily installed metering on the chiller, motor insulation test equipment, and the chiller’s maintenance log. Complete the centrifugal chiller assessment as follows: Item 1:


Item 2:


Item 3:


Item 4:


Item 5:

Identify the type of drive used by the chiller.

Item 6:

Identify the type of refrigerant used in the chiller.

Item 7:


Item 8:


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Figure 6-4. Centrifugal Chillers ———————————————————————————————— 1. Building: _____________________________________________________ 2. Chiller #: __________________ 3. Manufacturer: ___________________ 4. Capacity (tons): _______________ 5. Drive:

❑ single stage

❑ two stage

6. Type of refrigerant: _______________ 7. Year installed: _______________ 8. Defects None Minor

Moderate

Extensive

Air leaks

❑

❑

❑

❑

Low efficiency

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

Motor insulation breakdown ❑

❑

❑

❑

Noise and vibration

❑

❑

❑

❑

Oil contamination

❑

❑

❑

❑

Oil use rate Over sizing

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

Refrigerant leaks

❑

❑

❑

❑

Tube damage

❑

❑

❑

❑

Under sizing

❑

❑

❑

❑



❑ poor ❑ good



MECHANICAL SYSTEMS

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249


Item 10:


Item 11:


Item 12:


Reciprocating Chillers Reciprocating chillers are most widely used in smaller facilities where the cooling loads are too small for cost effective operation of centrifugal chillers. Units are available with capacities ranging from ten to 200 tons. While their efficiency is less than that of centrifugal chillers, their ability to be staged allows them to meet a wide range of loads efficiently. Reciprocating chillers also operate at a higher condensing temperature, allowing their use with air-cooled condensers in applications where cooling towers cannot be used. Reciprocating chillers have an effective service life of 15 to 20 years, depending on the level of maintenance performed and the number of operating hours per year. The most common defects found in reciprocating chillers include the following: 1.

Low efficiency. To test the efficiency of the reciprocating chiller, the chiller should be operated at full-load under design conditions. Energy use should be monitored and compared to the manufacturer’s specifications for that unit when it was new. While efficiency will decrease with the age of the chiller, it should remain fairly close to the manufacturer’s specified value. Reciprocating chillers that are in good condition typically operate in the range of 0.65 to 0.70 kW per ton. Low efficiency values are an indication that the chiller is in need of an overhaul or is approaching the end of its expected service life.

2.

Maintenance requirements. Review the maintenance history of the chiller. All chillers will require routine maintenance. Look instead

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for non-routine items, such as component failure and breakdowns that lead to an interruption of service, and determine if their frequency is increasing. Increasing maintenance requirements is an indication that the chiller is in need of an overhaul or is approaching the end of its service life. 3.


4.

Noise and vibration. While all reciprocating chillers generate noise and vibrations, excessive noise and vibration levels are an indication of problems developing within the chiller.

5.

Oil contamination. As chillers operate, contaminants including metals and acids become suspended in the chiller’s oil. The types and concentration of different contaminants is an indicator of conditions within the chiller. Contamination levels are checked by sampling the oil at regular intervals and sending the samples to a lab for analysis. By tracking contamination levels over time, one can determine wear levels within the chiller.

6.


7.

Refrigerant leaks. A well maintained reciprocating chiller will loose less than one percent of its refrigerant charge each year. Review the maintenance log for the chiller to determine how much refrigerant must be added to the chiller.

8.

Undersized. Building chillers can be too small for the loads imposed on them by the facility as a result of errors made in the design process, or changes made in the facility after the chiller was installed. As a result of this undersizing, the chiller will not be able

MECHANICAL SYSTEMS

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to meet the peak cooling loads. The greater the undersizing, the more often the chiller will not be able to meet the cooling load. Use Figure 6-5 to assess the condition of the reciprocating chiller. The tools needed to perform this assessment include either permanently or temporarily installed metering on the chiller, motor insulation test equipment, and the chiller’s maintenance log. Figure 6-5. Reciprocating Chillers ———————————————————————————————— 1. Building: _____________________________________________________ 2. Chiller #: __________________ 3. Manufacturer: ___________________ 4. Capacity (tons): __________ 6. Type of condensers:

5. Number of compressors: ________

❑ air cooled

❑ water cooled


Moderate

Extensive

Low efficiency

❑

❑

❑

❑


❑

❑

❑

❑


❑

❑

❑

Noise and vibration

❑

❑

❑

❑

Oil contamination Oil use rate

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

Refrigerant leaks

❑

❑

❑

❑

Under sizing

❑ ❑ ❑ poor

❑ ❑ fair

❑

❑ good

❑ excellent



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Complete the reciprocating chiller assessment as follows: Item 1:


Item 2:


Item 3:


Item 4:


Item 5:

Enter the number of compressors in the chiller.

Item 6:

Identify the type of condenser used by the chiller.

Item 7:

Identify the type of compressor.

Item 8:


Item 9:


Item 10:


Item 11:


Item 12:


Item 13:


Item 14:


Rotary Chillers Rotary or screw chillers use two machined rotors to compress the refrigerant gas. They are electric motor driven and available in capacities ranging from under 50 tons to 1,000 tons. They offer good capacity control through regulation of the flow of refrigerant to the compressor. Their

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high condensing temperatures make them will suited for use with aircooled condensers. Their small size allows them to be installed in spaces where other chiller types would not fit. Rotary chillers have an effective service life of 15 to 20 years, depending on the level of maintenance performed and the number of operating hours per year. The most common defects found in rotary chillers include the following: 1.

Low efficiency. To test the efficiency of the rotary chiller, the chiller should be operated at full-load under design conditions. Energy use should be monitored and compared to the manufacturer’s specifications for that unit when it was new. While efficiency will decrease with the age of the chiller, it should remain fairly close to the manufacturer’s specified value. Rotary chillers that are in good condition typically operate in the range of 0.70 to 0.80 kW per ton. Low efficiency values are an indication that the chiller is in need of an overhaul or is approaching the end of its expected service life.

2.

Maintenance requirements. Review the maintenance history of the chiller. All chillers will require routine maintenance. Look instead for non-routine items, such as component failure and breakdowns that lead to an interruption of service, and determine if their frequency is increasing. Increasing maintenance requirements is an indication that the chiller is in need of an overhaul or is approaching the end of its service life.

3.


4.

Noise and vibration. Due to the small number of moving parts, rotary chillers are very low noise, low vibration units. Any unusual noise or vibrations are an indication of problems developing within the chiller.

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5.

Oil contamination. As chillers operate, contaminants including metals and acids become suspended in the chiller’s oil. The types and concentration of different contaminants is an indicator of conditions within the chiller. Contamination levels are checked by sampling the oil at regular intervals and sending the samples to a lab for analysis. By tracking contamination levels over time, one can determine wear levels within the chiller.

6.


7.

Refrigerant leaks. A well maintained rotary chiller will loose less than one percent of its refrigerant charge each year. Review the maintenance log for the chiller to determine how much refrigerant must be added to the chiller.

8.

Undersized. Building chillers can be too small for the loads imposed on them by the facility as a result of errors made in the design process, or changes made in the facility after the chiller was installed. As a result of this undersizing, the chiller will not be able to meet the peak cooling loads. The greater the undersizing, the more often the chiller will not be able to meet the cooling load.

Use Figure 6-6 to assess the condition of the rotary chiller. The tools needed to perform this assessment include either permanently or temporarily installed metering on the chiller, motor insulation test equipment, and the chiller’s maintenance log. Complete the rotary chiller assessment as follows: Item 1:


Item 2:


Item 3:


Item 4:


Item 5:

Identify the type of condenser used by the chiller.

Item 6:


Item 7:


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Figure 6-6. Rotary Chillers ———————————————————————————————— 1. Building: _____________________________________________________ 2. Chiller #: __________________ 3. Manufacturer: ___________________ 4. Capacity (tons): _______________ 5. Type of condensers:

❑ air cooled

❑ water cooled


Moderate

Extensive

Low efficiency

❑

❑

❑

❑


❑

❑

❑

❑


❑

❑

❑

Oil contamination

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

Oil use rate

❑

❑

❑

❑

Refrigerant leaks

❑

❑

❑

❑

Under sizing

❑

❑

❑

❑

Noise and vibration




Item 8:


Item 9:


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Item 10:


Item 11:


Item 12:


COOLING TOWERS Heat extracted from a building by the HVAC system is rejected to the atmosphere through a cooling tower. The proper operation of a building’s cooling tower is just as important as the proper operation of the chiller itself if the system is to operate efficiently and reliably. There are two basic types of cooling tower; evaporative and dry. Most large building air conditioning systems use an evaporative cooling tower. In systems using an evaporative cooling tower, heat from the chiller is carried to the tower by the condenser water. In the tower, the water is sprayed in such a way as to gain the maximum possible contact between the water and air passing through the tower. Heat is removed from the water by both conduction and evaporation. Air circulation through the tower may be natural or forced. Anything that interferes with the contact between the air and water, the even distribution of the condenser water, or the flow of air through the tower decreases the efficiency and the capacity of the tower. Dry cooling towers, also known as air-cooled condensers, do not use water to carry the heat from the chiller to the tower. Instead, refrigerant is piped directly from the chiller to a heat exchanger where air is blown across the coils to remove the heat. The primary advantages of dry cooling towers are lower maintenance and no water requirements. Their primary disadvantage is that they are less efficient than evaporative cooling towers. Evaporative Cooling Towers Evaporative cooling towers are the primary type of heat exchanger used in building air conditioning systems today. They have moderate

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maintenance requirements, but performing good maintenance is critical to their proper operation. A well maintained evaporative cooling tower has a service life of 20 to 25 years. The most common defects found in evaporative cooling towers include the following: 1.

Biological growth. The growth of biological microorganisms interferes with the transfer of heat to the atmosphere within the tower, and it can carry over through the condenser water system to the interior of the chiller where it can restrict heat transfer there. Biological growth within the cooling tower can also pose a health hazard to those who may come in contact with moisture from the tower. Biological growth is best controlled through a chemical water treatment program.

2.

Clogged/Damaged nozzles. The tower’s spray nozzles are designed to provide a uniform spray pattern over the fill material located within the tower. Non-uniform patterns are the result of clogged, damaged, or improperly adjusted nozzles and will reduce the capacity and efficiency of the tower.

3.

Corroded basins. The basins of cooling towers are designed to collect the cooled condenser water and return it to the chiller. If the basins become corroded, they will introduce solids into the condenser water system, which will foul heat transfer surfaces. Extreme corrosion will result in the loss of water from the tower.

4.

Damaged drift eliminators. Drift eliminators are designed to minimize the quantity of liquid water that is carried from the tower by the flow of air through the tower. Damaged, missing, or poorly aligned drift eliminators will increase the tower’s need for makeup water.

5.

Damaged fill material. The fill material is designed to provide the maximum heat transfer between the tower’s water and the air passing through the tower. Missing or damaged fill material decreases the tower’s ability to reject heat to the air, reducing both efficiency and capacity.

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6.

External corrosion. Cooling towers operate under conditions that are ideal for the development of corrosion. If corrosion is allowed to progress unchecked, it can lead to the structural failure of the tower.

7.

Fan inoperative. Cooling tower fans operate in a highly corrosive environment, resulting in the need for frequent preventive maintenance. Fans that do not operate when needed reduce the capacity of the cooling tower. Fans that run all of the time increase the energy use of the tower. Test fan controls to ensure proper operation.

8.

Maintenance requirements. Review the maintenance history of the cooling tower. All cooling towers will require routine maintenance. Look instead for non-routine items, such as component failure and breakdowns that lead to an interruption of service, and determine if their frequency is increasing. Increasing maintenance requirements is an indication that the cooling tower is in need of an overhaul or is approaching the end of its service life.

9.

Physical damage. Physical damage to the cooling tower can be caused by a wide range of factors, including vibrations from within the tower, exposure to the weather, or falling tree limbs. Depending on the location and the extent of the damage, the operation of the tower can be significantly impacted.

Use Figure 6-7 to assess the condition of the evaporative cooling tower. The tools needed to perform this assessment include the cooling tower’s maintenance log and a camera to photograph overall conditions and major defects. The photographs will help during future assessments to identify areas that are slowly deteriorating. Complete the evaporative cooling tower’s assessment as follows: Item 1:


Item 2:

Enter the identification number of the cooling tower.

Item 3:

Enter the name of the cooling tower manufacturer.

Item 4:

Enter the cooling tower’s rated capacity.

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Figure 6-7. Evaporative Cooling Towers ———————————————————————————————— 1. Building: _____________________________________________________ 2. Tower #: __________________ 3. Manufacturer: ___________________ 4. Capacity (tons): _______________ 5. Condenser water flow rate: _______________ 6. Type of fill material: _______________ 7. Year installed: _______________ 8. Defects None Minor

Moderate

Extensive

❑ Clogged/damaged nozzles ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

Corroded basins

❑

❑

❑

❑

Damaged drift eliminators

❑

❑

❑

❑

Damaged fill material

❑

❑

❑

❑

External corrosion Fan inoperative

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑


❑

❑

❑

❑

Physical damage

❑

❑

❑

❑

Biological growth




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Item 5:

Enter the cooling tower’s condenser water flow rate.

Item 6:

Identify the type of fill material used in the tower.

Item 7:

Enter the year in which the cooling tower was installed.

Item 8:

For each defect listed, rate the seriousness of that defect in the cooling tower.

Item 9:

Rate the overall condition of the cooling tower.

Item 10:

Estimate the remaining useful life of the cooling tower in years. The rating should be based on the overall condition of the cooling tower, its age, and its exposure to harsh service conditions.

Item 11:


Item 12:


AIR COOLED CONDENSERS Air-cooled condensers are an alternative to the evaporative cooling tower. They are used primarily with reciprocating and rotary chillers where higher refrigerant condensing temperatures make them reasonably efficient relative to evaporative cooling towers. Air-cooled condensers have a typical service life of 15 to 20 years. The most common defects found in air-cooled condensers include the following: 1.

Biological growth. The warm air being discharged from air cooled condensers when combined with moisture in the air is an environment that will promote the growth of biological organisms, particularly on surfaces in the condenser that are shielded from sunlight. The growth of these organisms on surfaces within the condensing unit will interfere with the heat transfer from the unit, reducing capacity and efficiency.

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2.

Corrosion. Air cooled condensers sit out in the weather and are subject to corrosion. Any corrosion on heat transfer surfaces will decrease the efficiency of the unit. Corrosion on the condenser case can result in loss of air and water tightness.

3.

Damaged louvers. Air-cooled condensers use a system of louvers to direct the airflow across heat transfer surfaces. If these louvers are damaged or removed, the efficiency of the unit will be reduced.

4.

Dirt. Dirt, like corrosion, forms a barrier to heat transfer from the unit to the air stream directed through the unit, also reducing the efficiency of the unit. All air passages through the condenser should be cleaned on a regular basis.

5.

Inoperative controls. The control system for air-cooled condensers stages the operation and speed of the cooling fans based on the load on the unit. If the control system is not operating properly, efficiency will be reduced and temperatures and pressures within the refrigerant circuit can be too high, causing the chiller to shut down.

6.

Maintenance requirements. Review the maintenance history of the air-cooled condenser. All units will require routine maintenance. Look instead for non-routine items, such as component failure and breakdowns that lead to an interruption of service, and determine if their frequency is increasing. Increasing maintenance requirements is an indication that the condensing unit is in need of an overhaul or is approaching the end of its service life.

7.

Noise and vibration. While all air-cooled condensers generate noise and vibrations, excessive noise and vibration levels are an indication of problems developing within the unit.

8.

Physical damage. Physical damage to the condensing unit can be caused by such factors as exposure to the weather, impacts from equipment operated close to the unit, or falling tree limbs. Depending on the location and the extent of the damage, the operation of the condensing unit can be significantly impacted.

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Use Figure 6-8 to assess the condition of the air-cooled condenser. The tools needed to perform this assessment include the unit’s maintenance log and a camera to photograph overall conditions and major defects. The photographs will help during future assessments to identify areas that are slowly deteriorating.

Figure 6-8. Air Cooled Condenser ———————————————————————————————— 1. Building: _____________________________________________________ 2. Unit #: __________________

3. Manufacturer: ___________________

4. Capacity (tons): _______________ 5. Year installed: _______________ 6. Defects None Minor

Moderate

Extensive

Biological growth

❑

❑

❑

❑

Corrosion

❑

❑

❑

❑

Damaged louvers Dirt

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

Inoperative controls

❑

❑

❑

❑


❑

❑

❑

❑

Noise and vibrations

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

Physical damage 7. Overall condition:


8. Estimated remaining useful life (yr): ______________ 9. Comments:

__________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________ 10. Inspector: ______________________________ Date: _______________

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Complete the air-cooled condensing unit’s assessment as follows: Item 1:


Item 2:

Enter the identification number of the condensing unit.

Item 3:

Enter the name of the condensing unit’s manufacturer.

Item 4:

Enter the condensing unit’s rated capacity.

Item 5:

Enter the year in which the condensing unit was installed.

Item 6:

For each defect listed, rate the seriousness of that defect in the condensing unit.

Item 7:

Rate the overall condition of the condensing unit.

Item 8:

Estimate the remaining useful life of the condensing unit in years. The rating should be based on the overall condition of the condensing unit its age, and its exposure to harsh service conditions.

Item 9:


Item 10:


PUMPS The most commonly used pump in HVAC applications is the centrifugal pump. Its simple design and flexibility make it well suited for HVAC applications, including heating water circulation, chilled water circulation, cooling tower water circulation, condensate return, and domestic hot or cold water pressure boost. Pump capacities range from fractional horsepower to over 100 horsepower. Centrifugal pumps are low maintenance items, but they cannot be ignored. Most pump failures are caused by bad designs, improper instal-

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lations, insufficient bearing lubrication, improper alignment, and damaged seals. A centrifugal pump that is properly installed and maintained has an expected service life of 30 years. The most common defects found in HVAC system pumps include the following: 1.

Bad couplings. Although pump couplings will wear out, they generally fail as a result of poor misalignment and vibrations. If the coupling is worn, properly align the pump and motor before returning the pump to service.

2.

Bad bearings. Pump motor bearings require periodic lubrication. Follow the manufacturer’s recommendations, as too much lubrication can be as damaging as too little. Depending on the size and construction of the pump, failed bearings can be replaced during an overhaul of the pump.

3.

Corrosion. Internal corrosion within the pump housing and on the pump’s impeller reduces pump performance and can lead to imbalanced operation.

4.

Failed motor insulation. In order to rate the condition of the motor insulation, it is necessary to perform an insulation resistance test, or a DC high-potential test on the motor. Test the motor according to the motor manufacturer’s recommendations. Rate the condition of the motor insulation based on the results of the insulation test. Deteriorating motor insulation is an early warning sign of motor failure.

5.

Failed seals. There are two primary causes of seal failure in pumps; abrasive contaminants in the system and seal deterioration due to wear and tear. Abrasives, such as iron oxide, can work their way between the seal and the rotating shaft, damaging the seal. The best way to control the accumulation of contaminants is through a water treatment program. Replacement seals compatible with the circulating fluid should be installed as soon as possible to prevent possible damage to the pump’s shaft.

6.

Leaks. Most leaks in pumps occur as the result of damaged seals. Other leaks can develop as a result of gasket failures where the

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pump is connected to the piping. With the exception of leaks in the pump housing, most leaks can be repaired without replacing the pump. 7.

Misalignment. Misalignment between the motor and the pump causes increased noise and vibration levels, and coupling and seal failures. Pump alignment should be checked periodically and each time maintenance is performed on the pump or the pump motor.

8.

Maintenance requirements. Review the maintenance history of the pump. All units will require routine maintenance. Look instead for non-routine items, such as component failure and breakdowns that lead to an interruption of service, and determine if their frequency is increasing. Increasing maintenance requirements is an indication that the pump is in need of an overhaul or is approaching the end of its service life.

9.

Noise and vibrations. The noise and vibration level generated by properly operating pumps is relatively low and constant. Excessive noise and vibration levels are an indication of a number of possible problems, including bearing failure, pump-motor misalignment, or impeller damage.

Use Figure 6-9 to assess the condition of the HVAC system pumps. Use a separate form for each pump being assessed. The tools needed to perform this assessment include the pump’s maintenance log, an alignment tool, and a camera to photograph overall conditions and major defects. The photographs will help during future assessments to identify areas that are slowly deteriorating. Complete the HVAC system pump’s assessment as follows: Item 1:


Item 2:

Enter the identification number of the pump

Item 3:

Identify the pump application.

Item 4:

Enter the name of the pump’s manufacturer.

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Figure 6-9. Pumps ———————————————————————————————— 1. Building: _____________________________________________________ 2. Pump #: __________________

3. Application: ___________________

4. Manufacturer: _______________ 5. Horsepower: _______________ 6. Year installed: _______________ 7. Defects None Minor

Moderate

Extensive

Bad coupling

❑

❑

❑

❑

Bad bearings

❑

❑

❑

❑

Corrosion

❑

❑

❑

❑

Failed motor insulation

❑

❑

❑

❑

Failed seals Leaks

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

Misalignment

❑

❑

❑

❑


❑

❑

❑

❑


❑

❑

❑

❑




Item 5:

Enter the pump motor horsepower.

Item 6:

Enter the year in which the pump was installed.

Item 7:

For each defect listed, rate the seriousness of that defect in the pump.

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Item 8:

Rate the overall condition of the pump.

Item 9:

Estimate the remaining useful life of the pump in years. The rating should be based on the overall condition of the pump, its age, and its exposure to harsh service conditions.

Item 10:


Item 11:


HVAC SYSTEM DISTRIBUTION PIPING In buildings with central heating and cooling systems, piping from the central equipment carries the hot or chilled water to the terminal units. Systems can be a two or a four-pipe system. Two-pipe systems provide for heating or cooling. Four-pipe systems can provide simultaneous heating and cooling to different areas of the building. A variety of piping materials have been used in HVAC distribution systems, including steel, copper, and plastic piping. While the distribution system is low maintenance, when problems do occur they can be very expensive to correct, as most piping is located in building chases, above ceilings, and behind walls. The expected service life of HVAC piping is 35 to 50 years. The most common defects found in HVAC piping systems include the following: 1.

Asbestos insulation. Asbestos was a commonly used piping and joint insulation before the 1970s. Since then it has been replaced primarily with fiberglass. As long as the asbestos insulation is undisturbed, it is not considered to be a health risk to building occupants or HVAC system mechanics. However, should it become damaged, asbestos particles can become airborne, posing a risk. It is also a concern when repairs to asbestos covered piping must be made.

2.

Corrosion. Corrosion in HVAC system piping can take place from the outside in or from the inside out. Out-to-in corrosion is typi-

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cally the result of leaks near the piping on condensation on the piping that keep the piping exposed to air and water. Leaks from within are often caused by interaction between impurities in the water and the piping material. 3.

Insulation failure. With age, leaks, and physical damage, pipe insulation can come loose from the piping. Loose or missing insulation decreases the efficiency of the distribution system. Equally important, it causes sweating of the piping during the air conditioning season. Sweating contributes to corrosion of the piping and causes damage to surrounding surfaces.

4.

Leaks. Leaks in HVAC system piping come in two forms; pinhole leaks and pipe failures. Pinhole leaks are the result of corrosion of the piping, usually from the inside. They are an indication that the entire piping system is approaching the end of its service life. Pipe failures can be the result of inadequately supported piping, inadequate expansion joints, improper installation techniques, excessive vibrations, or physical damage.

5.

Maintenance requirements. Review the maintenance history of the distribution piping. All systems will require routine maintenance. Look instead for non-routine items, such as component failure and breakdowns that lead to an interruption of service, and determine if their frequency is increasing. Increasing maintenance requirements is an indication that the system is in need of an overhaul or is approaching the end of its service life.

6.

Reduced flow. If there are sufficient contaminants in the piping system, they can become deposited on the interior surfaces of piping, reducing the flow rates. In extreme cases, the deposits can block the flow entirely. Chemical deposits can be avoided by following a water treatment program. While it is possible to clean out some sections of blocked piping, the most common solution is to replace the impacted sections of pipe.

7.

System capacity. If the system cannot meet the heating or cooling needs of some portions of the building, and there is sufficient capacity in the central equipment, it is likely that the system is under-

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sized or not properly balanced. If rebalancing the system does not correct the capacity problem, it will be necessary to replace some sections of the piping. 8.

Valve failures. Valves in HVAC system piping are used to balance the flow and to provide the ability to isolate portions of the system for maintenance. A common problem with system valves is their inability to block the flow of water, forcing maintenance personnel to shut down the entire system to make even minor repairs. Another common problem with system valves is leaks. Both problems can be solved by rebuilding or replacing the valve.

9.

Water hammer. Water hammer occurs in piping systems when sudden changes are made in the flow rate of the water, such as with the startup of a pump or the closing of a valve. It can damage piping as the result of rapid pressure changes, resulting in leaks. Water hammer is corrected by installing air dampers in the piping system or replacing fast acting control valves with slower acting ones.

Use Figure 6-10 to assess the condition of the HVAC system distribution piping. The tool needed to perform this assessment is a camera to photograph overall conditions and major defects. The photographs will help during future assessments to identify areas that are slowly deteriorating. Complete the HVAC system distribution piping assessment as follows: Item 1:


Item 2:

Identify the type of system.

Item 3:

Identify the type of piping used.

Item 4:

Enter the year in which the piping was installed.

Item 5:

For each defect listed, rate the seriousness of that defect in the piping system.

Item 6:

Rate the overall condition of the piping system.

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Figure 6-10. Distribution Piping ———————————————————————————————— 1. Building: _____________________________________________________ 2. Type of system:

❑ chilled water

❑ hot water

3. Type of piping:

❑ dual system ❑ copper

❑ plastic

❑ galvanized

❑ steel

❑ other: _______________ 4. Year installed: _______________ 5. Defects None Minor

Moderate

Extensive

Asbestos insulation

❑

❑

❑

❑

Corrosion

❑

❑

❑

❑

Insulation failure

❑

❑

❑

❑

Leaks

❑

❑

❑

❑

Maintenance requirements Reduced flow

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

System capacity

❑

❑

❑

❑

Valve failures

❑

❑

❑

❑

Water hammer


❑

❑


❑ good ❑ excellent 7. Estimated remaining useful life (yr): _______________ 8 Comments:

__________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________ 9. Inspector: ______________________________

Date: _______________

MECHANICAL SYSTEMS

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Item 7:

Estimate the remaining useful life of the piping system in years. The rating should be based on the overall condition of the piping system, its age, and its exposure to harsh service conditions.

Item 8:


Item 9:


STEAM SYSTEM PIPING There are two types of piping used in steam systems, steam supply and condensate return. In smaller buildings, condensate may be returned through the steam supply piping, but the most common system design uses separate piping for steam supply and condensate return. Steam traps are used at terminal equipment and along steam piping legs to separate the condensate from the steam. The most common type of pipe used in steam systems is galvanized piping. The expected service life of the steam piping is 35 to 50 years. The expected service life of the condensate piping is 20 to 25 years assuming that the steam has been chemically treated to prevent corrosion in the condensate system. The expected service life of most types of steam traps is ten to 20 years. The most common defects found in steam and condensate piping systems include the following: 1.

Asbestos insulation. Asbestos was a commonly used piping and joint insulation before the 1970s. Since then it has been replaced primarily with fiberglass. As long as the asbestos insulation is undisturbed, it is not considered to be a health risk to building occupants or system mechanics. However, should it become damaged, asbestos particles can become airborne, posing a risk. It is also a concern when repairs to asbestos covered piping must be made.

2.

Corrosion. Corrosion in steam and condensate system piping occurs as a result of the formation of acids within the steam and

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condensate. The best defense against corrosion is a boiler water treatment program. Corroded piping will require replacement of large sections of the system. 3.

Insulation failure. With age, leaks, and physical damage, steam pipe insulation can come loose from the piping. Loose or missing insulation decreases the efficiency of the distribution system. Damaged or missing insulation should be replaced as soon as possible.

4.

Leaks. Leaks in steam systems typically occur at fittings and valves in the system. Most are easy to identify by the sound of escaping steam and are corrected by replacing the failed section. Leaks in condensate systems can occur anywhere in the system. Unlike steam leaks, condensate leaks are less noticeable and often go uncorrected. Pinhole leaks in both types of piping are the result of internal corrosion of the piping. They are an indication that the entire piping system is approaching the end of its service life. Pipe failures can be the result of inadequately supported piping, inadequate expansion joints, improper installation techniques, excessive vibrations or physical damage.

5.

Maintenance requirements. Review the maintenance history of the steam and condensate piping. All systems will require routine maintenance. Look instead for non-routine items, such as component failure and breakdowns that lead to an interruption of service, and determine if their frequency is increasing. Increasing maintenance requirements is an indication that the system is in need of an overhaul or is approaching the end of its service life.

6.

Noise. Noise in steam systems is the result of inadequate expansion capabilities or that the steam traps are not removing the condensate from the system adequately. Expansion loops can be added as needed. Steam traps should be inspected and tested for proper operation and new traps installed as needed.

7.

Steam trap failures. Steam traps are a high maintenance item. They are designed to separate the condensate from the steam while removing air and other gases from the system. Dirt, acids, and other contaminants can cause them to fail open or closed. A trap that has

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failed open allows steam to pass through the trap and into the condensate system. A trap that has failed closed prevents condensate from being properly removed, decreasing the performance of terminal equipment and creating a potential hazard from water hammer. 8.

Valve failures. Valves in steam system piping are used to provide the ability to isolate portions of the system for maintenance. A common problem with system valves is their inability to block the flow of steam, forcing maintenance personnel to shut down the entire system to make even minor repairs. Another common problem with system valves is leaks. Both problems can be solved by rebuilding or replacing the valve.

Use Figure 6-11 to assess the condition of the steam system piping. The tools needed to perform this assessment are a steam trap tester and a camera to photograph overall conditions and major defects. The photographs will help during future assessments to identify areas that are slowly deteriorating. Complete the steam system distribution piping assessment as follows: Item 1:


Item 2:

Enter the design operating pressure for the system.

Item 3:

Identify the type of piping used for the steam and condensate portions of the system.

Item 4:

Enter the year in which the system was installed.

Item 5:


Item 6:


Item 7:


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Figure 6-11. Steam System Piping ———————————————————————————————— 1. Building: _____________________________________________________ 2. Operating pressure: _______________ 3. Type of piping:

❑ copper

❑ steel

❑ galvanized ❑ other: _______________ 4. Year installed: _______________ 5. Defects None Minor

Moderate

Extensive

Asbestos insulation

❑

❑

❑

❑

Corrosion

❑

❑

❑

❑

Insulation failure

❑

❑

❑

❑

Leaks Maintenance requirements

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

Noise

❑

❑

❑

❑

Steam trap failures

❑

❑

❑

❑

Valve failures

❑

❑

❑

❑




__________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________ 9. Inspector: ______________________________

Date: _______________

Item 8:


Item 9:


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FAN COILS A very common type of terminal unit used in buildings is the fan coil. It can be used for heating, cooling, or both. In a two-pipe system, heating or chilled water from a central plant is piped to the unit and passes through a single coil in the unit. In a four-pipe system, separate heating and cooling coils are installed in the unit. Individual units in four-pipe can be changed from the heating mode to the cooling mode at the unit. Fan coil units are available in capacities ranging from less than a ton of cooling to approximately five tons. The expected service life of fan coil units is 20 years. The most common defects found in fan coil units include the following: 1.

Cabinet damage. Much of the damage that fan coil cabinets are subjected to is of a cosmetic nature; scratches, dents, missing access doors, and chipped paint. More severe damage includes broken frames and broken wall or floor mountings. Damaged frames and mountings can allow the cabinet to shift sufficiently to damage hot and chilled water lines to the unit.

2.

Damaged condensate pans. The condensate pan in fan coil units is designed to collect condensate from the cooling coil and direct it into the building’s condensate drain system. If pans are corroded, misaligned, or damaged, they can allow condensate to leak from the unit and flood the surrounding space. Damaged pans can be replaced.

3.

Dirty coils. Fan coils draw room air from ground level, where the risk of drawing dirt into the unit is high. While the filter assembly in each unit is designed to prevent this dirt from plugging the coil, it is common to find that filter assemblies have been damaged or removed. If the coils are plugged, they should be cleaned and the filter assembly replaced if necessary.

4.

Faulty controls. The thermostat that controls the operation of the fan coil unit can be mounted remotely or directly in the unit. The thermostat or the modulating valve may be defective, resulting in

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under or overheating, or under or overcooling. Both the thermostat and the modulating valve can be replaced if defective. 5.

Inoperative fans. Units are available with single or multi-speed fans. If the fans are not properly operating, the unit will not provide adequate heating or cooling to the space. Fans and fan switches can be replaced as necessary.

6.

Leaking coils. Leaking coils can go undetected if the leak is small and the heating or cooling water is captured by the fan coil’s condensate pan. Depending on the location of the leak, the coil can be patched if the leak is minor. Larger leaks and those that are not easily patched will require replacement of the coil.

7.

Maintenance requirements. Review the maintenance history of all of the fan coils in the building. All systems will require routine maintenance. Look instead for non-routine items, such as component failure and breakdowns that lead to an interruption of service, and determine if their frequency is increasing. Increasing maintenance requirements is an indication that the system is in need of an overhaul or is approaching the end of its service life.

8.

Missing filter assemblies. Air filters are often removed because it is difficult to change the filters in many fan coil designs. All units should be equipped with a properly sized filter to prevent plugging the coil.

9.

Plugged condensate pans. Dirt tends to be captured by the condensate coming from the cooling coil and carried to the condensate pan. If the dirt collects in the pan, it will eventually clog the drain line, causing the condensate pan to overflow. Pans should be cleaned each time the filter is changed.

Use Figure 6-12 to assess the condition of the fan coil unit. Since buildings that use fan coils tend to have a large number of them installed, it is recommended that a representative sample of the units be inspected, and the assessment be completed based on the typical findings. If serious problems are found with some units, it may be necessary to assess the condition of each fan coil. The tools needed to perform this assessment are a thermometer to check the thermostat calibration, and a

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camera to photograph overall conditions and major defects. The photographs will help during future assessments to identify areas that are slowly deteriorating.

Figure 6-12. Fan Coils ———————————————————————————————— 1. Building: _____________________________________________________ 2. Room numbers: 3. Function:

______________________________________________

❑ cooling

❑ heating

❑ cooling and heating 4. Type of system:

❑ 2-pipe

❑ 4-pipe

5. Manufacturer _______________________________________ 6. Year installed: _______________ 7. Defects None Minor

Moderate

Extensive

Cabinet damage

❑

❑

❑

❑

Damaged condensate pans

❑

❑

❑

❑

Dirty coils Faulty controls

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

Inoperative fans

❑

❑

❑

❑

Leaking coils

❑

❑

❑

❑

Maintenance requirements Missing filter assemblies

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

Plugged condensate pans

❑

❑

❑

❑




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Complete the fan coil unit assessment as follows: Item 1:


Item 2:

Identify the room numbers where representative fan coils were selected for assessment.

Item 3:

Identify the heating and cooling functions performed by the unit.

Item 4:

Identify the type of distribution system used.

Item 5:

Enter the name of the fan coil’s manufacturer.

Item 6:

Enter the year when the fan coils were installed.

Item 7:

For each defect listed, rate the seriousness of that defect in the fan coils. Use an average rating for all units sampled.

Item 8:

Rate the overall condition of the fan coils.

Item 9:

Estimate the remaining useful life of the fan coils in years. The rating should be based on the overall condition of the fan coils, their age, and their exposure to harsh service conditions.

Item 10:


Item 11:


AIR HANDLING UNITS The air-handling unit is the primary means of supplying conditioned air to building spaces. For the purposes of this assessment, the airhandling unit consists of the central supply unit, including the fan, filters, coils, controls, and dampers. The ductwork between the air han-

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dling unit and the building space is assessed using a different form. Also excluded from this section are rooftop units. Air handling units typically come in sizes of two tons and up. They can be constant volume or variable volume system. Control systems can be pneumatic, electronic, or digital. Units can be configured to meet practically any building need. The expected service life of the units is 30 to 40 years for units protected from the elements. For units operating exposed to the elements, the service life can be as short as 15 years. The most common defects found in air handlers include the following: 1.

Control system operation. Proper operation of the air handler’s control system is essential for building occupant comfort and system energy efficiency. Controls need to be verified to determine that valves, dampers, relays, and system safeties all function as intended.

2.

Corroded drain pan. The drain pan in air handlers serves to capture condensate from the cooling coil and remove it from the unit. Pans can corrode, resulting in leaks and the potential for water to be carried downstream into the system’s ductwork.

3.

Damaged coils. Heating and cooling coils can develop leaks that require patching or plugging of a section of the coil. Developing leaks is an indication that the coils are approaching the end of their service life.

4.

Damper leakage. The dampers in air handlers perform a number of functions, including regulating the quantity of outdoor air introduced into the building. If the dampers are not properly operating, system performance and energy efficiency will be reduced.

5.

Exterior corrosion. If air handlers are located in environments with high levels of humidity, their cases can corrode. Eventually the corrosion can perforate the unit’s casing, resulting in lost efficiency and performance.

6.

Failed motor insulation. In order to rate the condition of the motor insulation, it is necessary to perform an insulation resistance test, or

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a DC high-potential test on the motor. Test the motor according to the motor manufacturer’s recommendations. Rate the condition of the motor insulation based on the results of the insulation test. Deteriorating motor insulation is an early warning sign of motor failure. 7.

Filter system failure. Filter systems are long life items, as long as the filters are changed on a regular basis. If filters are permitted to load up with dirt, static pressure from the fan can bend or break the frame that holds the filters, allowing air to leak around the filters.

8.

Insufficient capacity. Building air handlers can be too small for the loads imposed on them by the facility as a result of errors made in the design process, or changes made in the facility after the unit was installed. As a result of this undersizing, the air handler will not be able to meet the peak heating or cooling loads. The greater the undersizing, the more often the unit will not be able to meet the load requirements

9.

Internal corrosion. Internal corrosion is the result of moisture from the cooling coil not properly being captured in the condensate pan and carried away from the unit. It is caused by damaged condensate pans, undersized cooling coils, and too high air velocities.

10.

Maintenance requirements. Review the maintenance history of the air handler. All units will require routine maintenance. Look instead for non-routine items, such as component failure and breakdowns that lead to an interruption of service, and determine if their frequency is increasing. Increasing maintenance requirements is an indication that the boiler is in need of an overhaul or is approaching the end of its service life.

11.

Noise and vibration. Air handlers are designed to be low-noise, low-vibration units. Any excessive noise or vibration levels are an indication of problems within the unit.

Use Figure 6-13 to assess the condition of the air-handling unit. The tools needed to perform this assessment are a motor insulation tester and a camera to photograph overall conditions and major defects. The photographs will help during future assessments to identify areas that are slowly deteriorating.

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Figure 6-13. Air Handling Units ———————————————————————————————— 1. Building: _____________________________________________________ 2. Area served: _________________ 3. Manufacturer: _________________ 4. Type of system:

❑ cooling

❑ heating

❑ cooling and heating 5. Type of filter system:

❑ bag ❑ electronic

❑ panel ❑ other: ________


Moderate

Extensive

Control system operation

❑

❑

❑

❑

Corroded drain pan

❑

❑

❑

❑

Damaged coils

❑

❑

❑

❑

Damper leakage External corrosion

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

Failed motor insulation

❑

❑

❑

❑

Filter system failure

❑

❑

❑

❑

Insufficient capacity

❑

❑

❑

❑

Internal corrosion Maintenance requirements

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑


❑

❑

❑

❑




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Complete the air handling unit assessment as follows: Item 1:


Item 2:

Enter the area served by the unit.

Item 3:

Identify the system manufacturer.

Item 4:


Item 5:

Identify the type of filter system installed in the unit.

Item 6:

Enter the year when the air handler was installed.

Item 7:

For each defect listed, rate the seriousness of that defect in the air handler.

Item 8:

Rate the overall condition of the air handler.

Item 9:

Estimate the remaining useful life of the air handler in years. The rating should be based on the overall condition of the unit, its age, and its exposure to harsh service conditions.

Item 10:


Item 11:


ROOFTOP HVAC SYSTEMS Rooftop HVAC units are self-contained systems that provide both heating and cooling. Most are single-zone units that function either as a constant volume or a variable volume system. Their biggest drawback is that being located on the roofs of buildings, the units are too often out of sight and out of mind when it comes to performing maintenance. The most popular option is a built-in DX cooling section with an

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air-cooled condensing unit, and a natural gas fired heating section. Options are available for supplying the units with remotely generated hot and chiller water. Units are available with cooling capacities ranging from two to approximately 200 tons, and heating capacities from 50,000 Btuh to slightly more than two million Btuh. The expected service life for most rooftop units is 20 years. The most common defects found in rooftop HVAC systems include the following: 1.

Corroded casing. Rooftop units are exposed to the elements. While their exterior panels are treated and coated to resist corrosion, physical damage and failed coatings can lead to extensive corrosion and perforation of the panels. Badly corroded panels require replacement.

2.

Corroded drain pan. The drain pan in the air handler portion of the rooftop unit serves to capture condensate from the cooling coil and remove it from the unit. Pans can corrode, resulting in leaks and the potential for water to be carried downstream into the system’s ductwork.

3.

Curb failure. Rooftop units are mounted directly to a curb built into the roof. Vibrations from the unit and differences in rates of thermal expansion can damage curbs, resulting in roof leaks.

4.

Damaged coils. Heating and cooling coils can develop leaks that require patching or plugging of a section of the coil. Exposure to low temperatures can cause coils to freeze. Developing leaks is an indication that the coils are approaching the end of their service life.

5.

Faulty controls. Proper operation of the rooftop unit’s control system is essential for building occupant comfort and system energy efficiency. Controls need to be verified to determine that valves, dampers, relays, and system safeties all function as intended.

6.

Internal corrosion. Internal corrosion occurs when outside air or rainwater leaks past panels and moisture condenses on interior surfaces of the unit. All panels should be checked periodically for water tightness.

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7.

Maintenance requirements. Review the maintenance history of the unit. All units will require routine maintenance. Look instead for non-routine items, such as component failure and breakdowns that lead to an interruption of service, and determine if their frequency is increasing. Increasing maintenance requirements is an indication that the boiler is in need of an overhaul or is approaching the end of its service life.

8.

Missing insulation. The exterior panels in rooftop units are insulated internally. Insulation can come loose from vibrations, or can be damaged by maintenance personnel while working on the unit.

9.

Missing/Loose panels. Exterior panels are typically held in place with a fairly large number of screws and fasteners. Often when the units are worked on by mechanics, not all of the screws are properly reinstalled, nor are all of the fasteners properly latched. As a result, panels vibrate and come loose, allowing air and water to enter the unit.

10.

Noise and vibration. Rooftop units are isolated from the building roof through vibration dampers mounted on their frames. Building ductwork is isolated from the units to further limit noise and vibrations. If noise and vibrations are a problem and the vibration isolators are in good condition, inspect the fan and motor for proper alignment and balance.

11.

Odors and fumes. If the outdoor air intake in rooftop units is located too close to building exhausts, loading docks, or other sources of odors and fumes, they can be drawn into the building. Eliminating odors will require repositioning the intake to the rooftop unit or redirecting the source of the odors and fumes.

Use Figure 6-14 to assess the condition of the rooftop unit. The tool needed to perform this assessment is a camera to photograph overall conditions and major defects. The photographs will help during future assessments to identify areas that are slowly deteriorating. Complete the rooftop HVAC system assessment as follows: Item 1:


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Figure 6-14. Rooftop HVAC Systems ———————————————————————————————— 1. Building: _____________________________________________________ 2. Area served: _________________ 3. Manufacturer: _________________ 4. Type of system:

❑ cooling ❑ heating ❑ cooling and heating


Moderate

Extensive

Corroded drain pan

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

Curb failure

❑

❑

❑

❑

Damaged coils

❑

❑

❑

❑

Faulty controls

❑

❑

❑

❑

Internal corrosion

❑

❑

❑

❑

Maintenance requirements Missing insulation

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

Missing/loose panels

❑

❑

❑

❑


❑

❑

❑

❑

Odors and fumes


❑

❑

Corroded casing


❑ good ❑ excellent 8. Estimated remaining useful life (yr): _______________ 10. Comments: __________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ 11. Inspector: ______________________________ Date: _______________

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Item 2:

Enter the area served by the unit.

Item 3:

Identify the system manufacturer.

Item 4:


Item 5:

Enter the year when the unit was installed.

Item 7:

For each defect listed, rate the seriousness of that defect in the rooftop unit.

Item 8:

Rate the overall condition of the rooftop unit.

Item 9:

Estimate the remaining useful life of the rooftop unit in years. The rating should be based on the overall condition of the unit, its age, and its exposure to harsh service conditions.

Item 10:


Item 11:


HVAC DUCT SYSTEMS HVAC duct systems come in a wide range of styles and sizes. Systems can be constructed from fibrous glass, rigid glass boards, wrapped sheet metal, lined, or insulated flexible ducts. Ducts are typically installed above ceilings, behind walls, or under floors where they are difficult to inspect. They are subject to damage from HVAC system vibrations, temperature extremes in unconditioned spaces, plumbing leaks, and physical damage during the installation of other utilities. High moisture levels and dirt accumulation in systems can promote the growth of microorganisms, creating unhealthy conditions for the building occupants. The expected service life for building HVAC duct systems is 50 years or more under typical operating conditions.

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The most common defects found in HVAC duct systems include the following: 1.

Balancing. One of the most important factors in system performance is proper air balancing. Without it, the system will not be able to provide the needed air quantities of air to all sections of the building. When conditions change in the building, such as the installation of new heat producing loads, it is necessary to rebalance the system in order to properly meet those loads.

2.

Capacity. Insufficient capacity can be caused by poor system design. More often, it is caused by changes that take place within the building after the system was installed. Increasing airflow to compensate for increased loads increases noise in the system and risks damage to the ductwork. If capacity problems cannot be corrected through rebalancing the system, a supplemental system may be required.

3.

Controls. Building duct systems are only as good as the temperature control system used to maintain space temperatures and humidity levels. Controls require frequent checks and recalibrations.

4.

Dirt. Dirt is a common problem in duct systems. Dirt left over from the original construction as well as dirt that is not trapped by the air handler’s filter can accumulate at bends and other changes in the duct. While dirt is common in duct systems and is generally not a problem, if moisture is present, it can contribute to the growth of microorganisms. If testing show that both exist, it will be necessary to clean those sections of the duct.

5.

Fire dampers. Fire dampers are generally ignored until something goes wrong. Links can fail, causing the damper to close and cut off airflow. Doors can also be damaged so that they will not properly close in an emergency.

6.

Insulation damage. In addition to reducing heating and cooling energy costs, duct insulation helps prevent the formation of condensate on duct surfaces. Exposure to condensate will damage duct materials. Additionally, the formation of condensate on interior duct surfaces promotes the growth of microorganisms.

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7.

Joints and seams. Any failure in duct joints and seams results in air leaks from the duct system, reducing the capacity of the system. All joints and seams should be tightly sealed.

8.

Microorganism growth. The accumulation of dirt and moisture in a duct system, particularly close to the air handler unit, promotes the growth of microorganisms, creating unhealthy conditions for building occupants. If microorganisms are detected, it is necessary to rid those portions of the duct of both moisture and dirt to prevent their return.

9.

Noise and vibrations. Duct systems are very good transmitters of noise and vibrations generated elsewhere in the HVAC system. Make certain that air-handling equipment is properly isolated acoustically from the ductwork.

10.

Physical damage. Physical damage to the ductwork can result in insulation damage and air leaks. Both must be repaired to prevent the loss of system performance.

11.

Terminal units. Terminal units connected to the ductwork are what regulate the flow of air into the conditioned spaces of the building. If terminal units are not operating properly, areas will have too little or too much airflow, and will not maintain the desired temperature.

Use Figure 6-15 to assess the condition of the air-handling unit. The tools needed to perform this assessment are a calibrated thermometer, an air flow meter, and a camera to photograph overall conditions and major defects. The photographs will help during future assessments to identify areas that are slowly deteriorating. Complete the HVAC duct system assessment as follows: Item 1:


Item 2:

Enter the area served by the ductwork.

Item 3:

Identify the type of material used in the duct construction

Item 4:

Enter the year when the ductwork was installed.

MECHANICAL SYSTEMS

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Figure 6-15. HVAC Duct Systems ———————————————————————————————— 1. Building: _____________________________________________________ 2. Area served: _________________ 3. Type of duct material:

❑ fiberglass

❑ galvanized

❑ flexible

❑ other: _____________


Moderate

Extensive

Balancing improper

❑

❑

❑

❑

Capacity inadequate

❑

❑

❑

❑

Controls faulty Dirt

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

Fire dampers inoperative

❑

❑

❑

❑

Insulation damage

❑

❑

❑

❑

Joint & seam failures

❑

❑

❑

❑

Microorganism growth Noise and vibrations

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

Physical damage

❑

❑

❑

❑

Terminal units

❑

❑

❑

❑




__________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________ 9. Inspector: ______________________________

Date: _______________

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Item 5:

For each defect listed, rate the seriousness of that defect in the ductwork.

Item 6:

Rate the overall condition of the ductwork.

Item 7:

Estimate the remaining useful life of the ductwork in years. The rating should be based on the overall condition of the system, its age, and its exposure to harsh service conditions.

Item 8:


Item 9:


HEAT PUMPS Heat pumps are often installed in applications where the heating and cooling loads are small; less than 250,000 Btu for heating, and less than 5 tons for cooling. Heat pumps are also frequently installed to supplement the building’s existing HVAC system particularly when changes in building loads have resulted in inadequate cooling in portions of the building. They can be self-contained units installed on outside walls, or they can be split systems with a blower unit installed in the building and compressor and condensing unit installed outside the facility. The expected service life for heat pumps is 15 to 20 years. The most common defects found in heat pump applications include the following: 1.

Compressor noise. Heat pump compressors are designed to run quietly. Excessive noise from the compressor unit can be caused by loose panels in the unit, or they can be the early warning signs that the compressor is approaching the end of its service life.

2.

Corroded drain pan. The drain pan in the air handler portion of the heat pump serves to capture condensate from the cooling coil and remove it from the unit. Pans can corrode, resulting in leaks and the

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potential for water to be carried downstream into the system’s ductwork. 3.

Damaged coils. The cooling and condensing coils found in heat pumps are long life items. Outdoor coils can have their fins bent by physical impacts. Bent fins will reduce cooling efficiency. Coils can also be damaged by corrosion, or split as the result of freezing. Split or severely corroded coils will require replacement.

4.

Dirt Accumulation. The condensing coil of the heat pump can become blocked by leaves, nests, and other debris. The indoor coil can become coated with a layer of dirt from the conditioned space. The efficiency of the heat pump will be impacted by any accumulation of dirt on either coil

5.

Refrigerant leaks. Refrigerant leaks can occur in coils, the refrigerant lines running between the two sections of the heat pump, and at any of the fittings on the refrigerant circuit. Loss of refrigerant will reduce the capacity and efficiency of the heat pump.

Use Figure 6-16 to assess the condition of heat pumps. The tools needed to perform this assessment are a calibrated thermometer, a refrigerant pressure manifold, and a camera to photograph overall conditions and major defects. The photographs will help during future assessments to identify areas that are slowly deteriorating. Complete the heat pump assessment as follows: Item 1: Enter the name of the building that is being assessed. Item 2: Enter the area served by the heat pump. Item 3: Identify the heat pump manufacturer. Item 4: Identify the heating and cooling capacities of the heat pump. Item 5: Enter the year when the heat pump was installed. Item 6: For each defect listed, rate the seriousness of that defect in the heat pump.

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Figure 6-16. Heat Pumps ———————————————————————————————— 1. Building: _____________________________________________________ 2. Area served: _________________ 3. Manufacturer: _______________ 4. Heating capacity (Btu): _________ Cooling capacity (tons): _______ 5. Year installed: _______________ 6. Defects None Minor

Moderate

Extensive

Compressor noise

❑

❑

❑

❑

Corroded drain pan Damaged coils

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

Dirt accumulation

❑

❑

❑

❑

Refrigerant leaks

❑

❑

❑

❑




__________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________ 10. Inspector: ______________________________ Date: _______________

Item 7: Rate the overall condition of the heat pump. Item 8: Estimate the remaining useful life of the heat pump in years. The rating should be based on the overall condition of the system, its age, and its exposure to harsh service conditions. Item 9: Enter comments related to the conditions found during the assessment.

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Item 10: Enter the name of the person who conducted the assessment and the date on which the assessment was completed.

AFTER THE FIELDWORK Completion of an assessment of a building’s mechanical equipment, particularly in older facilities, will identify a number of components that are in need of repairs or replacement. Relatively minor items can be handled through routine maintenance work orders. More significant items, particularly those with relatively high implementation costs, will require more extensive planning and preparation. In many cases, the upgrades of separate systems and components items will be lumped together into remodeling projects that target specific areas within the building. Priorities will have to be assigned to different upgrade projects based on the needs of the facility and the conditions found during the site inspection. The information gathered during the assessment can help in establishing those priorities.

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PLUMBING SYSTEMS

295

Chapter 7

Plumbing Systems

T

he proper operation and maintenance of building plumbing systems provides a high rate of return for maintenance managers by extending the life of fixtures and piping, reducing water costs, and preventing damage to other building components from leaks. Inadequate maintenance can cut fixture and piping lives in half. Undetected or uncorrected leaks can waste vast quantities of water. For example, a single faucet that drips one water drop every second will waste more than 2,000 gallons of water in a year. And if the leak is in the hot water portion of the system, there will be additional losses for the energy used to heat the water. Some of the elements of the plumbing system, such as fixtures, are visible and readily accessible for assessment. Others will require some effort to gain access to. Still others are installed in areas that are not accessible without having to tear out portions of the building finish. While assessing the condition of these inaccessible portions of the building will be impossible through direct observations, enough portions of the overall system will be visible so that findings can be extrapolated to those that are not. The history of leaks and other maintenance requirements in these areas will be particularly important in assessing their condition. Building plumbing systems, like mechanical systems, are not install-and-forget components of the building. Normal wear and tear can damage fixtures. Minerals suspended in the water can attack and corrode piping interior surfaces. Condensation and other sources of moisture can corrode piping exterior surfaces. Vibrations from the flow of water can damage valves and fittings. Water hammer can split piping and cause failures at fittings. Unless these problems are detected and 295

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corrected when they are still relatively minor, they can lead to the need for costly repairs to the system, and in the case of leaks, repairs to the building itself. While some deficiencies can be detected by visual inspection, others will require that tests be conducted. Maintenance records will have to be examined reviewed to determine what problems have existed in the past and how frequently they have occurred. The major elements of building plumbing systems that are included in this assessment are the water service to the building, hot and cold water piping, waste and vent piping, water heaters and storage tanks, water softeners, and shutoff and isolation valves. The major fixtures that are included in this assessment are water closets, urinals, showers, and drinking fountains.

WATER SERVICE Responsibility for the operation and maintenance of the water service to a building generally starts at the building side of the water meter. Meters may be located within the building or they may be located at curbside. The major components of the service include the piping, the shutoff valves, and the backflow preventer. Water lines range in size from 3/4 inch to 12 inches. Piping may be plastic, copper, or steel. Most water services have an expected service life of 50 years. The most common defects found in a building’s water service include the following: 1.

Corroded supports. Larger water services use metal pipe hangers to support the weight of the piping, meter, and valves. If these supports corrode and fail, they can stress the piping, resulting in a pipe failure and leak.

2.

Insufficient pressure. If the water service was undersized or if the piping has become partially blocked on the inside, the service may not be able to provide the needed water flow rate. First check the building for water leaks. Once all leaks have been repaired, it will be necessary to open the piping to inspect for buildup on the interior of the lines. If the lines are clear, it may be necessary to upgrade to a larger service.

PLUMBING SYSTEMS

297

3.

Leaking valves. The shutoff valve or valves installed as part of the building service seldom are used. As a result, they may not be able to fully shut off the water supply when needed. These valves should be tested regularly, and replaced or rebuilt if found to not fully block the flow of water. Valves that are not properly operating make it difficult to shutoff water during an emergency.

4.

Leaks. Leaks occur most frequently in building water services at flanges, fittings, and valves. Any leak found must be repaired as quickly as possible to prevent further damage to the service.

5.

No backflow preventer. Backflow preventers are generally required on all water services to prevent the drawing of possibly contaminated building water back into the water service in the event of loss of pressure. If a backflow preventer is installed, it should be tested for proper operation.

Use Figure 7-1 to assess the condition of the water service to the building. The tools needed to perform this assessment include a pressure gauge to record system pressure and a camera to record overall conditions and major defects. The photographs will help during future assessments to identify areas that are slowly deteriorating. Complete the water service assessment as follows: Item 1:


Item 2:

Enter the room number or locations where the service enters the building

Item 3:

Enter the size of the water service.

Item 4:

Enter the pressure of the water service.

Item 5:

Identify if the service has a backflow preventer.

Item 6:

Enter the year when the service was installed or upgraded.

Item 7:

For each defect listed, rate the seriousness of that defect in the water service.

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Figure 7-1. Water Service ———————————————————————————————— 1. Building: _____________________________________________________ 2. Location of water service: ______________________________________ 3. Water main size (inches): _______________ 4. System pressure (psi): _______________ 5. Backflow preventer:

❑ yes

❑ no

6. Year installed: _______________ 7. Defects: None

Minor

Corroded supports

❑

❑

❑

❑

Insufficient pressure

❑

❑

❑

❑

Leaking valves

❑

❑

❑

❑

Leaks

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ poor

❑ fair

❑ good

❑ excellent

No backflow preventer


Moderate

Extensive

9. Estimated remaining useful life (yr): _______________ 10. Comments: __________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ 11. Inspector: ____________________________ Date: _________________

Item 8:

Rate the overall condition of the water service.

Item 9:

Estimate the remaining useful life of the water service in years. The rating should be based on the overall condition of the service, its age, and its exposure to harsh service conditions.

PLUMBING SYSTEMS

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Item 10:


Item 11:


Hot and Cold Water Piping The most common distribution systems in buildings include separate piping for both hot and cold water. In a few buildings where there is limited demand for hot water, a single system distributes city water to all locations, with small water heaters installed at the point of use. A variety of piping materials have been used in water distribution piping systems, including steel, copper, and plastic piping. While the water distribution system is low maintenance, when problems do occur they can be very expensive to correct, as most piping is located in building chases, above ceilings, below floors, and behind walls. The expected service life of hot and cold water piping is 20 years for plastic pipe, and 35 to 50 years for copper and steel pipe. The most common defects found in hot and cold water piping systems include the following: 1.

Circulation/Pressure boost pump. Pressure boost pumps are used on cold water distribution systems in mid-rise and high-rise buildings to ensure that there is sufficient water pressure at upper levels of the building. Circulation pumps are used in central hot water systems in most mid to large facilities so that hot water temperatures remain fairly constant throughout the building. Malfunctioning pumps will seriously impact the performance of both systems.

2.

Corrosion. Corrosion in hot and cold water piping systems can take place from the outside in or from the inside out. Out-to-in corrosion is typically the result of leaks near the piping that keep the piping exposed to air and water. Leaks from within are often caused by interaction between impurities in the water and the piping material.

3.

Damaged/Missing insulation. Damaged insulation on hot water piping results in energy losses. In cases of long pipe runs, it may result in low water temperatures. While cold water piping is not

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always insulated, if pipe sweating and surface corrosion are a problem, insulation can be installed to reduce or eliminate both. 4.

Inadequate supports. Proper piping supports are necessary in order to prevent damage to the piping from vibrations and sagging. Inspect all piping runs to insure that the pipe is adequately supported.

5.

Leaking valves. The system shutoff and isolation valves are seldom used. As a result, they may not be able to fully shut off the water flow when needed. These valves should be tested regularly, and replaced or rebuilt if found to not fully block the flow of water.

6.

Leaks. Leaks occur most frequently in hot and cold water piping at flanges, fittings, and valves. Any leak found must be repaired as quickly as possible to prevent further damage to the service.

7.

Pressure loss. Pressure Loss in hot and cold water piping systems is usually the result of the buildup of deposits on the inside surfaces of the pipe. Test the water pressure under normal water use conditions. If the pressure is found to be low, cut open a section of the pipe and inspect the inner surfaces for deposits. Pipe that has significant deposits will require replacement.

Use Figure 7-2 to assess the condition of the hot and cold water piping in the building. In most facilities, a single form can be used to assess the condition of the entire piping system. However, if different types of pipe are used, use a separate form for each type of piping installed in the building. The tools needed to perform this assessment include a pressure gauge to record system pressure and a camera to record overall conditions and major defects. The photographs will help during future assessments to identify areas that are slowly deteriorating. Complete the hot and cold water piping assessment as follows: Item 1:


Item 2:


Item 3:

Identify the type of pipe installed.

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Figure 7-2. Hot and Cold Water Piping ———————————————————————————————— 1. Building: _____________________________________________________ 2. Type of system:

❑ hot water

❑ cold water

3. Type of pipe material:

❑ copper

❑ PEX

❑ CPVC

❑ polybutylene

❑ galvanized ❑ PVC ❑ other: _______________ 4. Diameter of the piping (inches): _______________ 5. Circulation pump:

❑ yes ❑ no 6. Year installed: _________

7. Defects: None

Minor

Circulation pump

❑

❑

❑

❑

Corrosion

❑

❑

❑

❑

Damaged insulation

❑

❑

❑

❑

Inadequate supports

❑

❑

❑

❑

Leaking valves Leaks

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

Pressure loss

❑

❑

❑

❑

❑ poor

❑ fair

❑ good

❑ excellent


Moderate

Extensive


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Item 4:

Enter the size of the water pipe.

Item 5:

Identify if the system has a booster or circulation pump.

Item 6:

Enter the year when the system was installed.

Item 7:


Item 8:


Item 9:

Estimate the remaining useful life of the pipe in years. The rating should be based on the overall condition of the pipe, its age, and its exposure to harsh service conditions.

Item 10:


Item 11:


Waste and Vent Piping Waste and vent piping in buildings can be copper, galvanized, cast iron, or plastic. Systems are low maintenance other than for having to open the occasionally clogged line. Like water supply systems, when problem do occur that require gaining access to the piping, repairs can be costly as most piping is behind walls, above ceilings, or under concrete floors. The expected service life of for most types of waste and vent piping 50 years. The most common defects found in waste and vent piping systems include the following: 1.

Corroded supports. The most commonly used pipe hangers for waste and vent piping are metal. If these supports corrode and fail, they can stress the piping, resulting in a pipe failure, leaks, or a change in the slope of the pipe.

2.

Corrosion. Corrosion in waste and vent hot piping systems can take place from the outside in or from the inside out. Out to in

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corrosion is typically the result of leaks near the piping that keep the piping exposed to air and water. Leaks from within often are concentrated at the bottom of pipe sections. Any perforation of the waste and vent piping can create a serious health hazard within the building. Inspect the piping, looking for wet or stained areas. 3.

Failed joints. Failed joints in waste and vent piping can result in leaks and the escape of sewer gases into the building. Failed joints can occur in any type of waste and vent piping, but are most common cast iron pipe where temperature changes and vibrations can stress the joints. Closely examine the joints looking for cracks, missing material, and separated sections of piping.

4.

Inadequate slope. For trouble free operation, waste piping must be installed at the proper slope. Too steep or too shallow a slope, and clogging can occur from deposited solids. Sags in horizontal runs will also result in clogs. Over time, settlement, failed pipe hangers, and modifications to the piping system can sufficiently modify the slope of lines.

5.

Inaccessible cleanouts. Cleanout allow access to piping to clear clogs and debris. In metal systems, the constant exposure to water can result in the cleanout being corroded shut. In badly corroded systems, it may be necessary to replace that section of piping containing the cleanout.

6.

Leaks. In addition to possible leaks at joints, leaks in the waste and vent systems can occur as the result of corrosion, physical damage, or improper modifications and repairs to the system. Look for any signs of moisture on the exterior of the piping.

Use Figure 7-3 to assess the condition of the waste and vent piping in the building. In most facilities, a single form can be used to assess the condition of the entire piping system. However, if different types of pipe are used, use a separate form for each type of piping installed in the building. The tools needed to perform this assessment include a sharp metal probe to test joints and corroded pipe sections and a camera to record overall conditions and major defects. The photographs will help during future assessments to identify areas that are slowly deteriorating.

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Figure 7-3. Waste and Vent Piping ———————————————————————————————— 1. Building: _____________________________________________________ 2. Type of Piping:

❑ copper ❑ galvanized

❑ pvc ❑ other: _______________

3. Pipe diameter (inches): _______________ 4. Year installed: _______________ 5. Defects: None

Minor

Moderate

Extensive

Corroded supports

❑

❑

❑

❑

Corrosion

❑

❑

❑

❑

Failed joints

❑

❑

❑

❑

Inadequate support Inaccessible cleanouts

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

Leaks

❑

❑

❑

❑

❑ poor

❑ fair

❑ good

❑ excellent



__________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ 9. Inspector: ____________________________

Date: _________________

Complete the waste and vent piping assessment as follows: Item 1:


Item 2:

Identify the type of pipe installed.

Item 3:

Enter the diameter of the pipe.

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Item 4:

Enter the year when the piping was installed.

Item 5:


Item 6:


Item 7:

Estimate the remaining useful life of the system in years. The rating should be based on the overall condition of the pipe, its age, and its exposure to harsh service conditions.

Item 8:


Item 9:


DOMESTIC HOT WATER SYSTEMS This assessment form is to be used in buildings having central domestic hot water systems. Typical system components include one or more water heaters, storage tanks, supply and return piping, and circulation pumps. Systems can be fueled by steam, natural gas, heating oil, or electricity. Separate assessment forms are provided for each of the major system components. Water Heaters There are two basic types of water heaters; direct-fired and indirectfired units. Direct-fired heaters burn natural gas, oil, or propane within the unit, heating the water directly. Electric water heaters have one or more resistance heating elements suspended in the water. Indirect-fired water heaters use a secondary heat source and do not contain a burner section within the water heater. This secondary heat source may be steam or hot water from a separate boiler, such as the building’s heating system boiler. Typical operating efficiencies for water heaters range between 82 and 87 percent for conventional burners, and up to 92 percent for pulse combustion units. The service life for central water heaters is 20 to 25 years.

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The most common defects found in central water heaters include the following: 1.

Burner corrosion. Over time, the burners can become corroded as a result or repeated cycles of heating and cooling, exposure to moisture, corrosive flue gasses, and contaminants in the fuel. The resulting corrosion can plug burner orifices and interfere with the operation of the burner. In extreme cases, the burner tubes can become perforated from the corrosion.

2.

Corroded casing. The outer case of the water heater protects the tank’s insulation and connections. Typical damage includes corrosion and impact damage.

3.

Damaged insulation. Any open seams in the water heater casing, or missing or damaged insulation will impact the thermal efficiency of the water heater. Left uncorrected, moisture can gain access to the outer wall of the boiler tank, resulting in corrosion.

4.

Damaged tank lining. Water heater tank interiors are coated to prevent damage from water. Over time, the lining can be damaged, exposing the underlying metal and leading to corrosion. In most tanks, damaged linings cannot be repaired.

5.

Excessive sediment. Particles suspended in the water tend to settle out at the bottom of the water heater’s tank. This sediment can be removed by periodically draining the tank. High levels of sediment are an indication of deterioration within the tank or circulation system.

6.

Improperly adjusted burners. The efficient and safe operation of the boiler depends on the condition of the burner. Air or fuel leaks, improper air-fuel mixtures, and clogged jets and orifices, and improper baffle adjustment will impact the operation of the burner.

7.

Inoperative gauges. Properly operating temperature gauges are necessary for the efficient and safe adjustment of the water heater’s burner controls. Gauges should be tested and calibrated annually.

8.

Inoperative safety devices. There are two primary types of safety devices found in central water heaters; flame failure and water

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relief valves. The flame failure safety shuts off the fuel to the water heater should the pilot light go out or if the burner fails to ignite in a predetermined time. The water relief valve is designed to prevent excessive water pressures from rupturing the heater’s tank or the system piping. Test the operating of all water heater safety devices. 9.

Misadjusted controls. Most water heaters use a simple on-off control. Some larger units use a two-stage burner control to allow more efficient operation over a wider range of system loads. Test burner controls for proper operation and calibration.

Use Figure 7-4 to assess the condition of the central water heater. Use a separate form for each central water heater installed in the building. The tools needed to perform this assessment include a calibrated thermometer, a flue gas analyzer, and a camera to record overall conditions and major defects. The photographs will help during future assessments to identify areas that are slowly deteriorating. Complete the central water heater assessment as follows: Item 1:


Item 2:

Enter the room number where the water heater is located.

Item 3:

Enter the name of the water heater manufacturer.

Item 4:

Identify the type of fuel used by the water heater.

Item 5:

Enter the capacity of the water heater.

Item 6:

Enter the year when the water heater was installed.

Item 7:

For each defect listed, rate the seriousness of that defect in the water heater.

Item 8:

Rate the overall condition of the water heater.

Item 9:

Estimate the remaining useful life of the water heater in years. The rating should be based on the overall condition of the pipe, its age, and its exposure to harsh service conditions.

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Figure 7-4. Central Water Heaters ———————————————————————————————— 1. Building: _____________________________________________________ 2. Room: _______________ 3. Manufacturer: _________________________ 4. Fuel:

❑ electricity

❑ propane

❑ natural gas

❑ steam

❑ oil

❑ other: _______________

5. Capacity (gal): ___________________ 6. Year installed: _____________ 7. Defects: None

Minor

Burner corrosion

❑

❑

❑

❑

Corroded casing Damaged insulation

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

Damaged tank lining

❑

❑

❑

❑

Excessive sediment

❑

❑

❑

❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑ ❑ poor

❑ ❑ ❑ fair

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ good

❑ excellent

Improperly adjusted burners Inoperative gauges Inoperative safety devices Misadjusted controls 8. Overall condition:

Moderate

Extensive


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Item 10:


Item 11:


Hot Water Storage Tanks In smaller central water heating systems, the water tank that is part of the water heater construction may have sufficient capacity for the needs of the building. For larger buildings, additional storage capacity is added to help meet the demand for hot water during peak use periods. This storage capacity is achieved through the use of one or more storage tanks. Tank sizes range from several hundred gallons to 1,500 gallons. Tanks may be of steel or fiberglass construction. The expected service life of hot water storage tanks is 30 to 40 years. The most common defects found in central hot water storage tanks include the following: 1.

Corrosion. Corrosion on the tank exterior occurs most frequently around fittings and in areas where insulation has been damaged or removed. Corroded areas should be cleaned and treated to prevent further damage tot he tank.

2.

Damaged insulation. Any open seams in the water tank casing, or missing or damaged insulation will impact the thermal efficiency of the storage tank. Left uncorrected, moisture can gain access to the outer wall of the tank, resulting in corrosion if the tank is of metal construction.

3.

Damaged tank lining. Water heater tank interiors are coated to prevent damage from water. Over time, the lining can be damaged, exposing the underlying metal and leading to corrosion. In most tanks, damaged linings cannot be repaired.

4.

Excessive sediment. Particles suspended in the water tend to settle out at the bottom of the water tank. This sediment can be removed by periodically draining the tank. High levels of sediment are an indication of deterioration within the tank or circulation system.

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5.

Leaks. The source of any leak from the tank must be identified and corrected as quickly as possible to limit damage. Leaks are most likely to occur around pipe fittings.

6.

Physical damage. Physical damage to the tank can result in damaged insulation, or it can cause the failure of the tank. If the tank has been damaged, the extent of that damage must be identified.

Use Figure 7-5 to assess the condition of the central hot water system storage tank. Use a separate form for each tank installed. The only tool needed to perform this assessment is a camera to record overall conditions and major defects. The photographs will help during future assessments to identify areas that are slowly deteriorating. Complete the central water heater assessment as follows: Item 1:


Item 2:

Enter the room number where the hot water storage tank is located.

Item 3:

Enter the name of the storage tank manufacturer.

Item 4:

Identify the type tank installed.

Item 5:

Enter the capacity of the storage tank.

Item 6:

Enter the year when the storage tank was installed.

Item 7:

For each defect listed, rate the seriousness of that defect in the hot water storage tank.

Item 8:

Rate the overall condition of the hot water storage tank.

Item 9:

Estimate the remaining useful life of the storage tank in years. The rating should be based on the overall condition of the pipe, its age, and its exposure to harsh service conditions.

Item 10:


Item 11:


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Figure 7-5. Hot Water Storage Tanks ———————————————————————————————— 1. Building: _____________________________________________________ 2. Room: _______________ 3. Manufacturer: _________________________ 4. Type of tank:

❑ fiberglass

❑ steel

❑ other: _______________ 5. Capacity (gal): ___________

6. Year installed:

___________

7. Defects: None

Minor

Moderate

Extensive

Corrosion

❑

❑

❑

❑

Damaged insulation

❑

❑

❑

❑

Damaged tank lining

❑

❑

❑

❑

Excessive sediment Leaks

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

Physical damage

❑

❑

❑

❑

❑ poor

❑ fair

❑ good

❑ excellent



Hot Water Piping Most central domestic hot water systems use a piping loop to distribute the hot water to the end use points. By using this type of system design, the temperature of the hot water reaching all users will be approximately the same, with no lag time. While the distribution system is low maintenance, when problems do occur they can be very expensive

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to correct, as most piping is located in building chases, above ceilings, and behind walls. Since energy losses from the piping can be significant, it is important that the piping be well insulated. Although a variety of materials have been used for piping in central domestic hot water systems, the most common type of piping material used is copper. Typical system service lives range from 30 to 50 years. The most common defects found in central hot water piping systems include the following: 1.

Asbestos insulation. Asbestos was a commonly used piping and joint insulation before the 1970s. Since then it has been replaced primarily with fiberglass. As long as the asbestos insulation is undisturbed, it is not considered to be a health risk to building occupants or maintenance mechanics. However, should it become damaged, asbestos particles can become airborne, posing a risk. It is also a concern when repairs to asbestos covered piping must be made.

2.

Corrosion. Corrosion in hot water system piping can take place from the outside in or from the inside out. Out-to-in corrosion is typically the result of leaks near the piping that keep the piping exposed to air and water. Leaks from within are often caused by interaction between impurities in the water and the piping material.

3.

Insulation failure. With age, leaks, and physical damage, insulation can come loose from the piping. Loose or missing insulation decreases the efficiency of the distribution system.

4.

Leaks. Leaks in hot water system piping come in two forms; pinhole leaks and pipe failures. Pinhole leaks are the result of corrosion of the piping, usually from the inside. They are an indication that the entire piping system is approaching the end of its service life. Pipe failures can be the result of inadequately supported piping, inadequate expansion joints, improper installation techniques, excessive vibrations, or physical damage.

5.

Maintenance requirements. Review the maintenance history of the hot water piping. All systems will require routine maintenance.

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Look instead for non-routine items, such as component failure and breakdowns that lead to an interruption of service, and determine if their frequency is increasing. Increasing maintenance requirements is an indication that the system is in need of an overhaul or is approaching the end of its service life. 6.

Reduced flow. If there are sufficient contaminants in the piping system, they can become deposited on the interior surfaces of piping, reducing the flow rates. In extreme cases, the deposits can block the flow entirely. Chemical deposits can be avoided by installing a water softener on the inlet to the water heaters. While it is possible to clean out some sections of blocked piping, the most common solution is to replace the impacted sections of pipe.

7.

Valve failures. Valves in hot water distribution piping are used to provide the ability to isolate portions of the system for maintenance. A common problem with system valves is their inability to block the flow of water, forcing maintenance personnel to shut down the entire system to make even minor repairs. Another common problem with system valves is leaks. Both problems can be solved by rebuilding or replacing the valve.

Use Figure 7-6 to assess the condition of the hot water system distribution piping. In most facilities, a single form can be used to assess the condition of the entire piping system. However, if different types of pipe are used, use a separate form for each type of piping installed in the building. The tool needed to perform this assessment is a camera to photograph overall conditions and major defects. The photographs will help during future assessments to identify areas that are slowly deteriorating. Complete the domestic hot water system distribution piping assessment as follows: Item 1:


Item 2:


Item 3:

Identify the type of piping used.

Item 4:

Enter the year in which the piping was installed.

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Figure 7-6. Hot Water Piping ———————————————————————————————— 1. Building: _____________________________________________________ 2. System type:

❑ circulating

❑ non-circulating

3. Type of piping:

❑ copper ❑ CPVC

❑ PEX ❑ polybutylene

❑ galvanized

❑ PVC

❑ other: _______________ 4. Year installed: _______________ 5. Defects: None

Minor

Asbestos insulation

❑

❑

❑

❑

Corrosion

❑

❑

❑

❑

Insulation failure

❑

❑

❑

❑

Leaks

❑

❑

❑

❑

❑ ❑ ❑

❑ ❑ ❑

❑ ❑ ❑

❑ ❑ ❑

❑ poor

❑ fair

❑ good

❑ excellent

Maintenance requirements Reduced flow Valve failures 6. Overall condition:

Moderate

Extensive


__________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ 9. Inspector: ____________________________

Date: _________________

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Item 5:


Item 6:


Item 7:


Item 8:


Item 9:


Hot Water Circulation Pumps To circulate the hot water in the system piping, systems use one or more small, centrifugal pumps. These pumps are low maintenance items and are usually installed in pairs, with one operating and one in the backup mode. Centrifugal pumps are low maintenance items, but they cannot be ignored. Most pump failures are caused by bad designs, improper installations, insufficient bearing lubrication, improper alignment, and damaged seals. A centrifugal pump that is properly installed and maintained has an expected service life of 30 years. The most common defects found in hot water system circulation pumps include the following: 1.

Bad couplings. Although pump couplings will wear out, they generally fail as a result of misalignment and vibrations. If the coupling is worn, properly align the pump and motor before returning the pump to service.

2.

Bad bearings. Pump motor bearings require periodic lubrication. Follow the manufacturer’s recommendations, as too much lubrication can be as damaging as too little. Depending on the size and construction of the pump, failed bearings can be replaced during an overhaul of the pump.

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3.

Corrosion. Internal corrosion within the pump housing and on the pump’s impeller reduces pump performance and can lead to imbalance operation.

4.

Failed seals. There are two primary causes of seal failure in pumps; abrasive contaminants in the system and seal deterioration due to wear and tear. Abrasives, such as iron oxide, can work their way between the seal and the rotating shaft, damaging the seal. Replacement seals should be installed as soon as possible to prevent possible damage to the pump’s shaft.

5.

Leaks. Most leaks in pumps occur as the result of damaged seals. Other leaks, though, can develop as a result of gasket failures where the pump is connected to the piping. With the exception of leaks in the pump housing, most leaks can be repaired without replacing the pump.

6.


7.

Noise and vibrations. The noise and vibration level generated by properly operating pumps is relatively low and constant. Excessive noise and vibration levels are an indication of a number of possible problems, including bearing failure, pump-motor misalignment, or impeller damage.

Use Figure 7-7 to assess the condition of the hot water system circulation pumps. Use a separate form for each pump being assessed. The tools needed to perform this assessment include the pump’s maintenance log, an alignment tool, and a camera to photograph overall conditions and major defects. The photographs will help during future assessments to identify areas that are slowly deteriorating. Complete the hot water system circulation pump’s assessment as follows:

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Figure 7-7. Hot Water Circulation Pumps ———————————————————————————————— 1. Building: _____________________________________________________ 2. Pump number: _______________ 3. Manufacturer: _________________________ 4. Horsepower: _______________ 5. Year installed: _______________ 6. Defects: None

Minor

Moderate

Extensive

Bad coupling

❑

❑

❑

❑

Bad bearings

❑

❑

❑

❑

Corrosion

❑

❑

❑

❑

Failed seals

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ poor

❑ fair

❑ good

❑ excellent

Leaks Maintenance requirements Noise & vibrations 7. Overall condition:

8. Estimated remaining useful life (yr): _______________ 9 Comments:

__________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________ 10. Inspector: ____________________________ Date: _________________

Item 1:


Item 2:

Enter the identification number of the pump.

Item 3:

Enter the name of the pump’s manufacturer.

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Item 4:

Enter the pump motor horsepower.

Item 5:

Enter the year in which the pump was installed.

Item 6:

For each defect listed, rate the seriousness of that defect in the pump.

Item 7:

Rate the overall condition of the pump.

Item 8:

Estimate the remaining useful life of the pump in years. The rating should be based on the overall condition of the pump, its age, and its exposure to harsh service conditions.

Item 9:


Item 10:


RESTROOM FIXTURES Restrooms are among the highest maintenance areas in buildings, requiring frequent cleanings and frequent repair and preventive maintenance. In spite of the level of maintenance performed, the condition of restrooms is not rated very high by building occupants and visitors. Surveys of users regularly show that less than 40 percent rate the restroom quality as being very good. More than one-third rate them as being below average. Improving the quality of the restrooms requires sound designs, good maintenance, and regular cleaning. Without committing to a renovation program, managers can do little about the design of their restrooms, but they can control maintenance and how well the restrooms are cleaned. In addition, regularly scheduled assessments of the major components of the restrooms will identify areas needing improvement. The major restroom components that are included in this assessment include partitions, water closets, urinals, and sinks. Restroom Partitions Restroom partitions can be floor, ceiling or wall mounted. Most are metal with a corrosion resistant finish. They are moderate maintenance

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items due to normal wear and tear and physical abuse. The normal service life for restroom partitions is 15 to 20 years. The most common defects found in restroom partitions include the following: 1.

Corrosion. Restroom partitions exist in an environment that promotes corrosion. Frequent cleanings, flooding, and splashing all expose the partition to water and harsh chemicals. If the corrosion is minor, the area can be cleaned of rust, sealed, and repainted. More significant corrosion will require replacement of the partitions.

2.

Damaged finish. In addition to corrosion, the partition finishes can be damaged by scratches, pealed paint, and vandalism. Unless the damage is severe, partition panels can be repaired and refinished

3.

Damaged hardware. Partition hardware takes a beating from both use and abuse. As a result, mountings can come loose from walls and floors, doors may no longer latch, and dispensers not properly work. In many cases, existing hardware can be adjusted without requiring replacement.

4.

Misaligned sections. Over time, the mounting hardware for panels, frames, and doors can loosen, allowing sections to shift out of alignment. The most common complaint related to misalignment is that the partition doors won’t latch. In almost all cases, components can be brought into alignment without requiring replacement.

5.

Physical abuse. In addition to damaging to the finish, partition panels can sustain a wide range of abuse, including bent or twisted sections and holes from old hardware mounts. Bent or twisted panels will require replacement. Small holes from old hardware that has been removed can be patched. Larger holes will require replacement of the damaged panels.

Use Figure 7-8 to assess the condition of the restroom partitions. Use an average rating for all partitions in a restroom. The only tool needed to perform this assessment is a camera to photograph overall conditions and major defects. The photographs will help during future assessments to identify areas that are slowly deteriorating.

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Figure 7-8. Restroom Partitions ———————————————————————————————— 1. Building: _____________________________________________________ 2. Room number: _______________ 3. Partition type:

❑ ceiling mount ❑ wall mount ❑ floor mount

❑ other: ________________

4. Total partition length (ft): _______________ 5. Year restroom installed: _______________ 6. Year partition installed: _______________ 7. Defects: None

Minor

Moderate

Extensive

Corrosion

❑

❑

❑

❑

Damaged finish

❑

❑

❑

❑

Damaged hardware

❑

❑

❑

❑

Misaligned sections

❑

❑

❑

❑

Physical abuse

❑ ❑ poor

❑ ❑ fair

❑

❑

❑ good

❑ excellent


9. Estimated remaining useful life (yr): _______________ 10. Comments: __________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ 11. Inspector: ____________________________ Date: _________________

Complete the restroom partition assessment as follows: Item 1:


Item 2:

Enter the room number of the restroom.

Item 3:

Identify the type of partition installed (floor, wall, ceiling mount)

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Item 4:

Enter the total length of the partitions.

Item 5:

Enter the year in which the restroom was installed.

Item 6:

Enter the year in which the partitions were installed.

Item 6:

For each defect listed, rate the seriousness of that defect in the partitions. Use an average rating for all partitions.

Item 7:

Rate the overall condition of the partitions.

Item 8:

Estimate the remaining useful life of the partitions in years. The rating should be based on the overall condition of the partitions, their age, and their exposure to harsh service conditions.

Item 9:


Item 10:


Water Closets Water closets come in a variety of styles, including tank and tankless, floor and wall mounted, and manual or automatic flushing. All new water closets are low flush models, using 1.6 gallons per flush. Water closets are low maintenance items with an average service life of 20 years. The most common defects found in water closets include the following: 1.

Cracks/Chips. If the mounting bolts on water closets are over tightened, they can generate cracks through the bolting area. Any water closet that is cracked should be replaced. Impacts with objects can chip the water closets. Depending on the location and severity of the chipping, it may be necessary to replace the water closet.

2.

Damaged seat. The seats on water closets can come loose, crack, or break. Any damaged seat must be replaced to prevent possible injury to building occupants.

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3.

Defective flush valve. Test both automatic and manual flush valves to determine if they are operating properly. Both types can turn off too quickly or remain open too long.

4.

Leaking plumbing. The plumbing fittings and flush valves are subject to leaking with prolonged use, particularly if the water closet is not tightly bolted down. All leaks must be repaired as soon as detected to prevent damage to the plumbing and to restroom finishes.

5.

Leaking seal. The seal between the water closet and the waste piping is a long-life, low maintenance item. If water is noticed around the base of the water closet, and it is not condensation, then the seal has failed. Seal failure comes with age or if the mounting bolts for the water closet are loose and allow movement. Once seals leak, they must be replaced.

6.

Operation. If the water jets in the bowl of the water closet are plugged, they may not generate sufficient water flow to empty the bowl. Similarly, if the flush valve is not properly set, sufficient water to empty the bowl may not be available.

7.

Stains. Staining is usually caused by mineral deposits from the water supply. They can be removed from the water closet by using an approved cleaner. Harsh cleaners and improper cleaning techniques can damage the finish of the water closet

Use Figure 7-9 to assess the condition of the water closets. Use one form for all water closets in a given restroom, rating their condition based on the average conditions found. The only tool needed to perform this assessment is a camera to photograph overall conditions and major defects. The photographs will help during future assessments to identify areas that are slowly deteriorating. Complete the water closet assessment as follows: Item 1:


Item 2:


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Figure 7-9. Water Closets ———————————————————————————————— 1. Building: _____________________________________________________ 2. Room number: _______________ 3. Number of water closets installed: _______________ 4. Year installed: _______________ 5. Defects: None

Minor

Moderate

Extensive

Cracks & chips

❑

❑

❑

❑

Damaged seat

❑

❑

❑

❑

Defective flush valve

❑

❑

❑

❑

Leaking plumbing Leaking seal

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

Operation

❑

❑

❑

❑

Stains

❑

❑

❑

❑

❑ poor

❑ fair

❑ good

❑ excellent


7. Estimated remaining useful life (yr): _______________ 8 Comments:

__________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ 9. Inspector: ____________________________

Date: _________________

Item 3:

Enter the number of water closets installed in the restroom.

Item 4:

Enter the year in which the water closets were installed.

Item 5:

For each defect listed, rate the seriousness of that defect in the water closets. Use an average rating for all water closets.

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Item 6:

Rate the overall condition of the water closets.

Item 7:

Estimate the remaining useful life of the water closets in years. The rating should be based on the overall condition of the water closets, their age, and their exposure to harsh service conditions.

Item 9:


Item 10:


Urinals Urinals come in a variety of styles, including floor and wall mounted, and manual or automatic flushing. All new urinals are low flush models, using 1.0 gallon per flush. Urinals are low maintenance items with an average service life of 20 years. The most common defects found in urinals include the following: 1.

Cracks/Chips. If the mounting bolts on urinals are over tightened, they can generate cracks through the bolting area. Any urinal that is cracked should be replaced. Impacts with objects can chip the urinal. Depending on the location and severity of the chipping, it may be necessary to replace the urinal.

2.

Defective flush valve. Test both automatic and manual flush valves to determine if they are operating properly. Both types can turn off too quickly or remain open too long.

3.

Failed caulking. The caulking between the urinal and the wall or floor frequently fails as a result of the use of harsh cleaning chemicals, vandalism, and movement of the urinal relative to the wall. Failed caulking should be completely removed and replaced.

4.

Leaking plumbing. The plumbing fittings and flush valves are subject to leaking with prolonged use, particularly if the urinal is not tightly bolted to the wall or floor. All leaks must be repaired as soon as detected to prevent damage to the plumbing and to restroom finishes.

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5.

Operation. Proper operation of the urinal requires that the flush valve meter the correct volume of water, the water inlet to the unit be unclogged, and the drain be capable of discharging the water without flooding or splashing.

6.

Stains. Staining is usually caused by mineral deposits from the water supply. They can be removed from the urinal by using an approved cleaner. Harsh cleaners and improper cleaning techniques can damage the finish of the urinal.

Use Figure 7-10 to assess the condition of the urinal. Use one form for all urinals in a given restroom, rating their condition based on the Figure 7-10. Urinals ———————————————————————————————— 1. Building: _____________________________________________________ 2. Room number: _______________ 3. Number of urinals installed: _______________ 4. Year installed: _______________ 5. Defects: None

Minor

Moderate

Extensive

❑

❑

❑

❑

Defective flush valve

❑

❑

❑

❑

Failed caulking

❑

❑

❑

❑

Leaking plumbing Operation

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

Stains

❑

❑

❑

❑

❑ poor

❑ fair

❑ good

❑ excellent

Cracks & chips



__________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________ 9. Inspector: ____________________________

Date: _________________

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average conditions found. The only tool needed to perform this assessment is a camera to photograph overall conditions and major defects. The photographs will help during future assessments to identify areas that are slowly deteriorating. Complete the urinal assessment as follows: Item 1:


Item 2:


Item 3:

Enter the number of urinals installed in the restroom.

Item 4:

Enter the year in which the urinals were installed.

Item 5:

For each defect listed, rate the seriousness of that defect in the urinals. Use an average rating for all urinals.

Item 6:

Rate the overall condition of the urinals.

Item 7:

Estimate the remaining useful life of the urinals in years. The rating should be based on the overall condition of the urinals, their age, and their exposure to harsh service conditions.

Item 8:


Item 9:


Sinks Restroom sinks are available in a wide range of configurations. They can be wall mounted, floor mounted, or installed in countertops. They can be equipped with manual or automatic flow controls. Sinks are relatively low maintenance items with an average service life of 15 to 20 years depending on the construction of the sink. The most common defects found in restroom sinks include the following: 1.

Corroded trap. Corrosion on the sink trap and waste piping is caused either by condensation or by a leak from the sink’s waste

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piping. While surface rust can be ignored, more extensive corrosion can perforate the waste piping, resulting in a leak. 2.

Damaged countertop/vanity. If the sink is installed freestanding, skip this item. Inspect the countertop/vanity for cracks, damaged finish, and loose mountings.

3.

Damaged finish. The finish of the sink can be damaged by normal wear, harsh cleaning chemicals, and abuse. Inspect the sink for cracks, chips, and deep scratches. Damaged sinks usually require replacement.

4.

Faucet operation. Faucets can be automatic or manual. Check the faucet for proper water flow rate, ease of operation, and full shutoff.

5.

Leaks. The plumbing fittings, faucets, and drain lines are subject to leaking with prolonged use. Any plumbing leak can damage surrounding finishes and should be corrected as quickly as possible.

6.

Slow drain. Sink drains are often clogged with hair and other foreign materials. Run water into the sink at the full flow rate. If the water does not drain as quickly as it enters the sink, snake the drain to remove any clogs. In severe clogging cases, it may be necessary to remove the trap for cleaning.

7.

Stains. Materials used for sinks are highly resistant to staining. However, over time, particularly in applications where paint or other materials are dumped in sinks, the sink material can become stained. Correcting stained sink materials generally requires replacement of the sink.

Use Figure 7-11 to assess the condition of the restroom sinks. Use one form for all sinks installed in a given restroom, rating their condition based on the average conditions found. The only tool needed to perform this assessment is a camera to photograph overall conditions and major defects. The photographs will help during future assessments to identify areas that are slowly deteriorating.

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Figure 7-11. Restroom Sinks ———————————————————————————————— 1. Building: _____________________________________________________ 2. Room number: _______________ 3. Number of sinks installed: _______________ 4. Type of sink:

❑ freestanding

❑ countertop

5. Sink construction:

❑ marble

❑ stainless steel

❑ porcelain

vitreous

❑ other: _______________ 6. Year installed: _______________ 7. Defects: None

Minor

Moderate

Extensive

Corroded trap

❑

❑

❑

❑

Damaged countertop

❑

❑

❑

❑

Damaged finish

❑

❑

❑

❑

Faucet operation Leaks

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

Slow drain

❑

❑

❑

❑

Stains

❑

❑

❑

❑

❑ poor ❑ good




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Complete the restroom sink assessment as follows: Item 1:


Item 2:


Item 3:

Enter the number of sinks installed in the restroom.

Item 4:

Identify the type of sink installation.

Item 5:

Identify the type of material the sink is made from.

Item 6:

Enter the year in which the sinks were installed.

Item 7:

For each defect listed, rate the seriousness of that defect in the sinks. Use an average rating for all sinks.

Item 8:

Rate the overall condition of the sinks.

Item 9:

Estimate the remaining useful life of the sinks in years. The rating should be based on the overall condition of the sinks, their age, and their exposure to harsh service conditions.

Item 10:


Item 11:


Tubs/Showers Tubs and showers come in a number of different configurations and materials. Like other plumbing fixtures, tubs and showers are durable items with low maintenance requirements. They can, however, be easily damaged by the use of inappropriate cleaning chemicals and techniques. With good maintenance practices, the service life for most tubs and showers is 20 to 25 years. The most common defects found with tubs and showers include the following:

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1.

Corroded trap. Corrosion on the tub or shower trap and waste piping is caused either by condensation or by a leak from the waste piping. While surface rust can be ignored, more extensive corrosion can perforate the waste piping, resulting in a leak.

2.

Damaged finish. The finish of the tub or shower can be damaged by normal wear, harsh cleaning chemicals, and abuse. Inspect the unit for cracks, chips, and deep scratches. Damaged tubs and showers usually require replacement.

3.

Deteriorated surround. The two most common types of tub/ shower surround are ceramic tile and fiberglass. The grout used with ceramic tile can crack, fall out, or become discolored. Fiberglass surrounds can loose their finish, crack, and chip. Minor damage to both types of surrounds can be repaired. More extensive damage will require replacement of the surround.

4.

Faucet operation. Faucets for tubs and showers can be a single valve control, or separate valves for the hot and cold water. With time and use, faucets can become worn, resulting in difficult operation or the inability to fully shut off the flow of water. Check the faucet for proper water flow rate, ease of operation, and full shutoff.

5.

Leaks. The plumbing fittings, faucets, and drain lines are subject to leaking with prolonged use. Any plumbing leak can damage surrounding finishes and should be corrected as quickly as possible.

6.

Slow drain. Tub and shower drains are often clogged with hair and other foreign materials. Run water into the unit at the full flow rate. If the water does not drain as quickly as it enters the tub or sink, snake the drain to remove any clogs. In severe clogging cases, it may be necessary to remove the trap for cleaning.

7.

Stains. Materials used for tub and shower finishes are highly resistant to staining. However, over time, the finish can become stained. Eliminating stained finishes requires replacement of the unit.

Use Figure 7-12 to assess the condition of tubs and showers. Use one form for all tubs and showers installed in a given restroom, rating their condition based on the average conditions found. The only tool

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needed to perform this assessment is a camera to photograph overall conditions and major defects. The photographs will help during future assessments to identify areas that are slowly deteriorating. Figure 7-12. Tubs & Showers ———————————————————————————————— 1. Building: _____________________________________________________ 2. Room number: _______________ 3. Number of tubs or showers installed: _______________ 4. Type of unit:

❑ tub

❑ shower

❑ tub/shower combination 5. Type of material:

❑ fiberglass

❑ tile

❑ metal

❑ other: _____________


Minor

Moderate

Extensive

Corroded trap

❑

❑

❑

❑

Damaged finish Deteriorated surround

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

Faucet operation

❑

❑

❑

❑

Leaks

❑

❑

❑

❑

Slow drain

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ poor

❑ fair

❑ good

❑ excellent

Stains 8. Overall condition:


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Complete the tub and shower assessment as follows: Item 1:


Item 2:


Item 3:

Enter the number of tubs or showers installed in the restroom.

Item 4:

Identify the type of tub or shower installation.

Item 5:

Identify the type of material the tub or shower is made from.

Item 6:

Enter the year in which the units were installed.

Item 7:

For each defect listed, rate the seriousness of that defect in the tubs and showers. Use an average rating for all units.

Item 8:

Rate the overall condition of the tubs and showers

Item 9:

Estimate the remaining useful life of the units in years. The rating should be based on the overall condition of the units, their age, and their exposure to harsh service conditions.

Item 10:


Item 11:


WATER HEATERS This form is used to assess the condition of stand-alone water heaters, typically found in smaller applications. If the water heater is part of a central hot water system, use Figure 7-4 instead. Water heaters of this type range in capacity from ten gallons to about 160 gallons. They can be fueled by natural gas, propane, or elec-

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tricity. Typical operating efficiencies for water heaters range between 82 and 87 percent for conventional burners, and up to 92 percent for pulse combustion units. The service life for water heaters is 10 to 15 years. The most common defects found in central water heaters include the following: 1.

Burner corrosion. Over time, the burners can become corroded as a result or repeated cycles of heating and cooling, exposure to moisture, corrosive flue gasses, and contaminants in the fuel. The resulting corrosion can plug burner orifices and interfere with the operation of the burner. In extreme cases, the burner tubes can become perforated from the corrosion.

2.

Corroded casing. The outer case of the water heater protects the tank’s insulation and connections. Typical damage includes corrosion and impact damage.

3.

Damaged insulation. Any open seams in the water heater casing, or missing or damaged insulation will impact the thermal efficiency of the water heater. Left uncorrected, moisture can gain access to the outer wall of the boiler tank, resulting in corrosion.

4.

Damaged tank lining. Water heater tank interiors are coated to prevent damage from water. Over time, the lining can be damaged, exposing the underlying metal and leading to corrosion. Damaged linings cannot be repaired.

5.

Excessive sediment. Particles suspended in the water tend to settle out at the bottom of the water heater’s tank. This sediment can be removed by periodically draining the tank. High levels of sediment are an indication of deterioration within the tank or the water supply.

6.

Improperly adjusted burners. The efficient and safe operation of the boiler depends on the condition of the burner. Air or fuel leaks, improper air-fuel mixtures, and clogged jets and orifices, and improper baffle adjustment will impact the operation of the burner.

7.

Inoperative heating element. This item applies only to electric water heaters. Burned out elements, damaged wiring, and pitted or

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loose contacts can prevent one or more of the electrical heating elements from operating properly within the water heater. Inspect and test all connections to ensure proper operation. Use Figure 7-13 to assess the condition of the water heater. Use a separate form for each water heater installed in the building. The tools needed to perform this assessment include a calibrated thermometer, a flue gas analyzer, and a camera to record overall conditions and major defects. The photographs will help during future assessments to identify areas that are slowly deteriorating. Complete the central water heater assessment as follows: Item 1:


Item 2:

Enter the room number where the water heater is located.

Item 3:

Enter the name of the water heater manufacturer.

Item 4:

Identify the type of fuel used by the water heater.

Item 5:

Enter the capacity of the water heater.

Item 6:

Enter the year when the water heater was installed.

Item 7:

For each defect listed, rate the seriousness of that defect in the water heater.

Item 8:

Rate the overall condition of the water heater.

Item 9:

Estimate the remaining useful life of the water heater in years. The rating should be based on the overall condition of the water heater, its age, and its exposure to harsh service conditions.

Item 10:


Item 11:


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Figure 7-13. Water Heaters ———————————————————————————————— 1. Building: _____________________________________________________ 2. Room number: _______________ 3. Manufacturer: _________________________ 4. Fuel:

❑ electricity

❑ propane

❑ natural gas ❑ oil

❑ steam ❑ other: _______________

5. Capacity (gal): ___________________ 6. Year installed: _____________ 7. Defects: None

Minor

Moderate

Extensive

Burner corrosion

❑

❑

❑

❑

Corroded casing

❑

❑

❑

❑

Damaged insulation

❑

❑

❑

❑

Damaged tank lining

❑

❑

❑

❑

Excessive sediment

❑

❑

❑

❑

Improperly adjusted burners

❑

❑

❑

❑

❑ ❑ poor

❑ ❑ fair

❑

❑

❑ good

❑ excellent

Inoperative heating element 8. Overall condition:


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MISCELLANEOUS ITEMS The remaining plumbing items included in this chapter are ones that do not fall into any of the previously listed groupings, yet are commonly found in facilities today. Sump Pumps Sump pumps are used to carry ground water away from building foundations and remove water from low-lying mechanical equipment spaces. They are typically equipped with automatic switches that activate the pump when the water reaches a predetermined level, and shut the pump off once the water level falls below a set point. In applications having potentially high flow rates of water, a second pump may be installed with its switches set at a higher limit so that the second pump operates only when the incoming flow of water exceeds the capacity of the pump or if the first pump should fail. Similarly, many applications use two pumps, one as the primary pump and the other as the backup pump. Although sump pumps are low maintenance, high reliability items, they operate in an environment that is corrosive to the pumps and switch contacts, making it essential that they be inspected and tested on a regular basis. The service life for sump pumps is between 15 and 20 years, depending on the application. The most common defects found in sump pumps include the following: 1.

Bad bearings. Pump motor bearings require periodic lubrication, unless they are permanently sealed. Follow the manufacturer’s recommendations, as too much lubrication can be as damaging as too little. Depending on the size and construction of the pump, failed bearings can be replaced during an overhaul of the pump.

2.

Corroded pump casing. The pump’s casing helps to protect the pump and motor from damage while operating in a corrosive environment. Extensive corrosion of the pump casing can lead to perforation and allow water to enter the pump and motor.

3.

Damaged switch contacts. One of the most common causes of flooding that results when sump pumps fail to remove the water

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from the building is damaged switch contacts. If the contacts are corroded, broken, burned, or out of adjustment, the pump will fail to turn on when needed. 4.

Inoperative alarm. Sump pump alarms are designed to alert maintenance personnel that the water level in the sump has reached a level where the threat exists for flooding. Sump pump alarms should be tested on a regular basis.

5.

Low flow rate. A low rate of flow from a sump pump is an indication that the pump may have failed or that there is a restriction on the intake or discharge side of the pump. If a pump no longer can keep up with the flow of water into the sump, and conditions have not changed, remove the pump from service and inspect its intake and discharge.

6.


7.

Noise and vibration. The noise and vibration level generated by properly operating sump pumps is relatively low and constant. Excessive noise and vibration levels are an indication of a number of possible problems, including bearing failure, pump-motor misalignment, or impeller damage.

Use Figure 7-14 to assess the condition of the sump pump. Use a separate form for each sump area. The only tool needed to perform this assessment is a camera to record overall conditions and major defects. The photographs will help during future assessments to identify areas that are slowly deteriorating. Complete the sump pump assessment as follows: Item 1:


Item 2:

Enter the room number where the sump pump is located.

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Figure 7-14. Sump Pumps ———————————————————————————————— 1. Building: _____________________________________________________ 2. Room number: ___________ 3. Manufacturer: ____________________ 4. Number of pumps installed: _______________ 5. High water alarm:

❑ yes

❑ no


Minor

Moderate

Extensive

Bad bearings

❑

❑

❑

❑

Corroded pump casing

❑

❑

❑

❑

Damaged switch contacts

❑

❑

❑

❑

Inoperative alarm

❑

❑

❑

❑

❑ Maintenance requirements ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑

❑

❑

❑

Low flow rate

Noise & vibration 8. Overall condition:



Item 3:

Enter the name of the sump pump manufacturer.

Item 4:

Identify how many pumps are located in the sump.

Item 5:

Identify if the pump is equipped with a high water alarm.

Item 6:

Enter the year when the sump pump was installed.

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Item 7:

For each defect listed, rate the seriousness of that defect in the sump pump.

Item 8:

Rate the overall condition of the sump pump.

Item 9:

Estimate the remaining useful life of the sump pump in years. The rating should be based on the overall condition of the pump, its age, and its exposure to harsh service conditions.

Item 10:


Item 11:


Septic Tanks Buildings not served by public sewer systems must rely on septic systems for disposal of their wastewater. The septic tank is designed to accept raw wastewater from the building and separate the solids from the water. Light solids, such as fat, oils, and soap float to the surface where they form a layer of scum. Heavier solids settle to the bottom of the tank where they are decomposed by bacteria naturally found in the tank. The remaining liquid enters the drainfield for absorption into the ground. Septic tanks require little maintenance, but they do require periodic pumping out of the accumulated solids and scum. Without periodic pumping, these solids would be carried over into the drainage field, shortening its service life. The service life for steel septic tanks is 20 years. The service life for concrete tanks is 35 to 50 years. The most common defects found in septic tanks include the following: 1.

Cracked/Corroded tanks. Steel tanks, if their lining is damaged, can corrode through rather quickly. When they do, the liquid and solids held in the tank leak to the surrounding ground. Similarly, concrete tanks can crack and deteriorate, leaking their contents. Leaking tanks can be detected by periodically monitoring the level of the liquid in the tank, or by a sudden increase in surface water near the tank. Cracked and corroded tanks must be replaced.

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2.

Damaged lid. All septic tanks have access lids for the periodic pumping of the solids from the tank. These lids and their supporting structures can deteriorate over time, creating a hazardous situation. Closely inspect all components of the access lid for damage and deterioration.

3.

Flooding. Septic tanks are sealed to prevent the escape of water from the tank to the surrounding ground, and to prevent groundwater from entering the tank and overloading the distribution system. Any damage to the piping on the inlet to the tank or to the tank’s access lid will allow groundwater to enter the tank.

4.

Frequent pumping required. The need to frequently pump out the tank, particularly if the frequency is increasing, is an indication that the system is at risk of failing. Frequent pumping is a sign that the drainage field is saturated and unable to accept water at the rate at which it is being introduced into the tank.

5.

Sewage backup. Any sewage backup into the building, except for a backup caused by a temporarily blocked sewer line, is an indication that the tank and drainage field is unable to accept the flow rate of waste from the building. It is caused by undersizing the system, or by a failure of the entire septic system.

6.

Undersized. Septic systems are sized to meet specific building requirements. As changes are made to the building and its use, the load on the septic system may increase requiring modifications to the septic tank and drainage field.

Use Figure 7-15 to assess the condition of the septic tank. Use a separate form for each septic tank. The only tool needed to perform this assessment is a camera to record overall conditions and major defects. The photographs will help during future assessments to identify areas that are slowly deteriorating. Complete the septic tank assessment as follows: Item 1:


Item 2:

Enter the location where the tank is installed and the distance from the building.

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Figure 7-15. Septic Tanks ———————————————————————————————— 1. Building: _____________________________________________________ 2. Location: ______________________

Distance (ft): _________________

3. Tank size (gal): _______________ 4. Year pumped out: ___________ 5. Type of tank:

❑ concrete

❑ steel

❑ fiberglass

❑ other: _______________


Minor

Moderate

Extensive

Cracked/corroded tanks

❑

❑

❑

❑

Damaged lid

❑

❑

❑

❑

Flooding

❑

❑

❑

❑

Frequent pumping Sewage backup

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

Undersized

❑

❑

❑

❑




Item 3:

Enter the size of the tank.

Item 4:

Identify the type of tank installed.

Item 5:

Enter the year when the tank was last pumped out.

Item 6:

Enter the year when the septic tank was installed.

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Item 7:

For each defect listed, rate the seriousness of that defect in the septic tank.

Item 8:

Rate the overall condition of the septic tank.

Item 9:

Estimate the remaining useful life of the septic tank in years. The rating should be based on the overall condition of the tank, its age, and its exposure to harsh service conditions.

Item 10:


Item 11:


Septic Drainage Fields Septic drainage fields consist of several underground runs of perforated piping installed in gravel filled trenches. The lines are tied into the septic tank through a distribution box that directs water from the tank to individual lines within the drainage field. In a properly operating system, the solids remain in the septic tank, and only the liquid enter the drain field where it percolates into the underlying ground. Drainage fields must be properly sized for the wastewater flow and soil conditions. Drainage fields can be pressurized or non-pressurized. As long as solids are kept from entering the drainage field, the service life of most drainage fields is 15 to 30 years, depending on soil conditions. The most common defects found in septic drainage fields include the following: 1.

Clogged/Broken pipes. To properly distribute the water, the drainage field lines must remain clear of obstructions. If trees are located close to the drainage field, roots can enter the piping, blocking the flow of water. Heavy vehicles traveling over the drainage field can crush piping. Solids improperly carried into the drainage field can clog the piping and the surrounding soil. If one section of the drainage field routinely backs up into the tank, it is likely that the piping is clogged or damaged.

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2.

Flooded absorption area. If building roof drains or surrounding groundwater is directed into the drainage field area, the ground will be saturated and will have a difficult time absorbing wastewater from the septic system. Inspect the area immediately following a heavy rain and check for ponding water.

3.

Odors. The wastewater should move downwards and outwards from the drainage field piping. If the wastewater is not properly penetrating the ground, it may rise to the surface and create unusual odors.

4.

Solids carryover. The carryover of solids from the septic tank to the drainage field will destroy the drainage field. Check the inside of the septic tank to see if there is any staining of the tank walls above the outlet tee. If staining exists, solids are being carried over into the drainage field.

5.

Surface flow of wastewater. Any surface flow of wastewater indicates a failure of the septic drainage field.

6.

Tipped distribution box. Improperly installed or settled distribution boxes will not properly direct the flow into portions of the drainage field.

7.

Undersized. Septic drainage fields are sized to meet specific building requirements. As changes are made to the building and its use, the load on the drainage field may increase requiring additional sections of piping be added to the drainage field.

Use Figure 7-16 to assess the condition of the septic drainage field. Use a separate form for each field being evaluated. The only tool needed to perform this assessment is a camera to record overall conditions and major defects. The photographs will help during future assessments to identify areas that are slowly deteriorating. Complete the septic drainage field assessment as follows: Item 1:


Item 2:

Enter the location where the drainage field is installed and the distance from the building.

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Figure 7-16. Septic Drainage Fields ———————————————————————————————— 1. Building: _____________________________________________________ 2. Location: _______________

Distance (ft):

_______________

3. Number of lines: _______________

❑ pressurized

4, Type of field:

❑ non-pressurized


Minor

Moderate

Extensive

Flooded absorption area

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

Odors

❑

❑

❑

❑

Solids carryover

❑

❑

❑

❑

Sewage backup

❑

❑

❑

❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑

❑

Clogged/broken pipes

Surface flow of wastewater Tipped distribution box Undersized 7. Overall condition:


❑ good ❑ excellent 8. Estimated remaining useful life (yr): _______________ 9. Comments:

__________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ 10. Inspector: ____________________________ Date: _________________

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Item 3:

Enter the number of separate lines in the drainage field.

Item 4:

Identify the type of drainage field.

Item 5:

Enter the year when the drainage field was installed.

Item 6:

For each defect listed, rate the seriousness of that defect in the septic tank.

Item 7:

Rate the overall condition of the drainage field.

Item 8:

Estimate the remaining useful life of the drainage field in years. The rating should be based on the overall condition of the field, its age, and its exposure to harsh service conditions.

Item 9:


Item 10:


AFTER THE ASSESSMENT Completion of an assessment of a building’s plumbing systems and components, particularly in older facilities, will identify a number of areas that are in need of repairs or replacement. Relatively minor items can be handled through routine maintenance work orders. More significant items, particularly those with relatively high implementation costs, will require more extensive planning and preparation. In many cases, the upgrades of separate systems and components items will be lumped together into remodeling projects that target specific areas within the building, such as the restrooms. Priorities will have to be assigned to different upgrade projects based on the needs of the facility and the conditions found during the site inspection. The information gathered during the assessment can help in establishing those priorities.

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Chapter 8

Electrical Systems

uilding electrical systems for the most part operate behind the scenes. With the exception of lighting systems, most operate unnoticed for their entire service lives. Failures are relatively rare, but when they do occur, they are very disruptive to operations, pose significant risks to building occupants and maintenance personnel, and can be very expensive to correct. The only way to reduce the risk of failures is to implement a planned and preventive maintenance program that includes regularly scheduled inspections. There are three natural enemies of building electrical systems; water, dirt, and heat. Water attacks all major components in electrical systems. It corrodes electrical contacts and connections, increasing electrical resistance and heating. It attacks and accelerates the breakdown of electrical insulation. It is a conductor of electricity, causing faults and potential flash-overs in high-voltage devices. Dirt attacks electrical equipment several ways. As it accumulates on insulation. It can combine with moisture and airborne pollutants to form compounds that attack insulation and electrical contacts. A buildup of dirt on conductors and devices can provide a low resistance path for arcing and flash-overs. Equally important, even a fine layer of dirt will act as thermal insulation, creating the potential for hot spots and overheating. Heat increases the rate at which materials used in electrical systems break down. Heat accelerates chemical reactions that lead to corrosion of contacts. It thins lubricants on automatic switchgear components, causing them to stick or become difficult to operate. It increases the rate at which insulating materials break down. Even a relatively small increase in operating temperatures can reduce the expected service life for that component by as much as 50 percent.

B

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For these reasons, a regular inspection and testing program for electrical equipment is essential to the safe and reliable operation of building electrical systems. With such a program, deficiencies can be identified while they are relatively minor and corrected before they cause an interruption in service.

ELECTRICAL MANHOLES AND VAULTS This form is designed to be used with the electrical manholes that are commonly found supporting underground electrical service to facilities, and with the electrical vaults found within buildings at electrical service entrances. Electrical manholes and vaults are installed in areas where electrical feeders enter buildings, and in locations outside the building where personnel need to gain access to electrical cables and connections. The service life of electrical manholes is 50 years. The service life for an electrical vault is equal to that of the facility it supports. The most common defects found in electrical manholes and vaults include the following: 1.

Concrete damage. The most common damage to electrical manhole and vault structures is cracked and deteriorating concrete. Damage can range from minor surface cracks to extensive structural damage. Minor surface damage should be monitored for further development. Structural damage must be corrected immediately.

2.

Corroded/damaged ladder. This item applies only to electrical manholes. Access to electrical manholes is usually accomplished by an internal ladder, or by metal ladder rungs mounted to the side of the manhole. For safe access, all portions of the ladder must be structurally sound and must be firmly attached to the manhole wall.

3.

Damaged cables. The cables that enter or pass through manholes and vaults are subject to damage by a number of factors. The most common of these is water. In many cases, the manhole is often filled with water. Water accelerates the breakdown of cable insulation and will damage connections. Closely inspect all cables in the vault for damage.

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4.

High ambient temperature. High ambient temperatures in manholes can occur when the manholes are located close to underground steam lines. High ambient temperatures can occur in electrical vaults when they are located close to heat producing mechanical equipment, or when steam or building heating water lines pass through or close to the vault. High temperatures accelerate the rate at which insulation and electrical components deteriorate.

5.

Inadequate ventilation. Ventilation in electrical spaces serves two purposes; cooling of the equipment and cabling, and dispersion of potentially deadly gasses. If temperatures are allowed to rise, they will result in decreased service lives for the electrical cable and equipment. Prolonged exposure to high temperatures (greater than 100°F) will result in the slow breakdown of insulation and will contribute to cable failures. The buildup of deadly gases puts maintenance personnel at risk when they must work in these confined spaces.

6.

Loose/damaged covers. This item applies only to electrical manholes. Since many manholes are located in roadways and walkways, it is important that the covers be tightly installed to prevent injury to pedestrians and vehicles. Properly fitting manhole covers also help to limit the rate at which water can enter into the manhole.

7.

Water. Water is a common defect found in both manholes and electrical vaults. Water contributes to the breakdown of electrical insulation and the corrosion of electrical connections and equipment. Electrical vaults and manholes must be sealed to prevent the entry of water. If water continues to be a problem, particularly in manholes, pumps should be installed to help remove the water before it can damage electrical cables and connections.

Use Figure 8-1 to assess the condition of electrical manholes and vaults. Use a separate form for each manhole or vault. The tools needed to perform this assessment include an infrared camera to identify loose and corroded connections, a thermometer, and a camera to photograph overall conditions and major defects. The photographs will help during future assessments to identify areas that are slowly deteriorating.

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Figure 8-1. Electrical Manholes and Vaults ———————————————————————————————— 1. Building/location: _____________________________________________ 2. Service voltage: _______________ 3. Year installed: _______________ 4. Defects: None

Minor

Moderate

Extensive

❑

❑

❑

❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

Inadequate ventilation

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

Loose/damaged covers

❑

❑

❑

❑

Water

❑

❑

❑

❑

❑ poor

❑ fair

❑ good

❑ excellent

Concrete damage Corroded/damaged ladder Damaged cables High ambient temperatures


6. Estimated remaining useful life (yr): _______________ 7. Comments: ___________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ 8. Inspector: ____________________________

Date: _________________

Complete the manhole and electrical vault assessment as follows: Item 1:

For electrical vaults, enter the name of the building where the vault being assessed is located. For manholes, identify the location of the manhole.

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Item 2:

Enter the voltage of the service.

Item 3:

Enter the year when the vault or manhole was constructed.

Item 4:

For each defect listed, rate the seriousness of that defect in the manhole or vault.

Item 5:

Rate the overall condition of the manhole or vault.

Item 6:

Estimate the remaining useful life of the vault or manhole in years. The rating should be based on the overall condition of the unit, its age, and its exposure to harsh service conditions.

Item 7:


Item 8:


POWER TRANSFORMERS Power transformers are used to step down the voltage from utility lines to the voltage of the facility’s distribution system, and to further step-down the voltage from the distribution system to that of the connected electrical loads. Most transformers are classified on the basis of their size and secondary voltage rating. General-purpose transformers typically have a secondary voltage of 480 volts or less, range in capacity from one to 100 kVa, and are air-cooled. Load center transformers have a secondary voltage of 600 volts or less, range in capacity from 10 to 750 kVa, and can be air or liquid cooled. Distribution transformers have a secondary voltage of 600 volts or less, range in capacity from 300 to 10,000 kVa, and are mostly liquid cooled. Main substation transformers have a secondary voltage of 4,160 volts or more, range in capacity from 10,000 kVa upward, and are liquid cooled. There are two types of transformers used in facility applications; liquid-cooled and dry transformers.

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Liquid-Cooled Transformers The most commonly used type of transformer in high power applications is the liquid-cooled transformer. Oil or another insulating liquid with a high dielectric strength is used to surround the transformer’s windings. In addition to serving as an insulator, the liquid helps to cool the transformer’s core and coils. Heat generated within the transformer is carried away by the liquid where it is transferred to the atmosphere by conduction and convection. Liquid-cooled transformers are moderate maintenance, long service life items, with typical service lives running between 25 and 30 years. The most common defects found in liquid-cooled transformers include the following: 1.

Bushings & insulators. Inspect all bushings and insulators for buildup of dirt or grease, cracks, chips, or breakage. While dirt and grease can be cleaned from the bushings and insulators, any physical damage to the units will decrease their insulating value and physical strength. All damaged components must be replaced.

2.

Damaged case. Any deterioration in the transformer’s case will interfere with the cooling of the transformer and can result in overheating. Inspect for corrosion, a buildup of dirt, or physical damage to the case.

3.

Defective tap changer. Tap changers can be manual or automatic. Inspect for loose connections, corroded contacts, and burn marks. All moving parts must operate freely.

4.

Deteriorated terminals. Any looseness, corrosion, or physical damage involving the cable clamps increases the resistance and heating at transformer terminals. As the terminals heat, they accelerate the deterioration, resulting in further resistance and heating. Closely inspect all transformer terminals for damage. Using an infrared detector, check for unusual temperature rises at terminals.

5.

Fluid deteriorating. Draw a small sample of the insulating liquid and have its dielectric strength tested. All insulating liquid deteriorates with time and use as the result of oxidation, absorption of moisture, and build-up of sludge. If the insulating fluid has deterio-

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rated, it will be necessary to determine the cause of the deterioration, such as water contamination, before determining the best course of action for restoring the transformer to service. 6.

Inoperative gauges and alarms. Transformer gauges and alarm devices are generally ignored until there is a problem with the transformer. As a result, gauges are often difficult or impossible to read due to a build-up of dirt. Gauges can be out of calibration, thus giving faulty readings. Alarm contacts can be corroded, failing to trigger the alarm when conditions warrant. The glass in liquid level indicators can be dirty, making it impossible to determine the coolant level. Test and calibrate all alarms and gauges as necessary.

7.

Insufficient capacity. If a transformer overheats under heavy load conditions, it can be caused by a defective cooling system, a failing transformer, or electrical overloading. Measure the load on the transformer with a recording ammeter for a period of time when it is likely to be fully loaded, and compare the results to the transformer’s rating. Even slight overloading will significantly shorten the service life of a transformer.

8.

Leaks. Any leak of insulating fluid from a transformer is potentially serious. If leaks are allowed to continue uncorrected, they can cause sections of the transformer’s core to become exposed, resulting in overheating and accelerated deterioration. Closely inspect the area around and below transformers for signs of leaking.

9.

Mounting pad damage. Settlement, movement, cracking or breaking of the transformer’s concrete mounting pad can result in an uneven shifting or settlement of the transformer, stressing connections. Minor damage to the pad should be monitored for further deterioration. Major damage will require repair or replacement of the mounting pad.

10.

Overheating. Overheating is the principal cause of insulation breakdown in transformers. Using an infrared detector, check the transformer and its connections for hot spots. Hot spots in the transformer contribute to the breakdown of the transformer’s insulation. Hot spots at connections are an indication of loose or cor-

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roded contacts. If connection hot spots are detected, all connectors should be checked for proper tightness. Hot spots within the transformer may be caused by faults in the transformer’s windings or by the blocked flow of cooling fluids. Use Figure 8-2 to assess the condition of liquid-cooled transformers. The tools needed to perform this assessment include an infrared thermometer or detector, an oil analysis test kit, permanent or temporary metering, and a camera to photograph overall conditions and major defects. The photographs will help during future assessments to identify areas that are slowly deteriorating. Complete the liquid-cooled transformer assessment as follows: Item 1:

Enter the name of the building where the transformer that is being assessed is located.

Item 2:

If the transformer is located within the building, enter the room number.

Item 3:

Enter the transformer’s primary and secondary voltages.

Item 4:

Enter the transformer’s capacity.

Item 5:

Enter the name of the transformer’s manufacturer.

Item 6:

Enter the year when the transformer was installed.

Item 7:

For each defect listed, rate the seriousness of that defect in the transformer.

Item 8:

Rate the overall condition of the transformer.

Item 9:

Estimate the remaining useful life of the transformer in years. The rating should be based on the overall condition of the transformer, its age, and its exposure to harsh service conditions.

Item 10:


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Figure 8-2. Liquid Cooled Transformers ———————————————————————————————— 1. Building/location: _____________________________________________ 2. Room number: _______________ 3. Primary voltage: _______________ Secondary voltage: ____________ 4. Capacity (kVa): _______________ 5. Manufacturer: _____________________ 6. Year installed: ___________ 7. Defects: None

Minor

Moderate

Extensive

Bushings & insulators

❑

❑

❑

❑

Damaged case

❑

❑

❑

❑

Defective tap changer

❑

❑

❑

❑

Deteriorated terminals

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑


❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

Leaks

❑

❑

❑

❑

Mounting pad damage

❑

❑

❑

❑

Overheating


❑

❑

Fluid deteriorating Inoperative gauges & alarms


❑ good

❑ excellent

6. Estimated remaining useful life (yr): _______________ 7. Comments: ___________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ 8. Inspector: ____________________________

Date: _________________

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Dry Transformers Dry transformers use natural or forced circulation of air for cooling. Since there is no oil or other fluid in the transformer that could pose a fire hazard, they are better suited for indoor applications. The lack of a cooling liquid also reduces the maintenance requirements. Their primary disadvantages are that for the same capacity, dry transformers have larger coils and cores than their liquid-cooled counterparts, they cost more, and they operate at a lower efficiency. Dry transformers are low maintenance, long service life items, with typical service lives running between 30 and 50 years. The most common defects found in dry transformers include the following: 1.

Bushings & insulators. Inspect all bushings and insulators for buildup of dirt or grease, cracks, chips, or breakage. While dirt and grease can be cleaned from the bushings and insulators, any physical damage to the units will decrease their insulating value and physical strength. All damaged components must be replaced.

2.

Damaged case. Any deterioration in the transformer’s case will interfere with the cooling of the transformer and can result in overheating. Inspect for corrosion, a buildup of dirt, or physical damage to the case.

3.

Defective tap changer. Tap changers can be manual or automatic. Inspect for loose connections, corroded contacts, and burn marks. All moving parts should operate freely.

4.

Deteriorated insulation. The insulation in dry transformers does not deteriorate significantly nor is it easily damaged, unless the transformer has overheated or been subjected to a fault. Perform the insulation electrical test, such as a high-potential test, as recommended by the transformer’s manufacturer.

5.

Dirt accumulation. Many dry transformers are open to the atmosphere. As a result, dirt and debris can enter through the ventilation

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357

holes and partially block the flow of cooling air. Inspect all ventilation openings for blockages. If the transformer is operated in a dusty environment, it may be necessary to remove the transformer from service and clean any accumulation of dust from the transformer’s windings. 6.

Inoperative fans. Many larger dry transformers use cooling fans to boost the flow of air through the transformer. These fans are typically controlled by thermal contacts that sense the temperature rise within the transformer. If the fans are not properly operating, it can result in overheating of the transformer under heavy electrical loads.

7.

Insufficient capacity. If a dry transformer overheats under heavy load conditions, the cause is typically a blocked cooling system, a failing transformer, or an electrical overloading. Measure the load on the transformer with a recording ammeter for a period of time when it is likely to be fully loaded and compare the results to the transformer’s rating. Even slight overloading will significantly shorten the service life of a transformer. If the transformer is not being overloaded, remove it from service and inspect for an accumulation of dust or dirt on the transformer’s coils.

8.

Mounting pad damage. Settlement, movement, cracking or breaking of the transformer’s concrete mounting pad can result in uneven shifting or settlement of the transformer, stressing connections. Minor damage to the pad should be monitored for further deterioration. Major damage will require repair or replacement of the mounting pad

9.

Overheating. Overheating is the principal cause of insulation breakdown in transformers. Using an infrared detector, check the transformer and its connections for hot spots. Hot spots in the transformer contribute to the breakdown of the transformer’s insulation. Hot spots at connections are an indication of loose or corroded contacts. If connection hot spots are detected, all connectors should be checked for proper tightness. Hot spots within the transformer may be caused by faults in the transformer’s windings or by the blocked flow of cooling fluids.

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Use Figure 8-3 to assess the condition of dry transformers. The tools needed to perform this assessment include an infrared thermometer or detector, an insulation test kit, permanent or temporary metering, and a camera to photograph overall conditions and major defects. The photographs will help during future assessments to identify areas that are slowly deteriorating. Figure 8-3. Dry Transformers ———————————————————————————————— 1. Building/location: _____________________ 2. Room no.: ___________ 3. Primary voltage: _______________ Secondary voltage: ____________ 4. Capacity (kVa): _______________ 5. Manufacturer: _________________ 6. Year installed: _______________ 7. Defects: None

Minor

Moderate

Extensive

Bushings & insulators

❑

❑

❑

❑

Damaged case

❑

❑

❑

❑

Defective tap changer

❑

❑

❑

❑

Deteriorated insulation

❑

❑

❑

❑

Dirt accumulation Inoperative fans

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑


❑

❑

❑

❑

Mounting pad damage

❑

❑

❑

❑

Overheating

❑

❑

❑

❑

❑ poor ❑ good



9. Estimated remaining useful life (yr): _______________ 10. Comments: ___________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ 11. Inspector: ____________________________ Date: _________________

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Complete the dry transformer assessment as follows: Item 1:

Enter the name of the building where the transformer that is being assessed is located.

Item 2:

If the transformer is located within the building, enter the room number.

Item 3:

Enter the transformer’s primary and secondary voltages.

Item 4:

Enter the transformer’s capacity.

Item 5:

Enter the name of the transformer’s manufacturer.

Item 6:

Enter the year when the transformer was installed.

Item 7:

For each defect listed, rate the seriousness of that defect in the transformer.

Item 8:

Rate the overall condition of the transformer.

Item 9:

Estimate the remaining useful life of the transformer in years. The rating should be based on the overall condition of the transformer, its age, and its exposure to harsh service conditions.

Item 10:


Item 11:


SWITCHGEAR Switchgear is a term that is applied to a wide range of devices commonly found in commercial, industrial, and institutional applications that either switch or interrupt electrical loads. Units are typically found in systems with voltages ranging from 480 to 13,000 volts.

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Switchgear malfunctions range from unwarranted interruptions in service to catastrophic failures in the switchgear itself or to the electrical distribution system. Since the units are very reliable, it is not uncommon to find that switchgear maintenance is considered to be a low priority by most managers, until a failure occurs. In the long run, the cost of inspecting switchgear and performing routine maintenance on a regular basis is far less costly than simply allowing the equipment to operate until it fails. Switchgear that has been regularly maintained has an expected service life of 30 to 40 years. The most common defects found in electrical switchgear include the following: 1.

Burn marks. Burn marks on contacts and insulation are indications that overheating or arcing has occurred. Closely inspect for the cause of the burn mark, making the necessary repairs.

2.

Corrosion. Any corrosion on contacts and connections within the switchgear increase the resistance of that contact or connection. High resistance increases heating, which in turn accelerates corrosion and deterioration. Any corrosion on switchgear trip relays may prevent the relay from properly operating in the event of a fault or overload.

3.

Dirt accumulation. Dirt and dust can combine with moisture and airborne pollutants to form a coating on insulation, surfaces of contacts, and cabinets. This coating serves as thermal insulation, reducing the rate of heat transfer from the surfaces. It can also decrease the electrical insulating capacity of the materials, leading to nuisance tripping of protective devices and damaging flashovers.

4.

Exposure to water. Water, either in liquid or vapor form, accelerates deterioration of the switchgear. Water exposure can be caused by leaks or condensation from HVAC and plumbing systems, roof leaks, mechanical equipment located in or above the space where the switchgear is located, or ground water leaks. All sources of water must be prevented from gaining access to the space where the switchgear is located.

5.

Frozen mechanisms. A frozen or stiff mechanism will not operate properly when a fault occurs within the system. In most cases, it is

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caused by a lack of lubrication. All units should be lubricated according to the manufacturer’s recommendations. In sealed units, it may be necessary to exercise the unit in order to distribute the lubrication to the moving parts. 6.

Loose connections. Loose connections, like corroded contacts, increase contact resistance and temperature, accelerating deterioration of the contact. All connections must be torqued to manufacturer’s specifications. Loose connections can be identified by while using a thermal camera to record the equipment’s thermal image while the equipment is energized.

7.

Maintenance history. Review past maintenance requirements for the switchgear, particularly those items beyond routine and preventive maintenance. Identify what failures have occurred in the switchgear and how it has performed when faults have occurred in the circuit it is protecting. Increasing maintenance requirements are an indication that the equipment may be approaching the end of its service life.

8.

Poor grounding. A solid ground connection is critical to the safe operation of the switchgear. Inspect and tighten all ground connections. If poor grounding is suspected, perform a ground resistance test.

9.

Thermal hot spots. Hot spots in switchgear are indications of corroded contacts, loose connections, dirt buildup, or defective equipment. Use an infrared camera to record the thermal image of the switchgear under load and at normal operating temperature.

Use Figure 8-4 to assess the condition of the switchgear. Use a separate form for each piece of switchgear. The tools needed to perform this assessment include an infrared camera, an insulation test kit, and a camera to photograph overall conditions and major defects. The photographs will help during future assessments to identify areas that are slowly deteriorating. Complete the switchgear assessment as follows: Item 1:

Enter the name of the building where the switchgear that is being assessed is located.

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Figure 8-4. Electrical Switchgear ———————————————————————————————— 1. Building/location: _____________________ 2. Room no.: ___________ 3. Voltage: _______________ 4. Capacity (amps): _______________ 5. Manufacturer: _____________________ 6. Year installed: ___________ 7. Defects None

Minor

Moderate

Extensive

Burn marks

❑

❑

❑

❑

Corrosion

❑

❑

❑

❑

Dirt accumulation

❑

❑

❑

❑

Exposure to water Frozen mechanisms

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

Loose connections

❑

❑

❑

❑

Maintenance history

❑

❑

❑

❑

Poor grounding

❑

❑

❑

❑

Thermal hot spots

❑ ❑ poor

❑ ❑ fair

❑

❑

❑ good

❑ excellent



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Item 2:

If the switchgear is located within the building, enter the room number.

Item 3:

Enter the switchgear’s operating voltage.

Item 4:

Enter the switchgear’s capacity.

Item 5:

Enter the name of the switchgear’s manufacturer.

Item 6:

Enter the year when the switchgear was installed.

Item 7:

For each defect listed, rate the seriousness of that defect in the switchgear.

Item 8:

Rate the overall condition of the switchgear.

Item 9:

Estimate the remaining useful life of the switchgear in years. The rating should be based on the overall condition of the switchgear, its age, and its exposure to harsh service conditions.

Item 10:


Item 11:


BREAKER PANELS Breaker panels are the primary distribution centers and protection for branch circuits in buildings. Breaker panels power most low voltage circuits in the building. Typical panel voltages include 120, 208, 240, 277, and 480. Breaker panels are low maintenance items that are generally ignored until something goes wrong. Their service life typically ranges between 30 and 40 years in dry environments. Breaker panels that are exposed to moisture have a service life of 20 years or less. The most common defects found in breaker panels include the following:

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1.

Burned wires/insulation. Burned wired and insulation within breaker panels are an indication of faults within circuits, overloads, or defective circuit breakers. All damaged insulation must be repaired to ensure the integrity and safety of the panel and wiring.

2.

Corrosion. If breaker panels are exposed to moisture, corrosion can occur at contacts, the main buss, and the grounding strip. Corrosion increases the resistance of any connection, resulting in the generation of heat. If the corrosion is relatively minor, it can be cleaned. More significant corrosion will require the replacement of the breaker panel.

3.

Inaccurate/missing labeling. Missing and inaccurate labeling on breaker panels is a very widespread problem. Frequently, circuits are not labeled when a new building is turned over to the owner. When changes are made to the building wiring, panels are seldom updated to reflect those change. When new breakers are installed, the panel labeling usually is not updated. Labels can fall out of panel covers and become lost. Missing and inaccurate labeling makes it difficult to identify and diagnose problems, and can create a safety hazard for maintenance personnel.

4.

Insufficient capacity. When breaker panels are installed, they are sized with spare capacity. As things change within the building, new circuits are added until there is no longer sufficient capacity within the panel. Once all circuits are in use, the only options are to add a secondary panel, or upgrade the existing panel and service.

5.

Loose connections. Loose connections result in arcing and heating at the contacts within the breaker panel. They are most easily identified by use of an infrared camera. All connections should be physically tight.

6.

Open spaces. Empty breaker slots in panels should be covered with a blank to prevent accidental contact with the panel buss. Open spaces also allow dust and dirt to enter the panel.

7.

Poor grounding. Poor grounding can create safety hazards within the distribution system. Poor grounding can also result in unreli-

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able operation of sensitive electronic equipment wired to the distribution panel. Check all grounding connections within the panel for tightness and integrity. 8.

Thermal hot spots. Thermal hot spots are the result of circuit overloads, and corroded or loose connections within the panel. They accelerate deterioration of connections and breaker panel components. Use an infrared camera to identify any thermal hot spots. Loose connections should be torqued to proper tightness. Corroded contacts must be cleaned or replaced.

9.

Water exposure. If the breaker panel is exposed to liquid water or water vapor, the contacts and components within the panel will deteriorate. Typical sources of water include HVAC and plumbing systems, roof leaks, and ground water penetration. All water must be kept from coming in contact with the panel.

Use Figure 8-5 to assess the condition of breaker panels. Use a separate form for each breaker panel. The tools needed to perform this assessment include an infrared camera and a camera to photograph overall conditions and major defects. The photographs will help during future assessments to identify areas that are slowly deteriorating. Complete the breaker panel assessment as follows: Item 1:

Enter the name of the building where the breaker panel being assessed is located.

Item 2:

Enter the room number.

Item 3:

Enter the breaker panel’s operating voltage.

Item 4:

Enter the breaker panel’s capacity.

Item 5:

Enter the number of available breaker slots in the panel.

Item 6:

Enter the name of the panel’s manufacturer.

Item 7:

Enter the year when the panel was installed.

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Figure 8-5. Breaker Panels ———————————————————————————————— 1. Building/location: _____________________ 2. Room no.: ___________ 3. Voltage: ____________________ 4. Capacity (amps): _______________ 5. Number of open slots: _______________ 6. Manufacturer: _____________________ 7. Year installed: ___________ 8. Defects: None Burned wires/insulation ❑

Minor

Moderate

Extensive

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

Corrosion

❑

❑ ❑

Inaccurate labeling

❑

❑

❑

❑


❑

❑

❑

❑

Loose connections

❑

❑

❑

❑

Open spaces

❑

❑

❑

❑

Poor grounding Thermal hot spots

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

Water exposure

❑

❑

❑

❑

❑ poor

❑ fair

❑ good

❑ excellent



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Item 8:

For each defect listed, rate the seriousness of that defect in the panel.

Item 9:

Rate the overall condition of the switchgear.

Item 10:

Estimate the remaining useful life of the breaker panel in years. The rating should be based on the overall condition of the panel, its age, and its exposure to harsh service conditions.

Item 11:


Item 12:


LIGHTING SYSTEMS Lighting systems are a major user of electricity in buildings today, coming in second only to air conditioning systems. Well-designed systems will enhance building operations and security while using a minimum of energy. If the greatest performance and benefit is to be gained from the system, regular maintenance must be performed. Lighting levels must be maintained at the desired level. Too low a level, and the performance of the building occupants will decrease. Too high a level, and energy costs will be unnecessarily high. High lighting levels can also decrease productivity due to glare. The most common maintenance tasks required include regular cleaning of the fixtures, inspection of the fixture and lamps, and relamping of the fixtures. Regular cleanings will help to maintain lighting levels by ensuring that the light produced by the lamps reaches the occupied spaces. Regular inspections of the fixtures and lamps will help to identify units that are deteriorating or in need of replacement. Scheduled relamping, especially those that are performed on a group relamping basis, will help to maintain lighting levels while reducing the cost of relamping. The two most widely used lighting systems in buildings today are fluorescent and HID. Both systems offer high operating efficiency, long

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lamp life, and low maintenance costs relative to incandescent lamps. The widespread use of electronic ballasts in fluorescent fixtures, and the increasing use of electronic ballasts in HID fixtures are increasing the efficiency of both lamp types even further. Lighting Fixtures - Fluorescent Fluorescent lighting fixtures are the most widely used type of fixtures in facilities today. They offer the advantages of low first costs, relatively high operating efficiency, and low maintenance costs. Fixtures are available in a wide range of designs and configurations. Bulbs range from as low as nine Watts to as high as 80. In the past, the magnetic ballast was the standard, but the development of high-efficiency electronic ballasts has made magnetic ballasts obsolete. For example, an electronic ballast with a T8 fluorescent lamp will produce the same light as a standard T12 lamp and magnetic ballast while using 30 percent less energy. Fluorescent light fixtures are low maintenance items, requiring little more than lamp replacement every three or four years, and occasional fixture and diffuser cleaning. The service life for most fluorescent fixtures is 30 years. The most common defects found in fluorescent fixture applications include the following: 1.

Deteriorated diffusers. Not all fluorescent fixtures are equipped with diffusers. If there is no diffuser on the fixtures in the area being assessed, skip this item. The purpose of the diffuser installed on fluorescent fixtures is to evenly disperse the light produced by the fixture. As diffusers age, they can become discolored or opaque, or they can break and fall out of the fixture resulting in uneven lighting and lower lighting levels. Badly deteriorated diffusers can reduce the amount of available light by as much as 50 percent. Damaged and deteriorated diffusers can be replaced.

2.

Discolored fixtures. As fixtures age, dirt can build up on interior surfaces, reducing the light output of the fixture. Age and heat can change the finish of the fixture’s surface, also reducing the light output. If fixtures cannot be returned to their normal state by cleaning, it will be necessary to replace the fixture in order to maintain the desired lighting level in the space.

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3.

Flicker. Flicker is produced in fluorescent lighting systems as a result of failing ballasts, failing lamps, or improperly matched lamps and ballasts. Check to see that the ballasts are rated for the type of lamp that is installed. If flicker continues to be a problem, upgrading to electronic ballasts and T8 lamps will eliminate the problem.

4.

Glare. When lamps are not properly located relative to the tasks being performed, and fixtures are not sufficiently shielded by diffusers, they will produce glare. If individual fixtures cannot be relocated to eliminate glare, it will be necessary to upgrade to new fixtures that are designed to eliminate glare.

5.

Insufficient controls. In order to reduce lighting energy use, the lighting system must be able to match the hours of operation of the lighting system to the hours when lighting is needed, where it is needed. Having to turn the lighting system on for an entire area when there is only one occupant wastes energy and causes unnecessary wear and tear on lighting system components.

6.

Maintenance requirements. Review the maintenance history of the lighting system. All systems will require some maintenance, including bulb and ballast replacements, and repairs to the diffuser. Look instead for non-routine items, such as more widespread failures and breakdowns that lead to an interruption of service, and determine if their frequency is increasing. Increasing maintenance requirements is an indication that the lighting system is approaching the end of its service life.

7.

Noisy operation. Fluorescent lighting fixtures operate at a very low noise level. While older magnetic ballasts do vibrate and produce an audible hum, the level should be low. High noise levels typically are the result of loose or failing ballasts. If ballast noise is too high, consider upgrading to electronic ballasts.

8.

Non-uniform lighting level. When lighting levels vary by more than 20 to 30 percent within the occupied space, they will interfere with the tasks being performed, frequently resulting in complaints of headaches. Check the lighting levels throughout the area noting variations in lighting levels.

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Under or over-lit. The requirement for lighting varies with the task being performed. Too high or too low a level for the task, and people will have difficulty seeing well enough to perform their tasks. Measure the lighting level and compare it to published recommendations for the type of activities being performed.

Use Figure 8-6 to assess the condition of the fluorescent lighting system. Use a separate form for each different area within the building. The tools needed to perform this assessment include a light meter and a camera to photograph overall conditions and major defects. The photographs will help during future assessments to identify areas that are slowly deteriorating.

Figure 8-6. Fluorescent Lighting ———————————————————————————————— 1. Building/location: _____________________ 2. Room no.: ___________ 3. Type of space:

❑ classroom

❑ library

❑ conference room

❑ lobby

❑ gym

❑ office

❑ hallway

❑ restroom

❑ other: ________

4. Type of fixture: ❑ recessed

❑ suspended ❑ surface mounted

❑ other: _____________ 5. Type of diffuser: ❑ metal

❑ none

❑ opaque plastic ❑ parabolic ❑ other: ________

6. Type of lamp: _______________ 7. Type of ballast: ❑ electronic

❑ magnetic

8. Number of fixtures: _________

9. Lighting level (fc): _________

10. Type of controls: ❑ automatic

❑ dimmer 11. Year installed: _______________

❑ manual on/off ❑ other: _____________

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Complete the fluorescent lighting system assessment as follows: Item 1:


Item 2:


Item 3.

Identify the type of space.

Item 4:

Identify the type of fixture installed.

Item 5:

Identify the type of diffuser installed

Item 6:

Identify the type of lamp.

12. Defects: Deteriorated fixtures

None

Minor

Moderate

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

Glare

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

Insufficient controls

❑

❑

❑

❑

Noisy operation

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

Non-uniform lighting levels

❑

❑

❑

❑

❑ ❑ poor ❑ good

❑ ❑ ❑ fair ❑ excellent

❑

Discolored fixtures Flicker


Under/over-lit 13. Overall condition:

Extensive

14. Estimated remaining useful life (yr): _______________ 15. Comments: ___________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ 16. Inspector: ____________________________ Date: _________________

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Item 7:

Identify the type of ballast.

Item 8:

Enter the number of fixtures.

Item 9:

Enter the average lighting level.

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Item 10:

Identify the type of lighting controls.

Item 11:

Enter the year when the fixtures were installed.

Item 12:

For each defect listed, rate the seriousness of that defect in the lighting system.

Item 13:

Rate the overall condition of the lighting system. Use an average rating for all fixtures.

Item 14:

Estimate the remaining useful life of the lighting system in years. The rating should be based on the overall condition of the system, its age, and its exposure to harsh service conditions.

Item 15:


Item 16:


Lighting Fixtures - HID High intensity discharge (HID) lighting fixtures are widely used in applications with high ceilings. Their high energy efficiency, high light output, low maintenance requirements, and long lamp life make them well suited for these applications. Lamps are available in a moderate range of wattages and color renderings, making it easy to match the lamp to the requirements of the application. The service life for HID lighting fixtures is 30 years. The most common defects found in HID lighting systems include the following: 1.

Ballast noise. The noise that is generated within HID fixtures is generated by the ballast. While some noise is normal, high noise levels are generally caused by three factors; a loose ballast, a defec-

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tive ballast, or a defective lamp. Check all ballast mounting bolts for tightness. If the noise persists, test the lamp in a different fixture to see if it is the source of the noise. If the lamp does not generate the noise, then replace the ballast. 2.

Damaged diffusers. If the HID fixture does not use a diffuser, skip this item. Diffuser damage includes those that are missing, melted, distorted, cracked, or discolored. Replace any damaged diffuser.

3.

Flicker. Flicker is produced in HID lighting systems as a result of failing ballasts, failing lamps, or improperly matched lamps and ballasts. Check to see that the ballasts are rated for the type of lamp that is installed. If the lamp and ballast are properly matched, then either the lamp or the ballast is approaching the end of its service life and will have to be replaced.

4.

Glare. When lamps are not properly located relative to the tasks being performed, and fixtures are not sufficiently shielded by diffusers, they will produce glare. If individual fixtures cannot be relocated to eliminate glare, it will be necessary to upgrade to new fixtures that are designed to eliminate glare.

5.

Lamp color change. Most HID lamps maintain a fairly constant color output throughout their service lives. However, as the lamps approach the end of their service life, the color of the light produced by the lamp can change significantly. This change in color is usually accompanied by a change in light output and more importantly, a change in the current flow through the lamp and ballast. Continued operation can result in damage to the ballast.

6.

Non-uniform lighting level. When lighting levels vary by more than 20 to 30 percent within the occupied space, they will interfere with the tasks being performed, frequently resulting in complaints of headaches. Check the lighting levels throughout the area noting variations in lighting levels. It may be necessary to install additional fixtures or to relocate existing ones in order to provide a uniform lighting level.

7.

Under or over-lit. The requirement for lighting varies with the task being performed. Too high or too low a level for the task, and

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people will have difficulty seeing well enough to perform their tasks. Measure the lighting level and compare it to published recommendations for the type of activities being performed. Use Figure 8-7 to assess the condition of the HID lighting system. Use a separate form for each different area within the building. The tools needed to perform this assessment include a light meter and a camera to photograph overall conditions and major defects. The photographs will help during future assessments to identify areas that are slowly deteriorating. Complete the HID lighting system assessment as follows: Item 1:


Figure 8-7. HID Lighting Fixtures ———————————————————————————————— 1. Building/location: _____________________ 2. Room no.: ___________ 3. Type of space:

❑ gym

❑ retail space ❑ hallway

4. Type of fixture:

❑ warehouse ❑ lobby ❑ other: ________ ❑ recessed ❑ suspended ❑ surface mounted ❑ other: _____________

5. Type of diffuser: ❑ metal

6. Type of lamp:

❑ opaque plastic

❑ none ❑ other: _____________ ❑ high pressure sodium ❑ mercury vapor ❑ low pressure sodium ❑ metal halide ❑ other: _______________

7. Type of ballast:

❑ electronic ❑ magnetic

8. Number of fixtures: _________

9. Lighting level (fc):

10. Type of controls: ❑ automatic ❑ manual on/off

❑ dimmer 11. Year installed: _______________

❑ other: _____________

__________

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Item 2:


Item 3.

Identify the type of space.

Item 4:

Identify the type of fixture installed.

Item 5:

Identify the type of diffuser installed

Item 6:

Identify the type of lamp.

Item 7:

Identify the type of ballast.

Item 8:

Enter the number of fixtures.

12. Defects:

None

Minor

Moderate

Extensive

Ballast noise

❑

❑

❑

❑

Damaged diffusers

❑

❑

❑

❑

Flicker Glare

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

Lamp color change

❑

❑

❑

❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ poor

❑ fair

❑ good

❑ excellent

Non-uniform lighting level Under/over-lit 13. Overall condition:


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Item 9:

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Enter the average lighting level.

Item 10:

Identify the type of lighting controls.

Item 11:

Enter the year when the fixtures were installed.

Item 12:

For each defect listed, rate the seriousness of that defect in the lighting system.

Item 13:

Rate the overall condition of the lighting system. Use an average rating for all fixtures.

Item 14:


Item 15:


Item 16:


Exit Lights A building’s exit lights are the most overlooked component in a building’s lighting system. Walk-through surveys of most buildings will quickly identify exit lights that have burned out lamps, missing face panels, or damage from vandalism. Until recently, the incandescent lamp was the most widely used source of illumination in exit lights. Requiring between 20 and 40 Watts of power per exit light, these lights were expensive to operate and difficult to keep illuminated. One alternative to the incandescent lamps used in exit lights is the compact fluorescent lamp. Exit lights that are illuminated by compact fluorescent lamps typically use between seven and 14 Watts of electricity, and offer a lamp life that is ten times as long as the incandescent lamp. More recently, LED based exit lights have become available that further reduce energy use and maintenance requirements. A typical LED exit light uses five Watts or less of electricity, and has a lamp life of more than 20 years.

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1.

Burned out lamps. The incandescent lamps typically used in exit lights require replacement two or three times each year. Compact fluorescent lamps require replacement every two to three years. Without a group relamping program, it will be common to find that a high percentage of the lamps in both types of the exit lights have burned out.

2.

Discoloring. Discoloring of the surface of the exit light fixture occurs most frequently in units with incandescent lamps. Heat from the lamps can distort and discolor the signs. In most cases, it is more cost-effective to replace the exit sign rather than repair it, particularly if the sign is being upgraded to a more energy-efficient unit.

3.

Low lighting levels. To be effective, exit signs must produce enough light to be clearly seen. As fixtures age, the lenses and illuminated portions of the signs can become discolored, reducing the sign’s light output. The best solution for signs with insufficient light output is replacement.

4.

Maintenance requirements. Typical maintenance requirements include lamp replacement, lamp socket replacement, ballast replacement, and lens replacement. If maintenance records indicate the maintenance requirements are increasing, consider replacing the fixture with a new, energy-efficient unit.

5.

Physical damage. Physical damage to an exit sign is generally caused by vandalism, abuse, or by maintenance personnel. Glass and plastic panels can crack or break. Supporting frames can become bent or twisted. Ceiling and wall mounts can loosen. In most cases, it is more cost-effective to replace the exit sign rather than repair it, particularly if the sign is being upgraded to a more energy-efficient unit.

6.

Short operating time. This item applies only to those exit signs that are powered by internal batteries in the event of a power outage. The normal operating time for battery-powered exit lights is 20 to 30 minutes. Shorter operating times are an indication that the battery isn’t fully charging or that it is approaching the end of its service life.

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Use Figure 8-8 to assess the condition of the building’s exit lights. Use a separate form for area within the building that has a different type of exit light. The tools needed to perform this assessment include a camera to photograph overall conditions and major defects. The photographs will help during future assessments to identify areas that are slowly deteriorating. Complete the exit light system assessment as follows: Item 1:


Item 2:

Enter the area of the building that is included in the assessment.

Item 3:

Enter the number of exit lights.

Item 4:

Identify the type of exit light.

Item 5:

Identify if the exit light includes a battery.

Item 6:

Enter the name of the exit light manufacturer.

Item 7:

Enter the year when the exit lights were installed.

Item 8:

For each defect listed, rate the seriousness of that defect in the exit lights.

Item 9:

Rate the overall condition of the exit lights. Use an average rating for all fixtures.

Item 10:


Item 11:


Item 12:


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Figure 8-8. Exit Lights ———————————————————————————————— 1. Building/location: _____________________________________________ 2. Area included in survey: _______________ 3. Number of exit lights: _______________ 4. Type of lamps:

❑ fluorescent

❑ LED

❑ incandescent 5. Battery backup:

❑ yes

❑ no

6. Manufacturer: ______________

7. Year installed:

___________

8. Defects: None

Minor

Moderate

Burned out lamps

❑

❑

❑

❑

Discoloring

❑

❑

❑

❑

Low lighting levels

❑

❑

❑

❑

❑ ❑ ❑

❑ ❑ ❑

❑ ❑ ❑

❑ ❑ ❑

❑ poor

❑ fair

❑ good

❑ excellent

Maintenance requirements Physical damage Short operating time 9. Overall condition:

Extensive


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STANDBY POWER SYSTEMS Standby power systems come in a variety of designs, configurations, and capacities. Which system is selected for a particular application depends on the particulars of the application. How frequently do interruptions of electrical service occur? When they occur, how long to they typically last? What are the loads that must be powered during an interruption? Do the loads have to operate continuously, or are they only required for a set period of time? Are loads impacted by a short interruption of service? Electrical power systems are highly reliable, typically providing power 99.99% of the time. But at even this level of reliability, the typical facility will experience power outages of approximately one hour per year. Depending on the operations being performed, outages of this type can be just nuisances or they can be very damaging. These short-term interruptions are only one type of the power outages that facilities experience. Facilities also experience very brief interruptions in service, typically lasting a few milliseconds. While these interruptions often go unnoticed by building occupants, other than a brief flicker in the lights, they can disrupt operation of computer systems and computer based equipment. Standby power systems can be installed to protect against outages as well as other types of electrical service problems. Different types of systems provide protection against different types of electrical service problems. There are three basic types of standby power systems commonly found in facilities; battery powered lights, standby generators, and uninterruptible power supplies. Each can be used to meet specific standby power requirements in facilities. Battery Powered Lights Battery powered lights are widely used for emergency lighting. The units are designed to provide sufficient light for the safe evacuation of the facility in the event of a power failure. Most fixtures will provide illumination for 30 minutes to two hours. The systems are not designed to provide enough illumination to allow normal activities to take place in the building. Battery powered lights are low maintenance items, requiring little more than periodic testing. Those units using lead-acid batteries also

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require that the batteries be topped off with distilled water. The normal service life for battery-powered lights is 20 years. The most common defects found in battery-powered lights include the following: 1.

Defective charger. The charger built into the light is designed to maintain the battery at full capacity. If the charger is not operating properly, it can under or over charge the unit’s battery. Under charged batteries will not have sufficient capacity to operate the light for the required time. Over charged batteries will not reach their rated service lives. The condition of the charger can be evaluated by determining the state of the charge on the unit’s battery.

2.

Inadequate coverage. Although emergency lighting systems are not designed to provide uniform lighting levels, they are designed to provide enough light so that safe egress can be made in the event of a power outage. To provide enough light, there must be sufficient fixtures installed to illuminate all means of egress that are to be used in the event of an emergency. Survey the facility to determine if there are sufficient fixtures installed and the light that they produce is sufficient.

3.

Insufficient light. Battery powered lights are designed to provide sufficient illumination for safe egress from an area. While the light output of a fixture is fairly constant, the illumination that it provides will vary with the mounting height of the fixture, the location of objects in the area being illuminated, the color of the wall and floor finishes, and how large an area that the fixture is serving. With all other lighting turned off, test the illumination provided by the battery powered light.

4.

Low electrolyte levels. If the fixture uses sealed batteries, skip this item. As part of the charging process, a portion of the water in the battery’s electrolyte is lost. Unless this water is replaced on a regular basis, the batter’s plates may be damaged. High rates of water loss are an indication that the battery is overcharging or is approaching the end of its service life.

5.

Physical damage. Battery operated emergency lights are subject to abuse by vandalism or accident. Typical damage includes loose

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wiring, broken lamps, improperly aimed lamps, dented or broken cases, and loose wall or ceiling mounts. Minor damage to the fixture can be repaired. More extensive damage may require that the fixture be replaced. 6.

Short operating times. Battery powered emergency lights are designed to provide light for a set period of time. As the batteries age, their storage capacity decreases, reducing the amount of time that they can provide illumination. Test the battery operated light and record the time that it produces light. Shorter operating times are an indication that either the batteries are not being properly charged, or that they are approaching the end of their service lives.

Use Figure 8-9 to assess the condition of the battery power lights. The tools needed to perform this assessment include a light meter and a camera to photograph overall conditions and major defects. The photographs will help during future assessments to identify areas that are slowly deteriorating. Complete the battery powered light assessment as follows: Item 1:


Item 2:

Enter the room number or the area where the battery powered light is located.

Item 3.

Identify the type of light installed.

Item 4:

Enter the design wattage of the unit.

Item 5:

Enter the name of the battery-powered light’s manufacturer.

Item 6:

Enter the year when the light was installed.

Item 7:

Enter the year when the battery was last replaced.

Item 8:

For each defect listed, rate the seriousness of that defect in the battery powered.

Item 9:

Rate the overall condition of the battery powered light

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Figure 8-9. Battery Powered Lights ———————————————————————————————— 1. Building/location: _____________________ 2. Room no.: ___________ 3. Type of light:

❑ incandescent, two-head ❑ other: _______________

4. Total wattage per fixture: _______________ 5. Manufacturer: ____________________ 6. Year installed: ____________ 7. Year battery replaced: _______________ 8. Defects: None

Minor

Moderate

Defective charger

❑

❑

❑

❑

Inadequate coverage Insufficient light

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

Low electrolyte level

❑

❑

❑

❑

Physical damage

❑

❑

❑

❑

Short operating times

❑

❑

❑

❑

❑ poor ❑ good



Extensive

10. Estimated remaining useful life (yr): _______________ 11. Comments: ___________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ 12. Inspector: ____________________________ Date: _________________

Item 10:

Estimate the remaining useful life of the battery powered light in years. The rating should be based on the overall condition of the light, its age, and its exposure to harsh service conditions.

Item 11:


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EMERGENCY GENERATORS Emergency generators have long been the most widely used source for standby power. Generators can be used to meet a wide range of electrical loads in facilities for periods of time ranging from a few minutes to days. Generators are most commonly fueled by Diesel or gasoline. Capacities range from 5 kW to several hundred kW. In applications where large electrical loads must be powered, multiple generators can be installed. Emergency generators are moderate to high maintenance items, requiring regular operation and scheduled maintenance if they are to operate properly when needed. A well-maintained system has a service life of 20 years. The most common defects found in emergency generators include the following: 1.

Defective exhaust system. The exhaust systems of emergency generators are exposed to corrosive exhaust gases. Condensation forms within the system as a result of normal operation. Units that are located outside of buildings are exposed to moisture. As a result, all components in the exhaust system are prone to corrosion. Minor surface corrosion will not impact system performance and safety. More extensive corrosion can lead to exhaust leaks within the building.

2.

Engine oil contamination. The most common types of contamination found in the engine oil of emergency generators include water and metal particles. Water can accumulate in the oil as a result of condensation. If the generator is not operated for at least 20 minutes on a regular schedule, this moisture will accumulate, corroding internal components. Metal particles accumulate in the oil as the result of wear of internal components. High levels of metal particles are an indication of insufficient oil changes or abnormal wear.

3.

Insufficient capacity. When emergency generators are installed, they are sized according to the load that they are expected to carry

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in the event of a power outage. Over time, though, additional loads are identified and added to the system. If sufficient loads are added, the capacity of the generator can be exceeded, potentially damaging the generator and its auxiliary equipment. 4.

Leaking coolant. Emergency generators are water-cooled. The cooling system is a closed system that becomes pressurized during operation. Any leak in the cooling system will reduce its cooling capacity, and can lead to the loss of coolant during operation.

5.

Maintenance requirements. Review the maintenance history of the emergency generator. All systems will require some maintenance, including oil and coolant changes, and replacement of the generator’s battery. Look instead for non-routine items, such as more widespread failures and breakdowns that lead to an interruption of service, and determine if their frequency is increasing. Increasing maintenance requirements is an indication that the lighting system is approaching the end of its service life.

6.

Noise and vibration. The engine portion of the emergency generator is noisy in operation. Noise levels, however, should not be excessive. High noise levels can be caused by a defective exhaust, an improperly running engine, or damaged vibration isolators.

7.

Overheating. There are two different types of overheating that occur in emergency generators; overheating of the engine and overheating of the electrical generator. Overheating of the engine is typically caused by defects in the cooling system, including a malfunctioning thermostat, plugged radiator, inoperative cooling fan, or debris blocking the cooling air passages. Overheating of the electrical generator is caused by overloading the generator or blocked air passages in the generator housing. Run the emergency generator under load for a minimum of 30 minutes to test for overheating.

8.

Pitted transfer switch contacts. The contacts within the load transfer switch can become pitted or corroded as a result of normal operation, particularly if the unit is located in an environment with high humidity levels. Inspect the switch contacts. All contact points should be clean and free of corrosion, pits, and burn marks.

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9.

Voltage/Frequency fluctuations. Many of the loads that are served by emergency generators are sensitive to variations in line voltage and frequency. Even minor fluctuations can cause serious damage to these loads. While emergency generators include regulators to stabilize voltage and frequency, problems within the generator and the generator’s engine can result in variations beyond the design limit of the system. Operate the system under load for a minimum of 30 minutes, monitoring system voltage and frequency.

10.

Water in the fuel. Skip this section if the emergency generator is fueled by natural gas or propane. Water in the fuel of gasoline or Diesel fueled generators can cause the generator to run rough, clog the fuel injectors, and corrode fuel system components. In Diesel fueled systems, water can combine with the Diesel fuel and jell at low temperatures, blocking the flow of fuel. Sample the fuel and test for water contamination. If water is found in the fuel, the entire fuel system must be tested to determine its source.

11.

Weak startup battery. The single largest cause of emergency generators failing to start when needed is a weak or dead starting battery. Batteries are kept at full-charge by the charger that is built into the generator. If this charger under or over-charges the battery, sufficient capacity to start the generator will not be available when needed. Test the charging system according to the system manufacturer’s recommendations. Another common problem is the battery itself. Low water levels and low specific gravity of the battery solution will decrease the battery’s capacity.

Use Figure 8-10 to assess the condition of the emergency generator. The tools needed to perform this assessment include a voltmeter, ammeter, frequency counter, battery hydrometer, and a camera to photograph overall conditions and major defects. The photographs will help during future assessments to identify areas that are slowly deteriorating. Complete the emergency generator assessment as follows: Item 1:


Item 2:

Enter the room number where the generator is located.

Item 3.

Enter the capacity of the generator.

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Figure 8-10. Emergency Generator ———————————————————————————————— 1. Building/location: _____________________ 2. Room no.: ___________ 3. Capacity (kW): _______________ 4. Fuel:

❑ Diesel

❑ natural gas

❑ propane

❑ other: _________

5. Types of loads: ❑ computer

❑ lighting

❑ gasoline

❑ HVAC systems ❑ emergency ❑ general

6. Manufacturer: ____________________

❑ other: ______

7. Year installed: ___________

8. Run time (hr): _______________ 9. Defects: Defective exhaust

None

Minor

Moderate

❑

❑

❑

❑

Engine oil contamination ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑ ❑

❑ ❑ ❑

❑ ❑ ❑

❑ ❑ ❑ ❑

❑ ❑ ❑ ❑

❑ ❑ ❑ ❑

❑ ❑ ❑ ❑

❑ ❑ ❑ ❑ poor ❑ good

❑ ❑ ❑ ❑ ❑ ❑ ❑ fair ❑ excellent

❑ ❑ ❑

Insufficient capacity Leaking coolant Maintenance requirements Noise & vibrations Overheating Pitted transfer switch Voltage/frequency variations Water in the fuel Weak startup battery 10. Overall condition:

Extensive


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Item 4:

Identify the type of fuel used by the generator

Item 5:

Identify the types of loads connected to the generator.

Item 6:

Enter the name of the generator’s manufacturer.

Item 7:

Enter the year when the generator was installed.

Item 8:

Enter the total run time for the generator.

Item 9:

For each defect listed, rate the seriousness of that defect in the emergency generator.

Item 10:

Rate the overall condition of the emergency generator.

Item 11:

Estimate the remaining useful life of the emergency generator in years. The rating should be based on the overall condition of the generator, its age, and its exposure to harsh service conditions.

Item 12:


Item 13:


UNINTERRUPTIBLE POWER SUPPLIES Uninterruptible power supplies (UPS) are designed to provide power continuously to electrical loads. The most common system design converts incoming alternating current to direct current then back to alternating current. A bank of batteries floats on-line across the direct current section of the UPS, providing continuous power in the event of a momentary dropout of the incoming power. Many systems also use a standby generator to provide power to the batteries in the event of a prolonged power outage. Fluctuations in the electrical service as well as both momentary and long-term interruptions are blocked from the electrical loads Uninterruptible power supplies are low maintenance items, requiring periodic testing, inspection, and scheduled maintenance if they are to operate properly when needed. A well-maintained system has a service

ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS

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life of 20 years. The most common defects found in uninterruptible power supplies include the following: 1.

Corroded battery terminals. When the UPS is operating under battery power, large currents must be supplied by the batteries through the battery cables. Any corrosion at the battery terminals decreases the current capacity of the batteries and the cables and will result in heat buildup that can damage both the cable and the battery. All battery connections should be inspected and cleaned on a regular basis.

2.

Corroded contacts. Corroded, pitted, and burned contacts in UPS systems can prevent automatic transfer of loads to the batteries when the main power source is interrupted. Inspect all switch and relay contacts for damage.

3.

Defective batteries. The batteries in a UPS system carry the electrical load until the main source of power is restored or until the standby generator comes on line. Any decrease in the capability of the battery to produce power will decrease the capacity of the UPS system. All batteries should be tested using a hydrometer and the values recorded and compared to the recommended values provided by the battery manufacturer.

4.

Frequency instability. UPS systems are designed to provide clean, stable power at a constant frequency, typically 60 Hz, to electrical loads. Any variation from this value can damage sensitive electronic equipment. Following the manufacturer’s guidelines, test the output of the UPS under load to determine that the frequency of the power produced is constant and within manufacturer’s specifications.

5.

Inadequate ventilation. UPS systems produce large quantities of heat under normal operation, particularly as the electrical load on the system increases. If the unit is not properly ventilated and cooled, it will overheat, causing the unit to shut down or to be damaged. Check the operating temperature within the UPS cabinet while it is operating under load and determine if it is within the manufacturer’s recommended range.

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6.

Insufficient capacity. UPS systems are designed to serve a set maximum load. Exceeding this load will damage the system. Although most systems are designed and installed with some spare capacity, it is common for additional loads to be added once the system is operating. Will all connected loads operating, check the power load on the system. The maximum load should not exceed 80 percent of the rated capacity of the system in order to allow for inrush currents as some equipment is started.

7.

Standby generator failure. Skip this section for installations that do not use a standby generator. The batteries have sufficient capacity to carry the load in a UPS system for 15 to 30 minutes. That gives the system enough time to signal a standby generator to start, and for the generator to stabilize and come on-line. While evaluating the operation of the generator is included in another section of this manual, the UPS system must be tested to confirm that it is initiating the signal to the generator to start.

8.

Voltage fluctuations. UPS systems are designed to maintain a constant voltage output over their full operating range. Variations in line voltage can damage sensitive electronic equipment. Monitor the line voltage produced by the system under a variety of system loads.

Use Figure 8-11 to assess the condition of the uninterruptible power supply. The tools needed to perform this assessment include a voltmeter, ammeter, frequency counter, thermometer, and a camera to photograph overall conditions and major defects. The photographs will help during future assessments to identify areas that are slowly deteriorating. Complete the uninterruptible power supply assessment as follows: Item 1:


Item 2:

Enter the room number where the UPS is located.

Item 3.

Enter the capacity of the UPS.

Item 4:

Identify the types of loads connected to the UPS.

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Figure 8-11. Uninterruptible Power Supply ———————————————————————————————— 1. Building/location:

____________________________________________

2. Room number: __________________ 4. Types of loads:

3. Capacity (kW): ___________

❑ computer

❑ HVAC systems

❑ emergency

❑ lighting

❑ general 5. Standby generator: ❑ yes

❑ other: _____________ ❑ no

6. Manufacturer: _____________________

7. Year installed:__________

8. Defects: None

Minor

Moderate

Extensive

Defective batteries

❑ ❑ ❑

❑ ❑ ❑

❑ ❑ ❑

❑ ❑ ❑

Frequency instability

❑

❑

❑

❑

Inadequate ventilation

❑

❑

❑

❑


❑

❑

❑

❑

❑ ❑ ❑ poor

❑ ❑ ❑ fair

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ good

❑ excellent

Corroded battery terminals Corroded contacts

Standby generator failure Voltage fluctuations 9. Overall condition:


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Item 5:

Identify if there is a standby generator connected to the system.

Item 6:

Enter the name of the UPS system manufacturer.

Item 7:

Enter the year when the UPS was installed.

Item 8:

For each defect listed, rate the seriousness of that defect in the UPS system.

Item 9:

Rate the overall condition of the UPS.

Item 10:

Estimate the remaining useful life of the UPS in years. The rating should be based on the overall condition of the UPS, its age, and its exposure to harsh service conditions.

Item 11:


Item 12:


AFTER THE FIELDWORK Completion of an assessment of a building’s electrical systems, particularly if the building is an older facility, a number of items will have been identified that are in need of repair or replacement. While relatively minor items can be handled through routine maintenance work orders, more extensive repairs and system upgrades will require more extensive planning and preparation. This is particularly true in facilities that are completing their first facility-wide assessment. Chances are, more work will be identified than can be completed due to funding and scheduling limitations. In these facilities, priorities will have to be established. It is recommended that all major system repairs and upgrades be assigned priorities based on their impact on safety, reliability, performance, and cost savings. For each identified project, identify the impact that it will have on each of these factors. From these tabulated impacts, and the information gathered during the assessment program, managers can develop a program to implement the upgrades.

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Chapter 9

Transportation Systems

his chapter includes information and assessment forms to be used with transportation systems commonly found in facilities. These assessment forms are not intended to take the place of regularly scheduled, mandatory inspection and testing programs. Rather, the assessment forms are intended to supplement those programs. Information gathered by these assessments can assist managers in determining if it is time to overhaul or modernize a facility’s transportation systems. When a facility’s transportation systems are operating properly and meeting the needs of the building occupants, they are out-of-sight and out-of-mind. Operation between levels in the facility is fast and smooth. Wait times are minimal. But when things go wrong, building transportation systems suddenly have everyone’s attention. A comprehensive maintenance program that includes regularly scheduled inspections, testing, and maintenance will help to keep transportation systems operating safely. But safe operation does not automatically mean effective operation. Changes in building operations and occupant needs can make those systems ineffective. At best, ineffective systems will be an inconvenience to building occupants. In extreme cases, they may help occupants decide to relocate to other facilities. There are four major areas addressed by the assessment forms included in this chapter; elevator equipment rooms, electrical and hydraulic elevators, escalators, and lifts.

T

ELEVATOR EQUIPMENT ROOMS The elevator equipment room houses most of the equipment associated with the operation of the elevator. For electric elevators, it is lo393

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cated one floor above the highest floor served by the elevator. For hydraulic elevators, it is located on the lowest floor served by the elevator. While these areas are considered to be building mechanical space and are not accessible to building occupants other than maintenance personnel, their condition is important to the safe operation of the elevator. Too often they are overlooked, allowing conditions to develop that decrease the operating life of elevator components. In some cases, the rooms are used for storage, resulting in blocked access to equipment. As a result, required maintenance conditions go overlooked, and maintenance tasks are not performed on a regular basis. The structural components of elevator equipment rooms have a service life equal to that of the facility. The most common defects found in elevator equipment rooms include the following: 1.

Excessive heat. Elevator machinery and control systems generate a significant amount of heat. Without proper ventilation, temperature levels in the rooms will rise. As room temperatures rise, so does the operating temperature of the elevator equipment. If temperatures exceed those recommended by the elevator manufacturer, the service life of the equipment will decrease. All elevator equipment rooms must be ventilated. If passive or forced air ventilation cannot maintain room temperatures within the range specified by the manufacturer, consider adding air conditioning equipment.

2.

Exposed wiring. All wiring in elevator equipment rooms must be installed and maintained according to the standards established by building codes. Exposed wiring, loose connections, and improperly installed conduit pose a risk to maintenance personnel and increase the chances of an elevator breakdown.

3.

Inadequate lighting. Lighting systems are often installed in elevator equipment rooms as an afterthought. The system must provide sufficient light for maintenance personnel to perform the required inspection and maintenance tasks.

4.

Missing equipment guards. The rotating machinery and cables found in elevator equipment rooms poses a hazard to maintenance personnel, particularly as equipment can start and stop without warning. All safety guards must be in place and fully attached.


395

5.

Trash/dirt accumulation. An accumulation of trash in an elevator equipment room poses a hazard. Trash can be blown into machinery, where it can clog operation or result in a fire. Dirt can accumulate on electrical contacts within the elevator’s control system, causing unreliable operation. Remove all trash on a regular basis. If dirt from outside the equipment room is routinely drawn in through the ventilation system, consider installing filters on all vents.

6.

Water exposure. Water in elevator equipment rooms increases humidity levels, resulting in corrosion of electrical contacts and elevator components. All equipment rooms should be sealed to prevent the entry of water. If the equipment room experiences high humidity levels because of its location or the climate, consider installing an air conditioning system that would regulate both temperatures and humidity levels.

Use Figure 9-1 to assess the condition of elevator equipment rooms. Use a separate form for each equipment room. The tools needed to perform this assessment include a thermometer to measure room temperature and a camera to photograph overall conditions and major defects. The photographs will help during future assessments to identify areas that are slowly deteriorating. Complete the elevator equipment room assessment as follows: Item 1:

Enter the name of the building where the elevator equipment room being assessed is located.

Item 2:


Item 3:

Identify the type of elevator.

Item 4:

Identify the type of cooling/ventilation system installed.

Item 5:

Enter the year when the equipment room was constructed.

Item 6:

For each defect listed, rate the seriousness of that defect in the elevator equipment room.

Item 7:

Rate the overall condition of the elevator equipment room.

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Figure 9-1. Elevator Equipment Rooms ———————————————————————————————— 1. Building: _____________________________________________________ 2. Room number: _______________ 3. Type of elevator:

❑ traction

❑ hydraulic

4. Type of cooling system: ❑ building AC

❑ ventilation fan

❑ window unit ❑ none

❑ other: _______________ 5. Year constructed: _______________ 6. Defects: None

Minor

Moderate

Extensive

Excessive heat

❑

❑

❑

❑

Exposed wiring

❑

❑

❑

❑

Inadequate lighting

❑

❑

❑

❑

Missing equipment guards

❑

❑

❑

❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ poor ❑ good


Trash/dirt accumulation Water exposure 7. Overall condition:

8. Estimated remaining useful life (yr): _______________ 9. Comments: ___________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ 10. Inspector: _____________________________

Date: _______________


397

Item 8:

Estimate the remaining useful life of the elevator equipment room in years. The rating should be based on the overall condition of the room, its age, and its exposure to harsh service conditions.

Item 9:


Item 10:


Elevator Pit Areas For this assessment, the pit area is considered to be the space located at the bottom of the elevator shaft. Pit areas are by their very design out of sight and out of mind. However, if they are overlooked, they can create conditions that result in safety hazards and increased wear on elevator components. The most common defects found in elevator pit areas include the following: 1.

Inadequate accessibility. If elevator pit areas are not easy to gain access to, they will not be inspected, cleaned, or maintained on a regular basis. Providing adequate access may require the installation of access doors.

2.

Inadequate lighting. Like accessibility, if elevator pit areas are not adequately lighted, they will not be properly inspected, cleaned, and maintained. The lighting system should provide sufficient illumination to clearly see all areas within the pit. Install new fixtures as required.

3.

Standing water. Water in elevator pit areas exposes elevator components to corrosion, shortening equipment life. The pit area should be dry at all times. If water is found, the source of the water must be identified and eliminated.

4.

Trash/dirt accumulation. Elevator pit areas are natural trash cans. Dirt and debris that falls between the elevator cab and the floors accumulates in the pit where it can interfere with the operation of

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the elevator equipment or become a potential fire hazard. Dirt and debris must be removed on a regular basis. Use Figure 9-2 to assess the condition of elevator pit areas. Use a separate form for each elevator pit. The only tool needed to perform this assessment is a camera to photograph overall conditions and major defects. The photographs will help during future assessments to identify areas that are slowly deteriorating. Complete the elevator equipment room assessment as follows: Item 1:

Enter the name of the building where the elevator equipment room being assessed is located.

Figure 9-2. Elevator Pit Area ———————————————————————————————— 1. Building: _____________________________________________________ 2. Room number: _______________ 3. Type of elevator:

❑ traction

❑ hydraulic

4. Year constructed: _______________ 5. Defects: None

Minor

Moderate

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ Trash/dirt accumulation ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

Inadequate accessibility Inadequate lighting Standing water


❑ poor

❑ fair

❑ good

❑ excellent

Extensive


Date: _______________


399

Item 2:

If the space is assigned a number, enter the room number. If no room number is assigned, enter the number of the elevator.

Item 3:


Item 4:

Enter the year when the space was constructed.

Item 5:

For each defect listed, rate the seriousness of that defect in the elevator pit area.

Item 6:

Rate the overall condition of the elevator pit area.

Item 7:

Estimate the remaining useful life of the elevator pit area in years. The rating should be based on the overall condition of the area, its age, and its exposure to harsh service conditions.

Item 8:


Item 9:


Elevator Controls The heart of elevator operation is the control system. Until the mid 1980s, the most common control system was based on relay logic. While relay logic control systems are reliable and low maintenance, they have several drawbacks. Modifications to elevator operations require replacing relays and wiring. The systems are susceptible to damage from dirt and moisture. As the systems age, it becomes more and more difficult to obtain replacement components. Since the mid 1980s, most elevator control systems are microprocessor based. These systems offer the advantages of reliable operation, flexibility, and faster elevator response times. Upgrading an elevator’s control systems is one of the most cost effective ways of improving the operation of an elevator. The typical service life for elevator control systems is 30 years. The most common defects found in elevator control systems include the following:

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1.

Burned relay contacts. Older elevator control systems are relay based. With age and use, the relay contacts can become pitted and burned, resulting in unreliable operation. Inspect the relay contacts for pitting or burned areas. All damaged relays should be replaced. Extensive damage is an indication that it might be cost effective to upgrade the control system to a microprocessor-based system.

2.

Imprecise leveling. Elevators are designed to stop with their floors within 1/2 inch of the building’s floor. Any deviation beyond this poses a tripping hazard to building occupants. While the stopping height can be adjusted, the need for frequent adjustments is an indication of developing problems within the control system.

3.

Inoperative safeties. Test the operation of all elevator safety devices, including smoke detectors, door closers, intercom, door safety edges, fireman’s service, alarm indicators, and emergency stop operation. Any deficiencies must be corrected as soon as possible. If deficiencies are widespread, it is an indication that the elevator system may require an overhaul.

4.

Long wait times. One of the most common elevator complaints from building occupants is excessively long wait times for elevators. While wait times will vary with the type of elevator, the size of the building, and the level of traffic using the elevator, wait times of 15 to 45 seconds are considered reasonable for most applications. Longer wait times may be an indication of a need to upgrade the elevator’s control system, particularly if the existing control system is an older, relay type system.

5.

Maintenance history. As elevators age, they will require more corrective maintenance. Review the maintenance log for the elevator to determine if maintenance requirements are relatively constant, or if they are increasing. A sharp increase in maintenance requirements is an indication that the control system is approaching the end of its service life.

6.

Parts availability. As elevators age, one of the most serious problems faced by managers is a lack of spare parts, particularly for relay based elevator control systems. Elevator companies do sup-


401

port their systems for a long period of time, typically 20 to 30 years. However, eventually it is no longer cost effective for them to continue to stock replacement parts for older systems. When the availability of replacement parts for routine and preventive maintenance becomes a significant concern to managers, it is time to consider upgrading the elevator control system to a microprocessor-based system. 7.

Rough operation. Elevator control systems are designed to provide smooth operation between floors as well as smooth starts and stops. Ride the elevator in both directions, stopping at all floors, noting how smooth its operation is. Rough operation is an indication of developing problems within the control system.

Use Figure 9-3 to assess the condition of elevator’s control system. Use a separate form for each elevator. The only tool needed to perform this assessment is a camera to photograph overall conditions and major defects. The photographs will help during future assessments to identify areas that are slowly deteriorating. Complete the elevator control system assessment as follows: Item 1:

Enter the name of the building where the elevator control system being assessed is located.

Item 2:

Enter the room number where the elevator control system is located.

Item 3:

Enter the number of the elevator.

Item 4:


Item 5:

Identify the type of controller.

Item 6:

Enter the name of the control system manufacturer.

Item 7:

Enter the year when the control system was installed.

Item 8:

For each defect listed, rate the seriousness of that defect in operation of the control system.

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Figure 9-3. Elevator Controls ———————————————————————————————— 1. Building: _____________________________________________________ 2. Room number: _______________ 3. Elevator number: _____________ 4. Type of elevator: 5. Type of controller:

❑ passenger ❑ microprocessor

❑ freight ❑ relay logic

6. Control system manufacturer: ____________________ 7. Year control system installed: _______________ 8. Defects: None

Minor

Moderate

Extensive

Burned relay contacts

❑

❑

❑

❑

Imprecise leveling

❑

❑

❑

❑

Inoperative safeties Long wait times

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

Maintenance history

❑

❑

❑

❑

Parts availability

❑

❑

❑

❑

Rough operation

❑

❑

❑

❑

❑ poor ❑ good



8. Estimated remaining useful life (yr): _______________ 9. Comments: ___________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ 10. Inspector: _____________________________

Date: _______________

Item 9:

Rate the overall condition of the elevator control system.

Item 10:

Estimate the remaining useful life of the elevator control system in years. The rating should be based on the overall condition of the system, its age, and its exposure to harsh service conditions.


403

Item 11:


Item 12:


Cabs & Doors Elevator cabs and doors are subjected to a relatively high level of wear and abuse. As a result, they can be high maintenance items that require frequent attention. As the most visible components in an elevator system, they are the focus of the majority of complaints concerning elevator operation. They also receive the most attention. The maintenance requirements of elevator cabs and doors go beyond keeping up the appearance of the elevator. They include making certain that the units operate safely and effectively. The service life for elevator cabs and doors typically ranges between 30 and 40 years. The most common defects in elevator cabs and doors include the following: 1.

Code compliance. Whenever any changes are made to building elevators beyond routine and preventive maintenance, the elevators must be brought into compliance with all current code requirements. Typical code-mandated requirements include standard mounting heights for cab controls, Braille plates, audible floor passing signals, emergency power and lighting, and firefighter’s service.

2.

Damaged finishes. Elevator interior finishes are subject to damage from normal use and vandalism. Typical damage includes missing ceiling panels, broken or damaged wall panels, torn or worn floor coverings, and dented and scratched doors.

3.

Door safety switches. A number of different types of safety switches are used to control the operation of the elevator doors. The most common of these is the door safety edge, electronic photo-eye, and infrared sensors. All are designed to protect against the doors closing when a person or an object is in the doorway. Test the door operation to ensure that the safety switches properly return the doors to the open position when they hit or detect an object.

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4.

Improper floor leveling. Elevators are required to stop at each floor within plus or minus one-half inch of the floor landing. If frequent adjustments must be made to the stop position, the control system may need replacement or upgrading.

5.

Inadequate lighting. Although it is not necessary to provide excessive lighting levels in an elevator, the lighting system should provide sufficient illumination so that users can easily read the indicators on all elevator controls.

6.

Inoperative alarm and communication devices. Although alarm and communication devices are rarely used, they do serve critical functions in the event that someone becomes trapped in an elevator. Properly operating alarms and communications devices can help to prevent trapped occupants from panicking.

7.

Maintenance history. As the elevator cabs and doors age, they will require additional maintenance to keep them operating properly. Review the maintenance log for the elevator to determine if there has been a significant increase in cab and door maintenance requirements.

8.

Poor ventilation. A common complaint concerning elevators, particularly those that are installed in high occupancy buildings, is stuffiness. High occupancy loads can make elevator cabs uncomfortable. Review maintenance logs for complaints about inadequate ventilation or uncomfortable temperatures. Ride the elevator during peak use periods and monitor conditions.

9.

Rough door operation. The elevator door operators are designed to open and close the doors smoothly. Any unusual noises, binding, or jerky operation is an indication of problems within the mechanism or the door tracks.

Use Figure 9-4 to assess the condition of the elevator’s cabs and doors. Use a separate form for each elevator installed in the building. Use average ratings for all doors associated with that particular elevator. The tools needed to perform this assessment include a ruler to measure the difference in floor heights and a camera to photograph overall con-


405

ditions and major defects. The photographs will help during future assessments to identify areas that are slowly deteriorating. Figure 9-4. Cabs and Doors ———————————————————————————————— 1. Building: _____________________________________________________ 2. Room number: _______________ 3. Elevator number: _____________ 3. Number of landings: __________

4. Capacity (lbs): ____________

5. Manufacturer: ____________________ 6. Year installed: _______________ 7. Defects: None

Minor

Moderate

Damaged finishes

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

Door safety switches

❑

❑

❑

❑

Improper floor leveling

❑

❑

❑

❑

Inadequate lighting

❑

❑

❑

❑

Maintenance history

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

Poor ventilation

❑

❑

❑

❑

Rough door operation

❑

❑

❑

❑

❑ poor

❑ fair

❑ good

❑ excellent

Code compliance

Inoperative alarm/ com devices


Extensive


Date: _______________

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Complete the cab and/or assessment as follows: Item 1:

Enter the name of the building where the elevator being assessed is located.

Item 2:

Enter the identification number of the elevator.

Item 3:

Enter the number of landings served by the elevator.

Item 4:

Enter the rated capacity of the elevator.

Item 5:

Enter the name of the elevator manufacturer.

Item 6:

Enter the year when the elevator was installed.

Item 7:

For each defect listed, rate the seriousness of that defect in the elevator cab and doors.

Item 8:

Rate the overall condition of the elevator cab and doors.

Item 9:

Estimate the remaining useful life of the elevator cab and doors in years. The rating should be based on the overall condition of the cab, an average condition of all doors, their age, and the exposure to harsh service conditions.

Item 10:


Item 11:


ELECTRIC ELEVATORS Electrical or traction elevators are most widely used in buildings of six stories or more. Electrical elevators are suspended from cables that pass over a traction sheave driven by an electrical motor. The other end of the cable is attached to a counterweight. The electric drive motor can be connected directly to the drive sheave in a gear-


407

less configuration, or it can pass through a geared assembly. Geared drives are best suited for use in facilities that are medium-rise and require only medium-use service. Gearless drives are better suited for high-rise, high-use applications. The electrical equipment used to power elevators has evolved over the years. Motor generator sets, common 20 to 30 years ago, have been widely replaced by SCR devices. This newer electrical equipment offers high reliability and accurate speed control. The service life for the electric elevator is 20 to 30 years. The most common defects found in electric elevators include the following: 1.

Cable damage. Elevator cables are regularly inspected as part of the elevator maintenance program. While a limited amount of wear and damage to the cables is normal and acceptable, more extensive wear or damage will require overhaul or replacement. Review the elevator inspection reports and discuss the condition of the cables with the elevator inspection company.

2.

Governor. The governor regulates the ascent and decent speeds of the elevator. In older motor generator sets, they were electromechanical devices. In newer units, they are primarily electronic devices. The need to frequently adjust the governor is an indication that the governor may require overhaul or replacement.

3.

Loose electrical connections. Loose electrical connections cause heating and pitting of the contacts. As the pitting of the contacts progresses, the connections will fail. Use an infrared scanner to photograph electrical contacts to identify hotspots caused by loose connections. Before tightening loose connections, the surface of all connectors should be inspected for damage, cleaned, and repaired or replaced as necessary.

4.


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5.

Missing guards. The rotating machinery and cables found in elevator equipment rooms poses a hazard to maintenance personnel, particularly as equipment can start and stop without warning. All safety guards should be in place and fully attached.

6.

Motor insulation breakdown. In order to rate the condition of the elevator’s motor insulation, it is necessary to perform an insulation resistance test, or a DC high-potential test on the motor. Test the motor’s insulation according to the motor manufacturer’s recommendations. Rate the condition of the motor insulation based on the results of the insulation test. Deteriorating motor insulation is an early warning sign of elevator motor failure.

7.

Overheating. Overheating electrical and elevator machinery components shortens equipment life and results in more frequent breakdowns. Overheating is caused by malfunctions within the electrical equipment or by operating the equipment in a space that’s too hot. If the equipment appears to be operating properly, install a recording thermometer to monitor the equipment room temperature. Additional ventilation or the installation of an air conditioner may be required to reduce space temperatures.

8.

Rough operation. One of the common complaints from building occupants is rough operation of the elevator, particularly that the elevator does not smoothly start or stop. Rough operation is an indication of problems within the electric equipment or the elevator’s control system. Review the maintenance log for the elevator and meet with the service company to determine what is causing the rough operation.

Use Figure 9-5 to assess the condition of the elevator’s electrical equipment. Use a separate form for each elevator. The tools needed to perform this analysis include an infrared camera, a motor insulation tester, a recording thermometer, and a camera to photograph overall conditions and major defects. The photographs will help during future assessments to identify areas that are slowly deteriorating. Complete the electrical elevator equipment as follows: Item 1:



409

Figure 9-5. Electric Elevators ———————————————————————————————— 1. Building: _____________________________________________________ 2. Room number: ______________ 3. Elevator number: _______________ 4. Drive type:

❑ geared

❑ gearless

5. Manufacturer: ____________________ 6. Year installed: _______________ 7. Defects: None

Minor

Moderate

Extensive

Cable damage

❑

❑

❑

❑

Governor operation

❑

❑

❑

❑

Maintenance history

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

Missing guards

❑

❑

❑

❑

Overheating

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

Rough operation

❑

❑

❑

❑

❑ poor

❑ fair

❑ good

❑ excellent

Loose electrical connections

Motor insulation breakdown



Date: _______________

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Item 2:

Enter the room number where the equipment is located.

Item 3:


Item 4:

Identify the type of dive used by the elevator.

Item 5:


Item 6:


Item 7:

For each defect listed, rate the seriousness of that defect in the electrical equipment.

Item 8:

Rate the overall condition of the elevator electrical equipment.

Item 9:

Estimate the remaining useful life of the elevator electrical equipment in years. The rating should be based on the overall condition of the equipment, its age, and its exposure to harsh service conditions.

Item 10:


Item 11:


HYDRAULIC ELEVATORS Hydraulic elevators are supported by a hydraulic cylinder that is driven by electric pumps. In most designs, the hydraulic cylinder extends a distance into the ground that is equal to the maximum height reached by the elevator. Hydraulic elevators are most widely used in buildings with four floors or less. Their lower first cost in these types of facilities favors their use over electric elevators. In taller buildings, their use becomes both impractical and overly expensive. They also are better suited for lowspeed and light-duty applications. The service life for most hydraulic elevators is 20 to 30 years, depending on the level of use and how well


411

the system is maintained. The most common defects found in hydraulic elevators include the following: 1.

Cylinder damage. The hydraulic cylinder is the heart of the hydraulic elevator. Any damage to the cylinder can result in unsafe operation. While the cylinders are low maintenance, long life items, they can be damaged by water, contaminants, and poor maintenance practices. Closely inspect the cylinder for corrosion, scoring, or any signs of hydraulic leaks past the cylinder’s seals.

2.

Excessive creep. All elevators should hold their position when stopped at any landing. For hydraulic elevators, any settlement or creep either upwards or downwards is an indication of leaks or other problems within the hydraulic system. Test for creep by positioning the elevator at each landing for a minimum of two minutes, noting any change in the position of the cab relative to the floor.

3.

Leaks. Inspect the elevator’s hydraulic components for any sign of leaking hydraulic fluid. Closely examine the elevator’s hydraulic lines, connections, valves, and pump for any sign of leaks.

4.


5.

Rough operation. One of the common complaints from building occupants is rough operation of the elevator, including complaints that the elevator does not smoothly start or stop. Rough operation is an indication of problems within the electric equipment or the elevator’s control system. Review the maintenance log for the elevator and meet with the service company to determine what is causing the rough operation.

Use Figure 9-6 to assess the condition of the hydraulic elevator. Use a separate form for each elevator. The only tool needed to perform this

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analysis a camera to photograph overall conditions and major defects. The photographs will help during future assessments to identify areas that are slowly deteriorating. Complete the hydraulic elevator assessment as follows: Item 1:


Figure 9-6. Hydraulic Elevators ———————————————————————————————— 1. Building: _____________________________________________________ 2. Room number: ______________ 3. Elevator number: ______________ 4. Manufacturer: ____________________ 5. Rated capacity (lbs): _______________ 6. Year installed: _______________ 7. Defects: None

Minor

Moderate

Extensive

Cylinder damage

❑

❑

❑

❑

Excessive creep

❑

❑

❑

❑

Leaks

❑

❑

❑

❑

Maintenance history

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ poor

❑ fair

❑ good

❑ excellent

Rough operation 8. Overall condition:


Date: _______________


413

Item 2:

Enter the room number where the elevator’s hydraulic equipment is located.

Item 3:


Item 4:


Item 5:

Enter the rated capacity of the elevator.

Item 6:


Item 7:

For each defect listed, rate the seriousness of that defect in the elevator.

Item 8:

Rate the overall condition of the elevator.

Item 9:

Estimate the remaining useful life of the elevator in years. The rating should be based on the overall condition of the equipment, its age, and its exposure to harsh service conditions.

Item 10:


Item 11:


ESCALATORS Escalators are widely used in facilities where there is a high volume of inter-floor traffic, such as retail applications, or where there is a need to move a high volume of traffic over a short, vertical distance. They offer the advantage of no wait times for users. Their primary drawbacks include slower speed, the need for a greater footprint, the need for users to make a transition at each floor, and their higher cost. Unlike other building transportation systems whose operation is intermittent, escalators typically operate continuously while the building is open. This continuous operation can result in high levels of wear on system components.

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The service life for escalators depends to a great extent on their level of use and the level of maintenance that is performed on the system. In most applications, their expected service life is between 20 and 30 years. The most common defects found in escalators include the following: 1.

Excessive clearances. Measure the clearance between the escalator step and the skirt panel. Measure the clearance between the comb and the step. No gap in either location should exceed 4 mm. Measure all clearances.

2.

Handrail speed deviation. Check the speed of the handrail relative to the steps. Handrails must move no slower than the steps, and no more than two percent faster. Ride the escalator, noting any differences between step and rail speeds.

3.

Ineffective brake. The escalator brake is designed to stop the motion of the escalator and maintain it in a stationary position. Excessive stop times and drifting are indications of an ineffective brake.

4.

Inoperative emergency stop switch. Test the operation of the emergency brake switch. Activation of the switch should stop the escalator within several seconds.

5.

Maintenance history. As escalators age, they will require more corrective maintenance. Review the maintenance log for the escalator to determine if maintenance requirements are relatively constant, or if they are increasing. A sharp increase in maintenance requirements is an indication that the unit is approaching the end of its service life.

6.

Missing guards. Inspect all moving and rotating parts to determine that all protective guards are in place and properly secured.

7.

Noisy operation. Although all escalators will generate some noise, the level of noise generated should be relatively uniform throughout the system, and not increase over time. Squeaks, vibrations, and rubbing noises are usually the result of excessive component wear


415

or improper adjustment. Rate the level of noise generated by the escalator relative to other escalators. Use Figure 9-7 to assess the condition of escalators. Use a separate form for each escalator. The tools needed to perform this analysis include a ruler to measure gaps and a camera to photograph overall conditions and major defects. The photographs will help during future assessments to identify areas that are slowly deteriorating. Figure 9-7. Escalators ———————————————————————————————— 1. Building: _____________________________________________________ 2. Room number: ______________ 3. Escalator number: ______________ 4. Manufacturer: ____________________ 5. Rated capacity (lbs): _____________

6. Year installed: ____________

7. Defects: None

Minor

Moderate

Extensive

Excessive clearances

❑

❑

❑

❑

Handrail speed deviation

❑

❑

❑

❑

Ineffective brake

❑

❑

❑

❑

Inoperative emergency stop ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

Maintenance history

❑

❑ ❑

Missing guards

❑

❑

❑

❑

Noisy operation

❑

❑

❑

❑

❑ poor

❑ fair

❑ good

❑ excellent



Date: _______________

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Complete the escalator assessment as follows: Item 1:

Enter the name of the building where the escalator being assessed is located.

Item 2:

Enter the room number where the escalator’s equipment is located.

Item 3:

Enter the identification number of the escalator.

Item 4:

Enter the name of the escalator manufacturer.

Item 5:

Enter the rated capacity of the escalator.

Item 6:

Enter the year when the escalator was installed.

Item 7:

For each defect listed, rate the seriousness of that defect in the escalator.

Item 8:

Rate the overall condition of the escalator.

Item 9:

Estimate the remaining useful life of the escalator in years. The rating should be based on the overall condition of the equipment, its age, and its exposure to harsh service conditions.

Item 10:


Item 11:


LIFTS Lifts can be installed within buildings, on the exterior of buildings, or a combination of both. They can be designed and rated to carry personnel and equipment between levels of the building, or equipment only. Most lifts are driven by electric motors.


417

The service life for building lifts depends on their installation. Those that are installed outside of the facility have a service life of 15 to 20 years. Those that are installed within the facility have a typical service life of 30 years. The most common defects found in lifts include the following: 1.

Corrosion. Building lifts frequently are installed in areas where exposure to the elements can result in corrosion to lift components. Even relatively minor levels of corrosion can interfere with the operation of the lift. More extensive corrosion can lead to component failure. Inspect the lift platform, guide tracks, and structural supports for any sign of corrosion.

2.

Door interlock inoperative. Door interlocks are designed to prevent movement of the lift unless the door is fully closed and latched, as well as to prevent the opening of a landing door in the event that the lift is at a different level. Test all door interlocks for proper operation.

3.

Loose electrical connections. Loose electrical connections cause heating and pitting on the contacts. As the pitting of the contacts progresses, the connections will fail. Use an infrared scanner to photograph electrical contacts and to identify hotspots caused by loose connections. Before tightening loose connections, the surface of all connectors should be inspected for damage and repaired or replaced as necessary.

4.

Maintenance history. As lifts age, they will require more corrective maintenance. Review the maintenance log for the lift to determine if maintenance requirements are relatively constant, or if they are increasing. A sharp increase in maintenance requirements is an indication that the unit is approaching the end of its service life.

5.

Physical damage. Inspect all components of the lift for physical damage that could interfere with the safe operation of the lift.

6.

Rough operation. Rough operation is an indication of problems within the lift’s cable or guide rails. Review the maintenance log for the lift and inspect the guide rails to determine what is causing the rough operation.

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Use Figure 9-8 to assess the condition of building lifts. Use a separate form for each lift. The tools needed to perform this analysis include an infrared scanner to detect loose electrical connections and a camera to photograph overall conditions and major defects. The photographs will help during future assessments to identify areas that are slowly deteriorating. Figure 9-8. Building Lifts ———————————————————————————————— 1. Building: _____________________________________________________ 2. Location:

❑ exterior

❑ interior

3. Lift number: __________ 4. Manufacturer: _________________________ 5. Capacity (lbs): _______________ 6. Year installed: _______________ 7. Defects: None

Minor

Corrosion

❑

❑

❑

❑

Door interlock inoperative

❑

❑

❑

❑

Loose electrical connections ❑

❑

❑

❑

Physical damage

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

Rough operation

❑

❑

❑

❑

Maintenance history


Moderate

Extensive



Date: _______________


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Complete the lift assessment as follows: Item 1:

Enter the name of the building where the lift being assessed is located.

Item 2:

Identify the location of the lift.

Item 3:

Enter the identification number of the lift.

Item 4:

Enter the name of the lift manufacturer.

Item 5:

Enter the rated capacity of the lift.

Item 6:

Enter the year when the lift was installed.

Item 7:

For each defect listed, rate the seriousness of that defect in the lift.

Item 8:

Rate the overall condition of the lift.

Item 9:

Estimate the remaining useful life of the lift in years. The rating should be based on the overall condition of the equipment, its age, and its exposure to harsh service conditions.

Item 10:


Item 11:


AFTER THE FIELDWORK Completion of an assessment of a building’s transportation systems, particularly if the building is an older facility, will identify a number of items that are in need of repair or replacement. While relatively minor items can be handled through routine maintenance work orders, more extensive repairs and system upgrades will require more extensive

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planning and preparation. This is particularly true in facilities that are completing their first facility-wide assessment. Chances are, more work will be identified than can be completed due to funding and scheduling limitations. If the assessment has identified a number of items in need of repair or replacement related to a particular transportation system, the facility manager may choose to perform a total system upgrade or overhaul rather than simply making all of the identified repairs. Technology changes in transportation control systems have led to vast improvements in performance and reliability. Performing an upgrade may be the best long-term solution for the facility Depending on the size of the facility, the number of transportation systems installed, and the number of deficiencies found during the assessment, managers may have to prioritize system work. It is recommended that all major system repairs and upgrades be assigned priorities based on their impact on safety, reliability, performance, and cost savings. For each identified project, identify the impact that it will have on each of these factors. From these tabulated impacts, and the information gathered during the assessment program, managers can develop a program to implement the upgrades.

OUTDOOR RECREATIONAL FACILITIES

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Chapter 10

Outdoor Recreational Facilities

T

his chapter includes information and assessment forms to be used with outdoor recreational facilities. Outdoor recreational facilities have become an integral part of many facilities, particularly those with a large number of employees. Like other elements of the facility, a certain level of maintenance is required in order to keep the facilities in good working condition, to provide a safe environment for users of the recreational facilities, and to maximize the life of the facilities. The environment in which the recreational facilities exist poses challenges to those who must maintain them. Wide variations in temperatures, both daily and seasonally, cause thermal expansion and contraction of materials that can lead to material failures. Exposure to the sun’s ultraviolet light can modify the chemical composition of materials used in the components of these facilities, changing both their appearance and their strength. Moisture accelerates the corrosion of metal components, and rot in wood components. A comprehensive maintenance program that includes regularly scheduled inspections, testing, and maintenance will help to keep outdoor recreational facilities in good condition and safe. It is recommended that outdoor recreational facilities be assessed at least once per year, typically in the spring. Facilities that are located in warmer climate with a longer operating season should be assessed twice per year; in the spring and again in the fall.

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BIKE/EXERCISE PATHS Exercise and bicycle paths have become a popular feature for communities, commercial complexes, and educational campuses. These paths typically range in width from four to seven feet. Most are constructed from asphalt, although other materials have been used. This assessment form is intended to be used solely with asphalt paths. Asphalt paths tend to be low maintenance items, primarily requiring resurfacing and repair of cracked and deteriorated areas. The service life for the paths depends to a great extent on the quality of the construction and the environment where the path is located. If the asphalt is laid on bare, only partially compacted ground, with no sub-base, the typical service life for the asphalt will be less than ten years. Similarly, if the asphalt path is installed in a heavily wooded area, the asphalt material will undergo damage from tree roots resulting in a service life that is also less than ten years. In contrast, a path installed over a properly compacted base, well away from trees will have a service life of 15 to 20 years. The most common defects found in asphalt exercise and bicycle paths include the following: 1.

Alligatoring. One of the most common failures of asphalt surfaces is alligatoring. Alligatoring is the development of a pattern of interconnected cracks that takes on the appearance of an alligator’s skin. It is typically caused by a combination of a loss of flexibility in the asphalt and exceeding the load carrying capacity of the pavement. Alligatoring should be considered to be an early warning sign of asphalt pavement failure. Sealing an area that is alligatoring is a temporary solution that may delay having to replace the asphalt for several years. A more permanent repair is to remove and replace the alligatored section.

2.

Breakup. Breakup is the final stage in asphalt failure. At this point, water has penetrated and damaged the base, leaving the asphalt unsupported. Lacking a base to support it, the asphalt breaks into small, loose fragments. The only solution to crumbling asphalt is removal and replacement.

3.

Cracking. Cracking can be random or parallel to the length of the asphalt path. They are caused by a wide range of factors, including


423

thermal expansion and contraction and movement of the base material. All cracks must be thoroughly cleaned, dried, and filled to eliminate tripping hazards to users of the path. 4.

Flooding. Flooding of portions of an asphalt path is generally the result of improper drainage of surrounding areas. Flooding not only limits the use of the path, but also accelerates the deterioration of the asphalt material. If flooding occurs, attempt to divert the water away from the path. If the water cannot be diverted, then consider relocating the path.

5.


6.

Raveling. Raveling is the slow disintegration of the asphalt pavement from the surface down or from the edges inward. It is generally caused by the use of poor materials or by improper compaction during installation. Raveling can be corrected only by the replacement of the asphalt surface.

7.

Tree root damage. One of the most common forms of damage to asphalt paths is tree root damage, particularly in those paths installed in wooded areas. Growth of the tree causes the roots to break through the asphalt, creating a tripping hazard. The best correction for tree root damage is to relocate the path. Minor damage can be repaired by removing the damaged asphalt, cutting out the tree root, and installing a new section of asphalt.

Use Figure 10-1 to assess the condition of asphalt paths. Use a separate form for path. The tools needed to perform this assessment include a measuring wheel and a camera to photograph overall conditions and major defects. The photographs will help during future assessments to identify areas that are slowly deteriorating.

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Figure 10-1. Asphalt Paths ———————————————————————————————— 1. Building: _____________________________________________________ 2. Section: _______________ 3. Year installed: _______________ 4. Length (ft): _____________________ Width (ft): ___________________ 5. Defects: None

Minor

Moderate

Extensive

Alligatoring

❑

❑

❑

❑

Breakup

❑

❑

❑

❑

Cracking

❑

❑

❑

❑

Flooding Potholes

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

Raveling

❑

❑

❑

❑

Tree root damage

❑

❑

❑

❑

❑ poor

❑ fair

❑ good

❑ excellent


7. Estimated remaining useful life (yr): _______________ 8. Comments: ___________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ 9. Inspector: _______________________________

Date: ______________

Complete the asphalt path assessment as follows: Item 1: Enter the name of the building or facility where the asphalt path is being assessed. Item 2: Enter a unique section number for that particular section of path being assessed. The section number is useful in identi-


425

fying a particular section in larger facilities, and will allow users to track the condition and rate of deterioration of that particular section with future assessments. Item 3: Enter the year when the asphalt path was installed. Item 4: Enter the length and the width of the asphalt path in feet. Item 5: For each defect listed, rate how extensive that defect is in the section being assessed. Use an average rating for the section of asphalt path being assessed. Item 6: Rate the overall condition of the asphalt path. Use an average rating for the section being assessed. Item 7: Estimate the remaining useful life of the asphalt path in years. The rating should be based on its overall condition, its age, and its exposure to harsh service conditions. Item 8: Enter comments related to conditions found during the assessment. Item 9: Enter the name of the person who conducted the assessment and the date on which the assessment was completed.

SWIMMING POOLS Most swimming pools found in commercial and institutional facilities are of concrete construction. While the pool structure itself tends to be a low-maintenance, long-service life item, many of the auxiliary pool items have a higher level of maintenance requirements and a shorter expected service life. Service life also depends on the location of the pool. Pools that are located within a facility have service lives of 50 years or more. Those that are located outside have service lives of 30 to 40 years. The most common defects found in swimming pools include the following: 1.

Caulking failures. There are three areas where caulking is widely used in swimming pool applications; between the coping and deck, between the coping and the tile, and between sections of the pool

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deck. Failed caulking accelerated the deterioration of the pool materials, and creates hazards for the users of the pool. Inspect all caulked areas. All caulking should be tightly adhered to both surfaces with no visible gaps. 2.

Chemical treatment system. Chemical treatment systems control the growth of microorganisms and maintain the pH of the pool water within the desired range. Poorly operating treatment systems will add too little or too much of the chemicals to the pool water. Check with the pool operators to determine how often the pool water had to be treated manually.

3.

Coping damage. The most common type of coping installed around the perimeter of the pool is precast concrete. While the coping is low maintenance, individual sections can become detached from the concrete base, sections can crack, and the grout between the sections can fail. Inspect all grouting between the individual sections of coping for proper adhesion. Tap individual sections of coping; a hollow sound is an indication that the coping is no longer adhered to the deck.

4.

Decking. Pool decking can be constructed from concrete, wood, or composite materials. With time and exposure, these materials can split, crack, and deteriorate. Defects such as these can pose hazards to pool users, resulting in the need to replace all or part of the pool deck.

5.

Fencing. Outdoor pool installations include a fence around the entire pool facility, and a second, shorter fence that separates the wading pool from the main pool. Fencing is typically chain link, steel, aluminum, or wood. Typical fencing defects include corrosion, damaged or missing sections, insecure supports, and inadequate access control.

6.

Filter system. The most common types of filter systems used in pool include sand, rare earth, and cartridge. The filter systems include the filter itself, valves, piping, and an automatic or manual backwash system. Check all system components for proper operation, water flow, and water tightness.


427

7.

Lighting system. Indoor pool lighting systems are subjected to corrosion due to the high humidity levels in which they operate. Outdoor lighting systems are exposed to a wide range of damage from the environment. Inspect all fixtures for corrosion and deteriorated wiring. Test all lighting system manual and automatic controls for proper operation. Inspect all fixtures for damaged or discolored lenses and diffusers.

8.

Piping failures. While it is easy to inspect the portions of the pool piping in the pool equipment room, inspection of the underground portion of the piping can be accomplished only indirectly. Check the pool’s water use records to determine if make-up water requirements are increasing, an indication of a possible underground water leak. Additionally, check the area surrounding the pool for areas that are constantly wet.

9.

Pump operation. Pool pumps should operate quietly with no excessive noise or vibrations. Noise and vibrations are early warning signs of pump failure. Check the seals for leaks.

10.

Structure. Pool structures are long life items that require little maintenance. The most common problems that occur include settlement, undermining from water leaks, and buckling of pool walls.

11.

Waterline tile damage. Waterline tile are subject to damage from pool chemicals and users of the pool. The most common types of damage to pool waterline tiles include missing tile, cracked or broken tile, and deteriorated grout between the tiles.

12.

Whitecoat failure. The whitecoat finish applied to the pool’s interior surface has a life expectancy of ten years. Physical damage and exposure to high levels of water treatment chemicals can cause the coating to deteriorate, crack, or flake off, exposing the underlying pool structure.

Use Figure 10-2 to assess the condition of swimming pools. Use a separate form for each pool. The tools needed to perform this assessment include a measuring wheel and a camera to photograph overall conditions and major defects. The photographs will help during future assessments to identify areas that are slowly deteriorating.

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Figure 10-2. Swimming Pools ———————————————————————————————— 1. Building: ____________________________________________________ 4. Length (ft): _____________________ Width (ft): ___________________ 3. Type of decking:

❑ composite ❑ wood

❑ tile ❑ concrete ❑ other: ____________________

4. Area of decking (sq ft): _______________ 5. Type of fencing:

❑ aluminum ❑ wood

❑ iron ❑ chain link ❑ other: ____________________

6. Length of fencing (ft): _______________ 7. Year pool installed: ______ 9. Defects: Caulking failures

8. Year whitecoat replaced: ______

None

Minor

Moderate

❑

❑

❑

❑

❑ ❑ ❑ ❑ ❑ ❑ ❑ ❑ ❑ ❑ ❑ ❑ fair

❑ ❑ ❑ ❑ ❑ ❑ ❑ ❑ ❑ ❑ ❑

❑ ❑ ❑ ❑ ❑ ❑ ❑ ❑ ❑ ❑ ❑

Chemical treatment system

❑ Coping damage ❑ Decking ❑ Fencing ❑ Filter system ❑ Lighting system ❑ Piping failures ❑ Pump operation ❑ Structure deterioration ❑ Waterline tile damage ❑ Whitecoat failure ❑ 10. Overall condition: ❑ poor ❑ good

Extensive

❑ excellent

11. Estimated remaining useful life (yr): _______________ 12 Comments: ___________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ 13. Inspector: _______________________________ Date: ______________


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Complete the swimming pool assessment as follows: Item 1: Enter the name of the building or facility where the swimming pool is being assessed. Item 2: Enter the length and width of the pool. Item 3: Identify the type of decking installed around the pool. Item 4: Enter the total area of pool decking. Item 5: Identify the type of fencing surrounding the pool. Item 6: Enter the length of the fencing. Item 7: Enter the year when the pool was installed. Item 8: Enter the year when the pool’s whitecoat was last replaced. Item 9: For each defect listed, rate how extensive that defect is in the pool. Use an average rating. Item 10: Rate the overall condition of the swimming pool. Item 11: Estimate the remaining useful life of the pool in years. The rating should be based on its overall condition, its age, and its exposure to harsh service conditions. Item 12: Enter comments related to conditions found during the assessment. Item 13: Enter the name of the person who conducted the assessment and the date on which the assessment was completed.

TENNIS COURTS This assessment form is designed to be used with a wide range of outdoor tennis courts, including those with asphalt and synthetic playing surfaces. Courts can be installed individually, or they can be grouped in clusters.

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The exposure of the courts year-round to the elements increases maintenance requirements and decreases the life expectancy of court components. The typical life expectancies of the major court components are as follows: Asphalt playing surface Synthetic playing surface Fencing Color coat Net posts Windscreen

20 years 15 years 20 years 5 years 20 years 5 years

The most common defects found with outdoor tennis courts include the following: 1.

Color coat failure. Use and exposure to the weather can cause the color coat that is applied to the asphalt-playing surface to wear, crack, and flake off, exposing the underlying asphalt material. Most courts will require a new application of color coat every five years.

2.

Fence damage. The most common type of fencing installed around tennis courts is ten-foot high, chain link. The most common damage found in the fencing includes corroded fence posts, corroded fencing, gates that won’t properly operate, and bending of the fencing at ground level.

3.

Improper drainage. The surface of tennis courts is flat, with no significant slope for drainage. While there is no drainage, there also should be no significant ponding of water. Some ponding is normal, but the depth of the water should be no more than one-half inch. If ponding of water occurs after a rain, then either the surface was not installed properly, or the surface has settled after installation.

4.

Net post damage. Net posts are set in concrete well below the playing surface. The weight of the nets, particularly if they are overtightened, can bend the posts, or loosen them from their concrete base. The first indication of damage is a series of cracks that form in the playing surface around the pole base. As the damage be-


431

comes more extensive, the cracks will widen and the concrete base lifts above the level of the playing surface. 5.

Playing surface deterioration. Daily and seasonal temperature swings stress both artificial and asphalt playing surfaces. Eventually, cracks form in the playing surface, creating tripping hazards. Other defects that can form in asphalt surfaces include alligatoring, splits, and breakups. The most common defects found in synthetic playing surfaces include wear and rips in the material.

6.

Windscreen damage. The windscreen that is attached to the court’s fencing has a relatively short service life and is easily damaged by wind and abuse. Check the windscreen for tears and proper attachment to the fencing.

Use Figure 10-3 to assess the condition of tennis courts. Use a separate form for each tennis court. If two or more courts are adjacent and are enclosed by a single fence, use a separate form for each court. The tools needed to perform this assessment include a measuring wheel and a camera to photograph overall conditions and major defects. The photographs will help during future assessments to identify areas that are slowly deteriorating. Complete the tennis court assessment as follows: Item 1: Enter the name of the building or facility where the tennis court being assessed is located. Item 2: Enter the length and width of the tennis court Item 3: Identify the type of playing surface used by the tennis court. Item 4: Identify the type of fencing installed around the tennis court. Item 5: Enter the length of the fencing. Item 6: Enter the year when the tennis court was installed. If the tennis court has been resurfaced, enter the year when the resurfacing took place.

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Figure 10-3. Tennis Courts ———————————————————————————————— 1. Building: _____________________________________________________ 4. Length (ft): _____________________ Width (ft): ___________________ 3. Playing surface:

❑ asphalt

❑ grass

❑ clay

❑ synthetic

❑ other: ____________________ 4. Type of fencing:

❑ aluminum ❑ chain link

❑ iron ❑ wood

❑ other: ____________________ 5. Length of fencing (ft): _______________ 6. Year pool installed: ___________

7. Year color coat replaced: ______

8. Defects: None

Minor

Moderate

Extensive

Color coat failures

❑

❑

❑

❑

Fence damage

❑

❑

❑

❑

Improper drainage

❑

❑

❑

❑

Net post damage

❑

❑

❑

❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ poor

❑ fair

❑ good

❑ excellent

Playing surface deterioration Windscreen damage 10. Overall condition:

11. Estimated remaining useful life (yr): _______________ 12. Comments: ___________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ 13. Inspector: _______________________________ Date: ______________


433

Item 7: Enter the year when the court’s color coat was last replaced. Item 8: For each defect listed, rate how extensive that defect is on the court. Use an average rating for the entire court. Item 9: Rate the overall condition of the tennis court. Item 10: Estimate the remaining useful life of the tennis court in years. The rating should be based on its overall condition, its age, and its exposure to harsh service conditions. Item 11: Enter comments related to conditions found during the assessment. Item 12: Enter the name of the person who conducted the assessment and the date on which the assessment was completed.

ATHLETIC PLAYING FIELDS Common types of athletic playing fields found in facilities include baseball, football, soccer, and lacrosse fields. Although some fields use an artificial surface, most fields are surfaced with natural grass. This assessment form can be used with both types of surfaces. The service life of the playing surface depends on a number of factors, including its level of use, how well it is maintained, and the local climate conditions. Most grass surfaces have an unlimited service life as long as they are well maintained and reseeded on a regular basis. Artificial surfaces will have a service life of five to ten years. The service life of most support equipment average ten years. The most common defects found in athletic playing fields include the following: 1.

Bare spots. For natural grass playing surfaces, all areas should be fully covered with grass. For artificial playing surfaces, all areas should have a finish that is uniform in thickness and coverage. While bare spots on natural grass surfaces can be reseeded, bare or worn areas on artificial playing surfaces will require replacement of all or part of the surface.

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2.

Bleacher damage. All sections of bleachers installed at the athletic playing field must be structurally sound. Inspect all metal components and fasteners for corrosion and distortion. Inspect all wood components for rot, warping, and splits.

3.

Drainage inadequate. With the exception of prolonged heavy rains, fields should contain no standing water within 24 hours after a rain has ended. Those fields that do have areas of standing water either are not properly graded for drainage or were constructed over compacted fill material that does not allow proper drainage of the surface.

4.

Fencing deterioration. Common fence damage includes corrosion, separation of the fence poles and rails, damaged or missing fence rails, and open sections of fencing. While minor fence damage can be corrected, more significant damage will require replacement of part or the entire fence.

5.

Goal damage. The most common types of damage to goal structures are corrosion and vandalism. Inspect all sections of the structure, especially where it is in contact with the ground, for corrosion. Check all sections to ensure that they are properly attached and are straight.

6.

Irrigation inadequate. For fields that are not irrigated, skip this item. The field’s irrigation system should provide uniform coverage of all areas of the playing surface. Check the coverage provided by the system on a day with relatively calm winds.

Use Figure 10-4 to assess the condition of athletic playing fields. Use a separate form for each field. The tools needed to perform this assessment include a measuring wheel and a camera to photograph overall conditions and major defects. The photographs will help during future assessments to identify areas that are slowly deteriorating. Complete the athletic playing field assessment as follows: Item 1: Enter the name or number of the playing field. Item 2: Identify the type of field.


435

Figure 10-4. Athletic Playing Fields ———————————————————————————————— 1. Name of field: ________________________________________________ 2. Type of field:

❑ baseball ❑ football

❑ multipurpose ❑ soccer

❑ lacrosse

❑ other: _______________

3. Length (ft): ____________________ 4. Type of playing surface: 5. Type of fencing:

Width (ft): ___________________

❑ artificial ❑ aluminum

❑ natural grass ❑ iron

❑ chain link

❑ wood

❑ other: ____________________ 6. Length of fencing (ft): _______________ 7. Year built: _________________

8. Year fence installed: ____________

9. Defects: None

Minor

Moderate

Extensive

Bare spots

❑

❑

❑

❑

Bleacher damage

❑

❑

❑

❑

Drainage inadequate Fence deterioration

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

Goal damage

❑

❑

❑

❑

Irrigation inadequate

❑

❑

❑

❑

❑ poor ❑ good



11. Estimated remaining useful life (yr): _______________ 12 Comments: ___________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ 13. Inspector: _______________________________ Date: ______________

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Item 3: Enter the length and width of the field. Item 4: Identify the type of playing surface used. Item 5: Identify the type of fencing installed at the field. Item 6: Enter the length of the fencing. Item 7: Enter the year when the field was built. Item 8: Enter the year when the field’s fencing was installed or last replaced. Item 9: For each defect listed, rate how extensive that defect is on the field. Use an average rating for the entire field. Item 10: Rate the overall condition of the field. Item 11: Estimate the remaining useful life of the field equipment in years. The rating should be based on its overall condition, its age, and its exposure to harsh service conditions. Item 12: Enter comments related to conditions found during the assessment. Item 13: Enter the name of the person who conducted the assessment and the date on which the assessment was completed.

TOT LOTS Tot lots are play areas that are designed for use by children. Typical tot lot designs have a number of separate items, including structures to climb on, swing sets, picnic tables, benches, mulch or wood chips, a border, and fencing. In assessing the condition of tot lots, it is particularly important to identify and correct any potentially dangerous conditions in order to minimize the risk of injury. Additionally, given the high cost of most tot lot equipment, it is important to quickly identify and correct maintenance items before they can lead to the deterioration of the equipment.


437

The service life of these components depends to a great extent on the quality of the materials used, the quality of the installation, the level of maintenance performed, the local climate, and the level of use. For most installations, the average service life for play structures and tot lot borders is ten to 15 years. Most fencing has a 15 to 20 year life expectancy. The most common defects found in tot lots include the following: 1.

Border damage. Tot lot borders are designed to keep the mulch or other ground cover within the tot lot area. They also serve to keep the surrounding vegetation out of the tot lot. Tot lot borders are usually constructed from pressure treated wood, railroad ties, or sections of plastic. Typical damage includes warped sections, uneven adjacent section heights, rot, and splitting.

2.

Corrosion. Exposure to the elements can corrode metal portions of play structures, benches, picnic tables, and other equipment. Corrosion can lead to the failure of components, resulting in injury to users of the equipment. Closely inspect all metal components and fasteners for corrosion. Mild corrosion can be treated. More extensive corrosion will require replacement of that component.

3.

Drainage inadequate. All tot lots should be sufficiently graded to prevent the ponding of water. Additionally, all areas up hill from the tot lot should be sloped to divert water from entering the tot lot. Check the tot lot 24 hours after a moderately heavy rain. There should be no standing water visible.

4.

Fencing damaged. If the tot lot does not have fencing, skip this item. The fence surrounding the tot lot should be structurally sound and fully enclose the tot lot in order to provide adequate safety. Common fence damage includes corrosion, separation of the fence poles and rails, damaged or missing fence rails, and open sections of fencing.

5.

Inadequate ground cover. The purpose of the ground cover is to limit the growth of grass and weeds, and provide protection in the event of a fall. Synthetic tot lot ground covers must be installed and maintained according to their manufacturer’s recommendations.

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Wood chip and mulch ground covers must fully cover all areas within the tot lot, to a minimum depth of six inches. 6.

Structural damage. All tot lot play equipment must be structurally sound. Loose or damaged fasteners, bent or broken supports, and loose or damaged foundations can lead to the collapse of the equipment, resulting in injury. Check all structural components to ensure their integrity.

Use Figure 10-5 to assess the condition of tot lots. Use a separate form for each tot lot in the facility. The only tool needed to perform this assessment is a camera to photograph overall conditions and major defects. The photographs will help during future assessments to identify areas that are slowly deteriorating. Complete the tot lot assessment as follows: Item 1: Enter the location of the tot lot. Item 2: List the equipment installed in the tot lot. Item 3: Identify the type of ground cover installed. Item 4: Identify the type of fencing installed at the tot lot. Item 5: Enter the length of the fencing. Item 6: Enter the year when the tot lot was constructed. Item 7: For each defect listed, rate how extensive that defect is on the tot lot. Use an average rating for the entire tot lot. Item 8: Rate the overall condition of the tot lot. Item 9: Estimate the remaining useful life of the tot lot equipment in years. The rating should be based on its overall condition, its age, and its exposure to harsh service conditions. Item 10: Enter comments related to conditions found during the assessment. Item 11: Enter the name of the person who conducted the assessment and the date on which the assessment was completed.


439

Figure 10-5. Tot Lots ———————————————————————————————— 1. Location: _____________________________________________________ 2. Equipment installed: ___________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ 3. Ground cover:

4. Type of fencing:

❑ mulch

❑ wood chips

❑ rubber mats

❑ other: ______________

❑ aluminum ❑ chain link

❑ iron ❑ wood

❑ other: ____________________ 5. Length of fencing (ft): ______________ 6. Year built: ______________ 7. Defects: None

Minor

Moderate

Extensive

Border damage

❑

❑

❑

❑

Corrosion

❑

❑

❑

❑

Drainage inadequate

❑

❑

❑

❑

Fencing damage

❑

❑

❑

❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ poor

❑ fair

❑ good

❑ excellent

Inadequate ground cover Structural damage 8. Overall condition:


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BOARDWALKS This form is intended to be used with the wood boardwalks typically found in beach communities. Wood boardwalks are typically constructed from pressure treated lumber. Recently, composite materials have been gaining in popularity as a way to extend the service life of the boardwalk while reducing maintenance requirements. The typical service life for boardwalks constructed from wood is ten to fifteen years. The typical service life for boardwalks constructed from composite materials is 20 to 25 years. Actual service life depends on the boardwalk’s exposure to direct sun and moisture. The service life of wood boardwalks can be extended by sealing the wood on a regular basis. The most common defects found in boardwalks include the following: 1.

Flooding. If the boardwalk is not installed at the proper height relative to the surrounding ground, or if the general area in which the boardwalk is installed is low lying or provides drainage for other areas, the boardwalk may flood. Repeated flooding will accelerate the deterioration of the boardwalk materials. Inspect the boardwalk during or immediately following a period of moderate to heavy rain. If portions of the boardwalk are under water, the boardwalk must be raised or the water diverted.

2.

Handrail Deficiencies. Handrails are typically used with boardwalks that are elevated or sloped. If the boardwalk does not have a handrail installed, skip this item. Typical handrail damage includes split rails, loose supports, missing sections, and decay of the wood. Most damaged areas can be replaced on a spot basis.

3.

Lighting inadequate. Boardwalk lighting systems typically consist of pole-mounted fixtures that illuminate the general area of the boardwalk or post mounted fixtures that light only the surface of the boardwalk. If the boardwalk does not have a lighting system, skip this item. Assess the operation of the lighting system at night. Lighting systems should provide adequate illumination of the walkway, particularly in areas where there are steps. Lighting control systems should automatically turn the fixtures on at dusk and off again at dawn or some preset time.


441

4.

Overgrown. Boardwalks often pass through areas containing vegetation. Unless the vegetation is properly trimmed and maintained, it can encroach on the boardwalk, making it difficult to pass through. All vegetation should be regularly trimmed to keep it sufficiently away from the boardwalk.

5.

Structural damage. Boardwalks can be installed directly on the ground, or they may be supported by a raised structure. Those that are located on the ground will have a framing structure. Those that are raised will have a more elaborate supporting structure. In both cases, deficiencies in the supporting structure will impact the integrity of the boardwalk. Typical structural problems include rot, broken sections, and sagging.

6.

Surface damage. The surface boards of the boardwalk, particularly pressure treated wood boards, are prone to damage from exposure to the sun and rain. Typical damage includes rot, cracking, splintering, and breakage. Composite boards can also experience similar damage, but at a much lower rate.

Use Figure 10-6 to assess the condition of boardwalks. Use a separate form for each major section of boardwalk in the facility. The tools needed to perform this assessment include a probe to test for rot and decay, and a camera to photograph overall conditions and major defects. The photographs will help during future assessments to identify areas that are slowly deteriorating. Complete the boardwalk assessment as follows: Item 1: Enter the location of the boardwalk. Item 2: Enter a unique section number for that particular section of boardwalk being assessed. The section number is useful in identifying a particular section in larger facilities, and will allow users to track the condition and rate of deterioration of that particular section with future assessments. Item 3: Enter the length and width of the boardwalk. Item 4: Identify the type of material used in the boardwalk construction.

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Figure 10-6. Boardwalks ———————————————————————————————— 1. Location: _____________________________________________________ 2. Section number: _______________ 3. Width (ft): _____________________ Length (ft): ___________________ 4. Material:

❑ composite

❑ pressure treated wood

❑ other: _______________ 5. Railing length (ft): _______________ 6. Year constructed: _______________ 7. Defects: None

Minor

Moderate

Extensive

Flooding

❑

❑

❑

❑

Handrail deficiencies Lighting inadequate

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

Overgrown

❑

❑

❑

❑

Structural damage

❑

❑

❑

❑

❑ poor

❑ fair

❑ good

❑ excellent


9. Estimated remaining useful life (yr): _______________ 10. Comments: ___________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ 11. Inspector: _______________________________ Date: ______________

Item 5: If the boardwalk has a railing installed, enter the length of the railing. Item 6: Enter the year when the boardwalk was constructed. Item 7: For each defect listed, rate how extensive that defect is on that section of the boardwalk. Use an average rating for the section of the boardwalk.


443

Item 8: Rate the overall condition of the boardwalk. Item 9: Estimate the remaining useful life of the tot lot equipment in years. The rating should be based on its overall condition, its age, and its exposure to harsh service conditions. Item 10: Enter comments related to conditions found during the assessment. Item 11: Enter the name of the person who conducted the assessment and the date on which the assessment was completed.

BASKETBALL COURTS Outdoor basketball courts most commonly have an asphalt or concrete playing surface. Maintenance requirements typically include crack patching, sealing of the asphalt, repainting of the lines, and repair of the backstop. The service life of the playing surface is 20 years for asphalt, and 30 years for concrete. The service life for the poles and backstops is ten years. Service life is determined in part by exposure to weather, the level of use, and vandalism. The most common defects found in outdoor basketball courts include the following: 1.

Alligatoring. One of the most common failures of asphalt surfaces is alligatoring. Alligatoring is the development of a pattern of interconnected cracks the take on the appearance of an alligator’s skin. It is typically caused by a combination of loss of flexibility in the asphalt and exceeding the load carrying capacity of the pavement. Alligatoring should be considered to be an early warning sign of asphalt pavement failure. Sealing an area that is alligatoring is a temporary solution that may delay having to replace the asphalt for several years. A more permanent repair would be to remove and replace the alligatored section.

2.

Asphalt breakup. Breakup is the final stage in asphalt failure. At this point, water has penetrated and damaged the base, leading the

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asphalt unsupported. The asphalt then breaks into small, loose fragments. The only solution to crumbling asphalt is removal and replacement. 3.

Backboard damage. Constant use and exposure to the weather deteriorated basketball backboards. Typical damage includes broken sections of the backboard, cracking, and loose or bent hoop mounts. Damaged backboards typically require replacement.

4.

Cracked asphalt. Although cracking is often ignored in asphalt roads and parking areas, cracked basketball playing surfaces can pose a hazard to users of the court. Cracking can be caused by a wide range of factors, including thermal expansion and contraction or movement of the base material. All cracks must be thoroughly cleaned, dried, and filled to eliminate tripping hazards to users of the court. Cracks that are more than one-quarter of an inch wide are difficult to properly patch and may require that the court be resurfaced.

5.

Drainage inadequate. Basketball courts typically have a slight crown or slope to help with drainage. However, if the asphalt has settled, drainage can be significantly impacted. There should be no standing water on the court 24 hours after a rainfall.

6.

Fence damage. If the court does not have fencing, skip this item. The fence surrounding the court should be structurally sound. Common fence damage includes corrosion, separation of the fence poles and rails, damaged or missing fence rails, and open sections of fencing.

7.

Pole damage. The poles used to hold backboards are low maintenance items. The most common problems found include corrosion, leaning, bending, and loose foundations.

8.

Worn paint. Depending on the level of use of the court, the paint applied to the asphalt surface can be expected to have a service life of three to five years.

Use Figure 10-7 to assess the condition of outdoor basketball courts. Use a separate form for each court installed. The tools needed to perform


445

this assessment include a measuring wheel and a camera to photograph overall conditions and major defects. The photographs will help during future assessments to identify areas that are slowly deteriorating. Figure 10-7. Basketball Courts ———————————————————————————————— 1. Location: _____________________________________________________ 2. Court number: _______________ 3. Length (ft): _____________________ 4. Type of court:

❑ full

Width (ft): __________________

❑ half

5. Number of backboards: _______________ 6. Year installed: _______________ 7. Defects: None

Minor

Moderate

Extensive

Asphalt breakup

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

Backboard damage

❑

❑

❑

❑

Cracked asphalt

❑

❑

❑

❑

Drainage inadequate Fence damage

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

❑ ❑

Pole damage

❑

❑

❑

❑

Worn paint

❑ ❑ poor

❑ ❑ fair

❑

❑

❑ good

❑ excellent

Alligatoring



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Complete the basketball court assessment as follows: Item 1: Enter the location of the basketball court. Item 2: Enter a unique number for the court being assessed. The section number is useful in identifying a particular court facilities having more than one court, and will allow users to track the condition and rate of deterioration of that particular court with future assessments. Item 3: Enter the length and width of the asphalt. Item 4: Identify the type of court. Item 5: Enter the number of backboards installed. Item 6: Enter the year when the court was constructed. Item 7: For each defect listed, rate how extensive that defect is on the court. Use an average rating for the entire court. Item 8: Rate the overall condition of the court. Item 9: Estimate the remaining useful life of the tot lot equipment in years. The rating should be based on its overall condition, its age, and its exposure to harsh service conditions. Item 10: Enter comments related to conditions found during the assessment. Item 11: Enter the name of the person who conducted the assessment and the date on which the assessment was completed.

AFTER THE FIELDWORK It is not uncommon to find that after completing an assessment of a facility’s outdoor recreational facilities that a large number of items needing attention have been identified, particularly if there are a large


447

number of recreational facilities. What is most important when setting the priorities for which items to repair or replace first is safety. Take the findings of the assessment and rank them in order of importance based on their impact on improving the safety of the facility. Once their priority has been determined, separate the items into different groups on the basis of how those repairs or replacements are to be performed. For example, a number of the identified requirements may be handled by in-house maintenance personnel. Others may be contracted out. Still others may require going through a bidding process. The goal is to implement as many of the changes as possible, as quickly as possible. If some major items have to be deferred until funding can be developed or personnel scheduled, it may be necessary to close down some of the facilities temporarily.

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INDEX

449

Index A absorption chillers 241 acoustical ceiling tile 192 acoustical wall tile 169 air-cooled condensers 256, 260 air-handling units 278 alligatoring 38, 91, 107, 422, 443 architectural metal roofs 99 asbestos 267, 271, 312 asphalt parking areas 43 asphalt paths 49, 422 asphalt roads 38 asphalt shingle roofs 88 B backflow preventer 297 balancing 287 ballast 108 noise 372 basketball courts 443 battery powered lights 380 biological growth 257, 260 blistering 88, 91, 108 blowdown 236 boardwalks 440 boiler refractory 234, 238 boilers 232 breaker panels 363 brick veneer 116 building envelope 79 built-up roofs 91 bulkheads 60

C carpet 205 caulking 425 cedar shake roofs 95 ceilings 191 centrifugal chillers 245 centrifugal pumps 263, 315 ceramic tile 208 wall 176 chalking 125 chemical treatment systems 426 chillers 240 circulation pumps 299 combustion air 237 compact fluorescent lamp 376 concrete floors 212 concrete slabs 45 condensate pan 275 condensate return 271 cooling towers 256 coping 426 crazing 117, 176, 209 crowning 226 cupping 226 curbs and gutters 34 D DC high-potential test 246, 250, 253, 264, 280, 408 deferred maintenance 4 diffusers 368, 373 domestic hot water 305 449

450

door frames 150 drain pan 279, 283, 290 drainage fields 342 drift eliminators 257 dry transformers 356 duct systems 286 E efflorescence 82, 87, 117, 121, 173, 222 EIFS 132 electronic ballasts 368 elevator cabs and doors 403 elevator controls 399 elevator equipment rooms 393 emergency generators 384 engineered wood flooring 225 escalators 413 evaporative cooling tower 256 excess air 237 exfoliation 122 exit lights 376 expansion joints 92, 108 exterior doors 148 exterior lighting 63 exterior steps 30 exterior walls 115 F facility assessment 3 fan coils 275 faucets 327, 330 fence(ing) 56, 75, 434, 437, 444 fire dampers 287 flashings 88, 92, 96, 100, 103, 108, 112 flicker 369, 373 flooring 204 fluorescent lighting 368

HANDBOOK

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flush valve 322 fogged glazings 138, 142, 146 foundations 81 fungi 97 G generators 384 glare 369, 373 glass exterior doors 157 glazings 138 granite 214 grout 209 H hardwood flooring 224 heat pumps 290 heaving 27, 35, 46, 213 HID lighting fixtures 372 high-pressure boilers 236 steam 232 hot water boilers 232 HVAC piping 267 hydraulic elevators 410 I interior walls 168 inventory list 19 irrigation systems 67 L lifts 416 lighting 367 controls 64 diffusers 64 fixtures 64 levels 65, 369, 373 Limestone 216 linoleum 221 liquid-cooled transformers 352

INDEX

low-pressure boilers 233 steam 232 M manholes 348 marble 216 masonry walls 116 metal exterior doors 149 metal roofs 99 metal windows 141 modified bitumen roofs 107 mold 97 motor insulation 246, 250, 253, 264, 279 O overhead doors 161 P parquet flooring 225 paths 422 pealing paint 130 piping 299, 311 planter borders 70 plaster ceilings 198 plaster walls 182 playing fields 433 polyurethane roofs 103 ponded water 109 ponding 93, 104 pop outs 28 potholes 40, 51, 423 pressure boost pumps 299 pumps 263, 427 purge unit 242 R raveling 40, 423 reciprocating chillers 249 reflection cracks 39

451

resilient flooring 221 restroom fixtures 318 restroom partitions 318 retaining walls 53 riprap 74, 75 rising damp 118, 134 roof drains 93, 104, 109 roof penetrations 93, 109 roofing 85 rooftop HVAC 282 rotary chillers 252 S seal failure 264 seam separations 206 sediment 306, 333 septic tanks 339 sewage 340 showers 329 shrinkage cracks 39 shutoff valve 297 sidewalks 26 siding 124 silting 75 single-ply roofing 107 sinks 326 slate 216 roofs 112 spalling 27, 35, 47, 118, 213 standby power 380 steam trap 272 stone flooring 214 stone walls 120 stormwater management systems 74 structural metal roofs 99 sump pumps 336 swimming pools 425 switchgear 359

452

T tennis courts 429 terrazzo floors 218 thermoplastic roofs 107 thermoset roofing 107 tot lots 436 traction elevators 406 transformers 351 tube damage 243 tube failure 238 tubs 329 tuckpointing 118, 122 U underlayment 89 uninterruptible power supplies 388 urinals 324 V valves 269, 300, 313 vaults 348

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W wall coverings 185 wallboard 179 ceilings 195 waste and vent piping 302 water closets 321 water hammer 269, 295 water heaters 305, 332 water service 296 water tank 309 water treatment 238, 257, 272 whitecoat finish 427 wood ceilings 201 wood exterior doors 153 wood floors 224 wood paneling 188 wood siding 128 wood windows 137

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