Glocalized Solutions for Sustainability in Manufacturing

Glocalized Solutions for Sustainability in Manufacturing

Jürgen Hesselbach • Christoph Herrmann Editors

Glocalized Solutions for Sustainability in Manufacturing Proceedings of the 18th CIRP International Conference on Life Cycle Engineering, Technische Universität Braunschweig, Braunschweig, Germany, May 2nd - 4th, 2011

Editors Prof. Dr.-Ing. Dr. h.c. Jürgen Hesselbach Technische Universität Braunschweig Institut für Werkzeugmaschinen und Fertigungstechnik (IWF) Langer Kamp 19B 38106 Braunschweig Germany

PD Dr.-Ing. Christoph Herrmann Technische Universität Braunschweig Institut für Werkzeugmaschinen und Fertigungstechnik (IWF) Langer Kamp 19B 38106 Braunschweig Germany

ISBN 978-3-642-19691-1 e-ISBN 978-3-642-19692-8 DOI 10.1007/978-3-642-19692-8 Springer Heidelberg Dordrecht London New York Library of Congress Control Number: 2011924877 © Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2011 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilm or in any other way, and storage in data banks. Duplication of this publication or parts thereof is permitted only under the provisions of the German Copyright Law of September 9, 1965, in its current version, and permission for use must always be obtained from Springer. Violations are liable to prosecution under the German Copyright Law. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. Cover design: eStudio Calamar S.L. Printed on acid-free paper Springer is part of Springer Science+Business Media (www.springer.com)

Preface „[Sein] Kampf um Klarheit und Übersicht hat ungemein dazu beigetragen, die Probleme, Methoden und Resultate der Wissenschaft in vielen Köpfen lebendig werden zu lassen.“1 1

“[His] struggle for clarity and a comprehensive view has contributed immensely to bring the problems, methods and results of science into life.” Albert Einstein on the 70th birthday of Arnold Berliner. Die Naturwissenschaften (The Science of Nature),Vol.20/51, Springer, Berlin (1932).

Globalization, rapid developments in information technology, fast process- and product innovations, changing market requirements (e.g. environmental policies, increasing energy- and raw material costs) as well as global challenges, as the growing world population and the intensive use of limited resources, determine the surrounding conditions of producing companies in the 21st century. The comprehension for the resulting complex structures of social, political, economic, technical, ecological and organizational coherences increases with growing insights gained from natural sciences and technology. “Sustainable development” describes a way of how the needs of today’s generations can be satisfied without interfering with the possibilities of future generations. In order to follow this path, “ecological” change processes have to take place in society and economy. “Sustainable economies” require innovative products and processes and a life-cycle-oriented way of thinking and acting or rather a way of thinking and acting in terms of systems, i.e. in value chains and -networks embedded in the natural environment. Only by this means the shifting of problems can be avoided and integrated solutions can be created. This way of thinking and acting does not end with the customer, but proceeds up to the disposal of products and handling of materials and products and/or product parts in life cycles. Decisions on the planning and design of products and processes also have to be made in an integrated manner. This means that technical, economic and ecological aspects have to be integrated into one approach. This should be accomplished under a ”cradle-to-cradle” view – from the raw materials extraction up to end-of-life. This view should take into account not only the manufactured products but also the equipment and auxiliary materials which are necessary for production (e.g. machine tools, cooling lubricants). For this year’s conference we chose the theme “Glocalized Solutions for Sustainability in Manufacturing”. The term “glocalization” is a combination of the words “globalization” and “localization”. It was invented to describe a product or service design developed and distributed globally and also adapted specifically to each locality or culture it is marketed in. However, “Glocalized Solutions for Sustainability in Manufacturing“ do not only involve products or services that are changed for a local market by simple substitution or the omitting of functions. We want to address products and services that ensure a high standard of living everywhere. Resources required for manufacturing and use of such products are limited and not evenly distributed in the world. Locally available resources, local capabilities as well as local constraints have to be drivers for product- and process innovations. Thus, “Best of Local” is a starting point for glocalized solutions. This means for example that the availability of fuels based on biomass is a starting point for engine development in Brazil, whereas solar energy is going to be the most important energy source for future electric vehicles in countries of the earth’s sun belt (up to 35 degrees north and south of the equator). While water-based cooling lubricants are developed in Germany, technical animal fats and used edible fats are the basis for the production of cooling lubricants in Spain. Dandelion is used for the production of rubber; thus, car tires develop from renewable resources. The crushed hard shells of fruit stones (e.g. cherry stones) serve as filling material for polymers or are used as technical abrasives for the cleaning of surfaces. Locally accumulating waste streams are locally processed into new products. Thus, old PET bottles are not only recycled into world cup soccer shirts, but also into laptop bags. However, the use of resources is always linked to the environmental impact over all stages of a product life cycle from material extraction, transport and manufacturing to usage and to the end-of-life. Even if a local scope for design is always linked to global impacts, it has the potential to reduce the impact to an ecologically compatible minimum. Future glocalized engineering solutions will have the potential to address global challenges by providing products, services and processes that take into account local capabilities and constraints to achieve an economically, socially and environmentally sustainable society in a global perspective. The CIRP International Conference on Life Cycle Engineering is a platform for this wide and complex field. It will require the efforts of all of us to bring the problems, methods and results of Life Cycle Engineering into life.

Jürgen Hesselbach

Christoph Herrmann

Table of Contents

Preface .....................................................................................................................................................................................................

v

a

Organization ............................................................................................................................................................................................ a

xiii

Keynotes Electricity Metering and Monitoring in Manufacturing Systems ........................................................................................................ S. Kara, G. Bogdanski, W. Li

1

Implementing life Cycle Engineering efficiently into Automotive Endustry Processes ................................................................... S. Krinke

11

Leveraging Manufacturing for a Sustainable Future ........................................................................................................................... D. Dornfeld

17

Sustainability Engineering by Product-Service Systems .................................................................................................................... G. Seliger

22

Solvis Zero-Emission Factory - The 'Solvis way' - Structure and Subject ......................................................................................... H. Jäger

29

Manufacturing and the Science of Sustainability ................................................................................................................................ T. G. Gutowski

32

Indian Solar Thermal Technology – Technology to Protect Environment and Ecology .................................................................. D. Gadhia

40

a

Automotive Life Cycle Engineering Assessment of Energy and Resource Consumption of Processes and Process Chains within the Automotive Sector ............. R. Schlosser, F. Klocke, B. Döbbeler, B. Riemer, K. Hameyer, T. Herold, W. Zimmermann, O. Nuding, B. A. Schindler, M. Niemczyk

45

Assessment of Alternative Propulsion Systems for Vehicles ............................................................................................................ C. Herrmann, K. S. Sangwan, M. Mennenga, P. Halubek, P. Egede

51

Concept and Development of Intelligent Production Control to enable Versatile Production in the Automotive Factories of the Future ................................................................................................................................................................................................. S. U. H. Minhas, C. Lehmann, U. Berger

57

Resource Efficiency – what are the Objectives? .................................................................................................................................. M. Gernuks

63

Comparative Life Cycle Assessment of Remanufacturing and New Manufacturing of a Manual Transmission .......................... J. Warsen, M. Laumer, W. Momberg

67

a

Automotive Life Cycle Engineering - Recycling Coordination of Design-for-Recycling Activities in Decentralized Product Design Processes in the Automotive Industry ....... K. Schmidt, T. Volling, T. S. Spengler

73

A Strategic Framework for the Design of Recycling Networks for Lithium-Ion Batteries from Electric Vehicles ......................... C. Hoyer, K. Kieckhäfer, T. S. Spengler

79

Recovery of Active Materials from Spent Lithium-Ion Electrodes and Electrode Production Rejects ........................................... C. Hanisch, W. Haselrieder, A. Kwade

85

New Technologies for Remanufacturing of Automotive Systems Communicating via CAN Bus ................................................... R. Steinhilper, S. Freiberger, M. Albrecht, J. Käufl, E. Binder, C. Brückner

90

LCM applied to Auto Shredder Residue (ASR) ..................................................................................................................................... L. Morselli, A. Santini, F. Passarini, I. Vassura, L. Ciacci

96

viii

Table of Contents

Life Cycle Design - Methods and Tools Eco-Innovation by Integrating Biomimetic with TRIZ Ideality and Evolution Rules ......................................................................... J. L. Chen, Y.-C. Yang

101

Reasoning New Eco-Products by Integrating TRIZ with CBR and Simple LCA Methods ................................................................ C. J. Yang , J. L. Chen

107

Proposal of an Integrated Eco-Design Framework of Products and Processes ............................................................................... S. Kondoh, N. Mishima

113

Development of CAD System for Life Cycle Scenario-Based Product Design ................................................................................. E. Kunii, S. Fukushige, Y. Umeda

118

Environmental Impact Assessment Model for Wireless Sensor Networks ....................................................................................... J. Bonvoisin, A. Lelah, F. Mathieux, D. Brissaud

124

Considering the Social Dimension in Environmental Design ............................................................................................................. B. Dreux-Gerphagnon, N. Haoues

130

Proposal of an Ecodesign Maturity Model: supporting Companies to improve Environmental Sustainability ............................. D. C. A. Pigosso, H. Rozenfeld

136

Environmental and Operational Analysis of Ecodesign Methods Based on QFD and FMEA ......................................................... F. N. Puglieri, A. R. Ometto

142

Synergico: a new “Design for Energy Efficiency” Method enhancing the Design of more environmentally friendly Electr(on)ic Equipments ......................................................................................................................................................................... L. Domingo, D. Evrard, F. Mathieux, G. Moenne-Loccoz

148

Improving Product Design based on Energy Considerations ............................................................................................................ Y. Seow, S. Rahimifard

154

Eco-Design Tool to support the Use of Renewable Polymers within Packaging Applications ....................................................... J. Colwill, S. Rahimifard, A. Clegg

160

A

Life Cycle Design - Selected Applications State-of-the-art Ecodesign on the Electronics Shop Shelves? A Quantitative Analysis of Developments in Ecodesign of TV Sets ........................................................................................................................................................................................................... C. Boks, R. Wever, A. Stevels

167

Simultaneous Application of Design for Sustainable Behavior and Linked Benefit Strategies in Practice .................................. J. Schmalz, C. Boks

173

Strategic Evaluation of Manufacturing Technologies ......................................................................................................................... G. Reinhart, S. Schindler, P. Krebs

179

Consideration of the Precautionary Principle – the Responsible Development of Nano Technologies ........................................ M. Weil

185

Proposal of a Design Support Method for Sustainability Scenarios 1st Report: Designing Forecasting Scenarios ................... H. Wada, Y. Kishita, Y. Mizuno, M. Hirosaki, S. Fukushige, Y. Umeda

189

a

Sustainability in Manufacturing Evaluating Trade-Offs Between Sustainability, Performance, and Cost of Green Machining Technologies ................................. M. Helu, J. Rühl, D. Dornfeld, P. Werner, G. Lanza

195

Sustainable Production by Integrating Business Models of Manufacturing and Recycling Industries ......................................... C. Jonsson, J. Felix , A. Sundelin , B. Johansson

201

Life Cycle Engineering – Integration of New Products on Existing Production Systems in Automotive Industry ....................... W. Walla, J. Kiefer

207

Managing Sustainability in Product Design and Manufacturing ........................................................................................................ K. Ioannou, A. Veshagh

213

A System for Resource Efficient Process Planning for Wire EDM ..................................................................................................... S. Dhanik, P. Xirouchakis, R. Perez

219

Increased Trustability of Reliability Prognoses for Machine Tools ................................................................................................... G. Lanza, P. Werner, D. Appel, B. Behmann

225

Table of Contents

ix

Hidden Aspects of Industrial Packaging - The Driving Forces behind Packaging Selection Processes at Industrial Packaging Suppliers .................................................................................................................................................................................................. S. S. Casell

229

Applying Functionally Graded Materials by Laser Cladding: a cost-effective way to improve the Lifetime of Die-Casting Dies ........................................................................................................................................................................................................... S. Müller, H. Pries, K. Dilger, S. Ocylok, A. Weisheit, I. Kelbassa

235

A Total Life-Cycle Approach towards Developing Product Metrics for Sustainable Manufacturing .............................................. A. Gupta, A. D. Jayal, M. Chimienti, I. S. Jawahir

240

Carbon Footprint Analysis for Energy Improvement in Flour Milling Production ........................................................................... C. W. P. Shi, F. Rugrungruang, Z. Yeo, B. Song

246

a

Sustainability in Manufacturing - Energy Efficiency in Machine Tools Modelling Machine Tools for Self-Optimisation of Energy Consumption ......................................................................................... R. Schmitt, J. L. Bittencourt, R. Bonefeld

253

Energy-Efficient Machine Tools through Simulation in the Design Process .................................................................................... C. Eisele, S. Schrems, E. Abele

258

Energy Consumption Characterization and Reduction Strategies for Milling Machine Tool Use ................................................... N. Diaz, E. Redelsheimer, D. Dornfeld

263

An Investigation into Fixed Energy Consumption of Machine Tools ................................................................................................. W. Li, A. Zein, S. Kara, C. Herrmann

268

Energy Efficiency Measures for the Design and Operation of Machine Tools: An Axiomatic Approach ...................................... A. Zein, W. Li, C. Herrmann, S. Kara

274

Analyzing Energy Consumption of Machine Tool Spindle Units and Identification of Potential for Improvements of Efficiency ................................................................................................................................................................................................. E. Abele, T. Sielaff, A. Schiffler, S. Rothenbücher

280

a

Sustainability in Manufacturing - Energy Efficiency in Process Chains Energy Consumption as One Possible Exclusion Criterion for the Reuse of Old Equipment in New Production Lines ............. L. Weyand, H. Bley, M. Swat, K. Trapp, D. Bähre

287

Optimizing Energy Costs by Intelligent Production Scheduling ........................................................................................................ A. Pechmann, I. Schöler

293

Methodology for an Energy and Resource Efficient Process Chain Design ..................................................................................... S. Schrems, C. Eisele, E. Abele

299

A New Shop Scheduling Approach in Support of Sustainable Manufacturing ................................................................................. K. Fang, N. Uhan, F. Zhao, J. W. Sutherland

305

Comparison of the Resource Efficiency of Alternative Process Chains for Surface Hardening .................................................... G. Reinhart, S. Reinhardt, T. Föckerer, M. F. Zäh

311

Synergies from Process and Energy Oriented Process Chain Simulation – A Case Study from the Aluminium Die Casting Industry .................................................................................................................................................................................................... C. Herrmann, T. Heinemann, S. Thiede

317

a

Sustainability in Manufacturing - Methods and Tools for Energy Efficiency Context-Aware Analysis Approach to Enhance Industrial Smart Metering ....................................................................................... C. Herrmann, S.-H. Suh, G. Bogdanski, A. Zein, J.-M. Cha, J. Um, S. Jeong, A. Guzman

323

Exergy Efficiency Definitions for Manufacturing Processes .............................................................................................................. Renaldi, K. Kellens, W. Dewulf, J. R. Duflou

329

State of Research and an innovative Approach for simulating Energy Flows of Manufacturing Systems .................................... S. Thiede, C. Herrmann, S. Kara

335

Modular Modeling of Energy Consumption for Monitoring and Control ........................................................................................... A. Verl, E. Abele, U. Heisel, A. Dietmair, P. Eberspächer, R. Rahäuser, S. Schrems, S. Braun

341

Architecture for Multilevel Monitoring and Control of Energy Consumption .................................................................................. A. Verl, E. Westkämper, E. Abele, A. Dietmair, J. Schlechtendahl, J. Friedrich, H. Haag, S. Schrems

347

x

Table of Contents

Sustainability in Manufacturing - Selected Applications Green Performance Map – An Industrial Tool for Enhancing Environmental Improvements within a Production System ......... K. Romvall, M. Kurdve, M. Bellgran, J. Wictorsson

353

Analysis and Quantification of Improvement in Green Manufacturing Process of Silicon Nitride Products ................................ N. Mishima, S. Kondoh, H. Hyuga, Y. Zhou, K. Hirao

359

Evaluation of the Environmental Impact of different Lubrorefrigeration Conditions in Milling of γ-TiAl Alloy ............................. G. Rotella, P. C. Priarone, S. Rizzuti, L. Settineri

365

Quantitative and Qualitative Benefits of Green Manufacturing: an Empirical Study of Indian Small and Medium Enterprises .. K. S. Sangwan

371

Preliminary Environmental Assessment of Electrical Discharge Machining .................................................................................... K. Kellens, Renaldi, W. Dewulf, J. R. Duflou

377

Development of an Interpretive Structural Model of Obstacles to Environmentally Conscious Technology adoption in Indian Industry .................................................................................................................................................................................................... V. K. Mittal, K. S. Sangwan

383

Identifying Carbon Footprint Reduction Opportunities through Energy Measurements in Sheet Metal Part Manufacturing ...... C. W. P. Shi, F. Rugrungruang, Z. Yeo, K. H. K. Gwee, R. Ng, B. Song

389

Sustainable Production Research - a Proposed Method to design the Sustainability Measures ................................................... M. K. Wedel, B. Johansson, A. Dagman, J. Stahre

395

Green Production of CFRP Parts by Application of Inductive Heating .............................................................................................. M. Frauenhofer, S. Kreling, H. Kunz, K. Dilger

401

Saving Potential of Water for Foundry Sand Using Treated Coolant Water ...................................................................................... J. O. Gomes, V. E. O. Gomes, J. F. de Souza, E. Y. Kawachi

407

a

End of Life Management - Reuse and Remanufacturing Modular Grouping Exploration to design Remanufacturable Products ............................................................................................ N. Tchertchian, D. Millet, O. Pialot

413

Development of Part Agents for the Promotion of Reuse of Parts through Experiment and Simulation ...................................... H. Hiraoka, K. Ito, K. Nishida, K. Horii, Y. Shigeji

419

Systematic Categorization of Reuse and Identification of Issues in Reuse Management in the Closed Loop Manufacturing ... T. Sakai, S. Takata

425

Approach for Integration of Sustainability Aspects into Innovation Processes ............................................................................... S. Severengiz, P. Gausemeier, G. Seliger, F. A. Pereira

431

Remanufacturing Engineering Literature Overview and Future Research Needs ............................................................................ Q. Ke, H.-C. Zhang, G. Liu, B. Li

437

a

End of Life Management - Selected Applications Effects of Lateral Transshipments in Multi-Echelon Closed-Loop Supply Chains ........................................................................... K. Tracht, M. Mederer, D. Schneider

443

Development of an Interpretive Structural Model of Barriers to Reverse Logistics Implementation in Indian Industry .............. A. Jindal, K. S. Sangwan

448

Recycling of LCD Screens in Europe - State of the Art and Challenges ........................................................................................... S. Salhofer, M. Spitzbart, K. Maurer

454

End of Life Strategies in the Aviation Industry .................................................................................................................................... J. Feldhusen, J. Pollmanns, J. E. Heller

459

Contribution of Recycling Processes to Sustainable Resource Management ................................................................................. A. Pehlken, K.-D. Thoben

465

Business Issues in Remanufacturing: Two Brazilian Cases in the Automotive Industry ................................................................ O. T. Oiko, A. P. B. Barquet, A. R. Ometto

470

A Systematic Investigation for Reducing Shredder Residue for Complex Automotive Seat Subassemblies ............................... S. Barakat, J. Urbanic

476

Eco Quality Polymers-EQP ..................................................................................................................................................................... C. Luttropp, E. Strömberg

482

Table of Contents

xi

Intelligent Products to Support Closed-Loop Reverse Logistics ....................................................................................................... K. A. Hribernik, M. von Stietencron, C. Hans, K.-D. Thoben

486

The Prospects of Managing WEEE in Indonesia .................................................................................................................................. J. Hanafi, H. J. Kristina, E. Jobiliong, A. Christiani, A. V. Halim, D. Santoso, E. Melini

492

Medical Electrical Equipment - Good Refurbishment Practice at Siemens AG Healthcare ............................................................. M. Plumeyer, M. Braun

497

a

Information and Knowledge Management Sustainable Product Lifecycle Management: A Lifecycle based Conception of Monitoring a Sustainable Product Development ............................................................................................................................................................................................ M. Eigner, M. von Hauff, P. D. Schäfer

501

Semantic Web Based Dynamic Energy Analysis and Forecasts in Manufacturing Engineering .................................................... K. Wenzel, J. Riegel, A. Schlegel, M. Putz

507

Energy Data Acquisition and Utilization for Energy-Oriented Product Data Management .............................................................. T. Reichel, G. Rünger, D. Steger, U. Frieß, M. Wabner

513

Integrating Energy-Saving Process Chains and Product Data Models ............................................................................................. G. Rünger, A. Schubert, S. Goller, B. Krellner, D. Steger

519

Challenges in Data Management in Product Life Cycle Engineering ................................................................................................. T. Fasoli, S. Terzi, E. Jantunen, J. Kortelainen, J Sääski, T. Salonen

525

Business Game for Total Life Cycle Management ............................................................................................................................... S. Böhme, T. Heinemann, C. Herrmann, M. Mennenga, R. Nohr, J. Othmer

531

Requirements Management – a Premise for adequate Life Cycle Design ......................................................................................... S. Klute, C. Kolbe, R. Refflinghaus

537

Towards a Methodology for Analyzing Sustainability Standards using the Zachman Framework ................................................ S. Rachuri, P. Sarkar, A. Narayanan, J. H. Lee, P. Witherell

543

Sustainability through Next Generation PLM in Telecommunications Industry ............................................................................... J. Golovatchev, O. Budde

549

Challenges of an Efficient Data Management for Sustainable Product Design ................................................................................ T. Leitner, M. Stachura, A. Schiffleitner, N. Stein

554

Product and Policy Life Cycle Inventories with Market Driven Demand: An Engine Selection Case Study .................................. H. Grimes-Casey, C. Girata, K. Whitefoot, G. A. Keloeian, J. J. Winebrake, S. J. Skerlos

558

A Case-Study: Finding References to Product Development Knowledge from Analysis of Face-to-Face Meetings ................... B. Piorkowski, J. Gao, R. Evans

564

a

Life Cycle Assessment - Methods and Tools CAD-Integrated LCA Tool: Comparison with dedicated LCA Software and Guidelines for the Improvement ............................... A. Morbidoni, C. Favi, M. Germani

569

Comparison of two LCA Methodologies in the Machine-Tools Environmental Performance Improvement Process ................... M. Azevedo, M. Oliveira, J. P. Pereira, A. Reis

575

Developing Impact Assessment Methods: an Approach for addressing inherent Problems .......................................................... M. Toxopeus, V. Kickert, E. Lutters

581

Developing a Conceptual Framework for UT based LCA .................................................................................................................... J.-M. Cha, S.-H. Suh

587

Towards the Integration of Local and Global Environmental Assessment Methods: Application to Computer System Power Management ............................................................................................................................................................................................ V. Moreau, N. Gondran, V. Laforest Cradle to Cradle and LCA – is there a Conflict? .................................................................................................................................. A. Bjørn, M. Z. Hauschild

593 599

xii

Table of Contents

Life Cycle Assessment - Selected Applications Environmental Assessment of Printed Circuit Boards from Biobased Materials ............................................................................. Y. Deng, K. Van Acker, W. Dewulf, J. R. Duflou Application of Life Cycle Engineering for the Comparison of Biodegradable Polymers Injection Moulding Performance ............................................................................................................................................................................................ D. Almeida, P. Peças, I. Ribeiro, P. Teixeira, E. Henriques

605

611

Using Ecological Assessment during the Conceptual Design Phase of Chemical Processes – a Case Study ............................ L. Grundemann, J. C. Kuschnerow, T. Brinkmann, S. Scholl

617

Environmental Footprint of Single-Use Surgical Instruments in Comparison with Multi-Use Surgical Instruments .................. J. Schulz, J. Pschorn, S. Kara, C. Herrmann, S. Ibbotson, T. Dettmer, T. Luger

623

Comparative Carbon Footprint Assessment of Door made from Recycled Wood Waste versus Virgin Hardwood: Case Study of a Singapore Wood Waste Recycling Plant ....................................................................................................................................... R. Ng, C. W. P. Shi, J. S. C. Low, H. M. Lee, B. Song

629

a

Life Cycle Costing A Target Costing-Based Approach for Design to Energy Efficiency ................................................................................................. A. Bierer, U. Götze

635

Life Cycle Costing Assessment with both Internal and External Costs Estimation ......................................................................... S. Martinez, M. Hassanzadeh, Y. Bouzidi, N. Antheaume

641

Environmental and Economic Evaluation of Solar Thermal Panels using Exergy and Dimensional Analysis ............................. G. Medyna, E. Coatanea, D. Millet

647

Implications of Material Flow Cost Accounting for Life Cycle Engineering ...................................................................................... T. Viere, M. Prox, A. Möller, M. Schmidt

652

a

Life Cycle Costing - Modelling Aircraft Engine Component Deterioration and Life Cycle Cost Estimation ...................................................................................... Y. Zhao, A. Harrison, R. Roy, J. Mehnen

657

Life Cycle Cost Estimation using a Modeling Tool for the Design of Control Systems ................................................................... H. Komoto, T. Tomiyama

663

Assessing the Value of Sub-System Technologies including Life Cycle Alternatives .................................................................... A. Bertoni, O. Isaksson, M. Bertoni, T. Larsson

669

Costing for Avionic Through-Life Availability ...................................................................................................................................... L. Newnes, A. Mileham, G. Rees, P. Green

675

Eco Global Evaluation: Cross Benefits of Economic and Ecological Evaluation ............................................................................. N. Perry, A. Bernard, M. Bosch-Mauchand, J. LeDuigou, Y. Xu

681

A Index of Authors ......................................................................................................................................................................................

687

Organization

CHAIRMEN Prof. J. Hesselbach PD Dr.-Ing. Christoph Herrmann ORGANIZING COMMITTEE Chief Organizers Dipl.-Wirtsch.-Ing. Mark Mennenga Dipl.-Wirtsch.-Ing. Tim Heinemann Organizing Committee Hannah Jule Schäfer, M.A.

Dipl.-Wirtsch.-Ing. Katrin Kuntzky

Dipl.-Ing. (FH) Stefan Andrew

Dr.-Ing. Tobias Luger

Dr.-Ing. Ralf Bock

Dipl.-Chem. Gerlind Öhlschläger

Dipl.-Ing. Gerrit Bogdanski

Anne-Marie Schlake, M.A.

Dr.-Ing. Tina Dettmer

Dipl.-Wirtsch.-Ing. Tim Spiering

Dipl.-Wirtsch.-Ing. Patricia Egede

Dipl.-Wirtsch.-Ing. Julian Stehr

Dipl.-Wirtsch.-Ing. Philipp Halubek

Dipl.-Wirtsch.-Ing. Sebastian Thiede

Dipl.-Ing. Mohamad Jamal Kayasa

Dipl.-Wirtsch.-Ing. Marius Winter

Dipl.-Ing. Michael Krause

Dipl.-Wirtsch.-Ing. André Zein

INTERNATIONAL SCIENTIFIC COMMITTEE Prof. L. Alting / DK

Prof. N. Nasr / US

Porf. C. Boks / NO

Prof. A. Nee / SG

Prof. B. Bras / US

Prof. R. Neugebauer / DE

Prof. D. Brissaud / FR

Prof. A. Ometto / BR

Prof. J. L. Chen / TW

Prof. S. Salhofer / AT

Prof. W. Dewulf / BE

Prof. K. S. Sangwan / IN

Prof. D. Dornfeld / US

Prof. G. Seliger / DE

Prof. J. Duflou / BE

Prof. W. Sihn / AT

Prof. T. Gutowski / US

Prof. S. Skerlos / US

Prof. M. Hauschild / DK

Prof. T. Spengler / DE

Prof. H. Kaebernick / AU

Prof. S. H. Suh / KR

Prof. S. Kara / AU

Prof. J. Sutherland / US

Prof. F. Kimura / JP

Prof. S. Takata / JP

Prof. W. Knight / US

Prof. S. Tichkiewitch / FR

Prof. T. Lien / NO

Prof. T. Tomiyama / NL

Dr. C. Luttropp / SW

Prof. Y. Umeda / JP

Prof. H. Meier / DE

Prof. E. Westkämper / DE

Prof. L. Morselli / I

Prof. H. Zhang / US

Electricity Metering and Monitoring in Manufacturing Systems S. Kara

1, 2

, G. Bogdanski

1, 3

, W. Li

1, 2

1

Joint German-Australian Research Group in Sustainable Manufacturing and Life Cycle Management

2

Life Cycle Engineering & Management Research Group, School of Mechanical & Manufacturing Engineering, The University of New South Wales, Australia

3

Institute of Machine Tools and Production Technology (IWF), Product- and Life-Cycle-Management Research Group, Technische Universität Braunschweig, Germany

Abstract Traditionally, electricity costs in manufacturing have been considered as an overhead cost. In the last decade, the manufacturing industry has witnessed a dramatic increase in electricity costs, which can no longer be treated as an overhead, but a valuable resource to be managed strategically. However, this can only be achieved by strategically gathering electricity consumption data by metering and monitoring. This keynote paper presents the latest developments and challenges in electricity metering and monitoring systems and standards in the context of manufacturing systems. An industry case is presented to emphasise the challenges and the possible solutions to address them. Keywords: Manufacturing Systems; Energy Efficiency; Metering and Monitoring

1

INTRODUCTION

Global warming and its disastrous environmental and economic effects are considered as one of the major challenges that today’s and future generations have to face during the 21 century. One of the main attribute of this challenge is due to the environmental impact e.g. Green House Gas (GWP) emission, caused during the generation of electricity from fossil fuels [1]. Therefore, one of the possible ways to reduce GWP emission is to reduce the electricity consumption, which is also enforced by national and international initiatives, e.g. Kyoto agreement. In addition, industry has a high interest in reducing the energy consumption, because energy has become a major cost driver, especially for high technology industries with their energy intensive manufacturing processes. Energy cost has long been treated as a necessary overhead cost for creating value-added products. However, more and more industrial companies are consciously shifting towards treating energy as a valuable resource, which needs to be planned and managed as a variable input for their plant. A necessary prerequisite for such energy-conscious behaviour is to be able to systematically measure energy consumption in a manufacturing plant. One of the challenges plant managers facing today is to gain transparency inside complex energy distribution networks of their manufacturing plants. A fundamental prerequisite for achieving this transparency is primarily to meter the consumed energy and its related characteristics in time. In order to gain full awareness, the metered physical values need to be monitored, interpreted and visualized in plant management systems. Electrical energy is in high favour of industry because it can easily be converted into many lower energy forms such as heat, light, compressed air, mechanical torque and many others. Consumption of electrical energy, in comparison to other energy forms, can be measured easily and precisely. Therefore, other energy forms are usually converted by sensors and transducers into electrical signals which themselves can be picked up by standard procedures of electrical signal metering techniques. In this paper the evolution and the latest development in electricity

metering and monitoring technologies are first introduced. A rapid development in measurement instruments requires up-to-date standards in order to compare and select appropriate device. After giving an overview about the most relevant international and national standards, the potentials of electricity metering and monitoring in manufacturing plants are illustrated and technical requirements for metering and monitoring systems are presented. The most important aspects that need to be considered when designing metering strategies are highlighted with a case study from an Australian manufacturing company. 2

EVOLUTION OF MONITORING

ELECTRICITY

MEASUREMENT

AND

Since the introduction of electricity distribution grids, there has been a demand for devices to measure the energy consumption in order to assist suppliers for distributing, pricing and monitoring their service. As early as during the 1880s, companies were authorized to sell electricity. One of the first patents for an electricity meter had been taken out by Pulvermacher in 1868 for an electrolytic meter [2]. Besides the electrolytic meters, there were other early inventions for measuring electricity, for instance thermal meters, clock meters and motor meters. In 1884 the Aron Meter Co. started selling the first meters of the true dynamometer type electricity meter patented by Hermann Aron. They were considered to have the highest degree of accuracy of the available meters at that time. As one form of the motor meters, the induction meter (Ferraris disc meter), had emerged to meet the needs of the emerging multiphase generation and transmission of electric power for high precision Alternating Current (AC) meters. The induction meter is still in general use today but is reaching its limits of accuracy and lacking ability to communicate its metering values. Recent developments try to meet the demands of the evolving smart grid technology calling for multi-value measurement and bi-directional communication ability [3]. The advances in semiconductor technology have led to the technological overrun of bulky electromechanical meters by smaller dimensioned, solely electronic metering devices by the early 1990s. By removing all complex

J. Hesselbach and C. Herrmann (eds.), Glocalized Solutions for Sustainability in Manufacturing: Proceedings of the 18th CIRP International Conference on Life Cycle Engineering, Technische Universität Braunschweig, Braunschweig, Germany, May 2nd - 4th, 2011, DOI 10.1007/978-3-642-19692-8_1, © Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2011

1

2

Keynotes

analogue/digital converter circuitry for the basic measurements such as current and voltage



multiplier for the instantaneous measurement values



time to frequency converters for voltage and current [6].

The overall structure of measuring elements of electronic meters is basically the same. However, the applied measurement techniques are, in contrast to electromechanical metering systems, very different. The multiplication of voltage and current for example can be done by a hall multiplier, a time division multiplier or digital multiplier [5-6]. Providing at least the same functionality as hybrid meters the electronic meters aim at offering extended information to the user. This is done through digital signal processing by means of microprocessors or customized integrated circuits. The digital circuitry can perform time accurate calculation of active, reactive, apparent energy and power factor as well as frequency and harmonic distortion metering with many mathematical functionalities such as averaging, min/max detection, integration and accumulation [4, 6]. All performed metering is provided to serve for billing and controlling of the supplied and used electrical energy. The application of different measurement principles and individually designed integrated circuitry in metering devices calls for national and international standards to allow users to verify their metered value in accordance to approved limitations. As an example for international standards, the IEC 62053 and the ANSI C12.20 mandates the accuracy of static watt-hour meters and have defined four different classes: class 2, class 1, class 0.5 and class 0.2 (e.g. class 0.5 requires a repeatable meter precision of 0.5% of nominal current and voltage) [7-8]. The revised German VDE 0410 had even clustered these classes into utility measurement ranging from class 1 to class 5 and into precision measurement ranging from class 0.1 to class 0.5 for directly indicating metering devices with a scale. The VDE 0410 has been overworked in the IEC 60051, within a much more comprehensive international standard for direct acting analogue electrical measuring instruments [9-10]. The electrical meters measurement chain is subject to an error of the measurement chain, expressed in the accuracy G, indicated by the class and enabling the user to calculate the limitations of maximum and minimum deviation ∆x inside a given metering measurement range xmax-min of the instrument

∆x = G xmax-min / 100%.

(1)

Current digital electricity meters available on the market already claim to some extent, to meet the accuracy limitation of 0.1% or

PURPOSE OF ELECTRICITY MONITORING IN INDUSTRY

MEASUREMENT

AND

Electricity metering and monitoring in industrial applications address a wide range of applications, which can be divided into three broad levels of application: 

Factory Level



Department Level



Unit Process Level.

In general, from the customer perspective, metering and monitoring of electricity in industry applications is done to gain transparency into electricity billing, internal electricity distribution and energy controlling. Each of the three stated levels above contains its own set of technical requirements concerning the metering equipment and the attached monitoring system. They also have their own associated potential benefits and degree of transparency requirement from the application of electricity metering and monitoring. Figure 1 shows a factory from an electricity consumer perspective with all its organisational sub-consumers within the three levels. Transparency gains through electricity metering and monitoring

Organizational level structure

• energy billing • energy contract •…

Factory

• energy accounting • identify hot-spots • transparency of energy flow within the factory • …

• energy modelling • process simulation • machine efficiency redesign • ...

Factory



3

Department 1

Machine 1

…

Department n

SubDepartment 1.1

...

SubDepartment n.1

SubDepartment 1.m

…

SubDepartment n.m

…

Machine i

Periphery System 1

…

Department

For simple kilowatt-hour metering the electromechanical meters such as Ferraris disc meters, are still considered to be the most economical solution because of its extremely long life and durability [5-6]. The metering industry has been trying to lengthen the technology life of the predominant electromechanical technology by using hybrid solutions, e.g. adding electronics to the present devices, to fulfil additional functions like maximum demand calculations as demanded by today’s suppliers to price industry and medium to large sized commercial electricity customers [6]. With the help of add-on electronics, hybrid meters can provide their users various other functions such as multi-rate registers, seasonal registers, historical value registers, maximum demand, and consumptions threshold definition. The inevitable next step in the evolution of electricity meters is the electronic meters. In contrast to electromechanical meters different principles are used to measure the basic values of electricity, from which all other values of interest are usually derived by means of electronic calculation. Basic elements for each power phase are:

lower, causing buyers to be confused because there is no existing international standard of 0.1% accuracy which a manufacturer could claim compliance to [11]. Therefore, standards need to keep up the pace of technological innovation in order to ensure that metering equipment buyers are able to compare and benchmark claimed accuracy by providing manufacturers a specified set of tests over the whole range of operation conditions of load current, power factor, temperature and harmonic distortion.

Unit Process

moving mechanical parts, the electronic meters are able to house multi-sensors within highly integrated circuits [4].

Periphery System j

Figure 1: Three levels of a factory as a consumer of electricity. The most important fact that needs to be stated is that the organisational structure rarely complies with the technical electricity distribution network, which brings additional challenges during department level electricity metering and monitoring which will be discussed later. What all three levels have in common in relation to metering electricity is the basic measurement values that all other specific information can be mathematically driven from: voltage and current with respect to time. For instance, in a general 3 phase system, the total active power PW tot can be calculated as:

PW tot = PW1 + PW2 + PW3

(2)

= U1N eff I1 eff cos φ1 + U2N eff I2 eff cos φ2 + U3N eff I3 eff cos φ3.

(3)

Keynotes

3

Where φn is the phase angle between the current In and the voltage Un of the n-th phase. In 2-phase-systems it is theoretically possible to meter only two lines because one line can be seen as the neutral. Nevertheless, it is often seen that 3-phase-systems are also equipped with three separate power meters to monitor three phases and to ensure a higher accuracy of the metering result, especially at low powers and high phase angles [12]. The accuracy of a measurement is therefore always directly related to the accuracy of the current and voltage measurement error and needs to be calculated accordingly. (a)

I1

(b)

K

L

k

l

U

V

u

v

I2

Figure 2: Current (a) and voltage (b) transformer circuits [12]. Usually a galvanic isolation, as depicted in Figure 2, is used in the current and voltage meters to prevent them from accidental overload from harming the sensitive metering equipment. The most widespread application to realize a galvanic isolation is a simple current and voltage transformer which is going into saturation if an overload is applied on the primary windings. The secondary windings are short circuited by the current meter. The transformation rate is generally dimensioned to conduct 1 or 5 A (current meter) and 100 V (voltage meter) on the secondary windings. The transformers are also regarded as part of the measuring chain and are also adding their own error in terms of accuracy limitation to the total measurement system. The IEC 60044-1 is dealing with the technical requirements of current transformers for instruments as well as their indicated accuracy classes [13]. Assuming a normal distribution of the measurement errors of the components, the total measurement systems accuracy Gtot is calculated as considering the accuracy levels of the transformer Gtrans and of the instrument Ginst:

Gtot = ( Gtrans2 + Ginst2 )1/2.

(4)

The error of a current transformer is actually consisting of a basic error, which can be very low in a good technically designed transformer, and an angular error, which is highly dependent on the applied apparent current burden [12]. The following section will

present a more specific view on the potential gains from metering and monitoring applications on the three organizational levels. Recent publications show, that the industrialized countries are facing a multidimensional pressure from the economical, ecological as well as legislative side to shift their field of actions more towards energy and resource efficient processes and structures within their company, their products and their services to stay competitive in the global market environment. 3.1

Factory Level

The electricity metering and monitoring on factory level is done on the interface between the electricity supplier and the consumer (factory inlet). Electricity is an energy resource that is demanded by the manufacturing industry ever since the light bulb was invented and the establishment of the electricity industry in the late nineteenth century. With the rising demand, quality and the continuity of the supply have become a serious concern [14]. As a result, today’s electricity grid and the supply of electric voltage are standardized within different regulations. For instance in Europe, the EN 50160 written by the European Electrotechnical Standards Body CENELEC is used [15]. The EN 50160 address the electric voltage as a good and the quality has to be ensured in the provision to the customer. Otherwise the customer would be able to claim a better product quality from the supplier. Electricity is a very unique product, being produced, delivered and used at the same instant of time [14]. Due to a high level of dependence on electric voltage supply, the industry and the public have to be sure that they can operate their electrical equipment without incurring additional capital expenditures due to a lack of quality in the electricity supply from the low (LV) and the medium voltage (MV) grids. The voltage quality can be imagined as the usability of electrical energy without interruptions. The subject of voltage quality is becoming more and more important in highly developed countries, because of the increased use of applications, which are very sensitive to disturbances of the voltage amplitude or of the voltage wave shape [16]. In order to check the quality of the electrical voltage supplied to the customer according to the given characteristics of the EN 50160, metering equipment suitable for that task needs to be deployed. Table 1 lists an extract of specifications from EN 50160 that brings in another important aspect of modern digital electricity meters – the resolution in time [4]. A high resolution of metering data can be ensured by a high sampling rate of the analogue-digital circuitry and a short settling time of any analogue components like the current and the voltage transformers and the amplification circuits.

Acceptable limits

Measurement Monitoring period interval

Grid Frequency

49.5 Hz to 50.5 Hz, 47 Hz to 52 Hz

10 s

1 week

Slow Voltage Changes

230 V ±10%

10 min

1 week

Voltage Sags or Dips (≤ 1 min)

10 to 1000 times per year (under 85% of nominal)

10 ms

1 year

Short Interruptions (≤ 3 min)

10 to 100 times per year (under 1% of nominal)

10 ms

1 year

Accidental, long interruptions (> 3 min)

10 to 50 times per year (under 1% of nominal)

10 ms

1 year

Temporary Overvoltages (line to ground)

Mostly < 1.5 kV

10 ms

-

Transient Overvoltages (line to ground)

Mostly < 6 kV

-

-

Voltage Unbalance

Mostly 2%, but occasionally 3%

10 min

1 week

Harmonic Voltages

8% total harmonic distortion (THD)

10 min

1 week

Supply voltage phenomenon

Table 1: Summary of electricity specifications from EN 50160 and related measurement intervals from Shtargot [4].

4

Keynotes

On the factory level, several aspects of the electric energy are essential to be metered in order to gain the certain state of transparency of the factory’s energy consumption from a holistic perspective [17-18]. Table 2 lists a summary of possible cost factors based on the electricity consumption on the factory level and possible potential benefits that can be achieved by gaining a certain level of transparency through metering key values such as listed in Table 1. By using a simple initial monitoring and controlling of consumption the electricity consumer will be able to address the problems on time and not retrospectively after receiving the bill. Electricity metering and monitoring on the factory level enables the consumer to check the quality characteristics of the supplied product and enables him to gain an important amount of transparency for time dependent controlling of energy consumption. Factory level: Cost factors

Total energy consumed, peak power demand, power factor limitation, THD feedback

Potential benefits enabled through electricity metering

Adaption of the electricity supply contract; preventing of peak charges through rescheduling of processes or events

Table 2: Cost factors and potential benefits through electricity metering and monitoring on factory level. 3.2

Department level

The department level structure usually consists of n departments which can show the functional units of the factory. Table 3 shows the major cost factors concerning electricity and related potential benefits through electricity metering and monitoring on department level. Department level: Cost factors

Specific energy consumed, peak power demand, power factor limitation

Potential benefits enabled through electricity metering

Energy intensive process scheduling; ability to deploy and track continuous improvement measures; department based energy saving targeting and benchmarking; simulative improvement of energy costing; effective utilization of secondary energy carriers produced by electricity; quantify energy savings

Table 3:

Cost factors and potential benefits through electricity metering and monitoring on department level.

The contents of Table 3 comply very much with the goals of smart metering and energy accounting, known from private households. The main goal is to try shortening the informational feedback time from the consumption of energy to the moment of billing [19]. For industry the simple monitoring is already a big leap forward to raise the corporate awareness and to motivate each individual to minimize their own share of energy consumption and their related costs. This will also lead to putting some effort into reducing their individual energy consumption without just shifting consumption from one individual consumer to the other. It has been shown that an extended holistic process and system understanding is beneficial in order to increase energy and resource efficiency measures in manufacturing sites. This is due to the fact that many sub-systems are interlinked and have indirect or direct coupled energy consumption, which are not obvious at first

sight and can cause a problem shift if efficiency measures are only applied from a narrow point of view [20]. Several researchers have already stated the basic need for reliable energy consumption data for a successful development towards more energy efficient processes and factories e.g. by use of software tools (energy aware process chain simulation, LCI of manufacturing process chains, evaluation of machine tool configuration) [21-24]. Some even put a special focus on the energy aware upper level planning and control of production, which can be defined as an interface between all three levels of a factory [25-26]. Some researchers have even tried to break down the assessed energy of the whole factory in order to allocate it to one product manufactured at the site, stating that a more efficient monitoring and control of energy used in infrastructure and technical services can help to optimise the plant level activities [27]. When planning and ultimately deploying an electricity metering and monitoring concept in a factory, it quickly becomes obvious that the electrical distribution network structure inside a factory highly varies from a simple organisational structure. This makes setting-up of a consistent metering network with proper upper level monitoring quite challenging. Especially, when the department structures are being monitored with the purpose of energy accounting based on organizational structures, the complexity of the deployed metering strategy increases dramatically. 3.3

Unit process level

Unit process level of electricity metering and monitoring is considered as the lowest hierarchical type of metering point selection. Meters are directly attached to single machines or machine components (e.g. auxiliary pumps, ventilation systems) and peripheral units such as decentralized coolant treatment or decentralized compressed air production systems. On this lowest level the most detail of electrical energy consumption can be obtained [17]. Direct monitoring of single machines may be required for energy optimized production planning around highly energy intensive processes or to conduct a deeper understanding of the energy flow distribution onto sub-components of production machines or to better understand the energetic coupling of in-line production processes [24, 28-30]. Table 4 shows the major cost factors concerning electricity and related potential benefits through electricity metering and monitoring on unit process level. Unit process level: Cost factors

Specific Energy Consumption (SEC), peak power demand, power factor limitation, THD feedback

Potential benefits enabled through electricity metering

Supplementing unit process values to machine LCI databases; energy forecasting in production design, process planning and control; energy labelling of machine tools and products; specific quantification of single efficiency measures; evaluation of technical improvements; condition monitoring as a prophylactic measure in energy and resource sufficiency

Table 4: Cost factors and potential benefits through electricity metering and monitoring on unit process level. Other publications utilized electricity metering and monitoring on unit process level by using energy and time studies to assess the specific environmental and economic impact of particular production processes which can then be used to build Life Cycle Inventory (LCI) databases [31-32].

Keynotes

5

In addition to impact assessment and efficiency improvements as planning tools, electricity metering and monitoring can also be used for condition monitoring and diagnostics of machines and processes. This enables to prevent energy and resource losses ahead of time such as tool changes, planning of maintenance cycles as well as early detection of tool wear. The international standard such as ISO 13374-1, are helping users to implement such established measures [33]. Others have also demonstrated additional benefit by combining electricity metering and monitoring data with machine control data (e.g. from programmable logic controllers) to gain beneficial additional transparency into process specific environmental impact assessment [34-35]. 4

GUIDELINE FOR ELECTRICTY MONITORING IN MANUFACTURING

METERING

AND

Rohdin and Thollander have listed in detail the barriers that especially non-energy intensive manufacturing companies are confronted with, when being faced by a decision to actually go for energy efficiency assessments and measures [36]. The study indicated that responsible staff often fears the interruption of production processes, the lack of insufficient sub-metering in the company structure to quantify and assess implemented efficiency measures and some even face a lack of technical skill to put metering and monitoring into action. Occupational Health and Safety is also critical in use and selection of measurement instruments. The IEC 61010-1 declares the general safety requirements for electrical test and measurement equipment for electrical industrial process control and laboratory equipment [37]. For easier recognition of suitable devices, the standard defines four categories (CAT I, II, III and IV) indicating the specified area of usage for the specific instrument (ranging from measurement in circuits not directly connected to the network up to measurement on overvoltage protection devices). To ensure a true comparability of measurement instruments brought into the market in the European Union, the European Parliament has issued the directive 2004/22/EC, also known as the MID [38]. The MID and related European and international standards like the IEC 60359 ensure a proper indication of performance criteria, basic functional requirements, which are a common way to indicate measurement ranges and limitations of uncertainties of measurement as well as indication of calibration results [39]. Various metering instruments and monitoring solutions are available on the market, which are able to fulfil the requested task of the user. Therefore, the challenge of the user is to define the task. Although, researchers like Schleich have already identified that a lack of information about energy consumption patterns has been found to be a barrier for energy efficiency, which can be overcome by installing metering devices and implementing energy management systems [40]; the biggest difficulty is in fact to define and execute the corresponding metering strategy. Designing a metering strategy incorporates the definition of a metering task, the goal which also describes the characteristics of the resulting measurement in terms of accuracy and resolution. A metering strategy also implies an estimation of the expected value to be metered in order to dimension the metering equipment accordingly. An over or under dimensioned metering system can result in a low accuracy and high variance of the metered value or even an overload situations with fatal errors. Only a few publications are seen in the community of manufacturing engineering that actually address how electricity metering of single devices is actually performed and which measurement instruments are recommended to be used [41].

In the following sections of the paper a guideline for electrical energy metering and monitoring will be presented. Technical and economical challenges will be addressed and specific ranges of technical specifications suitable for the three defined levels of application will be suggested. The decision of selecting suitable measurement instruments always depends on the minimum requirements due to the defined task and the economic aspect as a limiting factor for the upper range of requirements. Technical challenges: Electricity metering instruments are designed to cover a lot of measurement purposes. Some have been developed for highly accurate and real time monitoring like oscilloscopes and others have been designed to suit a variety of tasks such as multi-meters for network quality analysis. Each one of the instruments has different technical specifications that the user has to be aware of before making the purchasing decision. Against each task required, individual set of technical specifications need to be clarified by formulating a measurement strategy while giving certain ranges of specifications of the informational degree. Economical challenges: Selecting the most cost-effective metering solution requires a clear vision of the required outcome. More available options and features are always more expensive and are a quick step towards over-dimensioning. The economical challenges of each level provide some considerations that inevitably come with designing a measurement strategy and implementing electricity metering and monitoring. Factory Level: Selecting the right accuracy class is essential to be able to control electricity billing. Technical challenges: Factory level metering is done on or near the interface between the electricity supplier and the customer. The installed meters from the supplier in industry applications are usually electronic meters that do not simply meter the energy consumption in kilowatt-hours but additionally use certain register intervals in which the specific amount of energy is accumulated. For instance, the register interval in Germany is fixed to 15 minutes, which means the resulting accumulated 15 minute energy is used to charge peak loads in individual electricity supply contracts for industry consumers. The register values from the electronic meters are collected by the supplier by using remote instrument reading. The MID as well as the IEC 62053 enable the customer to select appropriate metering instruments to meter with a higher accuracy and in higher temporal resolution. As a result, breaking down the 15 minute standard register interval from the supplier to 30 second intervals can be used to gain transparency into how 15 minute peak charges occur and be a first step towards evaluation of whether load management could be used to lower the charges. Economical challenges: The investment for metering equipment on this level is considered low since only a few meters (at least one at each medium voltage transformer inlet) are needed. The resulting data volume is considered negligible. Despite this, the selection of the metering instrument is not a simple task. Scientific discussions from the early nineties up until now have stated that higher levels of sophistication in electricity metering will be essential to prepare the suppliers and customers for the inevitable utilization of the smart grid [42-43]. It should be kept in mind that the consumed amount of kilowatt-hours is not the only number that is of interest for the electricity suppliers. There are other parameters such as current, voltage, apparent power and their specific behaviour in time that demands costly improvements and maintenance actions in the distribution networks. Therefore, it might be in the interest of the customer to know in advance about these parameters in order to have transparency into energy billing. The selection of a metering device with the capability to meter active power, apparent power, power factor and the total harmonic

6

Keynotes

distortion as a quality parameter with a temporal resolution of 30 seconds up to 15 minutes with accuracies complying with the standards described earlier (as well as with the local requirements of the state legislations) is highly recommended as a quality parameter. The amount of data collected from one metering device in standard office applications will result in a data volume ranging from 280 megabytes to 8.2 gigabytes per year (depending on the selected resolution). Department level: Metering on department level is done to gain a better transparency of the energy flows inside the organisational and the technical distribution network of the factory. A certain degree of transparency enables organisational and technical energy efficiency measures. The metering strategy and the related challenges in the selection of metering equipment on department level are highly dependent on the consumption behaviour of the single substructures. This paper draws a distinction between highly dynamic behaviour, low dynamic behaviour and near static behaviour as addressed in Table 5. Highly dynamic energy consumption behaviour can be found in assembly or production departments or single lines with several inline processes and machines that perform highly variable processes. As a result, energy demand from the grid is highly variable as well. Low dynamic consumption behaviour can be found in technical building services and are represented by processes like compressed air production, technical air ventilation or facility heating. Near static consumption behaviour can be found in office complexes or in server rooms. These substructures show distinct periodic cycles over days or weeks while being not very prone to sudden changes or peak demands.

Department

Technical challenge: Table 5 presents recommendations for metering specifications for different metering strategies on department level related to the dynamic consumption behaviour of the regarded department. The recommended temporal resolution of the output data of the electronic metering devices are linked with the dynamic behaviour. A high dynamic behaviour needs high resolutions of the metering output data in order to achieve certain transparency and a satisfactory understanding of the consumption behaviour of the department. Behaviour

Resolution

Parameters

Highly dynamic

1 s – 1 min

Wh, VAh, PF

Low dynamic

30 s – 5 min

Wh, VAh, PF

Near static

1 min – 30 min

for high dynamic metering tasks, would result in a yearly data volume of 256 gigabyte (raw data) if three parameters (active power, apparent power and power factor) are logged continuously. Each sub meter added to the metering and monitoring structure adds its part of the data volume share that needs to be handled by the data processing system. The measurement instruments itself will also play a considerable role in the economical challenge. Measurement instruments with high accuracy classes and capabilities to meter THD and PF characteristics are usually too expensive to be distributed on department level metering applications. However, more and more, ultra low cost power quality meters and energy management systems with class A IEC 610004-30 compliance are emerging which will make electricity measurement possible on this level in the near future [44]. In fact, electricity metering and monitoring on department level can actually pay off very quickly as shown in a case study by Stephenson and Paun. The authors demonstrated how a small manufacturer was able to shift and reschedule some of his manufacturing machines to avoid peak charges, and power factor charges by soft starting controls for machine start-ups on Mondays and deferring electrical consumption on activities like energy intensive drying processes or chilled water production by less than two hours without affecting production requirements [45]. Unit process level: On unit process level the single process, machine, or component is being metered and monitored. As mentioned above, it might be needed to do unit process metering in applications considered as department level metering and monitoring, but the actual unit process metering is mostly considered to be research related or only short term metering rather than continuous. In the scientific community unit process metering and monitoring are often found throughout many case studies. Solding et al. have used metering data of unit processes to accumulate the fundamental data basis for energy aware production simulation in various degrees of detail [46]. Considering consumption profiles from products Elias et al. have shown the importance of electricity metering in order to evaluate the user behaviour’s influence on the product’s electric energy consumption [47]. Whereas Dietmair et al. have used electricity metering and monitoring on unit process level to analyse and evaluate machine tool design strategies to foster energy efficiency [48]. Li et al developed an empirical approach to model and predict unit process energy consumption for material removal processes [49].

Wh, PF Behaviour

Economical challenge: The department level metering has probably the highest variety of possible economic impacts that tend to be very case specific. However, general propositions can still be made to address the challenges. Metering on department level is often used to do energy accounting for a fixed sub structure, which can be an organisational structure (department), a production line for a specific product or a storage area. Each one of these clusters of defined sub consumers is drawing electricity from the internal distribution network. Since organisational structures and technical structures are mostly not same due to the building design, the consumer clusters might not be situated in the same branch of the distribution network, which will result in a high number of submeters. These meters can also be used for determining the unit process energy consumption pattern on individual processes. Complex structures of metering systems on this level requires a well structured communication and data computation system to handle the monitoring of the complex metering output data. Single meters with a data output resolution of 1 second, as recommended

Unit process

Table 5: Department level metering specifications.

Highly dynamic Low dynamic

Resolution

Parameters

10 ms – 1 min

Wh, VAh, PF, THD

1 s – 5 min

Wh, VAh, PF, THD

Table 6: Unit process level metering specifications. In all these electricity metering and monitoring applications, the accuracy is not of primary importance since no monetary value is calculated from the metered values. Moreover it is the qualitative importance of the metered values directly related to the high temporal resolution which enables an understanding into the process. Technical challenge: As in department level, the unit process metering specifications are closely related to the dynamics of the unit process’ electrical energy consumption behaviour. Highly dynamic behaviour is likely to be seen in high speed machining processes or robotic applications, whereas low dynamic processes can be seen in thermal or galvanic processes. As Table 6 shows,

Keynotes

7

the recommended temporal resolution can go down to 10 milliseconds for highly dynamic processes. On unit process level, the source of the harmonic distortion and low power factor can also be found and compensated by making use of continuous unit process metering as an input for closed loop controls. Economical challenge: The investment for metering equipment on this level is estimated to be high, because only the highly sophisticated metering systems are able to provide such high temporal resolutions and are able to handle the high data output volume from the single metering equipment. This high data volume enables real time monitoring, but at the same time makes logging applications very data intensive. Especially on unit process level, the harmonic distortion charge of the suppliers can be addressed, as the countermeasures can be applied directly at the source. Total harmonic distortion (THD) is an electrical noise feedback caused by electrical inverters and phase controlled modulators. THD does not only lower the quality of the distribution network, but also severely impacts local machines and sensitive devices. The following section of this paper addresses difficulties in selecting the right measurement equipment for a given task. 5

REVIEW OF AVAILABLE ENERGY METERING DEVICES

In the previous chapter it has been shown that within each electricity measurement task, whether to enable energy efficiency measures or to do energy accounting within organisational structures, it is always a challenge to formulate the right measurement strategy and to select the right measurement instruments for the task of metering. This section gives a brief overview of some typically metering devices found in the market as well as explaining some basic distinguishing features that must be considered in industrial and research applications. Table 7 presents a selection of most commonly used electricity metering instruments from industrial and research applications. The aim is neither to provide a complete list nor to rate the instruments in any way. The selection is just a very limited selection of some important features that distinguish the single instruments. The instrument features range from installation, which describe whether the device can be mounted in a fixed location or if it can be used in mobile applications. Mobile applications are usually found in short time measurement for quick energy assessments on factory or unit process level or in special research applications. Fixed types Measurement instrument:

Installation

of devices can be found in the long time measurement applications available on all levels. Such devices can be built-in directly into control or distribution cabinets. As the evolution of electricity metering devices has allowed user to obtain not only single measurands meters (Ferraris disc meter) but also multi measurands meters, a broad selection of possible measurands becomes available and allows more integrated applications. This enables for example single devices at factory level to provide users the information about active energy consumption for energy controlling as well as reactive energy and total harmonic distortion values for quality monitoring at the same time. The amounts of measurands that can be read from the single devices are defined by the complexity of the electronic meters and often manifest itself in the purchasing price. Table 5 and Table 6 show certain ranges of recommended resolutions of the metering points needed to perform metering applications. The output resolution presented in Table 7 should match these required resolutions in order to be well dimensioned for the metering task. The degree of output resolution is directly proportional the purchasing price of the instruments. Data loggers with resolutions of higher than a metering point per second can exceed 5000 EUR. A high output data resolution is not always a sign of quality. It is rather an indication of the possible types of information that can be gained from the metering data through analysis. As discussed earlier, a high degree of metering data resolution can quickly result into high additional costs for handling of the large amounts of resulting data if centralized monitoring is used. Selecting the right degree of detail is an essential part of the right dimensioning of a metering strategy. In large metering networks, commonly found in department level metering and monitoring, the communications interface plays a very important role as well. Metering and monitoring applications have to be able to use the same communication interface. Real-time monitoring and control applications often use industrial bus interfaces like Profibus or in near real-time applications interfaces like Ethernet. Simple applications such as monitoring for energy accounting do not rely on real-time data and are usually working with bus systems based on RS485 or even impulse signal recognition. The communication interface matching is very important when designing cost-effective metering strategies. Multi interface applications can easily lead to complex and costly software and hardware conflicts. If a holistic department level

Measurands*

Brand, series/type

Output resolution*

Communication interface*

IME, NEMO 96

Fixed type

V, A, W, VA, PF, THD

60 s

RS485, Impulse

Siemens, SIMEAS

Fixed type

V, A, W, VAR, VA, PF, THD

< 1s

Profibus, RS485

Schneider, Electrics, PM

Fixed type

V, A, W, VA, PF, THD

60 s

RS485, Impulse

Simpson, GIMA1000

Fixed type

V, A, W, VAR, VA, PF

1s

RS485, Impulse

Yokogawa,

Fixed type

V, A, W, VAR, VA, PF