Evaluating change in English language teaching

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Evaluating Change in English Language Teaching

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10.1057/9780230598638 - Evaluating Change in English Language Teaching, Judith Lamie



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Judith M. Lamie




© Judith M. Lamie 2005

No paragraph of this publication may be reproduced, copied or transmitted save with written permission or in accordance with the provisions of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, or under the terms of any licence permitting limited copying issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency, 90 Tottenham Court Road, London W1T 4LP. Any person who does any unauthorised act in relation to this publication may be liable to criminal prosecution and civil claims for damages. The author has asserted her right to be identified as the author of this work in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. First published 2005 by PALGRAVE MACMILLAN Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire RG21 6XS and 175 Fifth Avenue, New York, N.Y. 10010 Companies and representatives throughout the world PALGRAVE MACMILLAN is the global academic imprint of the Palgrave Macmillan division of St. Martin’s Press, LLC and of Palgrave Macmillan Ltd. Macmillan® is a registered trademark in the United States, United Kingdom and other countries. Palgrave is a registered trademark in the European Union and other countries. ISBN-13: 978–1–4039–3975–3 hardback ISBN-10: 1–4039–3975–6 hardback This book is printed on paper suitable for recycling and made from fully managed and sustained forest sources. A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Lamie, Judith. Evaluating change in English language teaching / Judith M. Lamie. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and indexes. ISBN 1–4039–3975–6 (cloth) 1. English language—Study and teaching—Foreign speakers—Evaluation. 2. Educational change. I. Title. PE1128.A2L285 2005 428′.0071—dc22 2005040543 10 14

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Printed and bound in Great Britain by Antony Rowe Ltd, Chippenham and Eastbourne



All rights reserved. No reproduction, copy or transmission of this publication may be made without written permission.


For Stephen





List of Tables

xi

List of Figures

xiii

Acknowledgements

xv

Introduction

xvi

Part I Defining Change 1 What is Change? 1.1 Introductory comments 1.2 Definitions of change 1.3 Principles of change 1.3.1 Example 1: The aeroplane 1.3.2 Example 2: The toothbrush 1.3.3 Principles of change 1.4 Summary

3 3 4 8 8 8 9 11

2 What is Educational Change? 2.1 Introductory comments 2.2 Definitions of educational change 2.3 Strategies for effecting change 2.3.1 Power-coercive strategy 2.3.2 Rational-empirical strategy 2.3.3 Normative-re-educative strategy 2.4 Factors affecting educational change 2.5 Summary

13 13 14 16 17 18 19 23 32

Part II Implementing Change 3 Curriculum Change 3.1 Introductory comments 3.2 Educational implementation strategies 3.2.1 Background 3.2.2 Models of curriculum implementation 3.3 Factors affecting curriculum change in English language teaching 3.4 Summary vii


39 39 40 40 41 51 57


Contents

4 Models of Change 4.1 Introductory comments 4.2 Systemic change 4.3 Behavioural change 4.4 Interpersonal change 4.4.1 Personal attributes 4.4.2 Practical constraints 4.4.3 External influences 4.4.4 Awareness 4.4.5 Training 4.4.6 Feedback 4.5 Summary

60 60 61 63 65 66 69 71 77 78 79 80

Part III Measuring Change 5 Evaluating Change with MA TEFL/TESL Students 5.1 Introductory comments 5.2 In-service training with English language teachers 5.2.1 Background 5.2.2 The MA TEFL/TESL programme 5.3 Evaluating change on the MA TEFL/TESL programme 5.3.1 Data collection procedure 5.3.2 Data collection tools 5.3.3 Programme participants 5.3.4 Research findings 5.4 Summary 6 Evaluating Change with Chinese Lecturers of English 6.1 Introductory comments 6.2 English language teaching in China 6.2.1 Historical perspective 6.2.2 English teaching 6.2.3 English language teaching in higher education institutions 6.2.4 Resourcing 6.3 In-service training in China 6.3.1 Background 6.3.2 The China University of Mining and Technology programme


85 85 86 86 97 98 98 99 101 102 116 117 117 118 118 120 124 125 128 128 131


viii Contents

6.4 Evaluating change on the CUMT programme 6.4.1 Data collection procedure 6.4.2 Data collection tools 6.4.3 Programme participants 6.4.4 Research findings 6.5 Implications and recommendations 6.6 Summary

134 134 135 137 138 151 152

7 Evaluating Change with Japanese Teachers of English 7.1 Introductory comments 7.2 English language teaching in Japan 7.2.1 Historical perspective 7.2.2 English teaching 7.2.3 New Revised Course of Study: Emphasis on oral communication 7.2.4 Resourcing 7.3 In-service Training in Japan 7.3.1 Background 7.3.2 The Japanese Secondary Teachers’ programme 7.4 Evaluating change on the JST programme 7.4.1 Data collection procedure 7.4.2 Data collection tools 7.4.3 Case-study profiles 7.4.4 Research findings 7.5 Implications and recommendations 7.6 Summary

155 155 156 156 159

Conclusion

207

161 163 164 164 169 174 174 175 185 192 203 204

Appendices Appendix 1 Appendix 2 Appendix 3 Appendix 4

MA TEFL/TESL Programme Additional Student Responses Education in China – English Language Teaching in Primary Schools Education in China – Project 211 The Course of Study for Upper Secondary School

217 222 225 229

Bibliography

237

Index of Names

249

Index of Subjects

252



Contents ix




2.1 3.1 4.1 4.2 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6 5.7 5.8 5.9 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 6.6 6.7 7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4 7.5 7.6 7.7 7.8 7.9

Underlying assumptions of change strategies Educational implementation strategies Subjective norms and perceived behavioural control Dimensions of national culture Typology of INSET outcomes An ordering of INSET outcomes Criteria for effective INSET – recurrent themes MA TEFL/TESL responses to Q1 Question 1 MA TEFL/TESL responses to Q1 Question 2 MA TEFL/TESL responses to Q2 Question 1 MA TEFL/TESL responses to Q2 Question 2 MA TEFL/TESL responses to Q2 Part D, Question 1 MA TEFL/TESL responses to Q2 Part D, Question 2 Historical development of ELT in China Main developments in College English and English Major syllabuses CUMT example timetable, week 1 (extract) CUMT responses to Activity 1 CUMT responses: Positive and negative aspects of change strategies CUMT responses to Sheet 2: Activity 1: Changes in attitudes CUMT responses to Sheet 2: Activity 1: Changes in practice English educational reform from post-war Japan to 1987 Senior high school Course of Study outline for English: Summary INSET sponsored by Monbusho Summary of INSET provision in Japan Criteria for effective INSET – recurrent themes and the JST programme Phase focus Overview of the academic year Japan week outline: Day 1 Case-study subjects: GSQ profile summary xi


22 50 64 72 90 90 96 103 106 113 113 115 115 121 126 134 140 145 147 149 160 162 167 168 170 171 172 173 191


List of Tables

xii List of Tables

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7.10 Contrast between the Audio-Lingual, Grammar-translation Method and CLT 7.11 Case-study topic shifts 7.12 Case-studies (extract)


1.1 Examples of opposites defining change 2.1 MA TEFL/TESL responses: People are rational 2.2 MA TEFL/TESL responses: You cannot really change other people; people can only change themselves 2.3 MA TEFL/TESL responses: Meaningful change must involve a change in attitudes and beliefs 2.4 Factors affecting educational change 3.1 The Research, Development and Diffusion model 3.2 MA TEFL/TESL responses: Planned innovations tend to be implemented effectively when the change itself is recognised as necessary and relevant by the teachers 3.3 Factors affecting curriculum change in ELT 4.1 Behavioural change 4.2 A cyclical view of teacher development 4.3 The model of change 5.1 Influence of student performance on changes in attitude 5.2 MA TEFL/TESL students’ nationality 5.3 MA TEFL/TESL students’ reasons for choosing Birmingham 5.4 MA TEFL/TESL responses: Pupils can present a force of conservatism in the classroom 5.5 MA TEFL/TESL responses: A proposed change in methodology without a corresponding change in assessment will be ineffective 5.6 MA TEFL/TESL responses: Change which fails to take into account the culture of a society is bound to fail 5.7 MA TEFL/TESL responses: Inadequate or inappropriate resources are a barrier to successful educational change 5.8 MA TEFL/TESL responses: Teacher development and support is a crucial part of educational change 6.1 Courses taught (by female lecturers and associate professors) 6.2 CUMT responses: Change is a positive, beneficial experience xiii


11 18

21 21 32 42

55 56 64 65 67 88 101 102 108

109

109 110 111 138 139


List of Figures

xiv List of Figures


140

141 143 144 146 150 151 195


6.3 CUMT responses: Change which fails to take into account the culture of a society is bound to fail 6.4 CUMT responses: Examinations determine what is taught in the classroom. Without a change in examinations, teaching practice will not change 6.5 CUMT responses: Change that is forced upon people is unlikely to succeed 6.6 CUMT responses: Nation-wide curriculum change must be a top-down process 6.7 CUMT responses: Meaningful change must involve a change in beliefs and attitudes 6.8 CUMT responses: Teachers who lack confidence will be less willing to implement change in the classroom 6.9 CUMT post-course responses: Teacher development and support is a crucial part of educational change 7.1 Research findings

It has been possible for me to write this book because I have had the help and support of many people. I would like to thank my colleagues, and friends, at the University of Birmingham, particularly those in the English for International Students Unit, and Chris Kennedy, Director of the Centre for English Language Studies, for our many discussions on innovation and change. Without their experience, knowledge and advice I would not have been able to begin, let alone complete, this text. I am particularly grateful to all of the teachers and students, too numerous to mention, I have worked with over the years – from the teachers I assisted during my time working in Japan in the 1980s, to the students I have had the pleasure to teach at the university since 1994. They have so frequently been an inspiration to me. I would also like to express my gratitude to Triangle Journals for their permission to reproduce Tables 7.2, 7.3 and 7.4 (Lamie, 1998). Finally I would like to thank my husband, Stephen, for always making the time, and never any excuses, to read whatever I write and for his frightening attention to detail. Without him, nothing would be possible. He is the one part of my life I never want to change.

xv



Acknowledgements

The teacher, like the artist, the philosopher, and the man of letters, can only perform his work adequately if he feels himself to be an individual directed by an inner creative impulse, not dominated and fettered by an outside authority. – Russell, Unpopular Essays: 159

Aims and scope This introduction outlines the aims and scope of the book and states who the book is for. It introduces the voices of the teachers and educators (obtained via questionnaires and interviews) to be heard throughout the book: teachers of English in Japan, university lecturers and educators in China, and practising teachers from a variety of countries taking part in a master’s programme in the teaching of English as a foreign or second language (MA TEFL/TESL). It also outlines the organisation of the book with detailed chapter introductions. This book has been written by a teacher-trainer and teacher in the hope that it will be useful for teacher-trainers and teachers. It is also intended to be of interest, and use, to other participants in the teaching and learning of the English language, from the experienced, such as curriculum developers and planners, and those who co-ordinate and manage English teaching, to the less experienced, such as teacher-trainees. We are all involved in some way every day in the process of change. Change is a difficult, often painful and hugely complex process. It involves personal, political, national, institutional and educational issues. It challenges the very fabric of our society, and our roles not only as professionals, but as people. All language teachers will at some time in their career be involved in change. It is important that if we as professionals are going to have to deal with change, we understand what change is. There has proven to be a well-established tradition of curriculum development and change in educational literature (Bennis et al., 1961; Rogers and Everett, 1971; Stenhouse, 1975; Fullan, 1991; Rudduck, 1991), particularly in relation to teacher education and training, and there is an increasing body of literature focusing on the English language teaching context (White, 1988; Markee, 1997). This book aims to examine the theory and practice of change, setting the theory in its educational context xvi



Introduction

by providing references to contemporary research and case studies in the English language teaching and Applied Linguistic context. The book aims both to help explain why changes in the past may or may not have been successful, and to provide a template for dealing with educational change in the future. As a result, the book should be of interest to all those involved in the process of educational change, from researchers and planners to classroom teachers.

Progression This book examines the process of change in English language teaching. It is divided into three parts. In Part I, Defining Change, the principles and strategies of change are introduced. Factors affecting educational change are presented with a focus on change in the English language teaching context. Part II looks at Implementing Change. Key educational implementation strategies and a selection of models of change are presented and discussed. Expanding models provided by Ajzen (1988), Fullan (1991) and Kennedy (1999), a new interpersonal model of change highlights six main impact areas in the process of change: personal attributes, such as attitudes and beliefs; practical constraints; external influences, for example national and school culture; awareness; training; and feedback. Through recourse to a series of case studies and research within the area of teacher change, Part III, Measuring Change, presents various ways in which change, with particular reference to the aforementioned principles and strategies of change and impact areas, can be measured and evaluated in a variety of contexts. The conclusion provides a summary of the major issues and puts forward a set of recommendations for promoting the successful management of educational change. Chapter 1 poses the question, What is change? The chapter begins with a series of definitions of change derived from a variety of sources (George Bernard Shaw, Thomas Carlyle, Washington Irving and so on). It continues by giving two practical examples of change, and through the presentation and discussion of these examples eight key principles of change are introduced; for example, change is part of a personal context and is a process that involves training and practice and time. Chapter 2 introduces and examines aspects of educational change. Definitions put forward by researchers within the area of education and language teaching and learning are given and discussed. These are followed by definitions given by teachers and educators themselves when answering the question, What is educational change? This leads on to an introduction of different types of change, professional and personal, and strategies of



Introduction xvii

change – power-coercive, rational-empirical and normative-re-educative (Chin and Benne, 1969). The chapter proceeds by returning to the principles of change and relating them to the change strategies, highlighting their relevance to the English language teaching context. It concludes with an outline of the various factors affecting educational change. The second part of the book focuses on implementing change. Chapter 3 investigates a key area important to all those involved in educational change, namely curriculum change. It presents three main educational implementation strategies – the Research, Development and Diffusion model, the Social Interaction model, and the Problem-Solving model (Havelock, 1971) – and provides examples, small and large scale, of each within the area of English language teaching. It also demonstrates how the principles of change and change strategies relate to these models of implementation. It concludes with the discussion of key factors involved in curriculum change, once again providing an opportunity for the opinions of the teachers to be expressed through quotations obtained via questionnaires and interviews. Chapter 4 draws together the definitions of change and the implementation strategies in the presentation of systemic, behavioural and interpersonal models of change. In presenting these models of change, impact areas on the process of change are highlighted. These impact areas include attitudes and beliefs; global, national and school culture; and teacher education, training and support. These issues are developed through the examination of actual language teaching situations in the following section. The final part of the book presents three case studies of participants taking part in teacher education and training courses in English language teaching. The chapters are set in three different contexts and centre on measuring change. Chapter 5 evaluates change with MA TEFL/TESL students. The chapter begins by setting this course, and those presented in the following two chapters, in their training context, by giving an overview of the in-service training of teachers, from the 1970s when the focus was very much on the innovation, to its rebirth in recent decades as continuing professional development and the focus on the personal as well as professional needs of the teachers. This section concludes with a summary of recent developments in language teacher education and offers a set of criteria for effective professional development. The subsequent part of the chapter presents the findings of two questionnaires investigating MA TEFL/TESL students’ attitudes to change. The first questionnaire (Q1) is distributed to all MA TEFL/TESL students prior to the commencement of the second semester of their study. The aim of the questionnaire is to determine the



xviii Introduction

students’ opinions of innovation and change. Through the presentation of a series of questions and statements, the questionnaire also investigates the students’ attitudes towards key areas involved in educational innovation, such as curriculum change and teacher change. A second questionnaire is distributed to the students at the end of the second semester. This questionnaire extends the remit of Q1 by providing students with the opportunity of considering how their own practices and attitudes may have changed following the course. The findings are discussed in relation to the theoretical presentation of the principles of change, change strategies, implementation procedures and factors involved in change in English language teaching, which were given in Parts I and II. The chapter reinforces the importance of developing a critical understanding of the process of change for language teachers. Chapter 6 investigates the process of change with reference to Chinese lecturers of English taking part in a one-month intensive teacher training programme. The programme was initiated in response to a government directive that 20 per cent of all university courses in Chinese national universities should be taught in English. The chapter sets the training programme into its educational context by providing a summary of English language developments in China, before moving on to the presentation of the data itself. The training programme begins with a lecture/ seminar focusing on change, during which the participants complete and discuss a series of activities. These activities include defining change and educational change; giving examples of types of change; highlighting the positive and negative aspects of different implementation strategies, with reference to actual events; responding to a series of statements determining attitudes to various aspects of change; and suggesting ways in which changes in attitudes and practice may occur following the course. The experiences and opinions of the participants, arising from the responses, are discussed, and implications and recommendations are made as a result. Chapter 7 presents the procedure and findings of a series of case studies that took place with Japanese teachers of English participating in a oneyear in-service training programme sponsored by the Japanese Ministry of Education. This programme was created in direct response to a curriculum reform which proposed a shift away from long-established grammartranslation curriculum practice towards teaching for communicative competence. The chapter begins with an overview of the teaching of English, and teacher education and training in Japan. It proceeds by describing and evaluating the aforementioned training programme. Through semi-structured interviews, questionnaires and observations,



Introduction xix

changes in attitudes and practices of the teachers involved are analysed. The findings highlight key impact areas in the process of change, such as culture, practical constraints and professional development. The Conclusion presents a summary of the key implications that the ideas introduced in this book have for curriculum planners, languageteacher educators and teachers themselves, and offers a tentative set of recommendations for the successful management of educational change. According to Watson and Glaser: A natural impulse of many people is to meet force with force; that is, to overcome the opposing forces by exhorting, appealing, arguing, urging, inducing and scolding. Increasing pressure against the opposing forces usually will increase the resistance pressure, and as a result, tension will be heightened. Frequently (but not always), the wisest and most effective course of action is to focus on ways of understanding and reducing resistance rather than trying to overwhelm it. (Watson and Glaser, 1965: 42) This book has been written in the belief that a better understanding of change and the way that the change process works will help to lead to more effective change. The first part of the book looks at defining change.



xx Introduction


Part I

Defining Change





1 Nobody likes change.

1.1 Introductory comments On a Saturday afternoon in February 2003 I turned on the television shortly before the kick-off in an international rugby game and, in the space of ten minutes, was confronted with two short statements about change that came from very different sources. Neither context was positive. The first was with reference to changes that were then being instigated by the chief executive of the Welsh Rugby Union (WRU), David Moffat. There was at the time little doubt that, in order to survive, Welsh rugby needed to be restructured, but there appeared to be a stalemate. The suggestion that nine Premier clubs regroup to become five regional sides had not been welcomed. According to the Welsh rugby pundit reporting for the British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC), ‘nobody likes change’. The second, identical, statement came in a repeated episode of Friends, an American situation comedy programme. Friends is about a group of six twenty-something close-knit friends, three male and three female, living and working in New York City. Ross, a palaeontology professor, and Rachel, his girlfriend, are a couple with a great deal of personal history and they were, at this point, having trouble in their relationship. Ross, who made the comment, had made a serious error of judgement and Rachel was not impressed. After much discussion, recrimination and soul searching, the couple came to the conclusion that there was no more to be said. The result was a separation. Although the details of the restructuring of the WRU, which has since taken place, were varied and complex, as continued to be the relationship 3



What is Change?

between Ross and Rachel until the end of the series, I found it interesting that such a statement could be made without comment or challenge. It was also interesting that the comment should occur on the same day at very nearly the same time, but in two completely different contexts. Is it true? Does nobody like change? What are our attitudes towards change? How often do we consider the changes that take place around us or the changes that have a direct impact on us personally? By becoming aware of the intricacies of change and increasing our understanding of the process of change itself, we can begin to understand why we, and others, react in the way that we do to change in both our personal and professional lives. This chapter therefore starts at the beginning by considering the question, What is change?

1.2 Definitions of change Examples can be found from a wide variety of sources, as has previously been illustrated, from 17th-century poets to 20th-century independent management consultants, of change being viewed of as a potentially negative force incurring resistance, concern and even dread and fear: The sun . . . In dim eclipse disastrous twilight sheds On half the nations, and with fear of Change Perplexes monarchs (Milton, 1667: 1, 1, 594) It’s because many of us fear the unknown. We are afraid that the proposed change may involve loss. We may lose power, prestige, or position. We may fear loss of our ability to perform our assigned tasks. We may fear losing our place in the group, as an accepted member of the community of our fellows. When we perceive this potential loss, maybe even loss of our job itself, we feel threatened. It is this threatening change that we fear. (Howardell, 2001: 1) Change, however, may also be regarded as a positive force: Change always comes bearing gifts. (Pritchett, 1994: 10)



4 Defining Change

What is Change? 5

The only man I know who behaves sensibly is my tailor; he takes my measurements anew each time he sees me. The rest go on with their old measurements and expect me to fit them. (George Bernard Shaw, 1856–1950) More frequently there are those that see change as being both negative and positive, reflecting its complexity and, in many ways, considering it a necessary evil: All change is not growth, as all movement is not forward. (Ellen Glasgow, 1874–1945) Today is not yesterday: we ourselves change; how can our Works and Thoughts, if they are always to be the fittest, continue always the same? Change, indeed, is painful; yet ever needful; and if memory have its force and worth, so also has Hope. (Thomas Carlyle, 1795–1881) There is a certain relief in change, even though it be from bad to worse! As I have often found in travelling in a stagecoach, that it is often a comfort to shift one’s position, and be bruised in a new place. (Washington Irving, 1783–1859) The world hates change, yet it is the one thing that has brought progress. (Charles F. Kettering, 1876–1958) We are all involved, every day, in some form of change. These may be small, deliberate changes: what we wear, eat or drink, or the style or colour of our hair. Then there are larger, and again often deliberate, changes. We change the type of car we drive, move house, get married, get divorced or have children. Other changes we may find are beyond our control: the weather, our increasing age, or the actions and thoughts of others. Sometimes we think we have a choice about change, but find in fact we do not. We may think we have a choice about what we wear, or how long our hair is, but these may in part be dictated by others: by other individuals, by institutional norms or by the society as a whole in which we are placed. Other times we feel coerced into change, when maybe



None of us knows what the next change is going to be, what unexpected opportunity is just around the corner. Disconnecting from change does not recapture the past. It loses the future. (Kathleen Norris, 1947–)

we did in reality have a choice. More often than not, we do not stop to consider these changes. It is usually only when a change occurs that is either of such magnitude that we cannot help but notice, such as a change of occupation, or marital status, or one that is being imposed that we consider unwelcome and unwanted, that we confront it directly. This complexity in our personal lives is echoed in our professional lives. The literature surrounding the process of innovation and change, as we will see, abounds with the assumption that change is a difficult, often painful and hugely complex process. It involves educational, political, national, institutional and personal issues. It challenges the very fabric of our society, and our roles not only as professionals, but as people. Three groups of experienced teachers, taking part in in-service training programmes of varying lengths at the University of Birmingham in the United Kingdom, were asked the question, What is change? Group one were teachers from a number of countries undertaking a master’s programme in the teaching of English as a foreign or second language (MA TEFL/TESL). Group two were Chinese lecturers and professors of English from the China University of Mining and Technology (CUMT). Group three were Japanese secondary teachers (JST) of English taking part in a one-year overseas teacher training programme focusing on the development of language skills and language-teaching methodology. The general consensus amongst the teachers, the subjects of Chapters 5, 6 and 7 respectively, was that change involved something from the original situation being reviewed and replaced: • Change means something becomes different from before. (MA #9) • Change is a phenomenon, physical or mental, which is different from the original one and may be conscious or unconscious. (CUMT #12) • Change is change. Change is positive. Change is to be oneself but a little different and usually better. (JST #1) Some teachers highlighted the positive aspects of change: • In general, change means replacing an established or dominant paradigm with something new or different in order to improve the situation. (MA #13) • We live in a universe that always changes. New stars are born and sensations change as well as seasons. Some changes are welcome. (CUMT #9) • To change is to improve. (JST #3)



6 Defining Change

What is Change? 7

• Change means that something becomes different from before, whether it is good or bad. (MA #3) • It is a process of shifting from what people have been used to. It can be slow or immediate as well as superficial or radical. It can be good or bad. Actually everything is changing all the time. (CUMT #3) • Change is sometimes good, sometimes bad. ( JST #4) Furthermore, the teachers alluded to the fact that change could be defined through a series of paradoxes, or, as termed by Fullan (1993: 6), ‘seemingly incompatible pairs’; that it could be not only good or bad, but also unconscious or conscious, physical or mental, imposed or self-motivated, small or large, or significant or ‘trifling’ (CUMT #1). As Goreham illustrates: Change can be defined as radical or more simple modification of the current environment: natural, social, institutional or cultural. Change is often related to natural processes. Other times it is related to unnatural ones. Some change may improve the present environments. Others may be destructive. Change at one level might be perceived as beneficial, but as destructive at another. Change at one point in a socio-cultural system will have rippling effects throughout the system. (Goreham, 2003: 1) The definitions of change put forward by the teachers, expanded and developed in Part III, could be viewed as being more appropriate to the term innovation. In agreement with White (1988), Kennedy (1996: 4) considers change to be a process that does not involve planning, ‘innovation, on the other hand, implies some deliberation and consciousness’. However, here we will consider innovation as being a specific instance, act, or action, and part of the process of change. The process of change itself may then also be planned or unplanned. Up to this point we have been looking at abstract definitions of change. In the following section two concrete examples of change from everyday life, which should be familiar to us all, will be presented. Through their presentation, various principles of change will emerge. These principles can then also be considered when we investigate the implementation and evaluation of change in our professional lives and the process of educational change.



No definitions were given by the teachers that focused solely on the negative force of change, although the notion that change could be both positive and negative was emphasised:

8 Defining Change

1.3 Principles of change Example 1: The aeroplane

In April 2004 Boeing, the second largest commercial aircraft maker in the world, won a US$6-billion order to produce fifty 7E7 planes for the Japanese company All Nippon Airways. The plane, called the Dreamliner, said to consume 20 per cent less fuel than the current market leaders, will have between 200 and 300 seats, will be able to cover nearly 9000 nautical miles and is the latest plane to be developed by Boeing. Airbus, the largest commercial aircraft maker and a competitor of Boeing, has expressed little concern, instead focusing its publicity on the development of a new 555-seater plane, the A380. The A380 was scheduled to begin test flights in 2005 and enter service in 2006. The aeroplane has come far, both literally and metaphorically, since Orville and Wilbur Wright flew the first piloted plane off the beach near Kitty Hawk, North Carolina, on 17 December 1903. The first flight covered approximately 37 metres. Interest in aviation can be traced back as far as Leonardo da Vinci (1452–1519). However, real progress towards achieving flight began in the early 1800s as a result of the imagination of Sir George Cayley. Cayley laid the foundations of aerodynamics through his designs of planes with rigid wings and propulsion systems. In 1842, Englishman William Samuel Henson patented a design for a machine, an Aerial Steam Carriage, that foreshadowed the modern monoplane. Following the successful flight of the Wright brothers, improvements continued to be made. It was the beginning of a new age in technological achievement. By 1950, when the first commercial jet transportation had begun, all the basic technology essential to contemporary aviation, such as jet propulsion and radar, had been developed. The rapid increase in commercial flights has brought with it its own problems, including noise pollution and safety, but as long as there is a need for planes, there will be a need for developers to find solutions to these problems. 1.3.2

Example 2: The toothbrush

Consider the following set: a twig, a wild boar and a reel of nylon fibre. At first they appear to have nothing in common, but one item links them all: the toothbrush. Brushing our teeth, such a commonplace activity today, has been around for a long time. Egyptians were particularly concerned with their dental hygiene, as has been revealed by the discovery in tombs of small tree branches, or twigs, the ends of which had been frayed into soft fibres. The true ancestor of our toothbrush, however, was invented by the Chinese in the 15th century and brought



1.3.1

back to Europe by travellers. This toothbrush was made of hairs from the neck of the Siberian wild boar, which were fixed to a bamboo or bone handle. Europeans, however, found the wild-boar hairs too stiff. At the time, very few people in the Western world brushed their teeth, and those who did preferred horse hairs, which were softer than those of the wild boar. In Europe it was more customary after meals to use a goose-feather toothpick, or a toothpick made of silver or copper. In 1780 the first English toothbrush was made by William Addis of Clerkenald, England. Addis, and later his descendants, manufactured the finest English brushes, where the handles were carved out of the bones of cattle and the heads of the natural bristles were placed in bored holes made in the bone and kept in place by a thin wire. Nevertheless, the wild-boar brushes remained popular until the invention of nylon in the 20th century. Nylon was invented in the Du Pont laboratories in Nemours, the United States, by Wallace Carothers in 1937. A year later, Carothers’ nylon invention was developed into a toothbrush with nylon bristles. At first the consumers were not satisfied as the bristles were very stiff and hurt the gums. In 1950, Du Pont improved their toothbrush by giving it softer bristles. In 1960 the first electric toothbrush was marketed in the United States with an aim to improve cleaning performance and achieve better results. Today the brands, types and colours of toothbrushes are almost endless. 1.3.3

Principles of change

A number of general principles of change can be drawn from the two examples given above. First, there is a clear reason in each case why the change is taking place. The aim, goal or objective of the change is clear. Change, therefore, implicitly or explicitly involves the statement of an aim. The main aim at the outset in Example 1 is to achieve flight. Initially this may have been an attempt to mirror the achievements of birds, but as time has progressed other aims have arisen. The initial problem in Example 2 is tooth decay. The aim of the cleaning implements, be they small branches or electric toothbrushes, is to prevent tooth decay. The changes in both cases are welcomed, because the aims are clear. As the aims are clear, it may not be necessary in instances such as these to state them explicitly, but in situations where that is not so, an explicit statement of the aim is crucial if effective change is to be encouraged. Sometimes, however, those promoting the change may consider the aim to be apparent, but this may not be the case. Therefore, although it may not always appear necessary to state the aim, it is wise to do so.



What is Change? 9

Secondly, change is seen to be problem-solving. There have been countless problems posed and solved in the making of the modern-day aeroplane. These solutions themselves have led to the creation of more problems – some connected to the manufacturing of the aeroplanes, but others having an impact on the wider context. The development from the branches, through the use of animal hair attached to bone, to the invention of nylon brushes has seen a posing of several micro-problems for the developers of the toothbrush, and a reformulation and redefinition of the aim as a result. The branches were often too hard and slipped and damaged the gums, the animal hair too stiff in the case of the wild boar, and too soft if taken from a horse and difficult to fix to the bone or bamboo. The nylon bristles were also too stiff and complaints led to a change in design. The client-user-group, in this instance the consumers or customers, provided feedback. The implementers of change listened and responded to that feedback. The users were, and continue to be, part of the problem-solving process. Change, therefore, is client-user focused and should, and does, involve a variety of actors. In order for the change to be embraced and to minimise resistance, there must be an awareness of the existence and potential impact of all of the actors in the process. As the demand for air travel increases, for example, and planes get larger, more aircraft terminals, with longer runways, become necessary. There will be many who support this and many who do not. The need for the development is obvious, but the location, in increasingly densely populated countries, creates yet another problem. Change is part of a complex system. Where individuals, organisations, institutions and societies are placed within this system will affect how they react to the act or issue of change under consideration. The problems involved in the change process are, therefore, affected by context. Change is part of a social and economic context. There is an obvious connection between change and the wider environment, and between the goals of the change and the materials and techniques available. In 1600 the hair of the Siberian wild boar was readily available, as was horse hair in the United Kingdom. For those with adequate resources, silver toothpicks may have been used. Nylon had yet to be invented. Both producers and users were working with the resources available in the situations in which they found themselves. Failures in aircraft design, and their impact, are reported, certainly in the present day, in great detail and with great speed. These failures may result in many deaths, such as the Concorde tragedy in 2000 when 114 people died. Although we know that many more people die on our roads than in the air, we find the scale of such tragedies overwhelming. We



10 Defining Change

may already be concerned about air travel. The concerns may be largely irrational, but nevertheless their impact may be great. We are already aware that change involves a variety of actors. These actors form part of the personal context and change will invariably evoke a variety of emotions. The attitudes and beliefs of the participants of change, however rational or irrational, will be grounded in their social, economic and political situations. Even with a clearly presented coherent aim, and a collaborative problem-solving process, the impact of attitudes cannot be underestimated. We have heard of the successful developments involved in toothbrush design, but along with these successes there must have been many failures. These are less well documented. Earlier developments are not seen as failures. They are seen as part of the learning process. For thousands of years the toothbrush has taken many forms, some more effective than others. Change is a process and involves training, practice and time. According to Fullan (1993: vii), ‘the secret of growth and development is learning how to contend with the forces of change – turning positive forces to our advantage, while blunting negative ones’. A deeper understanding of the process will help us to ‘contend’ with these forces.

1.4 Summary This chapter has introduced the concept of change. Through the presentation of various definitions it has reached the conclusion that change is an enormously intricate process that may be defined through a series of opposites, with the definition falling anywhere between the two, as illustrated in Figure 1.1. To investigate the change process further, various principles of change were determined with recourse to two concrete examples: the

Positive

Negative

Planned

Unplanned

Imposed

Self-motivated

Physical

Mental

Small Welcomed Figure 1.1

Large Resisted

Examples of opposites defining change.



What is Change? 11

12 Defining Change

1. develop our understanding of the change process; 2. be clear about the aim of the change and communicate this aim to all those involved; 3. be aware that there are a number of actors who may have an impact on the eventual adoption of the proposed change; 4. realise that the most effective change is that which focuses on clientuser needs; 5. be ready to react to various problems that will arise as the change is taking place; 6. see change as part of a social and economic context; 7. recognise the importance of adequate and appropriate resources; 8. see change as part of a personal context and be prepared to encounter a variety of attitudes and beliefs; and 9. realise that change involves training and practice, and takes time. The development of the toothbrush is an example of the process of change viewed positively and successfully. It would be extremely rare to hear the words ‘nobody likes change’ with reference to the toothbrush. And, despite the tragedies that have occurred over the years, the same may also be said of aircraft design and air travel. If we consider the principles of change demonstrated by the aeroplane and the toothbrush, we may be able to begin to reach a deeper understanding of the process of change. In addition, we may be able to apply these principles to our professional lives. If we return briefly to the two instances of negative attitudes to change introduced in Section 1.1, although the need for change and its general aim were clear to the supporters of Welsh rugby, other principles of change appear to have been ignored. Proposed financial resources were inadequate and inappropriate and the supporters were seemingly not being involved in the decision-making process. According to ex-Welsh international rugby player John Taylor (2003: 1), David Moffat had ‘gone straight for the jugular’. A similar fate had befallen Rachel, with her predicament compounded by the fact that there had been no clear reason for Ross’s actions. In some circumstances we may appreciate that a change has to take place, but we may not appreciate how that change is being introduced, or more often imposed. This can be particularly true when we consider the implementation of educational change, and it is to the educational context of change that this book now turns.



aeroplane and the toothbrush. These principles lead us to realise that when dealing with change we need to

2 Reformers have the idea that change can be achieved by brute sanity. – George Bernard Shaw, 1856–1950

2.1 Introductory comments Chapter 1 discussed the notion of change on an everyday, personal level by considering the question, What is change? It presented various definitions of change derived from a variety of sources, from famous poets and playwrights, to experienced teachers taking part in in-service training programmes. Through the presentation of the development of two everyday artefacts, the aeroplane and the toothbrush, it reached the conclusion that change is a hugely complicated process, and that by examining the process a number of general principles can be reached. These are as follows: • • • • • • •

Principle 1: Change involves the statement of an aim Principle 2: Change is problem-solving Principle 3: Change is client-user focused Principle 4: Change involves a variety of actors Principle 5: Change is part of a complex system Principle 6: Change is part of a social and economic context Principle 7: Change is part of a personal context, evokes a variety of emotions and involves attitudes and beliefs • Principle 8: Change is a process and involves training, practice and time. This chapter develops the concept of change further by examining it within a specific context, the educational arena. Definitions are put 13



What is Educational Change?

forward by researchers within the area of education, and language teaching and learning. These are followed by definitions given by teachers and educators themselves when answering the question, What is educational change? (the ‘voices’ presented in the introduction). This leads on to an introduction of three different strategies of change: power-coercive, rational-empirical and normative-re-educative (Chin and Benne, 1969). The chapter proceeds by returning to the principles of change and highlighting their relevance to the English language teaching context and concludes with an outline of the various factors affecting educational change.

2.2 Definitions of educational change Morgan and Roberts (2002: 1), in a study reporting on a radical transformation of a university faculty in Australia, attest that educational change ‘involves considerable negotiation and communication, inclusiveness and team building, and leadership and drive’. The concept of negotiation in curriculum development and change led Weston (1979: 39), with reference to secondary schooling, to state that the actors within the system are ‘constantly working out their own understanding and relationship to the system’. Educational change involves many people, places and things, and there are many challenges awaiting those attempting to initiate or implement change in any educational environment. Evans (2000) reinforces the notion of the complexity of educational change, suggesting that schools face a paradox in that as a school faces change, it must also preserve continuity, echoing the ambiguous nature of change highlighted in Chapter 1 (see Figure 1.1), as John Foster Dulles, United States Secretary of State in 1950 concurs: A capacity to change is indispensable. Equally indispensable is the capacity to hold fast to that which is good. (John Foster Dulles, 1888–1959) Evans sees the ‘glacial pace’ of change in schools to be necessary; furthermore he suggests that Change is always pressed in the name of progress, but its early impact is frequently to cause loss, because it upsets the patterns, practices, relationships, and assumptions by which we have lived and which have made our lives meaningful. This is true of big changes and small



14 Defining Change

What is Educational Change? 15

In order to lessen this feeling of loss and reduce the fear of change, Richards (1998), in an investigation into the first year of teaching for graduate teachers of English in Hong Kong, suggests a model of teacher training utilising teacher mentors in the university sector. As well as acknowledging the presence of a variety of actors in the change process, this would provide a two-way development procedure, for both the teachers in the classrooms and the academics in the universities. Richards also highlighted the impact that culture can have on implementation and change: This investigation demonstrates the difficulty of influencing teaching practices set by a given culture and background of experience. In relation to a particular course offered to the teachers and studied here, it suggests the potential ineffectiveness of teacher preparation in the light of strong countervailing cultural pressures and minimal pre-service classroom experience. (Richards, 1998: 189–190) David Kennedy (1999: 36) reiterates the importance and influence of a ‘culturally sensitive approach’, and in addition suggests that teacher motivation, training and finance should be considered. The role of materials and the influence of teacher beliefs are also highlighted: • The new materials are a departure from the old, requiring teachers and trainees to develop new skills and classroom techniques related to the new methodology. • Raising awareness of attitudes and beliefs amongst teachers and trainees is an important factor in a cognitive approach in order to change their behaviour in the classroom. (Kennedy, 1999: 36) Change, therefore, has implications for the general ethos of the school and all those within it. Fullan asserts that the real agenda for introducing change into the school environment is to change the culture of the



ones – not just of implementing a new curriculum, but of changing the daily schedule. And while workers in all settings experience change as loss, this is especially true in education, where continuity is so important. (Evans, 2000: 3)

16 Defining Change

An innovation – a new or revised curriculum, a policy, a structure, an idea – is something that is new to the people encountering it for the first time. Dealing with innovation effectively means alterations in behaviours and beliefs. Changes in behaviours – new skills, activities, practices – and changes in beliefs – new understandings, commitments – are at the core of implementation. Thus the key issue from an implementation perspective is how the process of change unfolds vis-à-vis what people do (behaviours) and think (beliefs) in relation to a particular innovation. (Fullan, 1991: 22) In responding to the question, What is educational change? (see Chapter 5) MA TEFL/TESL students acknowledged its complexity and were largely positive in their definitions, with the majority referring to educational change as a move to develop existing practices. They also agreed with Kennedy and Fullan in indicating that the issue of attitudes and beliefs must be addressed as well as practice: • All-around changes in policies, systems, culture values, pedagogy, both schools and families. (MA #10) • Educational change means to direct education to the full development of the individual and society. (MA #2) • Teachers educate students and make them change their attitudes or get improvement by using new teaching methods. (MA #9) Educational change, therefore, is part of a complex system; a system that is essentially paradoxical in nature. It is a system which strives to develop and improve, whilst at the same time seeks to provide continuity and constancy. It involves being aware of and dealing with problems, such as feelings of loss or fear, and involves a variety of actors and their underlying attitudes and beliefs. It is also affected by both the social and economic context and can be approached in a number of ways, as the remainder of the chapter will illustrate.

2.3 Strategies for effecting change Handy (1978: 43), in discussing the psychological contract that each individual may have with their work environment, suggests that it is



institution, and that for this to take place the attitudes and beliefs of those within the institution must be addressed:

possible to classify organisations according to the following categories: coercive, calculative and co-operative. Organisations where coercive contracts dominate are characterised by the individual being governed by ‘forces beyond his control’. Control is mandated, by the few over the many, through rule and punishment. If the individual complies, there will be no punishment. Calculative contracts are largely voluntary, and although the control remains within the bounds of the management, it is ‘expressed mainly in their ability to give desired things to the individual’. Under a co-operative contract the individual is encouraged to participate actively in decision-making and goal-setting, ‘to identify with the goals of the organisation and to become creative in the pursuit of those goals’. Although the management remains in control, a large amount of this control is distributed amongst the individuals. The categorisation of change falls into similar areas. The three most widely accepted strategies for effecting change are those put forward by Chin and Benne (1969): the power-coercive, rational-empirical and normative-re-educative. 2.3.1 Power-coercive strategy In general the power-coercive approach to change stresses the use of political and economic, and to an extent moral, sanctions as the main strategy for bringing about successful implementation. The threat of sanction has, in theory, the result of increasing the willingness of those involved in the process to follow the directions of those in charge and those with the power. The role and standing of the power source itself, and the knowledge that it possesses, should be sufficient reason for those involved to accept, and therefore not resist, the mandated changes. Changing educational policy through state-level legislation is a common example of the use of the power-coercive strategy. However, it has been well documented (Kennedy, 1987; Goh, 1999; Lamie, 2001) that this strategy has its failings, as the lecturers of the CUMT indicate: • It assumes a totally passive recipient. (CUMT #2) • Some people may have a hostile attitude towards it. (CUMT #8) • It ignores individual needs and interests and inhibits teachers’ creativity. (CUMT #9) On the surface, the power-coercive strategy can appear to be easy to use. However, as CUMT Lecturer #7 suggests, ‘it can meet with confrontation’. Kennedy concurs:




18 Defining Change

Everard and Morris (1985: 223) consider the power-coercive approach to be ‘a decreasingly effective strategy for gaining real commitment’. There may be ‘times when it helps to overcome initial resistance, and it can then give way to more acceptable and enduring methods of winning hearts and minds’. One such method may be that which adopts the rational-empirical approach. 2.3.2 Rational-empirical strategy Whereas the power-coercive strategy focuses on knowledge, this second approach primarily focuses on the use of information as a motivator of change. The basic premise of the rational-empirical approach is that people are rational, and that once the benefits of a change have been explained then those involved will be willing to adopt the change. ‘The fallacy of rationalism’, Fullan (1991: 96) suggests: is the assumption that the social world can be altered by logical argument. The problem, as George Bernard Shaw observed, is that ‘reformers have the idea that change can be achieved by brute sanity’. In response to the statement People are rational, the MA TEFL/TESL students were also less than sure that this could be a successful strategy, as Figure 2.1 indicates.

Number of students

16

14

14 12 10 8 6

5

6

4 1

2 0 Agree

Figure 2.1

Partly agree

Partly disagree

Disagree

MA TEFL/TESL responses: People are rational.



If there is opposition, some way round the sanction may be sought. If this is not possible, then there is a prospect of considerable conflict . .. the group at whom the change is directed may then resort to powercoercive strategies themselves and a circle of conflict is initiated. (Kennedy, 1987: 164)


Truth and reality are multifaceted, and the reality of other people’s worlds is different from yours. Most people act rationally and sensibly within the reality of the world as they see it. They make assumptions about the world, and about the cause of things, which differ from yours, because their experiences are different, and they even experience the same event in different ways. (Everard and Morris, 1985: 171) The rational-empirical strategy may encounter less resistance than the power-coercive approach, but, as Kennedy (1987: 164) states, ‘it is a strategy which is likely to have its greatest effect when the audience is already sympathetic to the arguments produced’. In contrast to the previous approaches, the final strategy, the normative-re-educative, assumes that people are driven by impulse and seek gratification. Whereas both the power-coercive and rational-empirical focus on the organisation or innovation involved, the normative-re-educative focuses on the individual. 2.3.3 Normative-re-educative strategy As previously mentioned, an awareness of the impact of the culture of the school (Fullan, 1991) is vital to the implementing of change within the school. A changing of the culture of the school, therefore, may supersede any implementing of innovation itself. Chin and Benne (1969) term this the ‘normative-re-educative process’. In the normativere-educative process, the individual is not seen as a passive receiver of information or knowledge, but will take action, and arrive at assumptions, based on personal beliefs and attitudes. It is within the employment of the normative-re-educative strategy where the presence of a consultant, change facilitator or change agent most frequently occurs. The change agent may not actually be the producer or developer of the innovation being put forward, but is usually in a senior position, as White explains: The role of the change agent is to initiate the innovation and to assist in its adoption. The agent may not, in fact, be the originator of the innovation, but in terms of the receiving system or institution it is the change agent who is the message bearer. (White et al., 1991: 118)



Everard and Morris, in discussing the rationality of the individual, stress that the individual will be acting, or thinking, rationally within the reality of the world in which they consider themselves to be existing:

20 Defining Change

(a) plan and support the innovation process; (b) clarify the position of the teachers involved; (c) provide access for training, if necessary, to fulfil the demands of the new role; (d) modify any organisational or situational arrangements; and (e) devise and monitor feedback mechanisms. The role of the change agent is hence a complex one. The change agent must be aware of the intricacies involved in the change process in order to be able to plan and support it; must possess a detailed knowledge of the innovation and be able to relay this in a clear and simple, yet not condescending, manner; and have the necessary management and interpersonal skills to make sure that all runs smoothly. The change agent should also try to ensure that those involved lower down in the innovation hierarchy do not feel threatened or devalued, as Sikes cautions, in that the deduction derived from suggested change could be that: Students are not receiving the best education because teachers and their teaching is inappropriate and inadequate. (Sikes, 1992: 37) One of the most important matters to consider with the appointment of any change agent is status. Greiner (1967) points out that a change agent with perceived high prestige and expertise is much more likely to be successful in promoting change than one without those characteristics. Furthermore, Greiner notes that the employment of a non-expert change agent could in fact have a completely opposite effect and dramatically increase resistance to change. Changes are not simply a rational response to an explained event, but occur at the more personal level of values and habits. The overarching principle is that an individual must take an active part in their own change, or re-education, if it is to have any chance of success, as Easen states: You cannot really change other people, nor can they change you; people can only change themselves. The best that anyone can do is to provide a structure which helps others to change, if that is what they want to do. (Easen, 1985: 71)



Gross et al. (1971) state that it should be the responsibility of the change agent to

Number of students

The majority of MA TEFL/TESL students were in agreement with Easen; they also stressed the importance of attitudes in the process, as shown in Figures 2.2 and 2.3 respectively. The defining characteristics of the three strategies of change, some general examples, and their advantages and disadvantages, are summarised in Table 2.1. Concrete examples given by the Chinese lecturers of English of the CUMT are explored in Chapter 6. What is clear is that the utilisation of one strategy alone is not only unlikely to result in the

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0

9

9

5 3

Agree

Partly agree

Partly disagree

Disagree

Figure 2.2 MA TEFL/TESL responses: You cannot really change other people; people can only change themselves.

Number of students

16

15

14 12 9

10 8 6 4

2

2 0 Agree

Partly agree

Partly disagree

Disagree

Figure 2.3 MA TEFL/TESL responses: Meaningful change must involve a change in attitudes and beliefs.




Underlying assumptions of change strategies

Change strategy

Power-coercive

Rational-empirical

Normative-re-educative

Defining characteristics

•

Focus on the organisation and innovation Based on the application of power Knowledge is power Sanctions may be used

•

Focus on the organisation and innovation People are rational People respond to reasoning Assumes a relatively passive recipient

• • •

Nation-wide curriculum reform New textbooks

• • • •

Conferences Seminars Newsletters Resource centres

•

Collaborative, problem-solving projects

• Easy to structure • Capacity for wide-ranging effects

• •

Easy to implement Quick distribution of ideas

•

Engages all involved in the change process Acknowledges the importance and impact of attitudes

• •

• •

Medium resistance quotient Can appear coercive and dictatorial

• • • Examples

• •

Advantages

Disadvantages

•

High resistance quotient Assumes a passive recipient Gives no recourse to attitudes and beliefs

• • •

•

• • • •

Focus on the individual People are non-passive Participation encourages co-operation Change involves attitudes

Relies on the appropriate status of a change agent Difficult to promote nation-wide innovation Takes time


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22

Table 2.1


Imposed change from without does not work, because it is not adequately thought out, or it is not understood, or resources are not available to carry it through, or because it is actively resisted. Withininstitution change is, by its nature, situation specific, often piecemeal, incomplete, of mediocre quality and so on. Each process requires the other, in a well worked out philosophy and programme of developments. (Skilbeck, 1984: 5) What also emerges from this discussion of the definitions of educational change and the three strategies of change is that there are several crucial factors that have a bearing on the change process and may affect any change being attempted in the educational arena.

2.4 Factors affecting educational change The complex, paradoxical nature of change was introduced in Chapter 1. Fullan considers educational change to be laden with paradoxes. According to Fullan, effective methods for facilitating change demand: Combining and balancing factors that do not apparently go together – simultaneous simplicity–complexity, looseness–tightness, strong leadership–participation (or simultaneous bottom up–top downness), fidelity–adaptivity, and evaluation–nonevaluation. (Fullan, 1985: 399) In an investigation into the process of change at ten Canadian university faculties, Wideen and Holborn (1984) identify five factors which all have to be considered if change of any significance is to occur: 1. The presence of external influences: external forces are often needed to initiate the change in the first place, such as those provided by government legislation, or evaluation reports. 2. The exercising of power: someone at some point must be in control and take responsibility for the change. 3. Shelter conditions: individuals are often encouraged to question and criticise proposals and it may be necessary to curtail these criticisms initially or the process may have ended before it has begun.



desired change, but also has serious practical difficulties. Any proposal therefore needs to look at all three, as Skilbeck maintains:

24 Defining Change

Boser and Hill (1990) suggest three additional factors: clear aims and benefits, structural system change as well as individual change, and the involvement of the community in any proposals for change. Fullan (1991: 68–80) concurs and puts forward a set of interactive factors under three main headings: characteristics of change, local characteristics and external factors. 1. Characteristics of change (a) Need: teachers will respond more positively to the proposed change if they see the need for it. (b) Clarity: the aims and goals of the innovation must be clear, but care needs to be taken not to oversimplify them and lead to ‘false clarity’. (c) Complexity: an awareness needs to exist of the extent of change required on behalf of the individual and if the requests for change are within the bounds of the individual. (d) Quality/practicality: materials and support need to be made available to ensure that the innovation has the best chance of being implemented. 2. Local characteristics (e) District: the history of innovation in the district should be explored to determine the extent to which past innovations have been successfully, or unsuccessfully, initiated and implemented. (f) Community: the ‘role of communities and school boards is quite variable ranging from apathy to active involvement’ (Fullan, 1991: 76), and active involvement may mean that the proposal is being resisted or supported; it is unwise to underestimate the impact community pressure may have, in particular the parents. (g) Principal: if the principal does not play an active role then he or she may have little impact on the innovation; their support, however, could be a great benefit and, by the same token, their resistance could prove to be an extremely difficult obstacle to overcome. (h) Teacher: individually and collectively teachers play a pivotal role.



4. The role of key players: those who proposed the change are crucial to its continuation and, in addition, any change agents that have been introduced have the potential to be key figures. 5. A receptive faculty and students: all actors involved in the process must be considered.


(i) Government and other agencies: just as local-level government can affect educational innovation, so too can the national government. Very often it is the national government that instigates any major innovation, but their priorities will be different to those in the community or the school. Local individuals need to be aware of these priorities as do the ministers in the government offices. The first principle of change is that Change involves the statement of an aim. Defining aims and objectives clearly is an important issue as Boser and Hill, and Fullan highlight. Skilbeck (1984) suggests that aims should also, where possible, be arrived at via consensus. As Nicholls (1983) suggests and White et al. (1991: 175) support, ‘rationality alone is not sufficient for achieving acceptance of objectives’. A rational-empirical strategy may not be enough. This stresses the importance of, and need for, aspects of the normative-re-educative strategy. Wideen and Holborn (1984) point to the ‘role of key players’ in their factors affecting educational change. Change, as we have seen, is client-user focused and involves a variety of actors, some of which may be change agents, operating in a number of different systems, and all affected by social and economic issues. Where any individual actor is placed within the system will affect how the individual responds to the proposed change. If the individual is the change agent or an initiator of the change and placed relatively high in the hierarchy, then it is likely that the change will be supported and encouraged. The same may not be true of someone placed at the bottom of the hierarchy, as White et al. advise: There are two quite different viewpoints: that of the change agent – the person advocating the innovation – and that of the receiver or changer – the person who is being asked to put the innovation into effect. It would be scarcely surprising if their perceptions of the innovation did not differ. (White et al., 1991: 179) The complexity of the system, as a result, determines that any change that takes place in one part of the system will naturally have an effect on another part. A new curriculum course of study, such as the one promulgated in Japan in 1989, and described in further detail in Chapter 7, which proposes a shift in teaching methodology, would also obviously need to be supported by changes in examination procedures, teaching



3. External factors

materials and teacher education and training. Nevertheless, however obvious this may appear, it is certainly not always acted upon. There may be a number of reasons for this, one of which could be cultural pressures and social context. Change is ‘bound to the social context in which it occurs’ (Kennedy, 1996: 11). As Carless, during a classroom-based research project in Hong Kong, develops with reference to the school context: A curriculum designed principally by expatriates must take into account the realities of the local classroom context and needs to be perceived as doing this by implementing teachers, otherwise ‘tissue rejection’ (Holliday 1992) may occur. The design of a culturally appropriate curriculum may be more effective than importing an overseas model. (Carless, 1999: 28) Hoyle (1970), the originator of the analogy, considers ‘tissue rejection’ to be one of the main reasons for failure to change within an education environment. Tissue rejection, he states: Occurs when there is a discrepancy between innovation and the pedagogical code of the school. Many innovations are underpinned by a code which is radically new as far as the adopting school is concerned. This code may perhaps place an emphasis on openness and flexibility in matters of the curriculum, methods and organisation of learning. (Hoyle, 1970) For over 200 years Japan, for example, was an entirely closed society, shut off from all external influences. From 1635 Ieyasu Tokugawa, the most powerful of the Tokugawa shoguns, banned all Japanese, on pain of death, from trying to go abroad. All foreign books and all foreign trade were prohibited. This absolute isolation lasted until 1854 when two ports, Shimoda and Hakodate, were finally opened, reluctantly, for trade to America. The conventional view is that one of the results of this long period of global non-involvement was the development of a very powerful sense of national identity and the growth of a highly distinctive culture. One major aspect of the society that existed and was reinforced during the period of self-imposed isolation was its hierarchical structure. Japan remains intensely hierarchical. This is particularly clear when we examine the Japanese educational system, with its rigid



26 Defining Change


Individuals were assigned ascribed roles, the performance of which was a virtue. That ideology remains potent in contemporary Japan, and is the underpinning of what characterises Japan as a role-oriented society. (Shimahara, 1998b: 223) The 1989 New Revised Course of Study (NRCOS) for the teaching of English in Japanese junior and senior high schools proposed a shift away from the long-established methods of grammar translation (GT) teaching (Ito, 1978) to teaching for communicative competence. The origins of communicative competence lie principally in sociolinguistics. It represents the educational application of an attempt initiated by Hymes (1971) to redefine a linguistic position taken by Chomsky (1965). According to Chomsky, language competence is an idealisation. It is the knowledge of the ideal speaker-listener operating within a uniform speech community: Linguistic theory is concerned primarily with an ideal speaker-listener in a completely homogeneous speech community, who knows its language perfectly and is unaffected by such grammatically irrelevant conditions as memory limitation, distractions, shifts of attention and interest, and errors (random or characteristic) in applying his knowledge of the language in actual performance. (Chomsky, 1965: 3) Chomsky goes on to point out that such performance language (which most of us would redefine as everyday speech) will show numerous false starts, deviations from rules, changes of plan in mid-course and so on. Performance language, therefore, is not of interest to the pure linguist as it represents a ‘degenerate reflection of the ideal speaker-listener’s competence’ (Chomsky, 1965: 3). Hymes disagrees with this view of linguistic competence. He considers the language user as having the knowledge and skill for language use with reference to: whether (and to what degree) something is formally possible; whether (and to what degree) something is feasible by virtue of the means of implementation available;



stratification of institutions and divisions of roles. School classrooms are part of the social hierarchy and are not to be trivialised, as Azuma (1994: 7) maintains when referring to ‘receptive diligence’, and Shimahara affirms:

whether (and to what degree) something is appropriate (adequate, happy, successful) in relation to a context in which it is used and evaluated; whether (and to what degree) something is in fact done, actually performed, and what its doing entails. (Hymes, 1971: 16) Hymes argues that linguistic competence has little to do with language as it is used and taught, or with the language of communication and culture. For Hymes, this is a view which avoids difficult questions by dismissing them as mere performance, and pure linguists such as Chomsky take structure as a primary end and deprecate actual language use. This line of argument raised important questions for teachers who had believed that a factual knowledge of grammatical structures was the foundation on which the learning of a foreign language should be based. According to Hymes, a knowledge of structure is only one criterion in a hierarchy of language competencies; a hierarchy which must also contain an awareness of accepted usage and the ability to use spoken language in a manner appropriate to its context. The view of language competence proposed by Hymes is that it is best judged in the performance mode, which means language in use in specific contexts. The overall aim should be to teach knowledge with skill. It is only in this way that language learners can communicate effectively in the new language. It is only in this way that they can acquire true communicative competence. A number of developments and interpretations have followed on from the Chomsky–Hymes debate. The implications of communicative competence have been influenced by discourse analysis (Sinclair and Coulthard, 1975; White, 1988), whereas Canale (1983), for example, redefined the idea of proficiency in language learning on the basis of the notion of communicative competence presented by Hymes, and in doing so identified four components: grammatical competence, discourse competence, socio-linguistic competence and strategic competence. Holliday (1994), in examining the importance of context in language teaching, argues that the communicative approach, and the same comment could be applied here to communicative competence, ‘has been so much interpreted, popularised and misunderstood’ as to reduce it to the status of a ‘basic measure of modernity and progress’ (Holliday, 1994: 165). The important and influential issue here is not how communicative competence, or the communicative approach, has been perceived and developed in the West, but how it is, and has been, used



28 Defining Change


Structural differences make it impossible to apply European systems to the Japanese education system. Therefore, the examples of other countries cannot be a solution but a lesson to the context of the Japanese education system. (Fujimoto, 1999: 20) In the West, the advent of appropriate and affordable technology fortuitously coincided with the theory proposed by Hymes and led to the almost total adoption of direct methods of teaching and learning foreign languages utilising tape recorders and language laboratories. In addition, the ethos of Western classrooms was appropriate to this method, itself a Western construct. In general, students in them were reasonably confident in asking questions or in taking part in discussion. Making mistakes and having them corrected was recognised as an important stage in the learning process. There was no such ethos in Japanese schools, where it was entirely inappropriate to ask questions and making mistakes was regarded as an admission of ignorance. Therefore, communicative competence theory has implications on a cultural as well as a linguistic level. This issue will be developed in Chapters 4 (‘Models of Change’) and 7 (‘Evaluating Change with Japanese Teachers of English’). Stern (1983: 269) defines the social context of language teaching and learning as ‘a set of factors that is likely to exercise a powerful influence’ on methodology and practice. Stern classifies these factors as linguistic, socio-cultural, historical, political, geographical, technological and economic. To the importance of social context, therefore, we could also add economic context. According to Morgan and Roberts, Higher education is undergoing momentous change as a result of powerful external forces. It has moved from being an elitist provider to a mass provider; from an input-run system to an output-driven system where achievement in research and teaching determines funding. (Morgan and Roberts, 2002: 1) Funding is an important issue. The Chinese school curriculum, for example, is historically the product of economic and industrial requirements. It can be assumed, therefore, that recent upheavals in the teaching



and referred to in English language teaching in Japan. As Fujimoto states, when examining the structural implications of reform,

of English, both at school and tertiary levels (Lamie, 2004), have been caused by similar requirements. A great deal of government effort and money has been spent on trying to redirect curriculum aims and classroom methods away from traditional emphasis on the acquisition of examination-driven literacy skills towards spoken language competence (Maley, 1995; Li, 1997; Godfrey, 1999). The development of ELT in China is developed further in Chapter 6. Cortazzi and Jin explain the historical situation: Chinese approaches to language teaching have a long-standing concern with mastery of knowledge, which is focused on the four centres of the teacher, the textbook, grammar and vocabulary. Knowledge of English is transmitted through the teacher, as an authority, a source of knowledge and an intellectual and moral example. (Cortazzi and Jin, 1996: 65) The intention to employ communicative language-teaching techniques, initiated by the Chinese government using a top-down power-coercive approach, in Chinese schools and colleges has led to discussions similar to those in Japan of appropriacy within the Chinese cultural context (Morrison, 1989). What has arisen is a methodological hybrid: a mixing of Western communicative methods and traditional Chinese techniques (Wang, 2001). This has posed problems for the teachers in terms of knowledge and ability. In addition, many Chinese teachers have indicated that they are wary of the new approaches and view them with a negative attitude (Yu, 2001). Change evokes a variety of emotions and involves attitudes and beliefs. Any changes taking place in schools and classrooms will naturally result in either a positive or negative reaction, as White et al. demonstrate: People’s ideas differ, and there may be resistance or indifference to the curriculum proposals which have been put forward. It is very important to take account of these variations in people’s understandings and attitudes, which are quite normal, because they can destabilise even the most praiseworthy attempts at curriculum development. (White et al., 1991: 176) The changing of practices can be relatively straightforward, but the changing of attitudes takes time. The issue and impact of attitudes and beliefs will be dealt with in more detail in Chapter 4.



30 Defining Change

Finally, as Fullan (1991: 68) advised, in order to ensure ‘quality and practicality’, materials and support must be provided. The impact of resources is discussed in Chapter 4. Effective initial and in-service teacher training is vital to the successful implementation and continuation of an innovation. Training takes time and often it would appear that there is little time for change. This can lead to a huge amount of pressure being placed on teachers who have a responsibility to, for example, deliver a new curriculum, but have not received the tools to do so, as Evans illustrates: In schools, ‘change’ too often means ‘addition’, rather than replacement. Because we have a national consensus that schools must innovate, but not about how, schools are at the mercy of all sorts of proposals, many promising (but not all) and none simple. Many schools’ improvement plans are overloaded, involving a series of complex projects in curriculum, instruction, technology, assessment, inclusion, and governance. And most plans require most teachers to be engaged in most of these initiatives simultaneously. (Evans, 2000: 3) Chapter 5 investigates the measurement and evaluation of change with MA TEFL/TESL students and, in addition, analyses the development and concept of teacher education and training, from the 1970s, when it became a key feature of the education agenda, through its development in subsequent decades to the concept of the ‘total teacher’ (Fullan, 1991) and continued professional development. Factors affecting educational change can be seen to fall into three interrelated areas: factors relating to the change process, external factors, and internal factors. The change process includes strategies (such as the power-coercive), aims and implementation procedures. External pressures can be further divided into four parts, again interwoven: global, national, community and school. Attitudes, ability, knowledge and training all form part of the internal forces, as shown along with the principles of change, in Figure 2.4. Factors relating to the change process may be part of external or internal pressures, or both. For example, a change agent may be a senior member of the school, a local or national government representative, an overseas consultant or the individual themselves. Strategies employed may also vary. The nation may employ a top-down power-coercive strategy in the dissemination of a new curriculum innovation, which may in turn be picked up and distributed by the local government using rational-empirical techniques. An individual




32 Defining Change

•

Strategies: power-coercive, rational-empirical, normative-re-educative [Change is a problem-solving activity]

•

Aims [Change involves the statement of an aim]

•

Implementation procedures

•

Change agents External

Internal

•

Global: ELT developments; globalisation

•

•

National: culture, economy, legislation

•

Community: local government, economy, law

[Change involves attitudes and beliefs]

•

School: school ethos, management, teachers, pupils

[Change is part of a social and economic context]

Attitudes

•

Ability

•

Knowledge

•

Relevance

•

Benefits

•

Training and support

[Change involves training and practice] [Change is client-user focused] [Change involves a variety of actors] [Change is part of a complex system] Figure 2.4

Factors affecting educational change.

school may then decide to tackle the issue from the bottom-up, utilising normative-re-educative methods. This serves to illustrate quite clearly the complexity of the educational change process.

2.5 Summary Any major educational change generates three kinds of issues. First, it will have an effect on individuals’ needs to feel effective, valued and in control. Second, it will have an effect on the educational environment in which the individual is placed. Third, the change will have the potential to cause conflict between those that have initiated it and those who have not. The first part of this chapter focused on definitions of educational change. These definitions serve to highlight the complexity of the process. Schools, for example, do change, but the complex interaction of factors that are involved in any major change in the education arena dictates that this change will be slow. This, according to Evans (2000),



The Change Process


• Change should not be radical and abrupt, but should take place in gradual mode. • Changes in education can be negative where opinions of students are not taken into consideration. (MA #23) Schools are places that give shape and meaning to our lives. Change, as we saw in Chapter 1, is not always positive, and any proposal for educational change must ensure that there is a need (Fullan, 1991) for the change, and this need must be made explicit to the teachers, as the following MA TEFL/TESL student indicates: • Curriculum developers have to express explicitly why the change is necessary. They have to have a future vision of its outcome. (MA #14) The second part of the chapter presented three popular change strategies propounded by Chin and Benne (1969): power-coercive, rationalempirical and normative-re-educative. The underlying assumption of the power-coercive strategy is that people are basically compliant, and that successful change is based on the exercise of authority and the imposition of sanctions. Rationality is the focus of the rational-empirical approach. Here, successful change is dependent on the communication of information and people being reasonable in their reaction to it. The normative-re-educative strategy centres on individual responses to situations. People are considered to adhere to cultural norms and values, and successful change is based on a co-operative redefining of these norms and values. The first two strategies are unidirectional, whereas the latter involves a unified, problem-solving approach. Fullan (1991: 22) cautions that ‘you can’t mandate what matters – the more complex a change the less you can force it’. Kennedy (1987: 165) views the normative-re-educative approach as ‘the one that offers the greatest potential’ for change. An MA TEFL/TESL student stressed the need for both ‘bottom-up and top-down’ (MA #5) approaches. The conclusion is that not only could a mixture of all three strategies take place, but that it should. However, it appears to be much simpler to adopt power-coercive and rational-empirical strategies, than normativere-educative. Bolam points out that: Innovations frequently require changes in both curriculum and organisation and innovators frequently employ both power-coercive



should not necessarily be looked on unfavourably. An MA TEFL/TESL student agreed:

and empirical-rational strategies. At the national level, the major strategy used by governments to disseminate policy is probably a power-coercive one. In both centralised and decentralised systems, governments usually attempt to change their education system’s goals and structure by coercive means, but such policy directives are probably followed by empirical-rational strategies of information dissemination and training. (Bolam, 1975: 274) An awareness of the importance of attitudes is central to the normativere-educative approach. As Fullan and Hargreaves (1992: 7) state, teacher development and change involves ‘changing the person the teacher is’. It is a highly personal issue: To focus on behavioural skills alone without reference to their grounding in or impact on attitudes and beliefs is misguided and liable to prove ineffective. (Fullan and Hargreaves, 1992: 7) MA TEFL/TESL students agree that attitudes form a key part of the factors affecting educational change. They also suggest a number of other factors: • Positive attitudes will have a positive impact on educational change. (MA #7) • An educational change may not be accepted due to students’ conservative cultural educational background, due to lack of appropriate facilities or teaching aids or more generally due to the fact that a society might not be ready to accept the changes. (MA #22) • Parents’ objections, teachers’ lack of co-operation, lack of costs and government support and insufficient planning [may have a negative impact on educational change]. (MA #12) Factors affecting educational change were seen, in the final section of the chapter, to fall into three areas: 1. The change process: strategies, aims, implementation procedures and change agents; 2. External factors: global, national, community and school; and 3. Internal factors: attitudes, ability, knowledge, relevance, benefits, training and support.



34 Defining Change

A reaffirmation of the principles of change in the educational context confirmed that first and foremost, change is a process, and not a single event. Change requires time and planning, and is undertaken by individuals within organisations and not by the organisations themselves. However, the fact that individuals are placed within organisations will determine that a certain amount of organisational pressure may be brought to bear on them. The individuals, therefore, are part of their own personal context and also their social and economic context. In order to develop their ability to cope with any change, training and support will be required, but these are also individual human beings and they will have reactions to the new proposals. Some will have a positive attitude and support the change, others will not. Initiators of change, and their change agents, will have to learn to deal with this. The first part of this book has looked at defining change both in the general and educational contexts. The next part focuses on implementing change. The following chapter will present a key area important to all those involved in educational change: curriculum change.








Part II

Implementing Change





3 Curriculum innovation at the national level is an ambitious endeavour. – Goh, 1999: 5

3.1 Introductory comments The literature surrounding curriculum development and innovation suggests that dissemination occupies a central role in the process of change. The importance and impact of dissemination procedures is also highly relevant to English language teaching and learning: A ‘diffusion-of-innovations’ perspective on syllabus design provides curriculum specialists, materials developers, and teachers with a coherent set of guiding principles for the development and implementation of language teaching innovations. (Markee, 2001: 118) The first part of this chapter describes and discusses the implementation and dissemination process with reference to key studies within the educational arena and beyond. Examples of the process are given from both general education and ELT contexts. The second part of the chapter draws together the main elements of the various approaches and strategies, with an identification of the key factors involved in curriculum change, once again giving recourse to the voices of the teachers. Teachers are seen to play a crucial role in the process. 39



Curriculum Change

40 Implementing Change

3.2 Educational implementation strategies

Research in the West (Schon, 1971; Rudduck and Kelly, 1976; Fullan, 1991; Rudduck, 1991) has emphasised the critical role of the implementation process in curriculum change: Two aspects that stand out relate to guidelines/materials development itself, and how the ministry goes about implementation. (Fullan, 1991: 274) Schon, looking at the process of dissemination in general, and drawing on examples from medicine and industry as well as education, presents three models for the dissemination of innovation: the centre–periphery model; the proliferation of centres model; and the periphery–centre model. The centre–periphery model adopts a power-coercive (Chin and Benne, 1969) strategy (see Chapter 2) and assumes that the innovation has been based on research, that there are sufficient resources to support its development and that it will be centrally managed: The effectiveness of a centre–periphery system depends first upon the level of resources and energy at the centre, then upon the number of points at the periphery, the length of the radii or spokes through which diffusion takes place and the energy required to gain the new adoption. (Schon, 1971: 82) Schon views this first model as being potentially inefficient, as both funding and motivation must stem from the centre. It is also a model which is likely to create the greatest resistance. The proliferation of centres model acknowledges the need for support and responsibility beyond a single centre and therefore introduces secondary centres. These secondary centres are managed by the primary centre, but have the duty to undertake dissemination on a more local scale: The model of the proliferation of centres makes of the primary centre a trainer of trainers. The central message includes not only the content of the innovation to be diffused, but a pre-established method for its diffusion. The primary centre now specialises in training, deployment, support, monitoring and management. (Schon, 1971: 85–86)



3.2.1 Background

Whereas Schon considers this to be going someway towards encouraging efficiency, the overt dependency on the primary centre is still seen as a disadvantage. Schon favours the third and final model, the periphery– centre model. This model focuses on a development of communication between the researchers and developers at the centre and the client-users on the periphery. Responsibilities are shared between the centre and the periphery, with both being involved in the development as well as the dissemination of the innovation. With specific reference to education, Rudduck and Kelly (1976) consider the effective implementation of innovation as involving four components: 1. 2. 3. 4.

Translocation Communication Animation Re-education.

Translocation involves the allocation of appropriate resources. Communication reinforces the importance of the statement of clear aims and objectives, and the translation of these aims. Animation includes an awareness of the impact that negative attitudes may have on the process, and the importance, as a result, of incentives and activities to encourage a positive attitude. Re-education centres on the development of the necessary skills and abilities of the client-users. Implementation occurs, in this approach, in three phases: receptivity, an introduction of the innovation; adoption, the generation of interest; and implementation, when the actual application of the research takes place in practice. All phases are important and necessary. Rudduck and Kelly also stress the need for maintenance and continued support. Havelock (1971), in his established models of curriculum implementation, isolates three main models relevant to educational reform: the Research, Development and Diffusion (R, D and D) model; the Social Interaction model; and the Problem-Solving model. 3.2.2 Models of curriculum implementation 3.2.2.1 Research, Development and Diffusion The R, D and D model is an imposition model; it is an example of what Slater (1985) terms as an instrumental approach to change. It adopts a change strategy typified as power-coercive, although there can be rational-empirical elements. It is essentially top-down in nature, with those at the top, in the position of power, imposing change on a client-user or



Curriculum Change 41


Although consumer needs may be implicit in this approach, they do not enter the picture as prime motivations for the generation of new knowledge. Research does not begin as a set of answers to specific human problems. (Havelock, 1971: 2) The model has a clear route from conception to adoption, passing through a series of sharply defined stages, as illustrated in Figure 3.1. The R, D and D model also operates on a number of assumptions. These are the following: 1. The sequence in the development and application of any innovation will be a rational one. It will include research, pure and applied, and packaging before any attempt is made at action. 2. There will be large-scale pre-planning of all the processes of dissemination and implementation. 3. There will be division and co-ordination of labour in 1 and 2. 4. There will be a passive, but rational, client-user to accept and adopt the innovation under the appropriate circumstances. 5. Any large-scale development is likely to involve large-scale cost and the innovating body is willing to accept this. Stenhouse argues that the R, D and D model ‘posits an orderly translation of knowledge from research to development to diffusion and finally to adoption’, but adds the qualification that: It is products embodying solutions rather than hypotheses or ideas behind those products which are being tested. The main concern is getting the product ‘right’ and then marketing it. (Stenhouse, 1975: 219) This could go some way in explaining the hostility that can greet curriculum change adhering to the R, D and D model (Goh, 1999), with its

Research Figure 3.1

Development

Production

Dissemination

Application

The Research, Development and Diffusion model.



consumer, though what is imposed is generally carefully packaged to look both attractive and reasonable. Havelock explains:

emphasis and reliance on the innovation and the organisation, seemingly at the expense of the individual. According to Goh, the implementing of the new English language syllabus at national level in Malaysia displayed some typical elements of the R, D and D model. As Goh states, curriculum development at a national level is an ‘ambitious endeavour’ (Goh, 1999: 5) demanding detailed research, large-scale planning, an enormous amount of money and a complex co-ordination of strategies that need to take into account the various actors involved and the various situations in which they are placed. Following a Malaysian Ministry of Education review in 1979, a curriculum innovation was proposed that would introduce a new Integrated Curriculum into Malaysian schools. This new curriculum was a radical change from the previous one, with the focus now being on the teaching of structural items in the first three years, followed by an emphasis on the development of communicative competence in the latter two. The strategy was not dissimilar to the one employed by Japan in the introduction of the NRCOS (see Chapter 7). The primary curriculum was introduced in 1982, and the new secondary school curriculum in 1988. According to Goh: The Ministry of Education made extensive preparations for implementing the Integrated Curriculum, using seminars, the mass media, information leaflets and books to make people aware of the new curriculum. (Goh, 1999: 5) It is clear so far that the implementation of the Integrated Curriculum is following the R, D and D procedure. The syllabus had been produced after extensive government research, at the centre in the corridors of the Malaysian Education Ministry, and packaged efficiently, ready for dissemination to the periphery – all state and district level educators and teachers. The aims and objectives of the new syllabus had been clearly laid out in an aim to appeal to the rational side of the eventual clientusers, employing, therefore, both power-coercive and rational-empirical strategies: It was presented to them [the teachers] not as a proposal, but as the product of careful research and planning, a better alternative to the existing syllabus. Most importantly the new syllabus was legitimised through the power and authority of the Ministry of Education. (Goh, 1999: 9)





1. Dilution of information: as information filtered through national, state and district training programmes it became diluted and elements were either misinterpreted or omitted altogether. 2. Lack of ownership in schools: training courses disseminated the content of the change, but did not involve discussion or adaptation of the content, leading to a feeling of disassociation from the development of the innovation. 3. Ineffective change agents: some change agents lacked the ability to communicate the aims and content effectively. 4. High costs: the retraining of teachers proved to be extremely expensive as all costs, including transportation and food, had to be covered by the Ministry of Education. 5. Interruptions to lessons: the courses took place during term-time and classes had to be cancelled as a result. In response to the failing of this dissemination method, the Ministry of Education decided to introduce a new method of diffusion: the Package System. This moved the responsibility for training from the states and districts to the schools. Comprehensive information packs were prepared and delivered to schools for discussion and dissemination. This resulted in: 1. 2. 3. 4.

an increase in the number of teachers taking part in the training; a rise in school ownership and accountability; the promotion of collegiality; and a minimal interruption to lessons.

The second dissemination method proved to be more successful than the first, although there remained issues that needed to be addressed. These included: the increase in workloads, the presence of large class sizes; a lack of practical teaching ideas, a lack of personal teacher involvement, and poor monitoring and follow-up procedures. In attempting to combat some of the problems, Goh, working as a head of department in an individual school, set up a ‘professional support network’ (Goh, 1999: 14). This network included meetings, workshops, peer observations and the establishment of a resource bank. At first a success, Goh discovered, following



However, the implementation of the Integrated Curriculum encountered a number of problems. One-week training courses for teachers were organised swiftly and efficiently, but after two years changes had still failed to take place in all schools. Goh attributes this to:

a period of absence from the school, that the activities had ceased. In resuming the responsibility of department head one year later, Goh decided to adopt a more normative-re-educative approach, in encouraging the teachers to ‘think about their own values and improve their skills’ (Goh, 1999: 17). Goh illustrates the importance of an effective dissemination and implementation procedure not only at the national level, but also at the local level: Besides developing a new curriculum, innovators need a comprehensive and realistic package for managing the implementation at the school level. (Goh, 1999: 18) The overall shape of the R, D and D model is one of a powerful and rich initiating body prepared to invest a great deal of time and money in initial planning, then packaging, so as to appeal to the passive but rational recipients on whom it is to be imposed, and who will be ready to accept it because they can see its intrinsic good sense. It is therefore party to the same advantages and disadvantages of any power-coercive approach. Whitehead (1993), in an analysis of the take-up of new curricula in the United Kingdom, attributes the major reason for a lack of success to poor and ineffective dissemination strategies that do little to encourage participation in the final client-users. He notes that, while considerable resources are often apportioned to the research, development and packaging stage, there are often very few resources available for the dissemination stage, and even less for ongoing support and follow-up evaluations. This sentiment is echoed by Hurst: As a prescriptive model for managing change, instrumental approaches suffer from some major weaknesses. Although modifications and refinements have been made since their inception, Slater asserts that ‘despite such modifications, by the mid 1970s there was general agreement among writers from various countries that, whatever the descriptive merits of instrumental approaches as characterised by the R, D and D model with its centre–periphery assumptions, they were – without serious qualifications – seriously deficient as prescriptive models because of their lack of success in achieving change at the user level.’ (Hurst, 1983) The second model, the Social Interaction model, attempts to bring the user more actively into the process.





3.2.2.2 Social Interaction

The Social Interaction model, an example of an interactive approach (Slater, 1985), is a diffusion rather than an imposition model, which attempts to represent how innovation spreads from an innovating body to the client-user through a maze of social and professional networks. It highlights the reciprocal nature of dissemination and focuses on a less passive client-user. This change-diffusion proposition bears a resemblance to aspects of the implementation of the English National Curriculum in the United Kingdom. Here, in order to diffuse particular sets of necessary new skills, in primary Technology and Science for example, as cheaply as possible, individual teachers were sent from individual schools on specialist teacher training courses to acquire the new knowledge. They then brought the knowledge back to their schools where, in theory, it became diffused through the rest of the staff via the same network mechanisms that Havelock postulates. From here the knowledge spread through other networks until it permeated all the schools of the Local Education Authority (LEA) funding the initial training. Viewed from above, that is by the resource organisation funding the training, in this example the LEA, this English version of the model was labelled the Cascade model (Gilpin, 1997). As knowledge comes down from the top, it spreads and involves more and more recipients, rather like a champagne fountain in which all glasses become filled eventually, simply by filling the top one. The view from the bottom, however, can be somewhat different, and as Goh illustrated with reference to the Integrated Curriculum in Malaysia, the result can be a dilution of information: As the information filtered down these layers it became diluted, distorted or got lost along the way. (Goh, 1999: 9) The method has also encountered difficulties in Japan. The Japanese Ministry of Education, Monbusho, states that:



Social interaction is not merely a matter of passively receiving from others; it is also a matter of give-and-take, or mutual influence and two-way communications. (Havelock, 1971: 42)

Communicative competence is fostered through a positive attitude towards communicating on the part of the students. To achieve this, the teachers should always make sure that students have sufficient information and ability to carry out the allotted tasks by themselves with some degree of success. They should refrain from correcting grammatical errors too strictly, which might discourage the students from communicating positively, and instead praise positive attitudes for efforts to communicate. (Monbusho, 1994: 22) Uehara, a junior high school (JHS) teacher, described the current situation for high school teachers and acknowledged the need for a quick and extensive learning process: Now we find a lot of books about English in bookstores, and we can get much knowledge from them, but still many people say, ‘I can’t speak English well even though I have studied it for nine years.’ That is the present condition in Japan. Anyway, we English teachers have to learn to be able to use English as a means to communicate, otherwise we can’t help our students. (Uehara, 1994) In an attempt to encourage the development of the ability of the teachers to prepare ‘the allotted tasks’, Monbusho embarked upon a series of panJapanese conferences and seminars. Their purpose was to give theoretical background and practical ideas to the NRCOS, which advocated communicative competence, because, as Hadley (1999: 7) states, ‘innovations find greater acceptance if goals are clearly defined’. However, these conferences were not well attended and did not always fulfil their objectives. For its theoretical explanation, Monbusho drew largely on the published opinions of Western foreign language teaching specialists, and the language and intricacy of these did not help to clarify, but made more complex, the issues for the grammar-translation-experienced teachers. This model of dissemination would therefore appear to have its limitations. The model assumes that the individual client-user either belongs to or has contact with a network of social or professional relations. Havelock also generalises that group membership and reference-group identification are major predictors of the extent of the influence and adoption of the change process. Havelock comments that the model represents a ‘natural’ process with very few explicit strategies or action alternatives.




In other words, if it does not run of its own free will then there is very little that can be done. This model depends on the support and goodwill of all those involved for its success. Stenhouse (1975) points out that both the R, D and D model and the Social Interaction model are ‘centre–periphery’ models (Schon, 1971): a centre, such as a government body, is seen as having a product or a message which is to be imposed on or diffused through the system. Centre– periphery models are, Stenhouse argues, the least successful because they imply a degree of centralisation of ideas, which is normally not generally acceptable. In addition, they ‘fail to take account of local variations and local needs’ (Stenhouse, 1975: 22). The Problem-Solving model attempts to cater for these individual needs. 3.2.2.3 Problem-Solving The third model, the Problem-Solving model, is the one Havelock regards as most in favour with practitioners in education. As with the normativere-educative approach, its focus is on the individual (Slater, 1985). It is not a centre–periphery model, but is built around client-user’s perceived needs and is the only one of the three models that overtly involves change facilitators or change agents. The process, as in the R, D and D model, is a patterned one following a clearly defined route. As Havelock describes it, the model begins with a need which is felt and articulated by the client-user. The client-user, which can be of any size or complexity, from a government ministry to an individual teacher, then has to translate the need into a problem statement. Then it is possible to conduct a meaningful search and retrieval process for ideas and information which will be of use in deciding upon an appropriate innovation to solve the problem. The final stage is in adapting the innovation, and testing and evaluating it against the original need. The model is totally client-user–need-directed and the only function of the outside agencies in it lies in either consultative or collaborative activity. The theoretical underpinning to this model is that self-initiated and applied innovation will elicit the strongest commitment and consequently the best chance for long-term survival. Both Havelock and Schon display a preference for normative-re-educative periphery–centre models, pointing to the inefficiencies of the other more power-coercive, linear models. They also draw attention to the problems created by both coercive and rational strategies and by a lack of knowledge and ability amongst the client-users due to their remoteness from the developmental centre and lack of ongoing support and evaluation. Kennedy (1987), in the development of a teacher training project in Tunisia, utilised both the Social Interaction and Problem-Solving





Necessitates a collaborative, problem-solving approach, with all those affected by the change involved in some way and making their own decisions about the degree and manner of change they wish to accept. (Kennedy, 1987: 164) The British Council–sponsored project involved the promotion of smallscale change in the development of the teaching of English for Specific Purposes (ESP), hitherto something for which the Tunisian teachers of English had received little or no training, at the University of Tunis. Kennedy, with the aid of a ‘few material resources’ performed the role of expert change agent in the project. Two problems were identified: the teachers’ lack of knowledge with regard to ESP, and the lack of materials available for the teachers to use. The aim of the project, therefore, was twofold: 1. Teacher development; and 2. Material design. Kennedy demonstrated that, by the linking of the approach to material design (Richards, 1985) and teacher development, and the adoption of the normative-re-educative strategy, both aspects of the aim could be achieved. In addition, Kennedy highlighted a number of areas that need to be considered for the promotion of effective change: power, support, leadership, environmental factors, individual roles and the collaborative nature of training. When designing and implementing teacher development programmes, Kennedy stresses the need to include: A strong cognitive component to such programmes, so that change in materials or method does not simply operate at a surface level, but represents an increase in understanding and knowledge . ..[a change strategy that stresses the] collaborative, problem-solving nature of innovation is particularly appropriate in situations of small-scale behavioural change where both insiders and outsiders are present. (Kennedy, 1987: 169) Chin and Benne (1969) and Havelock (1971) each put forward three types of strategies or models of change, and the two sets share some overlapping conceptualisations, as shown in Table 3.1. Although rationalempirical change strategies may be employed in the R, D and D approach,



approaches. The focus for Kennedy was on the employment of the normative-re-educative change strategy. The normative-re-educative strategy:

Educational implementation strategies

Implementation Strategy

Defining Characteristics

Main Advantages

Main Disadvantages

R, D and D Dominant change strategy: power-coercive

•

Focus on the organisation and innovation Centre → periphery Uni-directional Imposing National Instrumental

• • • •

Easy to structure and package Centrally controllable Based on sound research Widespread dissemination possible Training funded

• • • •

Focus on the organisation and innovation Centre ↔ periphery Bi-directional Reciprocal Regional Interactive

•

Potentially effective cascade model Reaches all levels of the education system Reduced training costs Encourages ownership Attempts to involve the users more directly in the implementation process

•

Encourages ownership and collaboration Promotes collegiality Directly confronts attitudes and beliefs Encourages ongoing support and feedback An awareness of local context

• •

Social Interaction Dominant change strategy: rational-empirical

Problem-Solving Dominant change strategy: normative-re-educative

• • • • • • • • • • •

• • • • • •

Focus on the individual Periphery ↔ periphery Multi-directional Action research Local Individual

•

• • • •

• • • • •

•

• • • •

• •


Assumes a passive recipient Information diluted High costs Lack of school and individual ownership High resistance quotient Medium resistance quotient Assumes rational recipients Presupposes the presence of networks Possibility of information being lost Lack of genuine consultation Lack of overall control Difficult to execute on a large scale Reliance on change agents and may be dominated by individuals Teachers may possess limited research skills


50

Table 3.1

for example, the overriding strategy, in this instance, is the power-coercive. This discussion of the three key implementation strategies serves to demonstrate that no one strategy or method is suitable for all occasions and all situations. Instigators of change and change agents who treat the implementation process as uni-directional (such as that present in the R, D and D approach), mechanical and rational do not fully comprehend the complexity of the process and how educational innovations operate as social, negotiated, collaborative features of educational institutions. More likely to succeed are the Interactive and ProblemSolving models that have developed in reaction to the imposition models, as White states: Innovations which are identified by the users themselves (rather than specified by an outside change agent) will be more effectively and durably installed than those which are imported from outside, since it is the teachers and students themselves who will have ‘ownership’ of and commitment to the innovation concerned if it has a grass roots or bottom-up rather than top-down origin. (White, 1988: 133) What has also emerged from this discussion is that there are various factors that will affect curriculum change.

3.3 Factors affecting curriculum change in English language teaching Whitehead (1993) suggests that there are two major contributing factors affecting curriculum change: poor implementation and dissemination procedures, and the absence of sufficient ongoing support for teachers and administrators. Goh (1999) determined that the dilution of information from ineffective training procedures, a lack of ownership, inexperienced change agents and high costs led to the failure of the first attempt to implement the Integrated Curriculum in Malaysia. In addition, Goh stressed the need for more status to be given in the process to those at the forefront of its implementation, the teachers themselves: Curriculum innovation on a national level is, indeed, an ambitious endeavour. Innovators must take steps to ensure that after investing so much time and money in disseminating the innovation, the final most crucial stage – implementation – is not left to chance. Successful implementation lies in the hands of thousands of teachers in the





A number of change theorists have attempted to identify factors which have a bearing upon the eventual adoption and application of an innovation. Hull et al. (1973) raise the issue of the size of the proposed innovation and state that the larger the change, the less chance it has of acceptance. Rogers and Everett (1971) suggest that the first question likely to be raised by those whom the innovation most affects would relate to its relevance and its feasibility. Hurst (1983) also proposes relevance and feasibility, and to these adds • • • • •

Effectiveness Efficiency Trialability Adaptability Communication.

The importance of communication is emphasised by Bowers (1983) in his discussion of the Ain Shams University project. The Ain Shams project, which took place from the late 1970s to 1991, aimed at improving the teaching of English in Egyptian university classrooms. It was part of a wider project, which also covered developments in methodology and in-service teacher training (Holliday, 1996). Bowers stated that the project team needs to: communicate with the administrators and financial authorities upon whom the success of the project largely rests, as well as those directly affected by the project (the teachers, the trainers, etc.). In addition the project team needs to communicate within itself – to clarify the different preoccupations and preconceptions and values which individual members hold. (Bowers, 1983: 115) Rogers and Everett (1971) also point to additional likely outcome indicators such as the ‘triability’ of the innovation, the extent to which it could be tested out on a limited basis and its compatibility. Innovation, they claim, has a far better chance of being accepted if it can be seen to



country. At the end of the day, it is these teachers who will determine whether innovations that have been adopted through top-down measures will eventually be carried out inside the classroom. (Goh, 1999: 18)


‘Communication’ itself may not be a universally shared concept; that is, it may have different meanings in different cultures. In a hierarchical society such as Japan, social variables such as status, age and gender must be taken into consideration when one interacts with others. (LoCastro, 1996: 45) One reason for the termination of the previously mentioned Ain Shams project, Holliday (1996: 86) poses, ‘may have been that the curriculum change was insufficiently appropriate to the social context to be sustained’. Henrichsen (1989: 104), in evaluating the English Language Exploratory Committee’s (1956–1968) attempt to change ELT in Japan, states that it failed largely because the new innovations were not in harmony with the then current policies and practices and, specifically, the traditional teaching method was ‘an impediment’. Rausch suggests that the situation in Japan remains far from compatible: In terms of management of teaching and learning, the results show that the teachers, for the most part, conduct classes using a traditional, teacher-centred approach based on a uniform curriculum, text and evaluation formula. (Rausch, 2000: 4) The chosen methodology in a school could be seen to symbolise its value system. Teacher-centred classrooms put control firmly in the hands of the teachers and carry with them the appropriate educational and hierarchical message (Shimahara, 1998b; Torikai, 2000). Student-centred approaches, on the other hand, shift control away from the teacher. This has implications for the general ethos of a school, as Stenhouse indicates: radical curriculum change involves changes in the entire tone, code or ethos of the teacher–pupil relationship. (Stenhouse, 1975: 167–168) It would be difficult, particularly in a rigid and well-established hierarchical system such as the one seen in Japan, to change things almost immediately and on a large scale in one subject area whilst leaving things exactly as they were in others. It would be especially difficult if the new



be compatible with existing values and practices, a point reiterated by LoCastro with reference to Japan:

methods being introduced were methods unfamiliar to both teachers and students. There would inevitably be a constant temptation for the innovators to return to familiar ways, particularly if the students themselves were finding the transition difficult. This temptation would be increased by the knowledge that at the end of the three years of junior or senior high school, the students were going to be confronted with a vital examination for which the tried and tested methods had already been shown to be entirely suitable: Even with the native language, the Japanese tend to value written language much more than spoken language, and fundamentally speech is silver, silence is golden in this country. It is perfectly natural to see this attitude being fostered in a tightly knit and highly contextualised society. It is not surprising, then, that communicative competence in a foreign language was not overtly emphasised. (Torikai, 2000: 1) Nias et al. (1992), in a study of whole-school curriculum development in five primary schools in England, concluded that there were four key conditions that promoted and sustained change: 1. Shared institutional values: teaching and learning strategies and the general ethos of the school; 2. Suitable organisational structures: communication forums and team projects; 3. Supportive resources: time, people and materials; and 4. Leadership: the role of principals and head teachers. Taylor (1970) argues that, in any curriculum-innovation process, those outside the classroom tend to start from overall long-term aims and objectives, and proceed to the necessary learning strategies, whereas those inside are much more concerned with the short-term aspects of the latter. As Jenkins and Shipman (1976: 62) point out, ‘this is not a surprising discovery for survival is obviously more essential than longer term goals. Teachers need to live to fight another day.’ Nias et al. are in agreement: Committed teachers resent spending time on activities that bear little direct relationship to learning, especially innovations and procedures that are destined to go nowhere. Further, when commitment is shared in the service of a greater school-wide purpose, the best teachers do not limit their interests to their own classroom, but also commit to





When asked what they believed curriculum developers should focus on when implementing nation-wide curriculum change, MA TEFL/TESL students reinforced the importance of setting any revision in a real and practical context: The change should focus on real life and practice (MA #4) Practical courses and fieldwork (MA #6) Designing a concrete syllabus and developing materials are crucial issues without which an innovative theory or idea could not be realised in the actual teaching situation (MA #13) To be practical for teachers and students. They should know and see what is really happening at schools (MA #18)

Number of students

A number of students referred to the involvement of the teachers in the process, a point supported in their response to the statement, ‘Planned innovations tend to be implemented effectively when the change itself is recognised as necessary and relevant by the teachers’ (Roberts, 1998: 91), as shown in Figure 3.2:

20 18 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0

18

7

Agree

Partly agree

Partly disagree

Disagree

Figure 3.2 MA TEFL/TESL responses: Planned innovations tend to be implemented effectively when the change itself is recognised as necessary and relevant by the teachers.



their colleagues, and the development of teaching and learning in the school as a whole. In the latter case some amount of time must be built into the schedule for teachers to work on these extra classroom developments. (Nias et al., 1992: 240)


They also highlighted the impact of culture, particularly school culture, the systems of assessment, such as university entrance examinations (UEE), and the importance of adequate resources and in-service training. These issues, and others put forward by the MA TEFL/TESL students, are explored more fully in Chapter 5. A summary of the factors, divided into three overlapping areas, affecting curriculum change in ELT, is given in Figure 3.3.

The Individual

The Innovation Relevance Size Triability Adaptability Compatibility Dissemination procedures Cost

Attitudes Beliefs Ability

Aims

Communication Ownership Resources Change agents

School culture Pupils Teachers Ongoing support

Initial training

School values and ethos The community The principal

The Environment

Figure 3.3

Factors affecting curriculum change in ELT.



The quality of the teachers, how to cultivate skilful, expressive and well-educated teachers, not only their skills but their attitudes and devotion (MA #10) Opinions of teachers and students (MA #26)


There has proven to be a well-established tradition of the dissemination of innovation in educational literature (Havelock, 1971; Schon, 1971; Rudduck and Kelly, 1976; Fullan, 1991) and an increasing body of literature focusing on the ELT context (Kennedy, 1987; Henrichsen, 1989; Goh, 1999; Markee, 2001; Lamie, 2004). After a brief introduction of strategies presented by Schon, and Rudduck and Kelly, the first part of this chapter examined the implementation and dissemination process, focusing on three approaches put forward by Havelock (1971): R, D and D, Social Interaction and Problem-Solving. The R, D and D model is predominantly power-coercive and therefore, as with any imposition model, is the most likely to encounter resistance. It is a centre–periphery model used most frequently by governments to instigate nation-wide curriculum change. The Social Interaction model attempts to move some of the power to the periphery, but is heavily reliant on rational-empirical strategies, and people are, as has been shown, not always rational. Easen (1985) comments that imposed change will not be successful, as curriculum change itself is inexorably linked with personal change and we alone have the ultimate power to change ourselves. The Problem-Solving model, with its normative-re-educative focus, is the one that appears to cater more for individual needs and wants, an important issue as an MA TEFL/TESL student states:

The curriculum developers should focus on the full development of the individual (MA #2)

Although the latter model, importantly, shows an awareness of the impact of local context, it is, by its mere nature, more suitable for smallscale developments, and there are therefore problems when trying to employ it on a wider scale. Even those teachers who are willing to change, however, must be given the support and tools to do so, as Carless states:

Without sufficient retraining, even teachers initially enthusiastic about an innovation can become frustrated by problems in implementation and eventually turn against the project. (Carless, 1999: 23)



3.4 Summary


• The Innovation • The Environment • The Individual. Key areas within the Innovation area included relevance, size, adaptability and cost. The Environment included aspects such as school culture, values and ethos, and training. Attitudes, beliefs and ability were three factors within the domain of the Individual. Communication and ownership were seen as central to all fields. Teacher input and collaboration in development are two of the most important ingredients for bringing about lasting change. The resentment and resistance that teachers may feel as a matter of course towards external attempts to impose change (Goh, 1999) must be compounded when no discussion or collaboration takes place, an issue important to the innovation process (Stenhouse, 1980; Fullan, 1991; Sikes, 1992; Hadley, 1999). In short, collaborative interaction is the key to effective implementation. It is particularly evident from what has been stated concerning the preparation, resourcing, promoting and implementation of curriculum change that the teachers themselves need to be approached and involved explicitly if any development or change in language teaching is to take place (Rausch, 2000). Teacher development, however, and its association with innovation, is not straightforward, as Fullan illustrates: An innovation – a new or revised curriculum, a policy, a structure, an idea – is something that is new to the people encountering it for the first time. Dealing with innovation effectively means alterations in behaviours and beliefs. Changes in behaviours – new skills, activities, practices – and changes in beliefs – new understandings, commitments – are at the core of implementation. Thus the key issue from an implementation perspective is how the process of change unfolds vis-à-vis what people do (behaviours) and think (beliefs) in relation to a particular innovation. (Fullan, 1991: 22) However, the process of change is even less straightforward than this. Behavioural change is not inexorably linked with attitudinal change. In



Following an analysis of the implementation models, the second part of the chapter introduced a number of factors affecting curriculum change in ELT. These factors were seen to fall into the following areas:

addition, cultural, social and political pressures may come to bear on teachers, which may, in effect, reverse the established view that change in behaviour must precede change in belief. As Morgan and Roberts (2002: 3) state, ‘many curriculum innovations have fallen by the wayside for lack of attention to the process of change itself’. Chapter 4 investigates this process of change.




4 Communication may have different meanings in different cultures. – LoCastro, 1996: 45

4.1 Introductory comments Chapter 3 presented three models of curriculum innovation, with a focus on implementation and dissemination procedures, and concluded by putting forward several key factors involved in curriculum change in ELT. These factors fell into three categories: the Innovation, the Environment and the Individual. Factors within the area of the Innovation included relevance, compatibility, dissemination procedures and costs. Environmental factors covered aspects such as school values and ethos, the teachers and the pupils, culture and the community. Individual elements comprised attitudes, beliefs, ability and knowledge. There were, in addition, overlapping factors: change agents (Innovation and Environment); aims (Innovation and Individual); and resources and training (Individual and Environment). Communication and ownership were central to all three. This chapter delves deeper into the process of change by drawing together the various definitions, strategies and factors affecting change, which were introduced in the previous chapters. The first part of the chapter presents an overview of systemic change, followed by a summary of key behavioural models of change. The main section of the chapter is taken up with a detailed presentation of a new interpersonal model of change (Lamie, 2004). In presenting this latter model, a number of critical features which need to be taken into account when analysing the change process are highlighted. These critical features, henceforth referred 60



Models of Change

Models of Change 61

We persist in attempting to change organisations by working on individuals without changing the sanctions of the system, and without changing the expectations of other role incumbents in the organisation about appropriate role behaviour. (Katz and Kahn, 1975: 36) The first section of this chapter acknowledges the importance of an awareness of systemic change in the study of change in ELT.

4.2 Systemic change Change is part of a complex system, and nowhere is it more complex, as was shown in Chapter 3 in the discussion on the diffusion of innovation, than in the educational system. Miles (1964: 13) defines a system as ‘a bounded collection of interdependent parts, devoted to the accomplishment of some goal or goals, with the parts maintained in a steady state in relation to each other and the environment by means of (1) standard modes of operation, and (2) feedback from the environment and the consequences of system actions’. Bowers (1983) reinforces the interdependent complexity of systems, in his deliberations on project management, and attests that changes in one part of the system usually result in a reaction in another part of the systemic ‘spider’s web’. Kennedy (1990) concludes that changes in education take place within a series of interdependent, interconnected systems, and emphasises the force of specific systems, or networks, by using a series of concentric circles, placing the cultural system (1) in the outer circle at the point of most power and influence. The remaining systems in order of impact are (2) (3) (4) (5)

the political and administrative system; the educational system; the institutional system; and the classroom system (the inner circle).

Any change, therefore, being initiated in the classroom, such as the introduction of a new textbook or teaching methodology, must take into account not only the institutional/ school situation in its immediate



to as impact areas, are: personal attributes, practical constraints, external influences, awareness, training and feedback. According to Katz and Kahn:


has to be evaluated in the light of cultural differences and similarities. This is not to say that ideas cannot be transferred across cultures but it does mean that ideas that have been generated within a particular culture, however good or logical those ideas might seem in the generating culture, cannot automatically be applied to another culture which may have different values. (Kennedy and Kennedy, 1998: 458) The complexity of cultural networks is explored further in Section 4.4. In presenting a simplified overview of the process of change, Fullan (1991) introduces the relationship between three general procedures: initiation, implementation and continuation. Although the process is seen to end with the outcome, Fullan does not view change as linear: It is not a linear process but rather one in which events at one phase can feedback to alter decisions made at previous stages, which then proceed to work their way through in a continuous interactive way. (Fullan, 1991: 48) Depending upon the effectiveness of each stage, the act or issue undergoing the process will move forwards or backwards along the continuum before, if successful in terms of this model, reaching the desired outcome. Fullan continues by emphasising that this is a ‘simplified’ outline, and proceeds by listing a number of factors related to the characteristics of change. Local factors, which formed part of the Environment category in the factors affecting curriculum change in ELT (see Section 3.3), include the role of the principal, the teachers, the community and the school district. External factors involve the government and other agencies, and the support that may, or may not, be given to the process: We have to know what change looks like from the point of view of the teacher, student, parent, and administrator if we are to understand the actions and reactions of individuals; and if we are to comprehend the big picture, we must combine the aggregate knowledge of these individual situations with an understanding of organisational and institutional factors that influence the process



surround, but the entire educational, political and cultural system in which it is placed. Kennedy and Kennedy believe we ‘need to take a systemic view of change’ and state that the implementation of ideas:

Models of Change 63

In addition to these external environmental factors, Fullan stresses the influence and impact of beliefs and attitudes (the Individual category), as Karavas-Doukas restates: Attitude change is an essential and inevitable part of any pedagogical innovation. (Karavas-Doukas, 1996: 188) Change, as shown in Chapter 1, involves a variety of actors operating within these systems, and evokes a variety of emotions and involves attitudes and beliefs, as White stresses: It is with people that we come to a crucial factor: organisations are made up of people, not things, and although systems and organisations can be described in terms of structural and functional elements which can be depicted in organisational charts, in an organisation, as Paisey (1981: 10 quoting Emmet 1967: 184) emphasises, it is people who inhabit the institution. (White, 1988: 116) The interpersonal model of change discussed in Section 4.4 further develops the notion of interconnectedness propounded by Bowers, Kennedy and Fullan, and the impact of attitudes put forward by KaravasDoukas. However, the opinion that attitude change is ‘essential’ is not maintained. Attitudes form an integral part of the model of change provided by Ajzen (1988), although his main focus is on behavioural intentions.

4.3 Behavioural change Ajzen (1988: 2), in a study which investigates the social-psychological aspects of attitudes, personality and behaviour, defines attitudes, along with personality traits, as ‘latent hypothetical characteristics that can only be inferred from external observable cues’. Rather than characterising attitudes as comprising belief, feeling and behaviour, Ajzen considers them, in his ‘theory of reasoned action’, independent constructs and terms them ‘belief’, ‘attitude’ and ‘intention’ respectively.



of change such as government departments, universities, teacher federations, school systems, and schools interact. (Fullan, 1991: xi)


Table 4.1

Subjective norms and perceived behavioural control

Subjective norms

Perceived behavioural control

Description

Examples

Individual personal outcome belief Other perceived outcome belief

Self

Internal factors

Individual information, skill and ability; emotions and compulsions Resources, examinations

External factors

Ministry, principal, colleagues, students, parents

Attitudes Beliefs

Subjective norms

Intention

Behaviour

Perceived behavioural control Figure 4.1

Behavioural change.

In a study examining the foreign trainer as change agent and the implications for English language teacher education programmes in China, Kennedy (1999) utilises the Ajzen model to examine the reasons for the failure of teachers to change. Kennedy considers attitudes to be embedded in teachers’ traditional cultures, and determines, as a result, that they must be addressed in any attempt to introduce or promote change: Change threatens the values, attitudes and beliefs of those involved and teachers and trainees may feel that their beliefs, deep-rooted in their culture, are being challenged and questioned. For successful change the foreign trainer must plan a teacher training programme which eases this threat. (Kennedy, 1999) Subjective norms, such as colleagues, the principal, parents and students, and perceived behavioural control, for example class size, teaching materials, and school and university examinations, form part of the new model of change discussed in the following section. However, their impact



Following on from this, Ajzen fixes the link between attitude and behaviour, or action, as intention. Intentions are determined by attitudes in conjunction with two further elements: subjective norms and perceived behavioural control (Table 4.1 and Figure 4.1).

Models of Change 65

4.4 Interpersonal change Allwright (2000) has developed a procedure called exploratory practice, which does not focus on change but on ‘understanding’. The Friends of the Earth slogan – think globally, act locally – is used as a starting point in order for the participant to try to decide what the fundamental principles are behind the proposed achievement. In agreement with Harland and Kinder (1997), Allwright sees teacher development as cyclical, beginning with thinking globally, then applying this thinking to the local context (act locally), before returning to the principles and thinking locally, as demonstrated in Figure 4.2. Think globally Figure 4.2

Act locally

Think locally

Think globally

A cyclical view of teacher development.

The first basic principle of exploratory practice centres on trying to understand before trying to change. The procedure involves a number of actors working in a global and local community. It involves A. practitioners (e.g.: preferably teachers and learners together) working to understand: (a) (b) (c) (d)

what they want to understand, following their own agendas; not necessarily in order to bring about change; not primarily by changing; but by using normal pedagogic practices as investigative tools, so that working for understanding is part of the teaching and learning, not extra to it; (e) in a way that does not lead to ‘burn-out’, but that is indefinitely sustainable. B. in order to contribute to: (f) teaching and learning themselves; (g) professional development, both individual and collective.



is seen to vary with the variety of situations and individuals involved. The aspects of training, awareness (ability) and practice have been removed from the general terms by Ajzen and awarded single status. In addition, the notion of change as the outcome has developed to that of change and/or understanding as a possible outcome in a circular process.


In addition, Allwright defines understanding and change as the following:

I am using the term ‘change’ in a fairly narrow sense, to capture something different, and less cerebral, from the necessary change that any reaching of an ‘understanding’ must bring. I am talking more of observable situational change (e.g. the establishment of different ways of working in the language classroom). (Allwright, 1999: 4) This book concurs with Allwright (1999: 5) in that ‘contemplation and action for understanding may themselves suffice, and will not necessarily lead to action for change’. Furthermore, it demonstrates, through a detailed analysis of four case studies of Japanese teachers of English in Chapter 7, that change itself, not only in terms of ‘observable situational change’ or practice, but also attitudes and methodology may be affected by various internal and external issues, or impact areas. In an analysis of teacher behaviour and beliefs, Richards (2000: 2) states that change in teaching approach ‘is triggered by many factors’ and highlights three main sources of change: in-service training courses, seminars and conferences, and student feedback. Self-discovery and new texts and curricula were also seen as influential. This ‘multi-dimensional’ nature of change is reflected in the model of change, displayed in Figure 4.3, and its impact areas. 4.4.1 Personal attributes The personal attributes central to the model of change are confidence (Richards, 2000) and attitudes. In discussing the reasons behind the dominance of the structural or audio-lingual approach, involving ‘presentation, practice, repetition and drills’ in language teaching, Williams and Burden raise a number of issues, in particular, training, knowledge and confidence: Teachers who lack confidence tend to be less frightened of these techniques, whereas allowing language to develop through meaningful interaction in the classroom can be considerably more daunting, and requires teachers with some professional knowledge. (Williams and Burden, 1997: 11)



I am using the term ‘understanding’ in a relativistic sense, meaning something like ‘having an adequate sense of how things work for the purpose of making practical decisions about how to proceed.’

Models of Change 67

Issue/act ↓

← ← ↓

Personal attributes • attitudes • confidence – +

↓

End

↓

Practical constraints • textbooks • class size • examinations • school type

← ← Present ↓

↓

External influences • culture • teachers • principals • students • parents

← ← ↓

–

↓ Awareness

← ← ↓ End

Impact area 4

–

+

↓

↓

Training ← ← – +

↓ End

←

Practice

↓

Figure 4.3

↓ → to change ↓ Feedback • self • others

← ←

Attitudes

Impact area 5

Practice

↓

↓

Impact area 3

+

↓

End Methodology

Impact area 2

not present

↓

End

Impact area 1

Impact area 6

↓

–

+

End

↓

↓ Change

→ practice or issue

The model of change (Lamie, 2004).

Therefore the propensity for change is not simply a matter of ability (perceived behavioural control), as the teacher may have the ability. It is also a matter of confidence and self-worth. A lack of confidence may even stop the change or understanding process before it



Attitudes


Attitudes, like all aspects of the development of cognition and affect in human beings, develop early in childhood and are the result of parents’ and peers’ attitudes, contact with people who are ‘different’ in any number of ways, and interacting affective factors in the human experience. These attitudes form a part of one’s perception of self, of others, and of the culture in which one is living. (Brown, 1994: 168) An attitude, Allport (1954: 45) states, is ‘a mental and neural state of readiness, organised through experience, exerting a directive or dynamic influence upon the individual’s response to all objects and situations with which it is associated’. In a similar manner Kretch and Crutchfield (1948: 173) defined an attitude as ‘an enduring organisation of motivational, emotional, perceptual and cognitive processes with respect to some aspect of the individual’s world’. Both of these definitions have a number of similar characteristics including cognitive and affective orientations towards the phenomenon in question, and a behavioural tendency towards it. The link between attitude and behaviour is one that has frequently been referred to in the literature of personal change. Established theory contends that there exists a cause–effect relationship between the two, as Young and Lee (1984: 184) support in declaring that without a change in teacher attitude, there will be no significant change in the curriculum. The impact of attitudes is reiterated by Fullan and Hargreaves: Teacher development involves changing the person the teacher is . . . To focus on behavioural skills alone without reference to their grounding in or impact on attitudes and beliefs is misguided and liable to prove ineffective. (Fullan and Hargreaves, 1992: 7) A negative attitude to an act (pairwork) or issue (discussion on teaching methodology) could therefore result in an end to the change process, and an end to the process of understanding whether that attitude has been based on false premises, a lack of awareness or misinformation: Trainee A is unwilling to use pairwork in class due to his negative attitude. He does not believe that pairwork will improve the communicative



starts (see Chapter 7: Case Study C); so, in addition, may a negative attitude. Brown stresses the impact of attitudes in factors affecting language teaching and learning:

level of his students. In addition, his colleagues are against pairwork, and he doubts his ability and skill to implement pairwork in the classroom. All three factors (attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived behavioural control) are negative. Not surprisingly, then, pairwork is not used and no change is implemented. (Kennedy, 1999: 33) However, unlike the situation outlined by Kennedy (1999: 33), a negative attitude will not necessarily lead to a halt in the process, as will be seen in Chapter 7. Practical constraints and external influences can not only stop the progress of an act supported by a positive attitude, but drive forward one not supported by the practitioner. 4.4.2 Practical constraints Textbooks, class size, school type and examination structures are four examples of practical constraints. Innovation and change, Fullan (1991: 37) and Richards (2000: 2) maintain, are multi-dimensional. When a new curriculum or policy is undergoing implementation, there are at least three components vital to the personal level of development: the possible alteration of beliefs, the possible use of new teaching approaches and the possible use of new or revised materials. New or revised teaching materials can be an invaluable support to teachers attempting to change their teaching practice or procedure. In evaluating the implementation of the Target-Oriented Curriculum in Hong Kong, Carless (1999: 28) stressed the importance of ‘adequate manpower and resources’. However, even the effective textbook, produced in line with a revised curriculum, may not result in change (Thompson and Millward, 1994). Their use as an agent of change, if produced to support a top-down national reform, may also meet resistance in the classroom, as shown in Chapter 3 (Goh, 1999). Materials given to willing teachers, but not accompanied by a guidance structure, may also result in a halting of the change process. Pinar (1999) put forward two reasons for new materials being resisted. First, that the use of materials based on a new theoretical premise would involve risk, and this may be a risk some teachers were not willing to take. Another reason for the rejection of the change was probably that the teachers did not have the necessary guidance on what they were expected to do with the new materials. Adopting new books would require extra time and effort from the teachers and this was a further constraint. (Pinar, 1999: 72)



Models of Change 69

Moreover, problems develop for teachers compelled to use a textbook which does not support the proposed change. Large class size and school type (academic or technical) are two further aspects of practical constraints placed on movements through the model of change. Examinations, if they influence the future career paths of students, can play a crucial role in determining the practices of the classroom (Kennedy and Kennedy, 1996). If the tests are perceived by the teachers to have significant effects on their students’ lives, then they can ‘see it as part of their duty to make sure that their pupils have the best possible chance they can to pass’ (Maddaus, 1988: cited in Gipps, 1994: 35–36). The teachers may, therefore, have a positive or negative attitude to the procedure taking place, but the impact of the perceived examination effect is potentially great enough to end the process. In 1993, the Hong Kong Examinations Authority instigated major reforms in its certificate examinations structure. Its aim was to promote a positive washback effect (Alderson and Wall, 1993) on classroom practice: As a result of this change in the examination syllabus, teachers in Hong Kong secondary schools are experiencing and/or implementing changes in their present teaching situations. (Cheng, 1999: 253) Linking with the perceived nature of control proposed by Ajzen (1988), what was not apparent in the study was whether there existed an actual washback effect of the public examinations, or a perceived effect (Cheng, 1999: 255). What did result, however, was a definite change in the content of teaching and the way the activities were carried out, indicating the power of alteration in examination focus, perceived or otherwise. Fujimoto (1999) discusses the examination washback effect on English language education in Japan, and concludes that ‘the university entrance examinations in Japan have an undeniable influence upon the whole education system’ (Fujimoto, 1999: 18). Murphey and Sato extend this, in an investigation into teacher experience, knowledge and belief in Japan, and highlight the impact of the ‘strong source of pressure’ of the examination and testing structures, within the wider school context: Although none of the teachers favoured exam-oriented English, as a group in their institution, they could not ignore it. Moreover, teaching the same way for the common tests seemed to be a priority when they




Models of Change 71

4.4.3 External influences 4.4.3.1 National culture The nation, the community and the school all have an impact on an individual teacher (Shimahara, 1998b; Torikai, 2000). Cultural impact may occur at the national and/or the local level. Education, as Lee states with reference to the Far East Asian society, does not occur in a vacuum, but is affected by social settings and social context: Education reflects and affects a society’s economic situation, for education is regarded as a form of ‘national investment’ and is considered to be able to develop human resources to a certain extent, by ‘increasing the knowledge, the skills, and the capacities of all people in society’ (Harbison and Myers, 1964: 2–3). Education also reflects and affects society’s culture. (Lee, 1991: 49) As discussed at the beginning of this chapter, change or understanding which fails to take account of the culture of the society is unlikely to succeed. Holliday (1994: 1) states that ‘any methodology in English language education should be appropriate to the social context within which it is to be used’. LoCastro (1996: 41) reinforces this point when discussing the introduction of the new Course of Study in Japan. LoCastro concludes that the lack of awareness of the ‘socio-cultural variables’ created conflicts and tensions, and the apparent lack of correlation between current classroom practice and the revision added to the conflict. Shimahara restates the impact culture can have in Japanese schools, and its influence on the teacher: Japanese teachers’ unchanging dispositions, strongly affected by the culture of teaching into which they have been enculturated, and the cultural forces that perpetuate the centrality of group orientation, are evident in many Japanese schools. (Shimahara, 1998b: 237) Stemming from research into business situations, Hofstede (1991) identifies five dimensions which categorise national culture, as shown in Table 4.2. These five dimensions are: the power-distance dimension,



worked together. Second, there seemed to be school norms and values for managing students that took precedence over teaching. (Murphey and Sato, 1999: 207)

72 Implementing Change Dimensions of national culture

Dimension

Main feature

The power-distance dimension The collectivist–individual dimension Weak uncertainty-avoidance cultures Masculine and feminine cultures

Distribution of power Group and individual status Acceptance of uncertainty Material success and caring structures Confucian principles

Short-term versus long-term orientation

the collectivist–individual dimension, weak uncertainty-avoidance cultures, masculine and feminine cultures and short-term versus long-term orientation. A national culture may represent more than one dimension, for example it may have a predominantly masculine culture with a short-term orientation, but it is within the area of cross-cultural links where difficulties in transference can occur. Nations which display features at opposite ends of a particular orientation, such as a collectivist hierarchical society with a large power-distance, compared to an individualist loosely ranked society with a small power-distance, have problematic implications, a point confirmed by Kennedy (1990) in his discussions on systemic change, as previously illustrated. Within the framework proposed by Hofstede, Japan, for example, could be viewed as being a masculine (economic influence) culture, possessing a large power-distance (hierarchical) collectivist dimension with a long-term (Confucian) orientation. This is virtually the opposite of the Western construct which developed the theory of communicative competence on which current educational reforms in Japan are based. Therefore, the national culture and its relation to the issue or act may affect the movement of the issue or act through the model of change. However, the traditional, structuralist, model propounded by Hofstede could be viewed as essentialist and highly deterministic and is susceptible to stereotyping. The cultural complexity of individuals, and the various systems they inhabit, should also be considered. Hence, it is important to consider both the structural and post-structural approaches: Those involved in change need to use both structural and interpretive approaches to investigate the cultural networks they are dealing with, need to be aware of the complexity of the area and avoid simplifications. (Kennedy and Kennedy, 1998: 468)



Table 4.2

In investigating ELT in Vietnam, Kramsch and Sullivan (1996: 201) state that in order to ‘analyse the learning that goes on in the classroom it is helpful to think of the classroom as a culture (Breen, 1985)’. In introducing the terms large (ethnic, national or international) and small (any cohesive group) cultures, Holliday (1999) presents an alternative to structuralist models. Crucially, small cultures are not seen as subservient to national norms, or sub-cultures of larger groupings, put forward by Hofstede, as Holliday states: The notion of a small culture does not therefore relate simply to something smaller in size than large ethnic, national, or international cultures, but presents a different paradigm through which to look at social groupings. (Holliday, 1999: 240) Viewed in this way, the small culture of the school classroom, although potentially influenced by national cultural issues, may also be influenced by issues beyond national cultural boundaries, such as those demonstrated in international educational cultures (Holliday, 1994, 1999). Nevertheless, the importance of culture, and in particular the school culture, cannot be denied: Each teacher’s practice and beliefs develop in complex interaction with experiences in school. (Roberts, 1998: 39) 4.4.3.2 School culture Hofstede (1991) gives credence to the power of organisational practices over national cultural norms. Shimizu (1991) concurs with reference to Japan, where nationally a group ethos exists, yet in the school situation, and in particular the classroom, group activities are infrequent. However, this may have less to do with the examination-driven competition Shimizu places as a dominant factor and more to do with the roles of teacher and pupils. The school culture is a complex mixture of occupational, institutional and personal influences. It can be influenced by teacher sub-cultures and career experiences (Hargreaves, 1986; Sato, 1998), and by the occupational culture of teaching, which represents attributes of the teaching profession as a whole. Murphey and Sato elaborate on this: The data analysis indicated adherence to the institutionalised belief about English language teaching that it was important to teach



Models of Change 73

according to the established grammar-translation method for common tests and classroom management. Moreover, the results showed that institutional beliefs included not only the belief about the subject matter, but also other beliefs about the workplace, students, teachers themselves, and learning opportunities. (Murphey and Sato, 1999: 206) Huberman and Miles (1984) observed that when considering teachers as a group in the school culture, senior teachers were not only more resistant to change, they were also less likely to believe that it would work. More experienced teachers, as Sikes illustrates, may claim to have ‘seen it all before’: Experienced teachers who have been teaching for some years will have developed ways of doing things which they have found to work for them in their situations. Consequently they may be reluctant to abandon tried and tested methods for new ones which they may be afraid will fail. (Sikes, 1992: 47) In addition, junior teachers who have attended training courses may feel it is inappropriate to relate their experiences to senior teachers if a strict hierarchical structure is in place. Once again, progression through the model of change may cease. Individual teachers are not the only professionals held accountable in schools, or to have an impact on events. Vice-principals and principals can also be catalysts for school change: At school level, change is supported where the head teacher gives active and visible support; where there are collegial teacher relationships (where they exchange ideas and offer mutual support); and where teachers have the skills necessary to implement the new curriculum. (Roberts, 1998: 91) In the West, the image of the principal in research literature has shifted since the early 1980s from the principal as ‘gatekeeper’ to the principal as ‘instructional leader’ (Hall et al., 1980; Trider and Leithwood, 1988). In Japan, principals are not managers, but figureheads. Their task is to symbolise and represent the school. They take their responsibilities extremely seriously, and, though not necessarily opposed to change,




Models of Change 75

The principal has often been cited as a key figure in blocking or promoting change, and as such represents a fertile ground for considering the concept of implementation in action. (Fullan, 1991: 82) Attention has already been drawn to the place in educational change of the teachers, the most exposed of the client-users of curriculum innovation, and the principal, but there are two further groups who will have an influence on the eventual adoption, or not, of a proposed change: the students and their parents. Students in Japanese junior and senior high schools traditionally have been regarded by their society as no more than passive receivers of knowledge. Decisions about what they should learn, how they should learn it and how their learning should be tested and assessed are taken much higher up the structure and the students are expected to accept those decisions (Hadley, 1999; Rausch, 2000). The students have opinions, but those opinions have no outlet for expression. This is, as Dean (1993) describes it, the ‘is-ness’ of Japan. The students have no voice in curriculum innovation or in its implementation. This has been a situation not exclusively the property of Japan: We hardly know anything about what students think about educational change because no one ever asks them. (Fullan, 1991: 182) They are, however, party to the same national, local and institutional cultural pressures as others in the school environment. In the United Kingdom, international students are beginning to comprise a significant proportion of the student population in higher education with over 300,000 now attending UK colleges and universities (UKCOSA, 2003). They come from different cultural backgrounds and have different expectations of the teaching and learning process. This has serious implications for international student provision, language learning and language teaching (Lamie, 2003). There has been a dramatic increase in recent years in the numbers of international students undertaking undergraduate and postgraduate study in the United



must be convinced to give their support. If their support is not forthcoming, it can become extremely difficult to promote the change under consideration. Fullan suggests that this situation also occurs in other nations:

Kingdom. This has been as a direct result of the huge influx of students coming from the far East, and in particular from China. Statistics produced by the University of Birmingham for the 2001–2002 session indicated that, of the 23,000 students studying at Birmingham, 3914 (17 per cent) were international. These students came from 140 different countries, but over 1000 were from China alone. One criticism to be levelled at UK universities is that international students have received a lack of support, both in terms of language development and social interaction: British universities need to manage expectations better. The better universities offer specially tailored induction courses for new Chinese arrivals – ranging from tips on shopping and public transport to thorough training in how to write essays and give presentations. (The Economist, 2003: 3) Teachers who suppose they know exactly what their students need, or more specifically believe, may be under a huge misconception, as Jin and Cortazzi (1993, 1996) illustrated in their study of Chinese students’ expectations of teachers’ roles in a British academic institute. Students represent, as Rudduck expresses, a potential ‘conservatism’ in the classroom, and can therefore have an impact on change: Pupils are often the victims of unexplained, unjustified change, and can represent a force for conservatism in the classroom. (Rudduck, 1991: 23) To attempt to combat that conservatism they must be given the scope to question and discuss major proposed changes in the curriculum, and through this consultation, have the opportunity to participate willingly in change: Involving students in a consideration of the meaning and purpose of specific changes and in new forms of day-to-day learning directly addresses the knowledge, skills, and behaviours necessary for all students to become engaged in their own learning. (Fullan, 1991: 190) Epstein (1986, 1988) acknowledges the dismissive manner in which students have been treated in the educational change process and suggests that substantial benefits can be achieved in student academic




Models of Change 77

If teachers and administrators who spend 40 to 60 hours a week immersed in the educational world have trouble comprehending the meaning of educational change, imagine what it is like for the parent. ( Fullan, 1991: 227) Parents can (a) put pressure on districts to do something; (b) oppose a specific innovation; and (c) do nothing (passive support or apathy). Fullan (1991: 249) considers the most prevalent of these to be passive support or apathy. This is not the case in Japan. Parent power is strong in Japan. In attitude terms, it is seen as the duty of parents to stress the cultural message ‘always do your best’. Parents force this simple advice by pushing their children through schools, paying for them to attend juku (privately run cram schools) at the end of the normal school day, and insisting on success at examination times. Parents view the curriculum and classroom methodology with considerable personal interest. Although they have no legal status in the educational machinery, they do represent a strong pressure group. The impact of external influences on the change process is clear. Less simple to define, and indicative of the process itself, is the notion of awareness. What you think you are doing, and what you believe is the reality of the situation, may not always be the case, and ‘you cannot change what you do not acknowledge’ (McGraw, 1999: 109). 4.4.4 Awareness If you are unwilling to acknowledge a thought, circumstance, problem, condition, behaviour or emotion – if you won’t take ownership of your role in a situation – then you cannot and will not change it. (McGraw, 1999: 109) McGraw (1999) raises the issue of ownership and acknowledgement, or awareness, in the process of change. In discussing Fullan and the importance and impact of teacher training, Roberts (1998: 90) presents a number of positive features for effective in-service education and



performance and personal attitude if not only students, but parents are encouraged to participate. Fullan concurs:

training (INSET). These include circumstances which facilitate discussion and reflection for the teachers involved. The aim of the course should not be to instil knowledge, but to encourage reflection and contemplation and raise awareness in the participants. Raising awareness is an important issue, as Kennedy reiterates, particularly if trying to facilitate change: Raising awareness of attitudes and beliefs amongst teachers and trainees is an important factor in a cognitive approach in order to change their behaviour in the classroom. (Kennedy, 1999: 36) A lack of awareness at this stage of the model of change would be likely to result in an end to the process. However, the participant may be conscious of this failing and seek to remedy the situation. LoCastro, while recognising that many classroom teachers would find the following difficult to pursue for reasons of confidence or perceived necessary knowledge, advocates action research as an awareness-raising activity: Here in Japan, the new Courses of Study from the Ministry of Education have been causing understandable concern among English language teachers. The new curricula are vague and without clear guidelines as to how to implement the revised aims and objectives. In addition to informing themselves through reading in certain fields of applied linguistics, junior and senior high school teachers may find that small action research projects may help them decide how to make the new Courses of Study come alive in their classroom. This attempt at curriculum renewal can be seen as an opportunity for teachers to play a stronger role once they accept the need to be more actively engaged in the classroom learning environment. (LoCastro, 1994: 5) Another means of increasing awareness is training. 4.4.5 Training Fullan (1979, 1991) and MacDonald (1991) demonstrate how successful implementation of innovations is related to teacher development. Fullan (1991: 289) concludes that successful educational change in practice involves learning how to do something new, and that in order to learn something new, teachers required motivation and input. Teacher




Models of Change 79

It is the quality of the teachers themselves and the nature of their commitment to change that determines the quality of teaching and the quality of school improvement. Teachers are, on the whole, poor implementers of other people’s ideas. Teacher development therefore is a precondition of curriculum development, and teachers must play a generative role in the development of better curricula. (MacDonald, 1991: 3) The need for teachers to receive support (Roberts, 1998: 91), and the potential impact of effective training, as discussed by Richards (2000), is clear. Detailed aspects of training, in particular in-service training, are dealt with in the following chapters. 4.4.6 Feedback In Britain, the in-service education of teachers has been described as: in theory at least, the most organised and highly funded method of attempting to bring about improvements and changes in classroom practice. (Harland and Kinder, 1994: 33) Changes in classroom practice are invariably reacted to by those involved in the education arena. Feedback may come from colleagues, the principal, students, both verbally and in the form of performance, and from parents and the teachers themselves. Students’ opinions or views, for example, can result in a change in teaching approach (Richards, 2000). Practical constraints can also become involved in the feedback process as examination results and textbook usage are drawn on to evaluate the class activity. A negative response to any of these issues, by any external influence, could result in an end to the process of change. Conversely, a positive response can encourage a continuation: Several primary teachers planned the use of small and large group activity to combine music and drama and art. Later in the spring, the intermediate teachers seeing the success of the programmes suggested that the whole school might well get involved. (Wideen, 1992: 128)



development, therefore, is central to the innovation process. MacDonald emphasises the crucial role that teachers can play:

Through data collected in interviews, Hand and Treagust (1994: 111) examine the complex nature of change in thought and behaviour, and assert that feedback by teachers themselves on their own actions can result in the implementation of new practices, and shifts in attitude and belief. Teachers providing their own form of feedback, through reflection, is restated by Pennington: lasting change occurs only when teachers are able and motivated to try new things, to reflect on the consequences, and then to adjust their practice and their thinking according to the results achieved. (Pennington, 1995: 706) The process, as indicated on the model of change, is unlikely to end at this point. Change and understanding often result in the reformulation of attitudes, and the procedure can then begin again. The more we experience and learn, the more we realise how much we do not know.

4.5 Summary Shamim (1996), in presenting the implications for teacher training in Pakistan following an attempt to introduce an innovative methodology into the classroom, concludes that it is crucial in any programme to confront, and evaluate, the process of change with the participants. Shamim states that if the dynamics of change are not discussed: This leaves the teachers unprepared to face the problems that follow their efforts to implement change in the relative isolation of their own institutions and classrooms. (Shamim, 1996: 120) Furthermore: It is important for teacher trainers to encourage participants in teacher training programmes to discuss both overt and ‘hidden’ barriers to the successful implementation of change in their own teaching/learning contexts. (Shamim, 1996: 120) This chapter began by outlining models of change with a systemic or behavioural focus. By expanding models provided by Kennedy (1990), Ajzen (1988), Fullan (1991) and Kennedy (1999), it continued




by introducing a new interpersonal model of change. This new model emphasised six main impact areas: personal attributes, practical constraints, external influences, awareness, training and feedback. In presenting the rationale behind these areas, the chapter has highlighted the complex nature of the process as the participant moves through, and around, the model towards a development in their understanding of the issue or act involved. Certain key features within each impact area have been studied. Confidence and attitudes were considered within the sphere of personal attributes. Teaching materials and examinations were the focus of practical constraints. National and school culture, the various actors within the local school situation, and the community were seen as powerful external influences. The raising of awareness, the need for training and the influence of various forms of feedback were also presented. The interrelation of the areas further served to demonstrate the intricate nature of change and understanding. The variety of interpersonal relationships and cultural ramifications, combined with the intricacies of curriculum developments, clearly presents the change process as a journey far from linear or straightforward. Central to it, however, are the teachers themselves: Planned innovations tend to be implemented effectively when the change itself is recognised as necessary and relevant by teachers. (Roberts, 1998: 91) In order to help develop a critical understanding of the management of change in ELT, the second part of this book has described and discussed key curriculum implementation strategies and models of change. The presence in the interpersonal model of attitudes, methodology and practice links directly with the forthcoming chapters, which analyse data collected from the participants of three very different training programmes. It is to these participants, their national and local contexts, and the changes or otherwise that they displayed that the remainder of this book is devoted.



Models of Change 81





Part III

Measuring Change





Evaluating Change with MA TEFL/TESL Students To be different, to be better, to be more effective. – MA TEFL/TESL Student #1

5.1 Introductory comments Chapter 5 is the first of three chapters devoted to the evaluation of change in a specific context. All three chapters involve participants on in-service education and training (INSET) programmes. The chapter begins by giving an overview of the development of INSET from the 1970s, when INSET became a key feature on the education agenda, through to its rebirth in subsequent decades as continuing professional development, with the focus on the personal as well as professional needs of the teachers. It gives a summary of recent developments in language teacher education and offers a tentative set of criteria for successful professional development. The following section looks at a particular example of language teacher education, a master’s programme in the teaching of English as a foreign or second language (MA TEFL/TESL). The chapter presents the findings of two questionnaires, distributed at the beginning and end of the programme, investigating MA TEFL/ TESL students’ attitudes to change. It also gives the students the opportunity to suggest ways in which they think they have changed, both in terms of attitudes and in terms of practice, following the programme. The findings reinforce the importance of having an awareness of the process of change, and its various impact areas, for all involved in the educational arena – not only the MA TEFL/TESL students, but also curriculum developers and planners, students, parents and society as a whole. 85



5

86 Measuring Change

5.2 In-service training with English language teachers 5.2.1 Background The concept of INSET: Focus on the innovation

The development of INSET in Western countries as a proposed systematic training procedure came to prominence in the early 1970s. In Britain, public attention was drawn to the need for greater notice to be paid to INSET by the publication of the James Report (DES, 1972), Teacher Education and Training, in 1972. The report focused on three main areas, or cycles, of teacher development: personal education, initial teacher education and in-service training. With particular regard to the latter, it stated, It is in the third cycle that education and training of teachers can be, and should be, at its best. It is here that both the quality of our education and the standard of the profession can be most speedily, powerfully and economically improved. (DES, 1972: para 1.9) Although the James Report suggested a regular approach to INSET, this did not occur. Activities were largely uncoordinated and remained a matter for individuals to involve themselves in to enhance their prospects of promotion (Hewett, 1971). The report, however, was a turning point, as it set the issue of in-service education firmly on the educational agenda. INSET, at this time, was a vehicle for making new ideas available for teachers, and its major concern was for the development of new curricula and innovation. This was a concept similar to that initiated in Japan following the NRCOS. Eraut confirms this concept in his definition of teacher development as: the natural process of professional growth in which a teacher gradually acquires confidence, gains new perspectives, increases in knowledge, discovers new methods, and takes on new roles. (Eraut, 1977: 11) Eraut, highlighting impact areas presented in the interpersonal model of change in Chapter 4, perceived teacher training as being subject to the influence of three aspects of education: the school context [Impact Area 3], the knowledge or awareness of the teacher [Impact Area 4] and



5.2.1.1

professional contact and discussion outside the school [Impact Area 5]. Evaluation of the training was seen in the representation of the product of the innovation. Success came with perceived implementation. A major stimulus for developing new approaches to the professional development of teachers came from research into adult learning. INSET was no longer viewed as product-related, but as a continuing process, in particular the process of the learning and teaching of the teachers themselves. In focusing on practical constraints placed on teachers [Impact Area 2], Joyce and Showers (1980) saw two purposes to training: honing existing skills and acquiring new ways of teaching. The latter was considered more difficult to achieve and therefore, in order to determine how various components of training contributed to learning, a typology of levels of impact was created. The levels of impact covered the following areas: awareness, acquisition of concepts and organised knowledge, the learning of principles and skills, and application and problem-solving. The following effective components of training were established: • • • • •

presentation of theory or description of skill; modelling or demonstration of skills; practice in simulated and classroom settings; structured and open-ended feedback; and coaching for application.

All components were considered necessary for the maximum effectiveness of in-service activities. The key point here is that although the innovation was still viewed as important, the product of the innovation itself was not the main focus of training. Its application may have been the ultimate goal, but the role of the process by which the goal was attained was significant. Fullan took the development of the concept of INSET proposed by Joyce and Showers one step further by emphasising the close relationship between professional development and the process of change, as indicated in the previous chapter, with particular reference to the change of attitudes: In-service is a process not an event – a process of role change which involves new knowledge, new skills, new behaviour, new theories or conceptions and new attitudes. (Fullan, 1986: 277)



Evaluating Change with MA TEFL/TESL Students 87

Guskey (1986) elaborated on the last point with a model of professional development that was based on the premise that changes in teachers’ beliefs and attitudes occurs only when the teacher sees improvements in students’ learning outcomes [Impact Area 6: Feedback], as illustrated in Figure 5.1. However, Guskey, although acknowledging the influence of feedback, appears to be lessening the impact of practical constraints and external influences, which may affect teachers’ attitudes but not their practice, as we saw in the previous chapter. The apparent lack of concession in the Guskey model to internal or external constraints and the impact that these might have is alluded to by Huberman and Miles: Large-scale, change-bearing innovations lived or died by the amount and quality of assistance that their users received once the change process was under way. (Huberman and Miles, 1984: 273) If innovations live or die by the quality of the assistance they receive, they may also live or die by the lack of assistance, or the constraints placed on them. 5.2.1.2 The concept of INSET: The total teacher By the 1980s, accounts of in-service education were becoming more common (Newman et al., 1981; Ball and Goodson, 1985; Sikes et al., 1985; Nias, 1989). In addition, by the end of the decade a shift was taking place in the focus of the training, away from a singular purpose of the individual teacher as innovation-implementer, attending short universityor college-based courses and being responsible for implementing a revision in the curriculum. A shift to an awareness of the importance of school-based initiatives was taking place, and particularly to the teacher as a person (Bernier and McClelland, 1989: 48). As Blackman states: The teacher is not only a professional, but a professional person with a unique life history and psychological being. (Blackman, 1989: 3)

Training

Change in practice (teacher) Feedback

Figure 5.1

Change in performance (pupil)

Change in attitude (teacher)

Influence of student performance on changes in attitude.



88 Measuring Change

The emphasis has continued to move, in the West, from in-service training as a response to a particular innovation, from the teacher as ‘technician model’ (Dadds, 1997: 32), to the teacher and personal and professional growth. Continued professional development is seen as being innovation-related, but teacher-led. Dadds asserts that top-down ‘delivery’ models of educational reform, such as those presented in Chapter 3, neglect: the crucial role of teachers’ understandings about, and experiences of, children in the development of their work. Nor do they have anything to say about the variety and complexity of processes which teachers undergo as they continue to learn about their professional craft; as they continue to gain new knowledge and understanding; reconstruct their attitudes, beliefs, practices; struggle with the difficulties of the change process. (Dadds, 1997: 32) The phase of teacher development which has seen the ‘total teacher’ (Fullan, 1991) being viewed as of paramount importance has looked upon the innovation-focused period as too restricted. Although it has not denied that professional development and school development are linked, it has added a third dimension: personal development. Fullan (1991: 5) suggests that a more comprehensive framework is required, based on: • • • •

The teacher’s purpose; The teacher as a person; The real-world context in which teachers work; and The culture of teaching.

A typology of outcomes. The most recent development of research into INSET has seen the re-emergence of the importance of outcomes, but unlike the linear model of development of Joyce and Showers, the current focus is more complex and multi-dimensional. Harland and Kinder (1997: 74–77) suggested that the resulting model of outcomes could be used with both voluntary and imposed forms of professional development to delineate more clearly the specific effects which might accrue from different INSET formats. Their typology of INSET outcomes (Table 5.1), examining the impact of various CPD activities, derives from forty-four initial forms of observed impact reduced to nine broad categories.




90 Measuring Change Typology of INSET outcomes

Category

INSET outcome

Example

1 2 3 4 5 6

Physical resources (worksheets, handouts) Pre-implementation information Shift from previous assumptions Individual codes of practice Emotional reaction to the learning situation Enthusiasm encouraged during training

7

Materials Informational New awareness Value congruence Affective Motivational and attitudinal Knowledge and skills

8 9

Institutional Impact on practice

Table 5.2

An ordering of INSET outcomes [IA: Impact Area]

Order

Outcomes

Third Order

Materials (1) [IA2]

Second Order Motivation (6) [IA5] First Order

Development of deeper levels of understanding Collective impact on groups of teachers Ultimate intention of a change in practice

Informational (2) [IA2]

New awareness (3) [IA4 or IA2]

Affective (5) [IA6]

Institutional (8) [IA3]

Value congruence (4) Knowledge and skills (7) [IA1] [IA2]

Unlike Joyce and Showers (1980), Harland and Kinder consider the presence of certain outcomes as being more likely to achieve developments in practice than others. They refer to these as First Order outcomes (Table 5.2). As a consequence, they conclude that INSET which focuses on the Third Order outcomes is less likely to have an impact on practice. Although the interpersonal model of change presented in Chapter 4 does not view change in practice as the ‘ultimate intention’ (Harland and Kinder, 1997: 77), its relation to the ordering of INSET outcomes (included in Table 5.2) indicates the complex nature of the process. Their model does, however, appear to over-emphasise practical issues and ability [Impact Area 2] and under-represent the impact of culture [Impact Area 3]. Joyce and Showers (1980) frame the outcomes of INSET under four categories: 1. general awareness of new skills (Table 5.2 Category 3; Impact Area 4, Impact Area 2 if the focus is on ‘skills’)



Table 5.1


As can be seen above, Joyce and Showers focus on practical knowledge [Impact Area 2] and teaching behaviour and neglect Second Order skills. The framework of Joyce and Showers is closer to an outline of the possible effects of INSET. It also implies that all four categories are needed to change classroom practice. They are set in a linear order, and all participants are expected to progress in a uniform way. Harland and Kinder dispute all three of these propositions. Firstly, they deduced that all nine outcomes were not necessary to affect classroom practice, although it was inferred that the larger the number of outcomes achieved, the greater the possibility of change. Secondly, they confirmed that no regular pattern or linear progression was apparent, a view propounded by Fullan (1991). Thirdly, in their exploration of individual outcome routes, they suggested that INSET has a varied influence on individual teachers and that participants have a unique outcome route (Day, 1993). In conclusion, they accented the importance and impact of attitudes in the position of value congruence as a First Order INSET outcome, and highlighted the case for identifying needs and designing in-service training experiences from the learning perspective of the individual, rather than global prescriptions of systemic needs and forms of provision. The study also underlined the need for regular evaluation. 5.2.1.3 The concept of INSET: Evaluation The changing nature of in-service education has had a dramatic impact on its planning, implementation, and in particular, its evaluation. Fox (1980) says that there are three main reasons given for the support of INSET: stimulating professional development, improving school practice and implementing social policy. In addition, there are three main settings in which INSET occurs. It may occur in single schools, in multiple schools or in external institutions. Evaluation must take into account these diverse contextual features: To articulate or analyse our experience, to judge our effectiveness, to compare, contrast or accumulate what we have learned from our experience in in-service education and training will take a precise identification of what our intentions are and what the setting is. (Fox, 1980: 218)



2. organised knowledge of underlying concepts and theory (Category 7; Impact Area 2) 3. learning of new skills (Category 7; Impact Area 2) 4. application on the job (Category 9).

92 Measuring Change

the type of INSET activity to be evaluated; the particular concerns of the various interest groups involved; and the methodology to be employed. Equally, a single evaluation may contribute to a series of evaluations of different activities, each with differing and/or overlapping focuses, and intended to complete an evaluation pattern over a period of time. (Newton, 1993: 37) Eraut (1988) made the distinction between different levels of evaluation: administrative monitoring, professional monitoring and professional review. Administrative monitoring is concerned with administrative procedures such as staffing and budgets. Professional monitoring deals with qualitative aspects of training, for example customer satisfaction and suggestions for improvement. Professional review tackles the more complex issues of aims, rationale and long-term impact and value (Eraut, 1988: 12). Administrative and professional monitoring usually takes place as a matter of course. Professional review, in determining the total effect of the programme to be assessed, is ambitious, and may not be routinely undertaken. The form of evaluation in Chapter 7, for example, could be classified as professional review. There are many types of evaluation: formative and summative, formal and informal, case particular and general, product and process, descriptive and judgemental, pre-ordinate and responsive, and internal and external (Hopkins, 1986). What is essential is the need for the evaluator to decide why the evaluation is taking place, what is being evaluated, and to be aware of the advantages and disadvantages of each particular type. 5.2.1.4

The concept of INSET: Language teacher education

The aspects of teacher training and development presented thus far have considered the general Western educational context. Language teacher education, and specifically ELT, has made comparable progress (Roberts, 1998), although the ‘explosion in language teaching’ (Wallace, 1991: 2)



No single method of evaluation is suitable for all situations: information, needs, culture, setting, context, styles, clients and purposes vary. To this diversity stated by Fox must now be added personal development. Evaluation itself is a complex issue, as Newton suggests. Decisions may be influenced by


Just as language teaching is moving towards a learner-centred, problem-solving methodology, so training is, and should be, moving towards a trainee-centred methodology which relies more on selfexamination and less on transmission. (Edwards, 1996: 99) This, in turn, has led to a distinction being made between teacher education that may be managed by others, power-coercive and rationalempirical in focus, and teacher development that can be managed by oneself, where the normative-re-educative change strategy is encouraged (Wallace, 1991: 3). Wallace (1991: 6) continues by suggesting that chronologically there have been three main models of professional education: the craft model (Shimahara, 1998a), the applied science model and the reflective model respectively. Centrally controlled and mandated, the craft model, in which the novice learns from the ‘wise master’, can be placed more logically in the initial teacher-training (ITT) arena. However, the model has a number of shortcomings, as any power-coercive model does (see Table 2.1), in particular its rigidity and lack of ability to develop at a fluctuating pace. This latter disadvantage encouraged the rise of the applied science model, which is defined by Wallace (1991: 8) as deriving its authority from the achievements of empirical science, particularly in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. Within this framework practical knowledge of anything is simply a matter of relating the most appropriate means to whatever objectives have been decided on. The whole issue of the practice of a profession is therefore merely instrumental in its nature. (Wallace, 1991: 8) Within this centrally determined sphere, in-service training is seen as ‘periodic updating’ by experts, similar to that in the craft model. Although those receiving this training can themselves become experts, it would not be within the context in which they are teaching. The knowledge and expertise of the practitioners have little place in this model, which led to the divide between research and practice.



has seen a parallel development in language teaching-specific teacher training, as illustrated in the chapters in Part III. As with general INSET evolution, training in the ELT context has moved from an innovation-directed approach to personal professional development (Edge, 1988; Edwards, 1996):

94 Measuring Change

A primary goal of in-service programmes is to provide teachers with ways of looking at their own classrooms from a different perspective. Activities that promote self-inquiry and critical thinking are central for continued professional growth, and are designed to help teachers move from a level where their classroom actions are guided by routine to a level where their practices are guided by reflection and critical thinking. (Richards, 1998: 24) This notion of the ‘reflective’ teacher results in teachers developing their potential roles as classroom researchers, as well as stimulating behavioural or attitudinal change. It is a technique that the three training programmes presented in Part III try to encourage. It lessens the resentment caused by top-down coercive implementation strategies, as presented in Chapters 2 and 3, which imply the teaching is inappropriate and inadequate (Sikes, 1992: 37), and sees innovation and change in the classroom as a partnership. The teacher is not an ‘empty vessel’ (Dadds, 1997: 32). The process of change is not linear, but a continuous exploratory motion, as indicated by Allwright (2000) in his discussion of exploratory practice (see Section 4.4). From their own individual approaches to general and specifically language teacher INSET, a number of researchers (Fullan, 1979, 1991; Joyce and Showers, 1980; Wallace, 1991; Harland and Kinder, 1997; Richards, 1998; Kennedy, 1999) have concluded with recommendations for effective professional training (Section 5.2.1.5). 5.2.1.5

Criteria for effective INSET

Fullan (1979: 3) summarised the reasons for potential failure of INSET as: 1. One-shot workshops are widespread but are ineffective. 2. Topics are frequently selected by people other than those for whom the in-service is intended. 3. Follow-up support for ideas and practices introduced in in-service programs occurs in only a very small minority of cases. 4. Follow-up evaluation occurs infrequently. 5. In-service programs rarely address individual needs and concerns.



The reflective model, in highlighting the importance of awareness [Impact Area 4], should, in theory, bridge the gap between theory and practice. According to Richards:

6. The majority of programs involve teachers from many different schools and/or school districts, but there is no recognition of the differential impact of positive and negative factors within the systems to which they must return. 7. There is a profound lack of any conceptual basis in the planning and implementing of in-service programs that would ensure their effectiveness. Fullan (1979: 3) continued by identifying a number of conditions that contribute to effective INSET: 1. The programme is an integral part of a larger scheme to bring about school improvement. 2. Teachers are centrally involved in planning and implementation. 3. Individual differences are accommodated. 4. Activities go beyond sharing information, to demonstrations, trials and feedback. 5. When more complex teacher behaviours are the focus. Fullan (1991: 343) later developed the list of conditions for effective INSET, into guidelines for the general professional development of educators, in which once again the need for a long-term developmental plan was stressed and that in all cases the focus of the training must not solely be the innovation in question, but the personal and social culture of learning. Guideline 3 states that: all promoters of professional development should pay attention to and worry about two fundamental requirements: (1) incorporating the attributes of successful professional development in as many activities as possible, and (2) ensuring that the ultimate purpose of professional development is less to implement a specific innovation or policy and more to create individual and organisational habits and structures that make continuous learning a valued and endemic part of the culture of schools and teaching. (Fullan, 1991: 343) ‘Clearly conceptualised and articulated rationale’ is a key item in the checklist produced by Wallace (1991: 164) when planning a teacher education course. The structure, methodology, coherence, progression, assessment and evaluation are also important features, with the organisation




of practical experience considered worthy of ‘special attention’ (Wallace, 1991: 164). A single definition, progression or evaluation of INSET is not possible, and as a result a definitive list for effective INSET does not exist. There are a number of variables, as can be seen in the three instances described in this book, not least the participants themselves, as Fullan concurs: There can be no one recipe for change, because unlike ingredients for a cake, people are not standard to begin with, and the damned thing is that they change as you work with them in response to their experiences and their perceptions. (Fullan, 1991: 214) There are, however, a number of recurring themes (Table 5.3), which may indicate their importance in the training process. They can be divided into the following: procedure-related, participant-related, activitybased, content-based and general. In-service education and training provision may adhere to the five elements that Joyce and Showers (1980) advocate (theory, demonstration, practice, feedback and coaching); or place its affiliation closer to Fullan and Hargreaves (1992), who focus on the final aspect, coaching; or be based on the craft or reflective approach. Whichever factor or approach

Table 5.3

Criteria for effective INSET – recurrent themes

Procedure

Participant

Activity

Content

General

Part of overall scheme and clearly articulated rationale

Continual involvement

Share information

Good practice

Focus on the individual

Planning Implementation Evaluation

Individual difference

Demonstrations

Interactive

Appropriate form

Length and mode of delivery

Needs awareness

Trials

Relevant

Government support

Methodology

Motivation

Feedback

Coherent

Credible trainers

Follow-up work

Researcher

Relevant

Supporting materials

Cultural awareness



96 Measuring Change


it concurs with, it is certain that within it the teacher must play a generative role (MacDonald, 1991). 5.2.2 The MA TEFL/TESL programme The MA TEFL/TESL programme is intended for qualified teachers of English who wish to develop their professional knowledge. The programme comprises six modules and a dissertation: • • • • • • •

Module 1: Introduction to Language Module 2: Discourse for Teachers Module 3: Second Language Teaching and Learning Module 4: Research Methods in Applied Linguistics Module 5: Option Module 1 Module 6: Option Module 2 Dissertation.

The first three modules are taught in the Autumn term (September to December) and the second set of modules are taught in the Spring term (January to March). ‘Introduction to Language’ covers topics such as lexis and pedagogic grammar. ‘Discourse for Teachers’ focuses on aspects of written and spoken discourse, such as observing and describing classroom language and assessing student interaction. Module three, ‘Second Language Teaching and Learning’, covers second language acquisition and the implications for second language teaching. ‘Research Methods in Applied Linguistics’ looks at methods and approaches to research in Applied Linguistics and includes a research mini-project. The final dissertation, under the supervision of a department tutor, is completed over the summer. In addition to this, there are two nonassessed components of the course: Introduction to the Bank of English, and Academic English. Students are able to take a number of options on the course, and these include • • • • • • • •

Business English Corpus Linguistics Computer-Assisted Language Learning English as an International Language English for Specific/Academic Purposes Syllabus and Materials Design Teacher Training Management of Innovation and Change.



5.2.2.1 Aims and objectives

98 Measuring Change

One option offered to students is the ‘Management of Innovation and Change’. The ‘Management of Innovation and Change’ module aims to look at the theory and practice of change, both to help explain why past changes may or may not have been successful, and to help in any educational changes in the future. It covers the following areas: types of change, change strategies, curriculum change, models of change, teacher change, pupil change, culture and change, practical constraints, and attitude change. Students consider the types of change they may have been involved in, such as administrative change within an institution they may work in, or technological change, for example the use of a computer or video in the classroom. They then consider how these changes have been introduced to them by discussing change strategies, such as the power-coercive, rational-empirical and normative-re-educative, as presented in Chapter 2. The chapter ‘Curriculum Change’ investigates implementation strategies, and ‘Models of Change’ introduces different models of change and relates them to curriculum development and ELT. The importance and impact of various actors in the change process, such as the teacher and the pupil, are examined, along with the influence of culture, practical constraints, for example examinations and textbooks, and attitudes and beliefs. Educational change is also set within the wider context through the investigation of personal as well as professional change. Throughout the course, examples are given and discussed from a wide variety of ELT contexts, as well as the students’ own personal circumstances and situations. Two questionnaires are distributed to the students, one at the beginning of the course and one at the end. The objective of these questionnaires is to determine the students’ attitudes to various aspects in the change process.

5.3 Evaluating change on the MA TEFL/TESL programme 5.3.1 Data collection procedure The first questionnaire is distributed to all MA TEFL/TESL students prior to the commencement of the second semester of their study. The aim of the questionnaire is to determine the students’ opinions of innovation and change. Through the presentation of a series of questions and statements, the questionnaire also investigates the students’ attitudes towards key areas involved in educational innovation, such as curriculum change and teacher change. A second questionnaire is distributed to the



5.2.2.2 Programme content

students at the end of the second semester, following their completion of the ‘Management of Innovation and Change’ option. This questionnaire extends the remit of the first by providing students with the opportunity of considering how their attitudes and practices may have changed following the course. The two questionnaires can be found in the following section. 5.3.2 Data collection tools 5.3.2.1 MA TEFL/TESL student questionnaire 1 (Q1) Part A: General information 1. Age 20–30 ⵧ 31–40 ⵧ 2. Gender Male ⵧ Female ⵧ 3. Nationality ————————

Over 40 ⵧ

Part B: Reasons for study 1. Why have you decided to come and study at this university? 2. Why have you chosen your particular course? Part C: Innovation and change 1. What is change? 2. What is educational change? 3. What key areas should curriculum developers focus on when implementing nation-wide curriculum change? 4. What areas/issues may have a NEGATIVE impact on educational change? 5. What areas/issues may have a POSITIVE impact on educational change? Part D: Statements of change Here are a series of statements. Please tick if you agree (A), partly agree (PA), partly disagree (PD) or disagree (D). A PA PD D 1. Meaningful change must involve a change in beliefs and attitudes. 2. You cannot really change other people; people can only change themselves. 3. Teacher development and support is a crucial part of educational change. 4. Nation-wide curriculum change must be a top-down process.




5. A proposed change in methodology without a corresponding change in assessment will be ineffective. 6. Inadequate or inappropriate resources (e.g. textbooks) are a barrier to successful educational change. 7. Teachers who lack confidence will be less willing to implement change in the classroom. 8. Change which fails to take into account the culture of a society is bound to fail. 9. Pupils can represent a force of conservatism in the classroom. 10. Planned innovations tend to be implemented effectively when the change itself is recognised as necessary and relevant by teachers.

5.3.2.2 MA TEFL/TESL student questionnaire 2 (Q2) Part A: General information 1. Age 20–30 ⵧ 31–40 ⵧ 2. Gender Male ⵧ Female ⵧ 3. Nationality ————————

Over 40 ⵧ

Part B: Innovation and change Now we have reached the end of the course, please answer the following questions: 1. What is change? 2. What is educational change? 3. What key areas should curriculum developers focus on when implementing nation-wide curriculum change? 4. What areas/issues may have a NEGATIVE impact on educational change? 5. What areas/issues may have a POSITIVE impact on educational change? Part C: Statements of change Here are the same series of statements from the first questionnaire. Please tick if you agree (A), partly agree (PA), partly disagree (PD) or disagree (D). [see Q1]



100 Measuring Change


Part E Please add here any additional comments you would like to make. 5.3.3 Programme participants The first questionnaire (Q1) is divided into four sections: General information, Reasons for study, Innovation and change (five questions), and Statements of change (ten statements). Parts A and B were designed to gather some background information on the students. Part A covered general information: age, gender and nationality. Part B looked at reasons for coming to the university and reasons for selecting the MA course. The questionnaire was distributed to incoming MA students in September 2002. From the questionnaires distributed, 26 were returned. The majority of students (18) were between 20 and 30 years old; with 6 students being between 31 and 40, and two students over 40. Twenty of the 26 students were female. In keeping with the current trend in international recruitment (Lamie, 2003), the majority of students came from the far East (21), as shown in Figure 5.2.

8

7

7

Number of students

7 6 5

4

4 3

2

2

2

1

1

1

1

1

Figure 5.2

(o s) iti sh Br

an ad ia n C

re ek

la d

G

es hi

g ng Ba

on g

Ko n

es e H

iw an Ta

Ko re an

es e Ja pa n

C

hi ne se

0

MA TEFL/TESL students’ nationality.



Part D 1. In what ways do you think your attitudes have changed during (and will/may change following) this course? 2. In what ways do you think your practices have changed during (and will/may change following) this course?

The reasons the MA students gave for choosing to pursue their course (Figure 5.3) centred on a suitable course (6), recommendation (7) and reputation (13). This result may have more to do with question phraseology, where the emphasis may have been placed too greatly on the university in question, and less with deep-seated reasons as to why students actually left their home countries. Nevertheless, the impact of reputation should be noted, and reinforces the importance of developments and improvements in all aspects of teaching, learning and living in universities and colleges in the UK. 5.3.4 Research findings 5.3.4.1 Q1: Question 1: What is change? To determine the students’ opinions of, and attitudes to, various aspects of change prior to the commencement of their course, five questions were presented, followed by a series of statements relating to key areas in the change process. The students’ responses to the statements help to clarify some of their answers to the questions, as can be seen in the remainder of this section. The first question asked was, What is change? Chapter 1 presented various definitions of change from those emphasising its potential as a negative force (Milton, 1667; Howardell, 2001), to those focusing on positive applications (George Bernard Shaw, 1856–1950; Pritchett, 1994). Chapter 1 also put forward eight principles of change; these principles were linked to the change process and to

14

13

13

Number of students

12 10 8

7 6

6

6

4 2

2

N o

re s

po ns

e

re st In te

r ar ee C

rs e C ou

R

ec

om

R

m

ep ut

en da

at io

n

tio n

0

Figure 5.3

MA TEFL/TESL students’ reasons for choosing Birmingham.





• Things become different in some way. (#11) • That something becomes different. (#20) Some students concentrated on the positive aspects of change, whereas others highlighted changes that can take place not only in practice, but also in relation to attitudes and beliefs, reinforcing the seventh principle of change determined in Chapter 1: Change is part of a personal context, evokes a variety of emotions and involves attitudes and beliefs. No students made exclusively negative comments: • To be different, to be better and to be more effective. (#1) • To accept others’ way of thinking. (#16) • To change our sense of value. (#18) Goreham (2003: 1) defined change as a series of opposites (see Figure 1.1) and in agreement with Goreham and with a number of other definitions of change (Thomas Carlyle, 1795–1881; Ellen Glasgow, 1874–1945), some MA students’ responses reflected the complex nature of change. However, in general the definitions at this stage were more concerned with difference rather than complexity. This was a focus that was to shift in their post-course responses. A complete set of responses can be found in Table 5.4: Table 5.4 # 1 2 3 4 5 7 8 9 10

MA TEFL/TESL responses to Q1 Question 1: What is change?

What is change? To be different, to be better, to be more effective. Change means to make a difference. Change means that something becomes different before whether it is good or bad. Difference. Should absorb more new teaching methods together with the newest developments in each subject. Make something different. It depends on which area we are talking about. However, being different from the present situation might be an essential idea of change. Change means something become different from before. A general term including both concrete and abstract concepts.



educational change in Chapter 2. The general consensus amongst MA students was that change involved something from the original situation being altered:

104 Measuring Change (Continued)

#

What is change?

11 12 13

Things become different in some way. Difference from the past. In general, ‘change’ means replacing an established or dominant paradigm with something new or different in order to improve the current situation. Change is either unconscious or conscious transition, or its process or its outcome when something or someone is becoming something or someone else. Something different from it is now. Sometimes it is a good thing, sometimes it is not. To accept others’ way of thinking. To change our sense of value. I believe that change is positive or negative modification of the nature of some objects or people . That something becomes different. To me change is something which is different from one situation to another. Change usually collocates with positiveness and optimism, improvement and innovation. However, there are cases where change influences a situation negatively instead of ameliorating it. Something innovative and new, something not known before or partly known and now a part becomes new or is renewed. Different from the original or existing situation. Change is a difference in the procedure, situation, etc. from one period of time to another. It means either improvement or deterioration.

14

15 16 18 19 20 21 22

23 24 25 26

• Change means that something becomes different before whether it is good or bad. (#3) • A general term including both concrete and abstract concepts. (#10) • Change is either unconscious or conscious transition, or its process or its outcome when something or someone is becoming something or someone else. (#14) 5.3.4.2 Q1: Question 2: What is educational change? In terms of educational change, MA students were even more positive, with the majority referring to the benefits of change: • To make the students better educated in an easier and more enjoyable way. (#1) • Usually an improvement in the quality of education. (#7)



Table 5.4


• Educational change reflected on every aspect, such as the change of the textbooks, teaching methods, teaching circumstance, teaching medium and the relationship between teachers and students. (#3) • The attitude towards education, change of education system, change of textbooks and new ideas and innovations of teaching methods. (#8) • In educational change an established methodology based on dominant teaching/learning theory is replaced with a new model that has emerged as a result of dissatisfaction with what is happening in the field of teaching. Paradigm shift in education requires us to change our attitude toward teaching and learning. (#13) According to Karavas-Doukas (1996: 118), the encouragement of attitude change is an ‘essential’ part of any change in teaching methodology or practice. The impact and importance of attitudes in the process was reinforced in responses to Statement 1 (see Figure 2.3), where 24 students were in agreement with the notion that ‘meaningful’ change must involve a change in beliefs; only two students disagreed with the statement. Chapter 2 (see Figure 2.4) determined several factors affecting educational change. These factors fell into three areas: the change process (strategies, aims, implementation procedures and change agents); external forces (global, national, community and school); and internal forces (attitudes, ability, knowledge, relevance, benefits, training and support). As well as indicating the presence of attitudes in a definition of educational change, MA students also referred to a number of other internal and external factors, such as national and school culture (Principles 5 and 6: Change is part of a complex system and Change is part of a social and economic context), teachers, pupils and the community (Principle 4: Change involves a variety of actors) and ability and knowledge. A full list of responses is given in Table 5.5. The importance of attitudes and practices in the implementation process, emphasised by Fullan, were also matters stressed by MA students when considering the question of what areas curriculum developers should focus on when implementing nation-wide curriculum change. Other concerns raised were teacher and student roles, and the impact of assessment.



They also reinforced the seventh principle of change (attitudes and beliefs), and concurred with Fullan (1991) in indicating that educational change must not only take into account changes in practice, but also attitudes and beliefs:

106 Table 5.5 MA TEFL/TESL responses to Q1 Question 2: What is educational change?

1 2 3

4

5 7 8 9 10 11 12 13

14 15

18 19 20 21 23 24 25 26

What is educational change? To make the students better educated in an easier and more enjoyable way. Educational change means to direct education to the full development of the individual and society. Educational change reflected on every aspect, such as the change of the textbooks, teaching methods, teaching circumstance, teaching medium and the relationship between teachers and students. The change of education system and therefore a series of changes are coming out. The results are different among the students and teachers – teaching way and teaching aim will be different from before. Should give students more chances to practise. Usually an improvement in the quality of education. The attitude towards education, change of education system, change of textbooks and new ideas and innovations of teaching methods. Teachers educate students and make them change their attitudes or get improvement by using new teaching methods. All-around changes in policies, systems, culture values, pedagogy, both schools and families. Such educational field has differed from present, e.g. education policy. Change implemented in education, especially curriculum, school practices or medium of instruction. In educational change, an established methodology based on dominant teaching/learning theory is replaced with a ‘new’ model that has emerged as a result of dissatisfaction with what is happening in the field of teaching. Paradigm shift in education requires us to change our attitude toward teaching and learning. It is an intentional reformation which is made nation-wide or by each school or teacher to achieve an educational goal they have set beforehand. The methodology change, the students’ change, the parents’ change, the teachers’ change, the school function change, the expectations for schools change. What is thought to be important in education would change. I think it means the change of students to a positive way through various experiences of introductions. Change in the field of education. Educational change may be change in environment, educational system, way of studying, way of outlook etc. Change in the way we perceive the student, his abilities, the way we treat these abilities and how we estimate the result of his efforts. Different educational system and policies which can be seen from the methods of teaching, marking and assessments. Educational change is a change in the way instruction is carried out or evaluated. It means that someone chooses the direction (object or purpose) and have those who are involved in it aim at the goal.



#


Question 3 asked students to consider key areas that curriculum developers should focus on with regard to nation-wide curriculum change (see A1.1). Chapter 3 (see Figure 3.3) divided the factors affecting curriculum change into three, overlapping areas: the Innovation, the Individual and the Environment. Many teachers find themselves in the situation where they are required to implement a new national curriculum. In Japan, for example, the English curriculum underwent extensive reform (see Chapter 7). The documentary outcome was the NRCOS. The revision demanded a new language emphasis, and a resource utilisation and classroom teaching style which were in diametric opposition to those in current use. However, implementation strategies employed by the Japanese Ministry of Education (Monbusho) have proven to be less than successful (Miyamoto, 1995; Lamie, 2000). The aims are unclear, and the teachers, barely involved in the planning and discussion process, under-resourced and inadequately trained. Of vital importance to many students was that the curriculum developers should set any revision in a real and practical context (the Innovation: adaptability and compatibility). In addition, MA student #14 indicates the importance of clear aims (the Innovation/Individual: aims; Principle 1: Change involves the statement of an aim): • • • •

The change should focus on real life and practice. (#4) Make the courses more applicable. (#7) They should consider the main goals of curriculum first. (#19) They have to express explicitly why that ‘change’ is necessary. They have to have a future vision of its outcome. (#14)

A number of students referred to the involvement of the teachers (the Individual/Environment: ability and training) in the process, a point supported by responses to Statement 10 (see Figure 3.2), where all students were in agreement that planned innovations will be more likely to be implemented successfully if seen as ‘necessary and relevant’ by the teachers: • The quality of the teachers, how to cultivate skilful, expressive and well-educated teachers, not only their skills, but their attitudes and devotion. (#10) • To be practical for teachers and students. (#18) • Opinions of teachers and students. (#26)



5.3.4.3 Q1: Question 3: What key areas should curriculum developers focus on when implementing nation-wide curriculum change?


14

13

10 8

7

6

5

4 2

1

0 Agree

Partly agree

Partly disagree

Disagree

Figure 5.4 MA TEFL/TESL responses: Pupils can present a force of conservatism in the classroom.

The key point here is that all participants in the process must be involved and allowed to voice their concerns in order to reduce the likelihood of resistance or rejection. You cannot, as MA student #23 states, ‘change the curriculum without changing those who will work with this curriculum’. Effective communication between these various actors in the process, the main factor affecting curriculum change in ELT along with ownership (Figure 3.3), is vital: They [curriculum developers] should focus more on promoting communication, creativity and critical thought. School and education generally have to be humanistic, which means that they must treat students as human beings with inner needs, intellectual gifts and pursuits, artistic turns and several talents and inclinations. An outlet should be given to all these human capabilities so that our students aren’t treated as one-dimensional creatures. (MA #22) 5.3.4.4 Q1: Question 4: What areas/issues may have a negative impact on educational change? The impact of pupil opinion, the systems of assessment and the culture of the schools, all examples of the Environment, were viewed by students as potential areas of negative impact on educational change, as shown in the responses to Statements 9, 5 and 8 (Figures 5.4, 5.5 and 5.6). Parental influence and inadequate resources (the Environment/ Individual) were also mentioned:



Number of students

12


18

16

Number of students

16 14 12 10

8

8 6 4

2

2 0 Agree

Partly agree

Partly disagree

Disagree

Figure 5.5 MA TEFL/TESL responses: A proposed change in methodology without a corresponding change in assessment will be ineffective.

14

13

Number of students

12 10

9

8 6 4 2 2

1

0 Agree

Partly agree

Partly disagree

Disagree

Figure 5.6 MA TEFL/TESL responses: Change which fails to take into account the culture of a society is bound to fail.



• The thoughts of parents cannot catch up with the change. (#11) • Parents’ objections. (#12) • An educational change may not be accepted due to students’ conservative cultural educational background, due to lack of appropriate facilities or teaching aids (#22)

All schools in Japan are required to use textbooks in the classroom teaching of each subject. Textbooks must either be those authorised or compiled by the Ministry of Education. Following the NRCOS, the textbooks themselves were supposedly reviewed (Miyamoto, 1995) and the result for senior high school (SHS) in particular was an avalanche of texts claiming to have communicative competence as their main objective. However, a strict grade quota system still existed. This issue is developed by Miyamoto: I have to say that the authorised textbooks are very influential. Their improvement will change the teachers and the classrooms to a great extent, though there are other elements which need to be reformed such as the content of the entrance examination. Until then each teacher in each classroom has to do what he/she believes in developing students’ communicative competence by supplementing the authorised textbooks. (Miyamoto, 1995: 25) The issue of inadequate resources being a potential barrier to change was supported in the response to Statement 6 (Figure 5.7). A complete list of the responses from MA students with regard to negative areas that may impact on educational change is given in the appendices (A1.2). Adequate and supportive teaching materials were also seen to have a positive impact on the implementation of educational change.

14

13

Number of students

12 10 10 8 6 4 2

1

1

Partly disagree

Disagree

0 Agree

Partly agree

Figure 5.7 MA TEFL/TESL responses: Inadequate or inappropriate resources are a barrier to successful educational change.





Many of the issues raised as having a potential negative impact on change were put forward by the students as also having a probable positive impact if dealt with suitably. These issues related to the Innovation (such as financial support), the Individual (awareness and ability), the Environment (student opinion and co-operation between parents and teachers) and overlapping areas (resources and training): • Financial support from the government and society. (#2) • Awareness of what we are already doing and what we should do often enables us to examine whether our practice fully accords with the principles of innovative teaching. (#13) • Examination system. If students can have a chance to study for interest not for marks, things will be better. (#4) • Absorb student suggestions. (#5) • Co-operation between teachers, students and the parents. (#8) • Teachers themselves realise the need to change and try to change. For example, they go abroad and realise Japan needs radical change just like us. (#15) Teacher resistance was stated a number of times as a possible negative issue. Teacher development and training, therefore, was seen as an essential way of dealing with the problem. This was also supported in the responses to Statement 3 (Figure 5.8) and all responses are given in the appendices (A1.3): 25

Number of students

20 20 15 10 4

5

2

0 Agree

Partly agree

Partly disagree

Disagree

Figure 5.8 MA TEFL/TESL responses: Teacher development and support is a crucial part of educational change.



5.3.4.5 Q1: Question 5: What areas/issues may have a positive impact on educational change?


To summarise the findings of Q1, MA students 1. considered change to be a complex process, which could be either positive or negative, and often involved changes in attitudes and beliefs, corroborating the fifth and seventh principles of change determined in Chapter 1; 2. were more positive in their definitions of educational change, and once again reiterated the impact of attitudes (see Figure 2.4: Internal factors affecting educational change); 3. stressed the need for curriculum developers to involve all actors (Principle 4) in the educational arena when attempting to implement nation-wide curriculum change, but were particularly focused on the role and impact of the teacher in the process (Principle 3; see Figure 3.3: Individual factors affecting curriculum change in English language teaching); 4. highlighted the influence of teacher and pupil attitudes and practices; 5. raised the possibility of areas such as pupil and parental opinion, the examination system, the culture of the schools, innovation aims and objectives (Principle 1) and inadequate resources (Principle 6) as being obstacles to effective educational change; and 6. suggested that many negative issues could be addressed with adequate training (Principle 8) and support. 5.3.4.6

Questionnaire 2: Summary

Following the Innovation option, a follow-up questionnaire was distributed. Twelve students took the option and there were eight replies. The first part of the questionnaire was a repetition of Q1. Findings from Q2 indicated that students had become clearer in their definitions of change, and educational change as shown in Tables 5.6 and 5.7. The definitions illustrate that the MA students continued to view change as a complex process, which could be both positive and negative, and also highlighted the potential impact of attitudes and beliefs. There were, however, more definite statements with regard to the systemic nature of change and of change being a complex problemsolving (Principle 2) activity:



• Effective staff development. (#2) • Well-prepared teachers. (#8) • Some teaching courses for teachers would have positive results so that teachers could support in the best way every positive change and reject or fight against negative ones. (#22)

113 MA TEFL/TESL responses to Q2 Question 1: What is change?

#

What is change?

1 2

Change means to alter, to make different. More often than not to improve. Change means replacing an existing system or beliefs with new ones in order to improve the current situation. To do different things from which we have done. Change is for people to have different ideas from before both in positive and negative ways. Change is the attempt or result to improve something. Change is not always linear, can be affected by various factors. The bigger the change becomes, the more time and energy will be needed. Change can happen anywhere, from large-scale ones to small-scale ones, physical or mental, and change involves various aspects of life, individuals and societies. Change can be small, not always big. I think change is a problem-solving activity. It is a process, not just a product, that can be positive or negative and may (or may not) include an innovation. Change can be an individual activity or one that is influenced by cultural, political or philosophical elements.

3 4 5

6

7 8

Table 5.7 change?

MA TEFL/TESL responses to Q2 Question 2: What is educational

#

What is educational change?

1

Educational change consists of improvement to the system, syllabus and teaching methodology. Educational change means that prevailing attitude, beliefs and methodology are replaced with different ones. To attempt to try to achieve aims to improve students’ ability and school. Teachers should be involved in the process of change. Change should also be for students. Planned change for improvement, bottom-up and top-down approaches. Educational change is a case in which organisations (schools, government) plan, implement (and assess) new ways, materials, and policies in their teaching. New course of study started last year in Japan. Many teachers complain about the change, so I think the change will not be implemented successfully. I think educational change is a systematic effort to change learning and teaching conditions. It should take into account learners, teachers, the institution/organisation, culture, society, politics, economics, resources and time. For me, the goal of educational change should be to enhance and support the learning–teaching process.

2 3 4 5 6

7

8



Table 5.6


The importance of clear, realistic objectives, adequate resourcing and suitable examinations were emphasised, as well as the need to take into account the culture of a society (100 per cent in agreement with Statement 8). Teacher development was seen as crucial to the successful implementation of educational change (Statement 3: 100 per cent), as was a person’s confidence (Statement 7: 100 per cent). The role of the teacher as potential change agent was also suggested: • I think curriculum developers should ask themselves (and society) what is the purpose of education. Is education meant to empower, train, socialise, control, transmit (knowledge) to the individual? Once that is clear, clear and realistic curriculum goals, methods of assessment, learning–teaching environments, resources and support are key areas. (#8; A1.4) • [Curriculum developers] should focus on teacher training. Especially it is important to stimulate heads of department as a key person of innovation so that they can take the initiative at their own institutions. (#5; A1.4) The negative impact of coercion within the change process was emphasised (see A1.5), with bottom-up as well as top-down implementation procedures suggested (Statement 4). In addition, the roles and responsibilities of all actors in the change process were stressed, not only of the teachers: • Change involves various aspects of life, individuals and societies. (#6) • Change can be an individual activity or one that is influenced by cultural, political or philosophical elements. (#8) The second part of the questionnaire gave the students the opportunity to state how they believed they had changed with two additional questions (Tables 5.8 and 5.9): 1. In what ways do you think your attitudes have changed during (and will/may change following) this course? 2. In what ways do you think your practices have changed during (and will/may change following) this course?



• Change means replacing an existing system or beliefs with new ones in order to improve the current situation. (#1) • I think change is a problem-solving activity. It is a process, not just a product, that can be positive or negative and may (or may not) include an innovation. (#8)

115 MA TEFL/TESL responses to Q2 Part D, Question 1: Changes in

#

In what ways do you think your attitudes have changed during (and will/may change following) this course?

1

I understand more of the quality and properties of change/innovation. I will be more willing to make innovations. At first I thought nation-wide change should be done in the top-down approach. Now I realise that change needs both top-down and bottom-up approaches. I recognised that a lot of things should be considered ‘change’. I could build up confidence by learning and am ready to face some difficulties when I go back to Japan. Before I took the course ‘change’ meant a big one. However, I now know we can begin with some small and minor changes. I have realised that any sort of change is complex. It involved many different aspects, people and cultures. Speak opinions more freely. Before taking the course I thought teachers only determine the success or failure of an innovation. Now I feel that teachers are only one factor in the process of change. Exposure to issues/ideas of change has had a fundamental impact on me.

2

3 4 5 6 7 8

Table 5.9 MA TEFL/TESL responses to Q2 Part D, Question 2: Changes in practice #

In what ways do you think your practices have changed during (and will/may change following) this course?

1

I have a new understanding of change. I am more aware of change in both teaching and daily life. I am going to change materials I use in the classroom. Textbooks are important, but it is important to add some extra materials to the authorised textbooks. I will be more patient and try to change gradually. I am used to using English. I am enjoying using English more than before. When I come across some problems I try to solve them, asking someone for help and advice. I have started to look at change both in my life (personally) and in the environment surrounding myself (family, friends, government, world, etc.) Improvement in language teaching. From an instructional perspective, I think and hope I will implement pedagogical changes in a more systematic way and over a period of time. In the past I have viewed the success or failure of an innovation as my responsibility, instead of sharing the task with learners and administrators.

2

3 4 5 6

7 8



Table 5.8 attitudes


• I definitely developed/am developing a deeper understanding of and interest in various issues. I feel a heightened awareness of change on an everyday level and beyond.

5.4 Summary This chapter has presented the first of three evaluations of change dedicated to a specific context, in this situation a teacher training programme in the TEFL/TESL. The chapter began with an overview of the development of INSET, culminating in a set of recurrent themes present in various lists of criteria for successful professional development. The second part of the chapter presented the details of a university-based training course which attempts to adhere to key aspects in the set of themes listed in Table 5.3, focusing on the application of professional knowledge that language teachers need to critically reflect on their attitudes, beliefs and practice. It gave a summary of the aims and objectives of the programme and the specific content and objectives of an option, the ‘Management of Innovation and Change’, which was offered to students. The option aims to equip the students with the theories and practical skills of managing change and to develop a critical understanding of the process of change with a particular focus on English language teaching and learning. Two questionnaires are currently in use in the ‘Management of Change’ option. The first, distributed before the beginning of the course to all MA TEFL/TESL students, aims to reveal their opinions of key areas involved in educational change. The second, post-course questionnaire, gives the ‘Innovation’ option students the opportunity to determine for themselves how much they have changed in terms of attitudes and practices. This chapter has presented the findings of these questionnaires. During the option, students are encouraged to detect and examine change in all aspects of their lives through keeping a diary of change. Each weekly session begins with a discussion of any changes that have been observed that week. The questionnaires have become an integral part of the course and have, in addition, the aim of increasing the students’ awareness of change both in their professional and personal lives: • This course changed my way of thinking about not only my teaching situation, but also my life! (#5)



The contents of Tables 5.8 and 5.9 indicate a positive move for the students in terms of the development of an awareness of the various aspects of change and factors affecting change in ELT and beyond. As MA student #8 states in her final comment:

Evaluating Change with Chinese Lecturers of English I will take a more positive attitude towards life and everything. – CUMT Lecturer #11 China is in a phase of industrial, scientific and commercial expansion which will make it the world’s largest economy by the early years of the next century. In order to function efficiently in this role, it needs to bring large numbers of its people to high levels of proficiency in the use of English for a wide variety of functions. – Maley, Landmark Review of English in China: 47

6.1 Introductory comments Chapter 5 investigated attitudes to change in ELT for master’s students undertaking a training programme in TEFL/TESL. The students, all experienced teachers of English, came from a variety of countries. This chapter focuses on China. It investigates the process of change with reference to Chinese lecturers of English taking part in a one-month overseas intensive teacher training programme. The programme was initiated in response to recent curriculum reforms in the teaching of English at tertiary level and a government directive that up to 20 per cent of all university courses in Chinese national universities should be taught in English. Although set up in response to an innovation, the focus of the training is very much on the development of the individual. The chapter sets the training programme into its educational context by providing a summary of English language developments in China, current developments taking place at university-level and general teacher training 117



6

provision before moving on to the presentation of the data itself. The training programme begins with a lecture/seminar focusing on change, during which the participants complete and discuss a series of activities. These activities include: defining change; giving examples of types of change; highlighting the positive and negative aspects of different implementation strategies, with reference to actual events; responding to a series of statements determining attitudes to various aspects of change; and suggesting ways in which changes in attitudes and practice may occur following the course. The experiences and opinions of the participants, arising from the responses, are discussed, and implications and recommendations are made as a result. The chapter concludes that such programmes are necessary to promote and encourage curriculum change.

6.2 English language teaching in China 6.2.1 Historical perspective The Chinese education curriculum is, historically, the product of economic and industrial requirements. It can be assumed, therefore, that the recent changes in the importance of English is caused by similar requirements. The development of ELT in China can be divided into four periods (Zou, 1997; Wang, 1998): • • • •

Period 1: Pre-1949 Period 2: 1949–1966 Period 3: 1966–1976 Period 4: 1976 onwards.

Formal English language education, excluding that provided by British and American missionaries, dates back to 1862 when the School of Combined Learning was established in Beijing. The role and importance of English, and ELT in China, became a key part of the educational agenda in the early part of the 20th century (Zou, 1997; Boyle, 2000). At this stage it was modelled on the system present in Japan, with its focus on GT and the Direct Method, as Zou states: TEFL in China during this period [before 1949] was far from systematic, and its methodology was no more than a derivative of the traditional teaching approaches in Japan and Western countries. (Zou, 1997: 84)




Evaluating Change with Chinese Lecturers of English 119

The notion of Japanese dedication to role stems from the Confucian ideology dominant in pre-modern Japan, which de-emphasised the individual as an end in himself or herself, emphasising instead individual responsibilities and obligations. (Shimahara, 1998b: 223) Shimahara continues by observing that changes that have been successfully effected since the inception of the modern system of national education in Japan have done so when the curriculum has had less to do with individual learners’ personal, cognitive and imaginative development and more to do with corporate industrial, business and economic requirements. Similar developments have taken place in China. During the founding of the People’s Republic of China (PRC), in 1949, English was briefly usurped by Russian, but by 1960, as a result of the split between China and the former Soviet Union, the Ministry of Education became aware that this could potentially damage China’s long-term goals, and English was once again placed on the teaching and learning syllabus. The syllabus remained with its traditional focus, as Dzau illustrates when referring to the teaching methods and materials used at the time at tertiary level: [The textbooks] were largely grammar-structure based course books which most teachers used with traditional methodology that included text analysis, vocabulary work with the teachers explaining usage and giving students practice through translation of sentences containing these items. (Dzau, 1990: 45) There was to be another period of uncertainty for English during the Cultural Revolution (1966–1976), when it was once again removed from the curriculum: During the Cultural Revolution, when workers’ propaganda teams for the spreading of Mao Tse Tung’s thoughts came to China’s colleges, classes were stopped altogether, and the students travelled instead all



First and foremost, the education process in Japan was intended as a servant to the state. The happiness of the individual, though important, was of secondary importance to the harmony of the state:


English was reintroduced in 1970, but solely as a political tool; it was only after the Cultural Revolution that the focus shifted to pedagogy once more. By 1978, following a key conference on foreign language teaching held by the Chinese Ministry of Education, English had once again regained prominence. At this time a team from the United States International Communication Agency visited five cities, and a number of educational institutions, in China and stated China’s reasons for learning English: The Chinese view English primarily as a necessary tool which can facilitate access to modem scientific and technological advances, and secondarily as a vehicle to promote commerce and understanding between the People’s Republic of China and countries where English is a major language. (Cowan et al., 1979: 465) According to the Report of the English 2000 Conference in Beijing, sponsored by the British Council and the State Education Commission of the PRC, this is a basic motivation which has not changed (Boyle, 2000). The British Council sees the period following the Cultural Revolution as one of reform, and the Open Door policy of 1979 as key to the advance and growth of English: English is clearly linked in the minds of most of the working population with improved job opportunities and salaries in joint venture or foreign companies. (British Council, 1995: 1) A summary of the historical development of ELT in China is given in Table 6.1. 6.2.2 English teaching Traditionally, an English language lesson in China consists of a ‘focus text and a list of language points drawn from the text’ (Li, 1984: 7). The traditional nature of teaching and learning is still prevalent in China. The method of ELT has seen a focus on reading and translation. As with



over the country in order to take part in criticism and debate and to exchange revolutionary experiences. (Dow, 1975: 254)

Evaluating Change with Chinese Lecturers of English 121 Historical development of ELT in China

Period

Description

Main points

Pre-1949

Pre-PRC

•

• • • •

1949–1966

Pre-Cultural Revolution

• • • •

1966–1976

The Cultural Revolution

1976 onwards

Period of reform and modernisation

•

Influence of missionary schools and materials provided and often produced by missionaries 1862: School of Combined Learning established in Beijing Based on the traditional teaching approach of Japan Focus on Grammar-Translation and the Direct method Students studied English for two years at university and focused on literature Pre-1960: Russian replaced English in the language teaching curriculum Focus on patriotism rather than language development Post-1960: re-emergence of English Focus on Grammar-Translation

•

English removed from the curriculum until 1970 Post-1970: English as a political tool

• •

The impact of globalisation English as a tool for communication

Japan (Ito, 1978), the emphasis has been placed on the rote learning of grammar and vocabulary. This has served to produce students reasonably competent in reading and writing, although not necessarily writing with a communicative focus, but less comfortable with speaking and listening. Tyson (1997: 77) describes the traditional Chinese educational process as based on, and maintaining, a ‘culture of dependent learners in a didactic, knowledge-focused classroom . . . [rather than] collaborative learners organising and managing their own learning process’. In 1992 the Chinese State Education Development Commission (SEDC) attempted to introduce a functional syllabus in the majority of its secondary schools. This syllabus set the goal of communicative language teaching and listed the communicative functions to be taught. To support this move, SEDC also produced materials to assist the teachers in their proposed shift from a traditional to a more communicative curriculum. This attempt at nation-wide curriculum change, however, met with considerable resistance, not least because the teachers had, in a typically



Table 6.1

power-coercive manner, been virtually excluded from the decision-making process. The implementation strategy had, following an R, D and D process (see Chapter 3), been soundly grounded in educational research, but had suffered from a lack of financing, training and community support – three key areas in the factors affecting curriculum change in ELT (see Figure 3.3). In addition, the teachers were unsure about the relevance and feasibility of such a move (Figure 3.3: The Innovation). These areas are all vital in promoting successful curriculum change. With the added lack of any change in the National College Entrance Examinations, not surprisingly the traditional methods prevailed. State Education Development Commission were aware of the failings in the introduction of the new syllabus and, as a result, made a number of suggestions for improved implementation: 1. The adoption of a variety of methods, including both GT and communicative language teaching. 2. The inclusion of a ‘Language Use’ section in the hugely influential Matriculation English Test, one of the National College Entrance Examinations. 3. More systematic, widespread teacher training. 4. More effective dissemination strategies. Consequently, there was an increase in awareness (Cortazzi and Jin, 1996) of a more communicative approach to the teaching of English in secondary schools, but there still appeared to be room for improvement. From the beginning of the new millennium, the Chinese government, in a similar move to the Japanese government as will be shown in the following chapter, became increasingly concerned about the communicative English ability of all its citizens and began, as a direct result, to look at English provision not just within the secondary school sector, but beyond. This had a dramatic effect on the teaching and learning of English across the educational spectrum. The move to introduce English as a compulsory subject into primary schools, for example, was initiated in 2001 (Chinese Ministry of Education, 2001). The Chinese Ministry of Education set performance descriptions for two levels of primary school pupils (see Appendix 2): level 1 (grades 3 and 4) and level 2 (grades 5 and 6). The level 1 curriculum is divided into 5 areas: 1. Listen and Do 2. Speak and Sing 3. Play and Act





4. Read and Write 5. Audio and Visual.

• Being able to recognise and point at objects or pictures according to what is heard; • Being able to understand and react to simple classroom instructions; • Being able to do things according to instructions, such as drawing pictures; and • Being able to understand and react to simple English stories. (Qiang, 2002: 107) Level 2 students also have their curriculum divided into five areas: listening; speaking; reading; writing; and playing and acting and audio and visual. For these students the Listening component contains understanding simple spoken English or recorded English, understanding questions in classroom activities, reacting to frequently used instructions, and understanding simple English stories. The focus for both levels is on the development of an active and communicative use of English, as well as the encouragement of a positive attitude towards, and interest in, the learning of English. This will have an obvious impact not only on the ability and proficiency of the students, but also on the ability and proficiency of the teachers to deliver the new requirements. The Chinese Ministry of Education has attempted to support the reform by the provision of teaching and assessment guidelines and the production of textbooks designed with the new curriculum in mind. However, as Qiang states, the key to effective change lies with the teachers and with their training, due to the fact that the reform expects ‘primary school teachers to change in many aspects’: First, they are expected to change their views about language teaching from a knowledge-based one to an ability-based one. Second, they are expected to change their role from that of a knowledge transmitter to a multi-role educator aiming for the whole child development. Thirdly, teachers are expected to use a more activity-based approach and make the students the center of learning. Fourthly, teachers are expected to change their way of assessing pupils’ achievement in learning the language . . . [Lastly] teachers are expected to use modern technology in teaching. (Qiang, 2002: 104)



The performance description for ‘Listen and Do’ includes

It is therefore not simply a matter of ability and knowledge as far as the teachers are concerned. A shift in methodology will result in a confrontation of attitudes, and also, as Li illustrates, when discussing the Communicative English for Chinese Learners (CECL) project, the aim of which was to develop a new set of ‘English as Foreign Language’ (EFL) materials for students majoring in English in universities and colleges in China, the re-evaluation of roles: The teacher’s role in a communicative class is completely different from that in any other type of class. In China, the tradition of the teacher occupying the centre in the classroom is still very much alive, and teachers on our project naturally feel a bit uprooted when they are removed from that position. (Li, 1984: 9) Ye and Zhong (1998) point out that if ELT at school level lacks efficiency and consistency, particularly in rural and inland areas, most of the problems in ELT will then tend to be revealed when the students move on to higher education, which makes the teaching of English at university and college level a particular challenge. 6.2.3 English language teaching in higher education institutions Chinese university teaching is different to that in British higher education. Class discussion and questioning the teacher are rare and often discouraged. Exams are very important; group-based activities and course-work hardly feature. Memorising and regurgitating texts matter a lot; use of other source material and critical thinking skills, especially at undergraduate level, are minimal. (The Economist, 2003: 3–4) In 1985 the Central Committee of the Communist Party passed a number of educational reforms. Lewin et al. (1994: 122–123 cited in Hare and Thomas, 2002: 195) provide an outline of the aims of the reforms for higher education. They were to • • • •

Eliminate excessive government control over institutions; Reform enrolment procedures and job assignments for graduates; Introduce incentives for graduates to remain in teaching; Strengthen previous weak areas of study such as finance, economics, law and management; and • Reform curricula and teaching methods.





The centralised planning system had proved to be cumbersome, enrolment procedures had been only partially reformed due to the recession of the early 1990s and the aftermath of the Tiananman Square events of 1989, reforms in the curriculum had been at best cosmetic and teaching methods had remained static. (Hare and Thomas, 2002: 195) Discussion over the reform of the ELT curriculum at tertiary level in China has centred upon syllabus design, examinations, teaching methods and materials (Ma, 1999; Kevin, 2000; Li and Yan, 2000). There are two groups of students taking English at universities in China. The first, smaller, group are English majors in English departments and the larger group are non-English majors in other departments, such as Science and Engineering. College English (a number of lecturers and professors taking part in the training programme described later in this chapter teach this subject) is the provision of English to the latter group, the non-English majors. As with the development of general English language provision in China, presented previously, ELT in higher education started at the beginning of the 20th century. At this time the focus was on translation and literature, the goal of the courses being to provide future translators and teachers of English in secondary and tertiary education (Qin and Wu, 1999). Since the initiation of the period of reform and modernisation, there have been a number of developments in the university-level syllabus which illustrate a change in aim and focus, as shown in Table 6.2. As shown in the factors affecting educational change and curriculum change in ELT (see Figure 3.3), any proposed changes to a curriculum must receive support from the materials produced and used by the teachers. 6.2.4 Resourcing There are a wide range of textbooks available to Chinese universities to assist in the delivery of their courses. One of the most popular texts to be used in the teaching of College English is the College English textbook series, compiled by six leading Chinese universities, including Beijing



Although there are those that have suggested that significant, positive changes have been made as a result of the reforms (Yin and White, 1994: Mok, 1997), Lewin et al. (1994: 143–145) consider their impact to be minimal, as Hare and Thomas explain:

126 Measuring Change Main developments in College English and English Major syllabuses

College English

English Major

1980 syllabus: emphasis on grammar, reading and translation skills

1990 syllabus: clearly states the level of English required and the finishing level of proficiency that should be attained; focuses on reading, writing, translation and thesis writing, with elective subjects such as English and American Literature, Linguistics, Grammar, Phonetics, Stylistics and basic computing; promotes the development of students’ cultural knowledge and communicative competence.

1985 syllabus: focuses on communication for professional purposes; emphasises accuracy and fluency; introduces various language skills, for example, reading skills, such as skimming and scanning; introduces a national standardised English test, the College English Test; is predominantly teacher-centred. Problems: narrow focus; emphasis on passive skills; low targets; lack of supporting material

Problems: dominated by translation, linguistics and literature

1999 syllabus: focuses on communication and authentic situations; introduces higher targets; emphasises speaking and writing; is predominantly student-centred

2000 syllabus: encourages multidisciplinary courses, including foreign affairs, education, culture and technology.

University (Dong, 1998). The series includes textbooks focusing on intensive and extensive reading and listening. In line with the new syllabus, the series has been produced with the aim of improving the communicative ability of the students in quasi-authentic settings (Xia, 1999). They have also been important in the overall development of ELT in Chinese universities as Li states: Written in accordance with the College English Syllabus (revised edition), the new series, extracting rich experiences from the traditional way of foreign language teaching and textbook writing in China while absorbing the latest developments of the theory and practice of foreign language teaching abroad, aims at blazing a new trail and contributing to the reform of the TEFL in China. (Li, 2001: 2) The most popular core course book for English majors is A New English Course, originating from Shanghai International Studies University.



Table 6.2

This course, according to Cortazzi and Jin (1996: 67), aims to ‘integrate more communicative approaches with the more traditional Chinese methods’. Importantly, therefore, it attempts to take into account the context in which the teaching will be taking place, and adapt what is essentially a Western construct to the Chinese environment. However, the continued presence and strength of the national English tests have hindered some developments, largely due to the fact that they continue to test linguistic competence (Li, 1984). As with the impact of the UEE in Japan, it may be argued that without a change in these tests, change elsewhere within the curriculum will be difficult to achieve. The National English Oral Test for English Majors may go some way towards solving this problem, although as with all attempts at national reform, it is likely to take some time. The shift in focus at tertiary level, in the teaching of the College English course as well as the English majors, from a traditional teacher-centred approach to a student-centred communicative approach obviously has implications for the role of the teacher. Added to this there has been the suggested move, presented by the China Education and Research Network (CERNET) (2001a), to deliver between 10 and 20 per cent ‘of the major courses at local colleges and universities in English, including information technology, bio-technology, finance and law’. Eleven million university students in China: Will use textbooks written in the English language within three years, sources told a work conference held in October in Hefei, capital of east China’s Anhui Province. The Ministry of Education requires Chinese universities under its direct administration to use English textbooks in teaching the English language, information technology, biology, finance and law. (CERNET, 2001a) This, therefore, has implications not only for English and English language teachers, who may have received some training in ELT, but all lecturers and professors in the university sector. The British Council has pointed to the need to increase teacher training at tertiary level in particular. Hitherto, the British Council (1995: 20) states, the lack of training in both language competence and communicative language-teaching methodology has ‘inhibited the development of a broader constituency of user’. Any attempt to change the curriculum must not only take into account the role of the teacher, but support the teacher both in terms of material provision and training.





6.3 In-service training in China

The Ministry of Education expects that educational departments at all levels be energetic and committed to taking effective measures to train primary school English teachers. Both pre-service and in-service courses are being developed to prepare and train primary school teachers. (Qiang, 2002: 102) China has experienced dramatic upheavals in its historical development, and these have naturally had an impact on the education system and the teaching of English. They have also had an impact on teacher education and training. Teacher training in China, as in many countries, is widespread and varied, which is understandable in a country of its size and diversity. In general, the training comprises two parts: pre-service or initial teacher training, and in-service training or continued professional development. Pre-service training is conducted chiefly in four-year teacher training institutions, such as universities and colleges, threeyear teacher training colleges and secondary teacher training schools. In-service teacher training is conducted by education institutes, universities, and teacher training schools, for teachers of secondary and primary schools, and in addition either internally or overseas at tertiary level. There are also distance education programmes, evening schools, television programmes and examinations for those taking part in self-study. According to the State Council: Educating and training a relatively stable contingent of teachers of varying ages who have sound political integrity and professional competence is the key to the reform and development of education. Governments at all levels must increase investment in this field to offer more training and encourage outstanding secondary school graduates to take the examinations to enter teacher education institutions. (State Council, 1993: 18–19) The Chinese government acknowledged the importance of quality teacher education in its passing of the Teacher Law, in 1993, and the Education Law in 1995. These were the first laws to be passed which directly placed teacher preparation into the national legal system. They



6.3.1 Background

set the standards for recruiting teachers and the qualifications that trainee teachers must obtain before taking up their positions in schools. Primary teachers, for example, are required to hold a certificate from a teachers’ school; junior secondary teachers must obtain a college diploma; senior secondary teachers must have a bachelor’s degree or the equivalent; and university teachers need a master’s degree. In 1998 there were 875 regular secondary colleges of teacher training in China providing training for primary teachers, with nearly one million enrolments. These colleges enrol graduates from junior secondary schools, and offer either three- or four-year programmes. These programmes include compulsory courses such as political education, psychology and history, optional courses, teaching practice and extra-curricular activities. One criticism that has been levelled at these programmes is their traditional teaching methods and over-emphasis on lectures (Liu, 2001: 1). Yan (1994: 5) suggests that action needs to be taken to: • Increase investment in teacher education so that educational conditions can be constantly improved; • Upgrade the status and treatment of teachers; • Improve the life and work conditions of teacher education institutions and adhere to the principle that students in these institutions are free of their tuition fees; and • Attract more attention to teacher education. In 1996 the State Education Commission held a large-scale conference on teacher education and proposed that as the new century approached, teacher education should aim to: Implement the all-round national policies on education, adhere to the socialist principle of education, enhance all reforms in teacher education and improve its quality and effectiveness; promote the overall standards for teacher education, meet the demands for teachers both in quality and quantity; Build up a teacher education system with Chinese socialist characters which embodies the ideology of life-long education, and gradually modernise teacher education. (State Education Commission, 1996: 3) In 1990, teaching as a profession was a low priority for the majority of Chinese school leavers (Paine, 1990). However, due to a concerted effort by




the government to raise the profile and standards of teaching, and ‘attract more attention to teacher education’ via conferences such as the one held in 1996, and more generally through China’s reform of the marketeconomy and socio-political developments, there has been a shift in values and attitudes (National Centre for Education Development Research, 2000). This has also had the result of encouraging students once in further education to remain there and complete higher degrees, and ultimately pursue a career of teaching at tertiary level, as CERNET demonstrates: The proportion of PhDs and masters to be selected and retained in HEIs (Higher Education Institutions) has been increased and the degree structure of teachers has been adjusted. The percentage of full time teachers with doctoral or master’s degrees has increased from 18.04% in 1991 to 27.78% in 1998. (CERNET, 2001a: Higher Education in China IV) Although the State Education Commission have stipulated that university teachers should have a master’s degree, this degree may not contain the pedagogical elements found on primary and secondary teacher courses. In addition, due to the high and increasing demand for College English teachers, many universities will employ English major graduates to cover these courses as well as postgraduates. These teachers will have received a basic grounding in education, but will have had little, if any, training in theoretical developments in ELT or language teaching practice. In order to achieve the demands of the current revision, this puts even greater emphasis on the importance of INSET. Project 211 (CERNET, 2001b: see Appendix 3) is a Chinese government project which aims to strengthen institutions of higher education across China. Its primary objective is to train high-level members of the tertiary community, encouraging and ‘accelerating the national economic progress, pushing forward the development of science, technology and culture, and enhancing China’s overall capacity and international competitiveness’. According to CERNET the Chinese government: Attaches great importance to the international co-operation and exchanges of higher education. Since the reform and opening up to the outside world in 1978, international co-operation and exchanges of higher education have become more and more active and achieved fruitful results. (CERNET, 2001a: Higher Education in China VI)





6.3.2 The China University of Mining and Technology programme 6.3.2.1 Aims and objectives Universities have the power to manage their institutional affairs, including the right to appoint personnel, develop degree programmes, set up commercial enterprises and establish links with domestic and foreign industry and business. At the same time all activities must be in the interests of the country at large as defined by the government. (Hare and Thomas, 2002: 196) The link between the University of Birmingham and the China University of Mining and Technology (CUMT) began in 2003. CUMT is a national university located in Xuzhou, Jiangsu Province, half-way between Beijing and Shanghai. It is one of the key universities under the direct administration of the Chinese Ministry of Education and is one of the first institutions of higher education in China listed for the nation’s Project 211. The university was originally established in 1909, and has undergone tremendous expansion since the early 1980s with an enrolment in excess of 20,000 at the time of writing. There is an emphasis on Mining Technology, but there are also programmes in Civil and Mechanical Engineering, Computer Science, Mathematics, Information Technology and Geology. In addition, there are programmes in the Humanities, including English Literature and English Language. CUMT maintains international co-operative relations with over 50 universities and colleges around the world. The University of Birmingham established a university agreement with CUMT in 2003. Birmingham was founded in 1900, and at the time of writing had in excess of 25,000 students undertaking academic study in all the major disciplines. Birmingham also hosts one of the largest populations of international students in the UK. The English for International Students Unit (EISU) provides programmes in English for Academic Purposes (EAP) for students coming to, or already attending, the university, as well as programmes in Business and Management English, General English and teacher education courses. The main aims of EISU are:



In the past twenty years there have been educational links and exchanges set up between China and over 150 countries and areas. One example of ‘international co-operation’ between higher education institutions takes place between the University of Birmingham in the United Kingdom, and the China University of Mining and Technology.

• to provide English language and study skills support for international students currently pursuing programmes of study at the University; • to prepare international students socially, academically and linguistically for successful entry onto foundation years and undergraduate/ postgraduate programs of study at the University; • to provide diagnostic English language testing for all international students entering the University; and • to disseminate accounts of innovations in teaching English. The main objectives of EISU are: • to provide a range of in-sessional classes related to the development of English language and academic study skills; • to provide 20-, 15-, 10- and 6-week multi-disciplinary pre-sessional courses and Business Management English for international undergraduate and postgraduate students of the University; • to provide programmes in Executive English and training in Communication Skills and General English; and, • to provide tailor-made training courses for international teachers of English language. The 4-week intensive course for language and literature staff from CUMT aims to: 1. refresh and enhance the English language skills of the lecturers and professors involved; 2. update the participants on recent developments in ELT methodology; 3. broaden the participants’ knowledge of contemporary British culture and society and contemporary English and American literature; and, 4. develop their own research and study interests through the examination of a range of issues and topics in English language education. In 2003, 17 lecturers, associate professors and professors took part in the programme. The details of these participants will be given shortly. 6.3.2.2 Programme content There are four major course components in the CUMT programme: 1. Introduction to British Culture [weeks 1 and 2] 2. Contemporary Language Teaching Methodology [weeks 1 and 2]





‘Introduction to British Culture’ provides basic background information on the geography, history and politics of the UK. It examines issues relating to contemporary society and life in the UK and provides preparation for the contemporary literature component. The aim of ‘Contemporary Language Teaching Methodology’ is to provide an introduction to the theory and practice of contemporary language teaching. As well as giving an overview of some of the major issues in the field, a number of specific topics are covered which are of particular relevance to the teaching situation of the course participants. These topics include Learner Autonomy, a key area in the new curricula being proposed in Chinese tertiary education; Testing in English language teaching; Communicative Approaches to ELT; and the use and adaptation of textbooks. Each component and each topic has a series of learning outcomes. The learning outcomes for Learner Autonomy, for example, are • • • • • • • •

Explain what is meant by learner autonomy Identify autonomous language learners Devise ways of fostering learner autonomy Identify different language-learning strategies Provoke strategy use through your choice of teaching activities Recognise your own preferred language-learning styles Recognise different learning channels, learning styles and cognitive styles Explain how they relate to language-learning strategies and learner autonomy • Develop language-learning activities that accommodate different learning styles. ‘Applications of Corpus Linguistics’ introduces participants to a variety of ways of using language corpora in their teaching, and the ‘Introduction to Modern Literature’ develops ways in which current methodologies can be adapted to suit the subject teaching of literature for the CUMT lecturers. The sessions, as with the majority of sessions on the programme, are designed not to be delivered solely as lectures but as interactive seminars, giving the participants the opportunity to reflect on their own practice and to discuss these issues in terms of their own teaching situations. An example of the timetable for the contemporary language-teaching methodology component for week 1 is given in Table 6.3.



3. Applications of Corpus Linguistics for Language Teaching [weeks 3 and 4] 4. Introduction to Modern English Literature [weeks 3 and 4].


9:30–11:00 11:30–1:00 2:00–4:00

CUMT example timetable, week 1 (extract) Tuesday

Thursday

(British culture) History of ELT Learner autonomy

Translation in the classroom (British culture) Traditional and contemporary approaches to Linguistics and ELT

In addition to these components, participants have an opportunity to observe EAP classes on the multi-disciplinary pre-sessional programme, and work with some of the university students themselves, thereby practising some of the techniques they discuss in their methodology sessions. They also participate in an extensive social programme. Participants also have a series of special sessions on Metaphor, English as a Global Language, Pronunciation and the Management of Innovation and Change in English Language Teaching.

6.4 Evaluating change on the CUMT programme 6.4.1 Data collection procedure The CUMT programme is a 4-week programme. During the first morning the participants take part in an interactive seminar designed to give them the opportunity to discuss the concept of change. The session covers • Types of change and change strategies; • Models of change: such as systemic change and interpersonal change (see Chapter 4); and • Impact areas on the process of change: such as attitudes and beliefs, practical constraints, culture and training. The participants are given a number of activities to carry out during the morning, as shown in the following section. These activities focus on the practical application of the theories of change both in the Chinese context, for the participants in their CUMT teaching context, and the British context, as they directly confront various issues of change themselves during their intensive programme. They discuss their definitions of change and how they think they might change, in terms of attitudes and practice, during their stay, and also



Table 6.3

how they may continue to change once they return to China. Powercoercive, rational-empirical and normative-re-educative strategies are discussed with the participants providing examples of each, and their positive and negative aspects, individually and then in pairs and groups. Finally, a series of statements are presented which summarise the areas covered during the morning. Participants are also encouraged to keep a diary of change (see Section 5.4) during their stay. A follow-up seminar takes place at the end of the programme during which a discussion of any observed changes takes place. The statements are also revisited.

6.4.2 Data collection tools 6.4.2.1 CUMT Activity Sheet 1 Section One: Background 1. Name ——————————— 2. Gender Male/Female 3. Position Lecturer/Associate Professor/Professor 4. Courses taught ——————————— Section Two: Change session activities Activity 1: What is change? Activity 2: Examples of change Consider for a while any changes with which you may have been involved in education. You may have initiated change yourself, or you may have had it imposed upon you. Under the headings below write down any changes you have been involved in. National

Institutional

Classroom

Activity 3: Change Strategies In-service teacher development programmes represent an attempt to implement some form of change. Chin and Benne (1969) suggest three main strategies of change: 1. power-coercive strategies 2. rational-empirical strategies 3. normative-re-educative strategies. Under the headings below write down any changes that you have been involved in relating to the strategy areas.





Strategies

Description

Positive aspects

Negative aspects

Activity 4: Changes in attitudes and practice 1. In what ways do you think you will change living and studying in the UK? Activity 5: Change statements Here are a series of statements. Please tick if you agree (A), partly agree (PA), partly disagree (PD) or disagree (D) . A PA PD D 1. Meaningful change must involve a change in beliefs and attitudes. 2. You cannot really change other people; people can only change themselves. 3. People are rational. 4. Examinations determine what is taught in the classroom. Without a change in examinations, teaching practice will not change. 5. Change which fails to take into account the culture of a society is bound to fail. 6. Change is a positive, beneficial experience. 7. Change that is forced upon people is unlikely to succeed. 8. Teacher development and support is a crucial part of educational change. 9. Nation-wide curriculum change must be a top-down process. 10. Teachers who lack confidence will be less willing to implement change in the classroom. 6.4.2.2 CUMT Activity Sheet 2 Activity 1: Changes in attitudes and practice 1. In what ways do you think your attitudes have changed during (and will/may change following) this course?



Power-coercive Rational-empirical Normative-re-educative


Activity 2: Change statements Here are a series of statements. Please tick if you agree (A), partly agree (PA), partly disagree (PD) or disagree (D). A PA PD D 1. Meaningful change must involve a change in beliefs and attitudes. 2. You cannot really change other people; people can only change themselves. 3. People are rational. 4. Examinations determine what is taught in the classroom. Without a change in examinations, teaching practice will not change. 5. Change which fails to take into account the culture of a society is bound to fail. 6. Change is a positive, beneficial experience. 7. Change that is forced upon people is unlikely to succeed. 8. Teacher development and support is a crucial part of educational change. 9. Nation-wide curriculum change must be a top-down process. 10. Teachers who lack confidence will be less willing to implement change in the classroom. 6.4.3 Programme participants There were 17 participants on the 2003 CUMT programme, and 13 took part in the current study. All were experienced lecturers of English language and literature. Eleven participants were female. These included 6 associate professors and 5 lecturers. The courses they taught are shown in Figure 6.1. The two male participants, one professor and one associate professor, both taught Translation, with the professor adding Interpretation and Stylistics and the associate professor, College English. In general, the lecturers focus on the College English course, Applied Linguistics and Learning Skills, with the associate professors covering a number of the option courses, such as Media English and English for Specific Purposes (ESP).



2. In what ways do you think your practices have changed during (and will/may change following) this course?


2 3

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Courses taught (by female lecturers and associate professors).

6.4.4 Research findings 6.4.4.1 CUMT Sheet 1: Activity 1: What is change? Chapter 1 considered the question, What is change? and determined eight principles of change. These were that change: • • • • • • •

involves the statement of an aim (Principle 1); is problem-solving (Principle 2); is client-user focused (Principle 3); involves a variety of actors (Principle 4); is part of a complex system (Principle 5); is part of a social and economic context (Principle 6); evokes a variety of emotions and involves attitudes and beliefs (Principle 7); and • is a process and involves training, practice and time (Principle 8). The first activity for the participants to perform, before any discussion had taken place, was to write their definitions of change. The responses reinforce the complexity of change (Principle 4) and range from statements that focus on transition, to those that attempt to outline that complexity, and, as discussed in Chapter 1 and also in Chapter 5 with recourse to MA TEFL/TESL students, the paradoxical nature of change. This was also reflected in the participants’ response to Activity 5 Statement 6, as shown in Figure 6.2: • Change is a phenomenon, physical or mental, which is different from the original one and may be conscious or unconscious. (#2)



3


5

5

4

4 3

3

2 1

1 0 Agree

Figure 6.2

Partly agree

Partly disagree

Disagree

CUMT responses: Change is a positive, beneficial experience.

• Change is a process of transition from one stage to another. For example, a child grows into an adult and then an old person. Or change involves mental and psychological processes, for instance, a cultural shock will be followed by assimilation and acceptance. (#5) The importance and impact of values and attitudes (Principle 7) are highlighted, as well as the influence of culture (Figure 6.3) and social custom, and crucially the notion that change should be viewed as a process is stressed: • Change is a general term, indicating something different from your traditional or original concepts including values, social custom, conventions, politics, laws and any other aspect in your life and society. (#8) • It is a process of shifting from what people have been used to. It can be slow or immediate, as well as it can be superficial or radical. It can be good or bad. (#11) The complete set of responses given by the CUMT lecturers can be found in Table 6.4. 6.4.4.2 CUMT Sheet 1: Activity 2: Examples of change After discussing the definitions of change, participants were encouraged to think of some concrete examples. The examples given by participants fell into two categories: 1. Administrative change, and 2. Technological change (Kennedy, 1996)



Number of participants

6

140

8

8 7 6 5

4

4 3 2

1

1 0

0 Agree

Partly agree

Partly disagree

Disagree

Figure 6.3 CUMT responses: Change which fails to take into account the culture of a society is bound to fail.

Table 6.4 # 1 2 3 4 5

6 7 8

9 10 11

12 13

CUMT responses to Activity 1: What is change?

What is change? Change means having something different. Change is a phenomenon, physical or mental, which is different from the original one and may be conscious or unconscious. Something that is different from what it used to be, the process is change. Change is something new or different you encounter in life which you like to experience or which others impose on you. Change is a process of transition from one stage to another. For example, a child grows into an adult and then an old person. Or change involves mental and psychological processes, for instance, a cultural shock will be followed by assimilation and acceptance. We live in a universe that always changes. New stars are born and sensations change as well as seasons. Some changes are welcome. I think change is something different from that at present. It includes two aspects; one is material, the other is spiritual. Change is a different experience physically or mentally. Change is a general term indicating something different from your traditional or original concepts including values, social custom, conventions, politics, laws and any other aspect in your life and society. Change is more likely to happen when meeting new things. Change is a process of transition. It is a process of shifting from what people have been used to. It can be slow or immediate as well as it can be superficial or radical. It can be good or bad. Actually everything is changing all the time. Change is anything that is different from what one experienced before. Change is everywhere around you. Some are significant, and some trifle, but influence you significantly in your life.




9

With regard to administrative change at the national level, three participants pointed to the new curriculum proposals, two referred to the changes taking place in the educational management structure as a result of the move from the Coal Industry to the National Educational Ministry, but the most popular example was the result of the change in the testing procedures. This illustrates the importance and impact that examination procedures (see Chapter 4: Model of Change: Impact Area 2) can have on changes in the curriculum: • Requirements of students to pass examinations to get diploma. (#7) • Adding some exams on speaking and writing skills. (#2) The influence of examinations was reinforced in the CUMT teachers’ responses to Statement 4 of Activity 5, as shown in Figure 6.4. At the institutional level, participants focused on changes in teaching methods. They also highlighted the benefits that had been achieved recently in the production of new textbooks, and particularly in terms of teaching conditions and remuneration: • More students’ communicative ability. (#4) • Traditional teaching method into communicative or integrated method. (#6) • University teachers receive better. (#10)


7 6

6

5 4

4

3

3 2 1 0 Agree

Partly agree

Partly disagree

Disagree

Figure 6.4 CUMT responses: Examinations determine what is taught in the classroom. Without a change in examinations, teaching practice will not change.





• More communicative activities, less lectures. More on students’ participation, less note-taking and rote-learning. (#3) • Class has become more interactive and more communicative. Students are more active. Classes have become bigger and bigger. (#7) • Inspiration instead of mere lecturing. Communicative interaction – advocated but not easily implemented. (#9) A number of students pointed to the growing problem of another practical constraint, class size [Impact Area: 2], with ‘more than 100 students from different departments’ (CUMT #11) in one class. Various technological changes have been proposed at the national and institutional level to help alleviate this problem: • Modern educational technologies and facilities are being introduced such as CAI. (#10) • Applying more advanced educational technology; multi-media equipment. (#8) The teachers obviously have to be trained to use the new materials and, according to the CUMT participants, this is taking place. In addition, teachers have to pass an exam to prove that they are able to use the new technology: • Intensive training of teachers across campus on how to use multi-media resources. (#5) • College teachers must pass certain exams to show their ability to use modern teaching equipment. (#7) However, these new developments, and the subsequent training (Principle 8), would appear not always to be effective, as CUMT #3 suggests: I don’t have the opportunity to use computers and multi-media because of the class size and shortage of such facilities. It would appear, therefore, that although the Chinese lecturers acknowledge that there are a number of changes being proposed, and taking place, at university level in China in terms of teaching methodology and practice and the working conditions of the institutions, there are



The shift from traditional to communicative language-teaching approaches dominated the responses to classroom changes, and there were also concerns expressed, as the following illustrate:

also a number of obstacles in the path of successful implementation. These include the ever-increasing class size, particularly for the College English courses, the continued reliance on examinations, the presence of new materials and the subsequent need for more effective teacher training. These were all areas stressed as important in the discussion of factors affecting educational change in Chapter 2 (see Figure 2.4) and curriculum change (see Figure 3.3) in Chapter 3. 6.4.4.3 CUMT Sheet 1: Activity 3: Change strategies Activity 3 gave the teachers the opportunity to reflect upon the ways in which any educational changes have been introduced to them. In terms of power-coercive strategies, teachers referred to national curriculum change, the newly published textbooks and the university stipulation that all lecturers should produce at least ‘one paper about teaching’ (CUMT #1) every term. Although the teachers did suggest that there were potentially several negative associations with the power-coercive approach, such as a hostile response to force (Figure 6.5), the ignoring of ‘individual needs’ (CUMT #5), the ‘lack of motivation’ (#3) for new ideas, and the assumption that the recipient is ‘totally passive’ (#12), they did also put forward various positive aspects. These positive aspects echo those presented in Chapter 2 (see Table 2.1) and included the apparent ease of implementation and operation, the standardisation and uniformity of content, and the time- and energy-saving possibilities. Teachers also concurred that nation-wide curriculum change invariably has to be top-down and power-coercive, as top-down initiatives often are, as illustrated in the response to Statement 9 (Figure 6.6). They also, however, pointed to the fact that aspects of nation-wide curriculum


9

8

8 7 6 5

4

4 3 2

1

1 0 Agree Figure 6.5 succeed.

Partly agree

Partly disagree

Disagree

CUMT responses: Change that is forced upon people is unlikely to





6

6

6 5 4 3 2

1

1 0 Agree

Partly agree

Partly disagree

Disagree

Figure 6.6 CUMT responses: Nation-wide curriculum change must be a top-down process.

change often employ the rational-empirical strategy – a strategy usually received more positively by those having the change imposed upon them, but also have a number of failings, such as the difficulty in co-ordinating effective dissemination and the assumption that the recipient will be relatively passive and rational. In their responses to Statement 3, people are rational, four participants did not agree, and a further six only partially agreed. CUMT lecturers were, in general, most positive in their reaction to the third and final strategy, the normative-re-educative. They considered the application of this approach would achieve ‘better results’ (CUMT #7), allow ‘students to become the driving force in their learning’ (#5), and encourage ‘real change’ (#12). A summary of CUMT students’ statements about the positive and negative aspects of the three main change strategies can be found in Table 6.5. 6.4.4.4

CUMT Sheet 1: Activity 4: Changes in attitudes and practice

There were two main areas of response to the question, In what ways do you think you will change living and studying in the UK?: personal and professional. Personal aspects included practical changes such as acclimatisation, adaptation to a ‘new environment’ (CUMT #7), eating habits and food in general, and the changing of attitudes, particularly with regard to the British people and the British way of life: • I hope to improve myself. (#1) • Immerse myself in English culture. Some change in thinking way. (#2)




7

Evaluating Change with Chinese Lecturers of English 145 CUMT responses: Positive and negative aspects of change strategies

Strategies

Positive aspects

Negative aspects

Power-coercive

• •

New ideas and methods More rational and efficient Easier to carry out Unified criteria Easy to supervise Time and energy saving Uniformity of teaching and administration Can improve ability

• • •

More discussion Immediate response Encourages self-teaching More democratic Reasonable and respectful Motivating and arouses interest in learning

• •

Active and non-passive Self-activating and better results Encourages real change Students become the driving force in their learning More leeway

•

• • • • • •

Rational-empirical

• • • • • •

Normative-re-educative • • • •

•

• • • •

• • •

• • • •

Out of your power Lack of knowledge Assumes a passive recipient Creates hostility Ignores the individual Inhibits teacher creativity Encourages a lack of motivation, interest and enthusiasm Operational problems Assumes a relatively passive recipient Takes time Creativity will be controlled Difficult to co-ordinate Difficult to change beliefs Takes a long time Mistakes may be made Hard to supervise Hard to censor

• I hope I can have a lot of contact with local people from all walks of life to learn their culture from first hand experience. (#5) • I will do my best to adapt to living in the UK. I want to learn some of the latest developments in ELT and at the same time to experience the British culture and life. (#6) Attitude change, extremely important for ‘meaningful’ change to come about according to the teachers (Figure 6.7), also occurred in the responses with a professional focus. These included attitudes towards different



Table 6.5

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0

9

4

Agree

Partly agree

Partly disagree

Disagree

Figure 6.7 CUMT responses: Meaningful change must involve a change in beliefs and attitudes.

types of ELT methodologies and practice and materials. With regard to teaching methodology, practical information and advice, classroom observations and interactions with students were stressed: • Research methods and teaching methodology. I hope to be instructed on how to use corpus data to do research which is related to language teaching. (#3) • I want to get to know more information about English culture and to communicate with some lecturers about topics in the field of teaching methodology, linguistics and corpus. I want to enrich my knowledge about literature, enlighten my knowledge in Applied Linguistics and improve my English both listening to native speakers and communicating with them. (#8) • I want to get something new and especially learn how to deal with changes. What can change bring to us. I want to face changes more positively. (#11) Although the course is only 4 weeks long, most teachers were very positive that changes would occur. They had, as one lecturer stated, ‘great expectations’ (CUMT #5). 6.4.4.5

CUMT Sheet 2: Activity 1: Changes in attitudes and practice

Attitude change formed a large part of the CUMT lecturers’ expectations of the programme. According to one CUMT lecturer, ‘a few weeks’





course is too short a time to bring changes to a person’s attitude’ (CUMT #9), a point raised by Fullan in potential reasons for failure of INSET courses. This was not, however, an opinion shared by all the participants, as illustrated in Table 6.6. In addition, the programme was designed to be part of a ‘larger integral scheme’ (Fullan, 1979: 3), thereby encouraging the lecturers to be involved in change beyond the 4-week period. There were a number of areas in which participants considered their attitudes had changed, or were beginning to change. These included attitudes towards the British people and culture and various aspects of ELT. Those who had not been to the UK had expected to encounter British people who were ‘less friendly’ and ‘reserved’, Table 6.6 #

1 2 3 4

5

6

7 8

9 10 11

12 13

CUMT responses to Sheet 2: Activity 1: Changes in attitudes

In what ways do you think your attitudes have changed during (and will/may change following) this course? N/R Emphasis on the research. I am deeply impressed by the research of the teachers in your university. We knew from books that British people are reserved, but I found that most of you are humorous, open-minded, enthusiastic and friendly. You are more friendly than I expected. Classroom activities are freer. Attitudes towards students: should be more encouragement in my own classrooms. I should work hard in research work. I have become more open-minded and ready to take in new ideas. In the following years I will benefit from this change. I have observed and been moved by all the hospitality from the local people. I have also noticed quite a lot of areas which I am very weak and will change for the better in terms of learning. I changed my attitude to the British timetable. We have a very different timetable. We start working at 7.30 am and 2.30 pm. Now I am used to the British timetable. Look at things from a global point of view. Previous attitudes about British people. Classroom teaching methodology. The international students’ performance in class. The attitude towards religions. A few weeks’ course is too short a time to bring changes to a person’s attitude. N/R I will take a more positive attitude towards life and everything. One can adjust himself to fit the changing world and never just complain or wait for something to happen passively. My attitude towards English as a language. English has become more descriptive rather than prescriptive. My attitude towards English as a people. Change is not only physical but mental as well.





• We knew from books that British people are reserved, but I found that most of you are humorous, open-minded, enthusiastic and friendly. (#3) • You are more friendly than I expected. (#4) Lecturers also experienced being students themselves again, as well as interacting with the students on the university campus and in university classrooms. As a result they found their attitudes towards language teaching and learning had altered. Having learned about, as well as experienced, learner autonomy, for example, encouraged the teachers to ‘become more open-minded’ (#5) and also change their attitudes towards their own students (#4): • I have also noticed quite a lot of areas which I am very weak and will change for the better in terms of learning. (#5) • My attitude towards English as a language. English has become more descriptive rather than prescriptive. (#12) Following the programme, the teachers became firmer in their views on the importance of attitudes and beliefs in the promotion of ‘meaningful’ change, with 100 per cent in agreement with Statement 1. Statement 5, the impact of culture on change, also saw a shift in response, with all teachers now being in agreement. All teachers were also in agreement with the notion that change is a positive, beneficial experience (Statement 6). In terms of changes in practice, confidence [Model of Change: Impact Area 1] was an area mentioned by a number of participants, as seen in Table 6.7. Prior to the course, lecturers considered confidence to be an important factor in promoting a willingness to implement change in the classroom, as shown in Figure 6.8. By the end of the course, they were increasingly aware of its importance, with 11 out of the 13 being in full agreement with the statement that teachers who lack confidence will be less willing to implement change in the classroom. The remaining 2 lecturers retained the opinion they previously held, and partly agreed. A positive attitude is obviously a benefit when pursuing change. However, as will be discussed in more detail in Chapter 7, a teacher may have a positive attitude towards an act or issue, but be hampered by a severe lack of confidence, and change, as a result, would be unlikely to occur.



based upon the literature they had read. However, these opinions changed:

Evaluating Change with Chinese Lecturers of English 149 Table 6.7

1 2 3

4

5

6

7 8

9

10 11 12 13

In what ways do you think your practices have changed during (and will/may change following) this course? N/R To take more measures to arouse the interest of students in English. To be more concerned in analytical research. Corpus linguistics will open up a new leaf in my research, but I want more about corpus and its application to language teaching. Maybe I should not expect too much from this one-month course. More contact with British people in person and less worry about talking to native people. My confidence grows a bit. I have not only learned something new especially in the fields of corpus linguistics and modern literature, but also have got a deep impression of all the teachers’ kindness and help. I have accumulated a hoard of authentic materials useful for both linguistics and translation. I tend to be a very shy person, not very sociable. But during this stay I became more confident in myself and am brave enough to speak with local people, more fluent in my language skills. I think I will try and do some research besides teaching. As far as I know, almost all the teachers have their own research. Because teaching and research are equally important. Change is an important thing in our life and teaching. The courses are inspiring and set me thinking, make me more open-minded, more acceptable to different things. How to adapt myself to a complete new setting. How to present one’s ideas effectively and properly. How to communicate with native speakers. How to survive in a foreign country. I have got more knowledge of new areas like corpus linguistics. I know more theories of language teaching and thus become more determined to accept or refuse them. N/R Do more physical exercise. Try to practise more communicative language teaching in class. My daily routine and the course offered me some instructive classes in current research, teaching methodology and learner autonomy. Time arrangement; teaching methods; research methods. I got some information about recent research in my field.

Due to the nature of the programme, changes in actual teaching practice could not be observed. Nevertheless participants were on the whole positive about the likelihood of change on their return to China, with one willing to ‘try to practise more communicative language teaching in class’ (CUMT #11). Some attributed this to the introduction and



#

CUMT responses to Sheet 2: Activity 1: Changes in practice

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0

9

4

Agree

Partly agree

Partly disagree

Disagree

Figure 6.8 CUMT responses: Teachers who lack confidence will be less willing to implement change in the classroom.

development of new materials and others to the acquisition of new knowledge: • I have accumulated a hoard of authentic materials useful for both linguistics and translation. (#5) • I have got more knowledge of new areas like corpus linguistics. (#9) Change takes time. Changes in practice can take a relatively short time, at least initial changes in practice. Lasting change may take longer, or, in many instances, original habits and practices are returned to. To expect dramatic change to occur in either practice or attitudes at the end of a 4-week course is unrealistic, as two CUMT lecturers indicate: • Maybe I should not expect too much from this one-month course. (#3) • The period is too short. The schedule is very tight and there are so many things to explore and study that I simply cannot have time enough to absorb my new experience and new knowledge. (#5) However, the majority of CUMT lecturers believed they had changed in both areas by the end of the programme. More importantly they believed that they would continue to change on their return to China: • The courses are inspiring and set me thinking. (#7) • I will take a more positive attitude towards life and everything. (#11)






11

10 8 6 4 2 2 0 Agree

Partly agree

Partly disagree

Disagree

Figure 6.9 CUMT post-course responses: Teacher development and support is a crucial part of educational change.

The participants were also definite in their agreement that teachers need to be trained and supported in any curriculum development process (Figure 6.9) if any change is to be effected at all. The teachers do not have sole responsibility for the change. They are not to ‘blame’ if change does not occur. It is a complicated process and there are many factors, as we have seen in previous chapters, that will have an eventual bearing on the implementation of change, but the teacher is vital to that process, and so too is any education and support they receive.

6.5 Implications and recommendations A more detailed study is needed, including follow-up procedures and observations, such as those demonstrated in Chapter 7, before any firm conclusions can be offered as to the nature of the changes suggested during the CUMT programme. However, a number of implications and recommendations can be determined and made, following this small-scale research and the presentation of ELT and teacher education in China. 1. Consider the change strategies and implementation procedures employed. Initiators of change should be aware that change that is imposed on others, although not certain to fail, is likely to be poorly received, as the CUMT lecturers indicated in their response to Statement 7 (see Figure 6.5). Teachers appreciate that top-down measures invariably have to be used when implementing nation-wide change, but these measures do not have to employ the power-coercive approach to the




12


2. Consider the far-reaching implications of change. Teacher educators and curriculum developers must be aware that any attempts at change in one part of the education system will have an effect on the other parts. Therefore when proposing curriculum change at, for example, tertiary level, developments at the primary and secondary levels must be taken into account. 3. Develop appropriate teaching materials. If curriculum change is to be implemented effectively then it must be supported by simultaneous resource development. This may include the production of suitable teaching materials, such as textbooks. 4. Co-ordinate the development of assessment procedures alongside curriculum change. According to Li (1984: 12), ‘when students are given a test in English in China, it is often their ability to memorise words, formulae, and tests – not their ability to communicate – that is tested’. Suitable change strategies may be employed and appropriate teaching materials may be made available, but if there is no change in examination and assessment procedures then change will be, at best, extremely slow. 5. Provide suitable training courses. When attempting to implement any change at any level of the education system, support, in the form of resource provision and training, must be given to the teachers. There may be many kinds of support available, from short intensive courses, to long-term ongoing projects, but it must be made available to as many teachers as possible. No one course will be ideal for everyone, but curriculum developers must endeavour to provide the best they can. It is simply unfair to expect someone to be willing and able to change if they are not given the tools to do so.

6.6 Summary The Chinese government has a long-term goal to ‘enhance the cultural and educational quality of all the citizens and promote quality-oriented education’ (Qiang, 2002: 101). In order to achieve this it needs, according to Maley (1995: 47), ‘to bring large numbers of its people to high levels of proficiency in the use of English’. This chapter has set the current goal in its historical and educational context by providing an introduction to the main areas of development in ELT in China since its inception in



exclusion of other approaches. Teachers that are involved in the process are more inclined to have a positive response, and attitude, to the change than those who are not.

1862. It then focused on developments taking place at tertiary level, following a government proposal that the English language curriculum be reformed. It also looked at the support the reforms were receiving, in particular material design and INSET. The next section of the chapter reported the procedure and findings of a research project investigating the changes in attitudes and practice of Chinese lecturers of English language and literature taking part in an overseas intensive 4-week teacher education programme designed to support the innovations: the CUMT programme at the University of Birmingham. The research concluded that, although a more detailed study is needed, to include follow-up procedures and observations, there is an important place for such programmes in the teacher education sphere in China to assist in the achievement of its goals. ‘As China continues its educational reforms and many English teachers try to raise their standards, teacher training courses have become more popular’ (Liu, 2001: 1), and they have also become more important. There are many opportunities for tertiary-level English language teachers to take part in in-service training, both inside and outside China. There is no single programme that can cater for all these teachers, the demands are too varied and the numbers simply too huge. The CUMT programme at the University of Birmingham is under constant evaluation and revision. It strives to take into account the requirements of the CUMT, the needs of the individual lecturers themselves and the ever changing educational and social situations in China. This course is currently being developed and adapted to suit lecturers and professors from other faculties, such as science and engineering, who are now required to teach their subjects in English. Practice can change before attitudes, but to achieve any long-term alteration of classroom behaviour, change must, at some point, occur in beliefs. The lecturers of the CUMT have shown a willingness to change their attitudes, and a change in practice is destined to follow. But it is destined to follow only if the training and support is brought to the forefront. Teacher education, development and support are imperative if curriculum development and change is to occur and China is to achieve its long-term goal to enhance the ‘educational quality’ of its citizens. China is not alone in this goal. In January 2000 the Commission on Japan’s Goals in the 21st century, set up by the Japanese Prime Minister, produced its report. The focus of the report was on the need for Japan to reform politically, economically and educationally in order to have a greater chance of ‘realising its potential’ as a global power. In terms of educational reform, it was considered ‘necessary to overturn the excessive




homogeneity and uniformity that in the past have characterised Japan’ (Prime Minister’s Commission, 2000: 2). With regard to the teaching of English it was considered that the impact of making English the official second language in Japan would realise this vision. The need to increase the number of foreign language assistants was highlighted as was the local government’s responsibility to produce materials in both Japanese and English. Teacher support and development was not mentioned. In the light of these developments, the following chapter will present the most influential and radical curriculum change of the present decade in Japan and, through a series of detailed case studies, conclude that if Japan wishes ultimately to realise its goals, it must learn from this experience, pay attention to the principles of change and place greater emphasis on teacher education and continued professional development.




Evaluating Change with Japanese Teachers of English Teachers should have more time for training and refreshment. – Japanese Junior High School Teacher #1

7.1 Introductory comments Chapters 5 and 6 analysed the approaches to, and impact of, change, with reference to MA TEFL/TESL students and Chinese lecturers and professors of English. In this final chapter we turn to the Japanese context and investigate the process of change with Japanese junior and senior high school teachers of English. The chapter presents the procedure and findings of a series of case studies that took place with Japanese teachers of English participating in a one-year overseas in-service training programme sponsored by the Japanese Ministry of Education: the Japanese Secondary Teachers’ ( JST) programme. The JST programme was created in direct response to a curriculum reform which proposed a shift away from long-established grammar-translation curriculum practice towards teaching for communicative competence. It begins with an overview of the teaching of English, and teacher education and training in Japan (Lamie, 1998), and proceeds by describing and evaluating the JST programme. Through semi-structured interviews, questionnaires and observations, changes in attitudes and practices of the teachers involved are analysed. The findings highlight key impact areas in the process of change, introduced in Chapter 4, such as confidence, school culture, UEEs, textbooks and professional development. 155



7


7.2 English language teaching in Japan

The islands of Japan are separated from mainland Asia by the 110 miles of the Korean Strait. As early as the first century BC, Korean merchants were crossing the strait to trade in Japan. This trading link became stronger over the succeeding centuries. It was not only goods that traders brought with them, but also ideas, particularly from China and from religions centring on Buddhism, and they brought a means of writing down spoken language – a script. Until the sixth century, Japanese was a spoken language only, but the introduction of the ideographs of Chinese gave the nation a pathway to literacy and eventually to literature. The Japanese first encountered the English language when William Adams, an Englishman, landed in Kyushu, southern Japan, in 1600. However, it was to be as late as 1872, five years after the Meiji Restoration, that Japan started a national education system, which included foreign language education at secondary school. One major aspect of the society that intensified during the period of self-imposed isolation of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries was its hierarchical structure, a clear indicator of the persistent feudalism that informed Japan. The Japanese educational system is a highly centralised hierarchical one. The Japanese Ministry of Education, Science, Sports and Culture (Monbusho), established in 1871, the year before the national education system was introduced, has ‘the duty of promoting and disseminating education. It is responsible for carrying out government programs and services concerning education’ (Monbusho, 1995: 6). Decisions about curriculum content and design, about classroom resources, teacher training and, to a great extent, subject methodology rest entirely with Monbusho. The first Course of Study for English for JHS (students aged between 13 and 15) appeared in 1947. It advocated an integrated teaching of the four skills: reading, writing, speaking and listening. However, there was a wide gulf between what Monbusho had stated as requirements and what English teachers delivered in their classrooms (Schoppa, 1991), and due to the lack of a monitoring or quality assurance system to check that the Course of Study was taught in its entirety, the previous teaching situation continued. In 1951 the Revised Suggested Course of Study for English emphasised speaking and listening, and attempted to put the teaching of English into a cultural context. This, however, was only a suggested Course of Study and therefore had no legal status. In



7.2.1 Historical perspective

addition, the teachers received neither training nor resources for the proposed initiatives. This was to become a familiar trend. The Course of Study was revised again in 1958. The revised curriculum advocated the centralisation of power and laid down the content, methods and classroom resources. Part II, the individual grade objectives, was the most specific section of the course. It was here that Monbusho announced precisely what teachers were required to cover in each year. There was a breakdown for each grade year of the required phonology and pronunciation of English, sentence patterns and structures, grammatical forms, and writing skills, in particular handwriting. There was also a list of relevant vocabulary and phrases. The section on cultural matters demonstrated that Monbusho required the learning of English to be set into a clear context. Thus students were required to study the geography, history and literature of the English-speaking nations at the same time as learning the language. Once again, however, the absence of resourcing and training designed to promote the revision resulted in little change (Sato, 1998). The first significant restructuring exercise in the SHS (students aged between 16 and 18) English Course of Study came in 1973. The Course of Study formally acknowledged four separate English courses: Fundamental English, English Conversation, English A and English B. English was an elective subject in JHSs and it was theoretically possible for some students to enter SHSs with no experience of English. These students, therefore, would need to begin studying the language from its basics. However, as English was the only foreign language being offered, the need for the Fundamental English Course at SHS was non-existent. English Conversation was also rarely taught in conventional SHSs (Rohlen, 1983). English A was taught mostly in technical high schools, because it was a course designed for less academic students who had no wish to go on to university. English B was delivered to students intending to go on to higher education. Its content can perhaps most effectively be judged from the nature of the course materials. Prior to 1973 there were two basic textbooks in operation: a reader, for translation purposes, and a grammar and composition. The distribution of time gave 3 hours a week to the reader and 2 to the grammar and composition text. Grammar was perceived as a support element for composition, with the reader having independence. The 1973 revision turned the two-strand course into a three-strand course by raising the status of grammar. Students now had to use three textbooks: a reader, a composition and a grammar. In 1978 further administrative revision was made to the SHS Course of Study. Monbusho decided that SHS year-2 and -3 English courses



Evaluating Change with Japanese Teachers of English 157

should be reclassified to reflect their contents and not just their level. Consequently English B was divided into English I and English II. English I was a first year course of four lessons a week. It was taken by all students and its aim was to cover the material that had been passed on into SHSs by the adjustment to the JHS curriculum. English II was an integrated course which took students by the familiar route to more complex constructions and advanced reading, writing, and, if the requirements were followed, speaking and listening. In addition, there were choices to be made between the newly categorised additional courses English IIA, IIB and IIC. These concentrated on reading, writing and speaking respectively. The problem here was that unless schools were creative with their time-tabling, it was impossible for students to take up all the options available to them because there were not enough hours in the school week. The effect was that under this revised Course of Study, most SHS students spent less time studying English than they had previously. Through all these revisions, one thing remained constant: classroom teaching methodology. The only method to be in permanent use in Japanese high schools was the GT method (Ito, 1978). GT methodology is concerned with syntactic structures and their relevance to the processes of translation. It is a method which is more concerned with literacy than with oracy and is most specifically teaching about grammar rather than of grammar. Therefore, teachers spend more time talking about grammatical rules than they do in allowing the students to put these rules to any kind of use. Its aim is to enable students to translate efficiently: Grammar translation is a way of studying a language that approaches the language first through detailed analysis of its grammar rules, followed by application of this knowledge to the task of translating sentences and texts into and out of the target language. (Richards and Rodgers, 1986: 3) Students are encouraged to take English apart rather than put it together. The system teaches students the names of parts of speech, how a sentence is formed, relationships of clauses and a host of grammatical and lexical rules. It depends for its content on grammatical structures listed in the latest grade quota system of sentence patterns and syntactical points. Under the grade quota system, introduced along with the first post-war Course of Study in Japan, the English language was broken down into vocabulary, structures and orthographic rules which were graded for




complexity and ordered for priority. They were then allocated on a quota system to each grade of junior and senior high school. Teachers followed this aspect of the programme of study, because the process appeared to give the language a logical, hierarchical and handleable structure that in reality it does not have. In addition, it provided teachers with a convenient, accessible and easily testable system for teaching English. Students may become proficient in the recall and application of isolated structures in the written mode and, if they have enough experience in translating texts, in using their grammatical and structural knowledge. They may also become competent in the reading mode. However, they do not become proficient in using resourcefulness, flexibility and creativity in the processes of combining structures to receive and convey meaning in listening and speaking. These Japanese learners of English may have acquired a basic literacy and learned how to form sentences in English, but they have not achieved any sense of English as a living and vital language. A summary of the historical development of ELT is given in Table 7.1. Monbusho was aware that unless significant changes were made, speaking and listening skills in English would still be disregarded. Change was to come, in theory, in the NRCOS for English (Monbusho, 1989). 7.2.2 English teaching Japanese school children begin to study English in their first year at JHS, and the majority continue for a further three years. Compulsory schooling actually ends at 15, although over 90 per cent of school leavers go on to higher education at SHS. The courses at senior high school include general educational courses and specialised subject courses. Although other languages, such as French and German, may be offered at an SHS, the vast majority of students take English as their foreign-language option. As Monbusho (1994: 2) itself states, ‘English is taught to practically all students; the reason is that some knowledge of English is thought vital for Japanese people in one way or another [and furthermore that] each school makes it a required subject.’ It is also present in the UEE, and examinations play an important part in education in Japan. Monbusho lays down national curriculum standards for all school levels from kindergarten to upper secondary. Broad guidelines for the objectives and standard contents of each school subject are specified in the Course of Study, as we have already seen in the previous section. At a conference for Japanese teachers of English and native speaker language assistants in 1986, Monbusho acknowledged its failings with the teaching of English, and pointed to a number of factors which, in its




English educational reform from post-war Japan to 1987

Reform

Focus

Approach design

Procedure

Issues

Suggested Course of Study 1947

Grammar Composition Reading Writing Translation Exams

Grammar/ Translation Grade Quota System

Textbook driven JHS: general SHS: composition; grammar; reader

Lack of training and resources Avoidance of speaking and listening Elective

Revised Suggested Course of Study 1951–1958

Grammar Composition Four skills Translation Exams



Lack of training and resources Avoidance of speaking and listening Elective

Course of Study 1973




Lack of training and resources Elective Conversation omitted Focus on entrance examinations

Revised Course of Study 1978



Textbook driven JHS: general SHS: English I; English IIA, IIB, IIC

Lack of training and resources Elective Time constraints



160

Table 7.1


• • • • •

a lack of exposure to spoken English; a lack of confidence in communicating in English; large class sizes; difficult teaching materials; and adherence to traditional teaching methods.

To these could be added, although Monbusho did not: • an examination structure which values grammatical factual learning above spoken language knowledge and confidence. Monbusho also announced its own view of the basic principles that should lie at the heart of the teaching of English. These were to listen to as much authentic English as possible, to read as much living English as possible, to have as many chances to use English as possible, to extend a cultural background knowledge and to cultivate a sense of international citizenship. What is particularly important about them as principles is that English teaching is seen to have two main thrusts: the acquisition of the language itself, and developing knowledge of the cultures (because English is the mother tongue in a great many different cultures) which support it. The key terms in the language acquisition part of the proposition are ‘authentic’, ‘living’ and ‘use’; these aspects of English had never been afforded such importance before. In 1987, Monbusho proposed a curriculum innovation in the teaching of English in their high schools which embodied both the sets of factors and principles listed above. The proposal was for a shift away from long-established GT curriculum content and classroom practice towards spoken ‘communicative competence’; a shift from literacy to oracy, a shift from a fact/ memory-centred methodology towards something that approximated to a language-in-use theory. The official documentary outcome of the proposal was the NRCOS, which passed through the Japanese Parliament in March 1989. 7.2.3 New Revised Course of Study: Emphasis on oral communication In the 1989 NRCOS, the overall objectives for both junior and senior high school English courses are identical and make it clear that literacy



opinion, were preventing the teaching of English from being successful. These were


To develop students’ basic abilities to understand a foreign language and express themselves in it, to foster a positive attitude toward communicating in it, and to deepen interest in language and culture, cultivating basic international understanding. (Monbusho, 1989: 98) The Course of Study for SHS students (Table 7.2 and Appendix 4) is structurally much more complicated than that for junior high, though the philosophy underlying it is comparable. It is divided into seven subjects: English I, (4), English II (4), Aural/Oral Communication A (2), Aural/Oral Communication B (2), Aural/Oral Communication C (2), Reading (4) and Writing (4). The numbers in brackets represent the number of lessons per week, and students must take at least one of the three aural/oral courses during their three years at SHS. The overall objective for the whole SHS course is for students to be able to ‘express themselves’ in English and for teachers themselves to ‘heighten interest in language and culture, and to deepen international understanding’ (Monbusho, 1994: 4). As far as teachers are concerned, and the Ministry perceived, the most challenging new subjects for SHS, long dedicated to the preparation of students for UEEs, are the three aural/oral communication courses. Teachers may well have felt that Monbusho was encasing them inside a linguistic and cultural stockade that they had not got the resources to contend with. This was something Table 7.2 Senior high school Course of Study outline for English: Summary (Lamie, 1998: 519) Course

Outline

English I

Four skills – integrated 1500 vocabulary items Advanced English I 2000 vocabulary items (English I + 500) Everyday communication situations Focus on listening and speaking Focus on listening Focus on oral interaction Focus on reading skills 2400 vocabulary items (follows English I) Focus on writing skills 2000 vocabulary items (follows English I)

English II Aural/oral communication A Aural/oral communication B Aural/oral communication C Reading Writing



alone will no longer be sufficient and that languages must be taught in relation to the culture which supports them:


the Ministry was attempting to rectify with aids in the resourcing of the new Course and the retraining of its teachers.

In accordance with the provisions of the School Education Law, all schools in Japan are required to use textbooks in the classroom teaching of each subject. Textbooks to be used in schools must either be those authorised by the Minister of Education, or those compiled by Monbusho itself. Following the revision of the Course of Study, the textbooks themselves were reviewed and the result for SHS in particular was a flooding of the market by texts claiming to have communicative competence as their main objective. Teachers found themselves struggling to cope with the new textbook revisions, and the NRCOS, in the hope that the two would be mutually beneficial. However, a strict grade quota system still existed, and as Fullan states: an approved textbook may easily become the curriculum in the classroom, yet fail to incorporate significant features of the policy or goals that it is supposed to address. Reliance on the textbook may distract attention from behaviours and educational beliefs crucial to the achievement of desired outcomes. (Fullan, 1991: 70) This situation has been confirmed by Japanese high school teachers taking part in the overseas training programme, outlined in Section 7.3. The first, in 1995, in an assignment investigating the use of authentic materials in the teaching of English in Japan, wrote: From the perspective of the development of CLT [Communicative Language Teaching] and the materials based on communicative methodology, I must say that there needs to be a lot of improvement in the methodology and the materials in Japan. The constraint, that teachers in Japan have to use the authorised textbooks which are based on the structural approach, is one difficult factor in improving the methodology. (Miyamoto, 1995: 25) The second, in 1998, when giving a presentation concerning the teaching of writing in SHS, stated: A gap exists between the Revised Course of Study itself and the activities presented in the writing texts. (Suganami, 1998)



7.2.4 Resourcing

White et al. (1991) suggests that in any curriculum revision process, two vital elements are essential at Stenhouse’s (1975) consultation and training level for a smooth transition between old and new. First of all, there should be clear definitions of the aims and objectives of the innovation (see Chapter 1: Principle of Change 1: Change involves the statement of an aim), and secondly, an assurance that all those involved in the process understand the proposals and their classroom implications. Monbusho attempted to achieve the former in its statement of the factors preventing the success of the teaching of English. With its failure to provide adequate resources, achievement of the latter would hinge on initial and, particularly, in-service training provision.

7.3 In-service Training in Japan 7.3.1 Background 7.3.1.1 Initial teacher training All current Japanese teachers must, under the Educational Personnel Certification Law of 1949, hold relevant teaching certificates and in high schools these certificates apply to specific subject areas. There are three classes of teaching certificate: advanced, first and second. There are two routes into teaching: the first is by a two-year course at a junior college, and the second is by a four-year course at a university. An English teacher in an SHS must hold at least a first-class certificate, for which they need a bachelor’s degree. This is only obtainable from a university. In addition, trainee teachers must have at least 2 weeks of teaching practice in a local school. To fulfil this requirement, students often go back to the school in which they were themselves educated. Japanese teachers today, like any teachers, are the product of their own education and training. The education and training that Japanese teachers have received in the past and which many still receive today is not like that received by teachers in the United Kingdom. The focus in ITT is firmly on the theory (the majority of which is traditional), with limited practical experience. A survey of 60 Japanese high school teachers of English (Lamie, 2000) showed that a significant number of teacher trainees received no training in communicative language teaching methodology (77 per cent), classroom management (93 per cent) or general educational practice (58 per cent). Two weeks teaching practice (70 per cent of questionnaire respondents had 2 weeks’ teaching practice; a further 26 per cent had between 3 and 6 weeks; and 4 per cent had between 7 and 9 weeks) is a short period in a two- or four-year course,




and the nature of the practice does not give prospective teachers a great deal of opportunity to test out a range of methods. In the majority of cases, a mentor teacher ‘helps’ the trainee with a teaching plan for each lesson, which in reality means that he or she effectively writes it. In a 2-week placement, the trainee probably only teaches 4 or 5 lessons; the rest of the time is spent in observation. A result is that teachers trained in this way have a tendency to perpetuate the methodological status quo. This situation was echoed by teachers responding to the survey: When I started teaching I just imitated the class I had given. (SHS respondent #7) Teachers also highlighted the negative effect that the entrance examinations had on their teaching: • Most teachers in my schools have been teaching English in the traditional way, and in term examinations we have to make questions co-operatively . . . this way of teaching is suitable for entrance examinations to universities. (SHS #10) • I wanted to teach the students English for the Communication, but I found it difficult to do so for the two major problems. One is my English ability. The other is that the students’ aim to study English is to pass the entrance exams. (SHS #37) One teacher suggested a solution to the problem: Teachers should have more time for training and refreshment. ( JHS Respondent #1) Other teachers were in agreement on the need for in-service training: • Two British Council summer seminars in Tokyo have changed me a lot. These taught me the importance of having a theory and how to realise the objectives that I have. So now I don’t hesitate to try new things to develop my teaching. (SHS #21) • With the Tsukuba in-service training I began to think about introducing listening and speaking practice. ( JHS #2) • I was given a chance to study in Britain and now feel I have a chance to change my teaching. Now I try to speak more English to the students and to improve their ability. I think studying in Britain changed me a lot. (SHS #40)





7.3.1.2 In-service education and training In Japan, INSET was first mentioned in the Educational Civil Servant Special Act of 1949. The professional development of teachers comes under the wing of the Local Education Support Bureau and is covered by the national Public Service Law, the Local Public Service Law and the Law on Special Regulations for Public Service Employees in Education. Monbusho-sponsored INSET is provided to people recommended by each prefectural board of education and who are expected to become leaders or teacher consultants in each local district. It is not compulsory, although teachers may feel obliged to take part in an INSET scheme if asked to by their school principal (above them in the educational hierarchy). Major types of INSET implemented by Monbusho are shown in Table 7.3. The prefectural government appoints public school teachers and, therefore, has major responsibility for providing INSET opportunities. Local boards are staffed by teacher consultants who are experienced teachers. They are available for consultation, class visits, demonstration teaching and lectures. In addition, each prefecture has an educational research and training centre. Each year, the prefectural government gives a limited number of teachers (50–100 depending on the size of the prefecture) paid leave for one year for advanced training at universities and educational research institutions. These teachers are usually middlelevel teachers who are expected to become teacher consultants. Besides the formal INSET opportunities organised by the government, there are numerous organisations and study groups initiated and organised by the teachers themselves. In some cases, all the teachers of a region become members of a training and study organisation and participate in its activities, which include school visits, study groups, development projects and an annual conference, such as the English Language Forum, which took place in the Chiba prefecture in November 1997. Another type of INSET is the alumni organisations of teacher training institutions. The centres of the alumni organisations are usually what are known as the attached schools (fuzoku). These are responsible for teaching practice for student teachers and provide research material for college faculties. An important event for the local teachers is the open day or research demonstration given by the attached school. An



Therefore, with the focus of ITT courses being on traditional theory, teachers attempting to fulfil the requirements of the revised curriculum and teach towards ‘communicative competence’, with a focus on ‘authentic’, ‘living’ and ‘use’, would need to rely on in-service provision.

Evaluating Change with Japanese Teachers of English 167 INSET sponsored by Monbusho (Lamie, 1998: 523)

INSET provision for English

Course description

Institute for Educational Leadership

The aim of the programme is to improve the participants’ communicative competence in English, and skills in instruction. It consists of lectures and group discussions. The participants are teacher consultants and junior and senior high school teachers. They are encouraged to use English as much as possible, and the sessions are conducted in English. The annual number of participants is 100.

General Overseas Programme

The aim of this programme, started in 1959, is to provide an opportunity for teachers to experience education, culture and social conditions in other countries. Approximately 5,000 teachers are sent overseas each year. Under the long-term programme, each group spends one month visiting an average of ten cities in different countries, in regions such as Europe or America. They study school management and administration, and teaching content. Out of this one month period, about 10 days are spent studying the schools and other educational institutions in two selected countries. The short-term programme is for 16 days.

Secondary Teachers’ Programme

Set up in 1979, the two-month programme for a limited number of leading teachers was expanded in 1988 to include a six-month programme, and in 1990 to a 12-month course. The following section describes the latter programme.

example of one such school is the one attached to the University of Hiroshima, Hiroshima-fuzoku. The third type of non-governmental INSET consists of national associations, such as the Japan Association for Language Teaching ( JALT). JALT focuses on the improvement of language teaching and learning in Japan. It has an international membership of more than 3,800 and 37 local branches or chapters. It produces journals, organises local seminars and holds an annual national meeting. The theme of the 30th annual JALT conference in 2004 was ‘Language Learning for Life’. INSET provision in Japan is summarised in Table 7.4. The overview of teacher training provision in Japan illustrates that although INSET in Japan is widespread it continues to focus on the



Table 7.3


National

Summary of INSET provision in Japan (Lamie, 1998: 525) Long

Medium

Short

Secondary Teachers’ Programme: one year six month

Secondary Teachers’ Programme: two month (1990–1996) General Overseas Programme one month

Tsukuba seminar Ministry conferences

Prefectural

Advanced training one year Induction training one year

Local

Research projects

Other

Study Groups Publications

General Overseas Programme 16 days Consultant lectures Seminars Teachers’ meetings

Research projects

Research projects Conferences JALT

Innovation (see Section 5.2.1) at the apparent expense of the personal development of the teachers themselves (Lamie, 2001). The concept is firmly rooted in the product of the training. As Monbusho itself states, the quality of the teachers, their teaching expertise and their ability to deliver the revised curriculum is the primary objective. The ultimate goal of Monbusho (1994: 103) is to provide ‘high-caliber teachers’. The quality of teaching is measured by practice, and for professional development there is no reference to personal growth: It is necessary to enhance teachers’ expertise and practical teaching abilities and to deploy people with extensive scholastic knowledge in schools. (Monbusho, 1994: 103) In 1990 Monbusho set up two 12-month programmes in America and Britain which were aimed specifically at improving participating teachers’ own language skills in English and to develop their teaching techniques. The hope was that by putting them into a totally English speaking environment, their knowledge of the language and their confidence with it would be increased. As far as classroom practice was concerned, Monbusho expected that by giving teachers the opportunity to listen to lectures, attend seminars and visit schools they would acquire new ideas about teaching methods. It was assumed that these



Table 7.4

ideas would be more conducive to developing student communicative competence in line with the NRCOS than the ones the teachers had been using previously. The impact of practical constraints or external influences were not mentioned by the Ministry. The focus, as can be seen, is still very much on the Innovation. However, at the University of Birmingham the structure of the course and, in particular, the tutorial sessions, which have become an integral part of the programme, have created a special form of INSET for Japanese teachers of English. Some areas require particular development (Table 7.5), especially planning aspects of the course, where more participant involvement is required, but as far as possible the course tries to adhere to the criteria for effective INSET (see Table 5.3). The following section introduces this programme and its participants. 7.3.2 The Japanese Secondary Teachers’ programme 7.3.2.1 Aims and objectives The aim of the JST programme is threefold: 1. to improve the participants’ abilities in reading, writing, listening and speaking; 2. to provide the participants with the ability to justify, on theoretical and educational grounds, teaching for communicative competence in English; and for them to recognise the potential in the prescribed textbook and in a range of methods and resources beyond the textbook for developing communicative English in their students; and 3. to give participants an understanding of traditional and contemporary British culture in order for them to be able to take part in and appreciate life in Britain to the full. Although the programme’s aim extends throughout the year, it is divided into six phases in order that each can be given a specific focus (Table 7.6). All phases, and courses within phases, are assessed, although the major assessment for the participants takes place in Phases 5 and 6. To synthesise the aspects of the aim, participants complete a 7,000-word project which addresses a particular issue in ELT, under the supervision of a department tutor. This project enables the participants to gain a deeper understanding and awareness [Chapter 4: Models of Change: Impact Area 4] of the linguistic theory and educational issues underlying their chosen topic and makes them sufficiently knowledgeable in their chosen topic to disseminate this information, if encouraged to do so, on their return to Japan.




Procedure

Participant

Activity

Content

General

Part of overall scheme and clearly articulated rationale*

Continual involvement*

Share information*

Good practice*

Focus on the individual*

Planning** Implementation** Evaluation*

Individual difference*

Demonstrations*

Interactive*

Appropriate form*

Length and mode of delivery**

Needs awareness*

Trials

Relevant*

Government support*

Methodology*

Motivation*

Feedback

Coherent*

Credible trainers*

Follow-up work**

Researcher**

Relevant

Supporting materials*

Cultural awareness*

* indicates an integral part of the programme. ** indicates areas under development.



170

Table 7.5 Criteria for effective INSET – recurrent themes and the JST programme

Evaluating Change with Japanese Teachers of English 171 Phase focus

Phase

Focus

1 (10 weeks)

The development of the participants’ language skills, and introduction to cultural and social aspects associated with Britain and studying in Britain.

2 (5 weeks)

The introduction of issues related to language development, teaching and evaluation.

3 (5 weeks)

The presentation of methods and resources beyond the course book for utilisation in the classroom.

4 (10 weeks)

The concentration on theoretical matters of language teaching and their application to the classroom situation in Japanese high schools.

5 (5 weeks)

The preparation, individually, with one-to-one tutor consultation and support workshops, of a language-teaching-based assignment.

6 (5 weeks)

The consolidation of the issues and advice given, and the presentation of the project findings.

Through its lecture, seminar and tutorial structure, the programme is designed to promote good practice, and focuses on the personal as well as professional development of the teachers (see Tables 5.3 and 7.5). The participants are experienced teachers with a great deal of knowledge (Dadds, 1997), and therefore the courses and materials are produced to motivate and stimulate the teachers, and are as interactive as possible. The teachers are not allowed to be mere passive receivers of knowledge, but are encouraged to be active and vocal participants. The course attempts to put into practice Stallings’s (1989: 4) assertion that teachers are more likely to take part positively in training procedures if they ‘learn by doing’, utilise their ‘prior knowledge’, learn by ‘reflecting and solving problems’ and have a ‘supportive environment’. Teachers are also given the opportunity to expand knowledge gained in Micro-teaching sessions (where short activities are practised, such as role plays or simulation tasks) on the university campus with their peers, by visiting British schools and not only observing classes, but also taking part in lessons themselves. 7.3.2.2 Programme content The programme begins in April, in line with the Japanese school year, and is divided into six phases, or sections. Phases 1 and 4 are for 10 weeks and Phases 2, 3, 5 and 6 are for 5 weeks. There is a focus for each phase, as shown in Table 7.6. However, some aspects of the course run throughout the year, for example, school visits and individual tutorials. An overview of the year is given in Table 7.7.



Table 7.6


Course

Overview of the academic year (O – course given) Subject

Phases 1

1–4 5 6 7 8, 16, 22 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 17 18 19 20 21 23 24 25–28

Four skills: Listening, speaking, reading, writing Pronunciation Micro-teaching Education in Britain School visits Aspects of Britain Individual tutorials Discourse Management of change Genre Computer-Assisted Language Learning Shakespeare MA TEFL/TESL courses Textbook evaluation Project preparation Presentations Translation in the classroom Advanced language study Media in the language classroom Project support, writing, tutorials

2

3

4

O

O

O

O O O O

O O

O O O

5

6

O O O

O

O

O

O

O O O

O O O O O O O

O

O O

O

O

O O

O O O O O

O

For each subject tutors provide a course outline, which specifies the aim, objectives, method and evaluation of the course. This ensures that participants can see the relevance of each area and how it fits into the structure of the overall programme. Prior to arrival in the United Kingdom, the Japanese teachers and the homestay families are briefed on the procedures of the homestay element and requested to complete questionnaires. Then with reference to, for example, family size, age of children, hobbies and dietary requirements, teachers are matched with what should be the most suitable family. Participants are placed with families, who have extensive experience of receiving non-native speakers, for the first three months of the programme (this is the compulsory period), with an option to continue their placement for the remaining nine months if all concerned are in agreement. There are a number of advantages, educational, social and cultural, in this placement. Obviously, being placed with families, as opposed to living close to each other in university campus accommodation, will mean that



Table 7.7

participants will have to communicate in English on a regular basis with native speakers. With the focus in Phase 1 being firmly on the development of the participants’ language skills, this placement is seen as integral to the course aim. In addition, the teachers have the opportunity to discuss with the family members cultural and social aspects of life in Britain and experience, first-hand, authentic and livinglanguage use. The Japanese teachers are living in England, and therefore are not able to practise the skills they acquire in authentic Japanese classroom settings. However, the scheduled school visits give them an ideal opportunity to practise organisational and management skills, without being constrained by a content ordained by Monbusho (with their textbooks), in authentic British settings. In effect, it provides an interim step in their change process, where they need not be concerned with textbooks, the school culture, or examinations. The school visits begin with observations in two secondary schools. Participants observe language classes, and discuss school and class procedure with staff. This is followed on the second day by teacher shadowing. This provides for the teachers a sound basis for their knowledge of education in Britain and the workings of the school culture, which naturally differs from that in Japan and makes the transition to the interactive phase much smoother. In Phase 2 the teachers as a group, under the Japan in Your Classroom ( JIYC) scheme, take part in a Japan Week at a local secondary school (Table 7.8). The JIYC scheme has been developed with the Japan Festival Education Trust (JFET). JFET was set up in 1992 in response to the interest shown by schools in the Japan Festival 1991. It aims to support teachers in Britain wishing to teach about Japan. It achieves this through INSET days, school links, resource packs and the JIYC programme. The JIYC scheme continues, in a modified format, during Phases 4–6. Schools complete a form produced by JFET who pass on their Table 7.8

Japan week outline: Day 1

Monday

No. of teachers Art 1 Maths English HE (Food: General (Calligraphy (Counting) (Noh theatre) Sushi) (Tea Ikebana) ceremony)

9:20–10:30 10:45–11:55 13:00–14:10 14:40–15:30

4 4 4 4

2 2 2 2

2 2 2 2

2 2 2 2

2 2 2 2




details to the University of Birmingham where the individual participants are given the responsibility of contacting the schools, and arranging when they will visit and what form the visit will take. Participants will make up to three individual visits in each year. Feedback from both the schools and the participants has always been positive, as one teacher stated in the Programme Newsletter in December 1996: We visited two secondary schools. We observed classes and listened to the explanations of the school system. This gave us first-hand experience of understanding how education is going on in schools in Britain. In November we visited four more schools for presentations, papercraft, Japanese lessons or slides of Japanese schools and cities. Through school visits we can have some important and memorable experiences. These school visits, whilst being interesting and informative, also place the teachers at the cutting edge of educational development in Britain. They give them the opportunity to listen to authentic English, as well as read, write and speak the language. The teachers are using English constantly and are extending their cultural background knowledge. This helps to develop the teachers’ confidence [Impact Area 1: Personal Attributes].

7.4 Evaluating change on the JST programme 7.4.1 Data collection procedure The JST programme at the University of Birmingham, sponsored by Monbusho, was designed specifically to support the 1989 NRCOS innovation. In 1995 a research project was initiated to examine the impact of the programme. There were three stages to the research procedure: • Stage 1: Piloting • Stage 2: Pre-course activities • Stage 3: Post-course activities. Piloting took place with three groups: university academics, English teachers at the University of Swaziland, and Japanese teachers of English taking part in the 1995–1996 JST programme. The pre-course activities involved the distribution of the General Survey Questionnaire (GSQ), observation of the four case-study subjects, and semi-structured interviews during which the teachers completed the Methodology and Attitude Questionnaires. These questionnaires will be presented shortly. Post-course




activities included an administering of the Attitude Questionnaire during the final week of the programme; a distribution of the Methodology Questionnaire six months after the end of the programme; and classroom observations in Japan one year after the teachers had returned to their respective schools. The research procedure was designed to gather four types of information: 1. Information regarding the general professional and educational situation for the Japanese teachers of English (GSQ: Lamie, 2000). 2. Information relating to the methods the subjects used in the classroom – from the point of view of the subjects themselves – and any change following the period of in-service training (Methodology Questionnaire). 3. Information concerning the subjects’ attitudes towards education, and any ensuing change (Attitude Questionnaire). 4. Information pertaining to classroom practice, as witnessed by an observer, and resulting change (observation materials). In the wider context, the aim of the research was to highlight key aspects, or Impact Areas, in the process of change within the Japanese context. In order to obtain the data three questionnaires and several observation materials were produced: the General Survey Questionnaire; the Methodology Questionnaire; the Attitude Questionnaire; and the observation grids and checklist. 7.4.2 Data collection tools 7.4.2.1 General Survey Questionnaire Section One: Background 1. Did you go to University (or College)? Yes/No (If No please go to Section Two) 2. Which University/College did you attend? 3. What was your major? 4. How many years was your course? 5. How many weeks teaching practice did you do? 6. Did you have any lectures/seminars in the following areas? Grammar Translation Methodology Communicative Language Teaching Team Teaching Classroom Management

Yes/No Yes/No Yes/No Yes/No




Testing Grammar Testing Communicative Ability Testing Listening Testing Speaking Testing Reading Testing Writing

Yes/No Yes/No Yes/No Yes/No Yes/No Yes/No

7. Were there any other educational topics that you covered at University? 8. How many years have you been teaching English? 9. Where do you teach? Junior High School/Senior High School 10. What is your average class size? Section Two: Teaching objectives and resources 1. What are the real objectives for Japanese teachers of English in their teaching of English? Put the objectives into order (1 for the objective you think is the most important, 2 for the next and so on): • • • •

to enable the students to communicate orally in the language to enable the students to read and write the language to enable students to pass examinations to enable students to understand the grammatical structures of English • to enable students to become familiar with the culture that supports the language • to develop students’ listening and speaking abilities. 2. How often do you use the following in your English classes: always

often

sometimes

rarely

never

Monbusho textbook Authentic materials Assistant Language Teaching (ALT)

Section Three: In-service education and training Have you ever experienced any of the following? If Yes, please give a brief explanation: (a) (b) (c) (d)

Demonstration classes Prefectural conferences National conferences Overseas conferences

Yes/No Yes/No Yes/No Yes/No

————————————— ————————————— ————————————— —————————————




Section Four: Comments 1. How far has your teaching changed since you became a qualified teacher? Why? 2. How far has the New Revised Course of Study affected your teaching? 3. Any other comments 7.4.2.2

Methodology Questionnaire

Please read each statement carefully and put a tick in the box which best represents what you DO in the classroom. 1. Aim

Tick one

The main aim of my teaching is to enable the students to pass examinations

The main aim is to enable the students to communicate orally in the language

The main aim is to enable the students to develop the four skills

The main aim is to enable the students to read and write the language

The main aim is to enable the students to speak and listen to the language

2. Organisation 1 The students sit where they wish (might vary each lesson)

The students are arranged in groups of mixed ability

The students are arranged in rows The students sit where they wish (some may be changed for behaviour reasons) The students are arranged in groups of similar ability

3. Grammar 1 I teach my students grammar using my native language ( Japanese)

I teach my students grammar using the target language (English)




I teach my students grammar using mostly Japanese, but occasionally English

I teach my students grammar using mostly English, but occasionally Japanese

I teach my students grammar using Japanese and English equally

4. Materials I use a variety of authentic materials (e.g.: newspapers, radio programmes)

I only use published materials (e.g.: approved by the Ministry of Education)

I use authentic and published materials equally

I mainly use authentic materials, with occasional use of published materials I mainly use published materials, with occasional use of authentic materials

5. Organisation 2 I sometimes move around the class I remain at the front of the class Each lesson I move around the class I rarely move around the class Most lessons I move around the class

6. Organisation 3 The students often work in groups and pairs (more than they do individually)

The students always work individually

The students mostly work in groups and pairs The students work an equal amount of time individually, in pairs and in groups The students mostly work individually, but occasionally in groups and pairs





I do not use word lists; any words presented arise from the materials

I only teach vocabulary to the students that is in the text book word list

I have a word list as a guideline, but often teach my students other vocabulary

I have a word list which I use mostly, but occasionally teach other vocabulary

I do have a word list, but I don’t use it

8. Listening Students listen to published (textbook), and authentic (e.g. radio) tapes equally

Students listen to authentic English, at natural speed

Students mainly listen to authentic English, but occasionally published tapes Students listen to the tape that accompanies the text book only

Students mainly listen to published tapes, but occasionally authentic English

9. Writing The students write free compositions about once a week The students write free compositions once a term The students never write free compositions The students write free compositions once a month The students write free compositions two or three times a week

10. Reading The students read and translate passages (not authentic) from the text book

The students read and translate passages from authentic text (e.g. newspapers)



7. Vocabulary

The students read (for general meaning), but do not translate, from authentic text

The students read (for general meaning), but do not translate, from the text book

The students read from both the text book and authentic text and may translate

11. Speaking Students are given dialogues which they try to remember and reproduce

Students sometimes perform role plays (scripted)

Students regularly perform role plays (unscripted) Students sometimes perform role plays and are given prompts by the teacher Students occasionally perform role plays (dialogues where they have to substitute words or phrases)

12. Language use I use about the same amount of Japanese as English in the class

I nearly always use English, but will use Japanese if necessary

I use mostly Japanese in the class, with only drills, and reading out loud in English

I only use English in the class

I use more Japanese than English in the class 13. Correcting I correct most mistakes and the students rewrite the corrections

I make a general comment to the student on his/her individual performance

I only correct major mistakes

I correct most mistakes and the students sometimes rewrite the corrections





I correct all mistakes the students make, and they rewrite the corrections

The students mostly use bilingual (Japanese-English) dictionaries, but occasionally use monolingual (EnglishEnglish) dictionaries

The students only use monolingual dictionaries

The students only use bilingual dictionaries The students mostly use monolingual dictionaries, but occasionally use bilingual The students use both monolingual and bilingual dictionaries equally

15. School tests The tests focus on speaking and listening, with very little reading and writing

All four skills are tested equally

All four skills are tested, but the emphasis is on reading and writing The tests focus on reading and writing, with very little speaking and listening

All four skills are tested, but the emphasis is on speaking and listening

7.4.2.3 Attitude Questionnaire Please read each statement and put a circle round the number which best represents your views. 1 = I strongly agree 2 = I agree 3 = I cannot say 4 = I disagree 5 = I strongly disagree 1. Teachers should only use the target language (English) in class 2. Students should read and translate passages from their textbooks

1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5



14. Dictionaries


1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5

1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5

1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 1 1 1

2 2 2 2

3 3 3 3

4 4 4 4

5 5 5 5

1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5



3. Students should memorise dialogues or passages from their textbooks 4. The main aim of foreign language teaching is to enable the students to read and write the language 5. A teacher teaches most effectively at the front of the class 6. Students should always be corrected if they make a grammatical mistake 7. Class reading out loud should be a part of every lesson 8. Students should be encouraged to work in pairs 9. There should be a focus on knowledge of grammar 10. Teachers should use mainly text books (and their materials: tape, flashcards, picture cards) in the classroom 11. Grammar rules should be explained in the native language (Japanese) 12. The most important goal of foreign language teaching is to develop the students’ ability to communicate orally in the language 13. Vocabulary should be taught through bilingual word lists 14. Examinations determine what is taught in the classroom 15. Lessons should include some group activities 16. Students should always be given written work which is then corrected and returned by the teacher 17. Students should be encouraged to translate new vocabulary into their native language 18. A variety of materials should be used in the class 19. Listening and speaking skills should be emphasised 20. Regular written progress tests should be given 21. Students should be encouraged to use monolingual dictionaries 22. Students should memorise phrases or sentences 23. Students should be exposed to different kinds of English 24. There should be a focus on writing skills 25. Students should be allowed to sit where they like in the classroom 26. There should be a focus on skills needed to pass examinations


1 2 3 4 5

1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5

7.4.2.4 Selected observation materials Teacher behaviour record. The use of video taping made it possible to investigate teacher talking in the observed classes. The teacher-centred nature of classroom teaching in the observed cases made it possible to calculate the recordings as a whole, for example, how many seconds a teacher commands, and how many seconds a teacher explains. Although the outcomes could not be exact, however delicate the timing implement, conclusions could be drawn when results were heavily weighted in a particular direction. If the ‘teacher explains’ in Japanese for 450 seconds and in English for 470 seconds, the calculations are too close (less than 100 seconds) to suppose that English explanation is predominant. However, if the figures are 50 seconds and 250 seconds respectively then comments can be made with more confidence, and results of 50 seconds and 950 seconds would increase the level of confidence in interpretation.

Teacher talking: Seconds (%) In Japanese

In English

Teacher explains

Teacher explains

Teacher translates into Japanese

Teacher translates into English

Teacher commands

Teacher commands

Teacher explains homework

Teacher reads from text

Closed questioning

Closed questioning

Teacher repeats

Teacher repeats

Other

Other

Observation checklist. The observation checklist was completed while the lesson was being observed, and was also verified during post-observation analysis. As with the Methodology Questionnaire it contained fifteen



27. The vocabulary of a written passage should be introduced by the teacher, and translated, before it is read by the students 28. Students should sit in rows facing the board 29. There should be choral drilling of structures 30. Students should be encouraged to write free compositions, which the teacher may or may not see or correct

areas, for example: the aim of foreign language teaching (Aim); the organisation of the classroom (Organisation 1); and school tests (Tests). The statements made in the Methodology Questionnaire were summarised for the checklist, for example, ‘the main aim of my teaching is to enable students to pass examinations’, became ‘exam’.

Observation checklist (See Methodology Questionnaire sections)

Traditional Progressive pre-NRCOS NRCOS Score 1

Score 2

Score 3

Aim

Exam

Score 4

Score 5

R/W

Four skills S/L

Oral

Organisation 1 Rows

Mostly rows

Equal

Mostly groups

Groups

Grammar

Japanese

Mostly Japanese

Equal

Mostly English

English

Materials

Published

Mostly published

Equal

Mostly authentic

Authentic

Organisation 2 Teacher front

Mostly front

Equal

Mostly moves

Moves

Organisation 3 Individual

Mostly Equal individual

Mostly groups

Groups

Vocabulary

All wordlist Mostly wordlist

Equal

Mostly authentic

Authentic

Listening

Published

Mostly published

Equal

Mostly authentic

Authentic

Writing

Controlled

Mostly Equal controlled

Reading

Translate (T) Translate (A)

Translate? General (T) General (A) (T/A)

Speaking

Mem/Drill

Dialogue

Prompts

Scripted

Unscripted

Language (teacher)

Japanese

Mostly Japanese

Equal

Mostly English

English

Correcting

All rewrite

Mostly rewrite

Rewrite?

Major

Comment

Dictionary

All bilingual Mostly bilingual

Equal

Mostly mono

Mono

Tests

R/W

Four Skills Mostly S/L S/L

Mostly R/W

Mostly free Free





The participants in the 1996–1997 JST programme form the base for this research. The four teachers (henceforth referred to as CSA, CSB, CSC and CSD) are representative of the general population of high school teachers in Japan (Lamie, 2001). Although the case-study subjects are all male and teach at SHS, the types of SHS and their experiences vary, as can be seen from the following individual profiles. The information contained in the descriptions is based primarily on the subjects’ responses to the GSQ and the accompanying interview which took place prior to the commencement of the Birmingham course. Case-study subject A (CSA) is 33 years old, and has been teaching English for seven years. He is a technical SHS teacher who places great emphasis on the relationship he fosters with the students in his classes: Most important thing is to have the relationship between [with] the students with if the students don’t have a human relationship with us they just listen. He studied English and Education at university, received classes in language teaching methodology and 8 weeks’ teaching practice (98 per cent of GSQ respondents received less than 8 weeks), which on first impression may indicate that this may place him in a strong position to deliver the revised curriculum. However, during the interview he confirmed that the nature and content of the university courses and the teaching practice (Model of Change: Impact Area 5: Training) did little to influence his classroom practice: What we studied in the university is not necessarily useful in the real working area . . . mostly lecture . . . we rarely speak out . . . mostly listen. CSA continued by proposing that a greater influence on his teaching methodology was, during the initial stages of his career, his own experience as a student. His current teaching situation, a technical high school where the majority of students are working towards a vocation as opposed to the UEE, would again appear to place him in a position of less restriction in the classroom [Impact Area 2: Practical Constraints]. He prioritises interest, usefulness and oral communication in his teaching objectives: Most of the students after graduation will enter some companies so maybe it will be the last chance to study English, in that sense in the third year we can freely concentrate on English.



7.4.3 Case-study profiles

Difficulties lie in his students’ perceptions of themselves and each other, and their hesitancy to make mistakes, and, although not in the UEE, in the school testing procedures. Regardless of the fact that CSA aims to focus on oral communication, the school test has to be written in conjunction with other teachers [Impact Area 3: External Influences] and, according to the GSQ, includes grammar, reading, translation and vocabulary practice, but no speaking. In spite of this situation, CSA remains positive [Impact Area 1: Personal Attributes], perseveres and, in terms of resources, tries not to be tied to the prescribed textbook [Impact Area 2] which he sometimes uses, in contrast to the remaining case study subjects as will be shown shortly. He is a regular user of the blackboard, but is aware that his skills need refining and also attempts to incorporate authentic materials into the classroom. He makes use of the ALT and suggests that ALTs can help to provide a solution to the problem of encouraging communication, but admits that additional problems can arise within the culture of the school and the perceptions of some teachers themselves. CSA is particularly positive with regard to in-service training and conferences, and has attended demonstration classes and prefectural seminars [Impact Area 5]. He also highlights the need for more government, prefectural, and school support in the process: All of the members in our school would like to go, but only one of the members can go . . . if I would like to go I have to make the holiday. He was particularly clear concerning his aim for his in-service year at the University of Birmingham: I think I have to think two things, one is the method of teaching or the way of teaching, and the other is how to construct the class. Key points arising from the profile of CSA are that he: • has received, albeit minimal, some theoretical educational input during his ITT; • teaches at a technical high school; • focuses on developing positive relationships in the classroom; • would like to be able to use a variety of resources effectively; • has a positive attitude towards in-service training; and





Case-study subject B (CSB) has been teaching English for 20 years and studied English Literature at university. Not surprisingly, his Education Course included tuition in psychology and the grammar translation method, with no communicative language input. The examination for the SHS teaching certificate centred on general knowledge and not practical teaching techniques [Impact Area 5]. He also commented on the role of the university professors: University professors are very traditional and old-fashioned. When CSB began teaching he, as with CSA, reinforced the approach he had received in school. He did not mention whether the tuition he had received at university in any way affected his teaching performance. CSB currently teaches at an academic, UEE-oriented high school. Although his ideal now is to teach English using English, and to encourage his students to speak and use the language, he focuses his teaching on the University test, translation, and traditional reading and writing exercises. He is, however, aware that the students are interested in communicating in English, but considers the UEE [Impact Area 2] to be an obstacle to this: I think I should teach more spoken English . . . the needs for the students is reading and writing for the entrance examination, but I found the students are interested in speaking and listening. CSB, unlike CSA, always uses the prescribed textbook [Impact Area 2], ideal for UEE purposes, and would willingly take the ALT to his classes, but limits the team teaching to the first-year students only. The first-year students are not under the immediate pressure of the entrance examination. The ALT also runs the English club which only first-year, and occasionally second-year, students attend. Nevertheless, the positive attitude [Impact Area 1] of CSB becomes apparent when certain procedures in his class, in particular ‘show and tell’, and certain activities outside the classroom, such as attending conferences, are discussed: I adopt ‘show and tell’ and speeches in the first ten minutes or so to improve their self expression and after that I go into the textbook with I learned it [show and tell] in the teachers’ conference.



• has an awareness of a number of problems and constraints placed on him in the school and the classroom, for example, testing procedures, the prescribed textbook, and student and teacher perceptions.


• began teaching receiving little practical input from his university course; • teaches in an academic high school; • concentrates his teaching on the written UEE; • uses the prescribed textbook in every lesson, but is interested in developing his range; • voluntarily attends conferences within his prefecture and within Japan once a year; and • sees the necessity for teaching more communicative English and is aware of his students’ interest in speaking and listening, but considers the pressure of the UEE to be difficult to counter. Although CSB states he has a positive attitude towards communicative language teaching, there would appear initially to be a dominance within the Model of Change of practical constraints [Impact Area 2], particularly with regard to the UEE and prescribed textbooks. Case-study subject C (CSC) teaches in an urban mid-level academic SHS and has been teaching for 10 years. He is the only case-study subject to have a first degree and a second degree. His second degree is in English, although he stressed that the course was delivered in Japanese and focused on literature and not language. With reference to his first degree, he completed one Education course in order to obtain his teaching certificate, and received 2 weeks’ teaching practice. In agreement with his case-study peers, he referred to the lack of practical advice given during the ITT period. The main aim of foreign language teaching for CSC is to have his students pass their school and college examinations. In order to achieve this aim he follows a particular routine based on reading, translation and drilling. From his GSQ responses he appeared to be the most traditionally (the terms ‘traditional’ and ‘progressive’ will be discussed shortly) focused of the case-study subjects : Grammatical items, sentence structure, subject and verb, those two are the main aims of the lesson. CSC would teach using the Monbusho-prescribed textbook, although he was also interested in employing additional resources in the classroom, such as the ALT, and video and audio materials. First-year students, as previously mentioned, are usually considered to be easier to teach as they do not have the pressure of the UEE placed on them, or vocational



The main elements in the profile of CSB are that he:

college examination. The ALT also alleviates some of the difficulties teachers may feel with using materials other than the textbook. CSC was the least positive [Impact Area 1] of the subjects when discussing his students and the teaching situation. He has attended a small number of conferences, but ironically, although he states it is his students who do not like English and are demotivated, it is these same students who have inspired him on several occasions to consider adapting or changing his teaching techniques: Sometimes I’ve idea from my students about my way of teaching and some students said to me ‘your English lesson has no rhythm’ or something like that . . . very critical . . . and when I got that kind of criticism from my students I had to think about my way of teaching [Impact Area 4: Awareness]. Although CSC appears not to be clear about how to combine these suggestions with his established routine, his willingness to listen to and work with others is apparent. In summary, CSC: • studied Linguistics at university and completed a master’s course, but received a limited amount of practical advice during this time; • teaches in a mid-level academic high school; • concentrates his teaching on reading and translation and uses Japanese for this purpose; • uses the prescribed textbook, but is interested in developing video and audio materials; • has attended conferences, but lacks confidence; and • sees the necessity for using a variety of methods and approaches in the classroom to account for the variety in his students, but requires the environment to encourage this development. Case-study subject D (CSD) has been teaching for 13 years. He currently teaches in an upper-intermediate level academic SHS [Impact Area 2]. The initial training CSD experienced was similar to the three previous case-study subjects, although his major was not English or Education related. He always teaches using the textbook, will invite the ALT to his first-year classes, and occasionally supplements the textbook with other materials: The textbooks are very helpful too kind, one of the senior teachers said too kind publisher is not good the teacher will not be creative . . . of course teachers can use other material but using this Monbusho





Even though the main aim of foreign language teaching for CSD is for the students to read and write the target language, his routine is less traditional than that of CSC in his encouragement of the students to write freely, interact, and peer evaluate. CSD displays similar concerns over testing procedures as CSA, CSB and CSC, and the role of grammar. However, his success with his routine [Impact Area 6: Feedback] has given him the confidence [Impact Area 1] to experiment in the classroom, and his in-service experiences have shown him the importance and impact of continuing professional development: This is the turning point [conference – Syracuse University, 3 week intensive course] I found it very fun to use English and I became more confident using English through this experience . . . grammatically I have not improved my English . . . I don’t care any grammatical points from this experience . . . so this is one of the problems for me . . . I sometimes ignore any grammar. Aspects to highlight within the profile of CSD are that he: • studied French and received a limited amount of practical English teaching advice; • teaches in an upper-intermediate level academic high school; • concentrates his teaching on using the textbook, but not adhering to traditional organisational methods; • is motivated and has attended conferences in Japan and overseas; • sees in-service training as a way to develop confidence, new teaching methods and attitudes; and • considers the learning of the teacher to be as important as the learning of the students. CSD, therefore, is a confident, positive teacher, who appears to have an awareness of resources and methods beyond those he currently uses, and in addition is motivated and keen to develop in his teaching and learning. A summary of the profiles of the case study participants can be found in Table 7.9.



textbook is easy so teachers don’t have to find out other more useful materials . . . we should try to adapt the textbook to ones own class, it’s the most difficult thing and most important thing for us.

Evaluating Change with Japanese Teachers of English 191 Case-study subjects: GSQ profile summary CSA

CSB

CSC

CSD

Major

Education

Literature

Linguistics

French

Period of study (years)

4

4

4

4

Teaching practice (weeks)

8

2

2

2

University • GTM • CLT • TT • CM • ET

O O X X X

O X X O O (psychology)

O X X O X

X X X X O (history)

Years teaching

7

20

10

13

SHS

Technical

High academic Mid-academic Mid-upper academic

Class size

40

45

Teaching objective

Communicate Read and write

Examinations Read and write

Materials • textbook • authentic • ALT

Sometimes Sometimes Sometimes

Always Sometimes Sometimes



Training • Demonstrations • Prefectural • National • Overseas

O O X X

O O O X

X O O X

O O O O

40

41

Note: GTM – grammar translation method; CLT – communicative language teaching; TT – team teaching; CM – classroom management; ET – Educational topics; SHS – senior high school; ALT – assistant language teacher; O – yes; X – no.

The previously mentioned influential aspects are also areas of particular relevance to communicative competence and communicative language teaching, as Monbusho confirms: Stress has sometimes been placed on reading, comprehension and grammar, and while classes are often conducted in Japanese, the



Table 7.9

situation is improving. A shift in attitude toward communicationoriented instruction is under way among teachers of English. This is due to the changing needs of Japanese society, the increasing borderlessness of the world, the world-wide flow of information in English, and the role Japan is now expected to play in the international community. English teachers are thus switching to instruction that more strongly emphasizes communication skills . . . Instruction is becoming increasingly communicative. (Monbusho, 1994: 2) The results of the Methodology Questionnaire, Attitude Questionnaire and observations establish how far this suggested ‘shift in attitude’ and ‘switching’ of instruction had developed, and whether, within the case study group, instruction had become ‘increasingly communicative’ following the Birmingham INSET. 7.4.4 Research findings As seen in the data collection procedure, the four case-study subjects were observed and the Attitude and Methodology Questionnaires administered in semi-structured interviews, prior to the INSET course. The Attitude Questionnaire was delivered again directly following the end of the course. The Methodology Questionnaire was distributed six months after the teachers had returned to Japan. The follow-up observations took place one year after the end of the programme. The questionnaires and the observation checklist were produced to provide comparable quantitative data and covered the following areas: • • • •

The aim of foreign language teaching; The organisation of the classroom; The teaching of grammar and correction procedures; The use of authentic and non-authentic materials, vocabulary derivation and dictionaries; • The tackling of the four skills; and • The presence of the native and the target languages. The findings in each area were compared to the characteristics of the audio-lingual method, the grammar translation approach and communicative language teaching, outlined in Table 7.10, to determine the ‘communicative’ status. The terms ‘traditional’ and ‘progressive’ were used to indicate shifts in perceived methodology, attitudes and practice. These benchmarks were not intended to be pejorative. Traditional acts




Contrast between the Audio-Lingual, Grammar-translation Method and CLT, and association with the Methodology

Questionnaire (MQ: matches the Observation Checklist) and Attitude Questionnaire (AQ) [adapted from Finocchiaro and Brumfit, 1983: 91–93; Brown, 1994: 16–17] Data Tools

Audio-lingual (Traditional)*

Grammar-translation method (Traditional)*

Communicative language teaching (Progressive)**

Aim MQ: 1, 15 AQ: 4, 9, 12, 14, 19, 20, 24, 26

1. Focus structure/form more than meaning. 2. Mastery is sought. 3. Linguistic competence and accuracy is the goal. 4. Intrinsic motivation springs from an interest in the structure of the language.

1. Focus on structure and form. 2. Grammatical correctness is sought. 3. Grammatical competence and expertise is the goal. 4. Extrinsic motivation exists in the form of passing examinations.

1. Meaning is paramount. 2. Effective communication is sought. 3. Communicative competence and fluency is the goal. 4. Intrinsic motivation arises from an interest in what is being communicated by the language.

Organisation MQ: 2, 5, 6 AQ: 5, 8, 15, 25, 28

5. Teacher controlled. 6. Students interact with the language system.

5. Teacher controlled. 6. Minimal interaction expected.

5. Teacher facilitated, student input. 6. Students are expected to interact.

Grammar and correction MQ: 3, 13 AQ: 6, 11, 16, 29

7. Grammatical explanations are given. 8. The target linguistic system is taught through grammatical structures. 9. The sequence is determined by a grade-quota system of grammatical items. 10. All grammatical errors corrected.

7. Grammar explained if necessary. 8. The target system is learned through the process of communication. 9. Sequencing is determined by consideration of content, function, or meaning. 10. Errors are accepted as part of the learning process.


193

7. Grammatical explanations are avoided. 8. The target linguistic system is learned through the overt teaching of the patterns. 9. The sequence of units is determined by linguistic complexity. 10. Errors must be corrected.


Table 7.10

(Continued)

Data Tools

Audio-lingual (Traditional)*

Grammar-translation method (Traditional)*

Communicative language teaching (Progressive)**

Materials and vocabulary MQ: 4, 7, 14 AQ: 10, 13, 17, 18, 21, 27

11. Items are not necessarily 11. Vocabulary is taught in the contextualised. form of lists of isolated 12. Varieties of language are words. recognised but not emphasised. 12. Varieties of language are not 13. Materials come from a variety covered. of sources. 13. Textbooks are prevalent.

11. Contextualisation is a basic premise. 12. Linguistic variation is a central concept. 13. Materials come from a variety of sources.

The four skills MQ: 8, 9, 10, 11 AQ: 2, 3, 7, 22, 23, 30

14. Structure-based dialogues memorised. 15. Drilling is a central technique. 16. Native speaker-like pronunciation is sought. 17. Communicative activities only come after a long process of rigid drills and exercises. 18. Reading and writing are deferred.

14. Dialogues are used for grammatical purposes. 15. Decontextualised sentences are drilled. 16. Little or no attention is given to pronunciation. 17. Communicative activities are rarely present. 18. Reading of difficult texts is begun early.

14. Dialogues centre around communicative functions and are not memorised. 15. Drilling only occurs peripherally. 16. Comprehensible pronunciation is sought. 17. Attempts to communicate are central. 18. Reading and writing can start from the first day if desired.

Language use MQ: 12 AQ: 1

19. Translation is forbidden at early levels. 20. The use of the student’s native language is forbidden.

19. Translation is the main technique. 20. Classes are taught in the native language with little active use of the target language.

19. Translation may be used. 20. Judicious use of native language is accepted.

* Pre-NRCOS; ** NRCOS focus.



194

Table 7.10

or attitudes were those which adhered to techniques used before NRCOS, and present in the audio-lingual approach or GT method. Progressive behaviour or beliefs included elements of communicative language teaching and reflected the aims and content of NRCOS. Findings (Figure 7.1) demonstrated that in all cases developments had been made towards the progressive. Quantitative data was obtained via a ranking of scores from 1 (highly traditional) to 5 (highly progressive). However, total scores were limited in their interpretation and therefore, along with information obtained from interviews, shift

| Highly traditional | Traditional [ T ] | Semi-T/semi-P | Progressive [P] | Highly progressive 1 ------------------ 15 ------------------ 30 ----------------- 45 ------------------ 60 ----------------- 75 ↑ ↑ ↑↑

↑↑↑

↑

c b ad

CBD

A

Methodology scale 1996 (lower case) and 1997 (upper case) [Methodology Questionnaire scores]

| Highly traditional | Traditional [ T ] | Semi-T/semi-P | Progressive [P] | Highly progressive | 1----------------- 30 ----------------- 60 ------------------ 90 ------------------ 120 ----------------150 ↑

↑↑↑↑ ↑↑

c

Cdab AD

Attitude scale 1996 and 1997 (B result same for 1996 and 1997) [Attitude Questionnaire scores]

| Highly traditional | Traditional [T] | Semi-T/semi-P | Progressive [P] | Highly progressive | 1----------------- 15 ------------------ 30 ------------------ 45 ------------------ 60 ----------------- 75 ↑

↑↑↑

↑↑ ↑

↑

c

dba

BD C

A

Observation scale 1996 and 1998 [Observation checklist scores]

Figure 7.1

Research findings.




analysis (movement between the traditional and progressive spheres) was carried out. The broad shifts for topic areas are shown in Table 7.11. Although for the case-study subjects a small number of topics remained within the traditional zone (Methodology: Writing, Dictionaries and Testing; Practice: Writing and Dictionaries), the vast majority moved to either produce non-traditional or progressive responses. In no cases did topic shifts move towards the traditional. This would indicate that in general the subjects were becoming ‘increasingly communicative’ (Monbusho, 1994: 2) in their thoughts about, and

Table 7.11

Case-study topic shifts

Methodology

Traditional

Variable

Progressive

org 1(seating) org 3 (interaction) grammar listening reading materials writing dictionaries testing WRITING DICTIONARIES TESTING

aim vocabulary speaking language use SPEAKING ORG 1 GRAMMAR MATERIALS ORG 3 LISTENING

org 2 (movements) correcting ORG 2 CORRECTING AIM READING LANGUAGE USE VOCABULARY

grammar aim four skills language use LANGUAGE USE AIM

organisation materials ORGANISATION MATERIALS FOUR SKILLS GRAMMAR

vocabulary speaking SPEAKING TESTING ORG 1 ORG 3 GRAMMAR LISTENING LANGUAGE USE

correcting aim CORRECTING AIM ORG 2 READING VOCABULARY MATERIALS

Attitudes

Practice

org 1, 2 and 3 grammar listening reading materials writing dictionaries testing language use WRITING DICTIONARIES

1. 1996 Pre-course results (lower case). 2. 1997/8 Post-course results (UPPER CASE).





1. Practice change prior to attitude change 2. Practice and attitude change 3. Attitude change before change in practice. 7.4.4.1 Practice change prior to attitude change A number of shifts took place which support the notion that change in practice occurs before change in attitudes (Stenhouse, 1975; Karavas-Doukas, 1996; Williams and Burden, 1997; Kennedy, 1999). CSA, for example, displayed progressive shifts (moves towards the NRCOS) for practice in terms of Organisation 1 (seating arrangements), Grammar and Reading (Table 7.12), but the total attitude score remained outside the progressive zone. In addition, with regard to Speaking and Correcting, CSA demonstrated progressive actions, whereas attitudes were, once again, not in agreement, although any shifts in evidence were towards the progressive. Teachers were encouraged on the INSET course to teach English using English. However, it was also accepted that, due to the nature of the prescribed materials in Japan and the content of the school and UEEs, judicious use of the native language would be justifiable. Therefore the training could have provided the teachers with a compromise for dealing with the impact of practical constraints. CSB exhibited similar tendencies for Language Use, CSC for Organisation 2 (teacher movement) and Materials, and CSD for Testing. However, shifts which placed attitude change and practice change concurrently, or changes in attitudes before changes in practice, were more common, particularly for CSB, CSC and CSD.

7.4.4.2 Practice and attitude change For CSA, practice and attitude change occurred for Organisation 2 and Listening, and CSB presented a similar shift for Reading. It is with CSC (see Table 7.12) and CSD where the majority of changes produced were in this area: Aim, Organisation 1, Vocabulary, Listening, Reading, and Testing for the former, and Organisation 1, Materials, Organisation 3, and Vocabulary for the latter. Possible reasons for these differences will be discussed shortly.



practices in, teaching. The dominance of substantial progressive shifts, as opposed to traditional moves, is clear. In addition, in examining this entire case study shift correlation, three general aspects of change can be highlighted:

198 Measuring Change Case studies (extract)

Category Case-Study A Org 1 Grammar Reading

Attitude

Question 25. 4*→3 Question 28. 4→3 Question 11. 3→2 Question 29. 2→3

Practice ↓

Section 2. 2→4

↑↑

↓↓ ↓↓

Section 3. 2→5

↑↑

Section 10. 1→4

↑↑

↑↑ ↑↑

Question 2. 3→4 Question 7. 4→3

↓↓


– ↑↑

Section 2. 1→1

–

Grammar


↑↑ ↑↑

Section 3. 2→2

–

Org 3


↑ ↑

Section 6. 2→3

↑↑

Vocabulary

Question 13. 4→5 Question 17. 4→4 Question 27. 5→4

↑ – ↓

Section 7. 2→3

↑↑

Writing

Question 30. 5→5

–

Section 9. 1→1

–

Question 13. 3→3 Question 17. 3→4 Question 27. 2→4

– ↑↑ ↑↑

Section 7. 2→5

↑↑

Case-Study B Org 1

Case-Study C Vocabulary

Listening

Question 23. 1→3

↑↑

Section 8. 2→5

↑↑

Reading


– ↑↑

Section 10. 1→3

↑↑

Testing (Exam) (Written Tests)


– ↑↑

Section 15. 1→3

↑↑

* Scoring system: on a scale of 1 to 5, 1 being highly traditional (the situation prior to the innovation) and 5 highly progressive (the situation following the innovation) – (indicates no change) ↑ (indicates a move to the progressive) ↓ (indicates a move to the traditional) Substantial shifts are those that move between bands (traditional band being 1 and 2; progressive band, 4 and 5) and are indicated using two arrows ↑↑.

7.4.4.3 Attitude change before change in practice All case study subjects gave progressive responses for Dictionary use in the classroom. However, none of these responses were carried forward into practice, with all practice results being highly traditional (Score 1).



Table 7.12

Similarly, with CSA, progressive attitudes were present for Organisation 3 (student interaction), Vocabulary and Writing, but not practice. CSC displayed a single item shift for Grammar, and CSD for Writing and Reading. It is within this area that the changes for CSB are prevalent, as indicated in Table 7.12. CSB is an SHS teacher in an academic high school where the students are expected to enter top-ranking universities. The constraint placed on CSB by the UEE system would be one major reason why the change in attitude has occurred, in these instances, prior to change in practice. According to LoCastro, NRCOS had the potential to encourage and develop classroom practice: The new courses of study issued by Monbusho are being welcomed by some as it is hoped that they will give classroom teachers more freedom within the framework of the mandated curriculum. It is expected that in turn this will lead to more progressive methodologies and practices being adopted. (LoCastro, 1996: 41) The results of the research, traditional-progressive scales and shift analysis, have determined how far the case-study subjects have changed since their period of INSET, and concludes that all subjects have become ‘increasingly communicative’ (Monbusho, 1994: 2) and that ‘progressive methodologies’ (LoCastro: 1996: 41) have been initiated. However, the ‘freedom’ of the teachers would appear to be affected by a number of issues. Although a comparison of the subjects was not the aim of this research, the results have indicated that a number of factors have had an influence on innovation implementation and the process of change. These factors, discussed in Chapters 2 and 3, were synthesised in the presentation of the new interpersonal model of change in Chapter 4. 7.4.4.4 Impact areas and the model of change Conclusions drawn from case-study data highlight various aspects, or impact areas, presented in the interpersonal model of change: personal attributes, practical constraints, external influences, awareness, training and feedback. Personal attributes. Data obtained and presented in the case-study profiles indicated that a lack of confidence could have a negative effect particularly on practice, and to a lesser extent on attitudes. CSC appeared to lack confidence, an issue that became apparent in the interview




session and initial classes delivered on the INSET course. Following the course he had developed in confidence and this facilitated a move through the Model of Change. CSA, CSB, and CSD were more confident in their approaches. CSD directly related this to a training experience in America. The complex nature of attitudes was conveyed in the data obtained from the Attitude Questionnaire, and its relationship to methodology and practice, as shown above in the research results. Their influence on the learning process, as stated by Williams and Burden is not disputed: Whatever methodology teachers purport to adopt, whatever coursebook or syllabus they are following, what goes on in their classrooms will be influenced by their beliefs about the learning process. (Williams and Burden, 1997: 207) However, a positive attitude towards an act did not necessarily result in that act being implemented, and correspondingly a negative attitude did not always result in an act not taking place. This suggests that other issues may have greater influence or impact. Practical constraints. Three case study subjects teach at academic high schools. Students in these schools will be aiming to attend university. Although LoCastro pointed to the positive impact NRCOS could have on classroom practice, the influence of the entrance examination system in Japan, particularly for SHS, was also acknowledged: The entrance examination system can be said to have a deleterious washback effect on methodologies and teacher education; classroom teachers are under pressure to teach ‘exam English’. Unless the university examination system is changed, many feel that the new curriculum will be virtually ignored, particularly at the senior high school level. (LoCastro, 1996: 47) This is a situation which has not passed by unnoticed by the Japanese Ministry of Education: The easing of entrance examination competition is vital to the reform of upper secondary education. This must be achieved through a variety of measures, including the use of diversified and multiple evaluation criteria in the selection process. It is vital to liberate students from the psychological pressure resulting from examination competition. (Monbusho, 1995: 54)




The Ministry of Education established an ‘expert group’ (Monbusho, 1995: 54) to deal with the problem of the entrance examination, but their efforts have, as yet, proved to be unfruitful. UEE pressure continues to exist as comments from the case study participants and respondents to the GSQ indicate (Lamie, 2000). It is clear that teachers also need to be ‘liberated’ from the examination competition. Nevertheless, case study subjects were seen, following the period of INSET, to have progressed through the model of change despite this influence. The entrance examinations are not the only practical constraint to be placed on teachers and affect the process of change. The prescribed textbook has been seen to have a particular impact on practice. The mismatch with the Course of Study has added to the difficulty for the Japanese teachers of English. However, the University of Birmingham provided a course specifically designed to tackle this issue, and results suggest that the negative impact has been reduced and gradual movements are being made towards a progressive approach. External influences. The influence of the school environment and culture, one of the key principles of change (see Chapter 1), the staff, students and principal, and the importance of parental support has been stressed by all case study participants. Although participants may be able, occasionally, to bypass this constraint, it will be ever-present. Murphey and Sato reiterate its impact: Individual beliefs seem secondary to school norms and institutional beliefs when determining specific actions in the classroom. (Murphey and Sato, 1999: 209) The school culture, particularly in Japan, provides a powerful influence on personal change. Even teachers who have been fortunate enough to attend training courses, such as CSD at the University of Syracuse, may find that on return to their own classrooms implementation is difficult due to a lack of support within the school itself, as Murphey and Sato concur: For teachers to develop their individual beliefs through trial and error experiences, which is teacher development, it is crucial that the institution of schooling in general, and each school individually, create structures that invite teachers to do so. (Murphey and Sato, 1999: 209) The importance of looking upon the teacher development process as one which should include the whole school is therefore highlighted. Within





Awareness. In maintaining the need for an ‘experience-driven’ approach to teacher training, Edwards (1996: 100) supports the notion that ‘effective teacher training courses include teaching practice activities to provide trainees with the opportunity to learn through teaching’. The impact of experience and awareness is supported by Richards: The ultimate source of teachers’ classroom practices is belief systems – the information, attitudes, values, expectations, theories, and assumptions about teaching and learning that teachers build up over time and bring with them to the classroom. (Richards, 1998: 66) Case study subjects have practised activities and tested out theories in Micro-teaching sessions at the University of Birmingham, as well as taken part in interactive school visits, and have all received ‘the opportunity to learn through teaching’ (Edwards, 1996: 100), and within the constraints have changed. Respondents to the GSQ indicated that in-service teacher training needs to be developed in Japan in order to facilitate this change. Training. Carless (2001: 264) asserts that ‘teacher training and support are crucial issues in the preparation of teachers to implement a new curriculum’. The training and support structures for the revised curriculum in Japan have been severely lacking: The Ministry of Education is promoting the adoption of the CLT approach, yet many of the teachers themselves still do not have a high level of communicative competence in the language. In addition, there is a general lack of teacher education. (LoCastro, 1996: 42) Previous discussions, which looked at the role of INSET in Japan, and respondents to the GSQ and case study subjects, have confirmed this. The changes that have taken place for the latter in terms of methodology, attitudes and practice, following the INSET course at the University of Birmingham, further reinforce the positive effect that continued professional development can have on teacher performance and beliefs.



Japanese society, with a strictly adhered to hierarchy, it is understandable that many teachers are not willing to radically change their teaching practices if the institution itself is not involved in the process.


Curriculum innovation involves multiple and interrelated factors that may influence it at different stages and at different levels. (Defeng Li, 2001: 163) Teachers at academic high school in Japan such as CSB, CSC and CSD will, therefore, not want to jeopardise the futures of their students by changing teaching practices and techniques which may have an adverse effect on their UEE performance. Hence, although they may display an attitude shift towards the progressive, their practice will remain traditional. The complexity of the process of change for teachers of English in Japan is apparent. A number of key Impact Areas emerged when studying the data obtained from the case study participants: • The prescribed textbooks and UEEs; • Institutional culture and beliefs, principally the members of teaching staff and the hierarchical structure of the school; • Community and local pressures in the form of parental influence; • Student outcomes and feedback; and • Awareness and knowledge gained from initial and in-service training.

7.5 Implications and recommendations A more widespread study, involving additional case study subjects in both junior and senior high schools, is needed to test the model of change and confirm the influence of the various impact areas. However, from this limited study a number of recommendations can be made: 1. Develop resourcing. Monbusho should cease ‘paying only lip service to communicative skills’ (LoCastro, 1996: 44). The mismatch between the aims and objectives of the revised curriculum and the materials designed supposedly to support it should be corrected. In other words, a comprehensive revision of the prescribed textbooks should take place. 2. Develop ITT. The structure and content of initial teacher education in Japan needs to be brought into line with the current revision, in



Feedback. Teacher performance and beliefs will naturally be influenced by feedback given from external influences, such as other members of staff, students and parents, as well as personal individual responses. This is indicative of the interrelated nature of curriculum change, as proposed by Defeng Li:


3. Expand in-service training. Opportunities for qualified, experienced teachers of English to benefit from continued professional development should be encouraged. A network of INSET activities could be made available, including the established forms of teacher development not within government parameters, for example, the JALT. 4. Review the entrance examination structure. In order to lessen the pressure exerted on teachers, particularly in academic SHSs, to teach to the test, a complete review of the examination system needs to take place. Monbusho could initiate this change by making its UEE consistent with the theoretical underpinning of the NRCOS. 5. Involve teachers in the innovation process. Curriculum innovation will proceed much more smoothly if those involved in the process are included in the planning, implementation and evaluation procedures, as was determined in Chapter 3. Top-down power-coercive strategies will receive increased resistance from client-users particularly if they are unaware of why the changes have been thought necessary. 6. Encourage awareness in English language teachers. Teachers of English, both in Japan and world-wide, should be encouraged to take responsibility for, and ownership (a central factor affecting curriculum change, see Figure 3.3) of, developments in their own attitudes and practice. Through confronting their behaviour and beliefs, via, for example, questionnaire completion and lesson videotaping and analysis, they can become involved in the process of change.

7.6 Summary The teaching of English in Japan is, and has been for some time, at a crossroads. There has been a dramatic change in the principles underlying its teaching which has resulted in a new course of study. In responses to a general survey questionnaire, teachers of English have indicated that developments must take place within the following areas: • • • •

ITT Provision and utilisation of teaching resources UEEs Continued professional development.



order for newly qualified teachers to be given the ability to deliver the curriculum effectively.

This chapter has presented an overview of ELT in Japan. It has reviewed the development of English education and the demands of a curriculum innovation which radically refocused the teaching of English: The NRCOS. Following an introduction to teacher education and training in Japan, in particular in-service education, a one-year in-service training programme designed to assist the innovation was presented and evaluated. In supporting the hypothesis that in-service training courses have the capacity to facilitate change, four Japanese teachers of English taking part in the 1996–1997 course were studied to examine the impact of the training programme, in terms of methodology, attitudes and practice. The research concluded that changes, towards the aim of the course of study, had taken place in all the recorded cases. The findings were then related to the interpersonal model of change presented in Chapter 4. Of primary influence in this Japanese context were the raising of awareness and the importance of training. The questionnaire tools used for the research have since become an integral part of the programme with the purpose of raising awareness and encouraging the teacher to take an active part in personal classroom research, and they thereby increase the likelihood of change and understanding. The involvement of the teacher in this process is crucial.







Everyone thinks of changing the world, but no one thinks of changing himself. – Leo Tolstoy, 1828–1910

This book has been written in the belief that a better understanding of the process of change will help us, both personally and professionally, to manage change more effectively. The conclusion presents a summary of the main ideas introduced in the book and also puts forward a tentative set of recommendations for promoting successful educational change. Part I focused on defining change, both generally and in the educational context. Chapter 1, via the presentation of two tangible examples of change (the aeroplane and the toothbrush) determined eight principles of change: • Principle 1: Change involves the statement of an aim There is always a reason behind change. This reason may be clear to those promoting change, but not to all involved in the process. Therefore, an explicit statement of the aim can help to clarify the purpose of the change and thereby promote support. • Principle 2: Change is problem-solving As change proceeds, new challenges and problems constantly arise. The solving of one problem may not inevitably lead to the creation of another, but it is likely to do so. Of importance here is not only what the problem is, and how it is to be solved, but who stated that it was a problem in the first place. • Principle 3: Change is client-user focused Change should encourage and respond to feedback from its consumers or customers. 207



Conclusion

• Principle 4: Change involves a variety of actors Changes that are being instigated in schools are not confined to teachers and curriculum planners. Potential resistance, or support for the change, may come from principals, students and parents. Schools, although subject to their institutional culture and ethos, are also part of the wider community. • Principle 5: Change is part of a complex system Any change being proposed in one part of the system, such as the classroom, will naturally have an effect on other parts of the system, such as other classrooms, the school as a whole, or the community. Change does not take place in a vacuum, because people are involved and people do not exist in a vacuum. • Principle 6: Change is part of a social and economic context The complex system surrounding change will affect that change both socially and economically. Any change being promoted not only needs to fit into the wider environment in which it is being placed, but must also receive support from that environment. • Principle 7: Change is part of a personal context, evokes a variety of emotions and involves attitudes and beliefs Just as change is part of the wider environment and is affected by school, community and national norms, so too is change part of the personal setting and as a result is affected by, not always anticipated or expected, individual thoughts, feelings and beliefs. • Principle 8: Change is a process and involves training, practice and time Change cannot, and should not, be rushed. It is a hugely complex process comprising a myriad of interrelated factors. It requires support and it takes time. The relation of these principles of change to factors affecting educational change was explored in Chapter 2. Factors affecting educational change were seen to fall into three areas: the change process, external factors and internal factors. The treatment of three key change strategies, the power-coercive, the rational-empirical and the normative-re-educative, were proven to be vital to the process of change, as were a clear definition of aims and objectives, experienced change agents and effective implementation procedures. Global, national, community and school pressures were all observed to have an effect on the individual, as well as the individual’s own internal pressures, such as their attitudes, ability and knowledge. Chapters 3 and 4 formed the second part of the book, implementing change, and looked at curriculum change and models of change



208 Evaluating Change in English Language Teaching

respectively. Following an analysis of three models of curriculum implementation, the R, D and D model, the Social-Interaction model and the Problem-Solving model, Chapter 3 introduced a number of factors affecting curriculum change in ELT. These factors mapped onto the factors affecting educational change, but more specifically looked at impact on the curriculum, and were classified in terms of Innovation factors (the change process), Environmental factors (external pressures) and Individual factors (internal pressures). Innovation factors included the relevance, size and cost of the change. Environmental factors included areas such as school culture, the community and the students. Individual factors comprised attitudes, beliefs and ability. The three areas were also seen to overlap, with communication and ownership being central to the successful implementation of curriculum change. Chapter 4 drew together the various definitions, strategies and factors affecting change, in its presentation of a new interpersonal model of change which highlighted six critical features that need to be taken into account when analysing the change process. These critical features, or impact areas, were: personal attributes (confidence and attitudes); practical constraints (textbooks, class size and examinations); external influences (culture, teachers, principals, students and parents); awareness; training; and feedback. The final part of the book developed the theoretical issues presented previously through the examination of change in three English language teacher training contexts. Chapter 5 investigated change with students taking part in a master’s programme in the teaching of English as a foreign/second language (MA TEFL/TESL). The chapter gave a summary of recent developments in in-service training and language teacher education before moving on to present the findings of two questionnaires, distributed at the beginning and end of the programme. The questionnaires were designed to examine the students’ attitudes to various aspects of change and encourage them to critically reflect on these attitudes during the programme, by a utilisation of the findings of the first questionnaire in the ‘Management of Change’ option sessions. The students emphasised the importance of clear aims and objectives with regard to educational change, as well as the provision of adequate resources and ongoing support and training. The negative impact of power-coercive strategies was stressed, as was the positive impact of an adoption of the rational-empirical and normativere-educative strategies. The importance of the development of an awareness of the change process itself was seen as vital to the effective management of change.



Conclusion 209

Chapter 6 analysed change within the Chinese context, with an evaluation of attitudes to change of Chinese lecturers of English taking part in a one-month intensive teacher training programme. Following a summary of historical developments in ELT in China, the aims and content of the China University of Mining and Technology (CUMT) programme were presented. The programme begins with a seminar focusing on change during which the participants complete and discuss a series of activities. These activities look at defining change in its general and academic contexts, discuss specific instances of change within the Chinese higher education context, and provide an opportunity for participants to suggest ways in which they think they may change, in terms of attitudes and practice, following the course. The study concluded with five recommendations: 1. Consider the change strategies and implementation procedures employed; 2. Consider the far-reaching implications of change; 3. Develop appropriate teaching materials; 4. Co-ordinate the development of assessment procedures alongside curriculum change; and 5. Provide suitable training courses. The final chapter considered change in the Japanese context. The one-year Japanese Secondary Teachers’ (JST) programme was created in direct response to a curriculum innovation in the teaching of English in Japan, which saw a proposed change in teaching methodology from the historically dominant grammar-translation method to communicative language teaching and teaching for communicative competence. With direct reference to the interpersonal model of change discussed in Chapter 4, this chapter presented the procedure and findings of a longitudinal case study of four Japanese teachers of English looking at changes in attitudes, perceived methodology and practice over the training period. Although a more widespread study is required to test the results presented, the chapter concluded with six recommendations for the encouragement of successful educational change: 1. Develop resourcing 2. Develop initial teacher training 3. Expand in-service training




Conclusion 211

Fuhrman and Malen consider the process of educational change to be one full of struggles and compromises: Educational policies and practices were and are the result of struggles and compromises over what would count as legitimate knowledge, pedagogy, goals and criteria for determining effectiveness. (Fuhrman and Malen, 1991: 1) Very often it would appear to be only the teachers who are taking part in those struggles or being continually requested to compromise, or have been given the responsibility for the change. However, teachers are not the only participants in the educational change process, as we have seen and as MA TEFL/TESL student #8 articulates: Before taking the course [the ‘Management of Change’ option] I thought teachers only determine the success or failure of an innovation. Now I feel that teachers are only one factor in the process of change. As participants in change, as teachers, students or curriculum planners and developers, we will all find ourselves either the receivers of change or the promoters of change. The responsibility for the change lies with all of us. Finally, therefore, I would like to suggest that we all consider the following ten recommendations for the promotion of the successful management of change: Recommendation 1: Create a positive atmosphere for change It is not the strongest of the species that survive, nor the most intelligent, but the ones most responsive to change. (Charles Darwin, 1809–1882) Creating a positive atmosphere for change does not mean that we always have to embrace any change that is being proposed, but it does mean that we should, where possible, in our classrooms and our institutions as a whole, let those who wish to promote change know that it



4. Review the entrance examination structure 5. Involve teachers in the innovation process 6. Encourage awareness in English language teachers.


Recommendation 2: Communicate Successful communication is vital to the management of change. It is also important that information is communicated in all directions from the promoters of change to the receivers and vice versa. We cannot complain about a particular proposal if we are unwilling to become involved and communicate our views about it. Recommendation 3: Treat change as a process and not an event Although there may be instances of change, or acts of innovation, taking place in an educational institution, they do so within a process. Fullan elucidates: If change involved implementing single, well-developed, proven innovations one at a time, perhaps it could be blueprinted. But school districts and schools are in the business of implementing a bewildering array of multiple innovations and policies simultaneously. (Fullan, 1993: 24) It can often appear, therefore, easier to resist the change than to try and cope with the ‘bewildering array’ of innovations present. An awareness of the process may alleviate some of these concerns as will the setting of the process in a realistic context. Recommendation 4: Set realistic goals and priorities Not only should the aims and objectives of an innovation be communicated succinctly and with clarity, but they also need to be realistic. In schools, the implementing of change will inevitably involve many interrelated factors. It is therefore useful in this situation, and will hopefully prevent the receiver from feeling overwhelmed, if the objectives are prioritised. We need to make sure that we are asking the implementers of any change to do something that they can, in fact, do. One way to encourage this is to provide adequate resources. Recommendation 5: Provide resources and ongoing support We would not expect someone to be able to make a cake if we did not provide the correct ingredients, and yet it would appear that some promoters of curriculum change expect teachers to be able, and willing, to effect change without being given the educational tools to do so. We



will be received in a positive spirit. The onus must then be on those promoters to ensure that any proposals are put forward with tact and diplomacy and with the assurance that feedback will not only be welcomed, but encouraged.

would not expect someone to be able to make a cake if we gave them a stick, a tube of toothpaste and a car tyre, and yet some promoters of curriculum change appear to expect teachers to be able to effect change by using completely inappropriate or inadequate educational tools. We need to provide, and develop, suitable resources if we wish to promote successful change. We also need to provide these resources within a supportive environment, where ongoing training and support is a priority. Recommendation 6: Monitor and evaluate progress Stenhouse (1980) postulates four important stages in the curriculum innovation process: package development, teacher consultation and training, school implementation and ongoing evaluation. One area that appears to be neglected in the change process is evaluation. As receivers of change, we need to know that promoters will be encouraging active monitoring of the change process in order to determine suitability and compatibility with the existing system. Feedback must be sought and acted upon. Recommendation 7: Be flexible and open-minded As Tolstoy states, ‘everybody thinks of changing the world, but no one thinks of changing himself’. Both receivers of change and promoters of change need to keep an open mind when considering proposals and procedures. If, after a consultation period, or a trial period, the innovation in question is proving to be irrelevant, unsuitable or incompatible with the operating system, then it must, itself, be changed. Promoters of change cannot reasonably expect receivers of change to be welcoming and flexible if the former are not willing to afford the latter the same courtesy. Recommendation 8: Be accountable A key factor affecting educational change is ownership. A lack of ownership, according to Goh (1999), contributed to the failure of the Malaysian Ministry of Education to implement the Integrated Curriculum at the first attempt. Training courses attempted to disseminate information, using a rational-empirical approach, but did little to encourage discussion of the content or suggest to the teachers that the materials could be adapted in any way. This led to a feeling of ‘disassociation’ from the development of the innovation. But there is a flip side to the ownership coin. If you expect and accept ownership in the process of change then you must also accept some accountability for that change.



Conclusion 213

Recommendation 9: Develop your awareness of the process of change Because change is taking place around us, and to us, all the time, the result is often that we spend little time analysing the process, as we have to spend most of our time dealing with actual events. We cannot analyse everything that takes place in our lives, or in our classrooms, but an awareness of the process of change will help us to deal with the ‘bewildering array’ of changes taking place. Change requires time and energy, and some of this time can profitably be taken out from action and spent on contemplation. Recommendation 10: Expect the unexpected One result of developing your awareness of the process of change will be to realise that even if, as a promoter, it seems perfectly clear to you that the change being proposed is a ‘good thing’, it may not, and very frequently will not, be viewed as such from many receivers of the proposition. This may be neither the fault of the promoter nor of the receiver. Realistic goals may have been set and communicated effectively. The various actors in the change process may have been consulted and their views and opinions incorporated. Resources and training may have even been provided. But people are people, and people are individuals: When change occurs, people are tossed up in the air and they all land somewhere along a line. A cardinal rule when dealing with change is that where people come down is where they come down. Their reactions, whatever they are, will be normal and natural for them given their experiences and individual circumstances. For this reason, do not judge, evaluate, advise, agree or disagree. Just hear them out. (Henion, 2004: 3) Thomas Carlyle (see Section 1.2) viewed change as a ‘needful’ yet ‘painful’ process. Many of us, according to Howardell (2001: 1) ‘fear the unknown’, ‘fear loss’ and ‘fear change’. We know that change is not confined to the educational environment. We are all involved, everyday, in some form of change. It may be planned or unplanned, imposed or self-motivated, embraced or resisted. Two things are certain: it is inevitable and it is an enormously intricate process, but in having a clearer understanding of the process itself we may find it, at least, a little less painful.





Appendices





MA TEFL/TESL Programme Additional Student Responses

A1.1 Questionnaire 1: What key areas should curriculum developers focus on when implementing nation-wide curriculum change? 1. The system of assessment. 2. The curriculum developers should focus on the full development of the individual. 3. From my point of view, curriculum about different cultures and method of studies will be quite useful. 4. The change should focus on real life and practice. 6. Practical courses and field work. 7. Make the courses more applicable. 8. To divide the students specifically into different classes according to their levels, interests, etc. so that they can understand and enjoy what they are learning more easily. 9. How to remain the traditional culture and follow the steps of international development at the same time. 10. The quality of the teachers, how to cultivate skilful, expressive and welleducated teachers, not only their skills but their attitudes and devotion. 12. Effects on students, cost, employment, economy, parents, abilities and situation of individual nations. 13. Designing a concrete syllabus and developing materials are crucial issues without which an innovative theory or idea could not be realised in the actual teaching situation. 14. They have to express explicitly why that ‘change’ is necessary. They have to have a future vision of its outcome. 15. Education is the core of people’s values. Nations consist of the quality of education. Curriculum developers should focus on the content (not grammar, but the material) of the textbooks, through which the students learn their nation, the world, themselves. 18. To be practical for teachers and students. They should know and see what is really happening at schools. 19. They should consider the main goals of curriculum first. 21. I think curriculum developers should try to find out problem areas for students and according to that change curriculum to help students to solve those problems. 217



Appendix 1

23. They should focus more on promoting communication, creativity and critical thought. School and education generally have to be humanistic, which means that they must treat students as human beings with inner needs, intellectual gifts and pursuits, artistic turns and several talents and inclinations. An outlet should be given to all these human capabilities so that our students aren’t treated as one-dimensional creatures merely focusing on old-fashioned, monotonous, boring and sterile structures. Human nature must not be deprived of its potential. 23. The needs of up-to-date knowledge, the aims and usefulness of IT, culture, training of teachers. You cannot change curriculum without changing those who will work with this curriculum. 24. Areas like academic values, graduates’ prospect and their personal development. 25. Programme schedule and courses, teaching materials, evaluation. 26. Opinions of teachers and students. They have to identify the present problems and needs exactly.

A1.2 What areas/issues may have a negative impact on educational change? 1. Lack of money. Lack of quality teachers. Students’ lack of interest in studying. 2. Social isolation. Financial constraints. Structural looseness of the education system. Teachers and students’ resistance. Insufficient knowledge. 3. The curriculum developer’s ability: I mean if they are not a professor in a certain field, the education change will mean nothing. Do not absorb all kind of information from all over the world. 4. Some issues go like this: teachers should teach everything in detail and instruct student to do more work after class. Every student must learn certain subjects (in university) for instance: political. In short: arrange time for students. 5. Only follow the old ways. 7. Resistance to change. 8. Ambiguity of the educational change. The unstable educational system of the government. 9. Change may destroy the tradition. 10. Too much political interference. 11. The thoughts of parents cannot catch up with the change. 12. Parents’ objections, teachers’ lack of co-operation, lack of costs and governments’ support, insufficient planning. 13. An appeal without empirical evidence sometimes causes a barren discussion. In addition, a ‘new’ methodology is always more attractive than the old one, so people tend to ‘throw the baby out with the bath water’ without reflecting on what we actually do. 14. Teachers cannot or dare not catch up with the concept of the change. 15. Too much focus on conversation leads to little thought of writing skills. To be afraid of being criticised by parents. Ministry of Education forces teachers to change school systems in spite of teachers’ opposition. 18. To change something is difficult because it requires much energy especially for teachers. Sometimes it seems to be too ideal.



218 Appendices

19. Differences in cultures and peoples may have a negative impact on multicultural societies. 21. If the change is not easily understood by students. 22. An educational change may not be accepted due to students’ conservative cultural educational background, due to lack of appropriate facilities or teaching aids or more generally due to the fact that a society might not be ready to accept changes. 23. Change should not be radical and abrupt, but should take place in gradual mode. Changes in education can be negative where opinions of students are not taken into consideration. 25. Society, governmental policy and funding, students’/teachers’ reluctance to change. 26. A coercive attitude of those who direct the educational change. They should take a standpoint to support those who are involved in education.

A1.3 What areas/issues may have a positive impact on educational change? 1. Fierce competition in employment. Better prospects for better-educated people. People’s strong desire to improve the educational system. 2. Consensus about change. Financial support from the government and society. Acceptance by teachers and students. Effective staff development. 3. The developer’s good ability. The increase of economy. 4. Examination system. If students can have a chance to study for interest not for marks, things will be better. 5. Absorb the students’ suggestions. 7. Positive attitudes will have a positive impact on educational change. 8. Co-operation between teachers, students and the parents. Well-prepared teachers. 9. We can repair the shortcoming from educational change. 10. The standard of teachers’ recruitment. 11. High income. High GNP. 12. Parents’ support, teachers’ co-operation, government support, sufficient costs, good planning. 13. Awareness of what we are already doing and what we should do often enables us to examine whether our practice fully accords with the principles of innovative teaching. 14. Teachers can provide students education which is corresponding to the time (atleast curriculum developers believe this). 15. Teachers themselves realise the need to change and try to change. For example, they go abroad and realise Japan needs radical change just like us. 18. It can be motivation for teachers, students and parents. It can be our aim. 19. If many people can share common ideas on the educational issues, it can impact positively on educational change. 21. If the students adopt the change without any major problem. 22. There are societies and cultures that are open to changes and innovations. Some teaching courses for teachers would have positive results so that teachers



Appendix 1 219

could support in the best way every positive change and reject or fight against negative ones (possibly imposed by the government: it happened in Greece three years ago). 23. Gradual development in change, teachers well qualified and ‘open’ and willing in change, suitable teaching aids provided which comply with modern technological developments worldwide. 25. School/university administration, information technology (Internet). 26. Bottom-up process. It is students and teachers that can realise the change.

A1.4 Questionnaire 2: What key areas should curriculum developers focus on when implementing nation-wide curriculum change? 1. Feasibility, improvement and efficiency. 2. Teachers’ beliefs or attitudes towards teaching. Teaching material. 3. Teachers’ business. If the implementing demands teachers’ time a lot it cannot work well. 4. Developers have to know what the real situation is like in school. Teachers and students need to be taken into account. 5. They should focus on teacher training. Especially it is important to stimulate heads of the department as a key person of innovation so that they can take initiative at their own institutions. 6. Culture of the country. Ability/confidence of change agent. Teachers and students (those most affected). 8. I think curriculum developers should ask themselves (and society) what is the purpose of education. Is education meant to empower, train, socialise, control, transmit (knowledge) to the individual? Once that is clear, clear and realistic curriculum goals, methods of assessment, learning–teaching environments, resources and support are key areas.

A1.5 What areas/issues may have a negative impact on educational change? 1. Coercion of change; impact of new materials; old habits of teaching; peer pressure. 2. Conservatism in the classroom (teachers and students). Physical and financial situation. 4. It takes time and costs money. 5. Financial issues, constraints of textbooks, cultural issues (school, local, national), exam system and opinions of local people and parents. 6. Tendency towards preserving tradition. Examinations. 7. Teachers not willing to implement change. 8. I think that innovation overload, the extent of external/internal support, and the institution’s capacity for managing change may have a negative impact.



220 Appendices

Appendix 1 221

1. Teachers’ eagerness to change; students’ expectation; government and institutional support. 2. Awareness of the problem. Drastic decision-making. 4. If another clear goal is set, it will promote teachers’ motivation. 5. Consensus and collaboration among teachers. Development of training for head teachers. Development of in-service training. Development of support for teachers. 6. Constant support for teachers. Positive results of other institutions’ innovations. Latest trend in education as opposed to tradition. 8. I think balanced and systematic efforts (towards change) strong external/ internal support, and the institution’s capacity for managing change may have a positive impact.

A1.7

Additional comments

2. New methodologies are often attractive, but we should stop to think reflectively before we begin to change our teaching. 4. I really hope innovation in English teaching will come true in Japan. 5. This course changed my way of thinking about not only my teaching situation, but also my life!! 6. I like the idea of comparing educational change to everyday things. 7. – 8. I definitely developed/am developing a deeper understanding of and interest in various issues. I feel a heightened awareness of change on an everyday level and beyond.



A1.6 What areas/issues may have a positive impact on educational change?

Education in China – English Language Teaching in Primary Schools

A2.1 Basic requirements for primary school English in China The Basic Requirements are designed into two levels for primary school pupils from age 8 to 12. Level 1 is for Grades 3 and 4, Level 2 is for Grades 5 and 6. It is effective from September 2001.

Level 1: Performance descriptions Listen and do • • • •

Be able to recognize and point at objects or pictures according to what is heard. Be able to understand and react to simple classroom instructions. Be able to do things according to instructions, such as pointing, colouring, drawing pictures, acting physically, doing hand craft. Be able to understand and react to simple English stories with the help of pictures or actions.

Speak and sing • • • • • • •

Be able to imitate from the recordings. Be able to greet each other in simple English. Be able to exchange simple personal information, such as names and age. Be able to express simple feeling or emotions, such as likes and dislikes. Be able to guess meaning or say the words from acting or miming. Be able to sing 15–20 children’s songs and 15–20 nursery rhymes. Be able to speak out words or phrases according to pictures or printed words.

Play and act • • •

Be able to play games in English and communicate with each other in the game with simple English. Be able to do simple role plays in English. Be able to perform English songs and act out simple English plays, e.g. Little Red Riding Hood. 222



Appendix 2

Appendix 2 223

Read and write Be able to recognize words printed with pictures. Be able to recognize objects first and then understand words describing them. Be able to read and understand simple picture stories in English. Be able to write correctly letters and words that have been learned.

Audio and visual • •

Be able to follow simple English cartoon films or other English programmes at a similar level. The time spent for audio and visual should be no less than 10 hours per school year with an average of 20–25 minutes a week.

Level 2: Performance descriptions Listening • • • •

Be able to understand simple spoken English or recorded English. Be able to understand questions in classroom activities. Be able to understand and react properly to repeatedly-used instructions. Be able to understand simple English stories supported with pictures.

Speaking • • • •

Be able to pronounce English clearly with the right intonation. Be able to make short dialogues on familiar personal or family topics. Be able to use very common daily expressions, e.g. for greeting, farewell, gratitude and apology. Be able to tell simple stories with the help of the teacher.

Reading • • • • • •

Be able to recognize learned words and phrases. Be able to pronounce simple words according to rules of spelling. Be able to read and understand simple instructions in the textbook. Be able to read and understand simple information from cards. Be able to read simple stories or short texts with the help of pictures, and form the initial habit of reading in a sense group. Be able to read aloud correctly the learned text or stories.

Writing • • • •

Be able to write sentences based on given models. Be able to write out simple greetings. Be able to write captions for pictures or simple descriptions for objects. Be able to use capital and small letters in writing and use correct punctuation for simple sentences.

Playing and acting, and audio and visual • • •

Be able to play games in English according to instructions. Be able to perform stories or short plays with the help of the teacher. Be able to perform simple rhymes or poems 30–40 (including Level 1).



• • • •

224 Appendices Be able to sing English songs 30–40 (including Level 1). Be able to follow simple English cartoon films or other English programmes at a similar level. The time spent for audio-visual should be no less than 10 hours a school year with an average of 20–25 minutes a week.

Vocabulary requirement: 600–700 words based on topics such as numbers, colours, time, weather, food, clothes. (Qiang, 2002: 107–108)



• •

Appendix 3

A3.1

The objectives of Project 211

The implementation of Project 211 is an important measure taken by the Chinese government in its effort to facilitate the development of higher education in the context of the country’s advancement in social and economic fields. Primarily aiming at training high-level professional manpower to implement the national strategy for social and economic development, the project has great significance in improving higher education, accelerating the national economic progress, pushing forward the development of science, technology and culture, enhancing China’s overall capacity and international competitiveness, and laying the foundation of training high-level professional manpower mainly within the educational institutions at home.

A3.2

The overall goals and missions of Project 211

During the 9th Five-year Plan period, the government will initiate actions to strengthen a number of institutions of higher learning and key disciplinary areas. It is envisaged that after several years’ efforts some 100 institutions of higher learning and a group of key disciplinary areas will have greatly improved their quality of education, scientific research, management and institutional efficiency. In addition, these institutions will also have made remarkable progress in reforming the management system and consequently become the bases for training high-level professional manpower and solving major problems for the country’s economic construction and social development. As a result of such efforts, this group of institutions will set up national standards in overall quality , with some of the key universities and disciplinary areas approaching or reaching the advanced international standards. The majority of them will have enhanced their physical conditions and staff competence, in addition to noticeable achievements in human resources training and scientific research. Adapting to regional and sectional development needs, these institutions are expected to play a key and exemplary role.

A3.3

Main components of the Project

Project 211 consists of the following three major components for development, namely the overall institutional capacity, key disciplinary areas, and public service system of higher education. 225



Education in China – Project 211

226 Appendices

This requires great efforts in bringing up a large number of academic leaders and competent teachers who have high academic attainments and prestige, both at home and abroad. In particular, the training of young academic leaders should be accelerated, so as to maintain a stable teaching and administrative contingent with political integrity and academic quality, rational structure and professional competence. The reform of education and teaching will be carried out in depth in order to optimise the structure of academic programs (specialities) and to enhance the overall student development in moral, intellectual and physical aspects, thus ensuring substantial improvement in the quality of education. Measures are to be taken to enhance the infrastructure and laboratory facilities indispensable for teaching and research, thus creating necessary conditions for training as well as attracting outstanding talents. Steps are to be taken to improve efficiency through moderate institutional expansion, enhance scientific research, and strive for the commercialisation of research findings so as to accelerate the pace of transferring scientific achievements into productivity. While facilitating the reform of the administrative as well as the internal management system of universities, efforts will be made to strengthen international exchange and co-operation in higher education, and to raise the international profile of Chinese higher education institutions.

2. The development of key disciplinary areas The main thrust of the development of key disciplinary areas is to enhance the capacity of training high-level manpower in the frontier fields of science and technology. Among the institutions with favourable conditions, efforts will be made to identify key research bases, which can exert significant impact on the country’s social and economic development, scientific and technological advancement, and the national defence. These bases will have the capacity to deal with major problems in science and technology and have the prospect for breakthroughs in relevant fields. Improving the experimental facilities for the training of professional manpower, efforts will be made to broaden the coverage of various disciplines, and foster the emergence of groups of disciplines, and foster the emergence of groups of disciplines, and foster the emergence of groups of disciplinary areas and research bases. With common theoretical foundation and inherently close relationships, these groups are favoured for resources sharing and have unique features and advantages in developing a capacity for the training of high-level professional manpower in a sustainable manner. Efforts will also be made to establish a system of key disciplinary areas covering major professions and sectors for national economic and social progress, facilitating the development of academic disciplines and science and technology, optimising the division of labour, and achieving mutual reinforcement.

3. The development of the public service system of higher education The development of the public service system of higher education comprises three components: the Chinese Education and Research Network (CERNET), the Library and Documentation Support System (LDSS) and the Modern Equipment and Facilities Sharing System (MEFSS). Linking up all major universities in China and the Internet, the CERNET will provide information service to the sectors of



1. The improvement of overall institutional capacity

education, science and technology, and customers from all walks of life in China. The LDSS backed by the CERNET, will establish a national comprehensive documentation centre and a number of documentation centres for various disciplines, thus forming a documentation and information sub-network with extensive connections to similar systems both at home and abroad. In light of regional conditions and development priorities of the disciplinary areas, the MEFSS service centre will be set up in major cities where a large number of universities are located so as to raise the efficiency in facility utilisation.

A3.4 Plans and tasks of Project 211 during the 9th Five-year Plan period 1. Top priority will be given to the strengthening of universities to help them approach and reach the advanced international standards for the overall quality of teaching, scientific research, and the training of professional manpower, so as to establish their international prestige and position among universities in the world. 2. Priority will be accorded to the upgrading and improvement of the infrastructure for teaching and research in about 25 universities, which, with a high concentration of key disciplinary areas, have an important bearing on China’s socialist modernisation drive, and shoulder a larger share of responsibility in developing the public service system. These institutions are expected to greatly upgrade their quality of training for professional manpower and have some of the key disciplinary areas approaching and reaching international standards, thus playing a key and exemplary role among universities in China. Emphasis will be placed on supporting the development of institutions and key disciplinary areas which are closely related to the basic and pillar sectors of the industry, and on the improvement of the training capacity of high-level professional manpower and technical personnel who are urgently needed for national development. This clearly indicates that Project 211 is mainly oriented to economic development of China. 3. Efforts will be made to strengthen about 300 key disciplinary areas which have an important bearing on social and economic development, scientific and technological advancement, and the national defence, thus enhancing the long-term training capacity for high-level professional manpower in response to the needs of socialist market economy. 4. Steps will be taken to establish a basic framework for the public service system of higher education.

A3.5

The mode of implementation of Project 211

In principle, projects aimed at strengthening key disciplines and the public service system of higher education will be integrated in an overall plan and implemented in selected universities for consolidation, upgrading, and improvement, so as to effectively utilise financial resources and bring into full play the overall efficiency of higher education institutions. A small number of key disciplinary areas and other development projects will be accommodated in other institutions of higher learning.



Appendix 3 227

228 Appendices

Funding for the Project

The funding required for Project 211 can be generated through a co-financing mechanism involving the State, local governments and higher education institutions. In line with the existing administrative system of higher education, funding will be mainly raised by the central departments and local governments which have the jurisdiction over the universities concerned. Special funds earmarked by the State serve to initiate, support, guide and readjust the development of the Project. The special funds allocated by the central departments and local governments will accord priority first of all to meeting the need of the State key disciplinary areas and the public service system of higher education, and secondly to the infrastructure development which is imperative for universities to upgrade their standards. The special funds of the State will be used mainly to subsidise the development of the national key disciplinary areas and the public service system of higher education, and the infrastructure improvement in a small number of universities which is necessary for raising the overall institutional quality. (CERNET, 2001b)



A3.6

The Course of Study for Upper Secondary School

A4.1

Overall objective

To develop students’ abilities to understand a foreign language and express themselves in it, to foster a positive attitude toward communicating in it, and to heighten interest in language and culture, deepening international understanding.

A4.2

Subjects

English I 1. Objective To develop students’ basic abilities to understand a speaker’s or writer’s intentions, to express their own ideas etc. in English, and to foster a positive attitude toward communicating in English. 2. Contents (1) Language-use activities The following language-use activities should be conducted in order to develop students’ abilities to understand English and express themselves in it, and to foster a positive attitude toward communicating in English. A. Listening The following language-use activities should be conducted: (a) To listen to what is spoken or read aloud and understand the content (b) To listen to passages spoken or read aloud and understand the outline and/or the main points (c) To organise one’s own ideas etc. while listening. B. Speaking The following language-use activities should be conducted: (a) To ask and answer questions about passages spoken or read aloud in accordance with a given situation and purpose (b) To express ideas etc. concerning what has been read (c) To organise intended messages and express them without missing important points. 229



Appendix 4

230 Appendices

(a) To read silently or aloud sentences or passages, trying to understand the content (b) To read passages and understand the outline and/or the main points (c) To read and understand as many passages as fast as possible (d) To read aloud sentences or passages in a manner appropriate for the content. D. Writing The following language-use activities should be conducted: (a) To listen to sentences or passages and write them down (b) To write the outline and/or the main points of what has been listened to (c) To write the outline and/or the main points of what has been read (d) To organise intended messages and write them without missing important points. (2) Language elements A. In carrying out the language-use activities stated in (1), language materials suitable for the attainment of the objectives mentioned in 1 above should be chosen from among the Language Elements in List 1 in the Course of Study for Lower Secondary School (the Ministry of Education Announcement No. 25, 1989) (hereafter referred to as Language Elements for Lower Secondary School) and the Language Elements that follow ‘Writing’ (hereafter referred to as Language Elements for Upper Secondary School). The language elements thus selected should be current standard English. B. Up to about 500 new words should be added to those introduced in lower secondary school. Basic idioms should be selected for instruction. 3. Treatment of the contents (1) In conducting language-use activities in listening, speaking, reading, and writing, no particular emphasis should be placed on any one activity. (2) In accordance with students’ levels of achievement and other factors, the basic learning items introduced in lower secondary school should be reviewed and practised as is necessary in order to achieve proficiency in them. (3) The effective use of a dictionary should be taught and encouraged. (4) Phonetic symbols should be used as an aid in teaching pronunciation. (5) Audio-visual aids should be used in accordance with given situations and purposes. (6) For students who take English for the first time in upper secondary school, the language-use activities mentioned in 2(1) above should be conducted, as a rule, by using the Language Elements for Lower Secondary School. The Language Elements for Upper Secondary School should be selected and introduced depending on the students’ levels of achievement and other factors.



C. Reading The following language-use activities should be conducted:

Appendix 4 231

1. Objective To further develop students’ abilities to understand a speaker’s or writer’s intentions, to express their own ideas etc. in English, and to foster a positive attitude toward communicating in English. 2. Contents (1) Language-use activities In order to achieve the objectives mentioned in 1 above, the same kinds of language-use activities as those for English I should be conducted. (2) Language elements A. In carrying out the language-use activities stated in (1), language elements suitable for the attainment of the objectives mentioned in 1 should be chosen from among the Language Elements for Lower Secondary School and the Language Elements for Upper Secondary School. The language elements thus selected should be current standard English. B. Up to about 500 new words should be added to those indicated in 2(2)B of English I. Basic idioms should be selected for instruction. 3. Treatment of the contents The same considerations stated in 3 of English I should be applied.

Aural/Oral communication A 1. Objective To develop students’ abilities to understand a speaker’s intentions and express their own ideas etc. in spoken English in everyday situations, and to foster a positive attitude toward communicating in English. 2. Contents (1) Language-use activities The following language-use activities in listening and speaking should be conducted. A. To listen to what is spoken or read aloud naturally and understand the content B. To express ideas etc. in spoken English, using simple expressions C. To talk with others about familiar matters, using expressions appropriate to the given situation and purpose. (2) Language elements A. In carrying out the language-use activities stated in (1), language elements suitable for the attainment of the objectives mentioned in 1 should be chosen from among the Language Elements for Lower Secondary School and the Language Elements for Upper Secondary School. The language elements thus selected should be current standard English. B. Words suitable for the achievement of the objectives mentioned in 1 above should be selected within the same limit set under 2(2)B of English II. Basic idioms should be selected for instruction.



English II

232 Appendices

(1) In conducting language-use activities in speaking and listening, no particular emphasis should be placed on any one activity. (2) Expressions that are effective in conveying feelings and opinions should be taught. (3) In conducting language-use activities, a variety of topics should be dealt with in everyday settings such as school, home, and community.

Aural/Oral communication B 1. Objective To develop students’ abilities to understand a speaker’s intentions, and to foster a positive attitude toward communicating in English. 2. Contents (1) Language-use activities The following language-use activities in listening and speaking should be conducted. A. To listen to what is spoken or read aloud naturally and understand the content B. To listen to passages and understand the outline and/or the main points C. To organise ideas about what has been listened to and express them effectively. (2) Language elements A. In carrying out the language-use activities stated in (1), language elements suitable for the attainment of the objectives mentioned in 1 should be chosen from among the Language Elements for Lower Secondary School and the Language Elements for Upper Secondary School. The language elements thus selected should be current standard English. B. Words suitable for the achievement of the objectives mentioned in 1 above should be selected within the same limit set under 2(2)B of English II. Basic idioms should be selected for instruction. 3. Treatment of the contents (1) Listening skills should be taught on a step-by-step basis according to given situations and purposes. (2) Expressions that are effective in asking for confirmation of or expressing one’s opinions about what has been listened to should be taught. (3) In conducting language-use activities, a diversity of topics should be dealt with in situations involving explanation, speech, recitation, broadcasting, and so on.

Aural/Oral communication C 1. Objective To develop students’ abilities to organise their own ideas etc., present and discuss them, and to foster a positive attitude toward communicating in English.



3. Treatment of the contents

Appendix 4 233 2. Contents

A. To organise intended messages and express important points effectively B. To understand a speaker’s intentions etc. and respond to them appropriately C. To express ideas etc. positively in accordance with the given situation and purpose of discussion. (2) Language elements A. In carrying out the language-use activities stated in (1), language elements suitable for the attainment of the objectives mentioned in 1 should be chosen from among the Language Elements for Lower Secondary School and the Language Elements for Upper Secondary School. The language elements thus selected should be current standard English. B. Words suitable for the achievement of the objectives mentioned in 1 above should be selected within the same limit set under 2(2)B of English II. Basic idioms should be selected for instruction. 3. Treatment of the contents (1) Expressions that are effective in conveying suggestion, assertion, argumentation, etc., should be taught. (2) In conducting language-use activities, a diversity of topics should be dealt with in situations involving recitation, speech, discussion, debate, etc.

Reading 1. Objective To further develop students’ abilities to read passages and understand the writer’s intentions etc. and to foster a positive attitude toward understanding written English. 2. Contents (1) Language-use activities The following language-use activities in reading should be conducted. A. To read passages and understand the outline and/or the main points B. To read passages and understand the content focusing on points important for the given purpose C. To read passages and understand the content, and to speak or write opinions etc. about it D. To read passages aloud in a manner appropriate for the content. (2) Language elements A. In carrying out the language-use activities stated in (1), language elements suitable for the attainment of the objectives mentioned in 1 should be chosen from among the Language Elements for Lower Secondary School and the Language Elements for Upper Secondary



(1) Language-use activities The following language-use activities in listening and speaking should be conducted.

234 Appendices School. The language elements thus selected should be current standard English. B. Up to 900 new words should be added to those indicated in 2(2)B of English I. Basic idioms should be selected for instruction.

(1) Reading should be focused more on grasping the content than on understanding of language elements. (2) Reading should be taught with due attention to the organization of paragraphs and passages, and the development of contexts.

Writing 1. Objective To further develop students’ abilities to write their own ideas etc. appropriately, and to foster a positive attitude toward writing in English. 2. Contents (1) Language-use activities The following language-use activities in writing should be conducted. A. To write the outline and/or the main points about what has been listened to or read B. To organise ideas etc. about what has been listened to or read, and write them effectively C. To organise intended messages clearly and write them without missing important points. (2) Language elements A. In carrying out the language-use activities stated in (1), language elements suitable for the attainment of the objectives mentioned in 1 should be chosen from among the Language Elements for Lower Secondary School and the Language Elements for Upper Secondary School. The language elements thus selected should be contemporary standard English. B. Words suitable for the achievement of the objectives mentioned in 1 above should be selected within the same limit set under 2(2)B of English II. Basic idioms should be selected for instruction. 3. Treatment of the contents (1) Writing should be focused on appropriate expression for given purposes. Emphasis should be placed on the process of writing and due attention should be paid to the structure and development of passages. (2) Emphasis should be placed on writing passages of a reasonable length in plain English. [English Language Elements] A. Sentence patterns (a) ‘Subject + Verb + Complement’ in which the verb is other than be and the complement is a present participle or a past participle, or



3. Treatment of the contents

in which the verb is be and the complement is a clause that begins with that, what, etc., or if or whether (b) ‘Subject + Verb + Object’ in which the object is a clause that begins with if or whether (c) ‘Subject + Verb + Indirect Object + Direct Object’ in which the direct object is a clause that begins with that, what, etc., or if or whether (d) ‘Subject + Verb + Object + Complement’ in which the complement is a present participle, a past participle or a root infinitive (e) Other Sentence Patterns It + be etc. + . . . + a clause beginning with that etc. Subject + seem etc. + infinitive It + seem etc. + that-clause. B. Grammar (a) (b) (c) (d)

Adverbial use of the infinitive Use of relative pronouns Use of relative adverbs Use of the pronoun it representing following noun phrases or noun clauses (e) Use of tenses: the present perfect progressive, the past perfect, the past perfect progressive, the future progressive, and the future perfect (f) Use of the passive voice in the future tense (g) Basic use of the subjunctive mood (h) Basic use of participial constructions.

A4.3

Syllabus design and treatment of the contents

1. In designing a syllabus, careful consideration should be given to the following: (1) English II, Reading, and Writing should be taught after English I. (2) At least one of the three subjects, Aural/Oral Communication A, Aural/Oral Communication B, and Aural/Oral Communication C, should be taught to all students. 2. With regard to treatment of the contents, careful consideration should be given to the following: (1) As regards teaching materials, a variety of topics should be chosen from among those concerning daily life, manners and customs, stories, geography, and history, etc. of people throughout the world, especially of those who use the particular language being taught, and of Japanese people as well, according to the students’ mental and physical development as well as their interests and concerns. Furthermore, besides aiming at developing abilities to understand the language and express oneself in it, special consideration should be given to the following. Teaching materials should help: A. To deepen international understanding from a broad perspective, to enhance students’ awareness as Japanese citizens living in the global community, and to cultivate a spirit of international co-operation.



Appendix 4 235

B. To heighten interest in language and culture, to foster a respectful attitude toward them, and to cultivate well-roundedness. C. To deepen understanding of the ways of life and cultures of Japan and the rest of the world, to broaden international perspective, and to cultivate fair judgement. In addition, appropriate types of teaching materials should be chosen from among expositions, dialogs, narratives, plays, poems, letters, etc. (2) In order to properly meet students’ diversified abilities and aptitudes, individual or small-group activities and effective use of audio-visual aids should be encouraged. Moreover, the assistance of native speakers of foreign languages should be sought in developing students’ communicative ability and deepening their international understanding. [Translation: http://www.asahi-net.or.jp/~nx6h-ykt/ CourseStudyUpper.html]



236 Appendices

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Dean, W., 75 Defeng Li, 203 Department of Education and Science, The (DES), 86 Dong, Y.F., 126 Dow, M., 120 Dulles, John Foster (1888–1959), 14 Dzau, Y., 119 Easen, P., 20, 57 Economist, The, 76, 124 Edge, J., 93 Edwards, C., 93, 202 Epstein, J.L., 76 Eraut, M.E., 86, 92 Evans, R., 14, 15, 31, 32 Everard, K.B., 18, 19 Finocchiaro, M., 193 Fox, T., 91 Fuhrman, S.H., 211 Fujimoto, H., 29, 70 Fullan, M.G., xvi, xvii, 7, 11, 16, 18, 19, 23, 24, 25, 31, 33, 34, 40, 57, 58, 62, 63, 68, 69, 75, 76, 77, 78, 80, 87, 89, 91, 94, 95, 96, 105, 147, 163, 212 Gilpin, A., 46 Gipps, C., 70 Glaser, E.M., xx Glasgow, Ellen (1874–1945), 5, 103 Godfrey, J., 30 Goh, C., 17, 39, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 51, 52, 57, 58, 69, 213 Goodson, I., 88 Goreham, G., 7, 103 Greiner, L., 20 Gross, N., 20 Guskey, T.R., 88 Hadley, G., 47, 58, 75 Hall, G.E., 74 249



Index of Names

250 Index of Names

Irving, Washington (1783–1859), xvii, 5 Ito, K., 27, 121, 158 Jenkins, D., 54 Jin, L., 30, 76, 122, 127 Joyce, B., 87, 89, 90, 91, 94 Kahn, R., 61 Karavas-Doukas, E., 63, 105, 197 Katz, D., 61 Kennedy, C., xvii, 7, 17, 18, 19, 26, 33, 48, 49, 57, 61, 62, 63, 70, 72, 80, 130 Kennedy, D., 15, 16, 64, 69, 78, 80, 94, 197 Kettering, Charles, F. (1876–1958), 5 Kevin, W.K.C., 125 Kinder, K., 65, 79, 89, 90, 94 Kramsch, C., 73 Kretch, D., 68 Lamie, J.M., 17, 30, 57, 60, 67, 75, 101, 107, 155, 162, 164, 167, 168, 175, 185, 201 Lee, W.O., 68, 71 Leithwood, K., 74 Lewin, K.M., 124

Li, G., 125 Li, X., 120, 124, 127, 152 Li, Y., 30, 126 Liu, Y., 129, 153 LoCastro, V., 53, 60, 71, 78, 199, 200, 202, 203 Ma, B., 125 MacDonald, B., 78, 79, 97 Malen, B., 211 Maley, A., 30, 117, 152 Markee, N., xvi, 39, 57 McClelland, A.E., 88 McGraw, P., 77 Miles, M.B., 61, 74, 88 Milton, J., 4, 102 Ministry of Education, Japan, see Monbusho Miyamoto, Y., 107, 110, 163 Mok, K., 125 Monbusho, 46–7, 107, 156, 159, 161, 162, 168, 192, 196, 199, 200, 201, 229–36 Morgan, C.K., 14, 29, 59 Morris, G., 18, 19 Morrison, B., 30 Murphey, T., 70, 71, 73, 74, 201 Myers, C., 71 National Centre for Education Development Research, 130 Newman, C., 88 Newton, M., 92 Nias, J., 54, 55, 88 Nicholls, A., 25 Norris, Kathleen (1947–), 5 Paine, L., 129 Pennington, M.C., 80 Pinar, K., 69 Prime Minister’s Commission on Japan, 154 Pritchett, P., 4, 102 Qiang, W., 123, 128, 152, 224 Qin, X., 125 Rausch, A., 53, 58, 75 Richards, J.C., 15, 49, 66, 69, 79, 94, 202



Hand, B., 80 Handy, C., 16 Harbison, F., 71 Hare, P., 124, 125, 131 Hargreaves, A., 34, 68, 73, 96 Harland, J., 65, 79, 89, 90, 94 Havelock, R.G., xviii, 41, 42, 46, 47, 48, 49, 57 Henion, J., 214 Henrichsen, L.E., 53, 57 Hewett, S., 86 Hill, C., 24, 25 Hofstede, G., 71, 72, 73 Holborn, P., 23, 25 Holliday, A., 28, 53, 71, 73 Hopkins, D., 92 Howardell, D., 4, 102, 214 Hoyle, E., 26 Huberman, M., 74, 88 Hull, W., 52 Hurst, P., 45, 52 Hymes, D., 27, 28

Roberts, D., 14, 29, 55 Roberts, J., 73, 74, 77, 79, 81, 92 Rodgers, T.S., 158 Rogers, E., xvi, 52 Rohlen, T., 157 Rudduck, J., xvi, 40, 41, 57, 76 Russell, B., xvi

Thompson, M., 69 Tolstoy, Leo (1828–1910), 207, 213 Torikai, K., 53, 54, 71 Treagust, D., 80 Trider, D., 74 Tyson, T., 121

Sato, K., 71, 73, 201 Sato, M., 70, 74, 157 Schon, T.A., 40, 41, 48, 57 Schoppa, L.J., 156 Shamim, F., 80 Shaw, George Bernard (1856–1950), xvii, 5, 13, 18, 102 Shimahara, N., 27, 53, 71, 93, 119 Shimizu, R., 73 Shipman, M., 54 Showers, B., 87, 89, 90, 91, 94, 96 Sikes, P.J., 20, 58, 74, 88, 94 Sinclair, J., 28 Skilbeck, M., 23, 25 Slater, D., 41, 45, 46, 48 Stallings, J.A., 171 State Council, China, 128 State Education Commission, China, 122, 129 Stenhouse, L., xvi, 42, 48, 53, 58, 164, 197, 213 Stern, H.H., 29 Suganami, H., 163 Sullivan, P., 73

Uehara, T., 47 UK Council for Overseas Students’ Affairs (UKCOSA), 75

Taylor, J., 12 Taylor, P., 54 Thomas, H., 124, 125, 131

Wall, D., 70 Wallace, M.J., 92, 93, 94, 95 Wang, X., 30 Wang, Y., 118 Watson, G., xx Weston, P.G., 14 White, G., 125 White, R., xvi, 7, 19, 25, 28, 30, 51, 63, 164 Whitehead, D.J., 45, 51 Wideen, M.F., 23, 25, 79 Williams, M., 66, 197, 200 Wu, G., 125 Xia, J.M., 126 Yan, G., 125, 129 Ye, B., 124 Yin, Q., 125 Young, R., 68 Yu, L.M., 30 Zhong, L., 124 Zou, A., 118



Index of Names 251

animation, 41 attitudes, 11, 16, 21, 30–1, 34, 41, 56, 63, 69, 87–8, 103, 105 audio-lingual approach, 66, 193 awareness, see impact areas behavioural change, 63–5 centre–periphery model, 40, 57 change aims, 9, 24–5, 54, 107, 114, 164 change agents, 19–20, 24–5, 56, 64 characteristics of, 24 client-users, 10, 25, 41, 45–8 culture, 15, 19, 53 see also culture curriculum, 39–59 definitions of, 4–7, 11–12, 14–16, 102–4 see also China University of Mining and Technology (CUMT) programme; MA TEFL/TESL programme educational, 13–35 external factors, 31 internal factors, 31 principles of, 8–13, 25, 30–2, 60, 105, 138, 164, 207–8 strategies, 16–23, 25, 31, 33, 50, 93, 98, 114, 209 normative-re-educative strategy, 19–20, 22, 25, 33, 45, 48, 50, 57 power-coercive strategy, 17–18, 22, 33, 41, 45, 50, 57, 93, 122 rational-empirical strategy, 18–19, 22, 25, 33, 50, 57, 93 see also China University of Mining and Technology (CUMT) programme successful, 211–14 systems, 10, 16, 25 see also systemic change

China English language teaching in Higher Education institutions, 124–7 English language teaching in primary schools, 222–4 historical developments in English language teaching, 29–30, 118–24 Project, 211, 225–8 China University of Mining and Technology (CUMT) programme, 117–54, 210 aims and objectives, 131–2 content, 132–4 participants, 6, 17, 137–54 change strategies, 143–5 definitions of change, 138–43 examples of change, 139–43 research findings, 137–54 procedure and tools, 134–7 Chinese lecturers of English, see China University of Mining and Technology (CUMT) programme class size, see impact areas communication, 41, 56, 60 communicative competence, 27–9 communicative language teaching (CLT), 193 confidence, see impact areas culture, 26, 30, 53, 56, 62, 71–7, 90, 109 dimensions of culture, 71–2 national, 71–3 school, 73–7 CUMT programme, see China University of Mining and Technology (CUMT) programme curriculum implementation strategies, 40–51, 114, 209 individual approach, 48 instrumental approach, 41 interactive approach, 46 Problem-Solving model, 48–51, 57 252



Index of Subjects

Research, Development and Diffusion model, 41–5, 50, 57, 122 Social Interaction model, 45–8, 50, 57 definitions of change, see change educational change, see change evaluation techniques, 91–2 examinations, see impact areas exploratory practice, 65 external influences, see impact areas factors affecting curriculum change, 51–9, 62, 208 factors affecting educational change, 23–35, 208 feedback, see impact areas General Survey Questionnaire, see Japanese Secondary Teachers’ (JST) programme grade quota system, 27, 110, 158 grammar-translation method, 27, 193 impact areas, 66–80, 90, 174, 185–90 awareness, 77–8, 90 external influences, 23, 25, 31, 71–7 see also culture feedback, 79–80, 88 personal attributes, 66–9 attitudes, 66–7 see also attitudes confidence, 66–8, 148, 150 practical constraints, 69–71, 90–1, 141 class size, 70 examinations, 70–1, 141 textbooks, see resources implementation strategies, 40–51 see also curriculum implementation strategies innovation, 7 in-service education and training (INSET), 78, 86–97 Chinese INSET, 128–31 criteria for effective INSET, 94–7, 169–70 Japanese INSET, 164–9 see also training interpersonal change, 65

Japan English language teaching in high schools, 159–64 New Revised Course of Study (NRCOS), 27, 71, 159, 161–4, 184, 229–36 historical developments in English language teaching, 156–60 Ministry of Education (Monbusho), 46–7, 107, 156, 167 Japan Festival Education Trust, 173 Japan in Your Classroom, 173 Japanese Secondary Teachers’ (JST) programme, 155–205, 210 aims and objectives, 168–9 content, 171–4 participants, 6, 185–205 changes in attitudes and practice, 197–9 impact areas and the model of change, 199–203 research findings, 192–203 procedure and tools, 174–84 attitude questionnaire, 181–3 General Survey Questionnaire (GSQ), 164, 175–7, 191, 202 methodology questionnaire, 177–81 observation materials, 183–4 Japanese Teachers of English, see Japanese Secondary Teachers’ (JST) programme MA TEFL/TESL programme, 85–117, 209 aims and objectives, 97 content, 97–8 participants, 6, 16, 18, 21, 33, 55–6, 101–17 attitudes to nation-wide curriculum reform, 107–8 definitions of change, 102–6 diary of change, 116 impact areas on the process of change, 108–12 research findings, 102–16 procedure and tools, 98–101



Index of Subjects 253

Malaysian Integrated Curriculum, 43–6, 51–2 models of change, 60–81

resources, 108–12, 125–7 financial, 12, 25, 29, 34 textbooks, 69, 110, 163–4

normative-re-educative strategy, see change

Social-Interaction model, see curriculum implementation strategies students, 73, 75–7, 88, 108 subjective norms, 64 systemic change, 10, 25, 61–3

parents, 34, 77, 108–9 perceived behavioural control, 64 periphery–centre model, 40 personal attributes, see impact areas power-coercive strategy, see change practical constraints, see impact areas principals, 24, 74–5 principles of change, see change Problem-Solving model, see curriculum implementation strategies proliferation of centres model, 40 psychological contract, 16 rational-empirical strategy, see change Research, Development and Diffusion model, see curriculum implementation strategies

teacher roles, 24, 47, 51, 73–4 textbooks, see resources tissue rejection, 26 training, 11, 31, 49, 51, 56–7, 65, 78–81, 151 see also in-service education and training (INSET) translocation, 41 Tunisia project, 48–9 typology of outcomes, 87, 89–91 understanding, 65 washback, 70



254 Index of Subjects

Evaluating change in English language teaching

Values in English Language Teaching

Teaching English, Language and Literacy

Teaching English, Language and Literacy

Teachers Exploring Tasks in English Language Teaching

Research in the Language Classroom (Developments in English Language Teaching)

Innovation in English Language Teaching: A Reader (Teaching English Language Worldwide)

English Language Teaching in its Social Context: A Reader (Teaching English Language Worldwide)

Nineteenth-Century English: Stability and Change (Studies in English Language)

Nineteenth-Century English: Stability and Change (Studies in English Language)

Eighteenth-Century English: Ideology and Change (Studies in English Language)

Practical English Language Teaching: PELT Young Learners

English language teaching : methods, tools & techniques

An Intercultural Approach to English Language Teaching

The sociopolitics of English language teaching

Consonant Change in English Worldwide: Synchrony Meets Diachrony (Palgrave Studies in Language History and Language Change)

A History of English Language Teaching

Diachronic Change in the English Passive (Palgrave Studies in Language History and Language Change)

Essentials for Successful English Language Teaching

Consonant Change in English Worldwide: Synchrony Meets Diachrony (Palgrave Studies in Language History and Language Change)

Starting English Teaching (Teaching Secondary English Series)

Teaching English to Children (Longman Keys to Language Teaching)

Rules, Patterns and Words: Grammar and Lexis in English Language Teaching (Cambridge Language Teaching Library)

Pathways of Change: Grammaticalization in English (Studies in Language Companion)

Language Work in English

Teacher Learning in Language Teaching (Cambridge Language Teaching Library)

Language Change (Language Workbooks)

Vocabulary in Language Teaching (Cambridge Language Education)

Evaluating Natural Language Processing Systems

Language Anxiety: Conflict and Change in the History of English

Varieties of English (Studies in English Language)

Evaluating change in English language teaching

Values in English Language Teaching

Teaching English, Language and Literacy

Teaching English, Language and Literacy

Teachers Exploring Tasks in English Language Teaching

Research in the Language Classroom (Developments in English Language Teaching)

Innovation in English Language Teaching: A Reader (Teaching English Language Worldwide)

English Language Teaching in its Social Context: A Reader (Teaching English Language Worldwide)

Nineteenth-Century English: Stability and Change (Studies in English Language)

Nineteenth-Century English: Stability and Change (Studies in English Language)

Eighteenth-Century English: Ideology and Change (Studies in English Language)

Practical English Language Teaching: PELT Young Learners

English language teaching : methods, tools & techniques

An Intercultural Approach to English Language Teaching

The sociopolitics of English language teaching

Consonant Change in English Worldwide: Synchrony Meets Diachrony (Palgrave Studies in Language History and Language Change)

A History of English Language Teaching

Diachronic Change in the English Passive (Palgrave Studies in Language History and Language Change)

Essentials for Successful English Language Teaching

Consonant Change in English Worldwide: Synchrony Meets Diachrony (Palgrave Studies in Language History and Language Change)

Starting English Teaching (Teaching Secondary English Series)

Teaching English to Children (Longman Keys to Language Teaching)

Rules, Patterns and Words: Grammar and Lexis in English Language Teaching (Cambridge Language Teaching Library)

Pathways of Change: Grammaticalization in English (Studies in Language Companion)

Language Work in English

Teacher Learning in Language Teaching (Cambridge Language Teaching Library)

Language Change (Language Workbooks)

Vocabulary in Language Teaching (Cambridge Language Education)

Evaluating Natural Language Processing Systems

Language Anxiety: Conflict and Change in the History of English

Varieties of English (Studies in English Language)

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