Enoch and the Mosaic Torah: The Evidence of Jubilees

ENOCH AND THE MOSAIC TORAH

ENOCH AND THE MOSAIC TORAH The Evidence of Jubilees

Edited by

Gabriele Boccaccini & Giovanni Ibba

with the collaboration of Jason von Ehrenkrook, James Waddell, and Jason Zurawski

W I L L I A M B . EERDMANS PUBLISHING COMPANY GRAND RAPIDS, MICHIGAN / CAMBRIDGE, U . K .

© 2009 William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company All rights reserved

Published 2009 by Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing C o . 2140 Oak Industrial Drive N . E . , Grand Rapids, Michigan 49505 / P.O. Box 163, Cambridge C B 3 9 P U U.K.

Printed in the United States of America

14 13 12 11 10 09

7 6 5 4 3 2 1

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Enoch and the mosaic Torah: the evidence of Jubilees / edited by Gabriele Boccaccini & Giovanni Ibba; with the collaboration of Jason von Ehrenkrook, James Waddell, and Jason Zurawski. p.

cm.

Includes bibliographical references and index. I S B N 978-0-8028-6409-3 (pbk.: alk. paper) 1. Book of Jubilees — Criticism, interpretation, etc. — Congresses. 2. Enoch Seminar (2nd : 2003: Venice, Italy).

I. Boccaccini, Gabriele, 1958-

II. Ibba, Giovanni, 1962-

III. Ehrenkrook, Jason von.

IV. Waddell, James, 1938-

V. Zurawski, Jason.

BS1830.J8E56 2009 229'.911 — dc22 2009013095

www.eerdmans.com

Contents

Abbreviations Preface: T h e E n i g m a of Jubilees and the Lesson of the E n o c h Seminar Gabriele

Boccaccini

PART ONE: JUBILEES A N D ITS LITERARY CONTEXT T h e Manuscript Tradition of Jubilees fames C.

VanderKam

T h e Composition of Jubilees Michael

Segal

T h e Relationship between Jubilees and the Early E n o c h i c Books (Astronomical B o o k and B o o k of the Watchers) John S.

Bergsma

Daniel and Jubilees Matthias

Henze

Contents T h e Chronologies of the Apocalypse of Weeks and the B o o k of Jubilees

67

fames M. Scott T h e A r a m a i c Levi D o c u m e n t , the Genesis A p o c r y p h o n , and Jubilees: A Study of Shared Traditions

82

Esther Eshel T h e B o o k of Jubilees and the Temple Scroll Lawrence

H.

Jubilees, Sirach, and Sapiential Tradition Benjamin

G. Wright

131

Orlov

Jubilees and the Samaritan Tradition Lester L.

116

III

T h e Heavenly Counterpart of Moses in the B o o k of Jubilees Andrei A.

99

Schiffman

145

Grabbe

PART TWO:

T H E MELTING OF MOSAIC AND ENOCHIC TRADITIONS

Enochic J u d a i s m — a Judaism without the Torah and the Temple? Helge S.

Kvanvig

T h e Concept of Covenant in Jubilees William

163

K.

178

Gilders

From a Movement of Dissent to a Distinct F o r m of Judaism: T h e Heavenly Tablets in Jubilees as the Foundation of a C o m p e t i n g Halakah Gabriele

Boccaccini

Abram's Prayer: T h e Coherence of the Pericopes in Jubilees 1 2 : 1 6 - 2 7 Jacques van

vi

193

Ruiten

211

Contents Reconsidering Jubilees: Prophecy and Exemplarity Hindy

Najman

PART T H R E E :

JUBILEES BETWEEN AND

ENOCH

QUMRAN

4 Q 2 6 5 and the Authoritative Status of Jubilees at Q u m r a n Aharon

261

Doering

Tradition and Innovation in the Calendar of Jubilees Jonathan

Loren T.

276

Ben-Dov

T h e B o o k of Jubilees and the Origin of Evil

294

Stuckenbruck

T h e Festivals of Pesah and Massot in the B o o k of Jubilees Betsy

247

Shemesh

Purity and Impurity in the B o o k of Jubilees Lutz

229

309

Halpern-Amaru

Eschatological Impulses in Jubilees

323

John C. Endres, S.J. Amplified Roles, Idealized Depictions: W o m e n in the B o o k of Jubilees Kelley Coblentz

338 Bautch

Enochic and Mosaic Traditions in Jubilees: T h e Evidence of Angelology and D e m o n o l o g y

353

Annette Yoshiko Reed Worship in Jubilees and E n o c h Erik

369

Larson

vii

Contents T h e B o o k of Jubilees and Early Jewish Mysticism Martha

Himmelfarb

PART FOUR:

WHERE DOES JUBILEES BELONG?

Jubilees, the Temple, and the Aaronite Priesthood David

Veronika Bachmann

viii

426

Regev

T h e B o o k of Jubilees: A Bibliography, 1850-Present

Index

411

R. Jackson

Jubilees, Q u m r a n , and the Essenes Eyal

397

W. Suter

Jubilees and Enochic Judaism David

384

441

and Isaac W. Oliver

469

Abbreviations

AB

A n c h o r Bible

ABD

Anchor Bible

AGJU

Arbeiten zur Geschichte des antiken Judentums und des

AION

Annali dell'Istituto Orientale di

AJEC

Ancient Judaism and Early Christianity

Dictionary

Urchristentums

AJSL

American

ALD

A r a m a i c Levi D o c u m e n t

ANRW

Aufstieg und Niedergang

Napoli

Journal of Semitic languages

der romischen

and

Literatures

Welt

Ant

Josephus,

AOAT

Alter Orient und Altes Testament

Antiquities

AOS

A m e r i c a n Oriental Series

APAT

Die Apokryphen

APOT

The Apocrypha

ASTI

Annual

ATANT

Abhandlungen zur Theologie des Alten und Neuen Testa­

AUSS

Andrews

b.

Babylonian Talmud

BASOR

Bulletin of the American

Schools of Oriental

BASP

Bulletin of the American

Society of

BBB

Bonner biblische Beitrage

und Pseudepigraphen and Pseudepigrapha

des Alten of the Old

Testaments Testament.

Edited by R. H . Charles. 2 vols. Oxford, 1913 of the Swedish

Theological

Institute

ments University

Seminary

Studies

Research

Papyrologists

ix

Abbreviations

BEATAJ

Beitrage zur Erforschung des Alten Testaments und des

BETL

Bibliotheca ephemeridum theologicarum lovaniensium

antiken Judentum Bib BibOr

Biblica Biblica et orientalia

BJS

B r o w n Judaic Studies

BN

Biblische

BSac

Bibliotheca

BZAW

Beihefte zur Zeitschrift fur die alttestamentliche

Notizen sacra

Wissenschaft CBQ

Catholic Biblical

CBQMS

Catholic Biblical Q u a r t e r l y - M o n o g r a p h Series

Quarterly

CCWJCW

C a m b r i d g e Commentaries on Writings of the Jewish and

CEJL

Commentaries on Early Jewish Literature

Christian World

ConBNT

Coniectanea biblica: N e w Testament Series

CSCO

C o r p u s scriptorum christianorum orientalium

DBSup

Dictionnaire

DJD

Discoveries in the Judaean Desert

DSD

Dead Sea

EDSS

Encyclopedia

de la Bible:

Supplement

Discoveries of the Dead Sea Scrolls. Edited by L . H .

Schiffman and J . C . V a n d e r K a m . Oxford, 2000 EgT

Eglise et theologie

Encjud

Encyclopaedia

Erlsr

Judaica

Eretz-Israel

EstBib

Estudios

ET

English translation

FJMB

Forschungsstelle Judentum Mitteilungen und Beitrage

GTS

Grazer theologische Studien

HAR

Hebrew Annual

Hen

biblicos

Review

Henoch

Hey]

Heythrop

HSM

Harvard Semitic M o n o g r a p h s

Journal

HSS

Harvard Semitic Studies

HTR

Harvard

HTS

Harvard Theological Studies

HUCA

Hebrew

IDB

The Interpreter's Dictionary

IEJ

Israel Exploration

x

Theological

Union College

Review

Annual

Journal

of the Bible

Abbreviations

IJA Int

International

Journal of

JA

Journal

JAAR

Journal of the American

JBL

Journal of Biblical

JE

Apocrypha

Interpretation asiatique Academy

of Religion

Literature

The Jewish Encyclopedia.

Edited by I. Singer. 12 vols. N e w

York, 1925 JJS

Journal of Jewish

JNES

Journal of Near Eastern

Studies

JQR

Jewish Quarterly

JSHRZ

Jiidische Schriften aus hellenistisch-rdmischer

JSJ

Journal for the Study of

Studies

Review Zeit

Judaism

JSJSup

Journal for the Study of Judaism Supplement Series

JSOT

Journal for the Study of the Old

JSOTSup

Journal for the Study of the Old Testament-Supplement Se­

JSP

Journal for the Study of the

JSPSup

Journal for the Study of the Pseudepigrapha Supplements

Testament

ries

JSQ

Jewish Studies

JSS

Journal of Semitic

JTS

Journal of Theological

LCL

Loeb Classical Library

LJPSTT

Pseudepigrapha

Quarterly Studies Studies

Literature of the Jewish People in the Period of the Second Temple and the Talmud

LUOSMS

Leeds University Oriental Society M o n o g r a p h Series

LXX

Septuagint

m.

Mishnah

MGWJ

Monatsschrift

MT

Masoretic Text

fur Geschichte und Wissenschaft

NHS

N a g H a m m a d i Studies

NIDB

New International

NTL

N e w Testament Library

Dictionary

Judentums

of the Bible

NTOA

N o v u m Testamentum et Orbis Antiquus

NTS

New Testament

OBO

Orbis biblicus et orientalis

OLP

Orientalia Lovaniensia Periodica

Or

des

Studies

Orientalia

OrChr

Oriens

OTL

Old Testament Library

christianus

xi

Abbreviations

OTP

The Old Testament Pseudepigrapha.

Edited by James H .

Charlesworth. 2 vols. Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1983, 1985 OtSt

Oudtestamentische Studien

PAAJR

Proceedings of the American

PVTG

Pseudepigrapha Veteris Testamenti graece

Academy

of Jewish

RAC

Reallexikon fur Antike und

RB

Revue

Christentum

biblique

REJ

Revue des etudes juives

RevQ

Revue de

RHPR

Revue d'histoire et de philosophie

RHR

Revue de Vhistoire des

RivB

Rivista

RSR

Recherches de science

RStB

Ricerche storico

SAOC

Studies in Ancient Oriental Civilizations

SBLEJL

Research

Qumran

biblica

religieuses

religions

italiana religieuse

bibliche

Society of Biblical Literature Early Judaism and Its Litera­ ture

SBLSBS

Society of Biblical Literature Sources for Biblical Study

SBLSP

Society of Biblical Literature Seminary Papers

SBLSymS

Society of Biblical Literature S y m p o s i u m Series

SBLTT

Society of Biblical Literature Texts and Translations

SC

Sources chr^tiennes

SCS

Septuagint and Cognate Studies

SEA

Svensk exegetisk

arsbok

SJLA

Studies in Judaism in Late Antiquity

SJOT

Scandinavian

SNTSMS

Society for N e w Testament Studies M o n o g r a p h Series

SP

Samaritan Pentateuch

Journal of the Old

Testament

SPB

Studia postbiblica

STAR

Studies in T h e o l o g y and Religion

STDJ

Studies on the Texts of the Desert of Judah

StPB

Studia post-biblica

SVTP

Studia in Veteris Testamenti pseudepigraphica

TRu

Theologische

TSAJ

Texte und Studien zum antiken Judentum

Rundschau

TSK

Theologische Studien

TUGAL

Texte und Untersuchungen zur Geschichte der

und

altchristlichen Literatur

xii

Kritiken

Abbreviations

VT

Vetus

VTSup

Vetus Testamentum, Supplements

WMANT

Testamentum

Wissenschaftliche Monographien z u m Alten und Neuen Testament

WUNT

Wissenschaftliche Untersuchungen z u m Neuen Testament

y.

Jerusalem Talmud

ZA

Zeitschrift fiir

ZABR

Zeitschrift fiir altorientalische

ZAW

Zeitschrift fiir die alttestamentliche

ZDMG

Zeitschrift

der deutschen morgenlandischen

ZDPV

Zeitschrift

des deutschen

ZRGG

Zeitschrift fiir Religions-

ZS

Zeitschrift fiir Semitistik und verwandte

ZWT

Zeitschrift fiir wissenschaftliche

Assyriologie und biblische

Rechtsgeschichte

Wissenschaft Gesellschaft

Palastina-Vereins und

Geistesgeschichte Gebiete

Theologie

xiii

Preface: The Enigma of Jubilees and the Lesson of the Enoch Seminar Gabriele

Boccaccini

T h e early E n o c h literature d o e s n o t c o n t a i n any reference to the M o s a i c T o r a h a n d d o e s n o t e m p h a s i z e the d i s t i n c t i v e l y M o s a i c l a w s d e s i g n e d for I s ­ r a e l . A t the t i m e o f the M a c c a b e a n r e v o l t , the b o o k o f D r e a m V i s i o n s relates the ascent o f M o s e s to M o u n t S i n a i b u t c o n s p i c u o u s l y o m i t s either

the

m a k i n g o f a c o v e n a n t o r the g i v i n g of the law. B y c o n t r a s t , J u b i l e e s gives r o o m to b o t h M o s a i c a n d E n o c h i c t r a d i t i o n s w i t h i n the S i n a i t i c r e v e l a t o r y framework. W h a t s h o u l d w e m a k e of s u c h differences? W a s the o m i s s i o n of a n y reference to the M o s a i c T o r a h in the early E n o c h t r a d i t i o n p u r e l y a c c i d e n t a l , an u n w a n t e d c o n s e q u e n c e of the m y s t i c a l literary g e n r e or interests of the text? O r d o e s it reflect the reality of an a n c i e n t f o r m of J u d a i s m that d e v e l ­ o p e d a p a r t f r o m , or even against, the M o s a i c Torah? D o e s the b o o k o f J u b i ­ lees w i t n e s s to the e m e r g e n c e o f a n e w s y n t h e s i s of E n o c h i c a n d M o s a i c tra­ d i t i o n s , or d o e s it testify to the m y s t i c a l interests o f the v e r y s a m e elites that c h e r i s h e d the M o s a i c Torah? H a d the b o o k o f J u b i l e e s a n y t h i n g to do w i t h the e m e r g e n c e of the E s s e n e m o v e m e n t a n d of the Q u m r a n c o m m u n i t y ? If so, then to w h i c h extent? A l l these q u e s t i o n s w e r e at the core of the F o u r t h E n o c h S e m i n a r at C a m a l d o l i ( 8 - 1 2 July 2 0 0 7 ) . T h e m e e t i n g m a r k s the largest c o n f e r e n c e o f in­ t e r n a t i o n a l specialists ever g a t h e r e d to s t u d y the b o o k of J u b i l e e s , a n d p o s s i ­ b l y to address a n y O l d T e s t a m e n t P s e u d e p i g r a p h a . W i t h J a m e s V a n d e r K a m , J a c q u e s v a n R u i t e n , a n d G e o r g e N i c k e l s b u r g w e r e v i r t u a l l y all the m a j o r s p e ­ cialists in the d o c u m e n t ,

xiv

e i g h t y - f o u r s c h o l a r s from s e v e n t e e n

countries

Preface:

The Enigma

of Jubilees

and the Lesson of the Enoch

Seminar

(Australia, Canada, D e n m a r k , Ethiopia, Finland, France, Germany, Hungary, Israel, Italy, the N e t h e r l a n d s , N o r w a y , P o l a n d , S o u t h A f r i c a , the

United

K i n g d o m , the U n i t e d States of A m e r i c a , a n d the V a t i c a n ) , v e t e r a n s or n e w ­ c o m e r s of the E n o c h S e m i n a r , w h o for the o c c a s i o n w e r e asked to c o n t r i b u t e to o u r u n d e r s t a n d i n g of the d o c u m e n t in its o r i g i n a l h i s t o r i c a l a n d literary context. A n i m p r e s s i v e n u m b e r of t w e n t y - e i g h t p a p e r s (those here p u b l i s h e d ) w e r e s u b m i t t e d a n d circulated in a d v a n c e . T h e y w e r e d i s c u s s e d at C a m a l d o l i in p l e n a r y s e s s i o n s a n d s m a l l g r o u p s , a n d then r e v i s e d for p u b l i c a t i o n . In addition,

nineteen

short

papers were presented.

Edited by

Pierpaolo

B e r t a l o t t o a n d T o d d H a n n e k e n , they h a v e b e e n p u b l i s h e d s e p a r a t e l y in a c o m p a n i o n issue o f the j o u r n a l Henoch

( v o l . 3 1 , n o . 1, 2 0 0 9 ) .

S p e c i a l t h a n k s go to all the d i s t i n g u i s h e d specialists for c o n t r i b u t i n g to this v o l u m e , to G i o v a n n i I b b a ( U n i v e r s i t y o f S i e n a ) for his e x p e r t s u p p o r t in the editing p r o c e s s w i t h the p r e c i o u s assistance o f J a s o n v o n E h r e n k r o o k , J a m e s W a d d e l l , a n d J a s o n Z u r a w s k i , to J . H a r o l d E l l e n s , T o d d H a n n e k e n , a n d I s a a c O l i v e r for their h a r d a n d skillful w o r k as secretaries o f the E n o c h S e m i n a r , to the D e p a r t m e n t of N e a r E a s t e r n S t u d i e s of the U n i v e r s i t y o f M i c h i g a n a n d to the M i c h i g a n C e n t e r for E a r l y C h r i s t i a n Studies for their loyal a n d g e n e r o u s s p o n s o r s h i p , a n d last b u t n o t least, to E e r d m a n s for p r o ­ d u c i n g this t h i r d v o l u m e in c o l l a b o r a t i o n w i t h the E n o c h S e m i n a r , f o l l o w ­ ing Enoch and Qumran a n d Enoch

and

Origins: New Light on a Forgotten

the Messiah

Son of Man:

Revisiting

Connection

the Book

of

(2005) Parables

(2007). A s in the p r e v i o u s m e e t i n g s of the E n o c h S e m i n a r ( F l o r e n c e 2 0 0 1 , V e n i c e 2 0 0 3 , a n d C a m a l d o l i 2 0 0 5 ) , the debate at C a m a l d o l i 2 0 0 7 c o u l d n o t a v o i d r e p e a t e d l y r e t u r n i n g to the v e r y s a m e q u e s t i o n : " H o w distinctive w a s E n o c h i c J u d a i s m ? " J o h n J . C o l l i n s , o n e of the leaders of the E n o c h S e m i n a r , recently a d d r e s s e d the q u e s t i o n in an article in Meghillot: Sea Scrolls V-VI; A Festschrift

for Devorah

Dimant,

Studies

in the

Dead

edited b y M . B a r - A s h e r

a n d E . T o v ( H a i f a : U n i v e r s i t y of H a i f a ; J e r u s a l e m : B i a l i k Institute, 2 0 0 7 ) , ""17*34. W h i l e c o n c l u d i n g that i n d e e d " E n o c h i c J u d a i s m reflects a distinctive f o r m of J u d a i s m in the late t h i r d / e a r l y s e c o n d p e r i o d " (""33), C o l l i n s h i g h ­ lighted the m a j o r p o i n t s of c o n t r o v e r s y a m o n g s e c o n d t e m p l e specialists. W h a t w a s E n o c h i c J u d a i s m : a m i l i t a n t o p p o s i t i o n party, a c o m p e t i n g f o r m of J u d a i s m , or a m y s t i c a l s c h o o l w h o s e f r a m e o f interest w a s s i m p l y s o m e ­ t h i n g other t h a n the M o s a i c Torah? Were the a u t h o r s of this literature "dissi­ dent p r i e s t s " or s o m e t h i n g else? T h e u n c e r t a i n t i e s that s u r r o u n d the defini­ tion of E n o c h i c J u d a i s m affect a n d c o m p l i c a t e its relation w i t h Jubilees a n d

xv

Gabriele

Boccaccini

the s e c t a r i a n d o c u m e n t s o f Q u m r a n . T h e latter l o o k clearly m o r e " M o s a i c " t h a n E n o c h i c , e v e n t h o u g h "there is n o d o u b t that the E n o c h i c w r i t i n g s h e l p e d s h a p e the w o r l d v i e w of that sect" (*33). Since its s c h o l a r l y r e v i v a l in the m i d - n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y w h e n A u g u s t D i l l m a n n p u b l i s h e d the first m o d e r n t r a n s l a t i o n in G e r m a n a n d the first critical e d i t i o n of the E t h i o p i c text ( D i l l m a n n 1 8 5 1 , 1 8 5 9 ) , the e m p h a s i s g i v e n to its M o s a i c or E n o c h i c e l e m e n t s led s c h o l a r s to assign Jubilees either to the P h a r i s e e s ( R o n s c h 1 8 7 1 ; C h a r l e s 1 8 9 9 ) or to the E s s e n e s ( J e l l i n e k 1855) or to E n o c h circles ( A l b e c k 1 9 3 0 ) . T h e d i s c o v e r y a n d p u b l i c a t i o n , in the

mid-

n i n e t e e n t h century, of the H e b r e w f r a g m e n t s at Q u m r a n settled the q u e s ­ tion o f the o r i g i n a l l a n g u a g e of the d o c u m e n t a n d m a d e m u c h m o r e likely the a s s o c i a t i o n o f Jubilees w i t h the E s s e n e s a n d their c a l e n d a r ( J a u b e r t 1953, 1 9 5 7 ) , b u t d i d n o t solve the m y s t e r y of the o r i g i n of the d o c u m e n t . T h e u n ­ d e r s t a n d i n g w a s that Jubilees testified to an e a r l y stage in the h i s t o r y of the E s s e n e m o v e m e n t (Testuz i 9 6 0 ) a n d r e p r e s e n t e d an early e x a m p l e of r e w r i t ­ ten B i b l e ( V e r m e s 1 9 6 1 ) . The

c o n t e m p o r a r y s t u d y of Jubilees b e g a n in the late 1970s w i t h the

studies of J a m e s V a n d e r K a m , w h o , w h i l e c o n f i r m i n g the a s s o c i a t i o n o f the d o c u m e n t w i t h the E s s e n e s , b e g a n e x p l o r i n g its r e l a t i o n w i t h the E n o c h lit­ erature ( V a n d e r K a m 1 9 7 7 , 1 9 7 8 ) . T h e c o n t r i b u t i o n of the G r o n i n g e n H y ­ p o t h e s i s a n d the E n o c h i c - E s s e n e H y p o t h e s i s further c o m p l i c a t e d the p i c ­ t u r e as t h e y c h a l l e n g e d the i d e n t i f i c a t i o n b e t w e e n Q u m r a n a n d the rest o f the E s s e n e m o v e m e n t a n d s u g g e s t e d a closer relation o f Jubilees w i t h n o n Q u m r a n E s s e n e s ( B o c c a c c i n i 2 0 0 5 ) . If E n o c h i c J u d a i s m w a s "the p a r e n t o f the E s s e n e m o v e m e n t a n d the g r a n d p a r e n t o f the Q u m r a n

Community,"

t h e n the p r e s e c t a r i a n b o o k o f Jubilees s h o u l d b e seen as e v i d e n c e o f the transition between E n o c h and Q u m r a n . At C a m a l d o l i 2 0 0 7 at least f o u r t e n d e n c i e s e m e r g e d . S o m e c l a i m e d that Jubilees w a s a direct p r o d u c t o f E n o c h i c J u d a i s m w i t h s o m e M o s a i c i n ­ fluence — M o s a i c features w e r e s i m p l y s u b o r d i n a t e d to E n o c h i d e o l o g y . S o m e s u g g e s t e d that J u b i l e e s w a s a c o n s c i o u s s y n t h e s i s of E n o c h i c a n d M o ­ saic t r a d i t i o n , yet r e m a i n i n g a u t o n o m o u s f r o m b o t h . S o m e asserted that J u ­ bilees w a s essentially a M o s a i c text w i t h s o m e E n o c h i c i n f l u e n c e — in the c o n f r o n t a t i o n it w a s M o s e s w h o p r e v a i l e d . Finally, s o m e q u e s t i o n e d the v e r y existence o f a g u l f b e t w e e n E n o c h i c a n d M o s a i c t r a d i t i o n s as c o m p e t i n g f o r m s o f J u d a i s m at the t i m e of J u b i l e e s . In the best t r a d i t i o n o f the E n o c h S e m i n a r s , n o a t t e m p t w a s m a d e to reach any a g r e e m e n t or c o m p r o m i s e ; the g o a l w a s to let a n y v o i c e be h e a r d a n d carefully c o n s i d e r e d in an o p e n f o r u m c o n t e x t . H e n c e , readers s h o u l d

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and the Lesson of the Enoch

Seminar

n o t e x p e c t to find here any s h a r e d s o l u t i o n to the Jubilees e n i g m a . W h a t t h e y w i l l find in this v o l u m e is n o t a n e w c o h e r e n t v i e w of Jubilees s p o n ­ s o r e d b y the E n o c h S e m i n a r , b u t rather a lively debate a m o n g the m o s t dis­ t i n g u i s h e d i n t e r n a t i o n a l specialists, each s t r u g g l i n g for a better u n d e r s t a n d ­ ing of a d o c u m e n t w h o s e E n o c h i c a n d M o s a i c e l e m e n t s s e e m to m a k e it fit p o o r l y in any a n c i e n t o r m o d e r n c a t e g o r i e s . Yet the E n o c h S e m i n a r is m u c h m o r e t h a n a n e u t r a l f o r u m , w h e r e p r o b l e m s are c o n v e n i e n t l y e x p o s e d in all their n u a n c e s a n d p e r h a p s m a d e m o r e i n t r i g u i n g b y the c o m p e t i n g s o l u t i o n s offered b y different a u t h o r s . W e d o n o t share the a n s w e r s b u t w e all h a v e c o m e to agree that the k e y for u n ­ d e r s t a n d i n g the m y s t e r i e s of s e c o n d t e m p l e J e w i s h t h o u g h t c a n n o t be f o u n d w i t h i n the m a n a g e a b l e b o u n d a r i e s of o u r o w n s p e c i a l i z a t i o n a l o n e , but o n l y t h r o u g h a m u t u a l l y e n r i c h i n g e x p e r i e n c e of listening a n d

comprehending

the a c h i e v e m e n t s of o n e a n o t h e r . Since its e m e r g e n c e in the sixteenth century, the field of S e c o n d T e m ­ ple J u d a i s m a n d C h r i s t i a n O r i g i n s h a s b e e n c o n s t a n t l y o n the v e r g e of col­ l a p s i n g into the p l u r a l i t y o f its s u b f i e l d s . In the past it w a s l a r g e l y r e l i g i o u s c o n c e r n s that created a clear s e p a r a t i o n b e t w e e n C h r i s t i a n a n d J e w i s h s t u d ­ ies a n d relegated the n o n c a n o n i c a l literature to a s u b o r d i n a t e status. N o w the p r o b l e m s e e m s to b e p r i m a r i l y the h i g h d e g r e e o f s p e c i a l i z a t i o n r e q u i r e d to m a s t e r o n e subject or o n e b o d y of literature, a n d the

contemporaneous

p r o c e s s of d e m o c r a t i z a t i o n a n d g l o b a l i z a t i o n o f k n o w l e d g e that h a s m u l t i ­ p l i e d the b i b l i o g r a p h y into an u n t a m a b l e m o n s t e r . A s a result, the f r a g m e n ­ t a t i o n of s e c o n d t e m p l e J e w i s h studies has b e c o m e e n d e m i c a n d s c h o l a r s of the field often a p p e a r reluctant to cross b o u n d a r i e s a n d v e n t u r e into an­ other's d o m a i n . T h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l s c h o l a r s w h o h a v e j o i n e d the E n o c h S e m i n a r d o n o t resign t h e m s e l v e s , a n d restrict their d r e a m s , to the g o a l of f i n d i n g a c o m f o r t ­ able n i c h e for t h e m s e l v e s . T h e e x p e r i e n c e of the E n o c h S e m i n a r has p r o v e d to us the v a l i d i t y of the m e t h o d of analysis that tears d o w n the m i s l e a d i n g w a l l s of s e p a r a t i o n that still d i v i d e o u r field of research, a n d c o u n t e r b a l a n c e s the c u r r e n t f r a g m e n t a t i o n of the field, i n its m a n y subfields of s p e c i a l i z a t i o n , b y r e c o v e r i n g the u n i t y a n d i n t e g r i t y of the p e r i o d . In o u r v i e w E n o c h has b e c o m e m u c h m o r e t h a n the h e r o o f " E n o c h i c J u d a i s m . " H e has b e c o m e the s y m b o l of o u r i n t e r c a n o n i c a l a n d i n t e r d i s c i p l i n a r y effort, as he is present in each a n d all o f the c a n o n s a n d subfields that a n a c h r o n i s t i c a l l y d i v i d e the s o u r c e s a n d the s c h o l a r s h i p of the p e r i o d : O l d T e s t a m e n t , A p o c r y p h a , P s e u d e p i g r a p h a , D e a d Sea Scrolls, J e w i s h - H e l l e n i s t i c literature, N e w Testa­ m e n t , a p o s t o l i c fathers, a n d the like.

xvu

Gabriele

Boccaccini

In this p e r s p e c t i v e the 2 0 0 7 C a m a l d o l i m e e t i n g has m a r k e d a f u n d a ­ m e n t a l step in the life of the E n o c h S e m i n a r w i t h the d e c i s i o n b y the p a r t i c i ­ p a n t s to p r o v i d e m o r e s t r u c t u r e d g o v e r n a n c e a n d a consistent p l a n for the d e v e l o p m e n t o f the field of S e c o n d T e m p l e J u d a i s m a n d C h r i s t i a n O r i g i n s i n t h e y e a r s to

come. Hanan

Stuckenbruck (Durham

Eshel (Bar-Ilan University) and

U n i v e r s i t y ) h a v e j o i n e d the f o u n d i n g

Loren director

G a b r i e l e B o c c a c c i n i ( U n i v e r s i t y of M i c h i g a n ) as the v i c e - d i r e c t o r s of the E n o c h S e m i n a r . F u t u r e m e e t i n g s are n o w p l a n n e d f o u r y e a r s in a d v a n c e u n ­ der the r e s p o n s i b i l i t y of a chair ( A n d r e i O r l o v in 2 0 0 9 ; M a t t h i a s H e n z e in 2 0 1 1 . . . ) , a n d a p a r a l l e l series of b i e n n i a l g r a d u a t e conferences has b e e n s u c ­ cessfully l a u n c h e d

(the E n o c h G r a d u a t e S e m i n a r s — A n n A r b o r 2 0 0 6 ;

Princeton 2008; Budapest 2 0 1 0 ; Notre D a m e 2 0 1 2 . . .). Far from being a g a t h e r i n g o f E n o c h specialists or " b e l i e v e r s " in E n o c h i c J u d a i s m , the g r o u p is n o w e x p a n d i n g its activities to the entire field of S e c o n d T e m p l e J u d a i s m and Christian Origins. T h e best piece of e v i d e n c e of the c o m i n g of age o f the E n o c h S e m i n a r is the creation o f the n e w W e b site ( w w w . e n o c h s e m i n a r . o r g ) , beautifully de­ s i g n e d b y P i e r p a o l o B e r t a l o t t o ( U n i v e r s i t y of M i c h i g a n ) . A s a synthesis of o u r past a c c o m p l i s h m e n t s a n d future p l a n s , the W e b site p r o v i d e s n o t o n l y d e ­ tailed i n f o r m a t i o n

a b o u t the m e e t i n g s of the E n o c h S e m i n a r a n d o f the

E n o c h G r a d u a t e S e m i n a r , b u t also a g e n e r a l p i c t u r e of the status of studies i n Second Temple Judaism and Christian Origins. The "International Scholar­ s h i p " p a g e i n c l u d e s a c o m p r e h e n s i v e d i r e c t o r y o f specialists w h o are c u r ­ rently w o r k i n g i n the field, c o u n t r y b y c o u n t r y . S e c o n d l y , it gives b i o g r a p h i c a l a n d b i b l i o g r a p h i c a l i n f o r m a t i o n on the h i s t o r y of research in the field from the t i m e of the i n v e n t i o n of the press (late fifteenth c e n t u r y ) to the present. T h i r d l y , it offers a selection, d e c a d e by d e c a d e , of the m o s t influential b o o k s p u b l i s h e d in the field, w i t h special e m p h a s i s o n the latest titles. Finally, it gives a list of the m a j o r w o r k s of art ( p a i n t i n g s , d r a m a s , o p e r a s , n o v e l s , m o v ­ ies, a n d the like) that offer a fictionalized a c c o u n t o f characters a n d events f r o m the s e c o n d t e m p l e p e r i o d . A l l this i n f o r m a t i o n is not available a n y w h e r e else, yet this is the historical m e m o r y that is the f o u n d a t i o n , the r o c k , on w h i c h alone a solid h o u s e can be built. T h e W e b site has effectively o p e n e d a third " s p a c e " besides the E n o c h S e m i n a r a n d the E n o c h G r a d u a t e S e m i n a r — a v i r t u a l space in c o m p a r i s o n to that offered by the m e e t i n g s , yet n o less real, w h e r e all specialists a n d students of the field can m e e t a n d share their w o r k a n d l e a r n of each other, b r e a k i n g n a t i o n a l a n d specialization

boundaries

w i t h o u t a b a n d o n i n g or b e t r a y i n g those b o u n d a r i e s . A t C a m a l d o l i ( a n d w i t h this v o l u m e ) w e s c h o l a r s of the p e r i o d m i g h t

xvin

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n o t h a v e solved all the e n i g m a s o f J u b i l e e s , b u t w e h a v e f o u n d in the p r o c e s s a c o m f o r t a b l e h o u s e for o u r i n v e s t i g a t i o n s a n d a r e n e w e d sense o f p u r p o s e , unity, a n d m u t u a l c o m m i t m e n t for the y e a r s to c o m e .

List of Participants (Camaldoli 2 0 0 7 ) : 1. L u c a A r c a r i , U n i v e r s i t y of N a p l e s , Italy 2. D a n i e l A s s e f a , C a p u c h i n F r a n c i s c a n Institute, E t h i o p i a 3. C h r i s t o p h e B a t s c h , U n i v e r s i t y o f Lille, F r a n c e 4. A l b e r t B a u m g a r t e n , B a r - I l a n University, Israel 5. K e l l e y C o b l e n t z B a u t c h , St. E d w a r d ' s University, U S A 6. A n d r e a s B e d e n b e n d e r , D o r t m u n d , G e r m a n y 7. J o n a t h a n B e n - D o v , U n i v e r s i t y of H a i f a , Israel 8. J o h n S. B e r g s m a , F r a n c i s c a n U n i v e r s i t y of S t e u b e n v i l l e , U S A 9. C h r i s t o p h B e r n e r , G e o r g - A u g u s t - U n i v e r s i t a t G o t t i n g e n , G e r m a n y 1 0 . P i e r p a o l o B e r t a l o t t o , U n i v e r s i t y of B a r i , Italy 11.

Katell Berthelot, C N R S , France

12.

S i a m B h a y r o , U n i v e r s i t y of C a m b r i d g e , E n g l a n d

13.

G a b r i e l e B o c c a c c i n i , U n i v e r s i t y of M i c h i g a n , U S A

14. Darrell Bock, Dallas Theological Seminary, U S A 1 5 . G i a n a n t o n i o B o r g o n o v o , C a t h o l i c U n i v e r s i t y of M i l a n , Italy 1 6 . D a n i e l B o y a r i n , U n i v e r s i t y of C a l i f o r n i a at B e r k e l e y , U S A 17. James H . Charlesworth, Princeton Theological Seminary, U S A 18. C a l u m C a r m i c h a e l , C o r n e l l University, U S A 1 9 . E s t h e r C h a z o n , H e b r e w U n i v e r s i t y of J e r u s a l e m , Israel 20. Michael Daise, William and M a r y College, U S A 21.

G e n e D a v e n p o r t , L a m b u t h University, U S A

22. Michael Davis, Princeton Theological Seminary, U S A 23. M a r c e l l o D e l V e r m e , U n i v e r s i t y of N a p l e s , Italy 24. K a r o l y D o b o s , C a t h o l i c U n i v e r s i t y of B u d a p e s t , H u n g a r y 25. L u t z D o e r i n g , K i n g ' s C o l l e g e L o n d o n , E n g l a n d 2 6 . H e n r y k D r a w n e l , C a t h o l i c U n i v e r s i t y of L u b l i n , P o l a n d 27. Torleif E l g v i n , L u t h e r a n T h e o l o g i c a l S e m i n a r y , N o r w a y 28. J o h n C . E n d r e s , Jesuit S c h o o l of T h e o l o g y at B e r k e l e y , U S A 29. E s t h e r E s h e l , B a r - I l a n University, Israel 3 0 . H a n a n E s h e l , B a r - I l a n University, Israel 31. Daniel Falk, University of Oregon, U S A 3 2 . C r i s p i n F l e t c h e r - L o u i s , St. M a r y ' s L o n d o n , E n g l a n d 33. Ida F r o h l i c h , C a t h o l i c U n i v e r s i t y of B u d a p e s t , H u n g a r y 34. C l a u d i o G i a n o t t o , U n i v e r s i t y of T u r i n , Italy

Gabriele

Boccaccini

35- C h a r l e s G i e s c h e n , C o n c o r d i a T h e o l o g i c a l S e m i n a r y , U S A 3 6 . W i l l i a m K . G i l d e r s , E m o r y University, U S A 37. Lester L . G r a b b e , U n i v e r s i t y of H u l l , E n g l a n d 38. M a x i n e G r o s s m a n , U n i v e r s i t y of M a r y l a n d , U S A 39. B e t s y H a l p e r n - A m a r u , e m e r i t u s , V a s s a r C o l l e g e , U S A 4 0 . M a t t h i a s H e n z e , R i c e University, U S A 4 1 . M a r t h a H i m m e l f a r b , P r i n c e t o n University, U S A 42. J a m a l - D o m i n i q u e Hopkins, Crichton College, U S A 43. G i o v a n n i I b b a , U n i v e r s i t y o f Siena, Italy 44. D a v i d J a c k s o n , U n i v e r s i t y of S y d n e y , A u s t r a l i a 45. Jutta J o k i r a n t a , U n i v e r s i t y of H e l s i n k i , F i n l a n d 4 6 . R o b e r t A . K r a f t , U n i v e r s i t y of P e n n s y l v a n i a , U S A 47. H e l g e S. K v a n v i g , U n i v e r s i t y of O s l o , N o r w a y 48. E r i k L a r s o n , F l o r i d a I n t e r n a t i o n a l U n i v e r s i t y , U S A 49. W i l l i a m L o a d e r , M u r d o c h University, A u s t r a l i a 5 0 . G r a n t M a c a s k i l l , St. A n d r e w s University, S c o t l a n d 5 1 . L u c a M a z z i n g h i , C e n t r a l Italy T h e o l o g i c a l S e m i n a r y , Italy 5 2 . H i n d y N a j m a n , U n i v e r s i t y of T o r o n t o , C a n a d a 53. G e o r g e W. E . N i c k e l s b u r g , e m e r i t u s , U n i v e r s i t y o f I o w a , U S A 54. B i l h a h N i t z a n , e m e r i t u s , T e l - A v i v U n i v e r s i t y , Israel 55. E r i c N o f f k e , V a l d e n s i a n F a c u l t y o f T h e o l o g y , Italy 56. D a n i e l O l s o n , D & J Scott P u b l i s h i n g , U S A 57. A n d r e i A . O r l o v , M a r q u e t t e University, U S A 58. D o r o t h y Peters, T r i n i t y Western University, C a n a d a 59. A n d e r s K l o s t e r g a a r d Petersen, U n i v e r s i t y of A a r h u s , D e n m a r k 6 0 . C l a i r e P f a n n , U n i v e r s i t y o f the H o l y L a n d , Israel 61. S t e p h e n P f a n n , U n i v e r s i t y o f the H o l y L a n d , Israel 62. Pierluigi Piovanelli, University of Ottawa, C a n a d a 63. A n n e t t e Y o s h i k o R e e d , M c M a s t e r University, C a n a d a 64. E y a l Regev, B a r - I l a n University, Israel 65. J a c q u e s v a n R u i t e n , U n i v e r s i t y of G r o n i n g e n , N e t h e r l a n d s 66. P a o l o S a c c h i , e m e r i t u s , U n i v e r s i t y of T u r i n , Italy 67. S t e p h a n e S a u l n i e r , N e w m a n T h e o l o g i c a l C o l l e g e , E d m o n t o n , C a n a d a 68. L a w r e n c e H . S c h i f f m a n , N e w Y o r k University, U S A 69. J a m e s M . Scott, T r i n i t y Western University, C a n a d a 7 0 . M i c h a e l Segal, H e b r e w U n i v e r s i t y of J e r u s a l e m , Israel 7 1 . A h a r o n S h e m e s h , B a r - I l a n University, Israel 7 2 . J o s e p h Sievers, Pontifical B i b l i c a l Institute, V a t i c a n C i t y 73. D a n i e l S t o k l B e n - E z r a , C N R S , F r a n c e

Preface: The Enigma of Jubilees and the Lesson of the Enoch

Seminar

74. Loren T. Stuckenbruck, D u r h a m University, England 75. D a v i d W . Suter, St. Martin's University, U S A 7 6 . Shemaryahu Talmon, emeritus, Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Israel 77. Sam T h o m a s , California Lutheran University, U S A 78. Cristiana Tretti, Milan, Italy 79. James C . V a n d e r K a m , University of Notre D a m e , U S A 80. Pieter Venter, University of Pretoria, South Africa 81. Ralph Williams, University of Michigan, U S A 82. Benjamin Wold, University of Tubingen, G e r m a n y 83. Benjamin Wright, Lehigh University, U S A 84. Azzan Yadin, Rutgers University, U S A

Secretaries 1. J. Harold Ellens, University of Michigan, U S A 2. Todd Hanneken, University of Notre D a m e , U S A 3 . Isaac W . Oliver, University of Michigan, U S A

xxi

PART ONE

JUBILEES AND ITS LITERARY CONTEXT

The Manuscript Tradition of Jubilees James C. VanderKam

T h e book of Jubilees began its modern life as an object of study by Western scholars when copies of the w o r k were found in Ethiopia and brought to E u ­ rope in the 1840s. Since that time a large number of copies in Ge'ez have been identified and photographed, and fragmentary evidence for the text of the book in Hebrew, Greek, Latin, and Syriac has come to light. Actually, m u c h of the Greek evidence had been available for a long time: in the 1720s Johann Fabricius had collected citations from Jubilees in Greek and Latin in his Codex Pseudepigraphus

1

Veteris Testamenti.

Today there are more such

passages available than the ones Fabricius had assembled. In this paper I will present a report detailing all the textual sources for the book of which I am aware and a short analysis of them. T h e presentation will follow a chronological order. For clarity's sake, the early history of the text and the evidence for it can be summarized briefly in these five statements:

Jubilees was written in Hebrew (extant evidence: fourteen mss. from Qumran). Jubilees may have been translated from Hebrew into Syriac (excerpts, no ms. copies). Jubilees was translated from Hebrew into Greek (excerpts, no ms. copies).

1. The two-volume work appeared in 1722-23 (Hamburg: T. C . Felginer). The Jubilees citations may be found in 1:849-64; 2:120-22.

3

James

C.

VanderKam

Jubilees w a s translated f r o m G r e e k into L a t i n (one partially p r e s e r v e d copy).

Jubilees w a s translated f r o m G r e e k into E t h i o p i c ( n e a r l y t h i r t y c o p i e s ) .

I. H e b r e w T h e earliest m e n t i o n o f a H e b r e w f o r m of the b o o k o f Jubilees is f o u n d in C D 16:2-4,

a

n

identification that I m a i n t a i n despite D e v o r a h D i m a n t ' s recent re­ 2

j e c t i o n o f it. T h e text, after m e n t i o n i n g the T o r a h of M o s e s in w h i c h e v e r y ­ thing is precisely defined ( p l p T T B ) , refers the reader to a n o t h e r w o r k for "the i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of their times for the b l i n d n e s s of Israel r e g a r d i n g all these 1

t h i n g s " a n d cites a title for it: D r m i V n t m i Q n ^ a V ? DTlJffi mp'pna n S O . In it too the m a t t e r in q u e s t i o n receives precise definition (pTpTTQ). T h e r e a d i n g o f C D 1 6 : 2 - 4 is n o w d o c u m e n t e d in p a r t b y 4 Q 2 7 0 6 ii 17 a n d 4 Q 2 7 1 4 3

ii 5 . A v e r y s i m i l a r w o r d i n g of a title is f o u n d in three places at a n d n e a r the b e g i n n i n g of J u b i l e e s . P r o l o g u e : " T h e s e are the w o r d s r e g a r d i n g the d i v i s i o n s of the t i m e s o f the l a w a n d of the testimony, o f the events of the y e a r s , of the w e e k s of their j u b i l e e s "

4

1:4 " H e related to h i m the d i v i s i o n s of all the t i m e s — b o t h of the l a w a n d of the t e s t i m o n y " 5

4 Q 2 1 6 1 . 1 1 : [nj-iin ?

D'npn] mpVnia

1:26 " . . . the d i v i s i o n s of t i m e w h i c h are in the l a w a n d w h i c h are in the t e s t i m o n y and in the w e e k s of their j u b i l e e s " ( 4 Q 2 1 6 4 4 p r e s e r v e s a c o u p l e of letters f r o m the e x p r e s s i o n ; cf. also 4 Q 2 1 7 frg. 2 1 ) T h e caves f r o m Q u m r a n have y i e l d e d a g o o d l y n u m b e r of copies of J u ­ bilees, all w r i t t e n in H e b r e w , a n d c o m i n g f r o m a r a n g e of dates. T h e s e are the securely identified c o p i e s , their contents, and their suggested p a l e o g r a p h i c a l dates.

2. D. D i m a n t , "Two 'Scientific' Fictions: The So-called B o o k of N o a h and the Alleged Quotation o f Jubilees in C D 16:3-4," in Studies in the Hebrew Bible, Qumran, and the Septuagint Presented to Eugene Ulrich, ed. P. Flint, E . Tov, and J. V a n d e r K a m , V T S u p 101 (Leiden: Brill, 2006), 242-48. 3. J. B a u m g a r t e n , Qumran Cave4.XIII: The Damascus Document (4Q266-2Z1), D J D 18 (Oxford: Clarendon, 1996), 156, 178. 4. Translations of Jubilees are from m y The Book of Jubilees, 2 vols., C S C O 5 1 0 - 1 1 , Scriptores Aethiopici 87-88 (Louvain: Peeters, 1989), vol. 2.

4

The Manuscript

Tradition

of Jubilees

Manuscript

Passage(s) Preserved

Paleographical D a t e

1Q17

27:19-20

early Herodian

1Q18

35:8-10

late H a s m o n e a n

2Q19

23:7-8

Herodian

2Q20

46:1-3

1st cent. C . E .

3Q5 3» 1

23:6-7, 1 2 - 1 3

1st cent, C . E .

4Q176 19-21

23:21-23, 30-31

Herodian

4Q216

Prologue, 1 : 1 - 2 , 4 - 7 , 7 - 1 5 , 2 6 - 2 8 ;

125-100/ca. 5 0

4Q218

2:26-27

early Herodian

4Q219

21:1-2, 7 - 1 0 , 1 2 - 1 6 , 1 8 - 2 2 : 1

late H a s m o n e a n

5

6

7

8

2:1-4, 7 - 1 2 , 1 3 - 2 4

9

10

4Q220

21:5-10

early H e r o d i a n

4Q221

2 1 : 2 2 - 2 4 ; 22:22, 30 (?); 2 3 : 1 0 - 1 3 ;

late Hasmonean or early H e r o d i a n

3 3 : 1 2 - 1 5 ; 3 7 : 1 1 - 1 5 ; 38:6-8; 39:4-9 4Q222

25:9-12; 27:6-7; 48:5 (?)

late H a s m o n e a n

5. The Cave 1 fragments were published in D. Barthelemy and J. Milik, eds.,

11

12

Qumran

Cave 1, D J D 1 (Oxford: Clarendon, 1955), 82-84 with pi. X V I . 6. The Cave 2 and 3 fragments were published in M . Baillet, J. Milik, and R. de Vaux, eds., Les 'petitesgrottes'de Qumran, D J D 3 (Oxford: Clarendon, 1962), 7 7 - 7 9 , with pi. X V ; and 96-98, with pi. X V I I I . 3 Q 5 was originally presented in this volume as "une proph£tie apocryphe" b y the editor Baillet, b u t R. Deichgraber ("Fragmente einer JubilaenHandschrift aus Hohle 3 von Qumran," RevQ 5 [1964-66]: 4 1 5 - 2 2 ) , A . Rofe ("Fragments from an Additional Manuscript of the Book of Jubilees in Qumran Cave 3 " [in Hebrew], Tarbiz 3 4 [1965]: 3 3 3 - 3 6 ) , and Baillet himself ("Remarques sur le manuscrit du Livre des Jubil£s de la grotte 3 de Qumran," RevQ 5 [1964-66]: 4 2 3 - 3 3 ) soon recognized frgs. 1 and 3 as coming from Jub 23. 7. 4Q176 was published as "Tanhumim" in J. Allegro, QumrAn

Cave 4 I (4Q158-

4Q1S6), D J D 5 (Oxford: Clarendon, 1968), 60-67, with pis. X X I I - X X I I I . M . Kister later iden­ tified frgs. 19-21 as coming from Jubilees ("Newly-Identified Fragments of the Book of Jubi­ lees: Jub 2 3 : 2 1 - 2 3 , 3 0 - 3 1 , " RevQ 12 [1987]: 529-36). 8. For an earlier edition, see J. VanderKam and J. Milik, "The First Jubilees M a n u ­ script from Q u m r a n Cave 4: A Preliminary Publication," JBL 110 (1991): 2 4 3 - 7 0 . Two dates are given because 4Q216 was copied by two scribes, with the outer sheet (containing the first columns) added to an older manuscript. 9. For an earlier edition, see VanderKam and Milik, "A Preliminary Publication of a d

Jubilees Manuscript from Qumran Cave 4: 4 Q j u b (4Q219)," Bib 73 (1992): 62-83. c

10. For earlier editions of 4Q218 and 2 2 0 , see VanderKam and Milik, " 4 Q j u b (4Q218) and 4 Q j u b ' (4Q220): A Preliminary Edition," Textus 17 (1994): 43-56. f

11. For an earlier edition, see VanderKam and Milik, "4Qjub : A Preliminary Edition," HAR 14 (1994): 233-61. g

12. For an earlier edition, see VanderKam and Milik, "4Qjubilees (4Q222)," in New

5

James C.

VanderKam

4Q223-24

3 2 : 1 8 - 2 1 ; 34:4-5; 3 5 : 7 - 2 2 ; 3 6 : 7 - 2 3 ;

late H a s m o n e a n

13

37:17-38:13; 39:9-40:7; 41:7-10; 41:28 llQl2

(?)

4 : 6 - 1 1 , 1 3 - 1 4 , 1 6 - 1 8 (?), 2 9 - 3 1 ; 5 : 1 - 2 ; 12:15-17,

28-29

late Herodian (ca. 50 C . E . )

1 4

T h e r e are also s o m e f r a g m e n t a r y Q u m r a n texts that have been identified as c o m i n g from Jubilees b u t about w h i c h s o m e skepticism is in order.

1:29; 2:28-3o(?)

4Q217

Hasmonean (before 50 B . C . E . )

Joseph M i l i k identified 4 Q 2 1 7 , a p a p y r u s m a n u s c r i p t , as a copy of Jubilees and thought it contained the H e b r e w text of Jub 1:29 (frg. 1 ) ; 1 : 2 9 - 2 : 1 (frg. 2 ) , 2:28-30 (frg. 3 ) , 1:24 (?; frg. 6 ) , and 2:14 (?; frg. 7 ) . If he were correct, w e w o u l d have to posit substantial differences between the H e b r e w and Ethiopic texts of Jubilees at this point. T h e identification is m o s t uncertain, b u t it seems unlikely to m e that the eleven s u r v i v i n g fragments from 4 Q 2 1 7 provide enough evidence to include it a m o n g the copies of Jubilees from Q u m r a n .

Qumran Texts and Studies — Proceedings of the First Meeting of the International

1 5

Organiza­

tion for Qumran Studies, Paris 1992, ed. G . Brooke and F. Garcia Martinez, S T D J 1 5 (Leiden: Brill, 1994), 105-16. 13. T h e Cave 4 copies, other than 4 Q 1 7 6 , were published in VanderKam and Milik, "Jubilees," in Qumran

Cave 4.VIII:

Parabiblical

Texts, Parti,

D J D 13 (Oxford: Clarendon,

1994), 1-140, with pis. I-II, I V - I X . 14. T h e Cave 11 fragments were published in F. Garcia Martinez, E . Tigchelaar, and A . van der Woude, eds., Manuscripts from Qumran Cave 11 ( 1 1 Q 2 - 1 8 , 1 1 Q 2 0 - 3 0 ) , D J D 23 (Ox­ ford: Clarendon, 1997), 2 0 7 - 2 0 , with pi. X X V I . For an earlier edition, see van der Woude, "Fragmente des Buches Jubilaen aus Q u m r a n Hohle X I (nQJub)," in Tradition und Glaube: Das frtihe Christentum

in seiner Umwelt.

Festgabe fiir Karl Georg Kuhn, ed. G . Jeremias,

H . Kuhn, and H . Stegemann (Gottingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1972), 140-46, with pi. V I I I . Milik subsequently placed some small fragments, "A propos de nQJub," Bib 54 (1973): 77-78. See also Garcia Martinez, "Texts from Cave 11," in The Dead Sea Scrolls: Forty Years of Research, ed. D. Dimant and U. Rappaport, S T D J 10 (Leiden: Brill, 1992), 2 3 . Attention 0

should be drawn to the editors' comments regarding 11Q21, published as liQtemple . They note that the physical appearance and layout are much like those of 1 1 Q 1 2 , and the hand may be that of the scribe of 11Q12. However, they were not able to locate the fragments in the known text of Jubilees, while it does show some overlap with the Temple Scroll ( 4 1 1 - 1 4 , with pi. X L V I I I ) . In Textual and Historical

Studies in the Book of Jubilees, H S M 14 (Missoula:

Scholars Press, 1977), 1 8 - 1 0 1 , 1 reedited the Hebrew fragments then available and compared their readings with the versional evidence. w

15. For the edition, see D J D 13, 2 3 - 3 3 , ' t h pi. III.

6

The Manuscript 4Q482

13:29 (or G e n 1 4 : 2 2 - 2 4 ) ; 36:9 (?)

Tradition Herodian

of

Jubilees

1 6

T h e r e are eight s m a l l pieces g r o u p e d u n d e r 4 Q 4 8 2 . M a u r i c e Baillet d e ­ b a t e d w h e t h e r frg. 1 c o r r e s p o n d e d w i t h Jub 13:29 or w i t h G e n 1 4 : 2 2 - 2 4 . H e w a s able to read t w e n t y - f o u r letters s p r e a d over five lines, w i t h o n l y one ( u n c e r ­ 1

tain) c o m p l e t e w o r d (DH in line 3 ) . If he has correctly read ]V 7'S in line 1, the possessive that he reconstructs p a r t i a l l y in line 2 w o u l d not be v e r y far distant f r o m it, thus suggesting a rather short line, w h i l e the reference to Mamre

that

he finds in line 3 has a parallel o n l y at a c o n s i d e r a b l y greater distance in Jub 13:29. N o t h i n g else m a t c h e s the context in J u b i l e e s . T h e r e is a s i m i l a r p r o b l e m w i t h s p a c i n g in c o m p a r i s o n w i t h G e n 1 4 : 2 2 - 2 4 . T h e piece p r o b a b l y has the text of neither Jub 13:29 n o r G e n 1 4 : 2 2 - 2 4 . F o r frg. 2 Baillet asked w h e t h e r it held the text of J u b 36:9. It has ten letters distributed over three lines. It s e e m s that the w o r d B m n

1

( w h i c h c a n m e a n "he w i l l d e v i s e " ) m a d e h i m t h i n k

a b o u t Jub 36:9 w h e r e yaxasses

(- he will seek) a p p e a r s , as does "sky," w h i c h

w o u l d c o r r e s p o n d w i t h D'ttU? in line 2 . B u t the v e r b s do n o t h a v e the s a m e m e a n i n g , a n d as a result there is n o t h i n g to identify the w o r d s on the frag­ m e n t w i t h J u b 36:9. Baillet w a s able to locate n o n e of frgs. 3 - 8 .

4Q483

G e n 1:28 ( J u b 2:14?)

Herodian

T h e t w o tiny f r a g m e n t s p r e s e r v e , respectively, little a n d n o t h i n g dis­ tinctive. T h e s e c o n d has o n l y o n e legible letter, b u t the first has eleven of t h e m l o c a t e d o n three lines. T h e w o r d that m a d e Baillet t h i n k the f r a g m e n t c o u l d b e f r o m J u b 2 : 1 4 is w h a t he r e a d s as miPS'SI, a l t h o u g h he c o n s i d e r e d r e a d i n g it as D'lPS'D'l. J u b 2:14 c o n t a i n s the a s s i g n m e n t given to h u m a n i t y to rule the earth (JHXH c a n b e r e a d o n line 2 ) . Yet, if a p l u r a l v e r b a l f o r m is p r o p e r l y r e a d , it w o u l d n o t a g r e e w i t h J u b 2 : 1 4 .

1 7

4Q484

M i d - i s t cent. C . E .

Baillet p u b l i s h e d u n d e r this n u m b e r t w e n t y f r a g m e n t s , the m o s t p r o ­ d u c t i v e o f w h i c h offers five letters (frg. 1 " I D t ^ t y ) , three m a r k e d w i t h a circlet

16. 4Q482 and 4Q483 were published by Baillet, Qumran

Grotte4.Ill,

D J D 7 (Oxford:

C l a r e n d o n , 1982), 1 - 2 , with pi. I. In neither case was he sure about the identification, as the alternative identifications a n d question m a r k s that he supplied show. 17. P u e c h has n o w m a i n t a i n e d

that 4Q483 is a c o p y o f G e n e s i s ( " U n

nouveau

m a n u s c r i t de la G e n e s e de la grotte 4: 4Q483 — p a p 4 Q G e n e s e ° , " RevQ 1 9 , no. 74 [1999]: 25960). T h a t is, he agrees w i t h Baillet's first suggestion for it.

7

James

C.

VanderKam

a n d o n e w i t h a dot (frg. 5 also h a s five letters b u t on t w o l i n e s ) . S o he s e a r c h e d for uses of " I s s a c h a r " in the literature a n d v e r y tentatively sug­ gested that 4 Q 4 8 4 w a s a H e b r e w c o p y of the T e s t a m e n t of J u d a h . A p p a r e n t l y the p r e s e n c e o f J137 in frg. 7 p o i n t e d m o r e to the T e s t a m e n t o f J u d a h (the w o r d is u s e d at 25:2) t h a n to the T e s t a m e n t of I s s a c h a r . H e also notes that the v e r b Dip c a n b e r e a d on frg. 19, a n d it is p r e s u p p o s e d in T J u d 24:1 a n d p e r ­ h a p s v. 5 .

1 8

E m i l e P u e c h later r e s t u d i e d the f r a g m e n t s w h i l e w o r k i n g o n the

e d i t i o n of 4 Q 5 3 8 that M i l i k h a d identified as f r o m a T e s t a m e n t of J u d a h . P u e c h r e v i s e d s o m e of Baillet's r e a d i n g s a n d d e t e r m i n e d that 4 Q 4 8 4 s h o u l d be renamed 4 Q j u b ' .

1 9

H e t h o u g h t a shin

or a lamed

f o l l o w e d the

name

" I s s a c h a r " o n frg. 1 ( B a i l l e t h a d i n d i c a t e d n o a d d i t i o n a l letter) a n d t h o u g h t it fit J u b 28:22 or 3 4 : 2 0 . O n either r e a d i n g of a letter after "Issachar," the frag­ m e n t w o u l d n o t m a t c h the E t h i o p i c w o r d i n g in J u b 28:22 (semo yessakor rabu'u),

n o r in 34:20 (wa-sema

Baillet placed two

midline

("certainement")

la-be'esita dots

on

yessakor either

hezaqa).

side of

' 3 X ^ 0 as i n J u b 33:7 {'arVasani

ba-

F o r frg. 2, w h e r e Puech

reads

robel). T h e identifi­

c a t i o n is p o s s i b l e b u t the r e a d i n g is far f r o m a s s u r e d . T h e other

fragments

P u e c h m u s t treat differently, as there is either n o w o r d o r n o c o n t e x t , b u t he does t h i n k Baillet's r e a d i n g o f JT57 in frg. 7 is w r o n g ; a better r e a d i n g is J l Q , a n a m e f o u n d in J u b 1 9 : 1 2 . A s the n a m e a p p e a r s in G e n 25:2 as w e l l , I d o n o t t h i n k w e h a v e w a r r a n t for r e g a r d i n g 4 Q 4 8 4 as a n o t h e r c o p y of J u b i l e e s .

20

T h e Q u m r a n f r a g m e n t a r y c o p i e s are not the o n l y e v i d e n c e for the H e ­ b r e w v e r s i o n of J u b i l e e s , a n d there are also i n d i c a t i o n s that Jubilees exercised a m o d e s t i n f l u e n c e in later H e b r e w literature. As the editors a n d c o m m e n t a t o r s h a v e r e g u l a r l y n o t e d , s o m e m i d r a s h i m e m b o d y e x p a n s i o n s closely r e s e m b l i n g o n e s in J u b i l e e s . T h e f o l l o w i n g are e s p e c i a l l y n o t e w o r t h y . 1. The Book of Asaph

(or The Book of Noah):

T h e first p a r t o f the text

has close similarities w i t h J u b 1 0 : 1 - 1 4 , the s t o r y a b o u t the 90 p e r c e n t r e d u c ­ tion in the n u m b e r o f d e m o n s a l l o w e d to afflict the d e s c e n d a n t s o f N o a h . T h e text is available in A . Jellinek, Bet ha-Midrash: raschim

und vermischter

Abhandlungen

Sammlung

kleiner

aus der alteren judischen

Mid-

Literatur,

18. D J D 7, 3, w i t h pi. I. 19. P u e c h , " U n e nouvelle c o p i e d u Livre des Jubiles 4Q484 = pap4QJubiles'," RevQ 19, no. 74 (1999): 2 6 1 - 6 4 . 20. Puech ("Une nouvelle copie," 264 n. 7) also writes that identifying 4Q516 as a c o p y of Jubilees is not excluded, b u t the o n l y e v i d e n c e he cites is frg. 9 w h e r e Baillet read J ^ t l , placing circlets above all three letters ( D J D 7 , 3 0 0 ) . B u t Jubilees is o n l y one of several w o r k s that m e n t i o n s the n a m e , a n d the reading is n o t certain.

8

The Manuscript

Tradition

of

Jubilees

3rd ed. ( L e i p z i g : F. N i e s , 1853; r e p r i n t e d , J e r u s a l e m : W a h r m a n n B o o k s , 1 9 6 7 ) , t h i r d p a r t , p p . 1 5 5 - 5 6 . It b e g i n s : " T h i s is the b o o k of r e m e d i e s that the first sages c o p i e d f r o m the b o o k of S h e m , N o a h ' s s o n , w h i c h w a s t r a n s m i t t e d to N o a h at M t . L u b a r , o n e o f the m o u n t a i n s of A r a r a t , after the flood." W h i l e the first p a r t of the s h o r t text l o o k s v e r y m u c h like the s e c t i o n in Jubilees a n d t h u s can, in s o m e p l a c e s , be u s e d in e v a l u a t i n g s o m e details in the t e x t , Book of Asaph

21

The

d o e s n o t constitute an e x t e n d e d q u o t a t i o n f r o m J u b i l e e s . T h e

w r i t e r p r e s e n t s the s t o r y in a s o m e w h a t different o r d e r a n d lacks parts of it as it a p p e a r s in J u b i l e e s , for e x a m p l e , G o d ' s a c c e d i n g to M a s t e m a ' s r e q u e s t that he be a l l o w e d to retain o n e - t e n t h of the d e m o n s . T h e a u t h o r of

The

Book of Asaph d o e s n o t state the s o u r c e for the s t o r y other t h a n s a y i n g N o a h received it. 2. Midrash

Wayyissa'u:

I n the s e c o n d h a l f of the m i d r a s h , the w a r b e ­

t w e e n J a c o b a n d E s a u is r e c o u n t e d in a w a y p a r a l l e l w i t h the s t o r y in J u b 3 7 38. Jellinek p u b l i s h e d this m i d r a s h as w e l l in the t h i r d p a r t of his Bet Midrash,

1 - 5 . T h e s i t u a t i o n w i t h Midrash

Wayyissa'u

ha-

is r e m i n i s c e n t o f the

o n e for The Book of Asaph: s i m i l a r m a t e r i a l is offered b u t the text reads far differently t h a n the parallels in J u b i l e e s . T h e first section of the m i d r a s h d e ­ tails J u d a h ' s w o n d r o u s m i l i t a r y e x p l o i t s a g a i n s t the k i n g of T a p p u a c h a n d others b y his b r o t h e r s a n d father. T h e r e are s e v e r a l p o i n t s o f contact (e.g., the n a m e s of cities) b e t w e e n it a n d J u b 3 4 : 2 - 9 .

2 2

T h e r e are traces o f the influence of Jubilees e l s e w h e r e in J e w i s h litera­ ture. T h e s e s h o w that, in s o m e f o r m , i n f o r m a t i o n f r o m Jubilees c o n t i n u e d to b e of use to c o m m e n t a t o r s o n the text of G e n e s i s a n d E x o d u s . In Textual

and Historical

Studies

in the Book of Jubilees,

2 3

I c o m p a r e d the

r e a d i n g s of the H e b r e w f r a g m e n t s that h a d b e e n p u b l i s h e d at that t i m e w i t h the r e a d i n g s of the four E t h i o p i c m a n u s c r i p t s o n w h i c h R . H . C h a r l e s h a d b a s e d his e d i t i o n . I f o u n d that the best E t h i o p i c r e a d i n g s a n d the H e b r e w

21. F o r examples, see V a n d e r K a m , The Book of Jubilees, 2:58-60. R. H . Charles repro­ duced the relevant part of The Book of Noah in his Ethiopic Version of the Hebrew Book of ju­ bilees, Anecdota oxoniensia (Oxford: Clarendon, 1895), appendix 1:179. M . Himmelfarb translates the section in question a n d discusses it in " S o m e Echoes o f Jubilees in Medieval Hebrew Literature," in Tracing the Threads: Studies in the Vitality of Jewish Pseudepigrapha, ed. J. Reeves, S B L E J L 6 (Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1994), 127-36. 22. Charles printed the latter half o f the midrash as appendix I I , 180-82, in his Ethiopic Version of the Hebrew Book of Jubilees. See also V a n d e r K a m , Textual and Historical Studies, 218-38. 23. For further information, see A . Epstein, " L e livre des Jubiles, Philon et le Midrasch Tadsche," REJ 21 (1890): 80-97; REJ 22 (1891): 1-25; Himmelfarb, " S o m e Echoes," 115-41.

9

James

C.

VanderKam

o n e s c o r r e s p o n d e d v e r y closely. O d d l y e n o u g h , there are even cases w h e r e the H e b r e w is defective a n d the E t h i o p i c has p r e s e r v e d the c o r r e c t r e a d i n g . T h o u g h the H e b r e w base of that c o m p a r i s o n w a s s m a l l , it p r o v i d e d e v i d e n c e that the E t h i o p i c text of Jubilees is a careful r e n d e r i n g of the o r i g i n a l text (via a G r e e k t r a n s l a t i o n ) . W o r k w i t h the C a v e 4 copies that b e c a m e available later has r e i n f o r c e d the c o n c l u s i o n s d r a w n in that study, a l t h o u g h there are i n d e e d differences b e t w e e n the H e b r e w a n d E t h i o p i c r e a d i n g s in a n u m b e r of details. A n o t h e r factor s u p p o r t i n g the reliability o f the E t h i o p i c v e r s i o n of Jubilees is the fact that the citations from G e n e s i s a n d E x o d u s in the b o o k h a v e the characteristics of w h a t F r a n k C r o s s called the P a l e s t i n i a n t e x t - t y p e of the P e n t a t e u c h or w h a t w e c o u l d call a text closely related to the t y p e t h a t lies at the b a s e of the S a m a r i t a n r e c e n s i o n .

II. S y r i a c

T h e r e m a y have b e e n a S y r i a c t r a n s l a t i o n o f the b o o k of J u b i l e e s , p o s s i b l y m a d e f r o m a H e b r e w b a s e . T h e e v i d e n c e for a S y r i a c v e r s i o n is m u c h like that for a G r e e k v e r s i o n : w e h a v e i n d i r e c t e v i d e n c e p o i n t i n g t o w a r d such a conclusion but no manuscript of a Syriac translation. T h e surviving evi­ dence is as f o l l o w s : 1. T h e first text that r a i s e d the p o s s i b i l i t y that Jubilees h a d b e e n t r a n s ­ lated i n t o S y r i a c w a s B M A d d i t i o n a l 1 2 . 1 5 4 , folio 180 p u b l i s h e d b y A n t o n i o M a r i a C e r i a n i in 1 8 6 1 .

2 4

B e c a u s e J u b i l e e s ' list o f the n a m e s o f the m a t r i a r c h s

s e e m s to h a v e b e e n of such w i d e s p r e a d interest, the text, w h i c h b e g i n s : " T h e n a m e s of the w i v e s of the p a t r i a r c h s a c c o r d i n g to the b o o k w h i c h is called J u b i l e e s a m o n g the H e b r e w s , " is r e p r o d u c e d here:

T h e n a m e of A d a m ' s wife w a s E v e ; of the wife of C a i n w a s ' A s a w a . T h e n a m e of Seth's wife w a s ' A z u r a , his sister, a n d of the wife of E n o s h w a s N a ' u m , his sister; of C a i n a n M a h a l a l u t , his sister; of M a h a l a l a ' e l D i n a , the daughter of his uncle; of Ya'ar [ = J a r e d ] B a r a k a , the daughter of his uncle; of E n o c h ' E d n i , the daughter of his uncle;

24. A. M . C e r i a n i , Monumenta ana, 1 8 6 1 ) , 2:ix-x.

10

Sacra etProfana,

2 vols. ( M i l a n : Bibliotheca A m b r o s i -

The Manuscript

Tradition

of

Jubilees

of M e t h u s e l a h ' E d n a , the daughter of his uncle; of L a m e c h ' E n u s h a y , the d a u g h t e r of his uncle. T h e n a m e of the wife of N o a h ' A m i z a r a , the daughter of his uncle; of the wife of S h e m S e d q a t n e b a b ; of H a m N a h a l m a h u q ; of Japheth ' A d n a t n a s h e . T h e n a m e of the wife of A r p a c h s h a d w a s R u s a , the d a u g h t e r of Shushan; of C a i n a n his son M a l k a , the daughter of M a d a y ; of Shelah his son M a ' a k a , the daughter of his uncle; of the wife of E b e r ' A z u r a , the d a u g h t e r of N e b r o d ; of Peleg M a n a , the daughter of Sana'ar. In the days of Peleg the tower w a s built; its height 5433 cubits, stadia. T h e n a m e of the wife of R a ' u w a s ' A r w a , the daughter of U r ; of Serug M a l k a , the daughter of K e b e r his uncle; of N a h o r his son Isaqa, the daughter of Nastag the C h a l d e a n ; of Terah ' E d n a , the daughter of his uncle A b r a m . She gave birth to a son a n d n a m e d h i m A b r a m after the n a m e of her father; but of A b r a m , Isaac, a n d Jacob, the n a m e s of the w i v e s are k n o w n ; but of the sons of J a c o b : of R e u b e n ' A d a , of S i m e o n Y a ' a k a ' a the C a n a a n i t e s s ; of L e v i M a l k a f r o m the daughters of A r a m ; of J u d a h B a t - s h u a ' the C a n a a n i t e s s ; of Issachar ' A z a q a ; of Z e b u l u n ' E d n a y ; of D a n T o b - h a g l a ; of N a p h t a l i R u s h a from B e t - N a h a r i n ; of G a d M a ' a q a ; of A s h e r Yona; of J o s e p h A s n a t ; of B e n j a m i n ' A s a m a n a . T h e n a m e of the daughter of P h a r a o h w h o w a s k i n d to M o s e s w a s Tarmutay. B u t according to others R a ' u s a .

S o m e G r e c i s m s in the text (e.g., the spelling of Jubilees [ywbly'],

stadion)

s u g g e s t e d the base m i g h t h a v e b e e n G r e e k . T h e p o s s i b i l i t y that Jubilees h a d b e e n translated into S y r i a c i n c r e a s e d w h e n a series of citations of the b o o k w e r e i s o l a t e d in a c h r o n i c l e . 2. C h r o n i c l e to the y e a r 1 2 3 4 : T h i s l e n g t h y c h r o n i c l e s h o w s that w r i t ­ ers in the S y r i a c t r a d i t i o n u s e d J u b i l e e s as d i d their G r e e k - w r i t i n g c o l ­ l e a g u e s to s u p p l e m e n t G e n e s i s a n d E x o d u s . In it there are c i t a t i o n s o f 1 3 7 v e r s e s in J u b i l e e s a n d a l l u s i o n s to 8 o t h e r s . E . T i s s e r a n t a n a l y z e d the cita­ t i o n s a n d , b a s i n g his i n f e r e n c e o n the l a c k o f G r e e k i n f l u e n c e in t h e m a n d the fact that the a u t h o r u s e d o n l y S y r i a c a n d A r a b i c s o u r c e s , c o n c l u d e d that t h e y c a m e f r o m a S y r i a c t r a n s l a t i o n of J u b i l e e s m a d e d i r e c t l y f r o m the H e ­

ll

James

C.

VanderKam

brew Jubilees.

2 5

T h e i n f e r e n c e is p o s s i b l e , b u t there are o t h e r w a y s of e x ­

p l a i n i n g the e v i d e n c e .

III. Greek T h e r e is s o l i d r e a s o n for t h i n k i n g that the b o o k of Jubilees w a s translated f r o m H e b r e w into G r e e k , even t h o u g h n o c o p y of a G r e e k t r a n s l a t i o n has b e e n identified. A s a result, o n e m u s t use other k i n d s of a r g u m e n t s to estab­ lish the existence o f the t r a n s l a t i o n . 1. E t h i o p i c b i b l i c a l literature w a s translated from G r e e k . A s Jubilees is r e g u l a r l y i n c l u d e d a m o n g the s c r i p t u r a l b o o k s o f the A b y s s i n i a n c h u r c h , it too w o u l d have c o m e from a Greek m o d e l . 2. C l u e s in the E t h i o p i c text b e t r a y a G r e e k base for the t r a n s l a t i o n . B e ­ sides transliterated G r e e k w o r d s a n d n a m e s s p e l l e d in their G r e e k f o r m s , there are m i s t a k e s in the G e ' e z text that c a n b e e x p l a i n e d c o n v i n c i n g l y b y p o s i t i n g a G r e e k Vorlage for the E t h i o p i c r e a d i n g . O n e e x a m p l e recently s u g ­ gested b y W i l l i a m G i l d e r s is in J u b 7:4: " h e [ N o a h ] p u t s o m e of its b l o o d o n the m e a t of the altar." S i n c e there w o u l d h a v e b e e n n o m e a t o n the altar for this riNOn offering, G i l d e r s p r o p o s e d that the o r i g i n a l H e b r e w here w o u l d h a v e b e e n , n o t "It^D, b u t I T U T p , so that N o a h p u t the b l o o d o n the h o r n s o f the altar. N e i t h e r the H e b r e w n o r E t h i o p i c t e r m s for these t w o w o r d s are likely c a n d i d a t e s for c o n f u s i o n , b u t KSpcrra ( h o r n s ) a n d Kpeara (flesh, a p l u ­ ral f o r m of Kpeac) c o u l d easily h a v e c a u s e d the m i s t a k e n r e a d i n g in the G e ' e z manuscripts.

2 6

3. A f e w citations of a n d a l l u s i o n s to J u b i l e e s , m a d e b y w r i t e r s o f G r e e k w h o u s e d G r e e k s o u r c e s , have s u r v i v e d . T h e s e are n o t a b u n d a n t in n u m b e r b u t do m a k e it r e a s o n a b l e to t h i n k that a t r a n s l a t i o n of Jubilees into G r e e k (or at least a G r e e k r e n d e r i n g o f parts of it) existed. W h i l e m o s t o f the e v i ­ dence c o m e s f r o m relatively late texts, the s o u r c e s of the late citations m a y go b a c k to a m u c h earlier t i m e in history.

25. E . Tisserant, "Fragments syriaques du Livre des Jubiles," RB 30 (1921): 55-86, 20632. F o r the edition of the chronicle, see J. B . Chabot, Chronicon ad annum Christi 1234 pertinens I, C S C O 81, Scriptores Syri 36 (Louvain: Secretariat d u C o r p u s S C O , 1920). I repro­ duced the Syriac fragments in The Book of Jubilees, 1. 26. W. Gilders, "Where D i d N o a h Place the Blood? A Textual Note o n Jubilees 7:4," JBL 124 (2005): 745-49. For other examples o f such confusions, see Charles, The Book of Jubi­ lees or the Little Genesis (London: A d a m a n d Charles Black, 1902), x x x .

12

The Manuscript

Tradition

of

Jubilees

E p i p h a n i u s (ca. 3 1 5 - 4 0 3 ) : T h e b i s h o p o f S a l a m i s ( C o n s t a n t i a ) o n C y ­ p r u s w r o t e t w o m a j o r w o r k s , in b o t h of w h i c h he m a d e b r i e f use of J u b i l e e s . The Panarion

(= The Medicine

Chest; Against

Heresies is the G r e e k ti­

tle): H e c o m p o s e d this c o m p i l a t i o n of w h a t he c o n s i d e r e d d e v i a n t v i e w s in a t w o - t o - t h r e e - y e a r p e r i o d d u r i n g the m i d - 3 7 0 s . It is a " h i s t o r i c a l e n c y c l o p e ­ dia of h e r e s y a n d its r e f u t a t i o n . E p i p h a n i u s u n d e r t o o k the m o n u m e n t a l task of listing all p r e - a n d p o s t - C h r i s t i a n sects — a total of e i g h t y — f r o m A d a m till his o w n l i f e t i m e , s k e t c h i n g their h i s t o r y a n d c h i e f d o c t r i n e s as he u n d e r ­ s t o o d t h e m , a n d telling the faithful, in a f e w w o r d s , w h a t a n s w e r to give them."

27

H i s e m p l o y m e n t of J u b i l e e s c o m e s i n s e c t i o n 3 o f b o o k 1 w h e r e he

treats sect # 3 9 , the S e t h i a n s . H e w i s h e d to refute their ideas a b o u t C a i n a n d A b e l as s o n s o f t w o m e n , a b o u t w h o m t w o angels q u a r r e l e d , l e a d i n g to the m u r d e r o f A b e l . T h e p o w e r o n h i g h , c a l l e d M o t h e r a n d F e m i n i n e , s e e m s to h a v e w o n the contest. S h e then c a u s e d the g e n e r a t i o n of Seth a n d p l a c e d h e r p o w e r in h i m (see 2 , 1 - 3 , 4 ) . A g a i n s t these i d e a s , " f o o l i s h , w e a k a n d full o f n o n s e n s e , " E p i p h a n i u s defends the s t o r y a b o u t the first f a m i l y as p r e s e n t e d in G e n e s i s . In 5 , 5 he i n t r o d u c e s several q u o t a t i o n s f r o m G e n e s i s that he calls s c r i p t u r e . T h e J u b i l e e s a l l u s i o n s are p a r t of his refutation of S e t h i a n v i e w s (6, 1 - 5 ; see also 7, 1 - 3 ) .

B u t , as is a p p a r e n t in Jubilees or " T h e Little G e n e s i s " [ T i c 5 e TOIC 'IcupnAcdoic, euptjoKetai KCU rfj XeTtTfj r e v e a e i KaXouuEvrj], the b o o k even contains the n a m e s of b o t h Cain's and Seth's wives — to the utter s h a m e of these p e o p l e w h o have recited their m y t h s to the w o r l d . F o r after A d a m h a d h a d sons a n d daughters it b e c a m e necessary that, for the t i m e b e i n g , his sons m a r r y their o w n sisters. S u c h a thing w a s n o t unlawful; there w a s n o other h u m a n stock. In a m a n n e r of s p e a k i n g , in fact, A d a m practically m a r r i e d his o w n d a u g h t e r himself, since she w a s fashioned from his b o d y a n d b o n e s a n d h a d b e e n f o r m e d in u n i o n w i t h h i m b y G o d . A n d this w a s n o t u n l a w f u l . A n d his sons w e r e m a r r i e d , C a i n to his older sister, w h o s e n a m e w a s S a u e [Trj aSeXcprj rfj U£i£ovi Zaun,]; a n d a third son, Seth, w h o w a s b o r n after A b e l , to his sister n a m e d A z u r a [rfj XeYOuevrj a u r o u aSsXcpfj A C o u p a ] . A s the Little G e n e s i s says, A d a m h a d other sons too — nine after these three — so that he h a d two daughters b u t twelve sons, o n e of w h o m w a s killed w h i l e eleven s u r v i v e d .

27. F. Williams, The Panarion

of Epiphanius

of Salamis

Book I (Sects 1-46),

2 8

N H S 35

(Leiden: Brill, 1987), x v i .

28. T h e translation is from W i l l i a m s , The Panarion,

259.

13

James

C.

VanderKam

H e d r a w s the i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t the w i v e s ' n a m e s f r o m J u b 4:9, 1 1 , a n d J u b 4:10 m e n t i o n s the n i n e a d d i t i o n a l s o n s . E p i p h a n i u s , in the s e q u e l , s p e a k s a b o u t the n e c e s s i t y of m a r r y i n g c o u s i n s in the n e x t g e n e r a t i o n s (7, 2 ) , a p o i n t m a d e r e p e a t e d l y b y the a u t h o r of Jubilees in c h a p . 4 ( w . 1 5 , 1 6 , 27, 28, 3 3 ) . E p i p h a n i u s does n o t i n t r o d u c e the m a t e r i a l f r o m Jubilees as s c r i p t u r e , a n d Jubilees is n o t a m o n g the b i b l i c a l b o o k s he n a m e s in his treatise

Mea­

sures and Weights; b u t the i n f o r m a t i o n in the b o o k of Jubilees w a s reliable e n o u g h for h i m to use in refuting a sect that a t t r i b u t e d a different o r i g i n a n d n a t u r e to S e t h . Measures handbook"

2 9

and

Weights

( 3 9 2 ) : T h o u g h E p i p h a n i u s w r o t e his " B i b l e

in G r e e k , the full text has n o t s u r v i v e d in the o r i g i n a l b u t is

available in a S y r i a c t r a n s l a t i o n . F o r t u n a t e l y , the s e c t i o n f r o m Jubilees is a m o n g the e x t a n t G r e e k s e c t i o n s . W h e n d i s c u s s i n g the s c r i p t u r a l m e a s u r e modius,

he notes that it c o n t a i n s t w e n t y - t w o xestai. " N o w I s p e a k of the 'just'

modius,

as the L a w is a c c u s t o m e d to say, a c c o r d i n g to the s a c r e d m e a s u r e .

For, O l o v e r o f g o o d , G o d d i d t w e n t y - t w o w o r k s b e t w e e n the b e g i n n i n g a n d the seventh day, w h i c h are these: . . ." H e t h e n lists the t w e n t y - t w o w o r k s o f the first w e e k , o b v i o u s l y r e p r o d u c i n g J u b i l e e s ' c r e a t i o n a c c o u n t , t h o u g h he d o e s n o t here n a m e his s o u r c e ( 2 1 - 2 2 ; see also 2 3 - 2 4 ) . T h e extent o f the cita­ tion a n d its p r e c i s i o n (the t w e n t y - t w o w o r k s are the s a m e a n d are c o r r e c t l y d i s t r i b u t e d o v e r the s i x d a y s ) offer g r o u n d s for t h i n k i n g E p i p h a n i u s h a d a c ­ cess to a G r e e k t r a n s l a t i o n of J u b i l e e s , n o t s i m p l y a w o r k c o n t a i n i n g extracts f r o m it. H e also r e p r o d u c e s J u b i l e e s ' c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n the t w e n t y - t w o w o r k s o f c r e a t i o n u n t i l the s a b b a t h a n d the t w e n t y - t w o g e n e r a t i o n s u n t i l J a ­ cob (see also 3 - 4 ) . O t h e r t h a n E p i p h a n i u s , a l m o s t all the G r e e k citations f r o m Jubilees a p p e a r in B y z a n t i n e c h r o n o g r a p h i e s that date f r o m s e v e r a l c e n t u r i e s later. T h e earliest a n d m o s t i m p o r t a n t of these w a s a u t h o r e d b y G e o r g e S y n c e l l u s , w h o c o m p i l e d his Chronograph)' Syncellus took information

circa 8 0 8 - 1 0 . A c c o r d i n g to H e i n r i c h Gelzer,

d e r i v i n g f r o m Jubilees f r o m s o u r c e s such as

P a n a d o r u s a n d A n n i a n u s w h o w e r e t h e m s e l v e s d e p e n d e n t o n the w o r k o f Julius A f r i c a n u s (ca. 1 8 0 - c a . 2 5 0 ) .

3 0

W i l l i a m A d l e r sees the t r a d i t i o n differ­

ently. A s S y n c e l l u s ' s w o r k w i t h the text o f Jubilees does n o t a l w a y s agree w i t h its e m p l o y m e n t in the A l e x a n d r i a n c h r o n o g r a p h e r s , he s e e m s n o t to h a v e

29. J. E. Dean, ed., Epiphanius' Treatise on Weights and Measures: The Syriac Version, S A O C 11 (Chicago: University o f Chicago Press, 1935), 3. 30. H . Gelzer, Sextus Julius Africanus und die byzantinische Chronographie, 2.1: Die Nachfolger des Julius Africanus (Leipzig: J. C . Hinrichs'sche, 1898).

14

The Manuscript d e r i v e d the i n f o r m a t i o n

Tradition

directly from t h e m b u t t h r o u g h

of

other

Jubilees sources.

A d l e r n o t e s , for i n s t a n c e , that S y n c e l l u s r e g u l a r l y c l a i m e d that t r a d i t i o n s at­ tested in Jubilees a l o n e w e r e f r o m J o s e p h u s ' s Antiquities: lar p a t t e r n of m i s a t t r i b u t i n g citations f r o m Jubilees

" B u t his v e r y r e g u ­

to J o s e p h u s '

Antiquities

m a k e s it clear that at a p r i o r stage in the t r a n s m i s s i o n of these t w o w o r k s , material

from

the

two works had b e c o m e

confused."

3 1

Adler

thinks

S y n c e l l u s a n d other B y z a n t i n e h i s t o r i a n s u s e d a certain k i n d o f reference w o r k : " T h i s w a s , as has b e e n p r o p o s e d , n o t a c o n t i n u o u s c h r o n o l o g i c a l n a r ­ rative, b u t rather a c o l l e c t i o n of s o u r c e m a t e r i a l . In a w o r k of this s o r t J o s e p h u s a n d Jubilees

w e r e r e g u l a r l y cited together, since, in the s c o p e a n d

n a t u r e of the m a t e r i a l treated, the t w o w o r k s w e r e p a r a l l e l . "

32

Such epitomes,

w h i c h i n c l u d e d excerpts f r o m a n u m b e r o f s o u r c e s r e g a r d i n g the issues a n d passages under

d i s c u s s i o n , w e r e the sorts o f m a t e r i a l s f r o m w h i c h

the

c h r o n o g r a p h e r s d r e w their i n f o r m a t i o n that d e r i v e d u l t i m a t e l y f r o m w o r k s s u c h as J u b i l e e s ; t h e y d i d n o t use the s o u r c e s t h e m s e l v e s . M i l i k a r g u e d that a series of even less w e l l - k n o w n B y z a n t i n e h i s t o r i a n s h a d d r a w n data f r o m Jubilees a n d h a d taken t h e m d i r e c t l y f r o m the w r i t i n g s of J u l i u s A f r i c a n u s . If so, this w o u l d trace the t r a n s l a t i o n of Jubilees b a c k to a t i m e n o later t h a n the early third c e n t u r y C . E .

3 3

B e s i d e s the G r e e k m a t e r i a l that has b e e n collected b y several e d i t o r s ,

34

there is n o w a d d i t i o n a l e v i d e n c e for the i n f l u e n c e of Jubilees in C h r i s t i a n ex­ egesis of G e n e s i s . T h e C a t e n a o n G e n e s i s , s o m e of w h i c h has o n l y recently b e e n edited, c o n t a i n s s o m e p a s s a g e s that either m e n t i o n Jubilees as their s o u r c e or reflect data f r o m it. F o r e x a m p l e , #551 ( C a i n ' s wife w a s n a m e d A o a o u X ) , #585 (it lists the n a m e s of the w i v e s of the p a t r i a r c h s r e c o r d e d in G e n 5 a l o n g w i t h their f a m i l y affiliation, j u s t as in J u b 4 ) , #590 ( o n G e n 5 : 2 1 24: 'Evtbx rrpwToc e u a 0 E Y p a M M ' ™ ' 0

K

a

l

a

£YP H>

e

T

& oijueTa TOU oupavoO KCU

The, TpOTrac KCXI TOUC ufjvaq [Jub 4:17: " H e w a s the first of m a n k i n d w h o w e r e b o r n o n the e a r t h w h o l e a r n e d (the art o f ) w r i t i n g , i n s t r u c t i o n , a n d w i s d o m

31. W. Adler, Time Immemorial: Archaic History and Its Sources in Christian Chronography from Julius Africanus to George Syncellus, D u m b a r t o n Oaks Studies 26 (Washington, D.C.: D u m b a r t o n Oaks Research Library a n d Collection, 1989), 191. 32. Adler, Time Immemorial, 193. 33. Milik, "Recherches sur la version grecque du livre des Jubiles," RB 78 (1971): 545-57. 34. The largest compilation is still that of H . Rcinsch, Das Buch der Jubilaen oder die kleine Genesis (Leipzig: Fues's Verlag [R. Reisland], 1874), 251-382, although he included m o r e than just Greek material. See also A . Denis, Fragmenta Pseudepigraphorum Quae Supersunt Graeca, P V T G 3 (Leiden: Brill, 1970), 7 0 - 1 0 2 ; I reproduced them in The Book of Ju­ bilees, 1.

15

James

C.

VanderKam

a n d w h o w r o t e d o w n in a b o o k the signs o f the sky in accord w i t h the

fixed

p a t t e r n of their m o n t h s " ] ) , #833 ( n a m e s a n d relations of the w i v e s of the sec­ o n d C a i n a n , Sala, E b e r , P h a l e g [Jub 8:5-7; 1 0 : 1 8 ] ) , #839 ( b u t see b e l o w o n D i d y m u s ) , #857 (the s e c o n d C a i n a n ' s a s t r o n o m y a n d d i v i n a t i o n ) , # 8 6 1 ( n a m e s a n d f a m i l y r e l a t i o n s of the w i v e s of R a g a u , S e r o u c h , N a h o r [Jub 1 1 : 1 , 7, 9 ] ) , # i 8 o 4 b ( B i l h a h a n d D i n a h died w h i l e m o u r n i n g for J o s e p h , g i v i n g J a ­ cob three r e a s o n s for g r i e f a n d a c c o u n t i n g for the d a y o f a t o n e m e n t ; see J u b 3 4 : 1 4 - 1 5 , 1 8 ) ; cf. # 1 8 2 9 ( r e g a r d i n g T a m a r ; a n o t h e r reference to the C o v e n a n t / T e s t a m e n t [see b e l o w ] ) , a n d # # 1 8 5 0 , 2268 ( o n the c h r o n o l o g y o f J o s e p h ' s life). O f s p e c i a l n o t e are the f o l l o w i n g t w o entries. #867: In the c o m m e n t on G e n 11:28 ( " H a r a n d i e d before his father Terah in the l a n d of his b i r t h , in U r o f the C h a l d e a n s " ) , the C a t e n a e n t r y e x ­ p l a i n s : " A r r a n d i e d in the fire w i t h w h i c h A b r a m b u r n e d the idols of his fa­ ther, w h e n he w e n t in to r e m o v e t h e m . A b r a m w a s t h e n 60 y e a r s o f age w h e n he b u r n e d the i d o l s — ( y e a r s ) that are not figured in the y e a r s of his life b e ­ c a u s e he w a s in u n b e l i e f u n t i l then, as it is w r i t t e n i n Jubilees [KOCOWC Y£YP

a T T T C ( 1

y

£ ™ TwPnXcxfio]."

35

T h e p a s s a g e is a l l u d i n g to J u b 1 2 : 1 2 - 1 4 : " I n

the sixtieth y e a r o f A b r a m ' s life ( w h i c h w a s the f o u r t h w e e k in its f o u r t h y e a r [ 1 9 3 6 ] ) , A b r a m g o t u p at n i g h t a n d b u r n e d the t e m p l e o f the i d o l s . H e b u r n e d e v e r y t h i n g in the t e m p l e b u t n o o n e k n e w ( a b o u t i t ) . T h e y got u p at n i g h t a n d w a n t e d to save their g o d s f r o m the fire. H a r a n d a s h e d in to save t h e m , b u t the fire r a g e d o v e r h i m . H e w a s b u r n e d in the fire a n d d i e d in Ur of the C h a l d e a n s b e f o r e his father T e r a h . T h e y b u r i e d h i m in Ur of the Chaldeans." T h e p a s s a g e u n m i s t a k a b l y offers i n f o r m a t i o n d o c u m e n t e d in J u b i l e e s , w h i c h is n a m e d as the s o u r c e , u s i n g a t r a d i t i o n a l f o r m u l a for i n t r o d u c i n g a s c r i p t u r a l c i t a t i o n . A b r a m ' s age at the t i m e ( s i x t y y e a r s ) c o m e s f r o m J u b 1 2 : 1 2 , as d o e s his act o f t o r c h i n g the s a n c t u a r y ; it also m e n t i o n s that H a r a n died w h i l e t r y i n g to r e s c u e the i d o l s . B u t the n o t i o n t h a t the first s i x t y y e a r s of A b r a m ' s life w e r e n o t c o u n t e d in his t r u e age — a n o t e that relates to the m u c h d i s c u s s e d p r o b l e m of the c h r o n o l o g y in G e n 1 1 : 2 6 , 32 — does n o t c o m e f r o m J u b i l e e s , or at least n o t f r o m the f o r m of the text r e p r e s e n t e d in the G e ' e z c o p i e s , a l t h o u g h Jubilees is m e n t i o n e d as the s o u r c e in i m m e d i a t e c o n n e c t i o n w i t h this r e m a r k . T h e p a s s a g e m a y i m p l y that the G r e e k Jubilees h a d a m o r e e x p a n d e d text at this p o i n t , b u t it is also p o s s i b l e that the w r i t e r c o n f u s e d s o u r c e s for this p r o b l e m .

35. F o r the text, see F. Petit, ed., La chaine sur la Genese: Edition

integrate 11 Chapitres

a 11, Traditio Exegetica G r a e c a 2 ( L o u v a i n : Peeters, 1 9 9 3 ) , 218. T h e translation is m i n e .

16

4

The

Manuscript

Tradition

of

Jubilees

# 2 2 7 0 : T h e first t w e n t y - t h r e e l i n e s , as the e d i t o r s n o t e , are a r e p r o d u c ­ tion, w i t h s o m e changes, of Jub 46:6-12; 4 7 : i .

3 6

T h i s p r e v i o u s l y u n e d i t e d text

is, u n l i k e s o m u c h o f the r e m a i n i n g G r e e k m a t e r i a l , a v e r y c l o s e q u o t a t i o n o f an extended passage from Jubilees. F o r the sake o f c o m p l e t e n e s s , a t t e n t i o n s h o u l d b e d r a w n to s i x c i t a t i o n s i n D i d y m u s the B l i n d that h e a t t r i b u t e s to w h a t he calls the B o o k o f the C o v e ­ n a n t (rj (3fpXoc Tfjc 5ia9tJKr|c). F i v e o f these a p p e a r in his c o m m e n t a r y

on

G e n e s i s , a n d a s i x t h i n h i s c o m m e n t a r y o n J o b . I n n o case d o e s he cite f r o m it; he a l w a y s s p e a k s i n d i r e c t l y a b o u t it. S o m e e d i t o r s o f D i d y m u s ' s w o r k s h a v e c l a i m e d that these c o m e f r o m J u b i l e e s , a n d o n e m u s t a d m i t that t h e r e is a s i m i l a r i t y in c o n t e n t b e t w e e n f o u r o f the six c i t a t i o n s a n d J u b i l e e s . C l o s e r s t u d y s h o w s , h o w e v e r , that t h e y are n o t likely to h a v e b e e n d r a w n f r o m J u b i ­ lees, t h o u g h the B o o k o f the C o v e n a n t w o u l d b e a g o o d n a m e for i t .

3 7

IV. L a t i n

There was a Latin translation of Jubilees, m a d e from a Greek m o d e l , and one p a r t i a l c o p y o f it is a v a i l a b l e . T h a t c o p y w a s p u b l i s h e d b y C e r i a n i i n 1 8 6 1 .

3 8

H e f o u n d it i n the m a n u s c r i p t d e s i g n a t e d A m b r o s i a n a C 73 Inf. T h e m a n u -

36. La chaine sur la Genese: Edition

integrate IV Chapitres 29 a 50, 455.

37. F o r the texts a n d the v i e w s of the editors, see D . L u h r m a n n , "Alttestamentliche P s e u d e p i g r a p h e n bei D i d y m o s v o n A l e x a n d r i e n , " ZAW 1 0 4 (1992): 2 3 1 - 4 9 , here 239-45. L u h r m a n n denies that the B o o k o f the C o v e n a n t in these passages is Jubilees. A . C r i s l i p has recently p u b l i s h e d parts o f a C o p t i c text, P . C t Y B R inv. 495, w h i c h he dates to the fourth to fifth c e n t u r y C . E . T h e fiorilegium quotes at least six passages, f o u r o f w h i c h are f r o m Jubi­ lees: 8:28-30; 7 : 1 4 - 1 6 ; 15:3; 4:33 (an a l l u s i o n ) . Crislip says w e s h o u l d n o t rule o u t the possibil­ ity there w a s a C o p t i c translation o f Jubilees ( " T h e Book Christian Fiorilegium

o n the F a m i l y o f N o a h , " BASP

of Jubilees

in C o p t i c : A n Early

40 [ 2 0 0 3 ] : 27-44, with pis. 1 - 2 ) . T h e

C o p t i c material m a y have c o m e from a G r e e k source. I n addition, W. L o w n d e s L i p s c o m b has p u b l i s h e d a n A r m e n i a n list o f the n a m e s of, a m o n g others, the patriarchs a n d their w i v e s , w i t h the w i v e s ' n a m e s c o r r e s p o n d i n g to the o n e s given in Jub 3 : 3 4 - 1 1 : 1 4 . A s he notes, there are five other texts (besides his list a n d the o n e in Jubilees) that p r o v i d e these n a m e s , a n d he offers a chart c o m p a r i n g the n a m e s in all seven. T h e others are the Syriac list o f n a m e s (see a b o v e ) , the scholia in the L X X m i n u s c u l e 135, a n d three late H e b r e w texts ("A Tradition from the B o o k o f Jubilees in A r m e n i a n , " JJS 29 [1978]: 1 4 9 - 6 3 ) . It is possible that the A r m e n i a n list also c a m e from a G r e e k intermediary, t h o u g h Syriac is n o t excluded. 38. C e r i a n i , " F r a g m e n t a P a r v a e G e n e s i s et A s s u m p t i o n i s M o s i s ex Veteri Versione Latina," in Monumenta Buch der Jubilden, Hebrew

Sacra et Profana,

1:9-64; for the Jubilees text see 15-54. R o n s c h (Das

1 0 - 9 5 , w i t h c o m m e n t a r y o n 9 6 - 1 9 6 ) , C h a r l e s (The Ethiopic

Book of Jubilees),

a n d I (The Book of Jubilees,

Version of the

1:270-300) have reissued the text.

17

James

C.

VanderKam

s c r i p t is a p a l i m p s e s t , a n d the text of Jubilees a n d that o f the T e s t a m e n t o f M o s e s o c c u p y the l o w e r level a n d are t h u s difficult to r e a d . C e r i a n i w a s able to d e c i p h e r a large a m o u n t of text, b e g i n n i n g at J u b 1 3 : 1 0 a n d r u n n i n g , w i t h g a p s , until 49:22. " I n these sections [ t w e n t y - f i v e of t h e m ] o n e finds all or parts of 439 verses (335 o f the total o f 1 3 0 7 verses in the E t h i o p i c v e r s i o n ) . M u c h has b e e n lost at the b e g i n n i n g , b u t o n c e the legible L a t i n b e g i n s it p r e ­ serves n e a r l y half of the text. T h a t is, if o n e s u b t r a c t s the n u m b e r of verses f r o m 1 : 1 - 1 3 : 9 (the s e c t i o n o f text that p r e c e d e s the b e g i n n i n g of the first deci­ p h e r a b l e L a t i n p a s s a g e ) , the p e r c e n t a g e of the verses available in L a t i n is 47.5 2

(439 ° f 9 3 ) - It c a n safely be said that b o t h in q u a n t i t y a n d quality, the L a t i n is s e c o n d o n l y to the E t h i o p i c v e r s i o n . "

39

It is difficult to o v e r e m p h a s i z e the

i m p o r t a n c e o f this text. C e r i a n i dated the c o p y to the fifth or sixth c e n t u r y C . E . T h i s m e a n s that it is a p p r o x i m a t e l y a m i l l e n n i u m o l d e r t h a n the earliest s u r v i v i n g c o p y o f J u b i l e e s in E t h i o p i c (see b e l o w ) . O n e h o p e s that w i t h m o d e r n p h o t o g r a p h i c t e c h n i q u e s m o r e of the m a n u s c r i p t c o u l d b e r e a d . T h e L a t i n a n d E t h i o p i c (see b e l o w ) t r a n s l a t i o n s furnish i n d e p e n d e n t reflec­ t i o n s o f the lost G r e e k v e r s i o n o f J u b i l e e s .

V. E t h i o p i c

T h e c o m p l e t e (as n e a r l y as w e c a n tell) b o o k of J u b i l e e s has s u r v i v e d o n l y in manuscripts

inscribed

in

the

classical language

of Ethiopia.

August

D i l l m a n n w a s able to use t w o p o o r c o p i e s o f the text w h e n he p u b l i s h e d his e d i t i o n in 1859 (38 a n d 51 in the list b e l o w ) ,

4 0

a n d C h a r l e s u s e d the r e a d i n g s

f r o m D i l l m a n n ' s t w o m a n u s c r i p t s (taken f r o m D i l l m a n n ' s e d i t i o n ) a n d f r o m t w o others ( 1 2 a n d 25) for his e d i t i o n of 1895. W h e n I p r e p a r e d m y e d i t i o n o f J u b i l e e s ( 1 9 8 9 ) , t w e n t y - s e v e n c o p i e s of the b o o k h a d b e e n identified

and

m a d e available i n o n e f o r m or a n o t h e r .

9*

14th century

12*

15th c e n t u r y

17*

15th c e n t u r y

20*

I5th-i6th

century

39. V a n d e r K a m , The Book of Jubilees, 2:xviii. 40. Charles, Mashafa Kufale sive Liber Jubilaeorum, qui idem a Graecis 'H A e m f ) Teveaig inscribitur, aethiopice ad duorum librorum manuscriptorum fidem primum editit (Kiel: C . G . L. v a n Maack; L o n d o n : Williams a n d Norgate, 1859).

18

The Manuscript 21*

16th century

22

16th century

23

16th century

25*

16th century

35*

17th century

38*

17th century

39*

I7th-i8th century

40

I7th-i8th century

42*

18th century

44*

18th century

45

18th century

47*

18th century

48*

18th century

50

i8th-i9th century

51

19th century

57

19th century

58*

19th century

59

19th century

60

i9th-20th century

61

20th century

62

20th century

63*

20th century

64

20th c e n t u r y

Tradition

of Jubilees

41

I collated all these manuscripts for Jub 1 - 2 , by which time the family relations among them were very clear; for the edition, I completely collated the fifteen manuscripts asterisked in the list above. T h e evidence suggested to m e that the copies represented several different manuscript traditions (ms. 4 4 is unique): 20-25-35 39-40-42-45-47-48-51-59 39-40-48-59 41. W. Baars and R. Z u u r m o n d had collected information on the various manuscripts and had procured copies of many of them, preparatory to a new edition they were planning ("The Project for a N e w Edition of the Ethiopic Book of Jubilees," JSS 9 [1964]: 6 7 - 7 4 ) . Many of the manuscripts have been microfilmed for the Ethiopian Manuscript Microfilm Library ( E M M L ) (in Addis Ababa) and the Monastic Manuscript Microfilm Library (Collegeville, Minn.). In the above list, # # 2 1 , 3 9 , 4 0 , 4 2 , 4 4 , 4 7 , 4 8 , 5 9 , 6 0 , 6 2 , 6 3 are available from E M M L .

19

James C.

VanderKam

42-47-51 45 9-38-50 12-21-22-23 57-58-60-61-62-64 57-58-60-61 62-64

T h e E M M L catalogues published since 1989 list no more copies of Jubilees. A search of all the catalogues does reveal some texts that are of interest for the study of the book in Ethiopic. Included a m o n g other items in the following numbers are:

# 1 2 7 6 (mid-20th century): an A m h a r i c commentary on Jubilees (folios I96a-207b) #1281 (1973): an A m h a r i c commentary on Jubilees ( 1 9 4 8 - 2 3 3 3 ) #1693 ( 1 8 6 5 - 1 9 1 3 ) : notes of commentary on Jubilees ( i 3 6 b - i 4 2 a ) # 1 6 9 4 (1910?): an A m h a r i c commentary on Jubilees ( 9 2 a - i 0 7 b ) #1835 (15th century): a m o n g m a n y homilies are ones in honor of St. Ura'el (Uriel, folios i 6 6 a - i 7 9 b ) based in part on Jubilees ( 1 7 4 b ) , of St. Fanu'el ( i 9 o b - 2 0 o a ) , in which the emperor Zar'a Ya'qob's favor­ ite quotation from Jubilees is included (Jub 2:1; folio 1 9 2 a ) , and of St. Sadu'el ( 2 2 6 a - 2 3 7 b ) , based on E n o c h , Ezekiel, and Jubilees (229b) #1847 ( 1 9 4 4 / 1 9 4 5 ) : an A m h a r i c commentary on Jubilees ( 7 7 b - 8 i b ) # 2 4 3 6 (17th century): notes concerning the book of Jubilees (118b120ab) #2849 (18th century): folios 3a-92b contain a Ge'ez g r a m m a r and v o ­ cabulary; apparently in a section on the meanings of words in dif­ ferent books, Jubilees is included ( 7 2 b ) #4769 (19th century): parts of Jubilees ( 9 9 a - i 2 6 b ) # 4 4 9 3 ( 1 5 2 8 ) : in a Horologium ( 4 4 a - i o o a ) , two passages from Jubilees are included (2:4? [75b-76b] and 3 9 : 1 3 - 2 2 | y 6 b - 7 7 a ] ) . Although m a n y more texts are available, the last catalogue (vol. 10) from the E M M L project was published in 1993, so there has been a delay. T h e Web site says volume 11 should be appearing soon. M y studies of the individual Ethiopic manuscripts and comparisons of

20

The Manuscript

Tradition

of Jubilees

their readings with the versional evidence led m e to the conclusion that, de­ spite a long history of copying and multiple translations, the Ethiopic text of Jubilees is in surprisingly good shape — in contrast to some other Jewish works such as 1 E n o c h . A n u m b e r of factors probably contributed to the tex­ tual stability of Jubilees. 1. Jubilees retells familiar stories from Genesis and Exodus; this fact could have hindered major deviation. A related factor is, however, also worth underscoring: the text of Jubilees does not show signs of being modified in the direction of the biblical texts in the various languages through which it passed. So, for example, when one compares all of Ethiopic Jubilees' cita­ tions from Genesis and Exodus with the ancient versions for those passages, the version with which it disagrees most frequently is the Ethiopic version of Genesis and E x o d u s .

4 2

2. Jubilees as an entire unit was accorded high status by some Jews and Christians. T h e evidence for the esteem in which it was held at Q u m r a n has been summarized a number of times, and the fact that it is regularly in­ cluded in Ethiopic manuscripts that contain the books of the Old Testament shows its standing in the Abyssinian church. 3. A s a reflection of that high status, writers of various kinds of litera­ ture drew upon Jubilees and its traditions to clarify passages in Genesis/Exo­ dus or to fill in gaps that they left. This was the case for midrashists and for chronographers. T h e fact that they drew material from passages early and late in the b o o k raises the likelihood that full versions of the book existed even in the languages for which we at present lack a manuscript copy (Greek, Syriac).

42. See, for example, VanderKam, Textual and Historical

Studies, 103-205; "Jubilees

and the Hebrew Texts of Genesis-Exodus," Text 14 (1988): 71-86.

21

The Composition of Jubilees Michael

Segal

Jubilees is a l m o s t u n i v e r s a l l y c o n s i d e r e d to b e the w o r k o f a single a u t h o r , al­ t h o u g h s o m e s c h o l a r s h a v e a l l o w e d for the p o s s i b i l i t y of l o c a l i n t e r p o l a t i o n s or a d d i t i o n s to the text. A l l the m a n y differences b e t w e e n Jubilees a n d the b i b l i c a l b o o k s that it r e w r i t e s ( G e n e s i s a n d E x o d u s ) , i n c l u d i n g

additions,

o m i s s i o n s , a n d c h a n g e s to the b i b l i c a l text, a s s u m i n g that o n e c a n d e t e r m i n e the specific t e x t u a l v e r s i o n u p o n w h i c h Jubilees is b a s e d , are a t t r i b u t e d to a single a u t h o r , the putative " a u t h o r of Jubilees." T h i s a s s u m p t i o n f o r m s the basis o f the v a s t m a j o r i t y of studies of J u b i l e e s , w h i c h a t t e m p t to d e s c r i b e the p e r s p e c t i v e of the b o o k as a w h o l e from m a n y different a n g l e s . A l t h o u g h s c h o l a r s have r e c o g n i z e d the g e n e r i c differences b e t w e e n different p a s s a g e s in the b o o k ( r e w r i t t e n stories, legal p a s s a g e s , c h r o n o l o g i ­ cal f r a m e w o r k , t e s t a m e n t s , etc.), t h e y h a v e not b y a n d large v i e w e d these dif­ ferences as any i n d i c a t i o n of the diverse o r i g i n s of the p a s s a g e s . T h e c o m b i ­ n a t i o n of different g e n r e s is certainly insufficient in a n d of itself to s u p p o r t the p o s s i b i l i t y of c o m p l e x literary d e v e l o p m e n t , since an a u t h o r is n o t l i m ­ ited b y g e n e r i c d i s t i n c t i o n s . H o w e v e r , as w i l l b e s u g g e s t e d here, s u c h a t h e o r y can i n d e e d be d e m o n s t r a t e d

by highlighting contradictions and

tensions

that are f o u n d b e t w e e n these different g e n r e s t h r o u g h o u t the b o o k . Two scholars have previously proposed

that Jubilees developed

t h r o u g h a c o m p l e x p r o c e s s of literary c o m p o s i t i o n , b u t neither of their the­ ories has b e e n w i d e l y a c c e p t e d . T h e first, E r n e s t W i e s e n b e r g , o n the b a s i s o f d i s c r e p a n c i e s w i t h i n the c h r o n o l o g y p r e s e n t e d in the b o o k , s u g g e s t e d that they are the result of r e d a c t i o n a l layers w i t h i n the c h r o n o l o g i c a l f r a m e w o r k

22

The

Composition

of

Jubilees

1

itself. A s J a m e s V a n d e r K a m n o t e d , m o s t of these c o n t r a d i c t i o n s s h o u l d b e taken n o t as e v i d e n c e of an e d i t o r i a l p r o c e s s , b u t r a t h e r as l o c a l i n c o n s i s t e n ­ cies, either errors that resulted f r o m r e g u l a r t r a n s m i s s i o n a l p r o c e s s e s or i n ­ consistencies that e m e r g e d d u e to the a t t e m p t to a p p l y an extensive c h r o n o ­ l o g i c a l f r a m e w o r k to all the stories in the p a t r i a r c h a l p e r i o d .

2

G e n e D a v e n p o r t p r o p o s e d an alternative t h e o r y of literary d e v e l o p ­ 3

m e n t . O n the basis of his analysis of the E t h i o p i c text o f Jubilees a n d the esc h a t o l o g i c a l ideas p r e s e n t in the b o o k , he s u g g e s t e d that J u b i l e e s consists of a b a s i c layer a n d t w o s u b s e q u e n t r e d a c t i o n s . T h i s t h e o r y too has b e e n r i g h t l y criticized for these r e a s o n s : ( l ) it is b a s e d u p o n D a v e n p o r t ' s o w n p e r c e p t i o n of a consistent a p p r o a c h to e s c h a t o l o g y , a n d (2) s o m e of his p h i l o l o g i c a l analysis w a s b a s e d u p o n s u p p o s e d c o n t r a d i c t i o n s that h a v e s u b s e q u e n t l y b e e n s h o w n n o t to reflect the o r i g i n a l H e b r e w text of J u b i l e e s .

4

T h u s , the s c h o l a r l y c o n s e n s u s has r e m a i n e d u n t i l t o d a y that Jubilees r e p r e s e n t s a u n i f i e d c o m p o s i t i o n . T h e q u e s t i o n of the u n i t y of Jubilees o b v i ­ o u s l y has f a r - r e a c h i n g i m p l i c a t i o n s for the s t u d y o f the b o o k in m a n y differ­ ent areas. F u n d a m e n t a l q u e s t i o n s , such as the date o f c o m p o s i t i o n of the b o o k , n e e d to b e r e e x a m i n e d or r e d e f i n e d if the b o o k is c o m p o s e d of v a r i ­ o u s m a t e r i a l s f r o m different p e r i o d s of t i m e . It is p o s s i b l e that o n e c a n c o n ­ fidently date a specific p a s s a g e in the b o o k , b u t that w o u l d n o t n e c e s s a r i l y reflect the date of the c o m p o s i t i o n as a w h o l e , since the d a t e d p a s s a g e m i g h t either b e a s o u r c e u s e d b y the c o m p o s i t i o n , or alternatively, the c o n t r i b u t i o n o f the editor. S i m i l a r l y , the w o r l d v i e w of the a u t h o r w o u l d n e e d to b e r e e x ­ a m i n e d . If o n e c a n isolate or identify c o m p e t i n g or c o n f l i c t i n g n o t i o n s w i t h i n the b o o k , m u s t o n e a t t e m p t to s y n t h e s i z e or h a r m o n i z e t h e m into o n e single w o r l d v i e w , or are these differences the result o f the c o m b i n a t i o n of m a t e r i a l s of differing o r i g i n s ? C a n o n e s p e a k of the w o r l d v i e w o f an e n ­ tire c o m p o s i t i o n if the w o r k is the p r o d u c t o f a c o m p l e x p r o c e s s of literary development?

1. E . Wiesenberg, " T h e Jubilee o f Jubilees," RevQ 3 (1961): 3-40. 2. J . C . V a n d e r K a m , "Studies in the C h r o n o l o g y o f the B o o k o f Jubilees," in V a n d e r K a m , From Revelation to Canon: Studies in Hebrew Bible and Second Temple Litera­ ture, JSJSup 62 (Leiden: Brill, 2 0 0 0 ) , 522-44 (here 532-40); trans, o f " D a s chronologische Konzept des Jubilaenbuches," ZAW 107 (1995): 8 0 - 1 0 0 . 3. G . L. Davenport, The Eschatology of the Book of Jubilees (Leiden: Brill, 1971). 4. F o r a s u m m a r y of the a r g u m e n t s against Davenport, see J. C . V a n d e r K a m , " T h e Origins a n d Purposes o f the Book of Jubilees" in Studies in the Book of Jubilees, ed. M . Albani, J. Frey, a n d A. Lange, T S A J 65 (Tubingen: J. C . B . M o h r [Paul Siebeck], 1997), 324 (here 1 2 - 1 3 ) .

23

Michael

Segal

In recent d e c a d e s s o m e s c h o l a r s h a v e identified a few s h o r t p a s s a g e s in J u b i l e e s that s t a n d in t e n s i o n w i t h or even c o n t r a d i c t other verses in J u b i l e e s . T h e s e p a s s a g e s relate either to c h r o n o l o g i c a l details ( D e v o r a h D i m a n t — re­ garding 4:21) or halakic positions ( M e n a h e m Kister — regarding chaps. 7 5

a n d 3 2 ; L i o r a R a v i d — r e g a r d i n g 5 0 : 6 - 1 3 ) . W h i l e their d i s c u s s i o n s w e r e l i m ­ ited to i n d i v i d u a l p a s s a g e s , b o t h D i m a n t a n d K i s t e r s u g g e s t e d that these dis­ c r e p a n c i e s are the result o f the c o m b i n a t i o n of t r a d i t i o n s f r o m

different

s o u r c e s in the c o m p o s i t i o n a l p r o c e s s of J u b i l e e s . T h e c o n t r a d i c t i o n s b e ­ t w e e n t h e m can t h u s b e traced to their different p r o v e n a n c e . In m y recently p u b l i s h e d b o o k , I h a v e p r o p o s e d a n d a t t e m p t e d to d e m o n s t r a t e that J u b i l e e s is i n d e e d the p r o d u c t of a p r o c e s s o f l i t e r a r y d e v e l o p m e n t , b u t b a s e d u p o n a v e r y different m o d e l t h a n that p r e v i o u s l y suggested b y W i e s e n b e r g or D a v ­ 6

e n p o r t . I n this p a p e r I w i l l a t t e m p t to briefly s u m m a r i z e m y a r g u m e n t s a n d t h e o r y p r e s e n t e d in that a n a l y s i s .

7

I. C h r o n o l o g i c a l a n d H a l a k i c R e d a c t i o n

T h e t w o m o s t p r o m i n e n t characteristics of Jubilees are: ( 1 ) the c h r o n o l o g i c a l f r a m e w o r k b y w h i c h all events in the p a t r i a r c h a l p e r i o d are dated, a n d (2) the a d d i t i o n of l e g a l p a s s a g e s to the r e w r i t t e n n a r r a t i v e s t h r o u g h o u t the b o o k . W h i l e there are o t h e r n o t a b l e features, such as a d e v e l o p e d a n g e l o l o g y a n d the p o s s i b l e p r i e s t l y p r o v e n a n c e of the b o o k , these latter areas are n o t u n i q u e to J u b i l e e s . T h e t w o f o r m e r characteristics are the t w o p r i m a r y a s ­ p e c t s e m p h a s i z e d in J u b i l e e s ' s e l f - d e s i g n a t i o n t h r o u g h o u t c h a p . 1, "the B o o k of the D i v i s i o n s o f the T i m e o f the T o r a h a n d the

s

Te'udah!'

5. D. Dimant, " T h e Biography o f E n o c h a n d the B o o k s o f Enoch," V T 3 3 (1983): 1 4 - 2 9 (here 2 1 , esp. n. 1 7 ) ; M . Kister, " S o m e Aspects of Q u m r a n i c Halakhah," in The Madrid Qumran Congress: Proceedings of the International Congress on the Dead Sea Scrolls, Madrid, 18-21 March, 1991, ed. J. Trebolle Barrera a n d L . Vegas Montaner, 2 vols., S T D J 11 (Leiden: Brill, 1992), 571-88; L. R a v i d , " T h e Relationship of the Sabbath L a w s in Jubilees 50:6-13 to the Rest o f the B o o k " (in H e b r e w ) , Tarbiz 69 (2000): 161-66. 6. M . Segal, The Book of Jubilees: Rewritten Bible, Redaction, Ideology, and Theology (Leiden: Brill, 2 0 0 7 ) . 7. Each of the examples mentioned here, and summarized in a few paragraphs, is given m u c h more extensive treatment in that study. 8. It is b e y o n d the scope o f this discussion to analyze the m e a n i n g of the term te'udah; in Segal, The Book of Jubilees, chap. 1 4 , 1 suggest that this term should be understood as "covenant." Whether o r n o t this interpretation is accepted, the legal context of the term "Torah" is undisputed.

24

The Composition

of

Jubilees

I w o u l d like to suggest that the c o m p o s i t i o n is n o t a h o m o g e n e o u s b o o k c o m p o s e d b y o n e a u t h o r . R a t h e r , it is p o s s i b l e to identify i n t e r n a l c o n ­ t r a d i c t i o n s , d o u b l e t s , t e n s i o n s , a n d d i s c r e p a n c i e s , b o t h in details a n d in ref­ erence to the b i b l i c a l stories in g e n e r a l . T h i s s i t u a t i o n attests to the v a r i e t y of t r a d i t i o n s that c a n b e f o u n d side b y side w i t h i n the s a m e b o o k . T h e r e d a c t o r s o m e t i m e s relied u p o n the P e n t a t e u c h itself, b u t often a d o p t e d o t h e r c o m ­ p o s i t i o n s , a l o n g the lines of the e x a m p l e s of r e w r i t t e n B i b l e k n o w n to us f r o m the s e c o n d t e m p l e p e r i o d . S u c h r e w r i t t e n texts w e r e c o m m o n in J e w i s h literature in antiquity, as e x e m p l i f i e d b y c o m p o s i t i o n s such as l E n o c h , the T e s t a m e n t of the Twelve P a t r i a r c h s , a n d the G e n e s i s A p o c r y p h o n . T h e ideas e m b e d d e d in these w r i t t e n t r a d i t i o n s d i d n o t always agree w i t h the v i e w s of the redactor, thus c r e a t i n g the i n t e r n a l p r o b l e m s to b e d e s c r i b e d b e l o w . T h e final p r o d u c t , as k n o w n to us today, is n o t the w o r k o f o n e i n d i v i d u a l , b u t a c o m b i n a t i o n of different t r a d i t i o n s , s o u r c e s , a n d a u t h o r s . I suggest that the redactor's contribution

can be f o u n d in the c h r o n o l o g i c a l f r a m e w o r k

t h r o u g h o u t the b o o k , in the l e g a l p a s s a g e s j u x t a p o s e d to the r e w r i t t e n sto­ ries, a n d in t h o s e p a s s a g e s that c o n t a i n the u n i q u e t e r m i n o l o g y of the legal p a s s a g e s ( s u c h as c h a p s , l, 2, 6, a n d 2 3 : 9 - 3 2 ) . To d e s c r i b e this p r o c e s s I h a v e c o i n e d the t e r m s " c h r o n o l o g i c a l r e d a c ­ tion" and " h a l a k i c redaction." A s n o t e d a b o v e , these t w o t h e m e s are c o m ­ b i n e d in the o p e n i n g chapter of the b o o k , a n d this c o m b i n a t i o n is also f o u n d at its c o n c l u s i o n (50:13 — "as it w a s w r i t t e n in the tablets w h i c h he p l a c e d in m y h a n d s so that I c o u l d w r i t e for y o u the laws of each specific in every division

of its times").

time

Therefore, while I have distinguished between

these t w o r e d a c t i o n a l p r o c e s s e s in o r d e r to e m p h a s i z e the u n i q u e e l e m e n t s of each aspect, b o t h are u l t i m a t e l y the w o r k of the s a m e editor r e s p o n s i b l e for the c o m p o s i t i o n of Jubilees, a n d therefore b e l o n g to the s a m e r e d a c t i o n a l layer. T h e f o l l o w i n g list presents ten e x a m p l e s of c o n t r a d i c t i o n s w i t h i n J u b i ­ lees, w h i c h I suggest lead to the c o n c l u s i o n that it c o u l d n o t b e the e x c l u s i v e w o r k o f a single a u t h o r . T h e list is d i v i d e d into t w o s e c t i o n s : the first h a l f d e ­ tails t h o s e differences b e t w e e n the r e w r i t t e n n a r r a t i v e s a n d the c h r o n o l o g i ­ cal f r a m e w o r k , w h i l e the s e c o n d s e c t i o n o u t l i n e s the tensions b e t w e e n the r e w r i t t e n n a r r a t i v e s a n d the legal p a s s a g e s .

25

Michael

A.

Segal

Contradictions

and

between

the Chronological

1. The length of a "jubilee"

the Rewritten

Narratives

Framework

9

period.

I n all o f J u b i l e e s , the d u r a t i o n o f a " j u b i ­

lee" p e r i o d is 49 y e a r s , as d e m o n s t r a t e d

b y c o m p a r i n g the

chronological

f r a m e w o r k in the b o o k w i t h the c h r o n o l o g i c a l d a t a in the P e n t a t e u c h a n d p a r t i c u l a r l y i n its g e n e a l o g i c a l l i s t s .

1 0

itself,

F u r t h e r m o r e , in a few instances

the b o o k c a l c u l a t e s a d e c i m a l n u m b e r (as f o u n d in the B i b l e ) a c c o r d i n g to the h e p t a d i c s y s t e m o f j u b i l e e s , w e e k s , a n d y e a r s . T h u s J u b 23:8 d e s c r i b e s t h e l e n g t h o f A b r a h a m ' s life, b a s e d u p o n G e n 25:7: " H e h a d l i v e d for t h r e e j u b i ­ lees a n d f o u r w e e k s o f y e a r s — 175 y e a r s " (3 x 49 = 1 4 7 ; 4 x 7 = 28; 1 4 7 + 28 = 175)I n c o n t r a s t , J u b 4 : 2 1 , w h i c h d e s c r i b e s E n o c h ' s s o j o u r n w i t h the a n g e l s f o l l o w i n g the b i r t h o f h i s s o n ( w h e n he w a s 65 y e a r s o l d a c c o r d i n g to M T , SP, a n d J u b i l e e s ; 165 a c c o r d i n g to L X X ) , is b a s e d u p o n a different

understanding

of the l e n g t h o f this p e r i o d . A c c o r d i n g to this v e r s e , " h e w a s , m o r e o v e r , w i t h 1 1

G o d ' s a n g e l s for six j u b i l e e s o f y e a r s "

T h i s p e r i o d o f s i x j u b i l e e s is p a r a l l e l

to the p e r i o d d e s c r i b e d in G e n 5:22: " A n d E n o c h w a l k e d w i t h G o d after he b e g a t M e t h u s e l a h 3 0 0 y e a r s . " A s i m p l e c a l c u l a t i o n r e v e a l s t h a t a c c o r d i n g to J u b 4 : 2 1 , a " j u b i l e e " lasts f o r 50 y e a r s , in c o n t r a s t to the rest o f the

book.

1 2

9. T h i s e x a m p l e w a s first noted b y D i m a n t , " B i o g r a p h y of E n o c h , " 21. 1 0 . While a c o m p l e t e study o f the c h r o n o l o g i c a l data in Jubilees is b e y o n d the scope of this article, it should b e noted that it is generally closer to the dates preserved in the S a ­ m a r i t a n Pentateuch, in contrast to the other textual witnesses. 1 1 . T h e description o f E n o c h ' s s o j o u r n w i t h the angels for six jubilees is also reflected c

in a c o m p o s i t i o n entitled 4 Q P s e u d o - J u b i l e e s [4Q227] 2 , 1-2 ( D J D 1 3 , 1 7 1 - 7 5 ) : 1

[

2

[

E ] n o c h after w e taught h i m ]o[

] six jubilees of years

W h i l e it h a s generally been suggested that this scroll presents a c o m p o s i t i o n based u p o n J u ­ bilees, it is possible that this perspective needs to b e reversed, a n d in fact this fragment ( o r a similar c o m p o s i t i o n ) m a y actually represent a possible source for Jubilees itself. 1 2 . V a n d e r K a m (Calendars

in the Dead

R o u t l e d g e , 1 9 9 8 ] , 121 n. 1 8 ; The Book of Jubilees,

Sea Scrolls:

Measuring

Time

[London:

G u i d e s to A p o c r y p h a a n d P s e u d e p i g r a p h a

[Sheffield: Sheffield A c a d e m i c Press, 2 0 0 1 ] , 33) interpreted this verse in accordance with the general m e a n i n g of "jubilee" in Jubilees (49 y e a r s ) , a n d arrived at the c o n c l u s i o n that E n o c h spent 294 (6 x 49 — 294) years in heaven, a n d returned to the earth 6 years p r i o r to his death. H o w e v e r , it is difficult to accept this h a r m o n i s t i c interpretation that o v e r l o o k s the direct u s ­ age of G e n 5:22. J. M . Scott, On Earth as in Heaven: The Restoration Space in the Book of Jubilees,

of Sacred Time and Sacred

J S J S u p 9 1 (Leiden a n d B o s t o n : Brill, 2 0 0 5 ) , 2 3 - 7 1 , also inter­

preted the " s i x jubilees o f y e a r s " as 294 y e a r s , a n d o n this basis, suggested that this verse has

26

The

Composition

of

Jubilees

D i m a n t c o r r e c t l y c o n c l u d e d that " T h i s s h o w s that J u b . b o r r o w s f r o m v a r i ­ o u s s o u r c e s , often w i t h o u t r e c o n c i l i n g the c o n t r a d i c t i o n s . " 2. The order of the births of Jacob's sons. T h e births of Jacob's s o n s (ex­ cept for B e n j a m i n ) are listed in G e n 2 9 - 3 0 , a n d o r g a n i z e d there a c c o r d i n g to their m o t h e r s : L e a h (first f o u r c h i l d r e n ) , B i l h a h , Z i l p a h , L e a h (final t w o chil­ d r e n ) , R a c h e l . A c c o r d i n g to a s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d r e a d i n g of G e n 3 1 : 4 1 , all the c h i l d r e n w e r e b o r n d u r i n g a 7 - y e a r p e r i o d (in the s e c o n d p e r i o d of 7 y e a r s d u r i n g w h i c h J a c o b w o r k e d for L a b a n ) , a n d it is therefore r e a s o n a b l e to as­ s u m e an o v e r l a p b e t w e e n the b i r t h s .

13

A c c o r d i n g to the dates p r e s e n t e d in

the c h r o n o l o g i c a l f r a m e w o r k of J u b 28 ( w . 1 4 - 1 5 , 1 8 ) , s u c h an o v e r l a p o c ­ c u r r e d b e t w e e n the births of L e a h ' s first c h i l d r e n a n d the births of B i l h a h ' s s o n s , as D a n ( B i l h a h ' s older s o n ) w a s c o n c e i v e d p r i o r to the b i r t h o f L e v i (Leah's t h i r d s o n ) a n d w a s b o r n before J u d a h (Leah's f o u r t h ) :

Jubilee

Week

Year Year

28:u

Birth of R e u b e n

44

3

1

Year Year from 2122

28:13

B i r t h of S i m e o n

44

3

B i r t h of L e v i

44

3

3 6

2124

28:14 28:15

B i r t h of J u d a h

44

4

1

2129

28:18

B i r t h of D a n

44

3

6

2127

Creation

2127

a

In c o n t r a d i c t i o n , a c c o r d i n g to 28:17, H f o u r of Leah's first c h i l d r e n w e r e b o r n before B i l h a h w a s even g i v e n to J a c o b : " W h e n R a c h e l s a w that L e a h h a d g i v e n b i r t h to f o u r s o n s for J a c o b — R e u b e n , S i m e o n , L e v i , a n d J u d a h — she said to h i m : ' G o in to m y s e r v a n t girl B i l h a h . . .'" S o m e s c h o l a r s h a v e a t t e m p t e d to resolve this c o n t r a d i c t i o n b y e m e n d i n g the dates f o u n d in the chronological framework.

1 4

H o w e v e r , it is m o r e c o n v i n c i n g to

understand

fundamental significance for the c h r o n o l o g i c a l conception of Jubilees. T h i s suggestion is difficult to accept, as it is highly unlikely that such a fundamental n o t i o n w a s left unstated, b u t m o r e significantly, it is predicated o n the a s s u m p t i o n that the c h r o n o l o g i c a l note in Jub 4:21 refers to a 49-year p e r i o d , in c o n t r a d i c t i o n to G e n 5:22. 13. C o n t r a s t S. 'Olam Rab. 2, w h i c h posited that there w a s n o overlap between t h e m , a n d therefore each p r e g n a n c y extended o n l y over a s e v e n - m o n t h p e r i o d . Interestingly, Jubi­ lees extended the period o f births to also include the final six years d u r i n g w h i c h Jacob re­ m a i n e d in L a b a n ' s h o u s e h o l d . 14. See H . R o n s c h , Das Buch

der Jubilaen

oder die kleine

Genesis (Leipzig: Fues's

Verlag, 1 8 7 4 ) , 3 2 7 - 3 1 . R o n s c h generally relied o n other c o m p o s i t i o n s , p r i m a r i l y the Testa­ m e n t o f the Twelve Patriarchs, to reconstruct the dates in Jubilees. T h e s e suggested e m e n d a ­ tions were accepted b y R . H . C h a r l e s , The Book of Jubilees

or the Little Genesis

(London:

A d a m a n d C h a r l e s Black, 1 9 0 2 ) , 1 7 0 - 7 2 .

27

Michael

Segal

the p r e s e n c e of this c o n t r a d i c t i o n in the text as the result of a literary p r o c e s s in w h i c h the dates o f the c h r o n o l o g i c a l f r a m e w o r k w e r e s u p e r i m p o s e d u p o n an a l r e a d y r e w r i t t e n story. 3. "Let the days allowed

him be 120 years"

(Gen 6:3). Interpreters f r o m

a n t i q u i t y u n t i l t o d a y are d i v i d e d as to the m e a n i n g of the 1 2 0 - y e a r l i m i t a t i o n that w a s instituted in r e s p o n s e to the i n t e r c o u r s e b e t w e e n the s o n s of g o d a n d the w o m e n a n d the s u b s e q u e n t b i r t h of the giants ( G e n 6 : 1 - 4 ) . S o m e p o s i t that this l i m i t a t i o n applies to h u m a n i t y in g e n e r a l , i n c l u d i n g the giants who were half-divine and h a l f - h u m a n .

1 5

T h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t of a m a x i m u m

age for h u m a n life e x p e c t a n c y d r e w a b o u n d a r y b e t w e e n the h e a v e n l y a n d earthly r e a l m s .

1 6

A l t e r n a t i v e l y , other interpreters h a v e s u g g e s t e d that the

s o n s of g o d s t o r y is related to the f l o o d s t o r y that f o l l o w s , a n d in fact p r o ­ v i d e s a j u s t i f i c a t i o n for this c a t a c l y s m i c p u n i s h m e n t . A c c o r d i n g to this a p ­ p r o a c h , 1 2 0 y e a r s is the length o f t i m e f r o m the W a t c h e r s ' descent u n t i l the flood.

1 7

W i t h i n the r e w r i t t e n s t o r y in J u b 5, the l i m i t a t i o n o f 120 y e a r s applies to the giants ( 5 : 7 - 9 ) , the o f f s p r i n g o f the W a t c h e r s , in a c c o r d a n c e w i t h the first i n t e r p r e t i v e a p p r o a c h to G e n 6:3:

5:7Regarding their children there went out from his presence an order to strike t h e m w i t h the s w o r d a n d to r e m o v e t h e m f r o m b e n e a t h the sky. 5:8He said: " M y spirit will n o t r e m a i n on p e o p l e forever for they are flesh. T h e i r lifespan is to be 120 years." s s H e sent his s w o r d a m o n g them so that they w o u l d kill o n e another. T h e y b e g a n to kill each other until all of them fell b y the s w o r d a n d were obliterated from the earth.

At the s a m e t i m e , a c c o r d i n g to the c h r o n o l o g i c a l f r a m e w o r k , the Watchers s i n n e d in the twenty-fifth j u b i l e e , a . m . 1 1 7 7 - 1 2 2 5 ( J u b 5 : 1 , referring to 4:33), w h i l e the f l o o d t o o k p l a c e i n the y e a r 1308 ( 5 : 2 2 - 2 3 ) . T h e difference b e t w e e n

15. Cf. LAB (pseudo-Philo) 3.2; Josephus, Ant 1.75; the opinion o f R . Joshua b . N e h e m i a h in Genesis Rabbah 26:6 (Theodor-Albeck, ed., 251-52). 16. C o m p a r e the story of the G a r d e n o f E d e n , where there is a concern if a h u m a n is to c o n s u m e from the tree o f life and thus live forever (Gen 3:22). 17. Cf. 4Q252, col. 1, lines 1-3; S. 'Olam Rab. 28; Targum Onqelos to G e n 6:3; Targum Neofiti; Fragmentary Targum; Targum Pseudo-Jonathan; Mek. R. Ishmael Shirta 5; Genesis Rabbah 30:7; b. Sanhedrin 108a; Avot of Rabbi Nathan A 32; Jerome, Questions on Genesis 6:3; Augustine, City of God 15.24.24; Rashi, Ibn Ezra, a n d R a d a q to G e n 6:3. See M . J. Bernstein, "4Q252: F r o m Re-Written Bible to Biblical Commentary," JJS 45 (1994): 1-27 (here 5-7); J. L . Kugel, The Bible as It Was ( C a m b r i d g e : H a r v a r d University Press, 1997), 1 1 2 - 1 4 .

28

The

Composition

of

Jubilees

these t w o dates fits a p e r i o d of 120 y e a r s , a n d reflects the s e c o n d interpretive a p p r o a c h to G e n 6:3. In this case, the p r o c e s s o f l i t e r a r y d e v e l o p m e n t that led to the c o m b i ­ n a t i o n o f these interpretive t r a d i t i o n s c a n b e i d e n t i f i e d . T h e r e w r i t t e n n a r r a ­ tive in J u b 5 parallels the v e r s i o n of events p r e s e n t e d in 1 E n 1 0 — 1 1 . T h i s c a n b e d e m o n s t r a t e d , for e x a m p l e , b y the p r e s e n c e of t w o j u d g m e n t s of the a n ­ gels in the J u b i l e e s a c c o u n t , b o t h b e f o r e a n d after their o f f s p r i n g kill each other in i n t e r n e c i n e w a r f a r e , c o r r e s p o n d i n g to the j u d g m e n t s of A s a e l a n d S h e m i h a z a h in the 1 E n o c h v e r s i o n , w i t h the p u n i s h m e n t for the giants in b e t w e e n . In the latter text ( w h i c h is c h r o n o l o g i c a l l y e a r l i e r ) , the p r e s e n c e of s e p a r a t e j u d g m e n t s for each figure is d u e to the c o m b i n a t i o n of at least t w o s e p a r a t e t r a d i t i o n s w i t h i n the B o o k of the W a t c h e r s .

18

H o w e v e r , the d o u b l e

j u d g m e n t in Jubilees b o t h p r i o r to a n d f o l l o w i n g the death of the giants t h r o u g h civil w a r is r e d u n d a n t a n d m u s t therefore b e the result of the d e ­ p e n d e n c e o f J u b 5 u p o n the 1 E n o c h m a t e r i a l . T h i s d e p e n d e n c e e x p l a i n s the i n c l u s i o n of the i n t e r p r e t i v e a p p r o a c h to G e n 6:3 as a l i m i t a t i o n o n h u m a n life s p a n . T h i s s a m e n o t i o n is f o u n d in the p r e c i s e l y p a r a l l e l p l a c e in 1 E n 1 0 : 9 - 1 0 , a n d w a s i n c l u d e d in Jubilees w h e n the entire p a s s a g e w a s i n c o r p o ­ rated into the later b o o k . T h e d a t i n g o f the s t o r y in J u b i l e e s ' c h r o n o l o g i c a l f r a m e w o r k to a p p r o x i m a t e l y 1 2 0 y e a r s p r i o r to the f l o o d w a s then s u p e r i m ­ p o s e d u p o n the r e w r i t t e n v e r s i o n o f the s t o r y t h a t w a s a d o p t e d

from

1 E n o c h , thus l e a d i n g to the j u x t a p o s i t i o n of b o t h i n t e r p r e t i v e a p p r o a c h e s .

B. Contradictions Narratives

between

and the Legal

the

Rewritten

Passages

4. The date of the entry into the Garden

of Eden.

A c c o r d i n g to J u b 3:17, w h i c h

is p a r t of a r e w r i t t e n n a r r a t i v e , A d a m w a s e x i l e d f r o m the G a r d e n of E d e n o n the s e v e n t e e n t h of the s e c o n d m o n t h , e x a c t l y s e v e n y e a r s after he entered. T h u s , o n e c a n c o n c l u d e that he a r r i v e d in the G a r d e n o n that s a m e c a l e n d a r date. T h e legal p a s s a g e e m b e d d e d w i t h i n this r e w r i t t e n s t o r y ( 3 : 8 - 1 4 ) c o n -

18. For analyses and suggested divisions o f the traditions and sources c o m b i n e d in 1 E n 6 - 1 1 , see, e.g., G . Beer, " D a s B u c h Henoch," in Die Apokryphen Alten

Testaments,

und Pseudepigraphen

des

ed. E . K a u t z s c h , 2 vols. ( T u b i n g e n , Freiburg, a n d Leipzig: J. C . B . M o h r

[Paul S i e b e c k ] , 1 9 0 0 ) , 2 : 2 1 7 - 3 1 0 (here 225); D . D i m a n t , " ' T h e Fallen A n g e l s ' in the D e a d Sea Scrolls a n d in the A p o c r y p h a l a n d P s e u d e p i g r a p h i c B o o k s Related to T h e m " (in H e b r e w ) ( P h . D . diss., H e b r e w University o f J e r u s a l e m , 1 9 7 4 ) , 2 3 - 7 2 ; G . W. E . N i c k e l s b u r g , " A p o c a l y p ­ tic a n d M y t h in E n o c h 6 - 1 1 , " JBL 96 (1977): 383-405.

29

Michael

Segal

nects the dates of entry for A d a m and his wife to the law of the parturient mother from L e v 1 2 . According to this legal passage, A d a m entered the Gar­ den forty days after he was created (v. 9 ) . O n the basis of the 3 6 4 - d a y calen­ dar used throughout Jubilees, which begins each year on a Wednesday, the calculation of the dates reveals that forty days after Adam's creation is the thirteenth of the second month, not the seventeenth.

Month 1 Sunday

Monday

Tuesday

Wednesday

Thursday

Friday

Sabbath

1

2

3 Man created

4 End of the first week

5

6

7

8

9

10 Seven days after the creation of man

11 Seven days after the first week

12

13

14

15

16

17

18

19

20

21

22

23

24

25

26

27

28

29

30

Friday

Sabbath

1

2

Month 2 Sunday

Monday

Tuesday

Wednesday

Thursday

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

13 Forty days after the creation of man

14 Forty days after the first week

15

16

17 Adam entered the Garden (/uf».3:17)

18

19

20

21

22

23

24

25

26

27

28

29

30

30

The

Composition

of

Jubilees

It is i m p o s s i b l e to i g n o r e this d i s c r e p a n c y of f o u r days b e t w e e n the dates, b e ­ cause the p r e c e d e n t for the l a w is b a s e d entirely u p o n these d a t e s .

19

In a d d i t i o n , o n e can s u g g e s t an e x e g e t i c a l r e a s o n for w h y the sin in the G a r d e n is dated to the s e v e n t e e n t h o f the s e c o n d m o n t h , u n r e l a t e d to L e v 1 2 , as this is the s a m e date as the b e g i n n i n g of the f l o o d ( M T a n d S P to G e n 7 : 1 1 ; Jub 5 : 2 3 - 2 4 ) . T h e p a r a d i g m a t i c sin led to the p a r a d i g m a t i c p u n i s h m e n t . T h e e m p h a s i s o n e x a c t l y s e v e n y e a r s in the G a r d e n is p r e s u m a b l y i n t e n d e d to e m p h a s i z e a c o m p l e t e p e r i o d of t i m e .

2 0

?

5. Did Judah sm. A c c o r d i n g to the rewritten story of Judah and T a m a r , J u dah's sons h a d n o t c o n s u m m a t e d their m a r r i a g e s w i t h her, a n d she w a s there­ fore n o t legally considered Judah's d a u g h t e r - i n - l a w ( J u b 4 1 : 2 , 5 , 2 7 ; cf. L e v 18:15; 2 0 : 1 2 ) . H e therefore did n o t sin w h e n he h a d intercourse with her. In contrast, according to the legal passage ( w . 2 3 - 2 6 ) , J u d a h i n d e e d sinned, but repented, a n d w a s therefore forgiven. T h e legal passage emphasizes the process b y w h i c h J u d a h w a s forgiven, a n d this a t o n e m e n t is possible o n l y if he actually s i n n e d . 6. The source for the method

of Tamar's punishment.

After J u d a h h e a r d

that his d a u g h t e r - i n - l a w T a m a r w a s p r e g n a n t , he d e c i d e d that she s h o u l d b e p u t to death b y b u r n i n g ( G e n 3 8 : 2 4 ) . T h e p u n i s h m e n t of fire in cases o f s e x ­ u a l i m p r o p r i e t y a p p e a r s o n l y t w i c e in the P e n t a t e u c h : "the d a u g h t e r of a priest w h o p r o f a n e s herself t h r o u g h h a r l o t r y " ( L e v 2 1 : 9 ) , a n d "a m a n w h o takes a w i f e a n d h e r m o t h e r " ( L e v 2 0 : 1 4 ) . In the r e w r i t t e n s t o r y in J u b 41, J u ­ d a h w i s h e d to h a v e T a m a r killed on the b a s i s of "the l a w w h i c h A b r a h a m h a d c o m m a n d e d his c h i l d r e n " (v. 2 8 ) . T h i s a p p a r e n t l y refers to A b r a h a m ' s w a r n i n g i n his t e s t a m e n t to his d e s c e n d a n t s (or a s i m i l a r t r a d i t i o n ) : " I f a n y w o m a n or girl a m o n g y o u c o m m i t s a s e x u a l offence, b u r n her in fire" ( J u b 2 0 : 4 ) , an e x p a n s i o n of the p r o h i b i t i o n

and punishment

of the

priest's

d a u g h t e r f r o m L e v 21:9 to all Israelite w o m e n . In contrast, the legal p a s s a g e in J u b 4 1 : 2 3 - 2 6 preferred to derive this p u n i s h m e n t b y m e a n s of exegesis a c c o r d i n g to w h i c h the p u n i s h m e n t of b u r n i n g for i n t e r c o u r s e w i t h a d a u g h t e r - i n - l a w ( e x p r e s s l y p r o h i b i t e d in L e v 1 8 : 1 5 ; 2 0 : 1 2 , b u t w i t h o u t the m e t h o d of p u n i s h m e n t ) is the s a m e as that o f a m o t h e r - i n - l a w ("a wife a n d h e r m o t h e r " ) d e s c r i b e d e x p l i c i t l y in L e v 2 0 : 1 4 . T h e s e t w o s c e n a r i o s are s y m m e t r i c s i t u a t i o n s , w h e r e the m e n a n d w o m e n have interchanged r o l e s .

2 1

19. Pace J. M . B a u m g a r t e n , " S o m e P r o b l e m s of the Jubilees C a l e n d a r in C u r r e n t R e ­ search," VT 32 (1982): 485-89 (here 489 n. 8). 20. Cf. 12:15 — two weeks; 19:1 — two w e e k s , 12 — two weeks; 24:12 — three weeks; 47:9 — three w e e k s , 1 0 — three weeks. 21. A s I suggested in Segal, The Book of Jubilees,

67-69, the legal logic b e h i n d this c o m -

31

Michael

Segal

22

7. Fourth-year

fruits.

L e v 1 9 : 2 3 - 2 5 defines the h a l a k i c status of fruits

d u r i n g the first five y e a r s o f a tree's life. D u r i n g the first three y e a r s , it is p r o ­ hibited to p a r t a k e in these fruits (v. 2 3 ) , w h i l e in the fifth y e a r it is p e r m i t t e d to eat of t h e m (v. 2 5 ) . R e g a r d i n g the f o u r t h year, the P e n t a t e u c h a l l a w (v. 2 4 ) defines the fruit as "qodes hillulim

( S P hillulim)

to the L o r d . " R a b b i n i c e x e g e ­

sis i n t e r p r e t e d this e x p r e s s i o n as an o b l i g a t i o n to eat the f o u r t h - y e a r fruits in J e r u s a l e m , or to r e d e e m the fruits w i t h m o n e y a n d to b u y f o o d w i t h this m o n e y in J e r u s a l e m , as is d o n e w i t h the s e c o n d t i t h e .

23

In contrast, Q u m r a n

s e c t a r i a n c o m p o s i t i o n s p o s i t a different m e a n i n g for this e n i g m a t i c e x p r e s ­ s i o n : the f o u r t h - y e a r fruits are c o n s i d e r e d o n e of the priestly p r e r o g a t i v e s .

24

J u b 7:35-37 agrees w i t h the s e c t a r i a n p o s i t i o n : "in the f o u r t h y e a r its fruit w i l l b e sanctified. It will b e offered as firstfruits that are a c c e p t a b l e b e f o r e the m o s t h i g h L o r d . . . so that t h e y m a y offer in a b u n d a n c e the first of the w i n e a n d oil as firstfruits o n the altar of the L o r d w h o accepts ( i t ) . W h a t is left over those w h o serve in the L o r d ' s h o u s e are to eat b e f o r e the altar w h i c h re­ ceives ( i t ) " (v. 3 6 ) . H o w e v e r , a c c o r d i n g to the s t o r y at the b e g i n n i n g of J u b 7, in the f o u r t h y e a r N o a h p i c k e d g r a p e s f r o m w h i c h he m a d e w i n e , w h i c h he t h e n p u t in a c o n t a i n e r . N o a h d i d n o t offer the g r a p e s o n a n altar, n o r d i d he d r i n k f r o m the w i n e u n t i l the fifth y e a r ( w . 1 - 6 ) .

2 5

A c c o r d i n g to the s e c t a r i a n

h a l a k a h , N o a h a n d his s o n s s h o u l d h a v e offered the w i n e o n the altar, a n d t h e n b e e n a l l o w e d to d r i n k f r o m it a l r e a d y in the f o u r t h year, in light o f their priestly status ( c o m p a r e the detailed d e s c r i p t i o n of his offering o f sacrifices in w . 3 - 6 ) . S c h o l a r s h a v e a t t e m p t e d to h a r m o n i z e the laws in w . 35-37 w i t h the s t o r y in w . 1 - 6 ;

2 6

Kister, h o w e v e r , c o n c l u d e d f r o m this c o n t r a d i c t i o n that

Jubilees i n c l u d e s m u l t i p l e t r a d i t i o n s of different o r i g i n s . 8. The length of Abraham's

journey

and the Akedah

as a source for

which

p a r i s o n is similar to that expressed in D a m a s c u s D o c u m e n t 5 : 7 - 1 1 , w h i c h v i e w s the incest p r o h i b i t i o n s in Lev 18 and 20 as a p p l y i n g equally and s y m m e t r i c a l l y b o t h to m e n a n d women. 22. T h i s e x a m p l e w a s identified b y Kister, " S o m e A s p e c t s of Q u m r a n i c Halakhah." 23. m. Ma 'aser Sheni 5:1; Sifre Numbers Ant

4.227. See C . A l b e c k , Das Buch

6; y. Pe'ah y:6 ( 2 o b - c ) , a n d similarly J o s e p h u s ,

der Jubilaen

und die Halacha,

H o c h s c h u l e fiir die

Wissenschaft des J u d e n t u m s 27 (Berlin: Siegfried S c h o l e m , 1 9 3 0 ) , 3 2 - 3 3 ; J. M . B a u m g a r t e n , " T h e L a w s o f 'Orlah and First Fruits in L i g h t o f Jubilees, the Q u m r a n Writings, and T a r g u m Ps. Jonathan," JJS 38 (1987): 1 9 5 - 2 0 2 (here 1 9 6 ) ; Kister, " S o m e Aspects," 577-78. 24. 1 1 Q T 60:3-4; 4 Q M M T B 62-64; in addition to Targum Pseudo-Jonathan

to L e v

19:24, cf. B a u m g a r t e n , " T h e L a w s o f 'Orlah," 196; Kister, " S o m e Aspects," 577-78. 25. T h e story at the b e g i n n i n g of the chapter is v e r y similar to that presented in l Q a p G e n 1 2 , as Kister, " S o m e Aspects," 583-85, noted. 26. Albeck, Das Buch der Jubilaen,

32

33; B a u m g a r t e n , " T h e L a w s o f 'Orlah," 198 n. 20.

The festival?

Composition

of

Jubilees

A c c o r d i n g to the r e w r i t t e n s t o r y in J u b 1 7 : 1 5 - 1 8 : 1 7 (parallel to the

A k e d a h s t o r y in G e n 2 2 : 1 - 1 9 ) , G o d a p p e a r e d to A b r a h a m o n the n i g h t of the twelfth of the first m o n t h ( 1 7 : 1 5 ) , a n d c o m m a n d e d h i m to offer his son Isaac as a sacrifice. A b r a h a m a w o k e that m o r n i n g , d e p a r t e d on his j o u r n e y , a n d o n the t h i r d d a y ( 1 8 : 3 ) , the f o u r t e e n t h of the first m o n t h (the festival of P a s s ­ o v e r ) , a r r i v e d at the l o c a t i o n w h e r e the A k e d a h t o o k p l a c e , M o u n t Z i o n ( 1 8 : 1 3 ) . B e f o r e he h a d the o p p o r t u n i t y to sacrifice his " f i r s t b o r n " s o n Isaac ( w . 1 1 , 1 5 ) , G o d sent an a n g e l to p r e v e n t h i m f r o m d o i n g s o , a n d A b r a h a m offered a r a m in Isaac's p l a c e . T h e s e f o u r m o t i f s — the date (fourteenth of first m o n t h ) , the f i r s t b o r n b e i n g saved, the l o c a t i o n in J e r u s a l e m , a n d the sacrifice o f a sheep — are f o u n d in o n l y o n e biblical c o n t e x t , the P a s s o v e r law. T h e r e w r i t t e n s t o r y t h u s f u n c t i o n s as a f o r e s h a d o w i n g of the P a s s o v e r law. A c c o r d i n g to the r e w r i t t e n s t o r y ( b a s e d u p o n G e n 2 2 ) , A b r a h a m a n d Isaac r e a c h e d the l a n d of M o r i a h o n the t h i r d d a y of their j o u r n e y . F o l l o w i n g the trial, A b r a h a m r e t u r n e d w i t h his s e r v a n t s to B e e r s h e b a , a d e s t i n a t i o n that, unless n o t e d o t h e r w i s e , s h o u l d h a v e b e e n r e a c h e d o n the t h i r d day. T h e r o u n d - t r i p s h o u l d n o t h a v e taken a n y l o n g e r t h a n six days ( a n d p e r h a p s o n l y five, a s s u m i n g that A b r a h a m a n d I s a a c set o u t to r e t u r n to B e e r s h e b a o n the day o f the A k e d a h i t s e l f ) . T h e r e w r i t t e n s t o r y d o e s n o t m e n t i o n the n u m b e r seven at all. In contrast, the legal p a s s a g e at the e n d of c h a p . 18 ( w . 1 8 - 1 9 )

trans­

f o r m s the s t o r y into a p r e c e d e n t for the s e v e n - d a y festival o f Massot

(fif­

teenth to t w e n t y - f i r s t of the first m o n t h ) , a n d explicitly a s s u m e s that the j o u r n e y lasted s e v e n d a y s . E v e n if o n e a s s u m e d that the r e w r i t t e n s t o r y p o s ­ ited a s e v e n - d a y j o u r n e y , the dates of the trip ( b e g i n n i n g o n the twelfth of the first m o n t h ) do not c o r r e s p o n d to the F e s t i v a l of U n l e a v e n e d B r e a d ( b e ­ g i n n i n g o n the fifteenth of the m o n t h ) . 9. The plague

of the firstborn.

In the r e w r i t t e n s t o r y r e g a r d i n g

the

p l a g u e s a n d the e x o d u s f r o m E g y p t ( J u b 4 8 ) , G o d a n d the a n g e l of p r e s e n c e w o r k against

the w i l l of M a s t e m a in h e l p i n g M o s e s r e t u r n to E g y p t , in the

b r i n g i n g of all the p l a g u e s (in p a r t i c u l a r the s l a y i n g of the f i r s t b o r n ) , a n d in the s a l v a t i o n of Israel. T h e r e is explicit e m p h a s i s o n G o d ' s active role in m e t ­ ing o u t the p l a g u e s h i m s e l f ( w . 5, 8 ) . In contrast, a c c o r d i n g to the j u x t a p o s e d legal p a s s a g e in J u b 49, the L o r d sent "the forces of M a s t e m a , " d e s c r i b e d t w o verses later as "the L o r d ' s forces," to kill the f i r s t b o r n ( 4 9 : 2 ) , a n d refrained f r o m b e i n g directly i n v o l v e d in this p l a g u e . T h e s e t w o d e s c r i p t i o n s t h u s dif­ fer in t e r m s of G o d ' s role in this specific story, b u t m o r e s i g n i f i c a n t l y in the place of the forces of evil ( r e p r e s e n t e d b y M a s t e m a ) in the w o r l d , w h o w o r k either at c r o s s - p u r p o s e s w i t h G o d or as his a g e n t s .

33

Michael

Segal

1 0 . The punishments

for Reuben

and Bilhah.

In the b r i e f s t o r y in G e n

35:22, w h i c h d e s c r i b e s h o w R e u b e n slept w i t h his father's c o n c u b i n e B i l h a h , there is n o reference to a p u n i s h m e n t for R e u b e n or B i l h a h . O t h e r b i b l i c a l p a s s a g e s criticize R e u b e n for his b e h a v i o r ( G e n 4 9 : 3 - 4 ) , a n d d e s c r i b e h o w this led to his loss o f the b i r t h r i g h t (1 C h r o n 5 : 1 - 2 ) , b u t do n o t m e n t i o n an i n d i v i d u a l p u n i s h m e n t in r e s p o n s e to their b e h a v i o r . T h i s a b s e n c e is at o d d s w i t h b i b l i c a l l a w s that p r o h i b i t i n t e r c o u r s e w i t h one's father's wife ( L e v 18:8; 2 0 : 1 1 ; D e u t 2 3 : 1 ; 2 7 : 2 0 ) , a n d e s p e c i a l l y L e v 2 0 : 1 1 , w h i c h calls for the

death

p e n a l t y for b o t h the m a n a n d his father's w i f e . A c c o r d i n g to P e n t a t e u c h a l law, b o t h R e u b e n a n d B i l h a h s h o u l d h a v e b e e n p u n i s h e d b y death. T h e r e w r i t t e n s t o r y in J u b 33:1-98 presents B i l h a h as the v i c t i m of r a p e , t h u s offering a j u s t i f i c a t i o n for her n o n p u n i s h m e n t .

T h e r e is n o explicit

m e n t i o n o f a p u n i s h m e n t for R e u b e n in this s e c t i o n , a l t h o u g h interestingly, in the T e s t a m e n t o f R e u b e n , w h i c h p r e s e r v e s a p a r t i a l l y o v e r l a p p i n g v e r s i o n of the e v e n t s ,

27

he is i n d e e d p u n i s h e d , as R e u b e n r e c o u n t s , " h e s t r u c k m e

w i t h a severe w o u n d in m y l o i n s for s e v e n m o n t h s " ( T R e u 1:7), a p a r t i c u l a r l y apt p u n i s h m e n t for s e x u a l i m p r o p r i e t y . In contrast, the l e g a l p a s s a g e ( w . 9 b - 2 o ) uses c o m p l e t e l y different legal categories to a b s o l v e R e u b e n a n d B i l h a h . I n s t e a d of c o m p u l s i o n v e r s u s free w i l l , the legal p a s s a g e acquits b o t h R e u b e n a n d B i l h a h f r o m any p u n i s h m e n t for a different, t e c h n i c a l r e a s o n : "for the statute, the p u n i s h m e n t , a n d the law h a d not b e e n c o m p l e t e l y r e v e a l e d to all" (v. 1 6 ) . T h i s a p p r o a c h d o e s n o t i m p a r t s i g n i f i c a n c e to the i n d i v i d u a l ' s i n t e n t i o n s o r m o t i v a t i o n s , b u t r a t h e r to the status of the laws t h e m s e l v e s at the t i m e of their v i o l a t i o n .

II. The Literary Development of Jubilees W h i l e each of these i n d i v i d u a l c o n t r a d i c t i o n s c a n b e h a r m o n i z e d to resolve the i n h e r e n t t e n s i o n , as has b e e n s u g g e s t e d b y s c h o l a r s r e g a r d i n g a f e w of the e x a m p l e s , I suggest that their c u m u l a t i v e effect is sufficient to

demonstrate

that the b o o k is n o t the p r o d u c t of o n e a u t h o r . T h e p r e s e n c e o f t w o differ­ ent, a n d often c o n t r a d i c t o r y , i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s

or t r a d i t i o n s side b y side in

each of these cases s h o u l d n o t be v i e w e d m e r e l y as "overkill," to use the t e r m 27. F o r an analysis of the relationship between the versions of the story in Jubilees and the Testament o f Reuben, see J. L. Kugel, "Reuben's Sin with Bilhah in the Testament o f Reuben," in Pomegranates and Golden Bells: Studies in Biblical, Jewish, and Near Eastern Rit­ ual, Law, and Literature in Honor of Jacob Milgrom, ed. D . P. Wright et al. (Winona Lake, Ind.: Eisenbrauns, 1995), 525-54 (here 550-54).

34

The

Composition

of

Jubilees

c o i n e d b y K u g e l , a c c o r d i n g to w h i c h m u l t i p l e interpretive s o l u t i o n s to the s a m e p r o b l e m w e r e c o m b i n e d together in o n e c o m p o s i t i o n ,

2 8

b e c a u s e there

is n o r e a s o n for these s o l u t i o n s to b e c o n s i s t e n t l y differentiated b y their liter­ ary

g e n r e . M o r e o v e r , the c h r o n o l o g i c a l c o n t r a d i c t i o n s , a n d especially the

case of the b i r t h s of J a c o b ' s s o n s ( e x a m p l e 2 ) , do n o t l e n d t h e m s e l v e s to easy e x p l a n a t i o n as the result of the c o n s c i o u s c o m b i n a t i o n o f exegetical t r a d i ­ t i o n s , as o n e w o u l d e x p e c t a single a u t h o r to w e a v e together these alternate t r a d i t i o n s to f o r m a c o h e s i v e a n d c o h e r e n t story. As a final p o i n t , the W a t c h e r s s t o r y ( e x a m p l e 3 ) p e r h a p s p r o v i d e s us w i t h a k e y to u n d e r s t a n d i n g this p r o c e s s o f d e v e l o p m e n t . It s h o u l d b e n o t e d that the b o r r o w i n g of 1 E n 1 0 - 1 1 d e s c r i b e d a b o v e is l i m i t e d to J u b 5 : 1 - 1 2 . T h e s u b s e q u e n t s e c t i o n , w . 1 3 - 1 8 , e m p h a s i z e s the legal aspects of the W a t c h e r s s t o r y — each g r o u p d e s c r i b e d i n that p a s s a g e ( W a t c h e r s , giants, p e o p l e ) re­ ceives an a p p r o p r i a t e p u n i s h m e n t , as set o u t for t h e m b e f o r e t h e y b e h a v e d sinfully. T h i s a d d i t i o n a l p a s s a g e is m a r k e d b y t e r m i n o l o g y s i m i l a r to that f o u n d in legal p a s s a g e s t h r o u g h o u t J u b i l e e s , a n d o n e can safely a s s u m e that it is o f the s a m e p r o v e n a n c e as the other legal p a s s a g e s . I suggest that J u b 5 c a n b e t a k e n as an e m p i r i c a l m o d e l for the l i t e r a r y d e v e l o p m e n t o f the b o o k as a w h o l e , b a s e d u p o n the f o l l o w i n g p a t t e r n : a r e w r i t t e n b i b l i c a l text (1 E n 10—11) w a s a d o p t e d , p l a c e d w i t h i n a n e w c h r o n o l o g i c a l f r a m e w o r k (the a d d i ­ tion of the date in 5:1 — see a b o v e ) , a n d s u p p l e m e n t e d b y a j u x t a p o s e d legal passage. In the case of J u b 5, a c o n t r a d i c t i o n b e t w e e n the c h r o n o l o g i c a l f r a m e ­ w o r k a n d the r e w r i t t e n n a r r a t i v e w a s identified, b u t n o s u c h t e n s i o n is p r e s ­ ent b e t w e e n the s t o r y a n d the legal p a s s a g e . H o w e v e r , the literary e v i d e n c e , a n d specifically the d e p e n d e n c e u p o n an extant text, attests to the b o u n d ­ aries of the b o r r o w e d m a t e r i a l ( J u b 5 : 1 - 1 2 ) a n d the c o n t r i b u t i o n s of the re­ d a c t o r ( w . 1 3 - 1 8 ) . In c o n t r a s t to J u b 5, in m o s t of the e x a m p l e s of c o n t r a d i c ­ tions listed a b o v e , there is n o direct, literary e v i d e n c e that Jubilees b o r r o w e d f r o m a specific c o m p o s i t i o n . H o w e v e r , u s i n g this p a s s a g e as a m o d e l for the b o o k as a w h o l e , the n o t i o n o f a r e d a c t o r w i t h h a l a k i c a n d c h r o n o l o g i c a l e m p h a s e s w h o i n c o r p o r a t e d e x t a n t r e w r i t t e n texts c a n b e u s e d to e x p l a i n the p r e s e n c e of the c o n t r a d i c t i o n s b e t w e e n the r e w r i t t e n n a r r a t i v e s a n d

the

other two g e n r e s . T h e differences b e t w e e n t h e m are the result o f their differ­ ent o r i g i n s , a n d they w e r e c o m b i n e d as p a r t of the c o m p o s i t i o n a l p r o c e s s of the b o o k o f J u b i l e e s .

28. J. L. Kugel, In Potiphar's House: The Interpretive

Life of Biblical

Texts (San F r a n ­

cisco: Harper, 1 9 9 0 ) , 256-57.

35

The Relationship between Jubilees and the Early Enochic Books (Astronomical Book and Book of the Watchers) John S. Bergsma

The

task of this paper is to investigate the relationship between the earlier

Enochic books — the Astronomical B o o k (hereafter A B ; i.e., 1 E n 7 2 - 8 2 ) and the B o o k of the Watchers (hereafter BW; 1 E n 1 - 3 6 ) — and the book of Jubi­ lees. It is generally assumed that there is a literary relationship between these works, and — largely on the basis of their estimated dates of composition — that the direction of influence flows from the E n o c h i c texts to Jubilees. First, the evidence and arguments for the dating of the three documents will be re­ viewed. Second, A B and B W will each be compared with Jubilees to observe similarities and differences in narrative and theology. Finally, generaliza­ tions will be made about the nature of Jubilees' relationship to the early Enochic literature.

I. The Dating of the Astronomical Book, the Book of the Watchers, and Jubilees A. The Date of the Astronomical Book The Astronomical Book, considered the earliest of the Enochic texts, is fre­ quently assigned a third century B . C . E . date on the basis of the following data:

1

1. For a thorough discussion see J. C . VanderKam, Enoch and the Growth of an Apoca­ lyptic Tradition, C B Q M S 16 (Washington, D.C.: C B A , 1984), 79-88.

36

The

l. Manuscript text from

Qumran

Relationship

Evidence. dates

between

At

Jubilees

and

least one apparently

to circa 200 B.C.E.

the Early

Enochic

Enochic

Books

astronomical

T h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t evidence for

e s t a b l i s h i n g the r e l a t i v e a n t i q u i t y o f A B is the m a n u s c r i p t

evidence

from

Q u m r a n , w h i c h y i e l d e d f o u r f r a g m e n t a r y A r a m a i c s c r o l l s that b e a r a r e l a ­ t i o n s h i p to the E t h i o p i c v e r s i o n f a m i l i a r to u s . T h e n o m e n c l a t u r e , a n d c o n t e n t s o f the m a n u s c r i p t s are d e t a i l e d in the f o l l o w i n g t a b l e :

dating, 2

Qumran

Paleographic

Document

Dating

Contents

ca. 2 2 0 - 1 8 0

Table of m o o n phases possibly s u m m a r i z e d

B.C.E.

in 1 E n 73:4-8

ca. 1 0 B . C . E . -

T a b l e o f m o o n p h a s e s , b u t also p a r t s o f

10 C . E .

1 E n 76:14-77; 78:10; 78:17-79:2; 82:9-13

c

ca. 50 B . C . E .

Parts o f 1 E n 7 6 : 3 - 1 0 ; 7 6 : 1 3 - 7 7 : 3 ; 78:6-8

d

ca. 5 0 - 1 B . C . E .

Unparalleled in 1 E n o c h but apparently a

4QEnastr

a

(4Q208)

4QEnastr

b

(4Q209)

4QEnastr (4Q210) 4QEnastr

completion of 82:15-20

(4Q211)

The

r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n t h e s e Q u m r a n m a n u s c r i p t s a n d the d a t i n g o f A B

is, u n f o r t u n a t e l y , n o t s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d . T h e Q u m r a n texts are q u i t e f r a g m e n ­ t a r y a n d w i t n e s s to a l a r g e r d o c u m e n t t h a t i n c l u d e d m a t e r i a l t h a t w a s s u m -

2. F o r the source o f this i n f o r m a t i o n a n d general discussion o f the date o f A B , see J. T. M i l i k , The Books of Enoch: Aramaic Fragments

of Qumran

Cave 4 ( O x f o r d : C l a r e n d o n , 1976),

7-22; also M . A . K n i b b , The Ethiopic Book of Enoch, 2 vols. ( O x f o r d : C l a r e n d o n , 1978), 2 : 1 1 - 1 2 . The dating o f any i n d i v i d u a l scroll m a y b e debated. T h e p a l e o g r a p h i c dates p r o v i d e d here are those o f M i l i k . F e w scholars have the expertise, resources, a n d access necessary to reas­ sess Milik's w o r k . H i s p r o p o s e d dates have been challenged b y r a d i o c a r b o n dating: see A. Jull, D . D o n a h u e , M . B r o s h i , a n d E . Tov, " R a d i o c a r b o n D a t i n g o f Scrolls a n d L i n e n Frag­ m e n t s f r o m the J u d e a n Desert," Atiqot 28 (1996): 85-91 (here 8 6 ) , a n d G . D o u d n a , " D a t i n g the Scrolls o n the B a s i s o f R a d i o c a r b o n Analysis," in The Dead Sea Scrolls after Fifty Years: A Comprehensive

Assessment,

e d . R Flint a n d J . V a n d e r K a m , 2 vols. (Leiden: Brill, 1 9 9 8 - 9 9 ) ,

1:430-65. H o w e v e r , as D o u d n a p o i n t s o u t , even c a r b o n dating can p r o d u c e e r r o n e o u s results d u e to s a m p l e c o n t a m i n a t i o n , inaccurate calibration c u r v e s , l a b o r a t o r y error, a n d other fac­ a

tors. D o u d n a reports a date r a n g e for 4 Q E n a s t r o f 1 6 0 - 4 0 B . C . E . (one sigma, i.e., 68 percent confidence [462]), b u t also p o i n t s o u t the possibility o f c o n t a m i n a t i o n in the g r o u p o f texts a

to w h i c h the s a m p l e o f 4 Q E n a s t r b e l o n g e d (452). We have c h o s e n , for the present, to disre­ gard t h e c a r b o n d a t i n g until greater confidence can b e expressed a b o u t the certainty o f the results.

37

John

S.

Bergsma

m a r i z e d or (by i n t e n t i o n or a c c i d e n t ) o m i t t e d in the later E t h i o p i c v e r s i o n . a

F u r t h e r m o r e , the oldest m a n u s c r i p t b y far, 4 Q E n a s t r , consists o n l y of a ta­ ble

of m o o n p h a s e s , w h i c h is n o t p r e s e n t in E t h i o p i c A B ( a l t h o u g h p e r h a p s a

s u m m a r i z e d in 1 E n 7 3 : 4 - 8 ) . E n o c h is n o t m e n t i o n e d w i t h i n 4 Q E n a s t r : it is p o s s i b l e , t h o u g h unlikely, that it r e p r e s e n t s a f r e e - s t a n d i n g

astronomical

b

w o r k o n l y later a s s o c i a t e d w i t h E n o c h . 4 Q E n a s t r does i n c l u d e both ( 1 ) sec­ a

tions o f text o v e r l a p p i n g w i t h 4 Q E n a s t r and (2) m a t e r i a l w i t h an o b s e r v a b l e t e x t u a l r e l a t i o n s h i p to p o r t i o n s of E t h i o p i c A B . J . T. M i l i k , e d i t o r of the a

editio princeps,

c o n c l u d e d f r o m this that 4 Q E n a s t r w a s i n d e e d an E n o c h i c

d o c u m e n t w h o s e d e m o n s t r a b l y E n o c h i c p o r t i o n s w e r e m i s s i n g but p a r t i a l l y b

extant in 4 Q E n a s t r .

3

a

If o n e w i s h e d to contest the explicitly E n o c h i c c h a r a c t e r of 4 Q E n a s t r , t h e n the n e x t earliest m a n u s c r i p t w i t h a s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p to E t h i o p i c AB

is 4 Q E n a s t r

4QEnastr

c

c

f r o m the m i d - f i r s t c e n t u r y B . C . E . B u t even in this case,

is n o t s i m p l y the A r a m a i c Vorlage

for the G r e e k f r o m w h i c h

E t h i o p i c A B w a s t r a n s l a t e d . It is a c o n s i d e r a b l y different text, a l t h o u g h s i m i ­ lar e n o u g h that a literary r e l a t i o n s h i p is certain. To

s u m m a r i z e : the Q u m r a n e v i d e n c e d e m o n s t r a t e s , at least, that b y

the m i d - f i r s t c e n t u r y B . C . E . a n E n o c h i c a s t r o n o m i c a l b o o k larger t h a n , b u t t e x t u a l l y related to, the E t h i o p i c E n o c h 7 2 - 8 2 w a s in c i r c u l a t i o n . F u r t h e r ­ a

m o r e , it is h i g h l y p r o b a b l e that 4 Q E n a s t r w a s i n d e e d a n E n o c h i c text, p a r t of the l a r g e r A r a m a i c A B a b b r e v i a t e d in the E t h i o p i c , a n d t h u s the date o f the c o m p o s i t i o n of this d o c u m e n t w o u l d be at the latest (terminus

ad

quern)

in the late t h i r d c e n t u r y B . C . E . — s u b s t a n t i a l l y earlier t h a n the u s u a l date a s ­ s i g n e d to J u b i l e e s . 2. Internal closely related seventh

century

Evidence.

to primitive B.C.E.

The simple Babylonian

schemes

and formulas

astronomical

of AB

appear

texts dating as early as the

T h e a s t r o n o m i c a l p r i n c i p l e s of A B are s i m p l i s t i c a n d ,

u n f o r t u n a t e l y , i n a c c u r a t e . It is s t r i k i n g , h o w e v e r , that the s a m e l i n e a r p r o ­ g r e s s i o n s o f i n c r e a s i n g light or d a r k n e s s a n d the s a m e ratios e x p r e s s i n g the relative lengths o f d a y a n d n i g h t are f o u n d in texts f r o m the i n f a n c y o f B a b y ­ l o n i a n a s t r o n o m i c a l s c i e n c e , e s p e c i a l l y in the s o - c a l l e d M U L . A P I N t e x t s . The

4

earliest extant tablet of the M U L . A P I N series dates from 687 B . C . E . 3. See V a n d e r K a m , Enoch,

81-82.

4. F o r fuller discussion of the relationship b e t w e e n A B a n d the Q u m r a n a s t r o n o m i c a l texts, see H . D r a w n e l , " S o m e N o t e s o n S c r i b a l Craft a n d the O r i g i n s o f the E n o c h i c Litera­ ture," Hen 31, n o . 1 ( 2 0 0 9 ) . D r a w n e l p o i n t s o u t the similarities o f 4 Q 2 0 8 a n d 4 Q 2 0 9 n o t o n l y to the M U L . A P I N texts, b u t especially to the B a b y l o n i a n Enuma cal series, w h i c h originates in the second m i l l e n n i u m B . C . E .

38

Anu Enlil (EAE)

astrologi­

The Relationship (VAT

between

9412). Full explanations

Jubilees

and the Early

o f the n u m e r o u s

Enochic

connections

Books

between

E n o c h i c A B a n d the M U L . A P I N texts h a v e b e e n m a d e b y N e u g e b a u e r a n d V a n d e r K a m — the details n e e d n o t d e t a i n us h e r e .

5

Suffice it to

quote

N e u g e b a u e r : " T h e r e is n o v i s i b l e trace [in the E n o c h i c A B ] of the s o p h i s t i ­ cated B a b y l o n i a n a s t r o n o m y o f the P e r s i a n or S e l e u c i d - P a r t h i a n p e r i o d . "

6

W h i l e N e u g e b a u e r denies that this i n f o r m a t i o n is of any help in dating 7

the c o m p o s i t i o n of E n o c h i c A B , it s e e m s to this author, at least, that the a b ­ sence from A B of any of the a d v a n c e s in ancient N e a r Eastern a s t r o n o m y from the Persian or Hellenistic p e r i o d s argues for an o r i g i n of this literature in the B a b y l o n i a n exile. A B m a y be an a p p r o p r i a t i o n of the astral science of B a b y l o n to w h i c h the J u d e a n s c r i b e s / s c h o l a r s w e r e e x p o s e d d u r i n g this time p e r i o d . 3. External

Evidence.

Pseudo-Eupolemus

8

seems to know AB. T w o frag­

m e n t s of P s e u d o - E u p o l e m u s ' s w o r k o n the J e w i s h p e o p l e , cited b y A l e x a n ­ der P o l y h i s t o r a n d p r e s e r v e d in t u r n b y E u s e b i u s (Ecclesiastical

History

9 . 1 7 . 2 - 9 ; 1 8 . 2 ) , m a k e reference to E n o c h ' s a s t r o n o m i c a l k n o w l e d g e . A c c o r d ­ ing to P s e u d o - E u p o l e m u s , E n o c h ( 1 ) w a s i n s t r u c t e d in a s t r o l o g y b y the a n ­ gels, a n d so (2) b e c a m e the first astrologer, a n d (3) t r a n s m i t t e d his k n o w l ­ edge to M e t h u s e l a h . T h e s e three e l e m e n t s are the b a s i c p r e m i s e s of A B , l e a d i n g to the c o n c l u s i o n that P s e u d o - E u p o l e m u s w a s f a m i l i a r w i t h

the

w o r k . P s e u d o - E u p o l e m u s ' s date o f w r i t i n g is difficult to establish, b u t circa 9

200 B . C . E . is a r e a s o n a b l e h y p o t h e s i s . T h i s w o u l d a g a i n p l a c e the

terminus

ad quern of A B in the late t h i r d c e n t u r y B . C . E . T h e m a n u s c r i p t , internal, a n d external evidence suggest a date of c o m p o ­ sition of A r a m a i c A B at least in the third c e n t u r y B . C . E . a n d p r o b a b l y earlier.

B. The Date of the Book of the

Watchers

T h e B o o k of the W a t c h e r s is g e n e r a l l y dated circa 2 0 0 B . C . E . o r earlier, yet af­ ter A B , b a s e d on the f o l l o w i n g data:

5. See discussion in O. Neugebauer a n d M . Black, The "Astronomical" Chapters of the Ethiopic Book of Enoch (72 to 82) (Copenhagen: M u n k s g a a r d , 1981), 1 1 - 1 2 , 20; V a n d e r K a m , Enoch, 92-104. 6. Neugebauer, "Astronomical" Chapters, 4; V a n d e r K a m , Enoch, 1 0 2 . 7. Neugebauer, "Astronomical" Chapters, 4. 8. Cf. V a n d e r K a m , Enoch, 1 0 1 - 2 ; Milik, The Books of Enoch, 12-18; J. B e n - D o v , " T h e Babylonian Lunar Three in Calendrical Scrolls from Qumran," ZA 95 (2005): 104-20, esp. 1078 , 1 1 2 ; Drawnel, " S o m e Notes o n Scribal Craft a n d the Origins o f the Enochic Literature." 9. V a n d e r K a m , Enoch, 85.

39

John

S.

Bergsma

l. Manuscript circa 175 B.C.E.

Evidence.

the f o l l o w i n g t a b l e : Qumran

The earliest Qumran

manuscript

of BW dates to

T h e Q u m r a n A r a m a i c f r a g m e n t s o f B W are s u m m a r i z e d in

Document

10

Paleographic Dating

Contents

4QEn

a

(4Q201)

ca. 2 0 0 - 1 5 0 B . C . E .

Parts of 1 E n 1 - 1 2

4QEn

b

(4Q202)

ca. 150 B . C . E .

Parts of 1 E n 5 - 1 4 Parts of 1 E n 1 - 3 6 ; 89; 1 0 4 - 1 0 7

QEn

c

4

(4Q204)

ca. 5 0 - 1 B . C . E .

QEn

d

4

(4Q205)

ca. 5 0 - 1 B . C . E .

Parts of 1 E n 2 2 - 2 7 ; 89

e

(4Q206)

ca. 1 0 0 - 5 0 B . C . E .

Parts of 1 E n 22; 2 8 - 3 4 ; 88-89

4QEn

T h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t m a n u s c r i p t for o u r p u r p o s e s is the first a n d oldest, a

4 Q E n , d a t i n g to the first h a l f of the s e c o n d c e n t u r y B . C . E . T h i s p r o b a b l y p u s h e s the terminus

ad quern o f the c o m p o s i t i o n o f the b o o k i n t o the late

t h i r d century. 2 . Internal no clear allusions

Evidence.

BW shows the influence

to Antiochus

Epiphanes

and

of Hellenistic

the Maccabean

culture, 11

revolt.

but The

m o s t c o n v i n c i n g e x a m p l e of H e l l e n i s t i c i n f l u e n c e in B W is the s i m i l a r i t y in career profile b e t w e e n the a n g e l A s a e l (or A z a z ' e l ) a n d the G r e e k titan P r o ­ metheus.

1 2

T h e r e are also s i m i l a r i t i e s , a l t h o u g h less specific, b e t w e e n the d e ­

s c r i p t i o n o f the W a t c h e r s ' o f f s p r i n g a n d the G r e e k l e g e n d s of the g i a n t s .

13

S o m e have a r g u e d that the p o r t r a y a l o f the W a t c h e r s ' r a p a c i o u s off­ s p r i n g — the giants — is a veiled criticism of the diadochoi,

w h o c l a i m e d di­

v i n e descent a n d w h o s e g o v e r n i n g policies i m p o v e r i s h e d a n d o p p r e s s e d their subjects.

14

B a r t e l m u s argues that B W w a s c o m p o s e d d u r i n g the reign of the

m o s t n o t o r i o u s of the diadochoi,

Antiochus IV Epiphanes.

1 5

H o w e v e r , there is

n o clear allusion to A n t i o c h u s E p i p h a n e s in B W . F u r t h e r m o r e , it is n o t neces­ s a r y to see the giants as literary reflections o f the diadochoi,

since the d e s c r i p -

1 0 . See discussion in V a n d e r K a m , Enoch, 1 1 1 - 1 2 ; Milik, The Books of Enoch, 22-41; Knibb, Ethiopic Book of Enoch, 8 - 1 1 . 11. O n the Hellenistic influence o n B W generally, see G . H . Van Kooten, "Enoch, the 'Watchers,' Seth's Descendants a n d A b r a h a m as Astronomers: Jewish Applications o f the Greek Motif of the First Inventor (300 B C E - C E 100)," in Recycling Biblical Figures, ed. A. Brenner a n d J. W. van Henten, S T A R 1 (Leiden: D e o , 1999), 292-316. 12. See R. Bartelmus, Heroentum in Israel und seinem Umwelt, A T A N T 65 (Zurich: Theologischer, 1979), 161-66; V a n d e r K a m , Enoch, 126-28. 13. V a n d e r K a m , Enoch, 127. 14. Discussed in V a n d e r K a m , Enoch, 128. 15. Bartelmus, Heroentum, 179-83.

40

The

Relationship

between

Jubilees

and the Early

Enochic

Books

tion of the giants in B W can be e x p l a i n e d as a d e v e l o p m e n t of the story of G e n 6:1-4. T h e d u a l descent — angelic a n d h u m a n — of the giants is s i m p l y an exegetical c o n c l u s i o n from G e n 6:4. T h e fact that they w e r e g i g a n t i c m a y be derived from interpreting G e n 6:4 in light of N u m 13:3. B e i n g of gigantic stat­ ure a n d the sons of w i c k e d angels, their b e h a v i o r , o n e w o u l d a s s u m e , w a s h i g h l y c o n s u m p t i v e , o p p r e s s i v e , a n d v i o l e n t . T h u s , there is n o reason to invoke the diadochoi

as the specific i n s p i r a t i o n for these characteristics.

E v e n t h o u g h there are n o clear a l l u s i o n s to a n y specific H e l l e n i s t i c r u l ­ ers in B W , a H e l l e n i s t i c influence is present. T h i s influence i n d i c a t e s a date in the v e r y late f o u r t h c e n t u r y at the earliest (terminus

a quo). T h e l a c k of a n y

reflection of the crisis u n d e r A n t i o c h u s I V suggests a terminus

ad quern in

the early s e c o n d c e n t u r y B . C . E . 3. Internal summarize

Evidence.

The latter part

of the book (1 En 33-36)

seems

to

AB. T h e last few chapters of B W p a r a p h r a s e the c o n t e n t of A B :

1 E n 3 3 : 2 - 4 s u m m a r i z e s 1 E n 72:3 a n d 7 5 : 1 - 4 ; 1 E n 3 4 - 3 6 p a r a p h r a s e s 1 E n 7 5 76. O n e m a y c o n c l u d e that A B w a s k n o w n to the a u t h o r / e d i t o r of B W . It is interesting to n o t e , h o w e v e r , that the larger p o r t i o n o f A B is taken u p w i t h the cycles of the s u n a n d m o o n , a n d n e i t h e r is m e n t i o n e d i n the last chapters of B W (1 E n 3 3 - 3 6 ) . I n s t e a d , stars a n d w i n d s — w h i c h are o f lesser c o n c e r n to A B — are the f o c u s of attention. The

c o m b i n e d data m a k e it likely that B W w a s c o m p o s e d n o later t h a n

the e n d o f the third, a n d n o earlier t h a n the e n d of the f o u r t h c e n t u r y B . C . E .

C. The Date of

The

Jubilees

date of c o m p o s i t i o n o f the b o o k of Jubilees is e s t i m a t e d b y V a n d e r K a m

at circa 1 6 0 - 1 5 0 B . C . E . b a s e d o n the f o l l o w i n g d a t a : 1. Manuscript from

125 to 100 B.C.E.

Evidence.

The oldest Qumran

16

manuscript

(4Q216)

dates

A total of fifteen m a n u s c r i p t s of Jubilees w e r e d i s c o v ­

ered at Q u m r a n . H e r e o u r o n l y c o n c e r n n e e d be w i t h the oldest, 4 Q 2 1 6 , w h i c h p r e s e r v e s a fair a m o u n t of text f r o m J u b 1 - 2 a n d dates f r o m the last q u a r t e r o f the s e c o n d c e n t u r y B . C . E . S i n c e 4 Q 2 1 6 is a l m o s t certainly n o t the a u t o g r a p h , the terminus

ad quern for the c o m p o s i t i o n of Jubilees p r o b a b l y

lies in the t h i r d q u a r t e r of the s e c o n d c e n t u r y .

17

16. The best discussion r e m a i n s J. C. V a n d e r K a m , Textual and Book of jubilees,

Historical

Studies on the

H S M 14 ( M i s s o u l a : S c h o l a r s Press, 1 9 7 7 ) , 207-85.

17. See J. A . T. G . M . v a n Ruiten, "A Literary D e p e n d e n c y of Jubilees on 1 E n o c h ? " in

41

John

S.

Bergsma

2. Some

narratives

in Jubilees

have been shaped

to reflect events

of the

Maccabean

period. A s V a n d e r K a m states it, "the battles of J a c o b a n d his s o n s

in Jubilees

are p r o b a b l y literarily r e - s t r u c t u r e d a c c o u n t s of J u d a s M a c c a b e u s '

m o s t i m p o r t a n t battles a n d c a m p a i g n s . "

1 8

T h e t w o e x a m p l e s are J a c o b ' s w a r

w i t h the s e v e n A m o r i t e k i n g s in J u b 3 4 : 2 - 9 , w h i c h parallels J u d a s M a c c a b e us's v i c t o r y o v e r N i c a n o r a n d his allies in 1 6 1 B . C . E . , a n d Jacob's w a r w i t h E s a u a n d allies in J u b 3 7 : 1 - 3 8 : 1 4 , c o r r e s p o n d i n g to J u d a s ' s defeat of the I d u m e a n s a n d allied forces circa 163 B . C . E .

1 9

T h e e v i d e n c e for the first e x a m ­

ple is especially c o m p e l l i n g , a n d w o u l d establish the terminus

a quo for the

c o m p o s i t i o n o f J u b i l e e s at circa 1 6 0 B . C . E . 3. Jubilees endar

and

does not reflect the schism between proponents

the rest of Judaism.

Later Q u m r a n

of the solar cal­

documents

do reflect

this

s c h i s m . V a n d e r K a m a n d others p l a c e the b r e a k b e t w e e n the forebears of the Qumran

community

(solar calendar advocates) and establishment

(i.e.,

J e r u s a l e m i t e ) J u d a i s m d u r i n g the r e i g n o f the M a c c a b e a n h i g h priests J o n a ­ than (152-142 B . C . E . )

or S i m o n ( 1 4 2 - 1 3 4 B . C . E . ) . O f these t w o , J o n a t h a n

s e e m s the m o r e likely. If the a u t h o r o f J u b i l e e s h a d w r i t t e n as late as circa 1 4 0 B . C . E . , o n e w o u l d e x p e c t reference to m o r e recent e v e n t s ,

20

a n d less a d u l a ­

tion o f the p r i e s t h o o d in light o f the c o r r u p t i o n of the M a c c a b e a n h i g h priests.

21

O n the b a s i s o f this data, V a n d e r K a m establishes the date of the c o m ­ p o s i t i o n o f Jubilees in the r a t h e r n a r r o w w i n d o w 1 6 0 - 1 5 0 B . C . E .

II. The Relationship of the Astronomical Book and Jubilees T h e d i s c u s s i o n of the d a t i n g of A B a n d Jubilees a b o v e d e m o n s t r a t e s that it is h i g h l y likely that A r a m a i c A B w a s in existence p r i o r to the c o m p o s i t i o n o f Jubilees. O n e c o u l d a r g u e to the c o n t r a r y o n l y b y d e n y i n g that 4 Q E n a s t r ever f o r m e d

a part of a larger A r a m a i c A B , which w o u l d lower

p a l e o g r a p h i c terminus

a

the c

ad quern to the m i d - f i r s t c e n t u r y B . C . E . ( 4 Q E n a s t r ) .

B u t s u c h a d e n i a l s e e m s u n w a r r a n t e d . M o r e o v e r , the lack of H e l l e n i s t i c in-

Enoch and Qumran Origins: A New Light on a Forgotten Connection, ed. G . Boccaccini (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2005), 90-93. 18. V a n d e r K a m , Textual and Historical Studies, 217. 19. V a n d e r K a m , Textual and Historical Studies, 218-38. 20. Judas Maccabeus's victory over Nicanor in 161 B . C . E . is the last datable event to which Jubilees clearly alludes. 21. See V a n d e r K a m , Textual and Historical Studies, 284.

42

The Relationship

between

Jubilees

and the Early

Enochic

Books

fluence on A B a n d the fairly clear p r e s e n c e of it in J u b i l e e s certainly suggest that A B is the p r o d u c t o f an earlier era. F u r t h e r m o r e , m a n y s c h o l a r s h a v e c o n c l u d e d f r o m J u b 4 : 1 7 - 1 8 , 2 1 that the a u t h o r of Jubilees h a d k n o w l e d g e of A B , the contents of w h i c h s e e m quite w e l l s u m m a r i z e d , especially in v. 1 7 .

2 2

O p i n i o n v a r i e s w h e t h e r v. 2 1 re­

fers to A B o r the s e c o n d h a l f o f B W (1 E n 1 7 - 3 6 ) . J . A . T. G . v a n R u i t e n a n d M . A . K n i b b h a v e p o i n t e d out, h o w e v e r , that although Jub 4:17-18 mentions E n o c h composing a w o r k w h o s e description s o u n d s like A B , there are in fact n o p a s s a g e s in Jubilees that e x h i b i t d e m o n ­ strable l i t e r a r y d e p e n d e n c y o n the text of A B , in m a r k e d c o n t r a s t to the liter­ ary r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n Jubilees a n d G e n e s i s .

2 3

It is true that the a u t h o r o f Jubilees does not r e p r o d u c e the text of A B in the s a m e w a y he r e p r o d u c e s the text of G e n e s i s . H o w e v e r , this n e e d n o t m e a n t h a t the text o f A B w a s u n a v a i l a b l e to h i m ; o n l y that he c h o s e to h a n ­ dle the E n o c h i c texts differently t h a n that of G e n e s i s . W h i l e he f o l l o w s the b i b l i c a l text fairly closely at t i m e s , he is c o n t e n t m e r e l y to s u m m a r i z e the contents of A B a n d other E n o c h i c w o r k s . T h e i n f l u e n c e of A B o n Jubilees is, o d d l y , n o t as significant as o n e m i g h t e x p e c t . O f c o u r s e , the t w o w o r k s h a v e s e v e r a l c o m m o n a l i t i e s :

• •

T h e 3 6 4 - d a y " s o l a r " c a l e n d a r is the o n l y l e g i t i m a t e o n e . A s t r o n o m i c a l a n d m e t e o r o l o g i c a l p h e n o m e n a are g u i d e d b y s p i r i t u a l b e i n g s (cf. J u b 2 : 2 ; 1 E n 8 2 : 7 - 2 0 ) .

•

T h e n a t u r a l o r d e r is s c r u p u l o u s l y o b e d i e n t to d i v i n e l a w s .

•

E n o c h is the first astrologer, h a v i n g b e e n e d u c a t e d b y a n g e l s .

H o w e v e r , all these c o m m o n a l i t i e s w e r e p r o b a b l y w i d e l y p r e s e n t in s e c o n d t e m p l e J u d a i s m . T h e r e f o r e , o n e c a n n o t say that Jubilees b o r r o w e d the 3 6 4 day c a l e n d a r directly f r o m A B . R a t h e r , b o t h w o r k s p r o b a b l y reflect a c o m ­ m o n calendrical tradition. T h e differences b e t w e e n A B a n d Jubilees are a c t u a l l y m o r e interesting t h a n the s i m i l a r i t i e s : 22. See V a n d e r K a m , " E n o c h Traditions in Jubilees a n d Other S e c o n d - C e n t u r y Sources," in S B L S P 13 (1978), 229-51 (here 233-34); Milik, The Books of Enoch, 11; P. Grelot, " H e n o c h et ses Ecritures," RB 82 (1975): 481-500 (here 484-85). 23. Van Ruiten, "Literary Dependency," 90-93; M . A. Knibb, "Which Parts of 1 Enoch Were K n o w n to jubilees? A Note o n the Interpretation o f Jubilees 4.16-25," in Reading from Right to Left: Essays on the Hebrew Bible in Honour of David J. A. Clines, ed. C . E x u m a n d H . G . M . Williamson, J S O T S u p 373 (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 2 0 0 3 ) , 254-62.

43

John

S.

Bergsma

1. Different

calendrical

conflicts

are reflected in the two books. A B is e m ­

p h a t i c a b o u t the t r u t h of the 3 6 4 - d a y c a l e n d a r ; h o w e v e r , it n e v e r i n v e i g h s against p r o p o n e n t s o f a l u n i - s o l a r or 3 6 5 - d a y a r r a n g e m e n t . I n s t e a d , A B ' s o p ­ p o n e n t s are t h o s e w h o fail to c o u n t the f o u r e p a g o m e n a l d a y s : " T h e r e are p e o p l e w h o err c o n c e r n i n g t h e m [the four e p a g o m e n a l d a y s ] b y n o t c o u n t ­ ing t h e m in the r e c k o n i n g of the y e a r : . . . the y e a r is c o m p l e t e d in 364 d a y s " (1 E n 8 2 : 5 - 6 ) .

2 4

A p p a r e n t l y , then, A B reflects a conflict w i t h a d v o c a t e s o f a

3 6 0 - d a y calendar. T h e c a l e n d r i c a l o p p o n e n t s of Jubilees are quite different. J u b 6:36-38 w a r n s a b o u t those w h o " e x a m i n e the m o o n diligently, b e c a u s e it [the m o o n ] w i l l c o r r u p t the times." T h o s e w h o consult the m o o n w i l l " n o t m a k e a y e a r only three h u n d r e d a n d s i x t y - f o u r d a y s " ( 6 : 3 8 ) . T h e m o d i f i e r " o n l y " i m p l i e s that the o p p o s i n g m o o n - c o n s u l t o r s lengthen

the y e a r . So s u r e l y w h a t is b e i n g

o p p o s e d is a l u n i - s o l a r c a l e n d a r p e r i o d i c a l l y intercalated to c o m p l y w i t h the actual (365.25) solar cycle. 2. From the perspective est in superannual

calendrical

of Jubilees,

AB shows disappointingly

units (i.e., weeks of years and jubilee

little

inter­

cycles). To

b e p r e c i s e , A B d o e s n o t m e n t i o n t h e m at all. O f c o u r s e , this d o e s n o t p r e v e n t the a u t h o r o f Jubilees f r o m a t t r i b u t i n g the k n o w l e d g e o f w e e k s a n d j u b i l e e s to E n o c h : he " r e c o u n t e d the w e e k s of the j u b i l e e s , a n d m a d e k n o w n to t h e m the days of the y e a r s , a n d set in o r d e r the m o n t h s a n d r e c o u n t e d the S a b ­ b a t h s of the y e a r s " ( J u b 4 : 1 8 ) .

2 5

It is p o s s i b l e that this is an a l l u s i o n to the

A p o c a l y p s e of W e e k s ( A W ) , w h i c h m e n t i o n s " w e e k s " i n s t e a d o f " S a b b a t h s " or "jubilees." H o w e v e r , in A W the " w e e k s " are l o n g e p o c h s o f v a r i a b l e l e n g t h , n o t strict s e v e n - y e a r s e q u e n c e s as they are in J u b i l e e s . M o r e o v e r , A W does n o t p l a c e its " w e e k s " w i t h i n a j u b i l a r y cycle ( " w e e k s of j u b i l e e s " ) , n o r d o e s it discuss " S a b b a t h s of years." T h e r e f o r e , it d o e s n o t s e e m likely that J u b 4:18 reflects the c o n t e n t s o f AW. I n s t e a d , this m a y well be the a u t h o r ' s creative a n d e x p a n s i v e r e d e s c r i p t i o n of the c o n t e n t s o f E n o c h ' s a s t r o n o m i c a l b o o k . A l t h o u g h it is to b e d o u b t e d that the A r a m a i c f o r m o f A B k n o w n to the a u ­ t h o r of Jubilees i n c l u d e d a n y t h i n g a b o u t w e e k s of y e a r s a n d j u b i l e e s , n o n e ­ theless the a u t h o r of Jubilees is c o n f i d e n t that this i n f o r m a t i o n w a s r e v e a l e d to E n o c h a n d he w r o t e it d o w n in texts that are n o l o n g e r extant.

24. F r o m N e u g e b a u e r , "Astronomical"

Chapters,

31.

25. Translation f r o m R. H . C h a r l e s , The Book of Jubilees A . & C . Black, 1 9 0 2 ) .

44

or the Little Genesis ( L o n d o n :

The Relationship

between

Jubilees

and the Early

Enochic

Books

GENERALIZATIONS

To s u m m a r i z e , it is a l m o s t certain that the a u t h o r of Jubilees k n e w a n d en­ d o r s e d A B . H o w e v e r , A B m a d e only a l i m i t e d i m p a c t o n the t h e o l o g y or n a r r a ­ tive of Jubilees. T h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t elements Jubilees shares w i t h A B are its calendar a n d its general perspective o n the c o s m o s , but Jubilees is not enton

depend­

A B for these c o n c e p t s . Rather, b o t h texts reflect a stream of s e c o n d t e m ­

ple J e w i s h t h o u g h t . Different calendrical debates are at the heart of the two texts. W h a t the a u t h o r of Jubilees w o u l d have liked to find m o s t in A B — n a m e l y , the e n u m e r a t i o n of d i v i s i o n s of w e e k s of years a n d jubilees — s i m p l y w a s n ' t there. N o n e t h e l e s s , Jubilees freely attributes this k n o w l e d g e to E n o c h . A g e n e r a l contrast b e t w e e n "scientific" a n d " c u l t i c - l i t u r g i c a l " interests m a y b e o b s e r v e d . A B is fascinated w i t h the " s c i e n c e " of the h e a v e n l y b o d i e s in p a r t , at least, for its o w n sake, w h e r e a s Jubilees sees n o p o i n t in a s t r o n o m i c a l k n o w l e d g e except as it is r e l e v a n t to establishing the p r o p e r cultic calendar.

III. The Relationship of the Book of the Watchers and Jubilees T h e d i s c u s s i o n o f the d a t i n g o f B W a n d Jubilees a b o v e d e m o n s t r a t e d that it is h i g h l y u n l i k e l y that B W p o s t d a t e s J u b i l e e s . To a r g u e such w o u l d r e q u i r e that o n e either ( l ) take the l o w e s t p o s s i b l e date ( o n p a l e o g r a p h i c g r o u n d s ) a

of the oldest m a n u s c r i p t of B W f r o m Q u m r a n ( 4 Q E n ) , i.e., circa 150 B . C . E . , a n d t h e n a s s u m e that B W w a s c o m p o s e d v e r y s h o r t l y after J u b i l e e s ; o r (2) a r g u e t h a t Jubilees is p r e - M a c c a b e a n , w h i c h is u n l i k e l y in light of J u b 3 8 : 1 4 , w h i c h c o u l d h a r d l y h a v e b e e n p e n n e d b e f o r e the M a c c a b e a n c o n q u e s t of E d o m u n d e r J o h n H y r c a n u s (163 B . C . E . ) . T h e r e f o r e , o n e is justified in a s s u m i n g that Jubilees p o s t d a t e s B W , a n d the a p p a r e n t literary r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n the t w o w o r k s m a y b e interpreted in t e r m s of J u b i l e e s ' d e p e n d e n c e o n B W . T h e influence of B W o n Jubilees is m o s t a p p a r e n t in four p a s s a g e s , d e ­ s c r i b e d in the f o l l o w i n g t a b l e :

26

Passage

Synopsis of Contents

4:16

T h e Watchers descend d u r i n g the days of Jared, to teach m a n k i n d a n d " p e r f o r m j u d g m e n t a n d r i g h t e o u s n e s s " on earth.

4:21-26

S u m m a r i z e s the contents of BW, w i t h m o d i f i c a t i o n : T h e angels

26. T h e unexcelled s t u d y o f the d e p e n d e n c e o f Jubilees o n E n o c h i c m a t e r i a l r e m a i n s V a n d e r K a m , " E n o c h T r a d i t i o n s in Jubilees a n d O t h e r S e c o n d - C e n t u r y Sources."

45

John

S.

Bergsma s h o w e d E n o c h e v e r y t h i n g in heaven a n d earth. H e w i t n e s s e d against the Watchers, w a s taken to E d e n , a n d n o w resides there, recording a n d c o n d e m n i n g the sins of h u m a n i t y until the day of judgment.

5:1-11

Paraphrases 1 E n 6 : 1 - 1 0 : 1 6 , w i t h m o d i f i c a t i o n . T h e Watchers de­ scend to earth a n d take w i v e s . V i o l e n t giants are b o r n , w h o o p ­ press a n d c o r r u p t b o t h m a n a n d beast. G o d p u n i s h e s the Watchers b y b i n d i n g t h e m u n d e r the earth, a n d the giants are c o n d e m n e d to kill o n e another by the s w o r d .

7:21-8:4

N o a h recaps Jub 5 : 1 - 1 1 (cf. 1 E n 6 : 1 - 1 0 : 1 6 ) , the b a s i c Watchers story, while w a r n i n g his sons a b o u t the d e m o n s w h o will m i s l e a d t h e m (cf. 1 E n 1 5 : 8 - 1 6 : 3 ) . C a i n a n son of A r p a c h s h a d finds a stone e n g r a v e d w i t h the Watchers' astrological lore, a n d sins b y c o p y i n g it a n d (apparently) l e a r n i n g to practice astrological d i v i n a t i o n . T h i s is the o r i g i n of the a s t r o l o g y of Cainan's descendants the C h a l d e a n s (cf. Jub 1 1 : 8 ) , w h i c h A b r a m eventually rejects (cf. Jub 12:16-18).

10:1-17

C o n c e r n i n g the evil spirits that c a m e forth from the b o d i e s of the slain giants (cf. 1 E n 15:8—16:3), N o a h pleads to G o d that they b e b o u n d in the u n d e r w o r l d . T h e prince of the d e m o n s , M a s t e m a , pleads to the contrary, that he be allowed s o m e servants to do his will on earth. G o d b i n d s nine-tenths of the d e m o n s but leaves one-tenth to c a r r y out M a s t e m a ' s will.

11:4-6

M a s t e m a a n d the r e m n a n t of d e m o n s left to h i m are m e n t i o n e d as contributing to the evil activities of N o a h ' s descendants.

After c h a p . 1 1 the Watchers fade f r o m v i e w in the n a r r a t i v e of J u b i l e e s , a n d w i t h t h e m the influence o f B W , w i t h the e x c e p t i o n o f a b r i e f m e n t i o n of the giants in J u b 2 0 : 5 . Jubilees accepts a n d e n d o r s e s the b a s i c n a r r a t i v e of B W . T h e t w o w o r k s can b e said to a g r e e on the f o l l o w i n g p o i n t s : •

T h e "Sons of G o d " of G e n 6:1-4

a

r

e

fallen angels ( W a t c h e r s ) w h o c o p u ­

lated w i t h w o m e n a n d p r o d u c e d g i a n t s . • •

T h e W a t c h e r s t a u g h t illicit m y s t e r i e s to m a n k i n d . T h e giants are at least p a r t i a l l y r e s p o n s i b l e for the v i o l e n c e a n d evil that b r o u g h t G o d ' s j u d g m e n t in the f o r m of the f l o o d .

•

E n o c h r e b u k e d and issued j u d g m e n t against the W a t c h e r s a n d their offspring.

•

T h e W a t c h e r s w e r e b o u n d u n d e r the earth, the giants k i l l e d e a c h o t h e r off, b u t d e m o n s c a m e forth f r o m the d e a d g i a n t s .

46

The

Relationship

between

Jubilees

and the Early

Enochic

•

T h e s e d e m o n s c o n t i n u e to p l a g u e m a n k i n d even after the f l o o d .

•

E n o c h w a s e v e n t u a l l y s h o w n the secrets of the entire c o s m o s .

Books

D e s p i t e the fact that J u b i l e e s e m b r a c e s these b a s i c p r e m i s e s , its a u t h o r i n t r o ­ duces a l a r g e n u m b e r of m o d i f i c a t i o n s to the plot o f the Watchers story, sev­ eral o f w h i c h are t h e o l o g i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t .

27

A . Reed and L. Stuckenbruck

h a v e b o t h m a d e insightful a n d t h o r o u g h c o n t r i b u t i o n s to the analysis of the differences b e t w e e n B W a n d J u b i l e e s .

28

H e r e , w e m u s t be c o n t e n t o n l y to

m e n t i o n the m o s t i m p o r t a n t differences: l. The motive for the descent

of the Watchers

is different.

J u b 4 : 1 5 notes

that the W a t c h e r s " c a m e d o w n " in the days of the ancestor J a r e d (TV, "to d e ­ s c e n d " ) i n o r d e r "to teach the s o n s of m a n , a n d p e r f o r m j u d g m e n t a n d r i g h ­ t e o u s n e s s o n earth." T h i s is in stark c o n t r a s t to B W , in w h i c h t w o h u n d r e d angels b i n d each other b y a s o l e m n oath while still in heaven to d e s c e n d to the earth a n d take h u m a n w i v e s (1 E n 6 : 1 - 8 ) . After t a k i n g the w o m e n , the a n ­ gels b e g i n to teach secret arts a n d sciences (1 E n 7 - 8 ) , b u t this w a s n o t a m o ­ t i v a t i o n for their initial descent. T h u s , in Jubilees the W a t c h e r s c o m e d o w n initially for a n o b l e p u r p o s e (to teach a n d j u d g e ) a n d o n l y later c o r r u p t t h e m s e l v e s . In B W , h o w e v e r , the W a t c h e r s s u c c u m b to the t e m p t a t i o n

of f e m i n i n e a t t r a c t i o n w h i l e still in

h e a v e n , s w e a r an o a t h to c o m m i t a g r i e v o u s sin, c a r r y o u t the act, a n d then a g g r a v a t e the s i t u a t i o n b y c o m m u n i c a t i n g illicit k n o w l e d g e . O n e c a n o n l y speculate o n the r e a s o n Jubilees m o d i f i e s the n a r r a t i v e of B W .

2 9

P e r h a p s the B W a c c o u n t s e e m e d t h e o l o g i c a l l y p r o b l e m a t i c : H o w

c o u l d angels fall p r e y to sensual t e m p t a t i o n a n d deliberately, s e l f - c o n s c i o u s l y o r g a n i z e t h e m s e l v e s into a r e b e l l i o u s b o d y w h i l e still in h e a v e n a n d p r e s u m ­ ably in or n e a r the p r e s e n c e of G o d himself? In Jubilees it is o n l y after the W a t c h e r s leave h e a v e n to c a r r y o u t their task on earth that — a p p a r e n t l y after 27. F o r s o m e discussion of the differences, see I. F r o h l i c h , " E n o c h a n d Jubilees," in Enoch

and

Qumran

Origins,

1 4 1 - 4 7 . Unsurprisingly, V a n d e r K a m has also e x a m i n e d the

Watcher story in b o t h B W a n d Jubilees. See V a n d e r K a m , " T h e A n g e l S t o r y in the B o o k o f J u ­ bilees," in Pseudepigraphic Dead

Sea Scrolls,

Perspectives:

The Apocrypha

and Pseudepigrapha

in Light of the

ed. E . G . C h a z o n and M . Stone, S T D J 31 (Leiden: Brill, 1999), 1 5 1 - 7 0 .

V a n d e r K a m ' s analysis p r o c e e d s in a different fashion from m i n e , but o u r c o n c l u s i o n s are similar. 28. See A . Y. R e e d , " E n o c h i c a n d M o s a i c Traditions in Jubilees: T h e E v i d e n c e o f A n g e l o l o g y a n d D e m o n o l o g y " (paper read at F o u r t h E n o c h S e m i n a r , C a m a l d o l i , Italy, 8 - 1 2 July 2 0 0 7 ) ; a n d L . T. S t u c k e n b r u c k , " T h e B o o k o f Jubilees a n d the O r i g i n of Evil," in this vol­ ume. 29. V a n d e r K a m discusses the issue in " E n o c h Traditions in Jubilees," 244.

47

John

S.

Bergsma

the p a s s a g e of s o m e years (cf. J u b 5 : 1 ) — they s u c c u m b to t e m p t a t i o n . P e r ­ h a p s the e x t e n d e d t i m e of service a w a y f r o m the h e a v e n l y r e a l m m a k e s their defection m o r e p l a u s i b l e . G o d , too, is n o t i m p l i c a t e d in their sin to the s a m e d e g r e e . In the B W n a r r a t i v e o n e is t e m p t e d to ask, " C o u l d G o d n o t h a v e o p ­ p o s e d or p r e v e n t e d the W a t c h e r s ' p a c t - o f - s i n taking place in the h e a v e n l y r e a l m ? " In contrast, Jubilees assures its readers that G o d sent the Watchers to the earth for g o o d p u r p o s e s , a n d there o n earth — far f r o m h i m — t h e y e v e n ­ tually defected. 2. Enoch against

never

appeals

on behalf

of the Watchers,

he only

witnesses

them. T h e s e c t i o n d e s c r i b i n g E n o c h ' s i n t e r c e s s i o n o n b e h a l f of the

W a t c h e r s (1 E n 1 2 - 1 6 ) is e l i d e d i n J u b i l e e s , n o d o u b t b e c a u s e the w h o l e sce­ n a r i o p r e s e n t s m u l t i p l e t h e o l o g i c a l difficulties. First, it is i n a p p r o p r i a t e for a h u m a n b e i n g to i n t e r c e d e o n b e h a l f of a n g e l i c b e i n g s i n g e n e r a l , as B W it­ self a c k n o w l e d g e s (1 E n 1 5 : 2 ) . S e c o n d , s i n c e the W a t c h e r s ' sin w a s so s e r i o u s , w h y d i d E n o c h a g r e e to take u p their case b e f o r e the A l m i g h t y ? It calls i n t o q u e s t i o n his g o o d m o r a l j u d g m e n t . J u b i l e e s a v o i d s these difficulties b y p r e ­ s e n t i n g E n o c h o n l y in the role of w i t n e s s i n g against the W a t c h e r s a n d their iniquity. 3. Mankind victims

bears more responsibility

of the Watchers,

giants,

for evil; they are not merely

and demons.

passive

In 1 E n 7 - 9 the W a t c h e r s a n d

their g i a n t offspring o p p r e s s the p o p u l a t i o n of the e a r t h w i t h v i o l e n c e , a n d their i n n o c e n t v i c t i m s b r i n g their case before G o d p o s t h u m o u s l y (1 E n 9 : 1 0 ) . G o d ' s r e s p o n s e is, in p a r t , to s e n d the f l o o d (1 E n 1 0 : 2 ) . T h e r e is a s e r i o u s dif­ ficulty w i t h this s c e n a r i o : If the Watchers a n d their o f f s p r i n g are r e s p o n s i b l e for o p p r e s s i n g the h u m a n p o p u l a t i o n o f the earth, w h y does G o d r e s p o n d b y w i p i n g o u t the h u m a n p o p u l a t i o n in the flood? It w o u l d s e e m that G o d is p u n i s h i n g the v i c t i m s . T h u s , in B W the sins of the W a t c h e r s d o n o t p r o v i d e a m o r a l j u s t i f i c a t i o n for the f l o o d . I n d e e d , B W d o e s not stress the c a u s a l rela­ t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n the W a t c h e r s ' sins a n d the f l o o d . T h e f l o o d is n o t n a r r a t e d (as it is in J u b i l e e s ) , a n d 1 E n 10:2 is the o n l y m e n t i o n of either N o a h or the f l o o d in the w h o l e of B W . J u b i l e e s is m o r e faithful to the i n t e n t i o n o f the text o f G e n 6 : 1 - 4 . It n e v e r d i r e c t l y states — even if it i m p l i e s — that the W a t c h e r s m i s l e d m a n ­ k i n d or caused

m a n k i n d to b e e v i l . I n s t e a d , in p a s s a g e s s u c h as J u b 5:2-3

a n d 7 : 2 2 - 2 5 , m a n k i n d ( a n d the a n i m a l s ) are d e s c r i b e d as c o r r u p t i n g

them­

selves. T h e r e f o r e , the f l o o d a p p e a r s as m o r a l l y j u s t i f i e d . It w i p e s o u t all h u ­ m a n a n d a n i m a l life, b e c a u s e b o t h m a n t h e m s e l v e s o v e r to g r e a t e v i l —

a n d a n i m a l s h a d freely g i v e n

e v e n if e n t i c e d

and assisted by

the

W a t c h e r s . T h i s is o n e o f s e v e r a l differences b e t w e e n J u b i l e e s a n d B W in

48

The

Relationship

between

Jubilees

and the Early

Enochic

Books

w h i c h J u b i l e e s e m e r g e s w i t h a tighter, m o r e l o g i c a l l y a n d t h e o l o g i c a l l y c o ­ herent n a r r a t i v e .

3 0

4. The postflood BW

activity

of demons

is portrayed

as much more limited.

In

evil spirits e m e r g e f r o m the b o d i e s o f the slain giants a n d are free to

w r e a k h a v o c in h u m a n s o c i e t y i n d e f i n i t e l y (1 E n 1 5 : 8 - 1 2 ) . In J u b 1 0 : 1 - 1 4 the o r i g i n o f the d e m o n s a p p e a r s to be the s a m e , b u t N o a h p e t i t i o n s G o d to b i n d t h e m , w i t h the result that n i n e - t e n t h s are b o u n d in the place o f j u d g ­ m e n t . O n e - t e n t h is left to c a r r y o u t the w i l l of the S a t a n - f i g u r e M a s t e m a o n earth. T h u s the r a n g e o f influence of the d e m o n s in Jubilees is c o n s i d e r a b l y m o r e l i m i t e d t h a n in B W .

3 1

T h i s is p a r t of a consistent tendenz

of Jubilees v i s - a - v i s B W to e m p h a ­

size h u m a n r a t h e r t h a n d e m o n i c r e s p o n s i b i l i t y for the i n i q u i t i e s of h u m a n society. A p o i n t e d e x a m p l e of this is J u b 1 1 : 1 - 6 , w h i c h d e s c r i b e s the d e g r a d a ­ tion of h u m a n s o c i e t y after the death o f N o a h . R e s p o n s i b i l i t y for the c o r r u p ­ tion is a t t r i b u t e d to N o a h ' s d e s c e n d a n t s in w . 2 - 4 . A t the e n d o f v. 4 it is fi­ n a l l y m e n t i o n e d that " c r u e l spirits assisted t h e m a n d led t h e m a s t r a y , "

32

and

v. 5 m e n t i o n s the activity of M a s t e m a . T h e entire p a s s a g e illustrates J u b i l e e s ' a p p r o a c h to the p r o b l e m of h u m a n sin: h u m a n b e i n g s give t h e m s e l v e s o v e r to sin a n d so are r e s p o n s i b l e for it, a l t h o u g h there is n o d o u b t that evil spirits e n c o u r a g e the p r o c e s s . After J u b 1 1 there is v e r y little m e n t i o n of evil spirits b e i n g r e s p o n s i b l e for h u m a n sin in the rest of J u b i l e e s .

33

As a c o r o l l a r y to this d i s c u s s i o n , it m a y be p o i n t e d out that Jubilees does n o t s h o w the c o n c e r n for the n a m e s a n d identities of the evil W a t c h e r s that B W d o e s . B W e n u m e r a t e s their n a m e s a n d roles in v a r i o u s places (cf. 1 E n 6:7; 8 : 1 - 4 ) ,

a

n

d places at their h e a d at t i m e s o n e A z a z ' e l (or A s a e l ) , a n d

at other t i m e s a certain S e m y a z a (or S h e m i h a z a ) . T h e o n l y n a m e d d e m o n in Jubilees, b y contrast, is their leader M a s t e m a , a S a t a n figure w h o c o m b i n e s the roles of A z a z ' e l a n d S e m y a z a . In this w a y Jubilees resolves the a w k w a r d c o n f u s i o n in 1 E n o c h c o n c e r n i n g the i d e n t i t y o f the h e a d d e m o n .

30. F o r further discussion o n the o r i g i n o f evil in B W a n d Jubilees, see G . B o r g o n o v o , "Jubilees' R a p p r o c h e m e n t b e t w e e n H e n o c h i c a n d M o s a i c Tradition," Hen 3 1 , n o . 1 ( 2 0 0 9 ) . B o r g o n o v o agrees that Jubilees stresses h u m a n responsibility for evil, in agreement with the biblical text a n d in contrast to the E n o c h i c literature. 31. See R e e d , " A n g e l o l o g y a n d D e m o n o l o g y , " 4-7. 32. Translated b y O. S. W i n t e r m u t e , OTP, 2:78. 33. M a s t e m a is b e h i n d the testing of A b r a h a m at the A k e d a h , b u t he is u n a b l e to lead A b r a h a m into sin (Jub 1 8 : 9 - 1 2 ) . H e attempts to slay M o s e s (48:1-4) a n d is a m o t i v a t i n g force b e h i n d the E g y p t i a n s ' p e r s e c u t i o n s of Israel (48:9-19).

49

John

S.

Bergsma

GENERALIZATIONS

Jubilees accepts the b a s i c s t o r y of B W b u t a d a p t s it rather freely, r e s h a p i n g it to a v o i d several p e r c e i v e d t h e o l o g i c a l p r o b l e m s — the o r i g i n of evil in h e a v e n , the l a c k of a m o r a l j u s t i f i c a t i o n for the f l o o d , E n o c h ' s t r o u b l e s o m e a d v o c a c y for evil angels, a n d o t h e r s . B W s h o w s its i n f l u e n c e o n Jubilees in the n a r r a t i v e e x t e n d i n g f r o m J u b 4 (the life o f E n o c h ) to J u b 1 1 (the lives o f N o a h ' s i m m e d i a t e d e s c e n d a n t s ) . T h e r e a f t e r the p r e s e n c e of B W is scarcely felt in J u b i l e e s ' n a r r a t i v e .

34

B W is m o r e an e x p l a n a t i o n for h u m a n evil in g e n e r a l t h a n an e x p l a n a ­ tion of the c a u s e of the f l o o d . B W traces the evils of h u m a n i t y to the evil spirits of the g i a n t s a n d u l t i m a t e l y to their fathers, the W a t c h e r s , w h o s i n n e d a l r e a d y in h e a v e n . T h u s the h e a v e n l y r e a l m is the u l t i m a t e s o u r c e of e a r t h l y evil. J u b i l e e s , o n the other h a n d , w h i l e a c c e p t i n g in p r i n c i p l e B W ' s c o n t e n ­ t i o n that s o m e o f societal evil has a s u p e r n a t u r a l o r i g i n (i.e., fallen a n g e l s ) , n o n e t h e l e s s e m p h a s i z e s h u m a n r e s p o n s i b i l i t y to a m u c h greater d e g r e e . H u ­ m a n s give t h e m s e l v e s to evil, a l t h o u g h evil spirits c o n t r i b u t e to the p r o c e s s . In this w a y evil in Jubilees finds its o r i g i n in, a n d is l i m i t e d to, the e a r t h l y realm.

3 5

A s w a s n o t e d a b o v e , in Jubilees the W a t c h e r s fall after t h e y h a v e al­

r e a d y d e s c e n d e d to the earth. Finally, if a few b r o a d o b s e r v a t i o n s m a y be p e r m i t t e d , the results o f this s t u d y p o i n t to the fact t h a t the influence of the early E n o c h i c m a t e r i a l in Jubilees is l i m i t e d , for the m o s t p a r t , to the n a r r a t i v e s of Jubilees f r o m E n o c h to N o a h , r o u g h l y c o r r e s p o n d i n g to G e n 5 - 9 . E n o c h ' s i m p o r t a n c e to Jubilees does not, in o u r o p i n i o n , c o m e close to r i v a l i n g the i m p o r t a n c e of M o s e s .

3 6

34. L . A r c a r i ( " T h e M y t h of the Watchers a n d the P r o b l e m of I n t e r m a r r i a g e in J u b i ­ lees," Hen 3 1 , n o . 1 [2009]) u n d e r s t a n d s the Watcher m y t h to function as a p a r a d i g m a t i c n a r ­ rative g r o u n d i n g J u b i l e e s ' l a t e r c o n d e m n a t i o n o f e x o g a m o u s m a r r i a g e s . W h i l e this h y p o t h e ­ sis is possible, I a m not p e r s u a d e d by it. T h e a u t h o r o f Jubilees d r a w s no parallel b e t w e e n the W a t c h e r s ' m a r r i a g e s a n d those b e t w e e n Jews a n d Gentiles in Jub 3 0 : 1 - 2 4 o r elsewhere. In­ stead, he g r o u n d s his p r o h i b i t i o n s against m i s c e g e n a t i o n in the M o s a i c tradition. 35. V a n d e r K a m also m a k e s this p o i n t , in " E n o c h T r a d i t i o n s in Jubilees," 244. 36. In this respect I differ f r o m H . S. K v a n v i g , "Jubilees — b e t w e e n E n o c h a n d M o s e s : A N a r r a t i v e Reading," JSJ 35, n o . 3 ( 2 0 0 4 ) : 2 4 3 - 6 1 . In m y o p i n i o n , the role o f E n o c h a n d the influence o f the E n o c h i c literature are not so great on Jubilees that the plot of the

book

s h o u l d b e characterized as " m e d i a t i n g " between the two figures. M o s e s a n d his t r a d i t i o n clearly d o m i n a t e . O f course, the 3 6 4 - d a y c a l e n d a r of the E n o c h i c tradition is i m p o r t a n t to Jubilees. B u t the c a l e n d a r is v a l u e d b e c a u s e it facilitates s c r u p u l o u s o b s e r v a n c e of M o s a i c festivals, n o t b e c a u s e o f its E n o c h i c a u t h o r i t y p e r se. O n the s u p e r i o r i t y o f M o s e s to E n o c h , see D. M . Peters, " N o a h T r a d i t i o n s in Jubilees: E v i d e n c e for the Struggle b e t w e e n E n o c h i c a n d M o s a i c Authority," Hen 3 1 , no. 1 ( 2 0 0 9 ) .

50

The Relationship

between Jubilees and the Early Enochic

Books

T h e concerns and "theologies" of Jubilees and the early E n o c h i c literature are actually significantly different in several respects. T h e differences con­ cerning the origin of evil have been mentioned. W e m a y add that Jubilees lacks the "scientific" interest of A B , takes a different attitude toward technol­ ogy than B W , and shows a concern for the Mosaic law and cultic-liturgical observance quite lacking in either A B or B W .

5i

Daniel and Jubilees Matthias Heme

The purpose of this paper is to compare two Jewish writings from the sec­ ond temple period, Daniel and Jubilees. T h e two books are linked by several affinities. First, both texts were written roughly at the same time, possibly within a decade of each other. T h e b o o k of Daniel reached its final form dur­ ing the years 1 6 7 - 1 6 4 B . C . E . , the time of the persecutions under A n t i ­ ochus IV. T h e date of composition of the book of Jubilees is more elusive, 1

though a date in the 160s or 150s B . C . E . seems most likely. Second, Daniel and Jubilees are both in their o w n w a y products of the Maccabean revolt. In Daniel the references to Antiochus are unambiguous and explicit. In Jubilees the connection with the Maccabean uprising is more tentative and has to be inferred. T h e prohibition of nakedness (Jub 3:30-31; cf. 1 M a c e 1:14; 2 Mace 4:12) and the "prediction" of a time of apostasy during which the Israelites will no longer practice circumcision (Jub 15:33-34; cf. 1 M a c e 1:15) are often quoted in this regard, though these passages m a y simply refer to controver­ sial issues that arose during the advance of Hellenism in general. Third, both Daniel and Jubilees are of a considerable apocalyptic bent. Since neither Daniel nor Moses, Jubilees' protagonist, is ever taken into heaven, both texts belong, in terms of form criticism, to the group of "historical" apocalypses.

1. J. C. VanderKam, The Book of Jubilees, Guides to Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha 9 (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 2001), 17-21; similarly G. W. E . Nickelsburg, Jewish Lit­ erature between the Bible and the Mishnah, 2nd ed. (Minneapolis: Fortress, 2006), opts for a date "in the early 160s" (73).

52

Daniel

and

Jubilees

T h e A n t i o c h e a n p e r s e c u t i o n p r o v i d e d the a p o c a l y p t i c a l l y m i n d e d w i t h a fresh m o m e n t u m that led to the c o m p o s i t i o n o f a s m a l l yet diverse g r o u p of a p o c a l y p s e s of w h i c h D a n i e l a n d Jubilees are p a r t . A n d f o u r t h , a little o v e r half a c e n t u r y after their c o m p o s i t i o n , b o t h D a n i e l a n d Jubilees f o u n d their w a y into the l i b r a r y of the Q u m r a n c o m m u n i t y . T h e u n u s u a l l y h i g h n u m b e r of m a n u s c r i p t s d i s c o v e r e d of b o t h texts — n o fewer t h a n eight of D a n i e l a n d 2

fifteen of J u b i l e e s — m a y b e seen as an i n d i c a t i o n that the b o o k s w e r e h e l d in h i g h e s t e e m , a n d p o s s i b l y even c o n s i d e r e d " a u t h o r i t a t i v e " ( C D 1 6 : 3 - 4 ) , b y the m e m b e r s of the c o m m u n i t y . It is easy to see h o w D a n i e l ' s a p o c a l y p t i c o u t l o o k a n d J u b i l e e s ' priestly a n d l e g a l c o n c e r n s w o u l d h a v e b e e n h i g h l y p o p u l a r at Q u m r a n . M o r e o v e r , the Q u m r a n l i b r a r y y i e l d e d a n u m b e r of v a r ­ ied w r i t i n g s that closely r e s e m b l e b o t h b o o k s , the s o - c a l l e d P s e u d o - D a n i e l ( 4 Q 2 4 3 - 2 4 5 ) a n d the P s e u d o - J u b i l e e s texts ( 4 Q 2 2 5 - 2 2 7 ) . T h e s e h i t h e r t o u n ­ k n o w n c o m p o s i t i o n s s h o w that there existed a v e r y active c o n t i n u o u s t r a d i ­ tion of c o m p o s i n g stories a n d v i s i o n s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h D a n i e l a n d J u b i l e e s .

3

W h i l e the t w o b o o k s h a v e o b v i o u s affinities, s o m e of w h i c h c a n b e e x ­ p l a i n e d b y the c o m m o n M a c c a b e a n m i l i e u f r o m w h i c h they s t e m , in m a n y o t h e r r e s p e c t s t h e y d i v e r g e f r o m o n e another. T h e i r literary s t r u c t u r e s are entirely different, for e x a m p l e , as are their t h e o l o g i c a l foci. M o s t strikingly, their r e c e p t i o n h i s t o r y b e y o n d Q u m r a n t o o k v e r y different r o u t e s . D a n i e l b e c a m e p a r t o f the Western b i b l i c a l c a n o n s , w h e r e a s J u b i l e e s n e v e r d i d . M y c o m p a r i s o n of these two w r i t i n g s r e v o l v e s a r o u n d three aspects that also p r o v i d e the s t r u c t u r e for this essay: the a u t h o r s ' a p o c a l y p t i c e x p e c ­ tations, their use of b i b l i c a l exegesis, a n d their c h r o n o l o g i c a l , specifically their h e p t a d i c , c a l c u l a t i o n s . A n y o n e of these t o p i c s d e s e r v e s a full-length s t u d y of its o w n . W h a t I h o p e to s h o w in this b r i e f c o m p a r a t i v e essay, h o w ­ ever, is that w h i l e all three aspects are of c e n t r a l i m p o r t a n c e to b o t h D a n i e l a n d J u b i l e e s , they fulfill rather different f u n c t i o n s in the t w o b o o k s . T h e is2. T h e numbers are taken from J. C . V a n d e r K a m a n d P. W. Flint, The Meaning of the Dead Sea Scrolls (New York: Harper San Francisco, 2 0 0 2 ) , 149 a n d 197. 3. Scholarly literature o n this matter has grown exponentially in recent years; o n Jubi­ lees, see J. C . V a n d e r K a m , " T h e jubilees Fragments from Q u m r a n C a v e 4," in The Madrid Qumran Congress: Proceedings of the International Congress on the Dead Sea Scrolls, Madrid, 18-21 March, 1991, ed. J. Trebolle Barrera a n d L. Vegas Montaner, S T D J 11 (Brill: Leiden, 1992), 635-48; C . Hempel, " T h e Place o f the B o o k o f Jubilees at Q u m r a n a n d Beyond," in The Dead Sea Scrolls in Their Historical Context, ed. T. H . L i m (Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 2 0 0 0 ) , 187-96. O n Daniel, see P. W. Flint, " T h e Daniel Tradition at Q u m r a n , " a n d L. T. Stuckenbruck, "Daniel a n d Early E n o c h Traditions in the D e a d Sea Scrolls," b o t h in The Book of Daniel: Composition and Reception, ed. J. J. Collins a n d P. W. Flint, 2 vols., V T S u p 83 (Leiden: Brill, 2 0 0 1 ) , 2:329-67 a n d 368-86; E . Ulrich, "Daniel, B o o k of," in EDSS, 170-74.

53

Matthias

Henze

sues are f u n d a m e n t a l l y the s a m e — a p o c a l y p t i c i s m , exegesis, a n d the c a l e n ­ dar — b u t t h e y are d e v e l o p e d to different ends entirely. In other w o r d s , D a n ­ iel a n d Jubilees stem from closely related t h o u g h t w o r l d s w h o s e c o n c e r n s largely o v e r l a p , b u t as literary c o m p o s i t i o n s the t w o b o o k s f u n c t i o n differ­ ently. To o b s e r v e that there are certain " p a r a l l e l s " b e t w e e n the two texts, then, is n o t m e r e l y to p o i n t to a literary p h e n o m e n o n . Instead, the affinities s p e a k to the fluidity, p e r m e a b i l i t y , a n d e x c h a n g e o f t h o u g h t s in g e n e r a l that 4

are c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of the literature of o u r p e r i o d . A s w e are g a i n i n g a better u n d e r s t a n d i n g of the c o n t o u r s o f the J e w i s h c o m m u n i t i e s of the s e c o n d c e n ­ t u r y B . C . E . a n d o f the diverse literatures t h e y p r o d u c e d , a c o m p a r a t i v e r e a d ­ i n g o f the extant w r i t i n g s m a y help to cast into s h a r p e r relief the distinct s t r a n d s of early J e w i s h t h o u g h t a n d their e v o l u t i o n over t i m e .

Apocalyptic Expectations T h e a p o c a l y p t i c n a t u r e of the b o o k of D a n i e l h a r d l y n e e d s

elaboration,

t h o u g h it m a y be helpful to r e v i e w s o m e o f its c o n s t i t u t i v e e l e m e n t s . I do n o t w i s h to suggest that D a n i e l is the m o d e l of all a p o c a l y p s e s , as if the c a n o n i c a l w r i t i n g s e n j o y e d s o m e p r i v i l e g e d status a n d s h o u l d s e r v e as t e m p l a t e s for the g e n r e , n o r do I c l a i m that the a p o c a l y p t i c g e n r e c a n be d e s c r i b e d a d e ­ quately b y m e r e l y listing its p r o m i n e n t features. B u t it is useful to ask w h a t it is that m a k e s D a n i e l an a p o c a l y p s e . T h e b o o k of D a n i e l is p a r t o f a n c i e n t Israel's r e v e l a t o r y literature. Its t r u t h c l a i m s are n o t b a s e d o n t h e o l o g i c a l r e a s o n i n g b u t d e r i v e f r o m an a p ­ p e a l to r e v e l a t i o n . W h a t is r e c o r d e d here is w h a t D a n i e l r e c e i v e d directly f r o m G o d in the f o r m o f three v i s i o n a r y r e v e l a t i o n s ( c h a p s . 7; 8; a n d 1 0 - 1 2 ) . D a n i e l d u l y r e c o r d e d e v e r y t h i n g he l e a r n e d a n d kept it sealed "until the t i m e of the e n d " ( D a n 1 2 : 4 , 9 ) . T h e b i b l i c a l b o o k r e a d i l y falls into t w o h a l v e s , the n a r r a t i v e f r a m e that consists of a c o l l e c t i o n of b i o g r a p h i c a l n a r r a t i v e s

about

D a n i e l a n d his three c o m p a n i o n s in the first h a l f ( c h a p s . 1 - 6 ) , a n d the v i ­ 5

s i o n s related by D a n i e l i n the latter h a l f ( c h a p s . 7 - 1 2 ) . T h e r e are n o e s c h a t o l o g i c a l s p e c u l a t i o n s in the first p a r t of the b o o k , n o r do the D a n i e l i c c o u r t tales r e s e m b l e in a n y w a y the t e s t a m e n t a r y g e n r e so p r o m i n e n t in r e v e l a t o r y 4. O n the issue o f " p a r a - m a n i a , " see R. Kraft, " P a r a - m a n i a : B e s i d e , Before, a n d B e ­ y o n d Bible Studies," JBL 126 (2007): 5-27. 5. See the helpful collection J. J. C o l l i n s a n d P. W. Flint, eds., The Book of Daniel: position

and Reception,

Kratz, " T h e V i s i o n s of Daniel," 1 : 9 1 - 1 3 1 .

54

Com­

2 vols., V T S u p 83 (Leiden: Brill, 2 0 0 1 ) , especially the article b y R . G .

Daniel

and

Jubilees

literature. R a t h e r , the p u r p o s e of the tales is to i n t r o d u c e D a n i e l a n d to es­ tablish his credentials as a w o r t h y r e c i p i e n t of the a p o c a l y p t i c l o r e . T h e r e v e ­ lations that f o r m the core of the a p o c a l y p t i c s e c t i o n of the b o o k ( c h a p s . 7— 12) are a l l e g o r i c a l d r e a m v i s i o n s , i.e., r e v i e w s of h i s t o r y in the f o r m of ex eventu

p r o p h e c i e s . It is i m p o r t a n t to n o t e that the events p o r t r a y e d here are

s i m u l t a n e o u s a n d n o t s e q u e n t i a l . In other w o r d s , the v i s i o n s d o n o t p r o g r e s s c h r o n o l o g i c a l l y f r o m o n e h i s t o r i c a l e v e n t to the n e x t , b u t e a c h v i s i o n r o u g h l y c o v e r s the s a m e e v e n t s , c u l m i n a t i n g in the A n t i o c h e a n d e s e c r a t i o n of the t e m p l e a n d the p e r s e c u t i o n o f the Jews d u r i n g the y e a r s 1 6 7 - 1 6 4 B . C . E . T h e S e l e u c i d r u l e r A n t i o c h u s I V E p i p h a n e s is the "little h o r n . . . that s p o k e a r r o g a n t l y " ( D a n 7:8) w h o "set u p the a b o m i n a t i o n that m a k e s d e s o l a t e " in the t e m p l e in J e r u s a l e m ( D a n 1 1 : 3 1 ; i 2 : n ) . The

6

fact that w e c a n d e t e r m i n e w i t h s o m e c o n f i d e n c e the h i s t o r i c a l

crisis that t r i g g e r e d the c o m p o s i t i o n of D a n i e l ' s v i s i o n s p r o v i d e s us w i t h i m ­ p o r t a n t clues for w h y the b i b l i c a l b o o k w a s w r i t t e n in the first p l a c e . Its f u n c t i o n is t w o f o l d , to e x p l a i n the c u r r e n t m i s e r y a n d to c o n s o l e the p e r s e ­ c u t e d . To e x p l a i n the c u r r e n t conflict the a u t h o r a d o p t s a v i e w o f the w o r l d that is f o u n d w i d e l y in a p o c a l y p t i c literature. T h i s v i e w of reality is p r e d i ­ cated o n a n e l a b o r a t e c o n s t r u a l of the h e a v e n l y w o r l d . E a r t h l y a n d h e a v e n l y reality stand in stark c o n t r a s t to each other, a n d events o n earth are the d i ­ rect reflection o f w h a t is h a p p e n i n g in h e a v e n . T h e angelic d i s c o u r s e in 1 0 : 1 8 - 1 1 : 1 illustrates this well. T h e r e D a n i e l learns o f a c o s m i c conflict a m o n g the h e a v e n l y forces c u r r e n t l y b e i n g w a g e d in h e a v e n . T h e p r i n c e of the P e r ­ sian k i n g d o m a n d the p r i n c e of G r e e c e are in c o m b a t w i t h M i c h a e l , the g u a r d i a n a n g e l o f Israel, a n d w i t h the a n o n y m o u s i n t e r p r e t i n g a n g e l w h o is s p e a k i n g to D a n i e l , p r e s u m a b l y G a b r i e l . T h e clash b e t w e e n A n t i o c h u s a n d the Jews is m e r e l y the pendant

to the c u r r e n t h e a v e n l y c o n f r o n t a t i o n .

T h e s e c o n d f u n c t i o n o f the b o o k of D a n i e l is to c o n s o l e . T h e first v i ­ s i o n in c h a p . 7 is of c e n t r a l i m p o r t a n c e in this r e s p e c t . D a n i e l w i t n e s s e s a h e a v e n l y c o u r t r o o m scene in w h i c h G o d strips A n t i o c h u s o f his p o w e r , p u t s 7

h i m to death, a n d h a n d s d o m i n i o n over to the " S o n of M a n " ( 7 : 1 3 - 1 4 ) . S i m i ­ larly, 1 1 : 4 1 - 4 5 " p r e d i c t s " the i m m i n e n t death of the S e l e u c i d v i l l a i n . S u c h a p r o m i s e of the j u d g m e n t a n d even death of Israel's p e r s e c u t o r m u s t h a v e r e s o n a t e d s t r o n g l y w i t h the p e r s e c u t e d . T h e p r o m i s e o f j u d g m e n t is e x 6. G . W. E . N i c k e l s b u r g , "Apocalyptic Texts," in EDSS,

7. J. J. C o l l i n s , A Commentary

on the Book of Daniel,

29-35.

Hermeneia (Minneapolis: For­

tress, 1993), 277-94; o n the religio-historical b a c k g r o u n d o f the S o n o f M a n , n o w see

G . Boccaccini, ed., Enoch and the Messiah Son of Man:

Revisiting

the Book of Parables

(Grand

Rapids: Eerdmans, 2007).

55

Matthias

Henze

t e n d e d even further in the s e c o n d j u d g m e n t scene in the b o o k , the final s e c ­ tion that l o o k s to the e s c h a t o l o g i c a l r e s u r r e c t i o n of the d e a d ( 1 2 : 1 - 3 ) . T h o s e w h o are f o u n d " i n s c r i b e d in the b o o k " w i l l be r e s c u e d . T h i s is f o l l o w e d b y the r e s u r r e c t i o n of the d e a d , for s o m e to eternal life, a n d for others to ever­ lasting a b h o r r e n c e . T h e g r e a t d a y of r e c k o n i n g carries a s p e c i a l p r o m i s e for o n e g r o u p that is specifically s i n g l e d out, "the w i s e " ( 1 2 : 3 ) . T h e y are n o t identified b e y o n d their t h e o l o g i c a l epithet. N o t all of t h e m w i l l s u r v i v e the p e r s e c u t i o n s , a n d so their r e w a r d is the p r o m i s e of r e s u r r e c t i o n , w h e n t h e y will " s h i n e like the b r i g h t n e s s of the sky . . . like the stars for ever a n d e v e r " (12: ).

8

3

T h e b o o k of Jubilees shares several of the features that r e n d e r D a n i e l an a p o c a l y p s e , b u t these e l e m e n t s are less d o m i n a n t , w h i l e other,

non-

a p o c a l y p t i c e l e m e n t s that p l a y o n l y a m i n o r role i n D a n i e l are m u c h m o r e p r e v a l e n t in J u b i l e e s , m o s t n o t a b l y the b o o k ' s d e v e l o p e d interest in h a l a k a h . Since the d a w n o f its m o d e r n r e a d i n g , s c h o l a r s h a v e d i s c u s s e d w h e t h e r or 9

n o t Jubilees can r i g h t l y be called an a p o c a l y p s e . T h e l a c k of an a g r e e m e n t r e g a r d i n g J u b i l e e s ' genre a n d the v a r i e t y o f different p r o p o s a l s that h a v e b e e n a d v a n c e d are i n d i c a t i v e o f the c o m p o s i t e literary c h a r a c t e r of the b o o k . T h e issue is further c o m p l i c a t e d b y the fact that o v e r t l y a p o c a l y p t i c t h o u g h t is e x p r e s s e d o n l y in a h a n d f u l of places in J u b i l e e s , m o s t p r o m i n e n t l y in 1 0

c h a p s . 1 a n d 2 3 . T h i s h a s led s o m e s c h o l a r s to p r o p o s e that the a p o c a l y p t i c p a s s a g e s are later a d d i t i o n s to the b o o k .

1 1

Such literary-critical decisions

b a s e d o n alleged " t e n s i o n s " are u n n e c e s s a r i l y s p e c u l a t i v e . It is true, h o w e v e r , 8. J . F. H o b b i n s , " R e s u r r e c t i o n in the D a n i e l T r a d i t i o n a n d O t h e r W r i t i n g s at Q u m r a n , " in The Book of Daniel, iel to Q u m r a n , " in Biblical

2:395-420; C . H e m p e l , "Maskil(im)

Traditions

in Transmission:

a n d Rabim: F r o m D a n ­

Essays in Honour

of Michael

A.

Knibb,

ed. C . H e m p e l and J. M . Lieu (Leiden: Brill, 2 0 0 6 ) , 133-56. 9. See the list o f scholars in A. L a n g e , " D i v i n a t o r i s c h e T r a u m e und A p o k a l y p t i k i m Jubilaenbuch," in Studies

in the Book

of Jubilees,

ed. M . A l b a n i , J. Frey, a n d A. L a n g e

( T u b i n g e n : M o h r Siebeck, 1997), 25-38; L a n g e himself c o n c l u d e s that " [ e j i n e Klassifikation des J u b i l a e n b u c h e s als a p o k a l y p t i s c h e Schrift i s t . . . a b z u l e h n e n " (35). J. J. C o l l i n s , The Apoc­ alyptic Imagination

( G r a n d R a p i d s : E e r d m a n s , 1 9 9 8 ) , 83, states d i p l o m a t i c a l l y that

"Jubilees

represents a b o r d e r l i n e case for the a p o c a l y p t i c genre." T h e discussion is a w e l c o m e re­ m i n d e r that genres are n o t absolute categories b u t m o d e r n abstractions that help us catego­ rize ancient literature. 10. G . L. D a v e n p o r t , The Eschatology

of the Book of Jubilees (Leiden: Brill, 1 9 7 1 ) , distin­

guishes between "passages intended to teach e s c h a t o l o g y " (1:4-29 a n d 2 3 : 1 4 - 3 1 ) a n d " n o n :

-

eschatological passages that contain significant eschatological e l e m e n t s " ( 1 : 1 - 5 ; 5 i i 9 > 8 : 1 0 15; 1 5 : 1 - 3 4 ; 1 6 : 1 - 9 ; 2 2 : 1 1 - 2 3 ; 24:8-33; 3 1 : 1 - 3 2 ; a n d 3 4 : 1 - 1 8 ) . 1 1 . See, for e x a m p l e , C . Berner, "50 Jubilees a n d B e y o n d ? S o m e O b s e r v a t i o n s o n the C h r o n o l o g i c a l Structure o f the B o o k o f Jubilees," Hen 3 1 , n o . 1 ( 2 0 0 9 ) .

56

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and

Jubilees

that a p o c a l y p t i c ideas r e p r e s e n t o n l y o n e aspect of J u b i l e e s ' t h o u g h t w o r l d , a n d so the c o m p o s i t i o n as a w h o l e s h o u l d n o t b e called an a p o c a l y p s e .

1 2

It m a y be helpful to b e g i n b y stating w h a t Jubilees does not i n c l u d e . T h e r e is n o r e v e l a t o r y v i s i o n in Jubilees that so often is the preferred m e ­ d i u m in a p o c a l y p s e s , n o r is there a h e a v e n l y j o u r n e y or a n y other f o r m of e p i p h a n y . S c h o l a r s w h o felt c o m p e l l e d to call Jubilees an a p o c a l y p s e e v i ­ dently did so n o t o n f o r m a l g r o u n d s b u t r a t h e r b e c a u s e o f the b o o k ' s o b v i ­ o u s affinity w i t h other a p o c a l y p s e s . T h e s t r o n g e s t case can be m a d e for J u b i ­ lees' s i m i l a r i t y to, a n d in s e v e r a l i n s t a n c e s d e p e n d e n c e u p o n , 1 E n o c h . T h e author

of J u b i l e e s w a s c l e a r l y f a m i l i a r w i t h the E n o c h i a n B o o k of the

W a t c h e r s a n d the A s t r o n o m i c a l B o o k . A f f i l i a t i o n s w i t h o t h e r p a r t s

of

1 E n o c h , p a r t i c u l a r l y w i t h the B o o k of D r e a m s , are e q u a l l y o b v i o u s . T h e first chapter of Jubilees i n t r o d u c e s the r e a d e r to s o m e k e y c o n c e p t s that w i l l be f o u n d a t i o n a l for the u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f the b o o k . O n e of t h e m is the s t o r y of h o w Jubilees w a s w r i t t e n . T h e r e w e learn that w h e n M o s e s as­ c e n d e d M o u n t S i n a i , he r e c e i v e d m u c h m o r e t h a n the T o r a h . G o d gave M o s e s a historical o v e r v i e w f r o m the b e g i n n i n g of t i m e to its c o n s u m m a t i o n , a s u r ­ v e y of "the d i v i s i o n s of all the times," a n d t h e n c o m m a n d e d M o s e s to w r i t e e v e r y t h i n g d o w n in a b o o k ( J u b 1:4). T h e c o m m a n d is r e p e a t e d at the e n d of c h a p . 1 and thus f o r m s an inclusio

for the b o o k ' s i n t r o d u c t i o n . " N o w y o u

w r i t e all these w o r d s w h i c h I tell y o u o n this m o u n t a i n : w h a t is first a n d w h a t is last a n d w h a t is to c o m e d u r i n g all the d i v i s i o n s o f t i m e w h i c h are in the l a w a n d w h i c h are in the t e s t i m o n y a n d in the w e e k s of their Jubilees

until eternity

— until the t i m e w h e n I d e s c e n d a n d live w i t h t h e m t h r o u g h o u t all the ages of eternity" ( 1 : 2 6 ) .

1 3

T h e passages aptly describe the e s c h a t o l o g i c a l h o r i z o n

w i t h i n w h i c h the b o o k w a n t s to be read. T h e events M o s e s is c o m m a n d e d to r e c o r d do n o t fall w i t h i n the b o u n d a r i e s of biblical history, let alone c a n they b e f o u n d in G e n e s i s a n d E x o d u s , the t w o b o o k s Jubilees p a r a p h r a s e s , but they cover all of history, "the w e e k s of their Jubilees

t h r o u g h o u t all the y e a r s of

eternity" ( p r o l o g u e ) . T h e b o o k o f Jubilees itself d o e s not s p a n all of h i s t o r y f r o m b e g i n n i n g to e n d but gives us o n l y an excerpt of w h a t w a s revealed to M o s e s on M o u n t S i n a i . B u t this in n o w a y c o m p r o m i s e s the claim that the b o o k w a n t s to be u n d e r s t o o d in a larger e s c h a t o l o g i c a l context.

1 2 . T h e verdict of M . Testuz, Les idees religieuses du Livre des Jubiles ( G e n e v a : E . D r o z , i 9 6 0 ) , still h o l d s true. "Ainsi, le Livre des Jubiles est u n o u v r a g e de genre c o m p o s i t e , qui tient a la fois d u l i v r e h i s t o r i q u e , de l ' o u v r a g e de l e g i s l a t i o n , d u livre c h r o n o l o g i q u e , de l ' a p o c a l y p s e et d u genre des testaments" (12; see also 1 6 5 - 7 7 ) . 13. A l l translations are taken from J. C . V a n d e r K a m , The Book of Jubilees,

C S C O 510-11

(Louvain: Peeters, 1989).

57

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Henze

T h e p a s s a g e is also telling in that it p r o v i d e s a fictitious a c c o u n t o f h o w Jubilees w a s c o m p o s e d . In the v e r s e f o l l o w i n g the e x c e r p t q u o t e d a b o v e , God

tells the a n g e l o f the p r e s e n c e to dictate to M o s e s the d i v i n e lore ( 1 : 2 7 ) .

H o w e v e r , f r o m 2:1 o n it is M o s e s w h o r e c o r d s w h a t the a n g e l r e a d s to h i m . In either case, the a u t h o r m a k e s the c l a i m that the b o o k as a w h o l e is a r e v e l a ­ tion that M o s e s received on M o u n t S i n a i . U n l i k e D a n i e l , M o s e s does n o t h a v e any v i s i o n s , b u t the m o d e of r e v e l a t i o n that led to the c o m p o s i t i o n o f the t w o b o o k s is the s a m e . In b o t h cases the r e v e l a t o r y a c c o u n t s a m o u n t to p o w e r f u l c l a i m s to authority. In the i n t r o d u c t o r y chapter of Jubilees G o d p r o m i s e s M o s e s t h a t G o d w i l l s h o w h i m all o f h u m a n history. T h e r e are s e v e r a l e s c h a t o l o g i c a l p a s s a g e s in the b o o k , the longest a n d m o s t explicit o f w h i c h is f o u n d in c h a p . 2 3 . T h e n o t i c e o f the death of A b r a h a m ( 2 3 : 1 - 8 ) p r o v i d e s the a u t h o r w i t h an o p p o r ­ t u n i t y to reflect on the life s p a n s o f h u m a n s , " f r o m n o w [i.e., the t i m e o f A b r a h a m ] until the great d a y o f j u d g m e n t " ( 2 3 : 1 1 ) . T h e p r o p h e c y that fol­ l o w s the a c c o u n t of A b r a h a m ' s death d e s c r i b e s h o w the ages o f i n d i v i d u a l s will initially b e d i m i n i s h e d as p a r t o f a d i v i n e p u n i s h m e n t until they reach a certain l o w d u r i n g a g e n e r a t i o n s i m p l y referred to as "the evil g e n e r a t i o n " (23:14) ,

1 4

T h e n t h a t g e n e r a t i o n ' s c h i l d r e n w i l l r e p e n t , a n d after m a n y t r i b u l a ­

t i o n s , h u m a n life s p a n s w i l l i n c r e a s e a g a i n until they reach close to o n e t h o u s a n d y e a r s ( 2 3 : 2 7 - 2 9 ) . L i k e the e s c h a t o l o g i c a l o u t l o o k at the e n d o f the b o o k of D a n i e l , the c h a p t e r c u l m i n a t e s in the p r o m i s e of the r e s u r r e c t i o n o f the d e a d , a p a s s a g e i m m e d i a t e l y r e m i n i s c e n t of D a n 1 2 . " T h e n the L o r d w i l l heal his s e r v a n t s . T h e y w i l l rise a n d see great p e a c e . H e w i l l e x p e l his ene­ m i e s . T h e r i g h t e o u s w i l l see ( t h i s ) , offer p r a i s e , a n d b e v e r y h a p p y forever a n d ever. T h e y w i l l see all their p u n i s h m e n t s a n d curses o n their e n e m i e s . T h e i r b o n e s w i l l rest in the earth a n d their spirits w i l l be v e r y h a p p y . T h e y w i l l k n o w that the L o r d is o n e w h o executes j u d g m e n t b u t s h o w s k i n d n e s s to h u n d r e d s a n d t h o u s a n d s a n d to all w h o love h i m " ( 2 3 : 3 0 - 3 1 ) . B o t h D a n 1 2 : 1 - 3 a n d J u b 2 3 : 3 0 - 3 1 d e s c r i b e an e s c h a t o l o g i c a l scene in w h i c h r e s u r r e c t i o n a n d j u d g m e n t are closely i n t e r t w i n e d (see also 1 E n 2 7 : 1 - 4 , w h i c h m a y w e l l h a v e s e r v e d as the Vorlage for b o t h ) . T h e text d o e s n o t n e c e s s a r i l y i m p l y that the r e s u r r e c t i o n is u n i v e r s a l a n d affects all w h o h a v e d i e d . It is certain, h o w e v e r , that n o t all w h o are r e s u r r e c t e d w i l l g a i n life eternal. B u i l t into the a c c o u n t in D a n 1 2 : 1 - 3 is the s p e c i a l p r o m i s e to "the w i s e " that t h e y w i l l be b r o u g h t to life a n d s h i n e like the stars. S i m i l a r l y in J u b 2 3 , "the r i g h t e o u s " — they are

14. J . Kugel, " T h e Jubilees

A p o c a l y p s e , " DSD 1 (1994): 322-37; s o m e scholars have

f o u n d here an allusion to the M a c c a b e a n p e r i o d .

58

Daniel

and

Jubilees

also called G o d ' s " s e r v a n t s " — will receive h e a l i n g , a n d in r e s p o n s e will offer their infinite p r a i s e to G o d . T h e i r e n e m i e s , o n the other h a n d , w i l l b e p u n ­ i s h e d a n d c u r s e d . S u c h d o u b l e j u d g m e n t is h a r d l y n e w . T h e o p p o s i t i o n of r i g h t e o u s a n d s i n n e r s is f o u n d t h r o u g h o u t b i b l i c a l literature, p a r t i c u l a r l y in s a p i e n t i a l texts a n d in the p s a l m s , y e t it is here p r o p e l l e d to an e s c h a t o l o g i c a l e x t r e m e a n d a p p l i e d to the last j u d g m e n t s c e n e . T h e b o o k o f Jubilees displays s e v e r a l traits that are clearly a p o c a l y p t i c . A s the i n t r o d u c t o r y c h a p t e r m a k e s clear, the a u t h o r of Jubilees w r i t e s w i t h a n e s c h a t o l o g i c a l c o n t e x t in m i n d , even t h o u g h the b o o k relates o n l y a s m a l l s e c t i o n thereof. H i s t o r y is h e a d i n g for an e s c h a t o l o g i c a l finale, m a r k e d b y G o d ' s i n t e r v e n t i o n , the r e s u r r e c t i o n of the d e a d , a n d j u d g m e n t day. It is also clear, h o w e v e r , that, w h i l e these e s c h a t o l o g i c a l c o n c e p t s delineate the i m a g i ­ n a t i v e f r a m e o f the b o o k , t h e y are n o t d e v e l o p e d in a n y detail. T h e y w e r e n o t t r i g g e r e d by, n o r do they f o c u s o n , a c o n c r e t e p e r c u s s i v e e v e n t s u c h as the A n t i o c h e a n p e r s e c u t i o n in the b o o k of D a n i e l . In D a n i e l , the a p o c a l y p s e is the l i t e r a r y r e s p o n s e to a specific h i s t o r i c a l crisis that in t u r n b e c o m e s the focal p o i n t o f the v i s i o n s ; in Jubilees a p o c a l y p t i c i s m is the m e n t a l h o r i z o n of the a u t h o r ' s i m a g i n a t i o n , n o t the literary m o l d of the b o o k .

Biblical Exegesis In c h a p . 9 of D a n i e l , w e find D a n i e l s t u d y i n g S c r i p t u r e . " I , D a n i e l , p e r c e i v e d in the b o o k s the n u m b e r of y e a r s that, a c c o r d i n g to the w o r d of the L o r d to the p r o p h e t J e r e m i a h , m u s t be fulfilled for the d e v a s t a t i o n o f J e r u s a l e m , n a m e l y , s e v e n t y y e a r s " ( D a n 9 : 2 ) . T h e reference is to J e r e m i a h ' s p r e d i c t i o n that B a b y l o n w o u l d fall after 70 y e a r s (Jer 2 5 : 1 1 - 1 2 ; cf. Jer 2 9 : 1 0 ) . T h e a u t h o r o f D a n i e l is w r i t i n g at a t i m e w h e n the t e m p l e w a s desecrated a n d J u d a i s m w a s u n d e r siege, a n d so the r e d e m p t i o n p r o m i s e d b y J e r e m i a h still s e e m e d to lie in the future, even t h o u g h the 70 y e a r s of J e r e m i a h h a d l o n g p a s s e d . To solve the o b v i o u s p r o b l e m , the a n g e l G a b r i e l reinterprets the 70 y e a r s to m e a n s e v e n t y w e e k s of y e a r s , or 490 y e a r s ( D a n 9 : 2 4 - 2 7 ) . T h e o f t - q u o t e d e p i s o d e has b e c o m e s o m e w h a t o f a locus classicus

in

s c h o l a r l y t r e a t m e n t s of i n n e r - b i b l i c a l exegesis, since it is o n e o f the f e w places in the B i b l e w h e r e a b i b l i c a l a u t h o r explicitly refers to an earlier b o o k a n d interprets it. T h e use of earlier p r o p h e c i e s in D a n i e l ' s r e v e l a t o r y v i s i o n s is m a d e explicit in D a n 9 — b u t it is i m p l i c i t t h r o u g h o u t the latter h a l f of the b o o k . N o other p a r t of the c a n o n has b e e n as f o r m a t i v e for the c o m p o s i t i o n of D a n i e l ' s a p o c a l y p t i c texts as the P r o p h e t s . T h e a u t h o r s p e a k s in the p r o -

59

Matthias

Henze

phetic i d i o m , u s i n g l a n g u a g e a n d speech f o r m s at h o m e in the P r o p h e t s . S o p e r v a s i v e is the u s e o f p r o p h e t i c p r o n o u n c e m e n t s that o n e m o d e r n

inter­

preter aptly d e s c r i b e d D a n 1 0 : 1 - 1 2 : 1 0 as "a catena o f p r o p h e t i c f r a g m e n t s . " T h r e e b r i e f e x a m p l e s suffice to m a k e the p o i n t .

1 6

15

D a n 1 1 : 3 6 predicts

the d o w n f a l l o f the S y r i a n ruler A n t i o c h u s . R i g h t after the section that d e ­ s c r i b e s the sacrileges in J e r u s a l e m a n d the d e s e c r a t i o n o f the t e m p l e ( D a n 1 1 : 2 9 - 3 5 ) , the a u t h o r goes o n to " p r e d i c t " that A n t i o c h u s ' s offensive b e h a v i o r w i l l c o n t i n u e for a w h i l e u n t i l he m e e t s his just p u n i s h m e n t , w h i c h , it t u r n s out, h a s already b e e n o r d a i n e d . " H e [ A n t i o c h u s ] shall p r o s p e r until the p e ­ r i o d o f w r a t h is c o m p l e t e d , for w h a t is d e t e r m i n e d shall b e d o n e ' nnirwa m x r u ' 3 a y t n ^ s - i s n . T h e k m a u a g e m a k e s clear that o u r a u t h o r T T '." V

T T

T T

- '

O

O

is referring to Isa 1 0 : 2 3 - 2 7 , a n oracle p r o m i s i n g the Israelites relief f r o m t h e A s s y r i a n s . T h e p r o m i s e s that "the L O R D G o d o f hosts w i l l m a k e a full e n d " (HSTnjIJ H^D ' 3 ; Isa 1 0 : 2 3 ) a n d that h i s " i n d i g n a t i o n w i l l c o m e to a n e n d " (DJ/T n"?31;Isa 1 0 : 2 5 ) are here c o m b i n e d a n d t r a n s f e r r e d . T h e p r o m i s e o f re­ lief f r o m

the A s s y r i a n s has t u r n e d into

a promise

of the demise of

Antiochus. S e c o n d , m u c h h a s b e e n m a d e o f "the w i s e " ( D ^ r w a n ) i n D a n i e l . T h e i r precise identity r e m a i n s o b s c u r e , t h o u g h w e learn that they educate others ( D a n 1 1 : 3 3 ) a n d " l e a d m a n y to r i g h t e o u s n e s s " ( D ' a ^ H ' p ' l S ? ; D a n 12:3) a n d hence w i l l receive a s p e c i a l r e w a r d i n the r e s u r r e c t i o n .

Modern

c o m m e n t a t o r s have l o n g o b s e r v e d that the w o r d i n g o f the p a s s a g e is b a s e d o n the fourth S e r v a n t S o n g i n Isa 5 2 : 1 3 - 5 3 : 1 2 .

1 7

T h e p a s s a g e s agree i n several

respects, b u t the v e r b a l o v e r l a p is especially striking i n Isa 5 3 : 1 1 , the c o n c l u ­ sion to the S o n g in w h i c h G o d p r o m i s e s that the S e r v a n t will b e v i n d i c a t e d : " T h e r i g h t e o u s o n e , m y s e r v a n t , shall m a k e m a n y r i g h t e o u s " ( p ' ? ? ,

1

,

n :n 7 t 3 3 7 ) .

1 8

15. M . Fishbane, Biblical Interpretation in Ancient Israel (New York: Oxford University Press, 1985), 516. 16. T h e first two examples are taken from M . A. Knibb, " ' Y o u Are Indeed Wiser T h a n Daniel': Reflections on the Character o f the B o o k o f Daniel," in The Book of Daniel in the Light of New Findings, ed. A . S. Van D e r Woude, B E T L 106 (Louvain: Leuven University Press, 1993), 399-411, a n d Knibb, " T h e B o o k of Daniel in Its Context," in The Book of Daniel, 1:16-35, w h o follows Fishbane, Biblical Interpretation, 487-99. 17. H . L. Ginsberg, "The Oldest Interpretation o f the Suffering Servant," V T 3 (1953): 400-404; G . W. E. Nickelsburg, Resurrection, Immortality, and Eternal Life in Intertestamental Judaism and Early Christianity: Expanded Edition, H T S 56 (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2006 [1972]), 38-41. 18. We are reminded that "the righteous" in Jub 23:30, a passage with obvious affini­ ties to D a n 1 2 : 1 - 3 , o called G o d ' s "servants," clearly an allusion to the Servant Song. a

60

r

e a l s

Daniel

and

T h i r d , w h i l e "the w i s e " will receive their p o s t m o r t e m

Jubilees

r e w a r d , the 1

(liXI^ ? niS^D"?

w i c k e d w i l l a w a k e n "to s h a m e a n d everlasting c o n t e m p t "

D a n 12:2 ). T h i s text, too, h a r k e n s b a c k to the p r o p h e t Isaiah, in this case to the final p r o s e oracle, w h i c h d e s c r i b e s a g r u e s o m e scene in w h i c h the priests go o u t a n d " l o o k at the d e a d b o d i e s of the p e o p l e w h o h a v e rebelled against m e . . . they shall b e an a b h o r r e n c e to all flesh" (Isa 6 6 : 2 4 ) . T h e w o r d for " a b h o r r e n c e " (TlNTl) o c c u r s o n l y in these t w o texts in the H e b r e w B i b l e , a n d in b o t h cases the s h a m e is t h o u g h t to be everlasting. D a n i e l here takes the e s c h a t o l o g i c a l passages in Isaiah to the next level, so that " T h i r d Isaiah reads like a d e s c r i p t i o n o f the t i m e of the w r i t i n g of D a n i e l . "

1 9

In a classic s t u d y o n the topic of i n n e r - b i b l i c a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , M i c h a e l F i s h b a n e has p r o v i d e d a t h o r o u g h prophecy.

20

a n a l y s i s of D a n i e l ' s reuse o f earlier

In his s e c t i o n titled " T h e M a n t o l o g i c a l E x e g e s i s o f O r a c l e s "

F i s h b a n e discusses a w e a l t h o f e x a m p l e s t a k e n f r o m D a n 9 - 1 2 in w h i c h the b i b l i c a l a u t h o r reuses b i b l i c a l p r o p h e c i e s . T h e a s s u m p t i o n is that b y the t i m e of D a n i e l , the precise m e a n i n g o f the a n c i e n t p r o p h e c i e s , m u c h like that of oracles, v i s i o n s , or o m e n s , w a s n o l o n g e r s e l f - e v i d e n t and h e n c e r e q u i r e d in­ t e r p r e t a t i o n . It c o u l d be that a p r o p h e c y w a s f o u n d to have failed o r that it r e m a i n e d unfulfilled or s i m p l y w a s in n e e d o f r e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . B e c a u s e o f this o r a c u l a r i z a t i o n of S c r i p t u r e , the w o r d of the p r o p h e t itself h a d b e c o m e the subject o f i n t e r p r e t a t i o n ; it h a d to be d e c o d e d a n d , in a sense, t r a n s l a t e d so that it c o u l d b e r e a p p l i e d to the c u r r e n t s i t u a t i o n . In s u p p o r t o f his a r g u ­ m e n t F i s h b a n e p r o d u c e d a significant n u m b e r of text e x a m p l e s f r o m D a n i e l for w h i c h he w a s able to trace their l i n g u i s t i c o r i g i n to the p r o p h e t i c c o r p u s . F i s h b a n e has revealed the full extent to w h i c h the a p o c a l y p t i c texts in D a n 9 - 1 2 are i n d e b t e d to b i b l i c a l p r o p h e c y . T h e r e is h a r d l y a verse here that is n o t a n c h o r e d in the p r o p h e t i c d i s c o u r s e . F i s h b a n e ' s m o d e l o f " m a n t o l o g i c a l exegesis" w o r k s for D a n 9 and its r e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of J e r e m i a h . I r e m a i n u n ­ c o n v i n c e d , h o w e v e r , that it w o r k s equally w e l l for the n u m e r o u s o t h e r p r o ­ phetic texts w e hear echoes of in D a n 9 - 1 2 . T h e r e is n o t h i n g in D a n i e l to sug­ gest that the p r o p h e t i c utterances

s e e m e d o b s c u r e a n d unintelligible, let

alone h a d b e c o m e the subject of i n t e r p r e t a t i o n like an oracle or an o m e n . In ,

,

D a n 9:2 the text stresses that D a n i e l " u n d e r s t o o d " ( r n 3 ^ N ' n

' J X ) the

w o r d s of J e r e m i a h . Similarly, the e x a m p l e s a d d u c e d b y F i s h b a n e h a r d l y sug­ gest that the texts in Isaiah c a u g h t D a n i e l ' s attention b e c a u s e of their o b s c u ­ rity. True, the angelus

interpres

19. Nickelsburg, Resurrection, 20. F i s h b a n e , Biblical

does assist D a n i e l with his u n d e r s t a n d i n g

to

34.

Interpretation,

474-524.

61

Matthias

Henze

solve the " c o g n i t i v e d i s s o n a n c e . "

21

B u t w h a t is o b s c u r e , d i s s o n a n t , a n d in ur­

gent n e e d of i n t e r p r e t a t i o n are n o t the w o r d s of the p r o p h e t s b u t the content of D a n i e l ' s v i s i o n s . It is m y c o n t e n t i o n , t h e n , that w h a t p r o m p t e d the a u t h o r o f D a n i e l to m a k e s u c h extensive use of the p r o p h e t i c texts w a s n o t their d i s s o n a n c e b u t —

quite to the c o n t r a r y ! — their c o n s o n a n c e w i t h the s i t u a t i o n at h a n d .

D a n i e l is f i r m l y r o o t e d in the p r o p h e t i c t r a d i t i o n .

22

T h e w i s e , for e x a m p l e ,

d i d n o t use the l a n g u a g e o f Isa 53 a n d a p p l y it to t h e m s e l v e s to fill an esoteric epithet o n c e a g a i n w i t h m e a n i n g . T h e e n o r m o u s r e c e p t i o n h i s t o r y of the S e r v a n t S o n g s t r o n g l y s u g g e s t s that a n c i e n t i n t e r p r e t e r s f o u n d n o t h i n g o b ­ s c u r e a b o u t it. R a t h e r , b y a d o p t i n g the i d e n t i t y o f the suffering s e r v a n t , the w i s e m a k e the p o w e r f u l s t a t e m e n t that their suffering has a v i c a r i o u s q u a l i t y a n d e v e n t u a l l y w i l l b e r e w a r d e d (Isa 5 3 : 1 2 ) . E v e n t h o u g h t h e y h a v e to suffer u n d e r A n t i o c h u s a n d s o m e o f t h e m are c e r t a i n to die, in the e n d t h e y w i l l b e vindicated and glorified. T h e h o p e for r e s u r r e c t i o n as e x p r e s s e d in D a n 1 2 : 1 - 3 is a n o t h e r case i n p o i n t . In a recent s t u d y o n the h i s t o r y of this J e w i s h d o c t r i n e , J o n L e v e n s o n a r g u e s forcefully that, e v e n t h o u g h the literal e x p e c t a t i o n o f the r e s u r r e c t i o n of the d e a d m a y h a v e b e e n a n e w c o n c e p t first i n t r o d u c e d in D a n 1 2 , the l a n ­ g u a g e a n d s y m b o l i s m b y w h i c h it is e x p r e s s e d h a d l o n g b e e n present a n d available in a n c i e n t I s r a e l . H i s c o m m e n t s are w o r t h q u o t i n g in full.

M o d e r n historians, researching the o r i g i n of the Jewish idea of resurrec­ tion, u n d e r s t a n d a b l y think of it as an i n n o v a t i o n a n d seek a situation of keen d i s c o n t i n u i t y in w h i c h it arose. T h i s is not necessarily w r o n g , b u t it does u n d e r e s t i m a t e the v e r b a l p a r t i c u l a r i t y a n d the textual character of its a p p e a r a n c e — p o i n t s of greater significance to the ancient Jewish culture itself. G i v e n the rich intertextual c o n n e c t i o n s and d e p e n d e n c e in w h i c h it is e n v e l o p e d , the r e s u r r e c t i o n of the d e a d in D a n 1 2 : 1 - 3 m a y have s e e m e d (at least to s o m e sectors) m u c h less i n n o v a t i v e than it does to those w h o , i g n o r i n g its linguistic e m b e d d i n g , think of it as an

idea.

M u c h is lost w h e n the r e s u r r e c t i o n of the d e a d is treated as a freefloating c o n c e p t w h o s e essence r e m a i n s constant n o matter w h a t the culture in w h i c h it appears or to w h i c h it m i g r a t e s .

23

21. Fishbane, Biblical Interpretation, 509 a n d 510. 22. O u r earliest sources clearly thought o f Daniel as a prophet (4QFlor ii 3; Matt 24:15; Josephus, Antw.2.4,7); see K . Koch, "Is Daniel Also a m o n g the Prophets?" Int39 (1985): 117-31. 23. J. D . Levenson, Resurrection and the Restoration of Israel: The Ultimate Victory of the God of Life ( N e w Haven: Yale University Press, 2006), 185.

62

Daniel

and

Jubilees

W h a t L e v e n s o n describes for the d o c t r i n e of r e s u r r e c t i o n h o l d s true for the reuse of p r o p h e t i c l a n g u a g e in D a n i e l in g e n e r a l . R e u s i n g p r o p h e t i c

pro­

n o u n c e m e n t s a n d r e a p p l y i n g t h e m to his o w n situation, the a u t h o r of D a n i e l s h o w s his i n d e b t e d n e s s to S c r i p t u r e a n d places his o w n w o r k s q u a r e l y in the p r o p h e t i c t r a d i t i o n , n o t b e c a u s e he f o u n d it o b s c u r e but b e c a u s e he f o u n d it c o n g e n i a l . T h e l a n g u a g e o f Isaiah a n d of the other p r o p h e t s w a s ideally suited to d e s c r i b e D a n i e l ' s r e v e l a t o r y e x p e r i e n c e s not least b e c a u s e of its rich escha­ t o l o g i c a l c o n n o t a t i o n s . In m a n y respects, the b o o k of D a n i e l a n d the a p o c a ­ lyptic ideas it e s p o u s e s f o r m the l o g i c a l e x t e n s i o n of biblical p r o p h e c y . B i b l i c a l exegesis is a k e y factor in the b o o k of Jubilees as w e l l , t h o u g h of a different s o r t a l t o g e t h e r .

24

T w o aspects in p a r t i c u l a r are relevant for o u r

p r e s e n t i n q u i r y , b o t h o f w h i c h u n d e r s c o r e the differences in the use o f the B i b l e in D a n i e l a n d J u b i l e e s . First, J u b i l e e s b e l o n g s to a sizable g r o u p of early J e w i s h texts that are c o n c e r n e d w i t h the p a t r i a r c h a l p e r i o d . T h e i r p u r p o s e is to p a r a p h r a s e a n d r e w o r k G e n e s i s - E x o d u s . T h e s e c o m p o s i t i o n s w e r e p a r t i c ­ u l a r l y p o p u l a r at Q u m r a n a n d w e r e f o u n d there in significant n u m b e r s . T h e key f i g u r e , in J u b i l e e s as in m a n y o f the o t h e r c o m p o s i t i o n s , is M o s e s .

2 5

By

c h o o s i n g M o s e s as the p s e u d o n y m o u s h e r o o f the b o o k , the a u t h o r of J u b i ­ lees carefully places his w o r k in a s t r e a m o f s e c o n d t e m p l e w r i t i n g s that are p a r t o f an o n g o i n g " M o s a i c d i s c o u r s e . "

26

T h i s is rather different f r o m the

b o o k o f D a n i e l . A n d s e c o n d , J u b i l e e s has a d e v e l o p e d interest in J e w i s h law. M u c h of the r e w r i t i n g of G e n e s i s - E x o d u s is m o t i v a t e d b y the a u t h o r ' s u r g e to solve a specific h a l a k i c p r o b l e m , h a v i n g to do, inter alia, w i t h the calendar, p a r t i c u l a r l y w i t h the S a b b a t h , a n d w i t h s e v e r a l p r i e s t l y a n d L e v i t i c a l m a t t e r s . T h e h a l a k i c p o r t i o n s of Jubilees can b e p r o f i t a b l y c o m p a r e d w i t h o t h e r J e w ­ ish, p a r t i c u l a r l y early r a b b i n i c , texts. In short, w h e r e a s m u c h o f the exegesis in D a n i e l serves a larger, e s c h a t o l o g i c a l p u r p o s e , the a u t h o r o f Jubilees is m o r e c o n c e r n e d w i t h s o l v i n g legal p r o b l e m s . H e r e , e s c h a t o l o g y is c o n s p i c u ­ o u s b y its a b s e n c e .

24. J. Endres, Biblical Interpretation in the Book of Jubilees, C B Q M S 18 (Washington, D.C.: Catholic Biblical Association, 1987); G . J. Brooke, "Exegetical Strategies in Jubilees 1 - 2 , " in Studies in the Book of Jubilees, 179-205; J. C . V a n d e r K a m , "The Scriptural Setting o f the B o o k o f Jubilees," DSD 13 (2006): 61-72. 25. G . J. Brooke, " ' T h e C a n o n within the C a n o n ' at Q u m r a n and in the N e w Testa­ ment," in The Scrolls and the Scriptures: Qumran Fifty Years After, ed. S. E. Porter a n d C . A. Evans (Sheffield: Sheffield A c a d e m i c Press, 1997), 242-66, a n d his "Genesis, C o m m e n t a r y on," in EDSS, 300-302; D . K. Falk, "Moses, Texts of," in EDSS, 577-81. 26. H . Najman, Seconding Sinai: The Development of Mosaic Discourse in Second Tem­ ple Judaism, JSJSup 77 (Leiden: Brill, 2 0 0 3 ) , 41-69.

63

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Henze

Heptadic Chronologies T h e b o o k o f D a n i e l s h o w s a clear a w a r e n e s s of things c h r o n o l o g i c a l . To c o n t e x t u a l i z e the events o f the b o o k in t e r m s of w o r l d h i s t o r y a n d to p r o v i d e a c o m p r e h e n s i v e t i m e f r a m e , the a u t h o r d e v i s e d his o w n

chronological

s c h e m e , the p e r i o d i z a t i o n of h i s t o r y into f o u r k i n g d o m s . T h e s u c c e s s i o n o f the f o u r w o r l d e m p i r e s is the m a i n t h e m e of c h a p s . 2 a n d 7, but it also u n d e r ­ lies the v i s i o n s in c h a p s . 8 a n d 1 1 . T h e c h r o n o l o g i c a l r e m a r k s f o u n d in the chapter h e a d i n g s , specifically in the s u p e r s c r i p t i o n s of the v i s i o n r e p o r t s ( D a n 1 : 1 ; 2 : 1 ; 7 : 1 ; 8:1; 9:1; a n d 1 0 : 1 , 4 ) , f o l l o w the s a m e m o d e l a n d p r o v i d e s p e ­ cific dates for specific e p i s o d e s . T h e f o u r - k i n g d o m s c h e m e is c o n c e r n e d ex­ clusively w i t h the e n d o f history, n o t w i t h its b e g i n n i n g , w h i c h is n e v e r c o n ­ s i d e r e d in D a n i e l . Its a i m , as is m a d e v e r y clear i n 7 : 1 - 8 , is n o t m e r e l y to d i v i d e h i s t o r y into four e q u a l p a r t s b u t to a r g u e that the ruler of the f o u r t h e m p i r e , w h o rules at the t i m e o f the a u t h o r , is s i g n i f i c a n t l y w o r s e t h a n a n y p r e v i o u s w o r l d ruler. T h e p r o m i s e that the ruthless t y r a n t w i l l s o o n b e s t r i p p e d of his p o w e r a n d d o m i n i o n w i l l b e h a n d e d o v e r to Israel ( D a n 7:27) gives D a n i e l ' s m e s s a g e an e s c h a t o l o g i c a l u r g e n c y . T h e f o u r - k i n g d o m m o d e l is n o t i n t e n d e d to f u n c t i o n as a full-fledged c a l e n d a r . I n s t e a d , it focuses at­ t e n t i o n o n the e n d - t i m e , w h i c h is t h o u g h t to b e i m m i n e n t . A c h r o n o l o g i c a l s y s t e m of a different sort is f o u n d in 9:24-27, D a n i e l ' s interpretation

of J e r e m i a h ' s p r o p h e c y a l r e a d y m e n t i o n e d a b o v e . H e r e the

a u t h o r d o e s n o t f o l l o w a q u a r t e r s y s t e m , but a h e p t a d i c s y s t e m . S i m i l a r c h r o ­ n o l o g i e s that m e a s u r e h i s t o r y o r p e r i o d s t h e r e o f in s a b b a t i c a l w e e k s a n d j u ­ bilees are f o u n d

in a n u m b e r

of texts w r i t t e n

around

the t i m e o f the

M a c c a b e a n revolt, i n c l u d i n g the E n o c h i c A p o c a l y p s e o f W e e k s , the A n i m a l A p o c a l y p s e , s e v e r a l texts f r o m Q u m r a n , a n d o f c o u r s e , b o t h D a n i e l a n d J u ­ bilees.

27

T h e roots of these c h r o n o l o g i e s are b i b l i c a l , r e a c h i n g b a c k to the

T o r a h . T h e m o s t explicit t r e a t m e n t of an a n c i e n t c a l e n d a r b a s e d on units o f seven y e a r s is f o u n d in L e v 25, w h i c h c o n t a i n s i n s t r u c t i o n s for the s a b b a t i c a l a n d the j u b i l e e y e a r s . T h e chapter b e g i n s b y calling for a rest for the l a n d ev­ ery s e v e n y e a r s (the s a b b a t i c a l y e a r ) a n d m o v e s o n to legislate that e v e r y fif­ tieth y e a r (the j u b i l e e y e a r ) all p r o p e r t y that h a d c h a n g e d h a n d s h a d to be r e t u r n e d to its o r i g i n a l o w n e r . A l s o , e v e r y H e b r e w w h o h a d s o l d h i m s e l f into

27. J. C . V a n d e r K a m , "Sabbatical Chronologies in the D e a d Sea Scrolls a n d Related Literature," in The Dead Sea Scrolls in Their Historical Context, 159-78; C . Berner, Jahre, Jahrwochen und Jubilaen. Heptadische Geschichtskonzeptionen im Antiken Judentum, B Z A W 363 (Berlin a n d N e w York: D e Gruyter, 2 0 0 6 ) .

64

Daniel

and

Jubilees

slavery w a s to b e released. It s e e m s likely that D a n i e l ' s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f Jere­ m i a h w a s i n f l u e n c e d b y L e v 2 5 . A c c o r d i n g to G a b r i e l ' s c a l c u l a t i o n , then, the t i m e f r o m the B a b y l o n i a n d e s t r u c t i o n of the first t e m p l e to the d e m i s e of A n t i o c h u s I V s p a n s s e v e n t y w e e k s of y e a r s , or ten j u b i l e e s , i.e., 490 y e a r s . T h e critical t h e m e s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h the j u b i l e e y e a r in L e v 25 — release, free­ d o m , r e n e w a l , r e t u r n , a n d r e s t o r a t i o n — all a s s u m e n e w s i g n i f i c a n c e in their e s c h a t o l o g i c a l c o n t e x t . T h e s i g n i f i c a n c e of D a n i e l ' s r e n d e r i n g of J e r e m i a h ' s p r o p h e c y does n o t lie in its c o n c r e t e c a l e n d r i c a l use but in its s y m b o l i c v a l u e a n d in the p o w e r f u l p r o m i s e that A n t i o c h u s ' s rule w i l l b e o v e r c o m e .

2 8

T h e c h r o n o l o g i c a l s y s t e m of J u b i l e e s has often b e e n a n a l y z e d , a n d there is n o p o i n t in r e h e a r s i n g the details a g a i n .

2 9

It suffices m e r e l y to h i g h ­

light s o m e o f its m a i n features a n d to c o m p a r e t h e m w i t h D a n i e l . A l r e a d y J u b i l e e s ' p r o l o g u e u n d e r s c o r e s the p r i m a r y i m p o r t a n c e the a u t h o r places o n the e x a c t c a l c u l a t i o n o f the b i b l i c a l events a c c o r d i n g to a s a b b a t i c a l calendar. T h e essential m e a s u r e m e n t s

o f t i m e are "years," " w e e k s , " a n d "jubilees."

T h e s e are m e n t i o n e d t h r o u g h o u t the b o o k a n d f o r m a c h r o n o l o g i c a l g r i d that is u n d e r l y i n g the w h o l e of the c o m p o s i t i o n . H o w d o e s this c o m p a r e w i t h the b o o k of D a n i e l ? I n D a n i e l h e p t a d i c c a l c u l a t i o n s are f o u n d o n l y in c h a p . 9, w h i l e the b o o k as a w h o l e is o r g a n i z e d a l o n g the lines o f the f o u r w o r l d e m p i r e s . A s a c o n s e q u e n c e , the j u b i l e e c h r o n o l o g y r e m a i n s s o m e w h a t s c h e m a t i c ; it is the p r i n c i p l e that m a t t e r s , n o t its exact c a l e n d r i c a l a p p l i c a b i l ­ ity. In J u b i l e e s , b y contrast, the s a b b a t i c a l c h r o n o l o g y is the m a i n o r g a n i z i n g p r i n c i p l e for the entire b o o k , as the p r o l o g u e a l r e a d y m a k e s clear. T h e b o o k seeks to d e m o n s t r a t e in s o m e detail h o w Israel's earliest h i s t o r y f o l l o w e d the h e p t a d i c c h r o n o l o g y . F o r b o t h a u t h o r s the h e p t a d i c c h r o n o l o g y w a s of ulti­ m a t e t h e o l o g i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e — b u t " t h e o l o g i c a l " here m e a n t

different

t h i n g s entirely. F o r the a u t h o r of D a n i e l , w h o l o o k e d to the future,

the

h e p t a d i c c a l c u l a t i o n w a s an ideal v e h i c l e to m a k e his a p o c a l y p t i c p r o m i s e that h i s t o r y is u n f o l d i n g a c c o r d i n g to a p r e o r d a i n e d d i v i n e p l a n a n d that the e s c h a t o l o g i c a l s a l v a t i o n w i l l b r i n g f r e e d o m a n d r e s t o r a t i o n as it w a s fore­ s h a d o w e d a l r e a d y in L e v 2 5 . F o r the a u t h o r of J u b i l e e s , w h o l o o k e d to the past, the c o n c e r n w a s w i t h Israel's earliest history. F o r h i m the s i g n i f i c a n c e of the h e p t a d i c c h r o n o l o g y w a s to p r o v e that the events o f G e n e s i s - E x o d u s w e r e all in c o m p l i a n c e w i t h the s a b b a t i c a l c a l e n d a r . In fact, it is n o t e w o r t h y

28. F i s h b a n e , Biblical

Interpretation,

482-89.

29. J. C . V a n d e r K a m , " D a s c h r o n o l o g i s c h e K o n z e p t des Jubiliienbuches," ZAW 107 (1995): 8 0 - 1 0 0 ; V a n d e r K a m , The Book of Jubilees,

9 4 - 1 0 0 . O n the calendar specifically, see

A . Jaubert, " L e calendrier des Jubiles et de la sect de Q u m r a n . Ses o r i g i n s bibliques," VT 3 (i953): 250-64.

65

Matthias

Henze

that none of the apocalyptic sections in Jubilees makes an explicit reference to the heptadic chronology that otherwise is so important to the author. Sabbatical measurements were crucial not for their eschatological signifi­ cance but as a w a y of calculating a precise chronology of the events narrated in Genesis-Exodus.

66

The Chronologies of the Apocalypse of Weeks and the Book of Jubilees James M. Scott

Both in w h o l e and in part the chronology in the A p o c a l y p s e of Weeks (1 E n 9 3 : 1 - 1 0 + 9 1 : 1 1 - 1 8 ) is obviously different from the one in the b o o k of Jubilees, and it w o u l d be easy therefore to assume that the two chronologies are inde­ pendent of one another.

1

T h e m a i n difference between the two works is

clear: although they contain sabbatical chronologies with strong affinities to Dan 9, w h i c h reinterprets the 70 years of Jerusalem's desolation (Jer 29:10) as seventy "weeks" of years, the respective chronological systems are quite dif­ ferent in their overall scope. W h e r e a s the A p o c a l y p s e of Weeks encompasses 2

all of h u m a n history within its ten "weeks," Jubilees heptadically periodizes only Genesis to E x o d u s , looking forward to the repossession of the land 4 0 years h e n c e .

3

V a n d e r K a m stresses that although Jubilees interprets the exo-

1. Translations o f the Apocalypse o f Weeks are from George W. E. Nickelsburg and J. C. VanderKam, trans., 1 Enoch: A New Translation Based on the Hermeneia Commentary

(Minne­

apolis: Fortress, 2 0 0 4 ) , 140-43. Translations o f the book o f Jubilees are from J. C. VanderKam, trans., The Book of Jubilees, C S C O 511, Scriptores Aethiopici 88 (Louvain: Peeters, 1989). 2. F o r a succinct s u m m a r y o f the Apocalypse o f Weeks, see J. J. Collins, "From P r o p h ­ ecy to Apocalypticism: The Expectation o f the End," in The Encyclopedia vol. 1, The Origins of Apocalypticism

of

Apocalypticism,

in Judaism and Christianity, ed. J. J. Collins (New York

and London: C o n t i n u u m , 2000), 129-61 (esp. 139-40). 3. F o r a survey o f Jubilees' chronological system, see J. C. VanderKam, The Book of Ju­ bilees, Guides to Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha 9 (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 2 0 0 1 ) , 94-96; VanderKam, "Studies in the Chronology o f the B o o k o f Jubilees," in From Rev­ elation to Canon:

Studies in the Hebrew

Bible

and Second

Temple Literature,

ed. J. C .

VanderKam, JSJSup 6 2 (Leiden: Brill, 2000), 522-44.

67

James

M.

Scott

dus a n d c o n q u e s t as j u b i l e a n events, " [ w j h e t h e r the a u t h o r m e a n t to i m p l y m o r e a b o u t the c h r o n o l o g y of the p o s t - c o n q u e s t p e r i o d cannot from

the

be

inferred

4.

text"

T h e r e are also significant differences in the c o n s t i t u e n t p a r t s of the t w o c h r o n o l o g i c a l s y s t e m s , i n c l u d i n g , for e x a m p l e , the h e p t a d i c u n i t s e m ­ 5

p l o y e d in each (i.e., " w e e k s " [— 490 y e a r s ? ] in the A p o c a l y p s e of W e e k s v e r ­ sus " j u b i l e e s " [ = 49 y e a r s ] , " w e e k s " [ = 7 y e a r s ] , a n d " y e a r s " in J u b i l e e s ) a n d — d e p e n d i n g o n the n u m e r i c a l v a l u e of the " w e e k s " in the A p o c a l y p s e o f W e e k s — the relative d a t i n g o f h i s t o r i c a l events in the t w o w r i t i n g s . F o r e x ­ a m p l e , w h e r e a s in the A p o c a l y p s e of Weeks the y e a r 2450 A . M . (i.e., the e n d of the "fifth w e e k " ) c o i n c i d e s w i t h the b u i l d i n g of the t e m p l e (1 E n 93:7), in Jubilees, the s a m e y e a r c o r r e s p o n d s to the c u l m i n a t i o n o f the

momentous

"jubilee of jubilees," the e n t r a n c e i n t o the l a n d that w o u l d take p l a c e 40 y e a r s after the r e v e l a t i o n to M o s e s o n M o u n t S i n a i in 2 4 1 0 A . M . (cf. J u b 48:1; 5 0 : 4 ) . D e s p i t e these difficulties, I h a v e a t t e m p t e d e l s e w h e r e to a r g u e that the c h r o n o l o g i c a l s y s t e m of the b o o k of Jubilees is i n d e e d i n f l u e n c e d b y the c h r o n o l o g y of the A p o c a l y p s e o f W e e k s , a n d that therefore the A p o c a l y p s e of W e e k s c a n b e u s e d c a u t i o u s l y to h e l p fill in s o m e o f the g a p s of the p o s t c o n q u e s t era that Jubilees m e n t i o n s but d o e s n o t e x p l i c i t l y p e r i o d i z e in 6

t e r m s o f its a w k w a r d s y s t e m of j u b i l e e s , w e e k s , a n d y e a r s . T h e tentative n a ­ t u r e of m y r e c o n s t r u c t i o n w a s clear to m e f r o m the outset, b u t it s e e m e d p l a u s i b l e in v i e w of several factors: ( 1 ) the s c h e m a t i c n a t u r e of the s a b b a t i c a l c h r o n o l o g i e s of w h i c h Jubilees is a p r i m e e x a m p l e ; (2) the s t i m u l a t i n g s u g ­ g e s t i o n of G e o r g e N i c k e l s b u r g a n d J a m e s C . V a n d e r K a m that J u b 4 : 1 8 - 1 9 , w h i c h deals w i t h the E n o c h i c o r i g i n of the b o o k ' s c h r o n o l o g y , a c t u a l l y al­ ludes to the A p o c a l y p s e of W e e k s ; (3) the c h r o n o l o g i c a l trajectories in the b o o k ; a n d (4) the m i r r o r i n g effect of the s e q u e n c e of events in J u b 23:8-31 w i t h earlier p a r t s of the b o o k . In the present p a p e r I w o u l d like to reinforce m y a r g u m e n t that the A p o c a l y p s e of Weeks m a y h a v e i n f l u e n c e d the c h r o ­ n o l o g y of the b o o k of J u b i l e e s .

4. V a n d e r K a m , The Book of Jubilees, 96, emphasis mine. 5. Cf. J. S. B e r g s m a , The Jubilee from Leviticus to Qumran: A History of Interpretation, V T S u p 115 (Leiden: Brill, 2007), 241. Even if it is argued that the "weeks" in the Apocalypse o f Weeks are of unequal length, it is still possible — and perhaps even probable — that Jubilees would have understood the Apocalypse's "weeks" as equal units o f time. 6. Cf. J. M . Scott, On Earth as in Heaven: The Restoration of Sacred Time and Sacred Space in the B o o k o f Jubilees, J S J S u p 91 (Leiden: Brill, 2005). T h e following deliberations are based largely o n this book, which also constituted the point of departure in m y original con­ ference paper.

68

The Chronologies

of the Apocalypse

of Weeks and the Book of

Jubilees

I. The Apocalypse of Weeks and the Book of Jubilees as Apocalypses T h e p o s s i b i l i t y that the A p o c a l y p s e of Weeks influenced the b o o k of Jubilees b e g i n s w i t h the r e c o g n i t i o n that b o t h w o r k s are a p o c a l y p s e s . A n a p o c a l y p s e is "a genre of r e v e l a t o r y literature w i t h a n a r r a t i v e f r a m e w o r k , in w h i c h a rev­ elation is m e d i a t e d b y an o t h e r w o r l d l y b e i n g to a h u m a n recipient, d i s c l o s i n g a t r a n s c e n d e n t reality w h i c h is b o t h t e m p o r a l , insofar as it e n v i s a g e s e s c h a t o ­ l o g i c a l s a l v a t i o n , a n d spatial i n s o f a r as it i n v o l v e s another,

supernatural

7

w o r l d . " T h e r e is n o d o u b t that the A p o c a l y p s e of Weeks is an a p o c a l y p s e , b u t m o r e needs to be said a b o u t Jubilees, since c h a p s , l a n d 23 are the o n l y parts of the b o o k that are generally r e g a r d e d as fitting the d e s c r i p t i o n of an a p o c a ­ l y p s e , c o n t a i n i n g s p e c i a l revelations to M o s e s t h r o u g h

angelic m e d i a t i o n 2

:

2

f r o m the t e s t i m o n y i n s c r i b e d o n the h e a v e n l y tablets (cf. 1:26-27; 3 3 ) I h a v e a r g u e d that these t w o c h a p t e r s are so t h o r o u g h l y

integrated

w i t h i n the c h r o n o l o g i c a l s t r u c t u r e a n d m e s s a g e of the b o o k that it is artifi­ cial to isolate t h e m as s e p a r a t e a p o c a l y p s e s . T h e a p o c a l y p s e in the first c h a p ­ ter sets the stage for the rest o f the b o o k , a n d the final chapter recalls that setting, p r o v i d i n g c l o s u r e for the w h o l e b o o k ( 5 0 : 2 ) . H e n c e , the w h o l e of J u ­ bilees s h o u l d b e seen as o n e u n i f i e d a p o c a l y p s e , albeit a r e v e l a t i o n that in­ cludes, as p a r t a n d p a r c e l of its f u n d a m e n t a l f a b r i c , a c o p i o u s a m o u n t of h a l a k i c m a t e r i a l a n d q u a s i - h i s t o r i c a l n a r r a t i v e . I n d e e d , if o n e of the m a i n p u r p o s e s o f the b o o k w a s to teach the p r o p e r o b s e r v a n c e o f h a l a k a h f r o m r e w o r k e d p r i m e v a l a n d p a t r i a r c h a l n a r r a t i v e s , t h e n s p e c i a l r e v e l a t i o n of the n a r r a t e d events w a s a b s o l u t e l y essential to l e n d d i v i n e a u t h o r i t y to the a u ­ thor's i n t e r p r e t i v e m o v e s . In asserting the literary u n i t y of J u b i l e e s , I a m , of c o u r s e , a s s u m i n g the final f o r m of the b o o k m o r e or less as w e n o w h a v e it. A l t h o u g h there h a v e b e e n recent a t t e m p t s to r e c o n s t r u c t the c o m p o s i t i o n a l h i s t o r y of the b o o k ,

8

7. T h i s is the w i d e l y accepted definition o f the literary genre " a p o c a l y p s e " in J. J. C o l ­ lins, " I n t r o d u c t i o n : T o w a r d s the M o r p h o l o g y o f a G e n r e , " in Apocalypse:

Morphology

of a

Genre, ed. J. J. C o l l i n s , S e m e i a 14 ( M i s s o u l a : Scholars Press, 1 9 7 9 ) , 1-20 (9). A l t h o u g h the def­ inition o f an " a p o c a l y p s e " is admittedly m o d e r n and s o m e w h a t arbitrary, it still serves the useful p u r p o s e of g r o u p i n g texts that exhibit a coherent and recurring pattern of features constituted by the interrelated elements o f f o r m , content, a n d function. T h e discussion of the literary genre " a p o c a l y p s e " should n o t be a b a n d o n e d in favor of other k i n d s o f f o r m a l c o m p a r i s o n s between texts (e.g., Jubilees a n d w i s d o m literature). It is not a matter of "either-or" b u t o f "both-and." 8. Cf. C . Berner, Jahre, Jahrwochen

und Jubilaen.

Heptadische

Geschichtskonzeptionen

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m o s t s c h o l a r s h a v e v i e w e d Jubilees as a literary unity. T h i s is n o t to d e n y that the b o o k c o n t a i n s m a n y a n o m a l i e s . A s V a n d e r K a m a c k n o w l e d g e s , there are in fact a n u m b e r of m i s t a k e s or i n c o n s i s t e n c i e s in the b o o k , b u t "all of t h e m are e x p l i c a b l e in s i m p l e r t e r m s t h a n a s s u m i n g s u n d r y e d i t i o n s of the b o o k . "

9

Superficially, Jubilees is a r e w o r k i n g of G e n l to E x o d 24 (or even to chap. 3 2 ) ,

1 0

a n d , as s h o w n b y the b e g i n n i n g a n d the e n d of the b o o k , the set­

ting of the b o o k is p o r t r a y e d as the actual r e v e l a t i o n g i v e n to M o s e s on M o u n t S i n a i . T h u s , Jubilees o p e n s ( 1 : 1 - 4 ) w i t h the L o r d s u m m o n i n g M o s e s to ascend the m o u n t a i n to m e e t with h i m , referring to M o s e s ' stay o n the m o u n ­ tain ( E x o d 24:18; cf. 34:28) that t o o k place the d a y after the c o v e n a n t a l cere­ m o n i e s d e s c r i b e d in E x o d 1 9 - 2 4 . T h e b o o k also ends w i t h a direct reference to the r e v e l a t i o n to M o s e s o n M o u n t S i n a i ( J u b 50:2: " O n M t . Sinai I [sc. the a n ­ gel of the p r e s e n c e ] told y o u a b o u t the s a b b a t h s of the l a n d a n d the years o f j u b i l e e s in the S a b b a t h s o f the y e a r s " ) . Scattered t h r o u g h o u t Jubilees are sev­ eral r e m i n d e r s that the contents of this b o o k are a d d r e s s e d to M o s e s (on M o u n t S i n a i a n d t h r o u g h angelic m e d i a t i o n ) . O b v i o u s l y , therefore, the a u ­ t h o r of Jubilees w a n t e d the revelation a n d c o v e n a n t at Sinai to be u n d e r s t o o d in light of the w h o l e b i b l i c a l h i s t o r y that p r e c e d e d it ( G e n e s i s - E x o d u s ) . Yet Jubilees is n o t so m u c h a c o v e n a n t a l b o o k as an a p o c a l y p s e w i t h i n a c o v e n a n t a l setting that inherently lends it authority. A s a result, the Sinaitic c o v e n a n t is s o m e w h a t relativized, so that, for e x a m p l e , the election of Israel goes b a c k , n o t to the e x o d u s from E g y p t or to the m a k i n g o f the c o v e n a n t at Sinai, but rather to the v e r y b e g i n n i n g of creation ( J u b 2 : 1 9 - 2 2 ) . M o r e o v e r , m a n y of the laws g i v e n to Israel o n S i n a i a c c o r d i n g to the biblical r e c o r d are dated b a c k to earlier p e r i o d s (e.g., the Festival of W e e k s w a s instituted n o t at Sinai [ E x o d 2 3 : 1 6 ; 34:22] b u t w h e n N o a h d i s e m b a r k e d f r o m the a r k [Jub 6:171 9 ] ) . S i n c e the direct a u t h o r i t y of d i v i n e r e v e l a t i o n w a s n e e d e d to achieve this relativization, w e can be fairly sure that c h a p s . 1 a n d 23 b e l o n g e d to Jubilees originally. I h a v e a r g u e d that the r e a s o n for this b a c k d a t i n g a n d relativization is directly l i n k e d to a central thesis of the b o o k : the r e v e l a t i o n o n S i n a i is a re­ iteration o f the d e t e r m i n i s t i c d i v i n e p l a n for the w o r l d , w h e r e b y all things on earth, especially the cultus in the l a n d , w i l l e v e n t u a l l y c o r r e s p o n d to the w a y

im Antiken Judentum, B Z A W 363 (Berlin a n d N e w York: D e Gruyter, 2 0 0 6 ) , 234-328; M . Segal, The Book of Jubilees: Rewritten Bible, Redaction, Ideology, and Theology, JSJSup 117 (Leiden: Brill, 2 0 0 7 ) . 9. V a n d e r K a m , "Studies in the Chronology," 540. 10. Cf. J. C . V a n d e r K a m , "The E n d o f the Matter? Jubilees 50:6-13 and the Unity o f the Book," in Heavenly Tablets: Interpretation, Identity, and Tradition in Ancient Judaism, ed. L. LiDonnici a n d A . Lieber, J S J S u p 119 (Leiden: Brill, 2 0 0 7 ) , 267-84 (278-79).

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things are in h e a v e n a n d have b e e n from the b e g i n n i n g . T h u s , for instance, the Festival of W e e k s reinstituted at Sinai ( J u b 6:19) w a s o r i g i n a l l y g i v e n to N o a h after the f l o o d ( w . 1 6 - 1 7 ) , a l t h o u g h it " h a d b e e n celebrated in h e a v e n f r o m the t i m e of creation until the lifetime of N o a h " (v. 1 8 ) , in a c c o r d a n c e w i t h the o r d i n a n c e w r i t t e n o n the h e a v e n l y tablets (v. 1 7 ) . A s a p o c a l y p s e s , b o t h the A p o c a l y p s e of W e e k s a n d the b o o k o f Jubilees share a w o r l d v i e w that i n c l u d e s a d e t e r m i n i s t i c v i e w o f history. In o t h e r w o r d s , events p r o c e e d in a c c o r d a n c e w i t h a d i v i n e p l a n that is f o r e o r d a i n e d in h e a v e n l y tablets. H e n c e , the a p o c a l y p t i c w o r l d v i e w of these t w o w r i t i n g s is clearly f o u n d a t i o n a l to the c h r o n o l o g i c a l s c h e m e s c o n t a i n e d in each. B o t h the A p o c a l y p s e of W e e k s a n d the b o o k o f Jubilees a p p e a l to the a n t e d i l u v i a n k n o w l e d g e o f E n o c h to establish the v a l i d i t y of their c h r o n o ­ l o g i c a l s y s t e m s . T h u s , in the E p i s t l e of E n o c h (1 E n 9 2 - 1 0 5 ) , the a n t e d i l u v i a n E n o c h i n t r o d u c e s his t e n - " w e e k " c h r o n o l o g y in the A p o c a l y p s e of W e e k s w i t h the w o r d s , " C o n c e r n i n g the s o n s of r i g h t e o u s n e s s , a n d c o n c e r n i n g the c h o s e n o f eternity, a n d c o n c e r n i n g the p l a n t of t r u t h , these t h i n g s I say to y o u a n d I m a k e k n o w n to y o u , m y s o n s , I myself, E n o c h . T h e v i s i o n o f h e a v e n w a s s h o w n to m e , a n d f r o m the w o r d s o f the w a t c h e r s a n d h o l y o n e s I h a v e l e a r n e d e v e r y t h i n g , a n d in the h e a v e n l y tablets I r e a d e v e r y t h i n g a n d I h a v e u n d e r s t o o d " ( 9 3 : 2 ) . S i m i l a r l y , J u b i l e e s credits E n o c h as the first w h o es­ t a b l i s h e d b o t h c a l e n d a r a n d c h r o n o l o g y ( J u b 4 : 1 7 - 1 9 ) . W i t h r e s p e c t to c h r o ­ n o l o g y , Jubilees r e p o r t s :

(18) H e [sc. E n o c h ] w a s the first to write a testimony. H e testified to m a n k i n d in the generations of the earth: T h e w e e k s of the jubilees he re­ lated, a n d m a d e k n o w n the days of the years; the m o n t h s he a r r a n g e d , a n d related the sabbaths of the years, as w e [sc. the angels of the pres­ ence] had told h i m . (19) W h i l e he slept he saw in a v i s i o n w h a t has h a p ­ p e n e d a n d w h a t w i l l o c c u r — h o w things w i l l h a p p e n for m a n k i n d dur­ ing their history until the day of j u d g m e n t . H e saw e v e r y t h i n g a n d u n d e r s t o o d . H e w r o t e a t e s t i m o n y for himself a n d placed it u p o n the earth against all m a n k i n d a n d for their history.

T h e s i m i l a r w o r d i n g of these passages is r e m a r k a b l e : the " v i s i o n " a n d r e v e l a ­ tion to E n o c h t h r o u g h a n g e l i c m e d i a t i o n e n c o m p a s s e d " e v e r y t h i n g . " I n ­ d e e d , N i c k e l s b u r g a n d V a n d e r K a m h a v e suggested that Jubilees alludes to the A p o c a l y p s e of W e e k s at this p o i n t ,

11. Cf. Scott, On Earth,

1 1

although van Ruiten has countered

128 with n. 129.

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that it is difficult to p o i n t to an e x a c t p a r a l l e l .

12

In a n s w e r to v a n Ruiten's c r i ­

t i q u e , V a n d e r K a m is right to insist, h o w e v e r , (a) that even if w e are n o t sure that an item is f r o m o n e E n o c h i c b o o k o r another, it m a y still b e f r o m o n e or b o t h of t h e m ; (b) that J u b 4 : 1 7 - 2 6 in p a r t i c u l a r c o r r e s p o n d s quite closely in t h e m e , if n o t in w o r d i n g , to s e v e r a l E n o c h i c texts; a n d (c) that it s e e m s m o r e e c o n o m i c a l to a s s u m e d e p e n d e n c e o n these w r i t t e n E n o c h i c s o u r c e s t h a n to a p p e a l to u n k n o w n o n e s , especially since Jubilees u n d e r s c o r e s that E n o c h left w r i t t e n w o r k s b e h i n d a n d even p i c t u r e s h i m as c o n t i n u i n g his s c r i b a l a c ­ tivity after his r e m o v a l from h u m a n s o c i e t y to the G a r d e n of E d e n .

1 3

T h e c o m p r e h e n s i v e n a t u r e of the r e v e l a t i o n to E n o c h in the A p o c a ­ l y p s e of W e e k s a n d the b o o k of Jubilees p e r t a i n s e s p e c i a l l y to their c h r o n o ­ l o g i c a l s y s t e m s , w h i c h are u n i v e r s a l in s c o p e insofar as they e x t e n d f r o m cre­ ation to n e w c r e a t i o n .

14

T h e A p o c a l y p s e o f Weeks b e g i n s w i t h a reference to

"the first w e e k " (1 E n 9 3 : 3 ) , w h i c h s t r o n g l y i m p l i e s c r e a t i o n , a n d e n d s w i t h the e x p e c t a t i o n that "the first h e a v e n w i l l p a s s a w a y in it, a n d a n e w h e a v e n w i l l a p p e a r " ( 9 1 : 1 6 ) , a l l u d i n g to the n e w c r e a t i o n in Isa 65:17 ( " F o r I a m a b o u t to create n e w h e a v e n s . . " ) .

1 5

B e t w e e n these t w o p o l e s , the w h o l e s p a n

of h u m a n h i s t o r y is s c h e m a t i c a l l y r e p r e s e n t e d in this s h o r t a p o c a l y p s e . L i k e ­ w i s e , the b o o k of Jubilees c o n t a i n s a u n i v e r s a l s c o p e in its c h r o n o l o g i c a l s y s ­ t e m . T h u s , w e r e a d in J u b 1:29:

T h e angel of the presence, w h o w a s g o i n g along in front of the Israelite c a m p , t o o k the tablets ( w h i c h told) of the divisions of the years from the time the l a w a n d the t e s t i m o n y w e r e created — for the w e e k s of their j u ­ bilees, year b y year in their full n u m b e r , and their jubilees from [the time

12. Cf. J. v a n Ruiten, "A Literary Dependency of Jubilees o n 1 E n o c h ? " in Enoch and Qumran Origins: New Light on a Forgotten Connection, ed. G . Boccaccini (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2005), 90-93 (esp. 92-93); see also M . A . Knibb, "Which Parts o f 1 Enoch Were K n o w n to Jubilees? A Note o n the Interpretation o f Jubilees 4.16-25," in Reading from Right to Left: Essays on the Hebrew Bible in Honour of David J. A. Clines, ed. J. C . E x u m a n d H . G . M . Williamson, J S O T S u p 373 (Sheffield: Sheffield A c a d e m i c Press, 2003), 254-62. 13. Cf. J. C . V a n d e r K a m , "Response: Jubilees a n d Enoch," in Enoch and Qumran Ori­ gins, 162-70 (esp. 163-64). 14. See further Bergsma, The Jubilee, 240: "Moreover, after the ten weeks, the apoca­ lyptic author [of the Apocalypse of Weeks] expects 'many weeks without number,' s o m e ­ what similar to Jubilees' vision of a future in which 'jubilees will pass b y until Israel is pure . . . until eternity' {Jub. 50:5)." 15. Cf. Jacques van Ruiten, "The Influence a n d D e v e l o p m e n t of Is 65,17 in 1 E n 91,16," in The Book of Isaiah — Le livre d'Isaie: les oracles et leurs reflecteurs. Unite et complexity de Vouvrage, ed. Jacques Vermeylen, B E T L 81 (Louvain: Leuven University Press, 1989), 161-66.

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of the creation until] the time of the n e w creation w h e n the heavens, the earth, a n d all their creatures will b e r e n e w e d like the p o w e r s of the sky a n d like all the creatures of the earth, until the time w h e n the temple of the L o r d will be created in J e r u s a l e m on M t . Z i o n . A l l the l u m i n a r i e s will be r e n e w e d for (the p u r p o s e s o f ) healing, health, a n d blessing for all the elect ones of Israel a n d so that it m a y r e m a i n this w a y from that time t h r o u g h o u t all the days of the earth.

T h e reference here to the r e n e w a l of the l u m i n a r i e s can b e c o m p a r e d to Isa 65:17 ( " F o r I a m a b o u t to create n e w h e a v e n s . . . " ) , especially since Jubilees refers to "the n e w c r e a t i o n " in this c o n t e x t . M o r e o v e r , J u b 23, w h i c h has m a n y similarities to c h a p . 1 a n d o n c e a g a i n a d u m b r a t e s w o r l d h i s t o r y f r o m c r e a t i o n to n e w c r e a t i o n , clearly alludes to the n e w c r e a t i o n e x p e c t e d in Isa 6 5 : 1 7 - 2 5 , w i t h its h o p e o f i n c r e a s e d h u m a n l o n g e v i t y in the latter d a y s .

1 6

In the f o r e g o i n g w e have seen that there are several r e m a r k a b l e s i m i l a r i ­ ties b e t w e e n the A p o c a l y p s e of Weeks a n d the b o o k of Jubilees as a p o c a ­ l y p s e s . T h e r e is even a s t r o n g p o s s i b i l i t y that Jubilees alludes to the A p o c a ­ lypse o f W e e k s . N o w w e are i n a p o s i t i o n to e x p l o r e a tentative r e c o n s t r u c t i o n of J u b i l e e s ' c h r o n o l o g i c a l s y s t e m . A s w e shall see, Jubilees is n o t o n l y b e ­ h o l d e n to the A p o c a l y p s e of W e e k s for s o m e of its f u n d a m e n t a l c h r o n o l o g i ­ cal p e r s p e c t i v e s , especially those p e r t a i n i n g to the d a t i n g of the exile a n d its aftermath, b u t is also critical of the E n o c h i c w o r k at certain c r u c i a l p o i n t s .

II. A Reconstruction of Jubilees' Chronological

System

J u b i l e e s is a p o l e m i c a l w r i t i n g w i t h a distinctly priestly o r i e n t a t i o n that seeks to p r o v e the v a l i d i t y of its o w n p o s i t i o n over against other c o m p e t i n g p e r ­ spectives w i t h r e s p e c t to t w o m a j o r issues — s a c r e d s p a c e a n d s a c r e d t i m e . L i k e other p s e u d e p i g r a p h a in the s e c o n d t e m p l e p e r i o d , Jubilees is v y i n g for p r e d o m i n a n c e in the n a m e of d i v i n e r e v e l a t i o n t r a n s m i t t e d t h r o u g h a u t h o r ­ itative figures of the past. To this e n d , Jubilees p o r t r a y s itself n o t o n l y as c o n ­ t a i n i n g the d i v i n e r e v e l a t i o n w r i t t e n on h e a v e n l y tablets a n d g i v e n t h r o u g h angelic m e d i a t i o n to M o s e s o n M o u n t S i n a i , b u t also, a n d m o r e i m p o r t a n t l y , as e n c a p s u l a t i n g the v e r y r e v e l a t i o n that angels h a d a l r e a d y g i v e n to E n o c h in the a n t e d i l u v i a n p e r i o d . A c c o r d i n g to J u b 4:21 (cf. G e n 5:22), E n o c h w a s " w i t h G o d ' s angels for

16. Cf. Scott, On Earth, 1 0 3 - 2 5 , 138-39.

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six j u b i l e e s of y e a r s . T h e y s h o w e d h i m e v e r y t h i n g on earth a n d in the heav­ ens — the d o m i n i o n of the s u n — a n d he w r o t e d o w n e v e r y t h i n g . " T h i s a p ­ p e a l to E n o c h is the b o o k ' s clincher, p a r t of a g e n e r a l t e n d e n c y w i t h i n the w r i t i n g to a s c r i b e its s c r i p t u r a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s r e g a r d i n g cultic a n d h a l a k i c m a t t e r s to the p r i m e v a l a n d p a t r i a r c h a l p e r i o d s . F o r J u b i l e e s , E n o c h , the sev­ enth p a t r i a r c h in the line f r o m A d a m , is the p r o t o t y p i c a l priest, the m e d i a t o r p a r excellence b e t w e e n h e a v e n a n d earth. E n o c h is the m o d e l that

the

priestly a u t h o r of the b o o k seeks to e m u l a t e . E n o c h is also the h a r b i n g e r o f the a u t h o r ' s m o s t treasured h o p e — the r e s t o r a t i o n of sacred s p a c e a n d s a ­ cred t i m e , so that all t h i n g s , e s p e c i a l l y the cultus in the restored l a n d o f I s ­ rael, e v e n t u a l l y w i l l b e " o n earth as in heaven." F o r as w e l e a r n in J u b 4 : 2 5 - 2 6 , E n o c h ' s priestly s e r v i c e in the p r i m e v a l s a n c t u a r y of the G a r d e n o f E d e n sets u p a t r a j e c t o r y to the e x p e c t e d priestly s e r v i c e i n the e s c h a t o l o g i c a l t e m p l e on M o u n t Z i o n in the n e w c r e a t i o n . B y that t i m e at the latest, all t h i n g s in h e a v e n a n d earth w i l l c o n f o r m to the C r e a t o r ' s o r i g i n a l i n t e n t i o n . A s a p o l e m i c a l w r i t i n g , Jubilees e n g a g e s in critical d i a l o g u e w i t h its s c r i p t u r a l base text a n d the E n o c h i c a p o c a l y p t i c t r a d i t i o n w i t h i n w h i c h it s t a n d s . A l t h o u g h the b o o k is f i r m l y b a s e d o n Israel's s c r i p t u r e s , it is n e v e r t h e ­ less also, at least in p a r t , a r a d i c a l r e w o r k i n g o f those texts. Jubilees s h a p e s the b i b l i c a l text, p a r t i c u l a r l y G e n e s i s to E x o d u s , so that it c o n f o r m s to the b o o k ' s o w n t h e o l o g i c a l a g e n d a a n d c h r o n o l o g i c a l s c h e m e . Similarly, Jubilees adapts a n d reinterprets E n o c h i c a p o c a l y p t i c t r a d i t i o n , m o s t n o t a b l y the A p o c a l y p s e of W e e k s , in order to assert that its o w n v e r s i o n o f the r e v e l a t i o n to E n o c h ( a n d to M o s e s after h i m ) has the greater claim to a u t h e n t i c i t y a n d authority. To this end, the b o o k seeks to d e m o n s t r a t e the d i v i n e l y o r d a i n e d s y m m e t r y b e t w e e n the t e m p o r a l a n d spatial axes in the s p a c e - t i m e

continuum.

F u n d a m e n t a l to o u r r e c o n s t r u c t i o n of Jubilees' c h r o n o l o g i c a l system are t w o o v e r a r c h i n g trajectories in the b o o k nestled o n e w i t h i n the other: on the o n e h a n d , the trajectory set u p b y the all-inclusive revelation to M o s e s of the division o f the years in their jubilees "from the time of creation until the time of the n e w creation w h e n the h e a v e n s , the earth, a n d all their creatures will be r e n e w e d like the p o w e r s of the sky a n d like the creatures of the earth, until the t i m e w h e n the t e m p l e of the L o r d will be created in J e r u s a l e m on M t . Z i o n " (Jub 1:29); o n the other h a n d , the trajectory set u p b y the j u x t a p o s i t i o n of E n o c h ' s entrance into the p r i m e v a l s a n c t u a r y of the G a r d e n of E d e n a n d the expected entrance of the eschatological p r i e s t h o o d in the rebuilt t e m p l e on M o u n t Z i o n , " w h i c h w i l l be sanctified in the n e w creation" (4:23-26; cf. 1:29). T h e first trajectory p r o v i d e s the b a s i c j u b i l e a n structure for the w h o l e course of h i s t o r y as outlined in the b o o k from creation to n e w creation. T h e s e c o n d

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trajectory, w h i c h likewise extends to the n e w creation, focuses m o r e p a r t i c u ­ larly o n the eschatological t e m p l e a n d its cultus, using the p r o t o t y p i c a l priest E n o c h a n d his m o v e m e n t s as the a n c h o r p o i n t a n d terminus r e s p o n d e n c e b e t w e e n Urzeit a n d Endzeit

a quo for the c o r ­

on this trajectory.

In b e t w e e n these t w o o v e r a r c h i n g trajectories is the m u c h s m a l l e r tra­ j e c t o r y of Israel in the P r o m i s e d L a n d , w h i c h c o m e s at the e n d of the b o o k , f o r m i n g a k i n d of b o o k e n d w i t h the o p e n i n g r e v e l a t i o n to M o s e s in the first c h a p t e r (note the s i m i l a r reference to p e r i o d i z a t i o n in t e r m s of s a b b a t h s a n d j u b i l e e s in b o t h c a s e s ) . T h u s , J u b 50:2-5 states:

(2) O n M t . Sinai I told y o u a b o u t the sabbaths of the l a n d a n d the years of jubilees in the sabbaths of the years, but its year w e have n o t told y o u until the t i m e w h e n y o u enter the l a n d w h i c h y o u w i l l possess. (3) T h e l a n d w i l l o b s e r v e its sabbaths w h e n they live on it, a n d they are to k n o w the y e a r of the j u b i l e e . (4) F o r this r e a s o n I have a r r a n g e d for y o u the w e e k s of years a n d the jubilees — 49 jubilees f r o m the t i m e of A d a m u n ­ til today, a n d o n e w e e k and t w o y e a r s . It is still 40 years off (for l e a r n i n g the L o r d ' s c o m m a n d m e n t s ) until the t i m e w h e n he leads ( t h e m ) across to the l a n d of C a n a a n , after they have crossed the J o r d a n to the west of it. (5) T h e jubilees w i l l pass b y until Israel is p u r e of e v e r y s e x u a l evil, i m ­ purity, c o n t a m i n a t i o n , sin, a n d error. T h e n they w i l l live confidently in the entire l a n d . T h e y w i l l n o l o n g e r have a n y satan or any evil p e r s o n . The

l a n d w i l l b e p u r e from that t i m e until eternity.

In o t h e r w o r d s , the e n t r a n c e into the l a n d is p r e d i c t e d to take p l a c e f o r t y y e a r s f r o m the r e v e l a t i o n at S i n a i (2410 lee

of j u b i l e e s ( 2 4 5 0 A . M . ) .

1 7

A . M . ) , at the c u l m i n a t i o n of the j u b i ­

T h i s d a t e is s i g n i f i c a n t b e c a u s e the all-

i m p o r t a n t s y n c h r o n i z a t i o n b e t w e e n h e a v e n l y a n d e a r t h l y c u l t u s , if it is to h a p p e n at all, m u s t c o m m e n c e u p o n initial e n t r a n c e into the l a n d ; o t h e r ­ w i s e , the p e o p l e w i l l a g a i n err w i t h respect to the o b s e r v a n c e of j u b i l e e s a n d the s a b b a t h s of the l a n d .

17. Cf. V a n d e r K a m , " E n d of the Matter?" 281, referring to Jub 50:2-3: " T h e a u t h o r n a m e s two subjects — the Sabbaths o f the land and the years of jubilee — b o t h of which de­ rive from Leviticus 25 ( u n d e r s t o o d to b e l o n g to the Jubilean setting o f M o s e s ' first forty-day sojourn atop Sinai). T h e legislation in Leviticus 25 is intended for the t i m e w h e n Israel will live in the land (v. 2), a n d this idea is expressed at the e n d o f Jub 50:2. T h e p h r a s e ' S a b b a t h of the l a n d ' occurs in L e v 25:6 (cf. w . 4-5), a n d the year o f jubilee (for the p h r a s e see, e.g., L e v 25:28) is treated in w . 8-17, while m o s t of the r e m a i n d e r of the chapter deals w i t h legal m a t ­ ters related to it."

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T h e a u t h o r o f Jubilees k n o w s , of c o u r s e , that Israel's t i m e in the l a n d w a s d o o m e d to failure, as the D e u t e r o n o m i c p a t t e r n of s i n - e x i l e - r e s t o r a t i o n ( S E R ) in c h a p , l m a k e s clear. T h u s , J u b 1:7 directly states: " I k n o w their defi­ ance a n d their s t u b b o r n n e s s ( e v e n ) b e f o r e I b r i n g t h e m into the l a n d w h i c h I p r o m i s e d b y o a t h to A b r a h a m , I s a a c , a n d Jacob." T h e sins of Israel in the l a n d w i l l i n c l u d e , a m o n g other t h i n g s , v i o l a t i o n s of the c a l e n d a r : a b a n d o n ­ i n g G o d ' s c o v e n a n t a l festivals, his s a b b a t h s , a n d the j u b i l e e ( 1 : 1 0 , 1 4 ) . E l a b o ­ r a t i n g o n Israel's life i n the l a n d a n d e m p l o y i n g o n c e a g a i n the D e u t e r o ­ n o m i c S E R p a t t e r n , J u b 23 e x p e c t s that the p e o p l e will h a v e

"forgotten

c o m m a n d m e n t , c o v e n a n t , festival, m o n t h , s a b b a t h , j u b i l e e , a n d e v e r y v e r ­ dict" (v. 1 9 ) . T h e fact that c h a p . 23 is referring to Israel's sinful life in the l a n d b e f o r e the exile is c o n f i r m e d b y c o m p a r i n g to it 50:5, w h i c h refers to the res­ t o r a t i o n p e r i o d (see a b o v e ) . T h i s c o r r e s p o n d s to 23:29, w h i c h l i k e w i s e refers to the r e s t o r a t i o n : " T h e y w i l l c o m p l e t e a n d live their entire lifetimes p e a c e ­ fully a n d joyfully. T h e r e w i l l b e n e i t h e r a satan n o r any evil o n e w h o w i l l d e ­ stroy." In other w o r d s , Jubilees r e c o g n i z e s that Israel's entire t i m e in the l a n d b e f o r e the exile w o u l d b e c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y sin, b u t that this c o n d i t i o n w o u l d b e rectified at the t i m e o f the r e s t o r a t i o n . H e n c e , the t h e m e of Israel's e x ­ p e c t e d sin in the l a n d is reiterated in v e r y s i m i l a r t e r m s in c h a p s . 1, 2 3 , a n d 5 0 , t h u s g i v i n g these m u t u a l l y r e i n f o r c i n g chapters a f r a m i n g f u n c t i o n for the b o o k as a w h o l e . If, as V a n d e r K a m has recently a r g u e d , Jub 5 0 : 1 - 5 c o h e r e s s e a m l e s s l y w i t h the rest of the b o o k ,

1 8

t h e n all three of the i n t e r c o n n e c t e d

framing

chapters h a v e a c l a i m to b e i n g o r i g i n a l . M o r e o v e r , since all three chapters l o o k f o r w a r d to the r e s t o r a t i o n p e r i o d , w h e n I s r a e l will reenter the l a n d a n d reestablish the cultus o n a n e w b a s i s c o r r e s p o n d i n g to that in h e a v e n f r o m the b e g i n n i n g , the surface n a r r a t i v e of the b o o k stops w h e r e it d o e s , at " T m i n u s 40 y e a r s " b e f o r e e n t r a n c e into the l a n d , for t w o m a i n r e a s o n s : ( 1 ) b e ­ c a u s e , f r o m the a u t h o r ' s p e r s p e c t i v e , the o r i g i n a l e n t r a n c e into the l a n d w a s a l r e a d y l o n g past, a n d (2) b e c a u s e Israel's h i s t o r y essentially recapitulates it­ self at the t i m e of the r e s t o r a t i o n : the e s c h a t o l o g i c a l e n t r a n c e into the l a n d c o r r e s p o n d s c h r o n o l o g i c a l l y to the o r i g i n a l e n t r a n c e into the l a n d . I n d e e d , J u b i l e e s is all a b o u t r e c a p i t u l a t i o n . T h e t w o o v e r a r c h i n g trajectories of the b o o k d e m o n s t r a t e that the n e w c r e a t i o n recapitulates the o r i g i n a l c r e a t i o n , a n d the e n t r a n c e o f the e s c h a t o l o g i c a l p r i e s t h o o d into the future t e m p l e o f

18. Cf. V a n d e r K a m , " E n d o f the M a t t e r ? " 267-84, w h o s h o w s n o t o n l y that Jub 50:6-13 accords w i t h the author's m a n n e r o f i n t r o d u c i n g laws t h r o u g h o u t the b o o k b u t also that the entire chapter coheres well w i t h the rest o f the b o o k .

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the L o r d on M o u n t Z i o n c o r r e s p o n d s to E n o c h ' s e n t r a n c e into the p r i m e v a l t e m p l e of the G a r d e n of E d e n . T h u s , for e x a m p l e , b y the t i m e of the r e s t o r a ­ tion at the latest, the p e o p l e w i l l r e c o m m e n c e the c e l e b r a t i o n of the s a b b a t h , in a c c o r d a n c e w i t h the o r i g i n a l l y i n t e n d e d

d i v i n e w i l l for e v e r y t h i n g o n

earth, p a r t i c u l a r l y the cultus in the P r o m i s e d L a n d , to c o r r e s p o n d to the w a y t h i n g s are in h e a v e n . F o r from the c r e a t i o n of the w o r l d , the L o r d s e p a r a t e d for h i m s e l f Israel as a s p e c i a l p e o p l e to k e e p s a b b a t h w i t h h i m a n d the h i g h ­ est angels ( J u b 2 : 1 9 , 2 1 , 3 1 ) . A n o t h e r w a y in w h i c h J u b 1 , 2 3 , a n d 50 c o h e r e c h r o n o l o g i c a l l y is illus­ trated b y the w a y the s t o r y o f A b r a h a m is f r a m e d i n c h a p . 2 3 . U p o n m e n ­ t i o n i n g A b r a h a m ' s death a n d b u r i a l w i t h his w i f e S a r a h in the d o u b l e cave at M a c h p e l a h ( 2 3 : 1 - 7 ) , the a u t h o r m e n t i o n s A b r a h a m ' s life s p a n in t e r m s o f its n u m b e r of j u b i l e e s ("three j u b i l e e s a n d f o u r w e e k s of y e a r s — 175 y e a r s " ) a n d h o w h u m a n l o n g e v i t y in g e n e r a l h a d d e c l i n e d f r o m "the t i m e of the an­ c i e n t s " ( w . 8 - 9 ) . In d o i n g s o , the a u t h o r p e r f o r m s a c o m p l e x interpretive m o v e that correlates p r e c i s e l y w i t h his interest in t e m p o r a l a n d spatial s y m ­ m e t r i e s . O n the o n e h a n d , w e see his interest in t e m p o r a l s y m m e t r y in his e m p h a s i s o n the decline a n d r e c o v e r y o f h u m a n l o n g e v i t y in J u b 2 3 : 8 - 3 1 . F o r j u s t as h u m a n l o n g e v i t y p r o g r e s s i v e l y d e c l i n e d f r o m the c r e a t i o n of the w o r l d until the e n t r a n c e into the l a n d f r o m A d a m ' s 930 y e a r s (i.e., 70 y e a r s fewer t h a n 1,000 y e a r s ) to M o s e s ' 1 2 0 y e a r s ( J u b 4:29-30; 5:5, 8; 23:9; cf. D e u t 3 4 : 7 ) , a n d t h e n further p l u m m e t e d after Israel w a s in the l a n d to a m a x i m u m life e x p e c t a n c y o f 70 y e a r s ( J u b 23:15; cf. Ps. 9 0 : 1 0 ) , so also h u m a n l o n g e v i t y w i l l i n c r e m e n t a l l y i n c r e a s e after Israel's r e s t o r a t i o n to the l a n d , f r o m

the

m e a g e r 7 0 - y e a r life s p a n to the o r i g i n a l l y i n t e n d e d d i v i n e ideal of 1,000 years ( J u b 23:27; cf. Ps 9 0 : 4 ) . T h u s , a c c o r d i n g to J u b 23:27, after the p e o p l e r e t u r n to the r i g h t w a y , " T h e days w i l l b e g i n to b e c o m e n u m e r o u s a n d i n c r e a s e , a n d m a n k i n d as w e l l — g e n e r a t i o n b y g e n e r a t i o n a n d d a y b y d a y until their life­ t i m e s a p p r o a c h 1 0 0 0 y e a r s a n d to m o r e y e a r s t h a n the n u m b e r o f days ( h a d b e e n ) . " T h e fact that h u m a n l o n g e v i t y started at 70 y e a r s fewer t h a n the di­ v i n e ideal, d e c r e a s e d f r o m there to a m a x i m u m of 70 y e a r s , a n d finally w i l l attain the d i v i n e ideal, thus b e s t i n g A d a m ' s p r e v i o u s h i g h b y 70 y e a r s , s h o w s that J u b 23 still o p e r a t e s w i t h i n the h e p t a d i c s t r u c t u r e that o t h e r w i s e c h a r a c ­ terizes the b o o k , i n c l u d i n g the s t o r y of A b r a h a m ' s death, w h i c h p r o v i d e s the n a r r a t i v e h o o k for the a p o c a l y p t i c m a t e r i a l . T h u s , the p r o o f o f the existence o f d i v i n e p r o v i d e n c e — a n d therefore the c o r r e c t n e s s o f J u b i l e e s ' v e r s i o n of things — is in its r h y t h m i c w o r k i n g in h i s t o r y : c o n s t r u c t i o n , d e s t r u c t i o n , a n d r e c o n s t r u c t i o n . A l l this w a s d e c r e e d f r o m h e a v e n to o c c u r in p e r i o d s that w e r e e q u a l in length a n d

therefore

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s y m m e t r i c a l . In this c o n c e p t i o n of the p r o g r e s s o f w o r l d history, Jubilees r e p r e s e n t s a m a j o r a d v a n c e o v e r the A p o c a l y p s e o f W e e k s , w h i c h also has p e r i o d s of e q u a l length ( o s t e n s i b l y 4 9 0 - y e a r " w e e k s " ) , but fails to achieve the s a m e d e g r e e of bilateral s y m m e t r y in w o r l d history. I n s t e a d , the A p o c a ­ l y p s e of Weeks has m e r e l y a p a r t i a l a n d a s y m m e t r i c a l c o m p l e m e n t b e t w e e n " w e e k s " 1 - 7 a n d 8 - 1 0 , w i t h the center of h i s t o r y c o n s t i t u t i n g the b u i l d i n g o f the t e m p l e at the c u l m i n a t i o n of " w e e k " 5 (1 E n 93:7). A l o n g s i d e this interest in t e m p o r a l s y m m e t r y , Jub 23 d e m o n s t r a t e s the author's interest in spatial s y m m e t r y , p a r t i c u l a r l y the t w o f o l d loss a n d r e t u r n of the P r o m i s e d L a n d to Israel. To appreciate this p o i n t , w e m u s t recall that Jub 50:4-5 c o n t a i n s the c h r o n o l o g y o f Jubilees that r u n s t h r o u g h o u t the en­ tire b o o k a n d ends at the e x p e c t e d e n t r a n c e into the P r o m i s e d L a n d . T h i s o c ­ curs at the c u l m i n a t i o n of the j u b i l e e of j u b i l e e s , w h e n the n a t i o n w i l l e x p e r i ­ ence on a g r a n d scale w h a t an i n d i v i d u a l Israelite c o u l d have e x p e r i e n c e d in the y e a r o f j u b i l e e — f r e e d o m from s e r v i t u d e a n d r e t u r n to ancestral l a n d (cf. L e v 2 5 ) . T h e r e t u r n of Israel to its ancestral h o m e p r e s u p p o s e s J u b i l e e s ' lengthy s e c t i o n a b o u t the o r i g i n a l a s s i g n m e n t o f the l a n d to S h e m after the f l o o d a n d the theft of the l a n d b y C a n a a n s o o n thereafter ( c h a p s . 8 - 1 0 ) . T h u s , f r o m the p e r s p e c t i v e o f J u b i l e e s , w h e n Israel c o n q u e r e d the l a n d f r o m the C a n a a n i t e s it w a s a m a t t e r o f r e t a k i n g p r o p e r t y that rightfully b e ­ l o n g e d to t h e m i n the first p l a c e . It w i l l n o t go u n n o t i c e d , h o w e v e r , that the theft of the l a n d b y C a n a a n w a s p a r a l l e l e d in the a u t h o r ' s o w n d a y b y the theft of the l a n d b y the G r e c o - M a c e d o n i a n s , w h i c h l i k e w i s e constituted a v i ­ o l a t i o n o f the eternal oath m a d e b y the s o n s a n d g r a n d s o n s of N o a h : "All o f t h e m s a i d : ' S o be it'! S o be it for t h e m a n d their c h i l d r e n u n t i l eternity d u r ­ i n g their g e n e r a t i o n s u n t i l the d a y of j u d g m e n t o n w h i c h the L o r d G o d w i l l p u n i s h t h e m w i t h the s w o r d a n d fire b e c a u s e of all the evil i m p u r i t y of their errors b y w h i c h they h a v e filled the earth w i t h w i c k e d n e s s , i m p u r i t y , f o r n i ­ cation, and sin" (Jub 9 : 1 5 ) .

1 9

T h e d a y of j u d g m e n t is m e n t i o n e d a g a i n in J u b 2 3 : 1 0 - 1 1 . T h e a p p r o p r i ­ ateness of the a p o c a l y p t i c s e c t i o n of c h a p . 23 ( a n d its c o n n e c t i o n w i t h the earlier o a t h in c h a p . 9) c a n b e seen b y the fact that the n a r r a t i v e t r i g g e r for

1 9 . Cf. P. S. A l e x a n d e r , " J e r u s a l e m as the O m p h a l o s of the World: O n the H i s t o r y o f a G e o g r a p h i c a l C o n c e p t , " Judaism

46 (1997): 147-58 (esp. 1 4 9 - 5 1 ) ; A l e x a n d e r , " J e r u s a l e m as the

O m p h a l o s o f the World: O n the H i s t o r y of a G e o g r a p h i c a l C o n c e p t , " in Jerusalem: tity and Centrality

to Judaism,

Christianity,

Its Sanc­

and Islam, ed. L. I. L e v i n e ( N e w York: C o n t i n ­

u u m , 1 9 9 9 ) , 1 0 4 - 1 9 (esp. 1 0 5 - 7 ) , w h o a r g u e s that Jubilees is a H a s m o n e a n d o c u m e n t that is politically m o t i v a t e d : it contrasts J e r u s a l e m to D e l p h i , m a k e s G r e e k influence in the East il­ legitimate, a n d justifies H a s m o n e a n e x p a n s i o n .

78

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Chronologies

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of Weeks and the Book of

Jubilees

the a p o c a l y p t i c section is the s t o r y of A b r a h a m ' s death a n d b u r i a l in the d o u b l e cave of M a c h p e l a h ( J u b 2 3 : 7 ) , w h i c h w a s the o n l y f o o t h o l d the p a t r i ­ archs h a d in the P r o m i s e d L a n d ( G e n 2 3 : 1 7 - 2 0 ) .

2 0

N o t o n l y S a r a h but also

A b r a h a m , I s a a c a n d R e b e k a h , a n d J a c o b a n d L e a h w e r e b u r i e d there ( G e n 4 9 : 2 9 - 3 2 ; 5 0 : 1 3 ) . A l t h o u g h J u b 23 o b v i o u s l y p r e s u p p o s e s the s t o r y of A b r a ­ h a m ' s p u r c h a s e of the cave in G e n 23, the a u t h o r e v i d e n t l y d o e s n o t w a n t to e m p h a s i z e that A b r a h a m b o u g h t it f r o m the Hittites, since that w o u l d u n ­ d e r m i n e his thesis that the l a n d b e l o n g e d to I s r a e l as an i n h e r i t a n c e that w a s subject to the law of j u b i l e e o n a g r a n d scale. J u b 23 anticipates the t i m e w h e n the L o r d w i l l e x p e l his e n e m i e s f r o m the l a n d (v. 3 0 ) , the o n e s w h o h a d c a u s e d s u c h c h a o s in Israel a n d sin against J a c o b (v. 2 3 ) . T h i s is e v i d e n t l y a t h i n l y v e i l e d a l l u s i o n to c o n d i t i o n s in the a u t h o r ' s o w n t i m e . If the a u t h o r of Jubilees b e l i e v e s that the o r i g i n a l e n t r a n c e into the l a n d c o r r e s p o n d s c h r o n o l o g i c a l l y to the e s c h a t o l o g i c a l e n t r a n c e into

the

l a n d , t h e n the t i m i n g of the first event at the j u b i l e e o f j u b i l e e s (2450 A . M . ) v e r y likely c o r r e s p o n d s to a fixed date in the future f r o m the a u t h o r ' s o w n time.

2 1

W e k n o w f r o m the S i n - E x i l e - R e t u r n p a t t e r n in c h a p s . 1 a n d 23 that

the a u t h o r of Jubilees r e c k o n s w i t h a p e r i o d of exile, a l t h o u g h its l e n g t h is n o w h e r e explicitly g i v e n in the b o o k . It c o u l d h a v e b e e n a k n o w n q u a n t i t y traditionally, such as the 70 " w e e k s " = 490 years = 1 0 j u b i l e e s in D a n 9:24. H e n c e , b y u s i n g a c o m b i n a t i o n of e v i d e n c e f r o m the b o o k itself ( p a r ­ t i c u l a r l y p e r i o d i c i t y a n d s y m m e t r y ) a n d f r o m other s a b b a t i c a l c h r o n o l o g i e s (especially the A p o c a l y p s e of W e e k s ) , I h a v e a t t e m p t e d to d e d u c e w h e n the a u t h o r of Jubilees t h o u g h t the r e s t o r a t i o n w o u l d b e g i n . T h e A p o c a l y p s e of W e e k s m e n t i o n s that at the c o n c l u s i o n o f the sixth w e e k (2940 A . M . ) the t e m p l e w i l l b e d e s t r o y e d , a n d "the w h o l e race o f the c h o s e n r o o t w i l l b e dis­ p e r s e d " (1 E n 93:8). It s e e m s quite p o s s i b l e that Jubilees accepts this date for the exile, for w h e n w e p o s t u l a t e , in a c c o r d a n c e w i t h established

tradition,

that the exile w a s to last 490 y e a r s , s o m e t h i n g v e r y interesting o c c u r s : 3430 A . M . is the b e g i n n i n g of the r e s t o r a t i o n (as in the A p o c a l y p s e o f W e e k s ) a n d the exact m i r r o r of the j u b i l e e of j u b i l e e s in 2450 A . M . across the axis o f s y m ­ m e t r y (the exile in 2940 A . M . ) . In other w o r d s , for Jubilees the p e r i o d f r o m the o r i g i n a l e n t r a n c e into 20. Even t h o u g h the a u t h o r o f Jubilees regards the l a n d as Israel's inherited right b e ­ cause of the a s s i g n m e n t of the l a n d to S h e m , he still thinks o f it as the " p r o m i s e d land." Cf. Jub 1:7, w h i c h refers to "the l a n d w h i c h I p r o m i s e d b y oath to A b r a h a m , Isaac, a n d Jacob." 2 1 . If the o r i g i n a l e n t r a n c e into the l a n d w a s to o c c u r forty years after the revelation to M o s e s o n M o u n t Sinai, d o e s the a u t h o r o f Jubilees a s s u m e that the eschatological restora­ tion to the l a n d w a s to o c c u r forty years f r o m the t i m e o f writing?

79

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M.

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the l a n d until the r e e n t r y into the l a n d at the t i m e of the r e s t o r a t i o n w o u l d b e t w o p e r i o d s c o m p r i s e d of p r e c i s e l y 490 y e a r s , for a total of 980 y e a r s . T h e n o t i o n that the t i m e in exile c o r r e s p o n d s to the t i m e in the l a n d c o u l d be a reflection of the idea in 2 C h r o n 36:21 that the exile, w h i c h w i l l last 70 y e a r s as J e r e m i a h h a d p r e d i c t e d ( J e r 2 9 : 1 0 ) , w i l l befall Israel b e c a u s e of its n e g l e c t of the s a b b a t i c a l a n d j u b i l e e y e a r s ( L e v 2 5 : 1 - 1 3 ) . T h i s p r e s u p p o s e s that Israel failed p r o p e r l y to o b s e r v e the s a b b a t h s o f the l a n d f r o m the v e r y outset. V i e w e d t h r o u g h the lens o f the i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of J e r e m i a h ' s p r o p h e c y in D a n 9:24, the c o m p e n s a t o r y p u n i s h m e n t for Israel's m i s s e d s a b b a t h s in the l a n d c o u l d h a v e b e e n r e c k o n e d as 490 y e a r s (70 x 7 = 49 x 1 0 ) . T h e s a b b a t i c a l l o g i c of this c a l c u l a t i o n w o u l d have c o h e r e d v e r y w e l l w i t h J u b i l e e s ' o w n c o n c e r n for the p r o p e r o b s e r v a n c e o f the s a b b a t h , on w h i c h in fact the b o o k e n d s (Jub 5 0 : 1 - 1 3 ) , a n d the o t h e r h e p t a d i c cycles of the s u n . T h e i n h e r e n t p l a u s i b i l i t y of this r e c o n s t r u c t i o n s h o u l d n o t be m i s s e d . T h e r e can b e little q u e s t i o n that the a u t h o r of J u b i l e e s w o u l d h a v e c o n s i d ­ ered the date for the e n d o f the exile a n d the b e g i n n i n g of the r e s t o r a t i o n ev­ ery bit as i m p o r t a n t , if n o t m o r e s o , as the j u b i l e e of j u b i l e e s that figures so largely i n the surface n a r r a t i v e o f the b o o k as a w h o l e . F o r the a u t h o r a n d his c o m m u n i t y p r o b a b l y c o n s i d e r e d t h e m s e l v e s as s t a n d i n g o n the t h r e s h o l d o f the r e s t o r a t i o n , j u s t as the A p o c a l y p s e of W e e k s — the other h e p t a d i c c h r o ­ n o l o g y w i t h a u n i v e r s a l s c o p e f r o m c r e a t i o n to n e w c r e a t i o n — m o s t likely saw its c o m m u n i t y as s t a n d i n g on the t h r e s h o l d of the eighth "week," w h i c h c o m m e n c e s the p r o t r a c t e d r e s t o r a t i o n p e r i o d ( " w e e k s " 8 - 1 0 ) .

III. Conclusion W e have a r g u e d that a l t h o u g h in s o m e respects the c h r o n o l o g i e s in the A p o c ­ alypse of Weeks a n d the b o o k of Jubilees differ substantially from o n e an­ other, in other w a y s t h e y are quite similar. T h e i r s i m i l a r i t y suggests a literary r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n the t w o w r i t i n g s , a n d the p o s s i b l e a l l u s i o n of J u b 4 : 1 8 - 1 9 to the A p o c a l y p s e of Weeks s e e m s to s h o w the d i r e c t i o n of the i n f l u e n c e . If this is correct, Jubilees w a s not u n c r i t i c a l of its s o u r c e . F o r the p e r i o d before the exile, Jubilees goes its o w n c h r o n o l o g i c a l way, especially insofar as it e v i ­ dently expects a m u c h l o n g e r length of t i m e f r o m creation to the c o n q u e s t . F o r the p e r i o d c o m m e n c i n g w i t h the exile, h o w e v e r , it can b e c r e d i b l y a r g u e d that Jubilees tracks the A p o c a l y p s e to a r e m a r k a b l e d e g r e e . E v i d e n t l y , b o t h w r i t i n g s e x p e c t the e n d of exile a n d the b e g i n n i n g of the r e s t o r a t i o n to o c c u r o n the s a m e date (3430 A . M . ) . A l t h o u g h J u b i l e e s d o e s n o t explicitly

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mention this date, it leaves enough clues via its heptadic cycles and extensive symmetries to demonstrate that the culmination of the jubilee of jubilees (2450 A . M . ) would correspond ideally to that blessed date across an axis of symmetry, the exile (2940 A . M . in the Apocalypse of Weeks). In that case, Ju­ bilees appears to expect that Israel's time in the land (2940 A . M . - 2 4 5 0 A . M . = 490 years) would equal its time in exile ( 3 4 3 0 - 2 9 4 0 = 490 years), in accor­ dance with the kind of sabbatical logic that w e see reflected in 2 C h r o n 36:21 (cf. D a n 9:24).

81

The Aramaic Levi Document, the Genesis Apocryphon, and Jubilees: A Study of Shared Traditions Esther Eshel

T h e complex interrelationships between the second temple period works that are based on, or retell, the stories of Genesis are a matter of scholarly de­ bate. Although it is not always feasible to show direct influence, examination of linguistic and thematic parallels has the potential to indicate influence or borrowing and its possible direction. T h e three Jewish texts examined here — the A r a m a i c Levi D o c u m e n t (hereafter A L D ) , the Genesis A p o c r y p h o n , and Jubilees — share the background of Genesis. However, each elaborates on the biblical text in a different way, based on its sources, on the one hand, and its author's worldview on the other. T h e underlying premise of this article is that A L D and the Genesis A p o c r y p h o n served as sources for Jubilees, as demonstrated b y the examina­ tion of parallels, mostly thematic but also linguistic in nature. These paral­ lels relate to Levi and his investiture to the priesthood, to N o a h and the world division among his sons and its accompanying mapa mundi, and to the imagery of the two ways.

I. A L D and Jubilees: Jacob's Journey and the List of Trees for Sacrificial Use I consider A L D the oldest extant w o r k in a series of writings attributed to the 1

fathers of the priestly line. It was first discovered in the Cairo Geniza, and at l. For a detailed description o f the various textual witnesses o f ALD, see J. C. Green-

82

The Aramaic

Levi Document,

the Genesis

Apocryphon,

and

Jubilees

present ten p a g e s of the G e n i z a m a n u s c r i p t o f this w o r k are k n o w n . S e v e n Q u m r a n scrolls, all f r a g m e n t a r y , h a v e b e e n identified as c o p i e s of this w o r k . T h e s i n g l e c o p y f r o m C a v e l, a n d the s i x f r o m C a v e 4, c a n be

dated

p a l e o g r a p h i c a l l y to the late H a s m o n e a n or early H e r o d i a n p e r i o d . N e i t h e r 2

the w o r k ' s b e g i n n i n g n o r its e n d has s u r v i v e d . A L D is s i g n i f i c a n t for its reli­ g i o u s ideas, w h i c h i l l u m i n e the early p o s t b i b l i c a l p e r i o d , for the light it sheds o n early p r i e s t l y p r a c t i c e , for its u n d e r s t a n d i n g of w i s d o m , a n d for its e m p h a s i s o n the t r a n s m i s s i o n o f a n c i e n t l e a r n i n g . In the e d i t i o n of A L D p u b l i s h e d b y the late J o n a s G r e e n f i e l d , M i c h a e l S t o n e , a n d myself, w e date this w o r k to the t h i r d or the early s e c o n d c e n t u r y B . C . E . at the latest. T h i s d a t i n g is g r o u n d e d in p a l e o g r a p h y , the c e n t r a l i t y o f the p r i e s t h o o d , a n d A L D ' s use o f a solar c a l e n d a r s i m i l a r to the o n e p r o ­ 3

m o t e d b y 1 E n o c h , J u b i l e e s , a n d the Q u m r a n s e c t a r i a n w r i t i n g s . T h e a b ­ sence of p o l e m i c s u r r o u n d i n g the c a l e n d a r in the s u r v i v i n g f r a g m e n t s of A L D c o n t r a s t s w i t h the s i t u a t i o n in Jubilees a n d s u p p o r t s this early d a t i n g , m a k i n g A L D o n e of the earliest k n o w n p o s t b i b l i c a l J e w i s h w r i t i n g s . O n the b a s i s o f an e x a m i n a t i o n o f s h a r e d t r a d i t i o n s f o u n d in b o t h A L D a n d J u b i ­ lees, w e a r g u e that A L D s e r v e d as a s o u r c e for Jubilees a n d the D a m a s c u s D o c u m e n t , as w e l l as for the T e s t a m e n t o f L e v i . T h e t w o m a i n e x a m p l e s of s h a r e d t h e m a t i c t r a d i t i o n s p r o v i d e d here, w h i c h are d i s c u s s e d in detail in o u r e d i t i o n of A L D , d e m o n s t r a t e that J u b i ­ lees w a s f a m i l i a r w i t h , a n d relied o n , A L D . ( F o r a d d i t i o n a l scattered e x a m ­ ples, see the c o m m e n t a r y to o u r e d i t i o n . ) T h e first e x a m p l e c o n c e r n s the s t o r y of the events f o u n d in A L D 4:9-5:8 a n d its p a r a l l e l i n J u b 3 1 - 3 2 . B o t h r e c o u n t , t h o u g h n o t n e c e s s a r i l y in the s a m e order, J a c o b ' s j o u r n e y f r o m S h e c h e m to B e t h e l a n d L e v i ' s v i s i o n s , a d d i n g events that h a v e n o b i b l i c a l b a c k g r o u n d . L e v i ' s v i s i o n in A L D 4, w h i c h c o m b i n e s p r i e s t l y a n d r o y a l f u n c ­ t i o n s , is f o l l o w e d b y L e v i ' s investiture as a priest, a n d his r e c e i v i n g tithes f r o m J a c o b a n d b e i n g blessed a n d i n s t r u c t e d b y his g r a n d f a t h e r I s a a c in c h a p . 5. T h e s e i n s t r u c t i o n s are detailed in c h a p . 6. B u t certain

field, M . E . Stone, a n d Esther Eshel, The Aramaic

Levi Document,

incidents

S V T P 19 (Leiden: Brill,

2 0 0 4 ) , 1-6. d

e

2. Two o f the copies from Q u m r a n ( 4 Q L e v i and 4 Q L e v i ) contain shorter texts than the G e n i z a m a n u s c r i p t .

M o r e o v e r , A L D p r o b a b l y inspired t w o o t h e r w o r k s f o u n d

at

Q u m r a n , 4QTestament o f Q a h a t (4Q542) a n d 4 Q V i s i o n s o f A m r a m (4Q543-549). A n o t h e r w o r k related to A L D is the Testament of Levi (— T P L , w h i c h is part of the Testaments o f the Twelve P a t r i a r c h s ) , especially three insertions in o n e o f its G r e e k m a n u s c r i p t s K o u t l o u m o u s 3 9 , called m a n u s c r i p t

(Athos

e).

3. Greenfield, Stone, a n d Eshel, The Aramaic

Levi Document,

20.

83

Esther

Eshel

found in A L D 4 : 9 - 5 : 8 (and T P L 8:1; 9 : 1 - 6 ) o c c u r earlier in the story in Jubi­ lees. T h e parallel stories are set out in the following table:

ALD

4

Jubilees 31:1 Start off in Shechem 31:3 Jacob goes to Bethel, invites Isaac and Rebecca to come to Bethel 31:4-5a Isaac refuses, invites Jacob, Levi, and Judah to go with Isaac to the residence of Abraham 31:5b-29 The meeting of Jacob and Rebecca with Levi and Judah and their blessing 31:30-32 Upon Isaac's orders, Jacob returns to Bethel with Rebecca and her nurse Deborah

4:9-12 Levi's vision of investiture

32:1 Levi's dream at Bethel, of being appointed to the eternal priesthood of the Most High

5:1a "We" go to Isaac 5:1b Isaac's blessing o f Levi 5:2 Jacob gives a tithe to Levi

32:2-3a Jacob giving the tithe; Birth of Benjamin; Jacob counting his sons — Levi as the tenth son 32:3b Levi as the tithe

Jacob invests Levi

32:3c Jacob invests Levi 32:4-15 Jacob's celebration of the Festival of Booths

5:3-5 Levi offers sacrifices and blesses his father and brothers in Bethel 5:6 Levi leaves Bethel and encamps at the residence of Abraham

Jubilees' additions to the biblical narrative are inserted between the 5

sections of the Bethel narrative in G e n 3 5 , specifically after v. 4 . T h e i r p u r -

4. A comparison o f these parallels is found in Greenfield, Stone, and Eshel, The Ara­ maic Levi Document, 151. 5.1. C. VanderKam, "lubilees' Exegetical Creation o f Levi the Priest," in From

Revela­

tion to Canon: Studies in the Hebrew Bible and Second Temple Literature (Leiden and Boston:

84

The Aramaic

Levi Document,

the Genesis Apocryphon,

and

Jubilees

p o s e is to create an earlier visit b y J a c o b to H e b r o n — so that he c a n h a v e Isaac m e e t a n d bless his g r a n d s o n s — a n d to e x p l a i n D e b o r a h ' s p r e s e n c e at 6

B e t h e l ( G e n 35:8), as K u g e l n o t e s . To this w e m u s t a d d V a n d e r K a m ' s c o m ­ m e n t : " J a c o b ' s r e t u r n to his father's h o u s e in safety m e a n t that the L o r d h a d n o w a c c o m p l i s h e d for h i m w h a t J a c o b h a d r e q u e s t e d as a p r e c o n d i t i o n for 7

c a r r y i n g o u t the v o w he h a d m a d e d u r i n g his first stay at B e t h e l . " T h e s e a d ­ ditions are consistent w i t h the centrality of J a c o b in J u b i l e e s , as o p p o s e d to A L D , w h e r e L e v i is the h e r o . A c c o r d i n g l y , Jubilees devotes c o n s i d e r a b l y less s p a c e to L e v i than does A L D . T h i s is e x e m p l i f i e d b y a c o m p a r i s o n of the b r i e f d e s c r i p t i o n of L e v i ' s investiture i n J u b 3 2 : 3 : " H i s father p u t priestly clothes on h i m a n d o r d a i n e d him," a n d the greater detail o f A L D 5:4: " a n d he invested m e in the priestly g a r b , a n d c o n s e c r a t e d m e a n d I b e c a m e a priest of the G o d of eternity." A l s o a b s e n t f r o m Jubilees is a p a r a l l e l to A L D ' s detailed d e s c r i p t i o n of L e v i b l e s s i n g his father a n d b r o t h e r s at B e t h e l ( 5 : 5 - 8 ) . A s n o t e d , the d i s p a r i t y b e t w e e n the d e s c r i p t i o n s p e r h a p s rests in the centrality of L e v i i n A L D , as in the L e v i literature in g e n e r a l . A l t h o u g h a w a r e of this t r a d i t i o n , J u b i l e e s ' focus is less L e v i - c e n t r i c a n d therefore its a c c o u n t of these events is s h o r t e r a n d less d e t a i l e d . T h e different w e i g h t afforded to the L e v i m a t e r i a l in each w o r k reflects its a u t h o r ' s w o r l d v i e w . A s e c o n d e x a m p l e o f J u b i l e e s ' use of A L D also relates to the cultic r e a l m . Isaac's i n s t r u c t i o n s to L e v i , f o u n d i n A L D 6 - 1 0 , c o m p r e h e n d

cultic

priestly t e a c h i n g s , i n c l u d i n g the f o l l o w i n g lists: (a) trees for sacrificial use, (b) prescriptions

for a n i m a l s a c r i f i c e s , (c) s a c r i f i c i a l o r d i n a n c e s ,

and

(d) metrological equivalents. I f o c u s here on the list of trees f o u n d in A L D 7:6-7, w h i c h is d o c u ­ m e n t e d in the G e n i z a a n d the Q u m r a n m a n u s c r i p t s , as w e l l as in the G r e e k m a n u s c r i p t s f r o m M o u n t A t h o s . A s seen f r o m the f o l l o w i n g table, J u b 2 1 : 1 2 15 c o n t a i n s a v e r y s i m i l a r list:

Brill, 2 0 0 0 ) , 545-61 (here 548); in his study o f the story of Levi according to Jub 3 0 - 3 2 , V a n d e r K a m maintained that the author o f Jubilees "probably had another source, the A r a ­ maic Levi, o n which to draw, whether directly or indirectly" (551), whereas R. A . Kugler, From Patriarch to Priest: The Levi-Priestly Tradition from Aramaic Levi to Testament of Levi, S B L E J L 9 (Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1996), 146-55, suggested an intermediary text between A L D a n d Jubilees. 6. J. Kugel, "Levi's Elevation to the Priesthood in Second Temple Writings," HTR 86 (1993): 1-64. F o r his latest study o n the relationship between A L D a n d Jubilees, see Kugel, " H o w O l d Is the Aramaic Levi Document?" DSD 14 (2007): 291-312. 7. V a n d e r K a m , "Jubilees' Exegetical Creation," 553.

85

Esther

Eshel ALD

Jubilees

cedar

cypress

j u n i p e r (bay)

silver fir

almond (Aramaic), mastik (Greek)

almond

fir

fir

pine

pine

ash

cedar

cypress

juniper

fig oleaster ( A r a m a i c ) , cypress ( G r e e k )

date

laurel

myrtle

myrtle

olive w o o d

laurel w o o d = cedar juniper bush

aspalathos

balsam

B e a r i n g in m i n d the difficulty of i d e n t i f y i n g these trees, a n d also the indefiniteness o f s o m e of the E t h i o p i a n t e r m s f o u n d in this p a s s a g e , the t w o lists 8

m a y b e e v e n closer t h a n a p p e a r s at first g l a n c e . In o u r c o m m e n t a r y o n A L D w e u n d e r t o o k a l i n g u i s t i c c o m p a r i s o n of these p a r a l l e l lists, w h i c h p o i n t s to the o r i g i n a l i t y of A L D ' s list. H e r e I f o c u s o n w h a t a p p e a r s to b e a m i s t a k e in Jubilees: w h e r e A L D h a s NnitfD K57, "oleaster," the p a r a l l e l in Jubilees reads "olive w o o d . " S i n c e TWfi m e a n s "oil," NntPft N57 w a s m i s t a k e n l y u n d e r s t o o d as " o l i v e w o o d , " w h i l e " o l i v e tree" is NIT'T in A r a m a i c . T h e p r o h i b i t i o n i n r a b b i n i c h a l a k a h of the use of olive w o o d o n the altar (m. Tamid 2 : 3 ) i m p l i e s that A L D h a s p r e s e r v e d the o r i g i n a l r e a d i n g . S u p p o r t i n g this s u p p o s i t i o n is the fact that J u b i l e e s ' priestly h a l a k a h is g e n e r a l l y stricter t h a n r a b b i n i c h a l a ­ k a h ; it is therefore u n l i k e l y that Jubilees w o u l d p e r m i t the use of olive w o o d on the altar. T h i s suggests that in the p r o c e s s o f c o p y i n g the list f r o m A L D , the o r i g i n a l v e r s i o n w a s c o r r u p t e d . W i t h r e g a r d to the a b o v e - n o t e d lists f o u n d in A L D 6 - 1 0 , it s h o u l d be n o t e d that despite s o m e p o i n t s of c o n t a c t w i t h later sacrificial p r a c t i c e as re­ p o r t e d in r a b b i n i c literature, these lists are l a r g e l y u n i q u e a n d p e r h a p s even p r o v i d e e v i d e n c e for the existence of cultic h a n d b o o k s d u r i n g the s e c o n d t e m p l e p e r i o d . B e c a u s e it is n o t related to the fixed daily, S a b b a t h , n e w m o o n , o r festival sacrifices p r e s c r i b e d i n the P e n t a t e u c h , the list o f sacrifices is p a r t i c u l a r l y interesting.

8. Here I c o m p a r e o n l y the translation. F o r the full details a n d discussion, see G r e e n ­

field, Stone, and Eshel, The Aramaic

86

Levi Document,

165-68.

The Aramaic

Levi Document,

the Genesis Apocryphon,

and

Jubilees

T h e r e is also an i m p o r t a n t c o n t e x t u a l difference b e t w e e n A L D a n d J u ­ bilees w i t h r e s p e c t to the t r a n s m i s s i o n of these cultic i n s t r u c t i o n s . A c c o r d ­ ing to J u b i l e e s , these i n s t r u c t i o n s w e r e t r a n s m i t t e d to I s a a c b y A b r a h a m ( J u b 2 1 ) , w h e r e a s in A L D t h e y w e r e t r a n s m i t t e d to L e v i b y I s a a c . T h i s is consistent w i t h J u b i l e e s ' w o r l d v i e w of the p a t r i a r c h s f u n c t i o n i n g as priests, starting w i t h A d a m a n d c o n t i n u i n g t h r o u g h A b r a h a m , to I s a a c , to L e v i . A s K u g e l has d e m o n s t r a t e d , this priestly line does n o t i n c l u d e J a c o b ; thus Isaac is the o n e 9

w h o delivers the directives of the p r i e s t h o o d to L e v i . A c c o r d i n g l y , the a u ­ t h o r of Jubilees "felt n o n e e d to add a n o t h e r scene in w h i c h Isaac w o u l d in­ struct L e v i in the p r i e s t h o o d (as Aramaic

Levi d o e s ) . "

1 0

I w o u l d like to a r g u e that these t e a c h i n g s are i n t r o d u c e d b y the a u t h o r o f A L D in their l o g i c a l setting, w h e r e I s a a c p r e p a r e s L e v i for his priestly role ( c h a p s . 6 - 9 ) . T h i s l o n g s e c t i o n c o n c l u d e s i n c h a p . 1 0 ( p r e s e r v e d o n l y i n the G r e e k m a n u s c r i p t f r o m M o u n t A t h o s ) w i t h Isaac's i n j u n c t i o n s a n d b l e s s i n g s to L e v i . T h i s chapter also c o n t a i n s t w o references to A b r a h a m : " F o r m y fa­ ther A b r a h a m c o m m a n d e d m e to do t h u s a n d to c o m m a n d m y s o n s " ( 1 0 : 3 ) ; a n d " F o r m y father A b r a h a m c o m m a n d e d m e for t h u s he f o u n d in the w r i t ­ ing o f the b o o k o f N o a h c o n c e r n i n g the b l o o d " ( 1 0 : 9 ) . A p p a r e n t l y these ref­ erences to A b r a h a m m o t i v a t e d the a u t h o r o f Jubilees to m o v e these cultic i n ­ structions

to e a r l i e r i n the a c c o u n t , t r a n s p o s i n g

them into

Abraham's

i n s t r u c t i o n s to I s a a c , a n d stressing A b r a h a m ' s role in the priestly l i n e . T h u s , the s h a r e d t r a d i t i o n of L e v i ' s investiture to the p r i e s t h o o d w a s altered b y J u ­ bilees to h a r m o n i z e w i t h his v i e w p o i n t of the priestly l i n e a g e as p r o c e e d i n g f r o m A d a m t h r o u g h the p a t r i a r c h s to L e v i ( a n d s k i p p i n g J a c o b ) .

II. The Genesis Apocryphon and Jubilees A. The Mapa

Mundi

A L D w a s n o t the o n l y s o u r c e available to, a n d k n o w n by, J u b i l e e s . A n o t h e r w o r k u p o n w h i c h Jubilees d r e w w a s the G e n e s i s A p o c r y p h o n . If m y first e x ­ a m p l e s of parallels a n d p o s s i b l e i n f l u e n c e c o n c e r n e d L e v i a n d his investiture to the p r i e s t h o o d , the f o l l o w i n g o n e relates to a different c o m p o n e n t of the G e n e s i s n a r r a t i v e : the d i v i s i o n of the w o r l d a m o n g N o a h ' s s o n s a n d mapa

mundi

the

it reflects.

9. Kugel, " L e v i ' s Elevation," 1 9 - 2 1 , 62-63; V a n d e r K a m , " J u b i l e e s ' Exegetical Creation," 560. 10. V a n d e r K a m , " J u b i l e e s ' Exegetical Creation," 560.

87

Esther

Eshel

T h e G e n e s i s A p o c r y p h o n — an A r a m a i c p a r a b i b l i c a l text —

recounts,

w i t h a d d i t i o n s , o m i s s i o n s , a n d e x p a n s i o n s , s o m e o f the s t o r i e s f r o m G e n 5— 15.

1 1

A l t h o u g h g e n e r a l l y a t t r i b u t e d to the s e c o n d o r first c e n t u r y B . C . E . , an

e a r l i e r d a t e c a n n o t b e r u l e d o u t f o r the c o m p o s i t i o n o f this w o r k .

1 2

L i k e the

o t h e r A r a m a i c texts f o u n d at Q u m r a n , the G e n e s i s A p o c r y p h o n is n o t c o n ­ sidered

sectarian.

In

1 3

a paper

Halpern-Amaru,

I wrote 1 4

in

honor

of m y

I d i s c u s s e d t h e mapa

friend

mundi

and

colleague

Betsy

in detail, m a i n l y c o m p a r i n g

t h e d e s c r i p t i o n s f o u n d i n the G e n e s i s A p o c r y p h o n ( c o l s . 1 6 - 1 7 ) , J u b i l e e s (8— 9 ) , a n d J o s e p h u s {Ant

1 . 1 2 2 - 4 7 ) . T h o s e s o u r c e s reflect b o t h r e l i a n c e o n G e n

10 a n d a s h a r e d c a r t o g r a p h i c a l b a s i s f o r t h e i r c o n s t r u c t i o n

o f the w o r l d ,

n a m e l y , a n u p d a t e d v e r s i o n o f this a n c i e n t , s i x t h c e n t u r y world

map, based

on

world by a median

Dicaearchus's

(fl. 3 2 6 - 2 9 6 B . C . E . )

B.C.E.

M o u n t a i n s , a n d the H i m a l a y a s .

1 6

Ionian

division of

r u n n i n g t h r o u g h the P i l l a r s o f H e r c u l e s , the

1 5

the

Taurus

O f t h e s e t e x t s , the G e n e s i s A p o c r y p h o n

1 1 . See M . J. Bernstein, " F r o m the Watchers to the F l o o d : S t o r y a n d Exegesis in the E a r l y C o l u m n s o f the ' G e n e s i s A p o c r y p h o n , ' " in Reworking lated Texts at Qumran,

the Bible: Apocryphal

and Re­

ed. E . C h a z o n , D . D i m a n t , a n d R . A . C l e m e n t s (Leiden a n d B o s t o n :

Brill, 2 0 0 5 ) , 39-63. 12. F o r the latest edition o f the G e n e s i s A p o c r y p h o n , see J . A . Fitzmyer, The Genesis Apocryphon

of Qumran

Cavei

(1Q20): A Commentary,

3 r d ed., B i b O r 1 8 / B ( R o m e : Pontificio

Instituto Biblico, 2 0 0 4 ) . T h e readings a n d translation o f the G e n e s i s A p o c r y p h o n are based on this edition. H o w e v e r , s o m e readings were arrived at in conjunction with M . Bernstein; others were f o r m u l a t e d in the course o f w o r k i n g on this article. 13. N o t e that N o a h waited until the fifth year to d r i n k the fourth-year w i n e ( l Q a p G e n 1 2 : 1 3 - 1 5 ; see also J u b 7 : 1 - 2 ) , as in sectarian law, rather than in the fourth year, as i n r a b b i n i c law. See M . Kister, " S o m e A s p e c t s o f Q u m r a n i c H a l a k h a " in The Madrid

Qumran

Proceedings

18-21 March, 1991,

of the International

Congress on the Dead

Sea Scrolls, Madrid,

Congress:

ed. J. Trebolle B a r r e r a a n d L . V e g a s M o n t a n e r , S T D J X I , 2 (Leiden: Brill, 1 9 9 2 ) , 2:581-86. O n the other h a n d , a reference to N o a h ' s e n d o g a m y in c h o o s i n g his children's s p o u s e s (col. 6 ) m a y p o i n t to general, n o n s e c t a r i a n , second temple practice. 14. E . Eshel, " T h e Imago Mundi pretation,

Identity,

and Tradition

o f the Genesis Apocryphon"

in Ancient

Judaism,

in Heavenly

Tablets:

Inter­

e d . L. L i D o n n i c i a n d A . Lieber, J S J S u p

119 (Leiden a n d B o s t o n : Brill, 2 0 0 7 ) , 1 1 1 - 3 1 . 15. S u c h constructs also a p p e a r in P s e u d o - P h i l o , Antiquities 3: 1 1 0 - 1 4 ; Acts 2 : 9 - 1 1 , a n d later, in Genesis Rabbah

of the Bible 4 . 1 - 1 0 , S i b O r 1

37:1-8. T h e War Scroll ( 1 Q M 2 : 1 0 - 1 4 ) also

contains a G e n 1 0 - b a s e d list o f nations to b e fought in the third phase o f the thirty-threeyear war. See Y. Yadin, The Scroll of the Sons of Light against

the Sons of Darkness

(Oxford:

O x f o r d U n i v e r s i t y Press, 1 9 6 2 ) , 2 6 - 3 3 . i Q M 1 0 : 1 4 - 1 5 also alludes to the division o f the w o r l d . 1 6 . P. S. A l e x a n d e r , " N o t e s o n the ' I m a g o M u n d i ' o f the B o o k o f Jubilees," JJS 33 (1982): 204; L. H . F e l d m a n , ed., Judean and Commentary,

88

Antiquities

1-4, v o l . 3 o f Flavius

e d . S. M a s o n ( B o s t o n : B r i l l , 2 0 0 0 ) , 43.

Josephus:

Translation

The Aramaic

Levi Document,

the Genesis

Apocryphon,

and

Jubilees

is, in m y o p i n i o n , the oldest s u r v i v i n g s e c o n d - t e m p l e - p e r i o d text m a p p i n g the i n h a b i t e d w o r l d .

1 7

T h e m a i n s i m i l a r i t y b e t w e e n Jubilees a n d the G e n e s i s A p o c r y p h o n re­ lates to the i m m e d i a t e

c o n t e x t in w h i c h the w o r l d d i v i s i o n is p l a c e d .

W h e r e a s the b i b l i c a l Table o f N a t i o n s a p p e a r s after the death of N o a h ( G e n 9:29; see also J o s e p h u s , Ant 1 . 1 0 4 ) , in Jubilees ( 8 : 1 0 - 1 1 ) N o a h takes an active role in d i v i d i n g the w o r l d a m o n g his s o n s , a n d the G e n e s i s A p o c r y p h o n documents

the a n n o u n c e m e n t

and interpretation

o f the d i v i s i o n of the

w o r l d in N o a h ' s d r e a m v i s i o n , w h i c h p r e c e d e s the a c t u a l d i v i s i o n . A n o t h e r s i m i l a r i t y relates to the reference to reliance o n a w r i t t e n , p r o b a b l y h e a v e n l y s o u r c e . T h e G e n e s i s A p o c r y p h o n m a k e s reference to a w r i t t e n s o u r c e in the angel's s t a t e m e n t : " S o it is w r i t t e n c o n c e r n i n g y o u " ( 1 5 : 2 0 ) ; to b e c o m p a r e d w i t h J u b i l e e s : " H e d i v i d e d the earth into the lots w h i c h his three s o n s w o u l d o c c u p y . T h e y r e a c h e d o u t their h a n d s a n d t o o k the b o o k f r o m the b o s o m of their father N o a h . In the b o o k there e m e r g e d as S h e m ' s lot . . ." ( J u b 8 : 1 1 - 1 2 ) . Finally, b o t h texts p r o v i d e a detailed d e s c r i p t i o n o f each son's

allotment,

which includes m a n y parallels, a m o n g them shared terminology, mainly l a n d - r e l a t e d t e r m s taken f r o m J o s h 1 5 . N e v e r t h e l e s s , there are s i g n i f i c a n t differences b e t w e e n the G e n e s i s A p o c r y p h o n a n d J u b i l e e s , s o m e o f w h i c h enable the d r a w i n g o f c o n c l u s i o n s w i t h r e g a r d to the i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n these texts. T h e m a i n differ­ ences are the f o l l o w i n g : 1. T h e n a t u r e of direct d i v i n e i n v o l v e m e n t in the d i v i s i o n a r y p r o c e s s : if the G e n e s i s A p o c r y p h o n attributes n o i m m e d i a t e role to angels in the d i v i ­ s i o n — rather, g e n e r a l g u i d e l i n e s to the d i v i s i o n a p p e a r in the d r e a m v i s i o n a n d its i n t e r p r e t a t i o n — a c c o r d i n g to Jubilees there is direct angelic i n v o l v e ­ m e n t : " t h e y d i v i d e d the earth into three parts . . . w h i l e o n e of us w h o w e r e sent w a s s t a y i n g w i t h t h e m " ( 8 : 1 0 ) . 2. J u b i l e e s ' e x p a n s i o n i s t tendency, w i t h r e g a r d to b o t h greater g e o ­ g r a p h i c a l detail a n d , m o r e p a r t i c u l a r l y , the p r o v i s i o n of e t h n o g r a p h i c i n f o r ­ m a t i o n , n a m e l y , w h i c h n a t i o n s i n h a b i t a p a r t i c u l a r area, to w h i c h J o s e p h u s gives even greater e m p h a s i s .

1 8

3. A n o t h e r difference relates to S h e m ' s p o r t i o n . A c c o r d i n g to the G e n e ­ sis A p o c r y p h o n , i n v a s i o n s of S h e m ' s p o r t i o n a p p e a r in N o a h ' s d r e a m v i s i o n , 17. See J. A . Fitzmyer, " G e n e s i s A p o c r y p h o n , " in EDSS,

1:302. Fitzmyer argues for its

literary d e p e n d e n c e o n Jubilees, therefore suggesting a possible first century B . C . E . dating. See, h o w e v e r , M . E . Stone, " T h e B o o k ( s ) A t t r i b u t e d to N o a h , " DSD 13 ( 2 0 0 6 ) : 9. 18. T h u s , A l e x a n d e r w a s able to identify each grandson's territory ( " I m a g o M u n d i , " 209).

89

Esther

Eshel

a p p a r e n t l y a reference to future v i o l e n t acts, b u t n o v i o l e n t i n v a s i o n is re­ c o r d e d i n the G e n e s i s A p o c r y p h o n ' s a c t u a l a c c o u n t of the d i v i s i o n of the w o r l d . A different a p p r o a c h is d o c u m e n t e d in J u b i l e e s , w h i c h r e p o r t s i n v a ­ s i o n s c o n d u c t e d b y C a n a a n , the s o n of H a m , a n d n e g o t i a t i o n s for l a n d b y M a d a i , the son of J a p h e t h . 4. T h e m o s t c r u c i a l difference lies in the a c t u a l lots g i v e n to each s o n a n d in the p r o m i n e n c e J u b i l e e s a s c r i b e s to J e r u s a l e m . A c c o r d i n g to J u b i ­ lees, S h e m r e c e i v e d all o f A s i a M i n o r , t o g e t h e r w i t h S y r i a , P h o e n i c i a , a n d P a l e s t i n e , w h e r e a s a c c o r d i n g to the G e n e s i s A p o c r y p h o n , the r e g i o n o f A s i a M i n o r b e l o n g e d to J a p h e t h . G e n e s i s A p o c r y p h o n a g r e e s here w i t h the m a p o f S h e m ' s lot a c c o r d i n g to J o s e p h u s (Antiquities).

M o r e o v e r , the s u r ­

v i v i n g text of the G e n e s i s A p o c r y p h o n d o c u m e n t s n o c o n c e p t o f J e r u s a ­ l e m ' s s u p e r i o r i t y . I n d e e d , o n the b a s i s of the m e n t i o n o f "the Sea o f the E a s t " (NrUTft D'; 1 7 : 1 0 ) in L u d ' s a l l o t m e n t , I m a i n t a i n t h a t the G e n e s i s A p o c r y p h o n d i d n o t s h a r e this b i a s . T h e " S e a o f the E a s t " c a n b e i d e n t i f i e d as J u b i l e e s ' M a u q S e a , the p r e s e n t - d a y S e a o f A z o v . T h i s r e f e r e n c e to the Sea of the E a s t reflects the o r i e n t a t i o n f r o m G r e e c e , n a m e l y , w i t h D e l p h i at the center. T h u s , as o p p o s e d to J u b i l e e s , w h i c h c o n v e r t s the I o n i c m a p to a J e w i s h p e r s p e c t i v e , p l a c i n g J e r u s a l e m at the c e n t e r o f the w o r l d , the G e n e ­ sis A p o c r y p h o n r e t a i n s the f o c u s o f the o r i g i n a l I o n i c m a p . O n l y s o m e o n e u s i n g G r e e c e as a r e f e r e n c e p o i n t c o u l d refer to the Sea of A z o v as "the Sea of the East." F u r t h e r m o r e , closer e x a m i n a t i o n of the parallels b e t w e e n these t w o w o r k s enables the i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f three m i s t a k e s in J u b i l e e s . T h e s e m i s t a k e s i n d i c a t e J u b i l e e s ' k n o w l e d g e of, a n d reliance o n , the G e n e s i s A p o c r y p h o n : 1. O n e m i s t a k e relates to the p o r t i o n allotted to A r a m , w h e r e Jubilees reads "the entire l a n d of M e s o p o t a m i a b e t w e e n the T i g r i s a n d the E u p h r a t e s to the north o f the C h a l d e a n s " ; on the basis of the G e n e s i s A p o c r y p h o n ' s de­ s c r i p t i o n , it s h o u l d r e a d "to the east!' 2. A n o t h e r o b v i o u s m i s t a k e in Jubilees results f r o m a m i s r e a d i n g in L u d ' s a l l o t m e n t . T h e G e n e s i s A p o c r y p h o n r e a d s , "for L u d it fell the T a u r u s m o u n t a i n s " (Klin T1D, 1 7 : 1 0 ) , w h i l e Jubilees has "for L u d these e m e r g e d as the fifth share the m o u n t a i n r a n g e of A s s h u r " ( 9 : 6 ) . T h e A s s h u r M o u n t a i n s are u n k n o w n f r o m the B i b l e or any o t h e r J e w i s h s o u r c e ; o n the basis of the G e n e s i s A p o c r y p h o n , I s u b m i t that this reflects a s c r i b a l m i s r e a d i n g : T113

TinK instead of XTin "110. 3. A c c o r d i n g to J u b i l e e s , the K a m a t u r i Islands b e l o n g to S h e m ' s s o n A r p a c h s h a d ; t h e y w e r e , h o w e v e r , m i s t a k e n l y a p p e n d e d to the p o r t i o n

of

Japheth's s o n s , after T i r a s ' s p o r t i o n ( 9 : 1 3 b ) . E v e n t h o u g h the p o s s i b l e p a r a l l e l

90

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in the G e n e s i s A p o c r y p h o n has not s u r v i v e d , the d i s p o s i t i o n o f these islands w a s clearly n o t a p p e n d e d to T i r a s ' s p o r t i o n there. N o t w i t h s t a n d i n g these differences, the parallels b e t w e e n the G e n e s i s A p o c r y p h o n a n d J u b i l e e s are significant, raising the q u e s t i o n o f the rela­ t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n the t w o s o u r c e s . S o m e s c h o l a r s suggest that the a u t h o r of Jubilees utilized a n d a d a p t e d the G e n e s i s A p o c r y p h o n to his n e e d s , or that both authors used a c o m m o n s o u r c e .

1 9

I a r g u e that the distinct d e v e l o p m e n t

of the w o r l d d i v i s i o n in each w o r k e m e r g e s m o r e s t r o n g l y f r o m the differ­ ences t h a n f r o m the s i m i l a r i t i e s b e t w e e n the texts. T h e G e n e s i s A p o c r y p h o n is the o l d e r s o u r c e , in w h i c h the o r i g i n a l I o n i c m a p c a n still b e t r a c e d . T h i s text w a s later u s e d b y the a u t h o r of J u b i l e e s , w h i c h he c o n v e r t e d to fit his J e w i s h p e r s p e c t i v e , a w a r d i n g S h e m the m a j o r p o r t i o n a n d f u n c t i o n — as he received all o f A s i a M i n o r , t o g e t h e r w i t h S y r i a , P h o e n i c i a , a n d Palestine — a n d p l a c i n g J e r u s a l e m at the center of the w o r l d . T h u s , b o t h the identifica­ tion o f m i s t a k e s a n d a c o n c e p t u a l shift in the n a t u r e of the mapa

mundi

in­

dicate that the G e n e s i s A p o c r y p h o n s e r v e d as a s o u r c e for J u b i l e e s .

B. The Two-Ways

Imagery

I c o n c l u d e w i t h a p r e l i m i n a r y a t t e m p t to trace the m o t i f o f the t w o w a y s in the w o r k s u n d e r c o n s i d e r a t i o n . In this e x a m i n a t i o n of different aspects o f a s h a r e d t r a d i t i o n , it is m o r e difficult to s h o w direct i n f l u e n c e . T h e r e f o r e the d i s c u s s i o n a i m s s i m p l y to c h a r t the uses o f the t r a d i t i o n of the t w o p a t h s in these r o u g h l y c o n t e m p o r a n e o u s texts. T h e c o n c e p t of w a l k i n g in "the p a t h of t r u t h " has its roots in the b i b l i ­ cal nQX

( " w a y of t r u t h " ) m e n t i o n e d in G e n 24:48. T h e m e t a p h o r o f the

t w o w a y s , of the p a t h s of g o o d a n d o f evil, first a p p e a r s in D e u t 3 0 : 1 5 - 2 0 , w h e r e the w a y s of life a n d o f death are related to o b e d i e n c e or d i s o b e d i e n c e of d i v i n e c o m m a n d m e n t s . T h i s m e t a p h o r also " r u n s like a t h r e a d Prov 1-8."

2 0

through

T h e s e a n c i e n t texts (as w e l l as Jer 2 1 : 8 , w h i c h interprets

30:15 in an i r o n i c e x e g e s i s )

2 1

Deut

" a p p e a r to e m p l o y the t w o w a y s as a c o n s t r u c t

19. See J. T. van Ruiten, " T h e Division o f the Earth," in Primaeval History Interpreted: The Rewriting of Genesis 1-11 in the Book of Jubilees, JSJSup 66 (Leiden, Boston, and C o l o g n e : Brill, 2 0 0 0 ) , 307ff. 20. G . W. E . Nickelsburg, 1 Enoch 1: A Commentary on the Book of 1 Enoch, Chapters 1 36, 81-108 (Minneapolis: Fortress, 2 0 0 1 ) , 455. 21. See W. L. Holladay, Jeremiah 1: A Commentary on the Book of the Prophet Jeremiah Chapters 1 - 2 5 , Hermeneia (Minneapolis: Fortress, 1986), 573-74.

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for e n v i s i o n i n g alternative b e h a v i o r s r a t h e r t h a n to constitute a fixed t w o ways literary f o r m . "

2 2

I n his d i s c u s s i o n of later texts u s i n g the s a m e i m a g e ,

dated to the H e l l e n i s t i c p e r i o d ( T o b i t a n d l E n o c h ) , N i c k e l s b u r g s h o w s the c o n t i n u a t i o n of the b i b l i c a l p a r a l l e l s , w h e r e "the t w o w a y s i m a g e r y is e m ­ p l o y e d as a c o n s t r u c t for ethical a d m o n i t i o n s . "

23

A w e l l - k n o w n p a r a l l e l is

f o u n d in l Q S 3 : 1 5 - 4 : 2 6 , as w e l l as in s o m e related early C h r i s t i a n s o u r c e s , a m o n g t h e m B a r n a b a s 1 8 - 2 1 a n d the D i d a c h e 1 - 6 ,

2 4

w h i c h are o u t s i d e the

s c o p e of this article. I n his s t u d y of this m o t i f in early J e w i s h s o u r c e s , N i c k e l s b u r g c a m e to the c o n c l u s i o n that "the t w o - w a y s i m a g e r y in b i b l i c a l a n d p o s t - b i b l i c a l t r a d i t i o n is i n e x t r i c a b l y b o u n d u p w i t h the n o t i o n of di­ v i n e r e c o m p e n s e for h u m a n d e e d s . T h e s e d e e d s are a l l u d e d to, or d e s c r i b e d in b i n a r y or p o l a r f a s h i o n , a n d r i g h t a n d w r o n g d e e d s b r i n g d i v i n e b l e s s i n g a n d p u n i s h m e n t respectively." H e further s u g g e s t s : "As J e w i s h t h e o l o g y b e ­ g i n s to t h i n k in t e r m s of an e s c h a t o l o g i c a l j u d g m e n t , the 'life' a n d

'death'

that w a i t at the ends of the w a y s are c o n s t r u c t e d as eternal life a n d eternal destruction."

25

I s u g g e s t that a d d i t i o n a l , early J e w i s h texts b e i n c o r p o r a t e d in the e x ­ i s t i n g d i s c u s s i o n , n a m e l y , the texts c o n s i d e r e d h e r e : A L D , the

Genesis

A p o c r y p h o n , a n d J u b i l e e s , a l o n g s i d e T o b i t . H e r e I c a n o n l y o u t l i n e the first steps of s u c h a s t u d y of the t w o - w a y s motif, a n d I v i e w this as a w o r k in progress. T h e earliest p o s t b i b l i c a l s o u r c e for the t w o - w a y s i m a g e r y is A L D 3. b

P r e s e r v e d p a r t i a l l y in 4 Q L e v i , this text w a s r e c o n s t r u c t e d

by Stone and

G r e e n f i e l d b a s e d on the A t h o s G r e e k m a n u s c r i p t , w h i c h p r e s e r v e s the p r a y e r in full. T h i s p r a y e r reads as f o l l o w s :

2 6

3:4And n o w m y children are w i t h m e , and g r a n t m e all the p a t h s of truth. 3:5Make far from m e , m y L o r d ,

22. G . W. E . Nickelsburg, "Seeking the Origins o f the Two Ways Tradition," in A Mul­ tiform Heritage: Studies on Early Judaism and Christianity in Honor of Robert A. Kraft (At­ lanta: Scholars Press, 1999), 98. 23. Nickelsburg, "Seeking the Origins," 98. 24. Where Kraft found what he called "basic b i n a r y " form; see R. A. Kraft, "Early D e ­ velopments o f the 'Two-Way Tradition(s)' in Retrospect," in For a Later Generation: The Transformation of Tradition in Israel, Early Judaism, and Early Christianity, ed. R . A . Argall, B . A . B o w , a n d R . A . Werline (Harrisburg, Pa.: Trinity, 2 0 0 0 ) , 137. 25. Nickelsburg, "Seeking the Origins," 108. 26. Greenfield, Stone, a n d Eshel, The Aramaic Levi Document, 33-34, 60-61, 125-30.

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the u n r i g h t e o u s spirit, a n d evil t h o u g h t a n d f o r n i c a t i o n . . . . 3:6Let there be s h o w n to m e , O L o r d , the h o l y spirit, and g r a n t m e counsel, and w i s d o m a n d k n o w l e d g e a n d strength, 3:7-8in order to do that w h i c h is pleasing before y o u . . . . 3:9And let n o t any satan have p o w e r over m e , to m a k e m e stray f r o m y o u r path.

T h i s prayer, l o c a t e d b e f o r e L e v i ' s d r e a m a n d investiture, o p e n s w i t h " M y L o r d , y o u k n o w all hearts . . ." ( 3 : 3 ) . T h e u n e x p e c t e d n o t e s t r u c k b y " A n d n o w m y c h i l d r e n are w i t h m e " (3:4a) w i l l b e d i s c u s s e d b e l o w . A s it s t a n d s , this p r a y e r i n c l u d e s : a p e t i t i o n for G o d to s h o w L e v i "all the p a t h s o f truth" ( 3 : 4 b ) , to d i s t a n c e the evil spirit f r o m h i m , to g r a n t h i m the h o l y spirit of w i s d o m a n d k n o w l e d g e , w h i c h w i l l help h i m act p r o p e r l y b e f o r e G o d (3:68); a n d a plea for d i v i n e p r o t e c t i o n f r o m satan, w h o m a k e s h i m stray f r o m G o d ' s p a t h ( 3 : 9 ) . A s S t o n e a n d G r e e n f i e l d n o t e : " T h i s is c e r t a i n l y o n e of the o l d e s t p a s s a g e s in w h i c h t w o spirits are c o n t r a s t e d , a n d if the v i e w o f a t h i r d c e n t u r y B C E date for ALD is a c c e p t e d , t h e n this c o n c e p t , so c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f the Q u m r a n texts, m u s t b e p u t b a c k to that date. T h e t e r m i n o l o g y u s e d here, h o w e v e r , is n o t t y p i c a l of the s e c t a r i a n w r i t i n g s f r o m Q u m r a n . "

2 7

Further­

m o r e , as w e a r g u e in o u r e d i t i o n of A L D , "It is related to the idea of the t w o w a y s , o n e g o o d a n d o n e b a d . . . b u t is distinct f r o m it in its use o f the i d e a of the t w o s p i r i t s . "

28

T h u s , in w h a t f o l l o w s I w i l l c o n c e n t r a t e o n l y o n the t w o -

w a y s i m a g e a n d its p a r a l l e l s .

29

I d i v e r g e briefly to d i s c u s s L e v i ' s m e n t i o n of his c h i l d r e n at the b e g i n ­ n i n g o f the p r a y e r . In o u r c o m m e n t a r y to A L D 3:4 w e n o t e h o w "the m e n ­ t i o n of L e v i ' s c h i l d r e n at this p o i n t s e e m s o u t o f p l a c e , a n d the r e a s o n for their i n t r o d u c t i o n is unclear. S u c h a m e n t i o n m i g h t h a v e b e e n m o r e a p p r o ­ priate in the c o n t e x t of 3 : i 5 . "

3 0

T h e b e g i n n i n g o f this v e r s e , p r e s e r v e d o n l y in

the M o u n t A t h o s G r e e k m a n u s c r i p t , has a p a r t i a l p a r a l l e l in the A r a m a i c b

m a n u s c r i p t s f r o m the G e n i z a a n d Q u m r a n . 4 Q L e v i reads as f o l l o w s :

27. M . E . Stone and J . C . Greenfield, " T h e Prayer o f Levi," JBL 112 (1993): 252. 28. Greenfield, S t o n e , a n d Eshel, The Aramaic

Levi Document,

34.

29. Other parallels, b u t w i t h o u t the contrastive negative way, are f o u n d in v a r i o u s A r ­ a

a m a i c c o m p o s i t i o n s from Q u m r a n C a v e 4. T h u s , 4 Q p s e u d o - D a n i e l reads, ". . . indeed, the children o f [ . . . ] the w a y s of truth" (4Q243 7 2 - 3 ) ; a n d 4 Q 2 4 6 2 5 reads: " [ . . . ] a n d all his w a y s are truth." 30. Greenfield, Stone, a n d Eshel, The Aramaic

Levi Document,

125.

93

Esther

Eshel pmx

twp

n m s [ . . . ] 12

x r m n " u ' s p . . . ] 13 12 [. . .] paths of truth. M a k e far 13 [. . .] evil [. . .] a n d fornication t u r n a w a y .

31

A c o m p a r i s o n o f A L D 3:4 to a d d i t i o n a l parallels m a y e x p l a i n the o r i ­ gin of its a n a c h r o n i s t i c call for L e v i ' s s o n s . I suggest that at s o m e p o i n t in the t r a n s m i s s i o n o f the text, m o s t likely w h e n it w a s a l r e a d y translated G r e e k , the

copyist, w h o was familiar with

other

into

two-ways motifs

in

t e s t a m e n t a l c o n t e x t s , such as T o b 4, or even w i t h the later E p i s t l e o f E n o c h , or the T e s t a m e n t of A s h e r 1, i n t r o d u c e d a t e s t a m e n t a l f o r m u l a h e r e . I p r o ­ p o s e o n this b a s i s that the o r i g i n a l text m a y h a v e i n c l u d e d o n l y a r e q u e s t b

f r o m G o d to s h o w or g r a n t L e v i the p a t h s of truth, as f o u n d in 4 Q L e v i . To s u m m a r i z e , A L D i n c l u d e s w h a t a p p e a r s to be the earliest k n o w n reference to the t w o w a y s , as w e l l as a g e n e r a l reference to p l e a s i n g G o d b y f o l l o w i n g his g u i d a n c e a n d w a l k i n g in the r i g h t p a t h . A n o t h e r early s o u r c e in w h i c h this m o t i f o c c u r s is T o b i t . A s p a r t of his p r o g r a m m a t i c s t a t e m e n t , T o b i t states: " I , Tobit, w a l k e d the p a t h s o f fidelity a n d r i g h t e o u s n e s s all the days of m y life" ( i : 3 ) .

3 2

T h e same motif appears

later in Tobit's t e s t a m e n t a r y i n s t r u c t i o n to his son T o b i a s :

3 3

B e m i n d f u l of ( G o d ) the L o r d , m y boy, e v e r y day of y o u r life. D o not seek to sin or transgress H i s c o m m a n d m e n t s . Practice r i g h t e o u s n e s s all the days of y o u r life, a n d tread not the paths of w i c k e d n e s s . For those w h o act w i t h fidelity w i l l p r o s p e r in all they ( y o u ) d o . To all those w h o practice r i g h t e o u s n e s s . ( 4 : 5 - 6 )

34

For a l m s g i v i n g preserves one from death a n d keeps one f r o m g o i n g off into d a r k n e s s . ( 4 : i o )

3 5

b

31. M . E . Stone and J. C . Greenfield, "213a. 4 Q L e v i ar," in G . Brooke et al., Qumran Cave 4:XVII, Parabiblical Texts, Part3, D J D 22 (Oxford: Clarendon, 1996), 28-31. 32. Where G = G ; the translation is based on J. A . Fitzmyer, Tobit, C E J L (Berlin a n d N e w York: D e Gruyter, 2003), 98. 33. According to G , which, unless noted, is usually identical with G . 34. Fitzmyer, Tobit, 163, according to G , where G reads, "For if y o u act in fidelity, success will attend all y o u do. To all those w h o practice righteousness." 35. Fitzmyer, Tobit, 164. 1 1

1

11

1

n

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Jubilees

A t h i r d reference is f o u n d in Tobit's i n s t r u c t i o n s to T o b i a s : " O n e v e r y o c ­ casion praise G o d and beg H i m that y o u r ways m a y be m a d e straight and 1

all y o u r p a t h s [ G + a n d p l a n s ] m a y l e a d to p r o s p e r i t y " ( 4 : 1 9 ) . W h i l e the m o t i f o f the t w o w a y s in T o b i t a n d A L D is related to its b i b l i c a l i m a g e r y , b o t h w o r k s s h a r e a n e w c o n t e x t for this m o t i f — in a p r a y e r to G o d . B u t t h e y differ in their r e l a t i o n s h i p to T o r a h . W h e r e a s A L D d o e s n o t e x p l i c i t l y refer to the o b s e r v a n c e o f G o d ' s c o m m a n d m e n t s , o n l y to " w h a t is p l e a s i n g to y o u [ n a m e l y , G o d ] " ( 3 : 7 ) , T o b i t e x p l i c a t e s his p a t h w i t h r e f e r e n c e to his o b s e r v a n c e of G o d ' s c o m m a n d m e n t s , w h i c h he c o n t r a s t s w i t h the s i n f u l b e h a v i o r o f the N o r t h e r n K i n g d o m ( 1 : 4 - 9 ) . T h i s e m p h a s i s o n f u l f i l l m e n t o f the d i v i n e c o m m a n d m e n t s

is a b s e n t f r o m the o t h e r w o r k s c o n s i d e r e d

h e r e . F i n a l l y , as N i c k e l s b u r g n o t e s , "the a u t h o r n a r r a t i v i z e s the idea of w a l k i n g o n the p a t h in his a c c o u n t o f T o b i a s ' s j o u r n e y f r o m N i n e v e h to E c b a t a n (cf. 5 : 2 i - 2 2 ) . "

3 6

T h u s , w h i l e there are p o i n t s o f c o n t a c t

between

A L D ' s use o f the t w o - w a y s m o t i f a n d t h a t o f T o b i t , p a r t i c u l a r l y the p r a y e r c o n t e x t , T o b i t p l a c e s e m p h a s i s o n a n d l i n k s the p a t h s to the o b s e r v a n c e of the d i v i n e

commandments.

A t h i r d a n c i e n t d e s c r i p t i o n of the t w o w a y s a p p e a r s in the G e n e s i s A p o c r y p h o n , c o l u m n V I , as p a r t of N o a h ' s story, w h i c h starts w i t h his b i r t h , as told b y his father L a m e c h ( c o l . I I ) , a n d c o n t i n u e s w i t h N o a h ' s b i o g r a p h y , a f i r s t - p e r s o n a c c o u n t p r e c e d e d b y the title " [a c o p y o f ] the b o o k o f the w o r d s of N o a h " ( V : 2 9 ) .

3 7

After five m i s s i n g lines, the b i o g r a p h y starts w i t h the fol­

lowing words:

[.. .] A n d in the furnace of m y gestation I flourished to truth; a n d w h e n I left m y m o t h e r ' s w o m b , I w a s r o o t e d in truth a n d I c o n d u c t e d m y s e l f in truth all m y days, a n d I w a l k e d in the paths of eternal truth, a n d w i t h m e w a s the H o l y [One] on the path of the w a y of truth, and to w a r n m e a w a y from the path of f a l s e h o o d w h i c h leads to everlasting darkness [. . .] I g i r d e d m y loins in a v i s i o n of truth a n d w i s d o m w h e n there en­ tered [. . .] all the paths of v i o l e n c e . ( V L 1 - 5 )

36. N i c k e l s b u r g , "Seeking the Origins," 99. 37. S o m e argue that this part o f the G e n e s i s A p o c r y p h o n originated as an i n d e p e n d ­ ent c o m p o s i t i o n , p r o b a b l y from the B o o k of N o a h . See R. C . Steiner, " T h e H e a d i n g o f the Book of the Words of Noah o n a F r a g m e n t of the G e n e s i s A p o c r y p h o n : N e w Light o n a ' L o s t ' Work," DSD 2 (1995): 6 6 - 7 1 . F o r a discussion of the possible existence of a lost b o o k (or b o o k s ) of N o a h , see Stone's recent study, " B o o k ( s ) A t t r i b u t e d to N o a h , " 5-9, w h e r e he also relates to earlier studies. See Fitzmyer, " G e n e s i s A p o c r y p h o n , " 3 0 2 - 3 .

95

Esther

Eshel T h i s d e s c r i p t i o n is u n i q u e in m a n y w a y s : here w e find for the first t i m e

a full A r a m a i c d e s c r i p t i o n w r i t t e n u s i n g a p o e t i c s t r u c t u r e , s i m i l a r to b i b l i ­ cal stichoi, w i t h parallels a n d c o n t r a d i c t i o n s . W i t h i n these lines w e find the f o l l o w i n g " w a y s " t e r m i n o l o g y : m i N , V'DtP, HVOH

( t w o o f these —

nVOH a n d 3 ' n j — are H e b r e w w o r d s f o u n d in this A r a m a i c c o m p o s i t i o n ) . W e also find adjectives d e s c r i b i n g the right w a y , u s i n g OtPIp, "truth," or fiON, "truth" ( a g a i n , a H e b r e w w o r d ) . T h i s , in t u r n , is c o n t r a s t e d w i t h the 1

adjectives d e s c r i b i n g the w r o n g w a y as "IStt^, "falsehood", "TlttM !, "darkness," or O H n , " v i o l e n c e . "

38

N o a h ' s t e s t i m o n y to w a l k i n g in the p a t h o f t r u t h in the G e n e s i s A p o c r y p h o n has its closest p a r a l l e l in Tob 1:3: " I , Tobit, w a l k e d the p a t h s o f fidelity

a n d r i g h t e o u s n e s s all the days of m y life." U n l i k e Tobit, w h i c h , as

mentioned,

relates the p a t h o f r i g h t e o u s n e s s to T o r a h , i n the

Genesis

A p o c r y p h o n , as in A L D , n o reference to the d i v i n e c o m m a n d m e n t s is f o u n d . B u t n o t o n l y is the G e n e s i s A p o c r y p h o n ' s d e s c r i p t i o n o f the t w o w a y s m o r e detailed, it also i n t r o d u c e s a significant n e w e l e m e n t , the eternality o f b o t h g o o d a n d evil: " I w a l k e d in the p a t h s o f eternal trasted w i t h the " p a t h o f everlasting

truth," w h i c h is c o n ­

d a r k n e s s . " A c c o r d i n g l y , the G e n e s i s

A p o c r y p h o n represents the b e s t o w i n g o f an e s c h a t o l o g i c a l t h e o l o g y o n the t w o - w a y s motif. M y final e x a m p l e c o n c e r n s a l e s s - k n o w n p a r a l l e l f r o m J u b i l e e s . B e ­ c a u s e its t w o - w a y s i m a g e r y is less explicit t h a n in the p r e v i o u s l y d i s c u s s e d w o r k s , I rely o n the G e n e s i s A p o c r y p h o n for its e x t r a p o l a t i o n . A s w e s a w a b o v e , in its early b i o g r a p h y of N o a h the G e n e s i s A p o c r y p h o n

documents

h o w he w a l k e d in the p a t h o f t r u t h . J u b i l e e s ' initial r e c o u n t i n g of the s t o r y of N o a h ' s a r k relies o n 1 E n o c h ( 6 - 1 6 ; 8 6 - 8 8 ) b u t also q u o t e s G e n 6:8 ( J u b 5:5: " H e w a s p l e a s e d w i t h N o a h a l o n e " ) . Jubilees r e t u r n s to the N o a h s t o r y in 5:19, w h i c h reads: " T o all who corrupted

39

their ways and theirplan(s)

before

the f l o o d n o favor w a s s h o w n , except to N o a h a l o n e b e c a u s e favor w a s s h o w n to h i m for the sake o f his c h i l d r e n w h o m he saved f r o m the f l o o d w a ­ ters for his sake because his mind

was righteous

in all his ways, as it has b e e n

c o m m a n d e d c o n c e r n i n g h i m . H e d i d n o t transgress f r o m a n y t h i n g that h a d

38. T h i s rich i m a g e r y of the two w a y s , including b o t h H e b r e w and A r a m a i c terms, b r i n g s to m i n d the n a m e - m i d r a s h o f Levi's sons in A L D (chap. 1 1 ) ; a n d his g r a n d s o n A m r a m (12:4), w h i c h includes b o t h H e b r e w a n d A r a m a i c e t y m o l o g i e s (Greenfield, Stone, a n d Eshel, The Aramaic

Levi Document,

184-93).

39. T h e addition of "and p l a n s " seems to have o r i g i n a t e d in Tob 4:19, w h e r e G

1 1

reads:

" O n every o c c a s i o n praise G o d a n d b e g H i m that y o u r w a y s m a y be m a d e straight a n d all 1

y o u r p a t h s m a y lead to prosperity," a n d G reads: " y o u r paths and

96

plans!'

The Aramaic

Levi Document,

the Genesis

Apocryphon,

and

Jubilees

b e e n o r d a i n e d for him." I suggest that the t w o - w a y s t e r m i n o l o g y u n d e r l i e s this d e s c r i p t i o n , in w h i c h N o a h ' s r i g h t e o u s w a y is c o n t r a s t e d to that of oth­ ers w h o c h o o s e the w r o n g w a y , a n d f u r t h e r m o r e ,

that the a d d i t i o n

of

n o n b i b l i c a l e l e m e n t s u s i n g the t w o - w a y s t e r m i n o l o g y to explicate N o a h ' s r i g h t e o u s n e s s e c h o e s G e n e s i s A p o c r y p h o n , col. V I : " a n d I w a l k e d in the p a t h s of eternal truth" (1. 2 ) , as o p p o s e d to "the p a t h of f a l s e h o o d w h i c h leads to e v e r l a s t i n g d a r k n e s s [. . . ] " (1. 3 ) .

4 0

H a v i n g d e m o n s t r a t e d that J u b i ­

lees u s e d the G e n e s i s A p o c r y p h o n as a s o u r c e for its m a p of the w o r l d a n d its d i v i s i o n , I s u r m i s e that Jubilees c o u l d also have a d a p t e d it in its p o r t r a y a l of N o a h . B o t h texts d e s c r i b e N o a h as w a l k i n g i n the r i g h t e o u s p a t h , b u t J u ­ bilees a g a i n shifts the e m p h a s i s to w h a t is significant to its w o r l d v i e w , n a m e l y , that N o a h follows G o d ' s c o m m a n d s : "as it has b e e n

commanded

c o n c e r n i n g h i m . H e d i d n o t t r a n s g r e s s f r o m a n y t h i n g that h a d b e e n o r ­ d a i n e d for him." A s w e h a v e seen, this e l e m e n t is also f o u n d in Tobit's b i o g ­ raphy. A n o t h e r e l e m e n t s h a r e d w i t h T o b i t is the existence o f a r e w a r d for fol­ l o w i n g the r i g h t w a y — Jubilees " b e c a u s e f a v o r w a s s h o w n to him," a n d T o b i t : " F o r t h o s e w h o act w i t h fidelity w i l l p r o s p e r in all they d o . To all those who

practice

righteousness"

( 4 : 6 ) . B u t , as

opposed

to

the

Genesis

A p o c r y p h o n , this c o n t e x t c o n t a i n s n o e s c h a t o l o g i c a l t h e o l o g y . Briefly, this p r e l i m i n a r y d i s c u s s i o n of the t w o - w a y s m o t i f in a n c i e n t p o s t b i b l i c a l s o u r c e s d e m o n s t r a t e s that it a p p e a r s i n s e v e r a l c o n t e x t s : in the b i o g r a p h y of N o a h ( G e n e s i s A p o c r y p h o n , Tobit, a n d J u b i l e e s ) ; in p r a y e r contexts ( A r a m a i c L e v i D o c u m e n t a n d T o b i t ) ; a n d in an i n s t r u c t i o n a l c o n ­ text ( T o b i t ) . T h e a d d i t i o n o f an e l e m e n t of e s c h a t o l o g i c a l t h e o l o g y to this m o t i f is f o u n d in G e n e s i s A p o c r y p h o n . It is n o t p o s s i b l e at this stage of m y i n q u i r y , h o w e v e r , to s h o w a direct r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n the s o u r c e s , t h o u g h I s u r m i s e that Jubilees m a y h a v e relied o n the G e n e s i s A p o c r y p h o n in its d e ­ s c r i p t i o n of N o a h ' s r i g h t e o u s n e s s .

40. Further, V a n d e r K a m discusses the difficult phrase "favor w a s s h o w n to h i m " (see J. C . V a n d e r K a m , The Book of Jubilees

[ L o u v a i n : Peeters, 1 9 8 9 ] , 3 4 ) , h a v i n g the " H e b r e w NtP 3

D^D u n d e r l i n e the E t h i o p i c words," e x p l a i n i n g it in "a positive sense, 'to be g r a c i o u s t o ' ( G e n 3 2 : 2 1 ) . " I w o u l d like to argue that Jubilees here is p r o b a b l y a c o r r u p t e d text. T h e biblical p h r a s e is Ti

jrt NXQ nil ( G e n 6:8), translated b y Jubilees as "he w a s pleased w i t h

N o a h alone," a n d translated literally: " N o a h alone f o u n d favor b e f o r e his e y e s " (5:5; V a n d e r K a m , The Book of Jubilees,

33). T h i s verse is referred to in G e n e s i s A p o c r y p h o n 6:23:

JUttnpl 1 3 T jn m : TUN nrD[tt>K1, "And I N o a h f o u n d favor, greatness a n d truth." We m i g h t trace the d e v e l o p m e n t o f the Jubilees v e r s i o n as follows: jn NXE w a s u n d e r s t o o d as parallel w i t h jn

1

the latter also f o u n d in the phrase ''SD ? jn 1

leled w i t h ""IS ? jn

e.g., Esther 2:17. T h i s is paral­

w h e r e •'UQ - ^D"7, thus creating the w r o n g p h r a s e D^D +

97

Esther

Eshel

III. Conclusions This paper traces some literary-conceptual parallels between three ancient Jewish compositions. Although these parallels do not provide conclusive ev­ idence that both A L D and the Genesis A p o c r y p h o n are older than Jubilees, I argue that the weight of the evidence shows that Jubilees was at least familiar with the traditions in these works, and probably with these works them­ selves. I base this conclusion on various literary and topical parallels be­ tween these sources, both where I was able to show scribal mistakes whose original readings were found in either A L D or the Genesis A p o c r y p h o n , and ideological alterations made b y Jubilees in line with its worldview. These ideological changes appear in the cultic instructions delivered to Levi by Isaac, which Jubilees shifts to A b r a h a m delivering to Isaac, as well as in the story of N o a h — in both the division of the world to his sons and in the mapa mundi. I also postulated that Jubilees' reference to Noah's righteous­ ness m a y have been grounded in the two-ways imagery of other works, of the Genesis A p o c r y p h o n in particular. In the discussion

of the w o r l d m a p I argued that the

Genesis

A p o c r y p h o n preserves the oldest m a p , and that Jubilees documents its later usage. I reached the same conclusions regarding Jubilees' use of the twoways imagery. Integral to the Genesis Apocryphon's depiction of N o a h is his walking in the right way, and divine guidance keeping him away from the w r o n g path. Jubilees reflects a short reference, both linguistic and concep­ tual, to this portrayal. This reference to the two-ways imagery in connection with N o a h suggests that the author of Jubilees was familiar with Noah's bi­ ography as depicted b y the Genesis A p o c r y p h o n .

98

The Book of Jubilees and the Temple Scroll Lawrence H. Schiffman

Various approaches have been put forth since the discovery of the D e a d Sea 1

Scrolls regarding their connection with the b o o k of Jubilees. It has been ar­ 2

gued, for example, that Jubilees is actually a "sectarian text," that is, a c o m ­ position of the Q u m r a n c o m m u n i t y , a v i e w that is v e r y unlikely in light of 3

its use of p r o t o - M a s o r e t i c H e b r e w . It has also been argued that Jubilees is 4

actually the first part of the Temple S c r o l l , a v i e w w e attempted to disprove on the basis of a careful comparison of the sacrificial calendar of the Temple 5

Scroll with Jubilees. However, despite the ease with which these overstated

1. Cf. L. H . Schiffman, Reclaiming Background

the Dead Sea Scrolls: The History of Judaism, the

of Christianity, the Lost Library of Qumran (Philadelphia: Jewish Publication So­

ciety, 1994), 185-88; J. C. VanderKam, "Jubilees," in EDSS, 1:434-38; see the detailed study o f D. Hamidovic, Les Traditions du Jubili a Qumran, Orients semitiques (Paris: Geuthner, 2007). 2. E.g., H . Lignee, "La place du livre des Jubiles et d u Rouleau du Temple dans l'histoire du m o u v e m e n t Ess^nien: Ces deux ouvrages ont-ils &t6 ecrits par le Maitre de Jus­ tice?" RevQ 13 (1988): 331-45. 3. See E . Schurer, The History of the Jewish People in the Age of Jesus Christ (175 B . C . A.D. 135), ed. G. Vermes, F. Millar, with P. Vermes and M. Black, rev. ed., 3 vols, in 4 (Edin­ burgh: T. & T. Clark, 1973-87), 111.1:311-14. 4. B. Z. Wacholder, "The Relationship between n Q T o r a h (the Temple Scroll) and the Book o f Jubilees: O n e Single o r Two Independent Compositions?" in SBLSP 24 (1985), 20516; cf. Wacholder, The Dawn of Qumran: The Sectarian Torah and the Teacher of Righteous­ ness (Cincinnati: Hebrew Union College Press, 1983), 4 1 - 6 2 . 5. L . H . Schiffman, "The Sacrificial System o f the Temple Scroll and the B o o k o f Jubi­ lees," in Society for Biblical

Literature Seminar

Papers 1985, ed. K. H . Richards (Atlanta:

Scholars Press, 1985), 217-33.

99

Lawrence

H.

Schiffman

c l a i m s c a n b e falsified, t h e r e is n o q u e s t i o n t h a t J u b i l e e s is r e l a t e d to the sect 6

of the s c r o l l s b e c a u s e it w a s f o u n d i n the Q u m r a n l i b r a r y , a l t h o u g h it is c e r ­ t a i n l y to b e c l a s s i f i e d as p a r t o f w h a t w e call the n o n s e c t a r i a n s e c t i o n o f the 7

c o l l e c t i o n . M o s t i n t e r e s t i n g l y , h o w e v e r , it d o e s s e e m to f o l l o w the Z a d o k i t e / 8

S a d d u c e a n a p p r o a c h to J e w i s h l a w f o u n d i n the Q u m r a n s e c t a r i a n texts a n d u s e s the 3 6 4 - d a y " Q u m r a n " c a l e n d a r ,

9

a n d w e w i l l see a v a r i e t y o f o t h e r af­

f i n i t i e s . C l o s e s t u d y o f these r e l a t i o n s h i p s w i l l a l l o w u s to get a g l i m p s e o f the c o m p l e x i t y o f t e x t u a l a n d p e r h a p s s o c i o r e l i g i o u s d i v i s i o n s in a n c i e n t J u ­ d a i s m . In w h a t f o l l o w s w e w i l l c a r e f u l l y o u t l i n e the affinities a n d

contrasts

b e t w e e n these t w o w o r k s , d e a l i n g w i t h i s s u e s o f l a n g u a g e a n d s t y l e , t h e o l o g y , e a r l y J e w i s h l a w a n d l o r e , c a l e n d a r , a n d the r o l e o f these texts i n the h i s t o r y of J u d a i s m .

1 0

Language, Style, and Contents A s the w o r k w a s c l e a r l y c o m p o s e d in H e b r e w , in d i s c u s s i n g its l a n g u a g e a n d style w e w i l l c o n s i d e r o n l y the s u r v i v i n g H e b r e w f r a g m e n t s w h o s e l a n g u a g e a n d s t y l e c a n b e c o m p a r e d to t h a t o f the T e m p l e S c r o l l . J u b i l e e s s u r v i v e s i n fifteen f r a g m e n t a r y m a n u s c r i p t s ,

1 1

w h e r e a s t h e T e m p l e S c r o l l exists in o n e

m o r e - o r - l e s s c o m p l e t e m a n u s c r i p t ( w i t h t h e first c o l u m n s r e w r i t t e n at s o m e p o i n t as a r e p a i r )

1 2

and three fragmentary c o p i e s .

1 3

N e e d l e s s to say, w h e n w e

6. J. T. M i l i k a n d J. C . V a n d e r K a m , in H . A t t r i d g e et al., Qumran Parabiblical Historical

Cave 4. VIII:

Texts, Part I, D J D 13 (Oxford: C l a r e n d o n , 1994); J. C . V a n d e r K a m , Textual Studies

in the Book

H a m i d o v i c , Les Traditions

of jubilees,

and

H S M 14 ( M i s s o u l a : S c h o l a r s P r e s s , 1 9 7 7 ) ;

du Jubile a Qumran,

97-172.

7. Cf. D . D i m a n t , " T h e Q u m r a n M a n u s c r i p t s : C o n t e n t s a n d Significance," in Time to Prepare

the Way in the Wilderness:

Advanced

Studies

of the Hebrew

Papers on the Qumran University,

Jerusalem,

Scrolls by Fellows of the Institute for 1989-90,

ed. D . Dimant and L . H .

Schiffman, S T D J 16 (Leiden: Brill, 1995), 23-58. 8. See C . A l b e c k , Das Buch der Jubilaen

und die Halacha

(Berlin: Siebenundvierzigster

B e r i c h t der H o c h s c h u l e fiir die Wissenschaft des J u d e n t u m s in B e r l i n , 1 9 3 0 ) . 9. J. C . V a n d e r K a m , Calendars New

in the Dead

Sea Scrolls: Measuring

Time ( L o n d o n a n d

York: R o u t l e d g e , 1998), 27-33. 1 0 . Cf. J . C . V a n d e r K a m , " T h e Temple Scroll a n d the B o o k o f Jubilees," in

Temple

Scroll Studies, e d . G . J. B r o o k e , J S P S u p 7 (Sheffield: JSOT, 1989), 2 1 1 - 3 6 ; J. H . C h a r l e s w o r t h , " T h e Date of Jubilees a n d the Temple Scroll," in S B L S P 24 (1985), 193-204. 1 1 . A convenient listing is in H a m i d o v i c , Les Traditions

du Jubile a Qumran,

99.

12. Y. Y a d i n , The Temple Scroll, 3 vols. ( J e r u s a l e m : Israel E x p l o r a t i o n Society a n d the S h r i n e o f the B o o k , 1983), 1:5-12. 13. 4Q524 in E . P u e c h , Qumran

10 0

Grotte 4.XVIII:

Textes hebreux

(4Q521-4Q528,

4Q5J6-

The Book of Jubilees

and the Temple

Scroll

c o n s i d e r the contents of Jubilees b e l o w , w e will treat the entire w o r k , r e l y i n g o n the E t h i o p i c v e r s i o n a n d the G r e e k f r a g m e n t s . W e shall also n o t e at the outset that the b o o k is q u o t e d explicitly in C D 1 6 : 2 - 4 . S o m e h a v e taken this as an i n d i c a t i o n o f c a n o n i c i t y at Q u m r a n , b e c a u s e of the use of the e x p r e s ­ s i o n meduqdaq

'al

1

sefer. *

F o r the m o s t p a r t , the Jubilees m a n u s c r i p t s e v i d e n c e a text w r i t t e n in b i b l i c a l H e b r e w o r t h o g r a p h y a n d w r i t i n g p r a c t i c e that f o l l o w s essentially the l a n g u a g e p a t t e r n to w h i c h w e h a v e b e c o m e a c c u s t o m e d f r o m o u r Bibles.

1 5

Some orthographic

points indicate phonetic

printed

c h a n g e s that h a d

taken p l a c e b y the s e c o n d c e n t u r y B . C . E . , as is even the case in the M a s o r e t i c text a n d in p r o t o - M a s o r e t i c m a n u s c r i p t s f r o m Q u m r a n . A s can be e x p e c t e d , p a s s a g e s that are essentially r e w r i t t e n B i b l e d i s p l a y the l a n g u a g e of the p a s ­ sages t h e y e x p a n d . F o r m s of s y n t a x t e n d i n g t o w a r d M i s h n a i c H e b r e w are a b ­ d

sent. 4 Q 2 1 9 ( J u b ) d o e s e x h i b i t s o m e Q u m r a n H e b r e w f o r m s ; b u t the s y n t a x remains "biblical" throughout.

1 6

T h i s m a n u s c r i p t is therefore v e r y s i m i l a r in

o r t h o g r a p h y to the T e m p l e S c r o l l . P e c u l i a r here is the f o r m -wh for third s i n ­ g u l a r m a s c u l i n e p r o n o m i n a l , objective, a n d p o s s e s s i v e suffix. S o m e s i m i l a r f

f o r m s are also f o u n d in 4 Q 2 2 1 ( J u b ) .

1 7

T h e T e m p l e Scroll m a n u s c r i p t s are w r i t t e n in w h a t is generally t e r m e d the Q u m r a n w r i t i n g s y s t e m ,

18

a l t h o u g h it a l m o s t consistently m a k e s use of the

f o r m s hw' a n d hy' that s e e m to indicate c o m p o s i t i o n in M a s o r e t i c H e b r e w .

1 9

H e r e , h o w e v e r , there is extensive architectural a n d cultic v o c a b u l a r y that evi­ dences the early d e v e l o p m e n t of w o r d s k n o w n to us in M i s h n a i c H e b r e w , as w e l l as a n u m b e r of uses of the v e r b "to b e " in the future use as a h e l p i n g verb for future tense. H e r e also, the text betrays the v o c a b u l a r y a n d style o f the b i b ­ lical m a t e r i a l that has b e e n rewritten to create a n e w c o m p o s i t i o n .

20

4Q579), D J D 25 (Oxford: Clarendon, 1998), 85-114; 1 1 Q 2 0 in F. Garcia Martinez, E . J . C . Tigchelaar, a n d A. S. van der Woude, Qumran Caveu.II (11Q2-18,11Q20-31), D J D 23 (Oxford: Clarendon, 1998), 357-409; 11Q21 in D J D 23:411-14; cf. S. White, D J D 13:319-33, for the possi­ bility that 4 0 3 6 5 a m a y be a manuscript o f the Temple Scroll. In o u r view this is part o f a composition that served as a source for the Temple Scroll. 14. V a n d e r K a m , in EDSS, 1:437. O n meduqdaq, see L. H . Schiffman, The Halakhah at Qumran, S J L A 16 (Leiden: Brill, 1975), 32-33. 15. E.g., 4Q216 in D J D 13:2. 16. D J D 13:40-41. 17. D J D 13:64-65. 18. E . Tov, "The Orthography a n d Language of the H e b r e w Scrolls F o u n d at Q u m r a n and the Origin o f These Scrolls," Textus 13 (1986): 31-57. 19. Yadin, The Temple Scroll, 1:25-33. 20. Yadin, The Temple Scroll, 1:33-39, 71-88. Cf. L. H . Schiffman, "The Architectural

101

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Schiffman

C l o s e l y related is the q u e s t i o n of c o n t e n t s , w h i c h p o i n t s t r o n g l y to the totally different p u r p o s e s of the t w o w o r k s . In fact, it is the d i s p a r i t y in c o n ­ tents that led to the s u g g e s t i o n b y W a c h o l d e r that Jubilees m i g h t h a v e b e e n the first p a r t of the T e m p l e S c r o l l or, better, that the t w o texts are p a r t s o n e a n d t w o of a l a r g e r w o r k .

2 1

O n o n e level w e c a n say that the contents of the w o r k s are quite differ­ ent, since Jubilees is b u i l t o n the n a r r a t i v e of G e n e s i s a n d the b e g i n n i n g o f E x o d u s , u p to the d e s t r u c t i o n o f the E g y p t i a n s at the R e d S e a . Jubilees has a v e r y s i g n i f i c a n t p r o l o g u e d e a l i n g w i t h the role o f M o s e s in r e v e l a t i o n ( c h a p , l ) a n d a p p e n d i c e s r e g a r d i n g P a s s o v e r ( c h a p . 4 9 ) , Jubilees ( 5 0 : 1 - 5 ) , a n d the Sabbath (50:6-13). It is p r e c i s e l y here that the T e m p l e S c r o l l takes u p the s t o r y .

22

It re­

w r i t e s a n d r e - r e d a c t s the Torah's m a t e r i a l starting (in the scroll as p r e s e r v e d ) in E x o d 34 w i t h the c o v e n a n t a n d t h e n c o n t i n u i n g w i t h the c o m m a n d to b u i l d the t a b e r n a c l e (here the g a r g a n t u a n t e m p l e ) a n d r u n n i n g t h r o u g h the m i d d l e of D e u t e r o n o m y ( c h a p . 2 0 ) w h e r e the legal s e c t i o n e n d s .

2 3

So from a

s i m p l e , s t r u c t u r a l p o i n t o f v i e w , these w o r k s h a v e totally different c o n t e n t s . H o w e v e r , in reality this is n o t the c a s e . W h i l e the T e m p l e S c r o l l i n ­ cludes o n l y o n e reference to the p a t r i a r c h s , J u b i l e e s i n c l u d e s a fair a m o u n t o f m a t e r i a l b a s e d o n the l a w s of E x o d u s , L e v i t i c u s , N u m b e r s , a n d D e u t e r o n ­ o m y t h a t c a n b e c o m p a r e d w i t h the T e m p l e S c r o l l . T h i s is b e c a u s e o n e of the t h e m e s o f Jubilees is that the p a t r i a r c h s o b s e r v e d all the l a w s i n c l u d e d in the l a t e r - t o - b e - g i v e n T o r a h . H e n c e , m u c h l e g a l m a t e r i a l is r e c o u n t e d in the c o n ­ text of telling the b i b l i c a l stories. F u r t h e r , for the S a b b a t h a n d P a s s o v e r there are a p p e n d i c e s — m i n i c o d e s — like the serakhim Fragments (Damascus D o c u m e n t ) .

2 4

that m a k e u p the Z a d o k i t e

S o m e o f these legal d i s c u s s i o n s r e p r e ­

sent p o l e m i c s against w h a t the a u t h o r c o n s i d e r e d the i l l e g i t i m a t e b e h a v i o r of his fellow Jews in the H e l l e n i s t i c p e r i o d . Yet at the s a m e t i m e , m u c h of this m a t e r i a l represents s i m p l y the t r a n s p o s i t i o n of J e w i s h legal v i e w s of the

Vocabulary o f the C o p p e r Scroll a n d the Temple Scroll," in Copper Scroll Studies, ed. G . J . B r o o k e a n d P. R . Davies, J S P S u p 40 (London: Sheffield A c a d e m i c Press, 2 0 0 2 ) , 180-95. 21. See above, n. 4. 22. See the detailed survey of the contents in Yadin, The Temple Scroll, 1:39-70. 23. Note that the preserved Temple Scroll is not complete at the end. See L. H . Schiffman, " T h e Unfinished Scroll: A Reconsideration o f the E n d of the Temple Scroll," DSD 15 (2008): 67-78. 24. L. H . Schiffman, "Legal Texts a n d Codification in the D e a d Sea Scrolls," in Dis­ cussing Cultural Influences: Text, Context, and Non-text in Rabbinic Judaism, ed. R. Ulmer, Studies in Judaism ( L a n h a m , Md.: University Press o f A m e r i c a , 2007), 1-39.

102

The Book of Jubilees

and the Temple

Scroll

Z a d o k i t e / S a d d u c e a n v a r i e t y into the p a t r i a r c h a l n a r r a t i v e s . In this sense, the text often f o l l o w s legal v i e w s s i m i l a r to those o f the T e m p l e Scroll, an issue to which we will return below.

The Theory of Revelation B o t h Jubilees a n d the T e m p l e S c r o l l have in c o m m o n the g e n e r a l fact that t h e y are essentially d i v i n e p s e u d e p i g r a p h y .

25

B o t h b o o k s p r o v i d e an o p p o r ­

t u n i t y for the a u t h o r to p u t his v i e w s into the m o u t h of G o d , effectively in­ s e r t i n g t h e m into his r e w r i t e of the d i v i n e r e v e l a t i o n e m b o d i e d in the o r i g i ­ n a l T o r a h . B o t h a u t h o r s c l a i m that the c o n t e n t o f the n e w , e x p a n d e d T o r a h text represents a true sense o f the m e a n i n g of G o d ' s initial r e v e l a t i o n .

26

H e r e , h o w e v e r , the s i m i l a r i t y e n d s . E a c h a u t h o r d e v e l o p s a u n i q u e t h e o r y of r e v e l a t i o n in o r d e r to sanctify a n d c a n o n i z e his o w n a d d e d " T o r a h . " J u b i l e e s c o n t a i n s an i n t r o d u c t o r y c h a p t e r that seeks to solve a w e l l k n o w n p r o b l e m in b i b l i c a l exegesis, the fact that G e n e s i s a n d the first p a r t o f E x o d u s are c o m p o s e d as a s t o r y that is n o t f r a m e d w i t h i n d i c a t i o n s of d i v i n e or M o s a i c a u t h o r i t y .

27

T h e rest o f the c a n o n i c a l T o r a h is r e g u l a r l y l a b e l e d as

G o d ' s w o r d s to M o s e s or M o s e s ' o w n w o r d s ( D e u t e r o n o m y ) . Often

com­

m a n d s a p p e a r as f i r s t - p e r s o n d i v i n e s p e e c h . H o w e v e r , the p a t r i a r c h a l a n d E x o d u s n a r r a t i v e s are e x c e p t i o n s . H e n c e , Jubilees i n c l u d e s a p r o l o g u e d e ­ c l a r i n g that G o d r e v e a l e d the G e n e s i s stories, here in their e x p a n d e d f o r m , to M o s e s o n S i n a i . E v e n if o n e a r g u e s that the p r o l o g u e is n o t o r i g i n a l , this is the clear i m p l i c a t i o n of the entire first chapter. In this chapter M o s e s is b i d ­ den to w r i t e all G o d ' s r e v e l a t i o n into a b o o k ( w . 1 - 7 a n d 2 6 ) . C l e a r l y , this in­ cludes a r e w r i t t e n G e n e s i s - E x o d u s n a r r a t i v e . T h e n the " A n g e l of the P r e s ­ ence" is c o m m a n d e d b y G o d to dictate to M o s e s f r o m the h e a v e n l y tablets w h a t a p p e a r s to be the a u t h o r ' s e x p a n d e d G e n e s i s - E x o d u s . T h e n the a n g e l takes this text a n d , in the b e g i n n i n g of c h a p . 2, c o m m a n d s M o s e s a c c o r d i n g

25. L. H . Schiffman, " T h e Temple Scroll a n d the Halakhic Pseudepigrapha o f the Sec­ ond Temple Period," a n d M . J. Bernstein, "Pseudepigraphy in the Q u m r a n Scrolls: Catego­ ries a n d Functions," both in Pseudepigraphic Perspectives: The Apocrypha and Pseudepigra­ pha in the Light of the Dead Sea Scrolls, ed. E . G . C h a z o n a n d M . Stone, with A . Pinnick, S T D J 31 (Leiden: Brill, 1999), 121-31 a n d 1-26, respectively. 26. J. C . V a n d e r K a m , " T h e Angel of the Presence in the B o o k o f Jubilees," DSD 7 (2000): 378-93. 27. Cf. M . Nahmanides, Perush ha-Ramban 'al ha-Torah, ed. C . B . Chavel (Jerusalem: Mossad Harav Kook, 1958/59), 1:1-3.

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Schiffman

to G o d ' s i n s t r u c t i o n to w r i t e the s t o r y o f creation a n d the a c c o u n t of the S a b b a t h , p r e s u m a b l y in the e x p a n d e d v e r s i o n . T h e n the n a r r a t i v e p r o c e e d s as if it w e r e the text that the a n g e l c o m m a n d e d M o s e s to w r i t e , w i t h o c c a ­ s i o n a l i n s e r t i o n of c o m m e n t s b y the a n g e l . T h e angel's d i c t a t i o n to M o s e s re­ a p p e a r s t h r o u g h o u t to e m p h a s i z e central

commandments.

W e therefore h a v e the f o l l o w i n g p r o c e s s o f r e v e l a t i o n c l a i m e d for the b o o k : ( 1 ) G o d r e v e a l e d it to M o s e s at Sinai; ( 2 ) G o d c o m m a n d e d M o s e s to w r i t e it in a b o o k ; (3) G o d a c c o m p l i s h e d this b y o r d e r i n g the A n g e l o f P r e s ­ ence to dictate the b o o k to M o s e s from the tablets; (4) the a n g e l dictated the b o o k . Jubilees s t r o n g l y a r g u e s that the r e v e l a t i o n c a m e t h r o u g h M o s e s , w h o serves as an i n t e r m e d i a r y b e t w e e n G o d a n d I s r a e l . H o w e v e r , the text goes even further. In a c c o r d w i t h s o m e H e l l e n i s t i c a p p r o a c h e s ,

2 8

the text inserts

a n o t h e r i n t e r m e d i a r y b e t w e e n G o d a n d M o s e s , a p p a r e n t l y to a v o i d a n t h r o ­ p o m o r p h i s m . H e n c e , r e v e l a t i o n here g o e s f r o m G o d to the A n g e l of P r e s ­ ence, t h e n to M o s e s a n d to Israel. A l l r e v e l a t i o n takes p l a c e at S i n a i , i n c l u d ­ ing w h a t is in the c a n o n i c a l b o o k a n d w h a t is a d d e d , but here i m m e d i a c y is the n a m e o f the g a m e . F u r t h e r , the a u t h o r s e e m s to d i s t i n g u i s h the c a n o n i c a l T o r a h f r o m his a d d i t i o n a l m a t e r i a l , a l t h o u g h this d e p e n d s o n h o w y o u inter­ pret the difficult t e r m s torah, te'udah,

a n d mitzvah

(Jub 2:22-24).

2 9

T h i s c o m p l e x r e v e l a t o r y d y n a m i c m u s t b e s h a r p l y c o n t r a s t e d w i t h the T e m p l e S c r o l l . I n the T e m p l e S c r o l l , the g u i d i n g p r i n c i p l e of the a u t h o r w a s to recast the s e c t i o n s of the T o r a h w h e r e M o s e s a p p e a r s into d i v i n e firstperson discourse.

30

T h i s is e s p e c i a l l y clear in the w a y M o s e s has b e e n e l i m i ­

n a t e d even f r o m D e u t e r o n o m y , w h e r e he a p p e a r s as the s p e a k e r / a u t h o r in the c a n o n i c a l v e r s i o n . T h e a u t h o r of the T e m p l e S c r o l l w a n t s to solve the q u e s t i o n o f w h y , if D e u t e r o n o m y is d i v i n e r e v e l a t i o n , it a p p e a r s as a direct s p e e c h of M o s e s . H e s o l v e s the p r o b l e m b y e l i m i n a t i n g its i m m e d i a c y w h o l e s a l e . G o d s p e a k s directly to Israel. O n l y o n c e d o e s the a u t h o r err a n d refer to " y o u r brother," as if he w e r e s p e a k i n g to M o s e s a n d r e f e r r i n g to Aaron ( n Q T

a

4 4 : 5 ) . T h e t h e o l o g i c a l i m p l i c a t i o n of the r e m o v a l of M o s e s is

clear. T h e a u t h o r / r e d a c t o r v i e w s his text's s c r i p t u r a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n a n d l a w as a direct r e v e l a t i o n o f G o d to the c h i l d r e n of Israel at Sinai w i t h n o inter-

28. See R. H . Charles, The Book of Jubilees or the Little Genesis (Jerusalem: Makor, 1 9 6 1 / 6 2 ) , 8 to verse 27. 29. These terms are found in the H e b r e w text o f 4Q216 V I I I 1 3 - 1 7 (Milik a n d V a n d e r K a m , in D J D 1 3 : 1 9 - 2 0 ) . 30. Yadin, The Temple Scroll, 1:71-73; B . A . Levine, " T h e Temple Scroll: Aspects o f Its Historical Provenance a n d Literary Character," BASOR 232 (1978): 5-23, a n d Yadin's response in The Temple Scroll, 1:406-7.

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m e d i a r y . T h i s v i e w contrasts r a d i c a l l y w i t h that o f J u b i l e e s . Jubilees has a d d e d a n e w angelic i n t e r m e d i a r y b e t w e e n G o d a n d M o s e s . T h e T e m p l e S c r o l l has r e m o v e d M o s e s , so that there is n o i n t e r m e d i a r y b e t w e e n G o d himself and Israel.

Messianic Theology The

b o o k o f J u b i l e e s i n c l u d e s e x t e n s i v e m a t e r i a l i n d i c a t i n g the

author's

v i e w s o n the E n d of D a y s . T h e b o o k e x p e c t s , as p a r t of its ex eventu

"proph­

ecy," t h a t Israel w i l l fail to fulfill the w o r d s of G o d ' s c o v e n a n t ( 2 3 : 1 6 , 1 9 ; 1 5 : 3 3 3 4 ) . C h a p s . 1 a n d 23 i n d i c a t e that great m i s f o r t u n e will c o m e u p o n Israel b e ­ cause o f its apostasy. H o w e v e r , b o t h c h a p t e r s also e x p e c t r e p e n t a n c e a n d the onset of a n e w age, u s h e r e d in b y s t u d y o f the l a w a n d o b s e r v a n c e o f G o d ' s r i t u a l a n d m o r a l c o m m a n d m e n t s . P e o p l e w i l l live lives o f h a p p i n e s s w i t h a life s p a n of 1,000 y e a r s . N e i t h e r a m e s s i a h n o r r e s u r r e c t i o n o f the d e a d is m e n t i o n e d . Essentially, the p r o p e r o b s e r v a n c e s of G o d ' s l a w b y the p e o p l e is the d e s i r e d e x p e c t e d e s c h a t o n .

31

J u b 1:29 d e s c r i b e s that t i m e as f o l l o w s : "the

day of the [ n e w ] c r e a t i o n w h e n the h e a v e n s a n d e a r t h shall b e r e n e w e d . . . u n t i l the s a n c t u a r y of the L o r d s h a l l b e m a d e in J e r u s a l e m o n Zion."

Mount

3 2

E s c h a t o l o g i c a l issues are h i n t e d at o n l y t w i c e in the T e m p l e S c r o l l . L i k e J u b i l e e s , the T e m p l e S c r o l l d o e s n o t m e n t i o n either the m e s s i a h o r res­ u r r e c t i o n of the d e a d . In c o l u m n 2 9 , the T e m p l e S c r o l l m a k e s b r i e f refer­ ence to the sacrificial p r a c t i c e s it r e q u i r e s a n d the a r c h i t e c t u r a l p l a n it p u t s f o r t h for the t e m p l e as b e i n g in force " u p u n t i l the d a y o f the b l e s s i n g " (so Yadin)

3 3

or " [ n e w ] c r e a t i o n " (so Q i m r o n ) .

3 4

T h e v e r b a l s i m i l a r i t y (if o n e

r e a d s w i t h Q i m r o n a g a i n s t Y a d i n ) is s t r i k i n g . In the T e m p l e S c r o l l , it is a p ­ p a r e n t l y e x p e c t e d that the E n d of D a y s w o u l d b r i n g w i t h it a n e w t e m p l e , b u i l t b y G o d , to r e p l a c e the p r e s e n t i m p e r f e c t , m a n - m a d e t e m p l e .

3 5

This

31. J. C . V a n d e r K a m , "Jubilees, B o o k of," in ABD 3:1031-32. 32. Charles, Jubilees, 9 - 1 0 . 33. Yadin, The Temple Scroll, 2:129. 34. E . Q i m r o n , The Temple Scroll: A Critical Edition with Extensive Reconstructions (Beersheva and Jerusalem: B e n - G u r i o n University o f the Negev a n d Israel Exploration Soci­ ety, 1996), 44. 35. Cf. L . H . Schiffman, " T h e T h e o l o g y of the Temple Scroll," JQR 85 ( Q u m r a n Studies, 1994): 109-23; D . R. Schwartz, " T h e Three Temples o f 4Qflorilegium," RevQ 10 (1979): 83-92; M . O. Wise, "4QFlorilegium a n d the Temple of Man," RevQ 15 (1991): 103-32;

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Schiffman

p a s s a g e m a k e s clear, c o n t r a r y to s o m e s c h o l a r s ,

3 6

that the T e m p l e S c r o l l is

n o t p r e s e n t i n g a v i s i o n for the E n d o f D a y s b u t , rather, for the t e m p l e a n d J e w i s h l a w for the p r e s e n t . T h i s is i n d e e d a c o m m o n e l e m e n t , as J u b i l e e s also is calling for full a n d c o r r e c t o b s e r v a n c e o f the law in the

present

p r e m e s s i a n i c a g e . In this respect, b o t h texts call for r a d i c a l c h a n g e in Israel's p r e s e n t life in the here a n d n o w . N o n e t h e l e s s , o n b a l a n c e , w e find i n c o n g r u ­ ity, since the u l t i m a t e r e d e m p t i o n o f the E n d o f D a y s is n o t taken u p at all in the T e m p l e S c r o l l .

Calendar C h a p t e r 6 of Jubilees is essentially a p o l e m i c a g a i n s t the l u n i - s o l a r c a l e n d a r k n o w n from rabbinic J u d a i s m .

3 7

It a d v o c a t e s the 3 6 4 - d a y c a l e n d a r o f solar

m o n t h s a n d solar y e a r s that w e g e n e r a l l y term the " Q u m r a n calendar." T h e a u t h o r o f J u b i l e e s sees the l u n a r cycle as c o n f u s i n g the h o l i d a y s a n d m a k i n g t h e m c o m e o u t on the w r o n g d a y s . H e refers to E n o c h ( J u b 4 : 1 7 - 1 8 ) , i n d i c a t ­ ing that he b a s e d his c a l e n d a r o n the E n o c h b o o k l e t s that c i r c u l a t e d at his t i m e . Jubilees d e s i g n a t e s the 31st days o f m o n t h s 3, 6, 9, a n d 1 2 as D a y s of R e ­ m e m b r a n c e . T h e c a l e n d a r w a s d e s i g n e d so that S h a v u o t h a l w a y s fell o n a Sunday. T h e v i e w p u t f o r w a r d here, a c c o r d i n g to w h i c h the T e m p l e S c r o l l a n d the b o o k of Jubilees share the s a m e s e c t a r i a n calendar, even if s o m e o f the festivals are n o t the s a m e as y o u w i l l see b e l o w , c a n n o t be c o n c l u s i v e l y p r o v e n f r o m the T e m p l e S c r o l l a l o n e . In p u t t i n g f o r w a r d this v i e w , s c h o l a r s h a v e b e e n g u i d e d b y a c a l e n d r i c a l f r a g m e n t f r o m C a v e 4 that p r o v i d e d a date for the O i l Festival ( 6 / 2 ) ,

3 8

w h i c h w a s o n l y e x p l i c a b l e a s s u m i n g the T e m p l e

S c r o l l to share the c a l e n d a r o f J u b i l e e s a n d E n o c h . A full r e v i e w of this e v i ­ dence a n d its r a m i f i c a t i o n s , as w e l l as the s c h o l a r l y debate a b o u t it, has b e e n p r e s e n t e d b y J a m e s V a n d e r K a m , a n d there is n o n e e d to r e v i e w the a r g u -

G. J. Brooke, Exegesis at Qumran: 4QFlorilegium in Its Jewish Context, J S O T S u p 29 (Sheffield: JSOT Press, 1985), 178-97. 36. Wacholder, The Dawn of Qumran, 2 1 - 3 0 : M . O. Wise, " T h e Eschatological Vision of the Temple Scroll," JNES 49 (1990): 155-72. 37. J. M . B a u m g a r t e n , "The Calendars o f the B o o k of Jubilees a n d the Temple Scroll," V T 3 7 (1987): 71-78; J. C. V a n d e r K a m , Calendars in the Dead Sea Scrolls: Measuring Time, Lit­ erature o f the D e a d Sea Scrolls (London a n d N e w York: Routledge, 1998), 27-33. 38. J. M . Baumgarten, " 4 Q H a l a k a h 5, the L a w o f iadash, a n d the Pentacontad Calen­ dar," in Studies in Qumran Law (Leiden: Brill, 1977), 131-42; also JJS 27 (1976): 36-46. a

106

The Book of Jubilees ments here.

3 9

and the Temple

Scroll

R a t h e r , I s h o u l d like to c o m m e n t on the g e n e r a l s c h o l a r l y a m ­

b i e n c e in w h i c h w e n o w see s u c h q u e s t i o n s . E v e r since the p u b l i c a t i o n of 4 Q M M T ,

4 0

m a n y o f us h a v e b e e n in­

v o l v e d in an o n g o i n g d i s c u s s i o n a b o u t the r e l a t i o n s h i p of the legal t r a d i t i o n s in that d o c u m e n t to those o f the T e m p l e S c r o l l a n d the other s e c t a r i a n legal d o c u m e n t s . It has n o w b e c o m e clear, as a result of the c o n t r i b u t i o n s o f quite a n u m b e r of s c h o l a r s ,

4 1

that the g e n e r a l t h e o r y o f A b r a h a m G e i g e r r e g a r d ­

i n g t w o basic s c h o o l s of J e w i s h l a w in s e c o n d t e m p l e t i m e s w a s c o r r e c t . may

42

We

t e r m o n e s c h o o l the P h a r i s a i c - R a b b i n i c a n d the other the Z a d o k i t e /

S a d d u c e a n . W h i l e the f o r m e r s y s t e m w a s k n o w n to us, despite the c h r o n o ­ l o g i c a l p r o b l e m s , f r o m r e p o r t s in the N e w T e s t a m e n t a n d r a b b i n i c literature, the latter system w a s little k n o w n . W h i l e s o m e s c h o l a r s still d i s a g r e e w i t h this o v e r a l l thesis, this is the o n l y w a y to e x p l a i n the affinities that w e w i l l o b ­ s e r v e b e l o w r e g a r d i n g the c a l e n d a r o f festivals. D e s p i t e the fact that the b o o k of Jubilees a n d the T e m p l e S c r o l l ( a n d for that m a t t e r o t h e r Q u m r a n texts) do i n d e e d share a c o m m o n calendar, the specifics o f their F e s t i v a l C a l e n d a r , the lists of offerings, a n d the r e g u l a t i o n s r e g a r d i n g those offerings are n o t the s a m e . N o n e t h e l e s s , the c o m m o n calendar, c o m m o n a p p r o a c h e s to the d e r i v a t i o n of l a w a d h e r i n g closely to the b i b l i c a l text, a n d certain specific h a l a k i c v i e w s unify this s e c o n d t r e n d . H e n c e , w e s h o u l d n o t b e s u r p r i s e d to find that a c o m m o n c a l e n d a r does n o t g u a r a n t e e a n entirely c o m m o n h a l a ­ k a h , despite the existence of n u m e r o u s a g r e e m e n t s in v a r i o u s areas of J e w i s h law.

4 3

39. See above, n. 9. 40. E . Q i m r o n a n d J. Strugnell, Qumran Cave 4.V: Miqsat Ma'aie ha-Torah, D J D 10 (Oxford: Clarendon, 1994), 44-63. 41. See, for example, Y. Sussmann, "Heqer Toldot ha-Halakhah u-Megillot M i d b a r Yehudah: H i r h u r i m Talmudiyim R i s h o n i m le-'Or Megillat Miqsat Ma'ase h a - T o r a h " Tarbiz 59 (1989/90): 1 1 - 7 6 ; Sussmann, " T h e History o f the Halakha a n d the Dead Sea Scrolls: Pre­ liminary Talmudic Observations o n Miqsat Ma'ase ha-Torah ( 4 Q M M T ) " in Qumran Cave 4.V: Miqsat Ma'ase ha-Torah, ed. E . Q i m r o n and J. Strugnell, D J D 10 (Oxford: Clarendon, 1994)5 179-200; Reading 4QMMT: New Perspectives on Qumran Law and History, ed. M . J. Bernstein a n d J. K a m p e n , S B L S y m S 2 (Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1996). 42. A . Geiger, Ha-Miqra' ve-Targumav be-Ziqatam le-Hitpathutah ha-Penimitshel haYahadut, trans. Y. L. B a r u c h (Jerusalem: Bialik Foundation, 1948/49), 69-102. 43. Cf. L. H . Schiffman, " T h e Temple Scroll and the Systems of Jewish L a w in the Sec­ o n d Temple Period," in Temple Scroll Studies, 239-55.

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Schiffman

Halakah Because I have previously published a detailed study comparing the sacrifi­ 44

cial laws of the b o o k of Jubilees and those of the Temple S c r o l l , m y inten­ tion here is to summarize that study, providing just a few of the examples that I discussed there. It must be stressed that the method of legal derivation is as important as the result. W e must look at h o w each document inter­ preted Scripture. If a c o m m o n exegetical tradition or method can be found in these works, it might serve to clarify the relationship of one document to another. I will present here just a few examples in detail, to allow readers to judge the nature of the research presented there. Afterward, I will review some of the discussion of m y study that has taken place since. First, however, I will present the table of correspondences on sacrificial matters between the b o o k of Jubilees and the Temple Scroll ( T S ) :

Daily Offering

T S 13:10-16

Jub 6:14

Sabbath Sacrifices

TS 13:17-14:2

Jub 50:10-11

New Month Sacrifice

T S 14:2-8

Jub 31:1-3

First D a y of First Month

TS 14:9-15:2

Jub 6:23-29 Jub 7:2-5 Jub 13:8-9

Days of Ordination

TS 15:3-17:4

Jub 30:18 Jub 31:13-15 Jub 32:1-9

Passover Sacrifices

T S 17:6-16

Jub 49:1-23

Sacrifices on Bringing Omer

T S 18:1-10

First Fruits of Wheat

T S 18:10-19:9

Jub 6:17-22 Jub 15:1-2 Jub 16:13 Jub 22:1-6 Jub 14:19-20 Jub 32:12-14 Jub 44:4

New Wine

T S 19:11-21:10

Jub 7:36 Jub 32:12-14

44. See above, n. 5.

108

The New

Oil

Book of Jubilees TS 21:12-23:2

and the Temple

Scroll

Jub 7:36 Jub 3 2 : 1 2 - 1 4

W o o d Offering

TS 23:1-25:1

Jub 2 1 : 1 2 - 1 4

D a y of R e m e m b r a n c e

T S 25:2-10

Jub 6:23-29 Jub 1 2 : 1 6 Jub 31:3

D a y of A t o n e m e n t

TS 25:10-27:10

Jub 3 4 : 1 2 - 1 9

TS

Jub 1 6 : 1 9 - 3 1

S u k k o t a n d S h e m i n i Atzeret 27:10—29:1

Jub 8:18 Jub 32:27-29

O u r i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f the festival sacrificial l a w s of the b o o k of Jubilees a n d the T e m p l e S c r o l l f o u n d s o m e cases o f a g r e e m e n t , a n d s o m e of absolute d i s a g r e e m e n t . F o r e x a m p l e , the t w o s o u r c e s d i s a g r e e a b o u t the d a i l y s a c r i ­ fice. J u b 6:14 refers to the d a i l y sacrifice, m o r n i n g a n d e v e n i n g , in c o n n e c t i o n w i t h the c o v e n a n t that G o d m a d e w i t h N o a h after the f l o o d . T h e text is n o t explicit as to w h e t h e r the offering is to b e p r o v i d e d b y the priests or p a i d for o u t of p u b l i c f u n d s , a m a t t e r o f g r e a t c o n t r o v e r s y in r a b b i n i c a c c o u n t s o f the B o e t h u s i a n s (or S a d d u c e e s in s o m e t e x t s ) .

4 5

N o n e t h e l e s s , v. 13 indicates that

the c o m m a n d m e n t o f d a i l y sacrifice has b e e n g i v e n to the c h i l d r e n of Israel. A c c o r d i n g to v. 1 4 , " T h e y shall o b s e r v e it . . . that t h e y m a y c o n t i n u e s u p p l i ­ c a t i n g . . . that t h e y m a y k e e p it." T h i s e m p h a s i s o n the collective o b l i g a t i o n of Israel c a n o n l y i n d i c a t e that the a u t h o r of J u b i l e e s , like the P h a r i s e e s , re­ q u i r e d that the daily offerings b e a c o m m u n a l l y d i s c h a r g e d o b l i g a t i o n p r o ­ v i d e d b y the p e o p l e as a w h o l e . Jubilees i n d i c a t e s that the sacrifices s e r v e to "seek f o r g i v e n e s s o n y o u r ( N o a h ' s ) b e h a l f p e r p e t u a l l y before the L o r d , " an idea for w h i c h n o p a r a l l e l c a n b e f o u n d in the B i b l e . T e m p l e S c r o l l 1 3 : 1 0 - 1 6 presents the l a w s of the daily sacrifice, b a s e d o n E x o d 29:38-42 a n d N u m 28:3-8. It is i m p o s s i b l e to tell b e c a u s e of a b r e a k in the text w h e t h e r the a u t h o r used the p l u r a l f o r m u l a t i o n o f N u m b e r s or the s i n g u l a r of E x o d u s . S o m e s u p p o r t for the n o t i o n that the a u t h o r w a s of the o p i n i o n that the offerings c o u l d b e c o n t r i b u t e d f r o m p r i v a t e funds c o m e s f r o m the p r o v i s i o n that the h i d e of the b u r n t offering m a y b e k e p t b y the

45. L. Finkelstein, The Pharisees: The Sociological Background of Their Faith, 2 vols., 3d ed., M o r r i s Loeb Series (Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society of America, 1966), 7 1 0 - 1 6 ; V. N o a m , Megillat Ta'anit: ha-Nusahim, Pishram, Toledotehem, be-eeruf Mahadurah Biqqortit (Jerusalem: Yad B e n - Z v i Press, 2003), 165-73.

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priest w h o offers it. T h i s p r e s c r i p t i o n is b a s e d on L e v 7:8, w h i c h refers to a p r i v a t e b u r n t offering ('olat

'ish). If the priest is to k e e p the h i d e , t h e n the

a n i m a l m u s t h a v e b e e n his p e r s o n a l c o n t r i b u t i o n . If so, the a u t h o r of the T e m p l e S c r o l l a g r e e d w i t h the B o e t h u s i a n s ( o r S a d d u c e e s ) on this q u e s t i o n . Jubilees, as w a s s h o w n a b o v e , t o o k the o p p o s i t e p o s i t i o n , t h a t of the P h a r i ­ sees, r e q u i r i n g that the offering c o m e from p u b l i c f u n d s . O u r t w o s o u r c e s , then, are in f u n d a m e n t a l d i s a g r e e m e n t r e g a r d i n g the n a t u r e of the d a i l y s a c ­ rifice. In m a n y areas, there is s u b s t a n t i a l i n c o n g r u i t y b e t w e e n these t w o s o u r c e s ; that w h i c h is i m p o r t a n t to o n e s o u r c e is s i m p l y n o t treated in the other. S u c h a s i t u a t i o n o b t a i n s in the sacrifice for the n e w m o n t h . J u b 3 1 : 1 , 3 m e n t i o n s the n e w m o o n in the c o n t e x t o f J a c o b ' s sacrifice at B e t h e l o n the n e w m o o n of the s e v e n t h m o n t h . H e r e , J a c o b is d e p i c t e d as telling the m e m ­ b e r s of his h o u s e h o l d to p u r i f y t h e m s e l v e s a n d get r e a d y to travel to B e t h e l w h e r e he w i l l r e p a y his debt to G o d (cf. G e n 3 5 : 2 - 4 ) . T h i s o c c u r s o n the n e w m o o n o f the seventh m o n t h , w h i c h is o n e of the four " n e w y e a r s " e n u m e r ­ ated b y the a u t h o r of J u b i l e e s . It is therefore i m p o s s i b l e to k n o w if the p u r i f i ­ c a t i o n ritual d e s c r i b e d in v. 1 is i n t e n d e d for n e w m o o n s or if it is c o n n e c t e d w i t h the N e w Year festival of the s e v e n t h m o n t h . T e m p l e S c r o l l 1 4 : 2 - 8 details the offerings for the n e w m o o n . H e r e the a u t h o r has altered the l a n g u a g e o f the P e n t a t e u c h , r e p h r a s i n g e x t e n s i v e l y the c o m m a n d s o f N u m 2 8 : 1 1 - 1 5 a n d N u m 1 5 : 1 - 1 3 . Y a d i n e x p l a i n s that the a u t h o r used N u m 15 to a l l o w h i m to e n u m e r a t e the cereal a n d d r i n k offering for each a n i m a l in t u r n , as o p p o s e d to m e n t i o n i n g all the cereal offerings first a n d then all the d r i n k offerings, as is d o n e in N u m 2 8 .

4 6

Actually, the a u t h o r w a s attracted to N u m 15 for m u c h m o r e i m p o r t a n t r e a s o n s . T h e a m o u n t of oil for the offerings is n o w h e r e specified in N u m 28, o n l y that for the l i b a t i o n of w i n e . T h e a u t h o r used N u m 15, in w h i c h the v e r y s a m e a n i m a l s a p p e a r w i t h the s a m e a l l o c a t i o n s of flour a n d w i n e , to deter­ m i n e the a m o u n t s of oil since these are explicitly stated there. It w a s not the desire to r e o r d e r the m a t e r i a l that directed the a u t h o r o f the T e m p l e S c r o l l to this p a s s a g e but rather the s p e c i f i c a t i o n o f the e x a c t recipe for the oil of the cereal offering. W h e n he shifted to this p a s s a g e , the a u t h o r e n d e d u p w i t h its f o r m u l a t i o n a n d o r g a n i z a t i o n as w e l l . In any case, there is insufficient e v i d e n c e o n w h i c h to base a n y c o m ­ p a r i s o n of the texts. Jubilees m a y refer to p u r i f i c a t i o n for the n e w m o o n a n d the offering of sacrifices. T h e T e m p l e S c r o l l presents a c o m p l e t e l y w o r k e d -

46. Yadin, The Temple Scroll, 2:56-57.

110

The

Book of Jubilees

and the Temple

Scroll

out ritual b a s e d on P e n t a t e u c h a l s o u r c e s . S o m e of these cases n o d o u b t re­ sult f r o m the differing e m p h a s e s of the t w o d o c u m e n t s . Jubilees a t t e m p t s to retell the p a t r i a r c h a l n a r r a t i v e s so as to a t t r i b u t e to t h e m a d h e r e n c e to the author's

p a r t i c u l a r v i e w s o n q u e s t i o n s of J e w i s h l a w a n d a p a r t i c u l a r

c a l e n d r i c s y s t e m . T h e T e m p l e S c r o l l p r e s e n t s a c o d e o f p r a c t i c e for a p r e m e s s i a n i c T e m p l e that its a u t h o r h o p e d to see b u i l t a n d that he e x p e c t e d w o u l d f u n c t i o n a c c o r d i n g to his c o d e . At the s a m e t i m e , m a n y of these i n c o n g r u i t i e s p r o b a b l y r e p r e s e n t dif­ ferences in o p i n i o n or at least in e m p h a s i s . F o r e x a m p l e , J u b 5 0 : 1 0 - 1 1 i n d i ­ cates that the d a i l y offering m a y n o t b e set aside in f a v o r of the S a b b a t h s a c ­ rifice. R a t h e r , it serves as a m e a n s o f a t o n e m e n t , a n d it m u s t b e offered each day,

i n c l u d i n g o n the S a b b a t h . T e m p l e S c r o l l 1 3 : 1 7 - 1 4 : 2 is a p a r a p h r a s e o f

N u m 2 8 : 9 - 1 0 . H o w e v e r , the T e m p l e S c r o l l p r o v i d e s n o i n f o r m a t i o n o n the d i s p o s i t i o n o f offerings o t h e r t h a n to repeat the b i b l i c a l m a t e r i a l that itself g a v e rise to the p r o b l e m in the first p l a c e . P e r h a p s the T e m p l e S c r o l l agrees w i t h the v i e w of Jubilees o n S a b b a t h sacrifices, a l t h o u g h definitive e v i d e n c e is l a c k i n g .

4 7

The cases of c o m p l e t e a g r e e m e n t testify to c o m m o n t r a d i t i o n s in s o m e areas, a n d in others result f r o m c o m m o n exegetical t e c h n i q u e s a p p l i e d to the v e r y s a m e b i b l i c a l texts. J u b 4 9 : 1 - 2 3 c o n t a i n s a l o n g d i s c u s s i o n of the celebra­ tion of the festival o f P a s s o v e r .

48

M o s t of the m a t e r i a l is a s i m p l e retelling of

the contents o f E x o d 1 2 . J u b 49:6 describes the o b s e r v a n c e of the first P a s s ­ over, i n c l u d i n g the eating o f the p a s c h a l l a m b , d r i n k i n g of w i n e , p r a i s i n g a n d b l e s s i n g G o d , a n d g i v i n g t h a n k s . T h i s d e s c r i p t i o n certainly recalls a P a s s o v e r celebration s i m i l a r to that e n v i s a g e d in r a b b i n i c literature, w h i c h i n c l u d e d the p a s c h a l sacrifice, the f o u r c u p s of w i n e , the c o m m a n d m e n t to retell the s t o r y of the e x o d u s , a n d the recitation of the Hallel P s a l m s . V. 10 e x p l a i n s the difficult ben ha-'arbayim,

literally, " b e t w e e n the evenings," of E x o d 12:6: the

sacrifice is to be o b s e r v e d " f r o m the third p a r t of the d a y to the third p a r t of the n i g h t " (cf. Jub 4 9 : 1 9 ) . T h i s r u l i n g is e x p l a i n e d in w . 1 1 - 1 2 as follows: the p a s c h a l sacrifice s h o u l d b e s l a u g h t e r e d in the last third of the fourteenth of N i s a n a n d is to be eaten in the first third of the n i g h t of the fifteenth. S i n c e the festival o c c u r s fairly close to the e q u i n o x , it w o u l d b e fairly accurate to say that the sacrifice m u s t take place b e t w e e n two o ' c l o c k a n d sunset (at s i x ) a n d the p a s c h a l l a m b m u s t be eaten b e t w e e n sunset (six) a n d ten o ' c l o c k in the

47. Schiffman, The Halakhah

at Qumran,

128-31.

48. Cf. B . H a l p e r n - A m a r u , " T h e Festivals of Pesah a n d M a s s o t in the B o o k o f Jubi­ lees," in the present v o l u m e .

Ill

Lawrence

H.

Schiffman

e v e n i n g . Thereafter it is c o n s i d e r e d notar, that w h i c h has b e e n left over b e ­ y o n d the t i m e before w h i c h it m u s t be eaten, a n d m u s t b e b u r n e d . A c c o r d i n g to J u b i l e e s , the P a s s o v e r sacrifice m u s t b e eaten in the s a n c ­ tuary, in the " c o u r t of the h o u s e w h i c h has b e e n s a n c t i f i e d " ( w . 1 6 - 2 0 ) . O n l y those over the age o f t w e n t y are to eat of the p a s c h a l l a m b , a n d eating is p r o b a b l y l i m i t e d to m a l e s (v. 1 7 ) . T h i s sacrifice m a y not b e m a d e in any o t h e r cities, o n l y at the t a b e r n a c l e or at the t e m p l e . In v. 22 there b e g i n s the c o m ­ m a n d of the F e s t i v a l of U n l e a v e n e d B r e a d (cf. L e v 2 3 : 6 ) . It is to be a s e v e n d a y festival. E a c h d a y a sacrifice is to b e b r o u g h t (v. 2 2 ) .

4 9

T e m p l e Scroll 1 7 : 6 - 1 6 describes the Passover c e l e b r a t i o n s .

50

The Temple

Scroll requires that the p a s c h a l offering b e sacrificed before the evening sacri­ fice (miniiat

ha-'erev).

T h i s is in o p p o s i t i o n to Tannaitic h a l a k a h , w h i c h re­

quires that the minuah

b e offered before the p a s c h a l l a m b . O n this matter, the

T e m p l e Scroll a n d Jubilees m a y agree since Jubilees requires the offering in the last third of the day, i.e., after 2:00 P . M . , a n d w e k n o w that the minuahwzs

nor­

m a l l y offered at a b o u t 3:30. O n the other h a n d , it is possible that Jubilees, like the Tannaitic t r a d i t i o n ,

51

e x p e c t e d that in order to a c c o m m o d a t e the p a s c h a l

offering, the daily tamid sacrifice w a s offered early o n the fourteenth of N i s a n . L i k e the b o o k o f J u b i l e e s , the T e m p l e S c r o l l r e q u i r e s that the p a s c h a l l a m b b e eaten o n l y b y those a b o v e twenty. Y a d i n suggests that this r u l i n g is b a s e d o n the i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of E x o d 3 0 : 1 4 , a n d N u m 1 : 2 - 3 , 12:6.

5 2

a

s

w

e

U

a

s

Exod

A c c o r d i n g to the ( a l m o s t definite) r e s t o r a t i o n o f Q i m r o n , o n l y m a l e s

are i n c l u d e d in the

commandment.

5 3

T h e r e is a m a j o r difference c o n c e r n i n g the t i m e o f eating of the p a s ­ chal l a m b . Jubilees r e q u i r e s that the offering b e eaten b y 1 0 : 0 0 P . M . , the e n d of a third of the n i g h t . A l t h o u g h the T o r a h a l l o w e d the p a s c h a l sacrifice to b e eaten u n t i l the m o r n i n g ( E x o d 1 2 : 1 0 ) , the T a n n a i m r e q u i r e d that it be eaten b e f o r e m i d n i g h t , "in o r d e r to separate a p e r s o n f r o m the p o s s i b i l i t y o f t r a n s ­ gression."

54

T h e T e m p l e S c r o l l a l l o w s it to b e eaten all n i g h t , or at least, n o

m e n t i o n is m a d e of any o t h e r r u l i n g .

49. J. C . V a n d e r K a m , The Book of Jubilees, C S C O 511, Scriptores Aethiopici 88 (Louvain: Peeters, 1989), 324. 50. Yadin, The Temple Scroll, 1:96-99; 2:72-75. 51. m. Pesahim 5:1. 52. Yadin, The Temple Scroll, 1:96. 53. Q i m r o n , The Temple Scroll, 27. 54. m. Berakhot 1:1, according to the reading o f the Talmud Yerushalmi a n d Mekhilta' of R. Ishmael B o 6. Cf. Albeck, "Hashlamot ve-Tosafot, Zera'im," Shishah Sidre Mishnah, 6 vols. (Jerusalem: Bialik Institute; Tel Aviv: Dvir, 1954), 1:326.

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Scroll

T h e T e m p l e S c r o l l a n d the b o o k o f Jubilees agree that the p a s c h a l l a m b m u s t b e eaten w i t h i n the t e m p l e p r e c i n c t s . Y a d i n suggests D e u t 1 6 : 7 as the s o u r c e of this law a n d notes that the K a r a i t e s a g r e e . T h e T a n n a i m , o n the other h a n d , a l l o w it to b e eaten a n y w h e r e in J e r u s a l e m .

5 5

B o t h texts e c h o L e v

23:6-8 in d e s c r i b i n g the e n s u i n g festival as a s e v e n - d a y feast of u n l e a v e n e d b r e a d . Sacrifices are to be offered on each d a y a c c o r d i n g to b o t h w o r k s . T h e extensive c e r e m o n y for the O m e r festival m e n t i o n e d in T e m p l e S c r o l l 1 8 : 1 - 1 0 has n o e q u i v a l e n t w h a t s o e v e r in the b o o k of J u b i l e e s . T h e case of the P a s s o v e r c e l e b r a t i o n affords an e x a m p l e o f an area in w h i c h s o m e s i g n i f i c a n t p r e s c r i p t i o n s of Jubilees a n d the T e m p l e S c r o l l are in c o m p l e t e a g r e e m e n t . N e v e r t h e l e s s , there are still s o m e matters u p o n w h i c h t h e y offer different o p i n i o n s .

5 6

T h e J u d a i s m o f the S e c o n d C o m m o n w e a l t h p e r i o d w a s o n e of v a r i e ­ gated sects a n d i d e o l o g i e s . T h a t there w a s i n d e e d s o m e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n these t w o texts is a p p a r e n t from their i n c l u s i o n in the l i b r a r y o f the Q u m r a n c o m m u n i t y . We see the h a l a k i c t r a d i t i o n s of these t w o texts as d e r i v e d f r o m o u t s i d e the c o m m u n i t y , p e r h a p s from its a n t e c e d e n t s that w e r e f o l l o w e r s o f the c o m m o n Z a d o k i t e / S a d d u c e a n a p p r o a c h . T h e sect w o u l d h a v e r e a d a n d s t u d i e d these m a t e r i a l s p r e c i s e l y b e c a u s e o f the affinities t h e y s h a r e d w i t h its o w n beliefs a n d p r i n c i p l e s . T h e b o o k of Jubilees a n d the s o u r c e s o f the T e m ­ ple S c r o l l constitute p a r t o f the w o r l d f r o m w h i c h the Q u m r a n sect e m e r g e d a n d in w h i c h it s t r o v e to attain its o w n s p i r i t u a l ideals. E a c h of these texts r e p r e s e n t s a n i n d e p e n d e n t v i e w o f the festival sacrificial cycle, b a s e d on exe­ gesis of the s c r i p t u r a l texts a n d a certain s h a r e d c o m m o n Z a d o k i t e / S a d d u ­ cean h e r i t a g e . T h e r e c a n b e n o possibility, h o w e v e r , of seeing the sacrificial c o d e s of Jubilees as b a s e d o n t h o s e of the T e m p l e S c r o l l or v i c e v e r s a .

5 7

55. m. Zevahim 5:8. 56. Cf. J. M i l g r o m , " T h e Concept o f Impurity in Jubilees and the Temple Scroll!' RevQ 16, no. 62 (1993): 277-84; M . Himmelfarb, "Sexual Relations and Purity in the Temple Scroll and the B o o k of Jubilees," DSD 6, no. 1 (1999): 1 1 - 3 6 ; L. Doering, "Purity and Impurity in the B o o k of Jubilees," in the present v o l u m e . 57. O u r study of the sacrificial law o f the A r a m a i c Levi D o c u m e n t indicates that its law includes m a n y aspects o f the Zadokite/Sadducean trend that it has s o m e h o w c o m b i n e d with Pharisaic-rabbinic prescriptions on other issues. Cf. L . H . Schiffman, "Sacrificial H a l a k h a h in the F r a g m e n t s o f the Aramaic Levi Document from Q u m r a n , the C a i r o Genizah, a n d Mt. A t h o s Monastery," in Reworking the Bible: Apocryphal and Related Texts at Qumran; Proceedings of a Joint Symposium by the Orion Center for the Study of the Dead Sea Scrolls and Associated Literature and the Hebrew University Institute for Advanced Studies Re­ search Group on Qumran, 15-17 January, 2002, ed. E . G . C h a z o n , D. Dimant, a n d R. A . Clements, S T D J 58 (Leiden: Brill, 2 0 0 5 ) , 177-202.

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A t this p o i n t , w e w i s h to take u p J a m e s V a n d e r K a m ' s d i s a g r e e m e n t w i t h o u r c o n c l u s i o n s . H e has set t h e m forth in a careful i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f the festival c a l e n d a r of the T e m p l e S c r o l l a n d the b o o k of Jubilees in w h i c h he directly r e s p o n d s to m y e a r l i e r - m e n t i o n e d a r t i c l e .

58

V a n d e r K a m a r g u e s that

the differences that I h a v e n o t e d m a y be a c c o u n t e d for b y t a k i n g into c o n s i d ­ eration a v a r i e t y of factors, m o s t n o t a b l y the c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f Jubilees o n the G e n e s i s n a r r a t i v e , w h i c h lacks m a n y of the h a l a k i c details that are dis­ c u s s e d in the T e m p l e S c r o l l . I h a v e r e r e a d this a r g u m e n t a n d still do n o t agree. T h e v e r y n a m e s o f the festivals c l a i m e d b y Jubilees to h a v e b e e n o b ­ s e r v e d b y the p a t r i a r c h s are d e r i v e d f r o m e l s e w h e r e in the T o r a h . If these fes­ tivals c o u l d b e i m p o r t e d into the p a t r i a r c h a l n a r r a t i v e s , w h y c o u l d n o t their details h a v e b e e n as well? V a n d e r K a m w a n t s to a r g u e that despite s o m e dif­ ferences that he is w i l l i n g to r e c o g n i z e , the festival c a l e n d a r s are essentially i d e n t i c a l . T h i s a r g u m e n t m a y b o i l d o w n to w h e t h e r the glass is h a l f e m p t y o r half full, b u t I t h i n k o n reflection that b o t h of o u r earlier studies w e r e s o m e ­ w h a t off the m a r k . I t h i n k w e b o t h a s s u m e d that w h a t w a s u n d e r d i s c u s s i o n w a s the r e l a t i o n s h i p o f t w o d i s p a r a t e w o r k s to o n e another. H e n c e , w e s o u g h t large n u m b e r s of differences or g e n e r a l a g r e e m e n t to i n d i c a t e affinity or d i s a g r e e m e n t . N o w w e realize that affinity n e e d o n l y be a m o n g w h a t w e m i g h t call a family, a t r a d i t i o n , that is, to w h a t f a m i l y o f a n c i e n t h a l a k a h a text b e l o n g s . O n c e w e h a v e p l a c e d the T e m p l e S c r o l l a n d Jubilees in the s a m e family, w h a t e v e r specific differences w e m a y u n c o v e r m a y n o w b e u n d e r ­ s t o o d as t e s t i m o n y to the diversity w i t h i n s u c h s u b - c o r p o r a of a n c i e n t J e w ­ ish legal t h i n k i n g . Just as the G e n e s i s A p o c r y p h o n a n d the b o o k of Jubilees n e e d n o t agree in their " a g g a d i c " u n d e r s t a n d i n g of G e n e s i s , so the T e m p l e S c r o l l a n d Jubilees n e e d n o t a g r e e in their l e g a l r u l i n g s to b e p a r t o f the s a m e trend.

Conclusion T h e r e l a t i o n s h i p of Jubilees a n d the T e m p l e S c r o l l is c o m p l e x . T h e t w o texts share a c o m m o n calendar, but have different t h e o l o g i e s , contents, in s o m e cases sacrificial laws, a n d e x p r e s s differing ideas a b o u t e s c h a t o l o g y . T h i s does n o t , h o w e v e r , m e a n that the texts are u n r e l a t e d . T h e y b o t h b e l o n g to the c o m m o n c u l t u r e a n d t r a d i t i o n of a g r o u p of s e c t a r i a n g r o u p s to w h i c h o u r Q u m r a n s e c t a r i a n s , the a u t h o r of the s o u r c e s of the T e m p l e S c r o l l , a n d

58. V a n d e r K a m , " T h e Temple Scroll," 225-31.

114

The Book of Jubilees and the Temple Scroll the author of Jubilees belonged. C o m m o n teachings and aspirations united these groups. Further, Jubilees and the Temple Scroll are both forms of re­ written Torah, one rewriting w h a t we might call (borrowing rabbinic termi­ nology) the "aggadic" parts of the Torah and the other rewriting the halakic parts of the Torah. But the relationship between these documents is certainly not as close as, say, the relationship between the Temple Scroll and 4 Q M M T . In m y view, the Temple Scroll was put together mostly from pre-Qumranian Sadducean type legal sources and the book of Jubilees emerged from similar circles. However, these are certainly not compositions of the same group, be it the Q u m r a n sect or some predecessor.

"5

Jubilees, Sirach, and Sapiential Tradition Benjamin G. Wright III

At first blush Jubilees and Jewish wisdom literature would appear to have lit­ tle in c o m m o n . W i s d o m and w i s d o m language do not appear in Jubilees, whose p r i m a r y concern seems halakic. A s a rough indicator, one need only scan the margins of Orval Wintermute's OTP translation of Jubilees, where he notes related passages in biblical, early Jewish, and Christian texts. O f the dozens of passages listed there, maybe three or four come from the corpus usually identified as w i s d o m . B y contrast, 1 E n o c h , which Jubilees knows, displays quite a n u m b e r of similarities to Jewish w i s d o m .

1

Yet content and genre might be less important considerations for thinking about Jubilees and Jewish w i s d o m than the strategies they adopt to solve c o m m o n problems. Looking at Jubilees and Jewish wisdom together bears some potentially significant fruit. Jubilees, for example, employs some aspects of w i s d o m discourse, particularly in the final speeches of its major patriarchal figures to their sons, that function to convince the reader to adopt the book's values and ideology. In such contexts of passing d o w n in­ struction from a father (and in Jubilees a mother in one instance) to a son, c o m m o n discursive elements with wisdom do not surprise, even if the con­ tent in Jubilees does not always look very wisdom-like. One particular complex in Jubilees, however, highlights some broader

1. See G. W. E. Nickelsburg, "Enochic Wisdom: An Alternative to the Mosaic Torah?" in Hesed ve-emet Studies in Honor of Ernest S. Frerichs, ed. J. Magness and S. Gitin, BJS 10 (Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1998), 123-32.

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Jubilees,

Sirach,

and Sapiential

Tradition

issues in early J e w i s h literature. Oft n o t e d has b e e n the central role in J u b i ­ lees p l a y e d b y the h e a v e n l y tablets a n d the w r i t t e n t r a n s m i s s i o n o f w h a t is f o u n d t h e r e o n . In a d d i t i o n to the specific h a l a k i c r e g u l a t i o n s e n j o i n e d in J u ­ bilees, o n e i m p o r t a n t p r o b l e m h a s b e e n h o w J u b i l e e s l e g i t i m a t e s its o w n p a r t i c u l a r i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f the l a w as b i n d i n g o n all of Israel. O n e tack has b e e n to a r g u e that M o s e s t o o k d o w n these laws (i.e., J u b i l e e s ' i n t e r p r e t a ­ t i o n s ) at the d i c t a t i o n of the a n g e l of the p r e s e n c e w h o w a s t r a n s m i t t i n g w h a t w a s w r i t t e n o n the h e a v e n l y tablets. T h u s , the h a l a k i c c l a i m s of Jubilees h a v e e q u a l status to the T o r a h of M o s e s , since b o t h Jubilees a n d the T o r a h s t e m f r o m t h e m . T h a t is, J u b i l e e s ' i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s are n o t really

interpreta­

t i o n s , b u t their p r i m o r d i a l o r i g i n s o n the h e a v e n l y tablets afford t h e m d i v i n e a u t h o r i z a t i o n . If w e l o o k to o n e o f the q u i n t e s s e n t i a l w i s d o m texts o f early J u d a i s m , o n e p r e d a t i n g J u b i l e e s b y o n l y a f e w d e c a d e s , the W i s d o m of B e n Sira, w e can identify a s i m i l a r s t r a t e g y for l e g i t i m a t i n g the a u t h o r ' s i n t e r p r e ­ t a t i o n s . O n l y in this case p r i m o r d i a l W i s d o m serves as the

authorizing

mechanism. Finally, in J u b i l e e s , w h i l e all the m a j o r figures w r i t e , s o m e do m o r e ; t h e y r e a d a n d study. B e s i d e s their other r o l e s , t h e y p l a y the p a r t of the i d e a l s c r i b e . In w r i t i n g , r e a d i n g , a n d s t u d y i n g , the h e r o e s o f J u b i l e e s b e c o m e the a u t h o r i t a t i v e v o i c e s o f the t r a d i t i o n that g u a r d it against c o r r u p t i o n o r ille­ g i t i m a t e u s e . A s such t h e y f u n c t i o n as e x e m p l a r s for c o n t e m p o r a r y scribes to e m u l a t e in their o w n g u a r d i a n s h i p of the t r a d i t i o n t r a n s m i t t e d in J u b i l e e s . T h e y f o r m a c h a i n o f t r a n s m i s s i o n , e n s u r i n g that w h a t c a m e f r o m the heav­ enly tablets h a s b e e n h a n d e d d o w n accurately, but t h e y also act as e x a m p l e s to f o l l o w so as to assure those in the p r e s e n t that the a u t h o r i t a t i v e t r a d i t i o n remains unsullied.

2

I. "And Now, M y Children" T h r o u g h o u t Jubilees o n e c o u l d isolate i n d i v i d u a l passages that parallel m a t e ­ rial in w i s d o m texts. T h e y are few, h o w e v e r , a n d do n o t characterize Jubilees in any g e n e r a l sense. S o , to give o n e e x a m p l e , in three p a s s a g e s (5:16; 2 1 : 4 ; 33:18) Jubilees e m p h a s i z e s that G o d does n o t "accept gifts," that is, take b r i b e s , b u t G o d j u d g e s righteously. J u b 5:16 is t y p i c a l : " A n d he is n o t o n e w h o accepts

2. F o r r e a s o n s of space, I use B e n Sira as m y text o f c o m p a r i s o n . O t h e r s m i g h t illu­ m i n a t e these strategies further. 4 Q I n s t r u c t i o n w o u l d m a k e an excellent a d d i t i o n to this discussion.

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III

p e r s o n s (i.e. is p a r t i a l ) , a n d he is n o t o n e w h o accepts gifts w h e n he says that 3

he w i l l execute j u d g m e n t o n each o n e . " We find an i d e n t i c a l s e n t i m e n t in Sir 35:14 e x p r e s s e d in v e r y s i m i l a r l a n g u a g e : " D o n o t offer h i m a b r i b e , for he w i l l n o t accept it; a n d do n o t rely on a d i s h o n e s t sacrifice; for the L o r d is the j u d g e , a n d w i t h h i m there is n o partiality." W h i l e w e c o u l d c a t a l o g u e such parallel passages, I d o n o t t h i n k any list w o u l d reveal m u c h of s u b s t a n c e a b o u t J u b i ­ lees a n d a n y relation it m i g h t have to sapiential t r a d i t i o n . J u b i l e e s does e m p l o y a v a r i a n t o f a literary s t r a t e g y often f o u n d in w i s ­ d o m texts — the c o n s t r u c t i o n of the sage a n d disciple as father a n d s o n . In w i s d o m literature the sage's use of direct a d d r e s s ( " M y s o n " ) c o n s t r u c t s the d i s c i p l e as his c h i l d , a n d the sage t h e r e b y a s s u m e s the a u t h o r i t y o f the stu­ dent's p a r e n t . A t the s a m e t i m e , the " I " a n d " y o u " of the direct a d d r e s s f u n c ­ t i o n as e m p t y signs t h r o u g h w h i c h the v o c a t i v e s a n d i m p e r a t i v e s a d d r e s s the reader, a n d in this w a y the text " r e c r u i t s " its reader, w h o m u s t r e s p o n d .

4

The

texts in w h i c h w e find this f a t h e r - s o n d i s c o u r s e e m p l o y v a r i o u s d i s c u r s i v e tactics "to i n s c r i b e the reader's filial s u b j e c t i v i t y a n d h e n c e the a u t h o r i t y o f 5

the a u t h o r ' s t e a c h i n g . " O n e e x a m p l e is the m e t a p h o r of w a l k i n g a p a t h or r o a d , w h i c h c o n s t r u c t s the s t u d e n t as a traveler t r a v e r s i n g the a c c e p t a b l e p a t h o f life ( a n d w h i c h a p p e a r s in J u b 2 1 : 2 2 ) . A v a r i a t i o n of this f a t h e r - s o n d i s c o u r s e a p p e a r s in s o m e n a r r a t i v e texts w h e r e a father s p e a k i n g to his c h i l d r e n o c c u p i e s a p r o m i n e n t place in the n a r r a t i v e . S o m e p a s s a g e s , like T o b 1 4 or 1 E n 8 2 : 1 - 4 , constitute p a r t s o f l a r g e r a n d m o r e diverse w o r k s . In other texts, like the T e s t a m e n t s o f the Twelve P a ­ t r i a r c h s , the f a t h e r - s o n s p e e c h constitutes the o v e r a r c h i n g f r a m e w o r k . T h e n a r r a t i v e s often d i s p l a y s o m e o f the s a m e features a n d t o p i c s as the " I - y o u " d i s c o u r s e of the s a p i e n t i a l w o r k s in o r d e r to place the r e a d e r in the p o s i t i o n of the a u t h o r ' s "son," but t h e y a c c o m p l i s h the a i m o f e n g a g i n g the r e a d e r a bit differently. R a t h e r t h a n the s e c o n d - p e r s o n a d d r e s s o f the sage that c o n ­ fronts the r e a d e r directly, a t h i r d - p e r s o n father t r a n s m i t s t e a c h i n g to his s o n ( s ) , w h i c h he c o m m a n d s that t h e y teach their c h i l d r e n a n d their c h i l d r e n a n d their c h i l d r e n after t h e m . T h e r e a d e r s t a n d s at the e n d of a l o n g c h a i n o f

3. Translations from Jubilees are from Wintermute in OTP. 4. See m y article " F r o m Generation to Generation: T h e Sage as Father in Early Jewish Literature," in Biblical Traditions in Transmission: Essays in Honour of Michael A. Knibb, ed. C. H e m p e l a n d J. M . Lieu, JSJSup i l l (Leiden: Brill, 2 0 0 6 ) , 309-32. For m u c h o f the theoreti­ cal discussion I rely o n C . N e w s o m , "Women a n d the Discourse of Patriarchal W i s d o m : A Study o f Proverbs 1 - 9 , " in Gender and Difference in Ancient Israel, ed. P. L. D a y (Minneapolis: Fortress, 1989), 142-60. 5. Wright, " F r o m Generation to Generation," 315.

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t r a n s m i s s i o n o f t e a c h i n g f r o m fathers to s o n s , a n d the text thus c o n s t r u c t s the r e a d e r as a d e s c e n d a n t of the n a r r a t i v e father. W h a t p e r h a p s creates the h i g h e s t degree of o b l i g a t i o n in the r e a d e r to a d o p t the v a l u e s of the n a r r a t i v e father is the father h a n d i n g writings

to his s o n s that m u s t b e t r a n s m i t t e d to

s u b s e q u e n t g e n e r a t i o n s , since the reader, w h o is p r e s u m a b l y r e a d i n g or lis­ t e n i n g to that b o o k , h a s a p a l p a b l e c o n n e c t i o n to the i n s t r u c t i o n handed down.

being

6

In the t e s t a m e n t a r y s p e e c h e s of fathers to their s o n s in J u b i l e e s , w e see s o m e t h i n g of this s a m e d e v i c e at w o r k , a l t h o u g h it is n o t f o r e g r o u n d e d here as i n l E n o c h or the T e s t a m e n t s of the Twelve P a t r i a r c h s . In Jubilees these s p e e c h e s c o n t a i n quite a n u m b e r of i m p o r t a n t h a l a k i c m a t t e r s , o b s e r v a n c e of w h i c h the father-son t e s t a m e n t a r y s p e e c h r e i n f o r c e s . T w o m e c h a n i s m s o p e r a t e in the Jubilees s p e e c h e s . First, the c o n t e x t , like b o t h s e c o n d - a n d t h i r d - p e r s o n f a t h e r - s o n c o n s t r u c t s , is o n e o f i n s t r u c t i o n w h e r e the father e x ­ plicitly notes that the t e a c h i n g is n o t o n l y for his i m m e d i a t e p r o g e n y b u t also for s u b s e q u e n t g e n e r a t i o n s . T h u s , the reader, w h o a l m o s t c e r t a i n l y identifies h i m s e l f / h e r s e l f as a d e s c e n d a n t o f the n a r r a t i v e figure, b e c o m e s o n e o f the c h i l d r e n o f the text a n d is t h u s o b l i g a t e d to o b e y the father's t e a c h i n g . S e c ­ o n d , J u b i l e e s n o t e s in at least o n e case that a patriarch's b o o k s w e r e i n t e n d e d to b e t r a n s m i t t e d to s u b s e q u e n t g e n e r a t i o n s . T w o e x a m p l e s s h o w h o w the c o n t e x t o f J u b i l e e s p u t s r e a d e r s i n the p o ­ sition o f the patriarch's c h i l d r e n . N o a h ' s final s p e e c h to his c h i l d r e n b e g i n s in 7:20 w i t h a n a r r a t i v e r e v i e w o f the c a u s e s o f the f l o o d , w h i c h G o d w r o u g h t " o n a c c o u n t of the b l o o d that t h e y p o u r e d o u t in the m i d s t o f the l a n d " ( 7 : 2 5 ) . T h e text then s w i t c h e s to N o a h s p e a k i n g in the first p e r s o n . H e tells his s o n s that he has o b s e r v e d their d e e d s , a n d he fears that w h e n he dies " y o u w i l l p o u r o u t the b l o o d of m e n u p o n the earth. A n d y o u w i l l be blotted out f r o m the surface o f the earth" ( 7 : 2 7 ) . J u b 7:29-33 c o n t a i n s a series o f c o m ­ m a n d s in b o t h third p e r s o n ("no m a n w h o . . .") a n d s e c o n d p e r s o n ( " y o u shall n o t be like . . . " ) , a n d 7:31 c o n t i n u e s , " C o v e r the b l o o d , b e c a u s e I w a s c o m m a n d e d to testify to y o u and to your children

together with all flesh?

So,

in 7:34 w h e n N o a h a d d r e s s e s " m y children," a l t h o u g h it is p a r a l l e l to the a d ­ dress in 7:26, the i n t e r v e n i n g v. 31 has created a m b i g u i t y a b o u t

whether

N o a h is a d d r e s s i n g his n a r r a t i v e c h i l d r e n o n l y or w h e t h e r his d e s c e n d a n t s , the b o o k ' s r e a d e r s , are also i n c l u d e d . N o a h c o m m a n d s that his c h i l d r e n "do j u s t i c e a n d r i g h t e o u s n e s s so that y o u m a y be p l a n t e d in r i g h t e o u s n e s s on the surface o f the w h o l e earth." L a w s a b o u t firstfruits, w h i c h are to b e offered

6. Wright, " F r o m G e n e r a t i o n to G e n e r a t i o n , " 3 2 7 - 3 1 .

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" u p o n the altar of the L o r d , " follow, a n d the " s e r v a n t s o f the h o u s e of the L o r d " w i l l eat a n y t h i n g left over. W h a t l o o k s like an a n a c h r o n i s t i c reference to priests a n d the t e m p l e is essentially n o t , since the reader, for w h o m priests a n d t e m p l e are a c o n t e m p o r a r y reality, has b e e n i n c l u d e d a m o n g the chil­ dren a d d r e s s e d b y the a n c i e n t figure. W h e r e a s N o a h ' s s p e e c h creates a m b i g u i t y a b o u t the i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f the " c h i l d r e n " to w h o m the p a t r i a r c h s p e a k s , that i d e n t i f i c a t i o n is clearer in the n a r r a t i v e a b o u t A b r a h a m , a n d the w o r k of c o n s t r u c t i n g the r e a d e r as o n e w h o falls in A b r a h a m ' s line b e g i n s early. In 1 2 : 2 3 , e m p l o y i n g the l a n ­ g u a g e of G e n 1 2 : 3 , G o d calls A b r a h a m a n d p r o m i s e s to bless h i m a n d all the n a t i o n s . T h e n J u b i l e e s a d d s , " A n d I shall be G o d for y o u a n d y o u r s o n a n d for the s o n o f y o u r s o n a n d for all o f y o u r seed." Thereafter, m e n t i o n o f A b r a h a m ' s " s e e d " m u s t b e r e a d in the light o f this s t a t e m e n t , w h i c h the a u ­ t h o r i n t e n d e d to i n c l u d e the reader. T h e a u t h o r further c i r c u m s c r i b e s the J e w i s h r e a d e r in the c o m m a n d m e n t to c i r c u m c i s e , w h i c h applies to "the s o n s o f Israel," a n o t h e r a n a c h r o n i s m for the " A b r a h a m " o f the n a r r a t i v e , b u t n o t for o u r a u t h o r . W h e n A b r a h a m finally b i d s farewell to his c h i l d r e n , he commands them,

that they s h o u l d g u a r d the w a y of the L o r d so that they m i g h t do righ­ teousness a n d each m i g h t love his n e i g h b o r , a n d that it s h o u l d be thus a m o n g all m e n so that o n e m i g h t p r o c e e d to act justly a n d rightly to­ w a r d t h e m u p o n the earth, a n d that they s h o u l d c i r c u m c i s e their sons in the c o v e n a n t w h i c h he m a d e w i t h t h e m , a n d that they s h o u l d n o t cross over either to the right or left from all of the w a y s w h i c h the L o r d c o m ­ m a n d e d us a n d that we s h o u l d keep ourselves from all f o r n i c a t i o n a n d p o l l u t i o n , a n d that we s h o u l d set aside from a m o n g us all f o r n i c a t i o n and p o l l u t i o n . (20:2-3, e m p h a s i s m i n e )

B y this t i m e the reader is w e l l p r e p a r e d for this s u d d e n shift in p e r s o n . After all, the m e m b e r s of J u b i l e e s ' a u d i e n c e are p r e d i s p o s e d to s e e i n g t h e m s e l v e s as c h i l d r e n of A b r a h a m . T h e r h e t o r i c a l s c h e m e e x p l o i t s that p r e d i s p o s i t i o n in o r d e r to m a k e A b r a h a m s p e a k directly to all his c h i l d r e n , b o t h r e m o t e a n d c o n t e m p o r a r y , v i a an extensive list of w a r n i n g s a n d a d m o n i t i o n s that i n ­ cludes a v o i d i n g f o r n i c a t i o n , k e e p i n g a w a y f r o m i d o l s , a n d p r o p e r l y w o r s h i p ­ ing G o d . A s e c o n d strategy for f o r g i n g the p a r e n t - c h i l d b o n d that places the r e a d e r in the o b l i g e d p o s i t i o n e m p h a s i z e s the p a s s i n g d o w n o f b o o k s f r o m the p a t r i a r c h a l father. T h e b o o k that the r e a d e r p o s s e s s e s or h e a r s is the

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s a m e o n e o r i g i n a l l y w r i t t e n b y the father figure of the text. S o in l E n 8 2 : 1 - 3 E n o c h gives b o o k s to M e t h u s e l a h in w h i c h he has r e c o r d e d all the w i s d o m he has r e v e a l e d to M e t h u s e l a h , "so that y o u m a y give it to the g e n e r a t i o n s of the w o r l d . W i s d o m I h a v e g i v e n to y o u a n d to y o u r c h i l d r e n a n d to those w h o w i l l be y o u r c h i l d r e n so that they m a y give this w i s d o m w h i c h is b e y o n d their t h o u g h t to their c h i l d r e n for the g e n e r a t i o n s . "

7

U n f o r t u n a t e l y , there is n o t h i n g this e x p l i c i t in J u b i l e e s , b u t the i m ­ p o r t a n c e of w r i t i n g a n d the p r e s e n c e of s e v e r a l b o o k s , w h i c h reflect w h a t is w r i t t e n in the h e a v e n l y tablets, suggest that J u b i l e e s itself is the e n d p r o d u c t of a c h a i n of t r a n s m i s s i o n that o r i g i n a t e d w i t h p a t r i a r c h a l f i g u r e s . H e r e , t h o u g h , w e m u s t d i s t i n g u i s h b e t w e e n e s t a b l i s h i n g the a u t h o r i t y o f J u b i l e e s b a s e d o n the p r e e x i s t i n g h e a v e n l y tablets a n d c o n s t r u c t i n g the r e a d e r as a d e s c e n d a n t of the p a t r i a r c h a l father for the p u r p o s e of o b l i g a t i n g h i m / h e r to a c q u i e s c e to w h a t is in the b o o k ( s ) , since the w r i t t e n text s u b s t i t u t e s for the father's v o i c e . T h a t is, the b o o k that is p a s s e d d o w n enables i n t e r v e n i n g g e n e r a t i o n s to be s k i p p e d so t h a t the p a t r i a r c h s p e a k s d i r e c t l y to his "child." In o n e s u g g e s t i v e p a s s a g e ( 4 5 : 1 5 ) , u p o n J a c o b ' s d e a t h " h e g a v e all o f his b o o k s a n d his fathers' b o o k s to L e v i , his s o n , so t h a t he m i g h t p r e s e r v e t h e m a n d r e n e w t h e m for his s o n s until this day!' T h e e x a c t r e l a t i o n s h i p b e ­ t w e e n these b o o k s a n d J u b i l e e s r e m a i n s u n c l e a r , e x c e p t t h a t in this i n s t a n c e the t r a d i t i o n i n h e r i t e d f r o m the a n c e s t o r s is p r e s e r v e d i n a p r i e s t l y c o n t e x t , one that p r e s u m a b l y represents s o m e t h i n g of Jubilees' self-understanding, 8

a n d t h u s h a s s o m e r e l a t i o n s h i p to J u b i l e e s itself. In fact, m o s t o f the m a j o r figures i n J u b i l e e s w r i t e b o o k s , in s o m e cases m o r e t h a n o n e , b u t J u b i l e e s d o e s n o t p r e s e n t t h e m as i d e n t i c a l to itself. In fact, t h e y m u s t b e different f r o m J u b i l e e s , even if t h e y reflect the h e a v e n l y tablets in s o m e w a y , since M o s e s acts as the a m a n u e n s i s for the a n g e l o f the p r e s e n c e in w r i t i n g the b o o k . I n d e e d , J u b i l e e s itself is n e v e r p o r t r a y e d as a b o o k that M o s e s h a s t r a n s m i t t e d to his c h i l d r e n . So the t w o strategies that w e see in s o m e w i s d o m a n d n a r r a t i v e litera­ t u r e that c o n s t r u c t the reader as the child o f the "father" o f the text a p p e a r o n l y in a s o m e w h a t a t t e n u a t e d w a y in J u b i l e e s . A l t h o u g h t h e y do n o t f u n c ­ tion centrally in the b o o k as m e c h a n i s m s for a u t h o r i z i n g its i d e o l o g y , t h e y play a supporting role.

7. Translation is from G . W. E . N i c k e l s b u r g a n d J. C . V a n d e r K a m , / Enoch: A

Translation

New

( M i n n e a p o l i s : Fortress, 2 0 0 4 ) .

8. J. C . V a n d e r K a m , The Book of jubilees

(Sheffield: Sheffield A c a d e m i c Press, 2 0 0 1 ) ,

81,120.

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II. "Therefore It Is Commanded in the Heavenly Tablets" (Jubilees 3:31) In t h i n k i n g a b o u t the r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n J u b i l e e s a n d J e w i s h w i s d o m , I h a v e f o u n d the w o r k o f H i n d y N a j m a n p r o d u c t i v e . S h e b e g i n s h e r article "Interpretation

as P r i m o r d i a l W r i t i n g : J u b i l e e s a n d Its A u t h o r i t y C o n ­

f e r r i n g S t r a t e g i e s " w i t h the f o l l o w i n g o b s e r v a t i o n : " W r i t i n g s f r o m the S e c ­ o n d T e m p l e p e r i o d c o n s i s t e n t l y i n v o k e d the T o r a h of M o s e s as a u t h o r i t a ­ tive s a c r e d w r i t i n g . A l t h o u g h the t r a d i t i o n w a s s h a r e d , a t t e m p t s to m a k e S c r i p t u r e r e l e v a n t a n d a c c e s s i b l e g e n e r a t e d d i v e r s e v i e w s a b o u t h o w to i n ­ t e r p r e t a n d a p p l y this a u t h o r i t a t i v e w r i t i n g . A s a result d i s t i n c t i v e i n t e r ­ p r e t a t i o n s a n d p r a c t i c e s e m e r g e d . It b e c a m e e s s e n t i a l that w r i t e r s j u s t i f y their interpretations."

9

Jubilees, along with several other second temple

w o r k s , p u r s u e d a s t r a t e g y t h a t c r e a t e d "an a u t h o r i z i n g l i n k to the a l r e a d y accepted Torah of M o s e s . "

1 0

J u b i l e e s ' a u t h o r p r e s e n t s the w o r k as r e v e l a ­

t i o n g i v e n to M o s e s f r o m the h e a v e n l y tablets, f r o m w h i c h also the T o r a h of M o s e s d e r i v e d . T h u s , J u b i l e e s c o m b i n e s c l a i m s to the a u t h o r i t y o f its i n ­ t e r p r e t a t i o n s w i t h its s e l f - p r e s e n t a t i o n as s a c r e d w r i t i n g w h o s e u l t i m a t e o r i g i n s lie in the s a m e p l a c e as the T o r a h o f M o s e s — the h e a v e n l y tablets f r o m w h i c h the a n g e l o f the p r e s e n c e d i c t a t e s to M o s e s . F o r N a j m a n , J u b i ­ l e e s ' a u t h o r d e v e l o p s f o u r p r i m a r y s t r a t e g i e s for c o n f e r r i n g a u t h o r i t y o n his w o r k . T w o o f these are o f interest h e r e : ( 1 ) "Jubilees

repeatedly claims

t h a t it r e p r o d u c e s m a t e r i a l that h a d b e e n w r i t t e n d o w n l o n g b e f o r e o n the ' h e a v e n l y tablets,' a g r e a t c o r p u s o f d i v i n e t e a c h i n g s k e p t in h e a v e n " ; a n d ( 2 ) " T h e entire c o n t e n t of the b o o k of Jubilees

w a s d i c t a t e d b y the a n g e l o f

the p r e s e n c e at G o d ' s o w n c o m m a n d . H e n c e it is itself the p r o d u c t o f d i ­ vine revelation."

11

A l t h o u g h s c h o l a r s often m a k e m u c h of g e n r e in s e c o n d t e m p l e liter­ a t u r e , I a m s t r u c k b y the w a y different kinds

o f texts r e s o r t to s i m i l a r

m e c h a n i s m s for r e s o l v i n g c o m m o n d i f f i c u l t i e s . F o r m y p u r p o s e s , I w a n t to l o o k at h o w B e n S i r a a p p r o a c h e s the p r o b l e m o f a u t h o r i z i n g his i n t e r p r e ­ t a t i o n s of T o r a h , s i n c e I t h i n k his s o l u t i o n c o m p a r e s w i t h t h a t of J u b i l e e s . E v e n t h o u g h he r e g a r d s the T o r a h o f M o s e s as s a c r e d a n d

authoritative,

9. H i n d y N a j m a n , "Interpretation as Primordial Writing: Jubilees a n d Its Authority Conferring Strategies," / S / 3 0 (1999): 379-410 (here 379). 10. Najman, "Interpretation as Primordial Writing," 379. See also, Najman, Seconding Sinai: The Development of Mosaic Discourse in Second Temple Judaism, JSJSup 77 (Leiden a n d Boston: Brill, 2003). 11. N a j m a n , "Interpretation as Primordial Writing," 380.

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B e n Sira f a m o u s l y d o e s n o t q u o t e f r o m it e x p l i c i t l y .

12

Tradition

L i k e the a u t h o r o f

J u b i l e e s , t h o u g h , B e n S i r a i n t e r p r e t s this a u t h o r i t a t i v e c o r p u s , w h e t h e r he is c l a r i f y i n g w h a t it m e a n s to h o n o r p a r e n t s ( 3 : 1 - 1 6 ) o r a l l u d i n g to the d e ­ s t r u c t i o n o f S o d o m a n d G o m o r r a h ( 1 6 : 8 ) . H e d o e s n o t cite an

authorita­

tive text to u n d e r w r i t e his i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s , b u t r a t h e r he a p p e a l s to p r i m o r ­ dial W i s d o m

as h i s s o u r c e

of authority.

Whereas

Jubilees' halakic

p r e s c r i p t i o n s r e s i d e d o n the p r i m o r d i a l h e a v e n l y tablets l o n g b e f o r e the a n g e l of the p r e s e n c e d i c t a t e d t h e m to M o s e s (the first o f N a j m a n ' s strate­ g i e s ) , B e n Sira a p p e a l s to W i s d o m , w h i c h also e x i s t e d p r i m o r d i a l l y w i t h G o d , as his s o u r c e of u n d e r s t a n d i n g . In a s i m i l a r w a y that in Jubilees the a n g e l of the p r e s e n c e links the h e a v e n l y r e a l m w i t h the earthly, a s s u r i n g the a c c u r a c y o f w h a t M o s e s w r i t e s , so p r i m o r d i a l W i s d o m links h e a v e n a n d earth, a u t h o r i z i n g B e n Sira's teach­ ing. Sir 24 is p e r h a p s the locus classicus

for u n d e r s t a n d i n g

h o w B e n Sira

theologizes about W i s d o m — and not without g o o d reason. W i s d o m speaks o n h e r o w n behalf; she b e g i n s b y d e s c r i b i n g h e r p r e s e n c e t h r o u g h o u t all the e a r t h ( w . 1 - 6 ) . S h e t h e n seeks "rest" (v. 7 ) . B u t w h e r e ? G o d sends her to I s ­ rael, specifically to the J e r u s a l e m t e m p l e w h e r e she m i n i s t e r s " b e f o r e h i m " ( w . 1 0 - 1 2 ) . T h e eternal a n d p r i m o r d i a l W i s d o m is established in the t e m p l e , w h e r e she f l o u r i s h e s ( w . 1 3 - 1 7 ) . G i v e n her p r e s e n c e in the t e m p l e , o n e m i g h t e x p e c t B e n Sira to m a k e e x p l i c i t s o m e priestly c o n n e c t i o n w i t h W i s d o m , b u t in w . 1 9 - 2 2 W i s d o m calls to a n y o n e w h o desires h e r .

13

T h e s e verses f o r m a s e g u e to the n e x t place

that o n e finds W i s d o m , the M o s a i c T o r a h : "All these things are the b o o k of the c o v e n a n t o f the M o s t H i g h G o d , a law that M o s e s c o m m a n d e d us, an i n ­ h e r i t a n c e for the g a t h e r i n g s of J a c o b " (v. 2 3 ) . U n f o r t u n a t e l y , the

phrase

"these t h i n g s " is r a t h e r v a g u e , but it m u s t refer to w h a t B e n Sira has j u s t said a b o u t W i s d o m . H e r p r e s e n c e n o t o n l y l e g i t i m a t e s the t e m p l e cult, but she is also e m b o d i e d in the T o r a h , a n d her access is n o t restricted o n l y to priests. A s i n J u b i l e e s , in S i r a c h the law, in a sense, exists b e f o r e the S i n a i event. U n ­ like J u b i l e e s , h o w e v e r , B e n Sira d o e s n o t e n v i s i o n a n o t h e r r e v e l a t i o n to M o ­ ses, b u t he identifies p r i m o r d i a l W i s d o m as a heavenly, p r e e x i s t e n t feature o f the M o s a i c T o r a h . T h i s idea has p o w e r f u l c o n s e q u e n c e s , as w e shall s h o r t l y 12. F o r problems with the w o r d "canonical" in this context, see especially Robert A . Kraft, "5.1 Scripture a n d C a n o n in Jewish A p o c r y p h a a n d Pseudepigrapha," in Hebrew Bible/ Old Testament: The History of Its Interpretation, vol. 1, From the Beginnings to the Middle Ages (Until 1300), ed. M a g n e Sasbo (Gottingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1996), 67-83. 13. T h e connection is m a d e in the praise of S i m o n II (chap. 50), which contains simi­ lar imagery to chap. 24.

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see. T h e g r a m m a r of t h e next three verses in Greek indicates that Ben Sira is referring to the l a w :

14

2slt (i.e. the law) fills wisdom like Phison and like Tigris in days of new things. 26lt supplies understanding like Euphrates and like Jordan in days of harvest, nit

shines forth education like light,

like Geon in days of vintage. The focus then returns to W o m a n W i s d o m : 2 8 T h e first man did not complete knowing her, and so the last one did not track her out, 29for her thought was filled from the sea, and her counsel from the great abyss. Ben Sira continues the fluvial imagery of w . 2 8 - 2 9 , b u t this time in a selfreference: 3 o A n d I, like a canal from a river and a water channel, issued forth into an orchard. 31I said, "I will water m y garden, and I will drench m y flower bed." A n d look! T h e canal turned into a river for me, and m y river turned into a sea. 32Still I will again make education enlighten like dawn, and I will shine them forth to far off. 33Still I will again pour out teaching like prophecy, and I will leave it behind for generations of eternity. 34See that I have not toiled for myself alone but for all who seek it (or, her) out.

14. N o Hebrew survives for chap. 24. Translations from the Greek o f Sirach are mine, taken from A. Pietersma and B. G. Wright, eds., A New English Translation of the Septuagint (New York: Oxford, forthcoming).

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B e n Sira's w a t e r y o d y s s e y e n d s at the sea, the p l a c e o f W i s d o m ' s t h o u g h t . O n l y then can he e n g a g e in the activities o f the sage o u t l i n e d in w . 3 2 - 3 4 . In this central chapter of the b o o k B e n Sira c l a i m s to h a v e t a p p e d the p r i m o r ­ dial W i s d o m e m b o d i e d in T o r a h . In fact, his t e a c h i n g b e c o m e s the c o n d u i t to W i s d o m for a n y o n e w h o w o u l d seek h e r (v. 3 4 ) . T h e d i s c o u r s e of c h a p . 24 m a k e s the a d j u r a t i o n s to seek W i s d o m f o u n d e l s e w h e r e in the b o o k all the more meaningful. B e n Sira's a u t h o r i z i n g strategy in chap. 24, then, w o r k s v e r y m u c h like the first of the strategies that N a j m a n discovers in jubilees. F o r B e n Sira, au­ t h o r i t y is n o t as b o u n d u p in writtenness as is true of Jubilees, even t h o u g h he does s p e a k of the T o r a h o f M o s e s as a b o o k a n d he refers to his o w n teaching as i n s c r i b e d "in this b o o k " (50:27). B u t the a u t h o r i t y for his teaching does derive, as i n Jubilees, f r o m a p r i m o r d i a l s o u r c e that existed l o n g before the actual T o ­ rah of M o s e s . U n l i k e the h e a v e n l y tablets, w h i c h N a j m a n calls "a great c o r p u s of teachings kept in heaven," W i s d o m is not a c o r p u s of teachings but is the di­ v i n e presence that inhabits the T o r a h . F i n d W i s d o m , as B e n Sira clearly thinks he h a s , a n d o n e has access to w h a t Torah is all a b o u t . T h u s , w h e r e a s Jubilees authorizes its teaching b y a p p e a l i n g to the h e a v e n l y tablets, B e n Sira legiti­ m a t e s the activities a n d teaching of all the sages, not j u s t his o w n , since h y p o thetically a n y o n e w h o s i n g l e - m i n d e d l y p u r s u e s W i s d o m can possess her. T h e s e c o n d of J u b i l e e s ' a u t h o r i t y - c o n f e r r i n g strategies is that Jubilees is the p r o d u c t o f d i v i n e r e v e l a t i o n . T h e a n g e l of the p r e s e n c e ensures the a c ­ c u r a c y o f w h a t is dictated to M o s e s , w h o t r a n s c r i b e s it all faithfully. H e r e the angel's i n t e r m e d i a r y f u n c t i o n reinforces the a u t h o r i t y of the r e v e l a t i o n as d i v i n e . J a m e s V a n d e r K a m has d e m o n s t r a t e d that the a n g e l of the p r e s e n c e n o t o n l y s p e a k s in G o d ' s n a m e b u t also p e r f o r m s acts a t t r i b u t e d e l s e w h e r e to God.

1 5

A s b o t h V a n d e r K a m a n d N a j m a n a r g u e , s u c h i n t i m a c y w i t h G o d en­

h a n c e s J u b i l e e s ' a u t h o r i t y a n d f r a m e s it as r e v e l a t i o n f r o m the deity g i v e n to Israel v i a the s c r i b a l h a n d of M o s e s .

1 6

B e n Sira does n o t f r a m e his w o r k as the p r o d u c t of r e v e l a t o r y activity, b u t n o n e t h e l e s s he does t r y to c o n n e c t his teaching w i t h r e v e l a t i o n . We h a v e seen that in the d i s c o u r s e of 2 4 : 3 0 - 3 4 he derives his t e a c h i n g f r o m W i s d o m , w h i c h is e m b o d i e d in T o r a h . A s a result, he c a n c h a r a c t e r i z e his teaching as p r o p h e c y . Later, in c h a p . 3 9 , B e n Sira d e s c r i b e s the a c t i v i t y of the s c r i b e / s a g e .

15. J. C . V a n d e r K a m , " T h e A n g e l of the Presence in the B o o k of Jubilees," DSD 7 ( 2 0 0 0 ) : 378-93. 16. V a n d e r K a m , "Angel o f the Presence," 392-93; N a j m a n , Seconding

Sinai, 6 0 - 6 3 ;

N a j m a n , "Interpretation as P r i m o r d i a l Writing," 4 0 0 - 4 0 3 .

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T w o e l e m e n t s stand out. First, the sage studies "the w i s d o m of all the an­ cients, a n d he w i l l b e o c c u p i e d w i t h p r o p h e c i e s " (v. l ) . H e delves into o b ­ scure s a y i n g s a n d tries to u n c o v e r the m e a n i n g of r i d d l e s . B u t s e c o n d , the sage p r a y s to G o d a n d confesses his s i n s . T h e n ,

6lf the great L o r d w a n t s , he will b e filled w i t h a spirit of u n d e r s t a n d i n g . H e w i l l p o u r forth w o r d s of his w i s d o m , and in prayer he will a c k n o w l e d g e the L o r d .

7He will direct c o u n s e l a n d k n o w l e d g e , a n d o n his h i d d e n things he will think.

sHe will illuminate the instruction of his teaching, a n d in the law of the L o r d ' s covenant he will b o a s t .

17

R e m a r k a b l y , this p a s s a g e b e g i n s w i t h G o d g i v i n g i n s p i r a t i o n to the sage. H e t h e n p o u r s forth w i s d o m a n d t e a c h i n g . T h e s h o r t p a r a g r a p h ends w i t h the claim "in the l a w of the L o r d ' s c o v e n a n t he w i l l boast." T h i s reference to the T o r a h reinforces the r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n T o r a h , w h e r e p r i m o r d i a l W i s d o m resides, a n d B e n Sira's i n s p i r e d i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s . We k n o w that B e n Sira w a s n o t e n a m o r e d of c l a i m s to h e a v e n l y j o u r n e y s a n d v i s i o n s (see for instance 3 : 2 1 - 2 4 ) or of k n o w l e d g e c l a i m e d to c o m e f r o m d r e a m s ( 3 4 : 1 - 8 ) .

1 8

If p r i m o r ­

dial W i s d o m is to be f o u n d in the T o r a h of M o s e s a n d the s a y i n g s o f the sages w h o interpret it, then the c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n c o n c e n t r a t e d s t u d y a n d d i v i n e i n s p i r a t i o n a n d p r o p h e c y m a k e s sense. It is n o s u r p r i s e that B e n Sira m i g h t w a r n his disciples against p u r s u i n g s p e c u l a t i v e or r e v e l a t o r y e x p e r i e n c e s : " T h e things that have b e e n p r e s c r i b e d for y o u , t h i n k a b o u t these" ( 3 : 2 2 a ) .

III. "Write for Yourself All These Words" (Jubilees 1:7) O n e c a n n o t read Jubilees w i t h o u t b e i n g i m p r e s s e d b y the i m p o r t a n c e of w r i t ­ ing in the b o o k . M o r e n o t a b l e is the series o f p e o p l e w h o w r i t e . B e g i n n i n g 17. Translation is from the Greek. N o Hebrew is extant. 18. O n this issue, see m y article "Putting the Puzzle Together: S o m e Suggestions con­ cerning the Social Location o f the W i s d o m o f B e n Sira," in Conflicted Boundaries in Wisdom and Apocalypticism, ed. B. G . Wright a n d L. M . Wills, S B L S y m S 35 (Atlanta: Society o f Bibli­ cal Literature, 2005), 89-112.

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w i t h E n o c h , "the first w h o learned w r i t i n g a n d k n o w l e d g e a n d w i s d o m , " c o n ­ t i n u i n g to N o a h a n d e x t e n d i n g u p to M o s e s , the putative a u t h o r of Jubilees, the m a i n figures o f Israelite h i s t o r y p r e s e r v e a n d t r a n s m i t texts, w h i c h c o n ­ tain m a n y topics central to J u b i l e e s . T h u s , E n o c h w r i t e s a b o o k that c o n t a i n s "the s i g n s of the h e a v e n a c c o r d i n g to the o r d e r o f their m o n t h s , " i.e., calendrical matters ( 4 : 1 7 ) . After M o s e s , p e r h a p s the m o s t interesting w r i t e r in Jubilees is A b r a h a m . In 12:25 G o d c o m m a n d s the angel of the p r e s e n c e to en­ able A b r a h a m to h e a r a n d s p e a k H e b r e w , "the l a n g u a g e of creation." A b r a ­ h a m takes his father's b o o k s , w h i c h are in H e b r e w . H e copies t h e m ; then he studies t h e m . In the p r o c e s s of s t u d y the a n g e l causes h i m "to k n o w e v e r y ­ thing w h i c h he w a s u n a b l e to u n d e r s t a n d " ( 1 2 : 2 7 ) . P r e s u m a b l y Terah's b o o k s reflect the h e a v e n l y tablets, a n d t h r o u g h o u t the n a r r a t i v e A b r a h a m faithfully k e e p s v a r i o u s ritual l a w s a n d o b s e r v a n c e s , such as c i r c u m c i s i o n a n d the feasts of S u k k o t h a n d S h a v u o t h , w h i c h o n e suspects w e r e o r d a i n e d in the b o o k s A b r a h a m inherited. In his l o n g farewell, A b r a h a m enjoins first his children, then I s a a c , a n d then J a c o b to do justice a n d r i g h t e o u s n e s s , a c t i o n s that he amplifies at great length a n d w i t h m u c h h a l a k i c detail. T h e figures in Jubilees w h o e n g a g e in w r i t i n g f o r m an a u t h o r i t a t i v e a n d t r u s t w o r t h y chain of t r a n s m i s s i o n of m a t e r i a l f r o m the h e a v e n l y tablets, w h i c h c u l m i n a t e s in the revelation to M o s e s . In these instances, a synergistic r e l a t i o n s h i p o b t a i n s b e t w e e n the characters in Jubilees a n d their w o r t h i n e s s to receive laws d e r i v e d f r o m the h e a v e n l y tablets a n d then to t r a n s m i t t h e m . T h a t they are d e e m e d w o r t h y of the h e a v e n l y tablets a n d that they faithfully keep the laws c o n t a i n e d therein m a k e s t h e m e x e m p l a r s for a n y o n e r e a d i n g the b o o k . T h e y also serve as e x e m p l a r s in a n o t h e r way. In J u b i l e e s , the act of w r i t i n g certifies faithful c o p y i n g a n d t r a n s m i s s i o n as m u c h as it signals c o m ­ p o s i t i o n . T h a t is, w r i t i n g f u n c t i o n s as a m e a n s of a c c u r a t e l y p r e s e r v i n g t h r o u g h the g e n e r a t i o n s the contents o f the h e a v e n l y tablets. S o N o a h can a p ­ p e a l to w h a t E n o c h c o m m a n d e d M e t h u s e l a h , a n d M e t h u s e l a h , L a m e c h , a n d L a m e c h , N o a h (8:38-39). A b r a h a m discovers sacrificial l a w " w r i t t e n in the b o o k s of m y forefathers in the w o r d s of E n o c h a n d in the w o r d s of N o a h " ( 2 1 : 1 1 ) . M o s e s takes dictation; A b r a h a m copies Terah's b o o k s ; J a c o b copies d o w n e v e r y t h i n g he reads (on the angelic seven tablets) a n d hears in a d r e a m (32:26); he also gives "all of his b o o k s a n d his fathers' b o o k s " to L e v i in o r d e r that L e v i can " p r e s e r v e t h e m a n d r e n e w t h e m " ( 4 5 : 1 5 ) . T h e s e p e o p l e represent ideal scribes w h o accurately p r e s e r v e a n d t r a n s m i t the contents of the heav­ enly tablets; they are the p r o p e r g u a r d i a n s of the s a c r e d authoritative texts. T h e a u t h o r of Jubilees m a k e s a k i n d o f t w o f o l d claim then. First, s c r i b a l activity as u n d e r t a k e n b y the e x e m p l a r s in the book has p r e s e r v e d u n s u l l i e d

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the c o n t e n t s of the h e a v e n l y tablets, w h i c h are d i v i n e . S e c o n d , the a u t h o r is at the s a m e t i m e p r e s e n t i n g an a u t h o r i z i n g case for his i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s , w h i c h he has c o n s t r u c t e d as a u t h o r i t a t i v e r e v e l a t i o n faithfully p a s s e d d o w n . B y this strategy the s c r i b a l a u t h o r of Jubilees can b o t h a c k n o w l e d g e the sanctity o f the M o s a i c T o r a h and p r e s e r v e the a u t h o r i t a t i v e

i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of T o r a h ,

w h i c h in Jubilees stands a l o n g s i d e the T o r a h of M o s e s , since their o r i g i n s are b o t h in the h e a v e n l y tablets. It is n o t too m u c h of a stretch to see a s i m i l a r s t r a t e g y at w o r k in B e n S i r a . In his d e s c r i p t i o n of the s c r i b e / s a g e , B e n Sira d i s t i n g u i s h e s the ideal s c r i b e f r o m the l a b o r e r . T h e scribe's w i s d o m d e p e n d s o n leisure t i m e ( 3 8 : 2 4 ) . O n l y the s c r i b e c a n sit in c o u n c i l s or d e c i d e legal cases; o n l y the s c r i b e s t a n d s a m o n g r u l e r s e x p o u n d i n g d i s c i p l i n e o r j u d g m e n t ( 3 8 : 3 2 - 3 3 ) . After d e s c r i b ­ i n g t h o s e w h o l a b o r , B e n Sira e x c l a i m s , " H o w different the o n e w h o d e v o t e s h i m s e l f to the s t u d y o f the l a w of the M o s t H i g h G o d ! " (38:34). Sir 3 9 : 1 - 3 s u g ­ gests that the s c r i b e p r e s e r v e s a n d p e n e t r a t e s w h a t has b e e n h a n d e d d o w n , q u a l i f y i n g h i m to serve a m o n g r u l e r s a n d n o b l e s ( 3 9 : 4 ) . A s a result,

39:9Many w i l l praise his u n d e r s t a n d i n g , a n d it w i l l n e v e r be blotted out; his m e m o r i a l w i l l not depart, a n d his n a m e w i l l live for g e n e r a t i o n s of g e n e r a t i o n s .

39:ioNations will n a r r a t e his w i s d o m , a n d an a s s e m b l y w i l l p r o c l a i m his p r a i s e .

3 9 : i i l f he abides, he w i l l leave b e h i n d a n a m e greater than a t h o u s a n d , a n d if he rests, it w i l l be favorable for h i m .

H o w different i n d e e d is the s c r i b e ! A s B e n Sira tells it, the s c r i b e is best p o s i ­ t i o n e d a n d m o s t able to learn w i s d o m , w h i c h , of c o u r s e , c o n n e c t s h i m w i t h p r o p e r o b s e r v a n c e of the law. B e n Sira t r a n s m i t s this w i s d o m — that is, the a u t h o r i t a t i v e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of the l a w — in his t e a c h i n g . B e n Sira also e m p l o y s the c o n c e p t of "fear of the L o r d , " so central to his b o o k , to e n h a n c e the status o f the i d e a l s c r i b e . H e m a k e s clear that "fear of the L o r d , " a m u l t i v a l e n t n o t i o n for h i m , s u p e r s e d e s all s o c i a l status a n d class. W h i l e s e v e r a l p a s s a g e s s u g g e s t that a n y o n e can cultivate p r o p e r "fear of the L o r d " (cf. 1 0 : 1 9 ,

2 2

; 2 5 : 1 0 - 1 1 ) , if w e l o o k a bit m o r e closely, w e find that

o n l y the s c r i b e is in a p o s i t i o n to a c h i e v e it. F o r B e n S i r a , "fear of the L o r d " p r i m a r i l y m e a n s f i n d i n g a n d a c q u i r i n g w i s d o m a n d k e e p i n g the c o m m a n d -

128

Jubilees,

Sirach,

and Sapiential

Tradition

m e n t s . S i r 19:20 p e r h a p s s u m s it u p best: " T h e w h o l e of w i s d o m is fear of the L o r d , a n d in all w i s d o m there is the fulfillment o f the Law." W h o is m o r e able to a c c o m p l i s h this t h a n the scribe? L a b o r e r s c a n n o t seek w i s d o m ; there is n o t t i m e . T h e rich a n d p o w e r f u l e n c o u n t e r m o r e p r e s s i n g d e m a n d s that p r e ­ v e n t t h e m f r o m such p u r s u i t s . C l a u d i a C a m p a n d I h a v e a r g u e d that the idea of "fear of the L o r d " helps B e n Sira to r a t i o n a l i z e certain s o c i a l i n e q u a l i t i e s that he j u d g e s p r o b l e m a t i c , a n d it elevates the status o f the s c r i b e in his s o ­ cial w o r l d .

1 9

B u t like J u b i l e e s , B e n Sira's s c r i b e is the g u a r d i a n of w i s d o m

a n d the k e e p i n g of the l a w — a l o n g with its p r o p e r / a u t h o r i z e d

interpreta­

t i o n . H e a r g u e s for this c l a i m in a w a y v e r y different f r o m J u b i l e e s , h o w e v e r . B o t h Jubilees a n d B e n Sira c o n s t r u c t the s c r i b e as the g u a r d i a n of t r a d i t i o n a n d a u t h o r i z e d i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . In Jubilees the e x e m p l a r s are the a n c i e n t

fig­

ures w h o k e p t the laws a n d r e c e i v e d the h e a v e n l y tablets, b u t in B e n Sira it is the i d e a l s c r i b e . I s u s p e c t , t h o u g h , that even m o r e t h a n an i d e a l figure, B e n Sira is p r e s e n t i n g h i m s e l f to his disciples as the e x e m p l a r , the o n e w h o n e e d s to b e e m u l a t e d .

2 0

IV. Jubilees and Wisdom W h i l e I h a v e n o t e x h a u s t e d here w h a t c o u l d b e said a b o u t Jubilees a n d s a p i e n t i a l t r a d i t i o n , p a r t i c u l a r l y as w e see it in B e n Sira, w h a t I h a v e s k e t c h e d out suggests that a t t e n d i n g p r i m a r i l y to g e n r e differences m i g h t m a s k o t h e r s i g n i f i c a n t aspects of o u r literature. O n e n e e d o n l y r e a d Jubilees a n d B e n Sira, for e x a m p l e , to see that they are f o r m a l l y quite different. Yet, c o m m o n q u e s t i o n s a n d p r o b l e m s s e e m to o c c u p y b o t h of t h e m . H o w d o e s o n e legiti­ m a t e a n d a u t h o r i z e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s o f an a u t h o r i t a t i v e text? H o w can t h e y c o n v i n c e a reader to accept their p o s i t i o n s ? W h o are the a p p r o p r i a t e g u a r d ­ i a n s of the t r a d i t i o n as it has b e e n h a n d e d d o w n , a n d w h o are the a u t h o r i z e d interpreters of that t r a d i t i o n ? To a n s w e r these q u e s t i o n s , the a u t h o r of J u b i ­ lees a n d B e n Sira r e s o r t to s i m i l a r strategies, even if t h e y execute t h e m differ­ ently. In this light, then, w h a t e v e r f o r m a l d i s t i n c t i o n s w e r e c o g n i z e b e t w e e n these two w o r k s p o t e n t i a l l y distract us f r o m n o t i c i n g their c o m m o n p r o b ­ l e m s a n d their i n d i v i d u a l s o l u t i o n s to t h e m . 1 9 . B . G . Wright III a n d C . V. C a m p , " ' W h o H a s B e e n Tested b y G o l d a n d F o u n d Per­ fect?* B e n Sira's D i s c o u r s e of R i c h e s a n d Poverty," Hen 23 ( 2 0 0 1 ) : 153-74. 20. B e n Sira's self-presentation raises interesting q u e s t i o n s for N a j m a n ' s c o n n e c t i o n of e x e m p l a r i t y w i t h the issue o f pseudepigraphy. See her chapter in this v o l u m e as well as her other w o r k cited there.

129

Benjamin

G. Wright

III

To c o n c l u d e , I w a n t to present o n e short illustration of h o w d e e p l y e m ­ b e d d e d the issue of f o r m a n d genre is in s c h o l a r s h i p . C a n a W e r m a n has sug­ gested a g e n e a l o g i c a l relationship b e t w e e n Jubilees a n d w i s d o m literature. She w r i t e s , " I w o u l d like to suggest that the Book ofjubileesis

also a d e v e l o p m e n t o f

w i s d o m literature, t h o u g h from a s o u r c e other t h a n P r o v e r b s . W i s d o m is n o t m e n t i o n e d in Jubilees;Torah

a n d Te'udah — T o r a h a n d p r e d e s t i n e d h i s t o r y —

replace W i s d o m . T o r a h a n d Te'udah'm

Jubileesis

[sic] an entity that existed b e ­

fore creation. . . . T h e h i s t o r y of the w o r l d , p r e d e s t i n e d a n d e n g r a v e d on the heavenly tablets, u n f o l d s in the created w o r l d . T o r a h , i.e., cultic laws, shapes this w o r l d . "

2 1

She argues that Jubilees e m p h a s i z e s the historical d i m e n s i o n so

that "a thoughtful e x a m i n a t i o n o f h i s t o r y w i l l p r o v i d e the correct interpreta­ tion of the biblical laws a n d will ensure correct c o n d u c t in life." A n d so Jubilees "contains a sapiential m e s s a g e ; it calls o n w i s e m e n to m e d i t a t e o n h i s t o r y a n d to a p p l y their c o n c l u s i o n s to the interpretation o f l a w . "

22

D e s p i t e the fact that W e r m a n sees s o m e s i m i l a r aspects in the s a p i e n ­ tial literature o f Q u m r a n , a n d , o f c o u r s e , 4 Q I n s t r u c t i o n ' s raz nihyeh

is a

p r i m e e x a m p l e , I do n o t see the necessity o f c l a i m i n g that J u b i l e e s is s o m e ­ h o w w i s d o m literature or a d e s c e n d a n t of w i s d o m literature b e c a u s e o n e c a n identify these s i m i l a r i t i e s . To say that T o r a h a n d p r e d e s t i n e d h i s t o r y " r e p l a c e W i s d o m " suggests that o t h e r w i s e Jubilees a n d B e n Sira are quite close — a s u g g e s t i o n I f i n d difficult to s u s t a i n . To c o n c l u d e , as she d o e s , "As B e n Sira e m e r g e d from P r o v e r b s , so Jubilees

e m e r g e d f r o m the s a p i e n t i a l literature

n o w f o u n d at Q u m r a n , " necessitates d r i v i n g a w e d g e b e t w e e n B e n Sira a n d the Q u m r a n w i s d o m texts that i g n o r e s the extensive s i m i l a r i t i e s a m o n g all of t h e m , a w e d g e that I t h i n k u n n e c e s s a r y a n d c o u n t e r p r o d u c t i v e . It s e e m s m o r e likely that Jubilees and the w i s d o m texts f r o m Q u m r a n and B e n Sira all a d d r e s s p r o b l e m s that other s e c o n d t e m p l e texts h a v e in c o m m o n w i t h t h e m as w e l l . I do n o t see a n y n e e d to a r g u e for s o m e g e n e t i c r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n J u b i l e e s a n d w i s d o m in o r d e r to m a k e sense out of w h a t t h e y s h a r e .

2 3

One of

the t h i n g s I find so f a s c i n a t i n g a b o u t these texts, a n d that c e r t a i n l y d e s e r v e s m o r e study, is the creative v a r i e t y of w a y s , b o t h s i m i l a r a n d d i s s i m i l a r , that their a u t h o r s a n d t r a d e n t s f o u n d to a d d r e s s t h e m .

21. C . Werman, "What Is the Book of HaguV in Sapiential Perspectives: Wisdom Litera­ ture in Light of the Dead Sea Scrolls, ed. J. J. Collins, G . E . Sterling, a n d R. A . Clements, S T D J 51 (Leiden a n d Boston: Brill, 2 0 0 4 ) , 125-40 (here 126). 22. Werman, "Book of Hagu," 126-27. 23. For over a decade the W i s d o m a n d Apocalypticism in Early Judaism a n d Chris­ tianity G r o u p o f the S B L has been w o r k i n g to deconstruct the categories " w i s d o m " a n d "apocalyptic." See Wright a n d Wills, Conflicted Boundaries in Wisdom and Apocalypticism.

130

The Heavenly Counterpart of Moses in the Book of Jubilees Andrei A. Orlov

One of the enigmatic characters in the book of Jubilees is the angel of the pres­ ence w h o dictates to Moses heavenly revelation. T h e book provides neither the angel's name nor a clear picture of his celestial roles and offices. Complicating the picture is the angel's arrogation, in certain passages of the text, of what the 1

Bible claims are God's words or deeds. In Jub 6:22, for example, the angel ut­ ters the following: "For I have written (this) in the book of the first law in which I wrote for you that you should celebrate it at each of its times one day in a year. I have told you about its sacrifice so that the Israelites m a y continue to remember and celebrate it throughout their generations during this month 2

— one day each year." James VanderKam observes that according to these sentences "the angel of the presence wrote the first law, that is, the Pentateuch, including the section about the Festival of Weeks in the cultic calendars (Lev. 23:15-21 and N u m . 28:26-31, where the sacrifices are specified)." VanderKam further notes that "these passages are represented as direct revelations by G o d to Moses in Leviticus and N u m b e r s , not as statements from an angel."

3

1. J. C. VanderKam, "The Angel o f the Presence in the Book o f Jubilees," DSD 7 (2000): 378-93 (here 390). 2. J. C. VanderKam, The Book of Jubilees, 2 vols., CSCO 510-11, Scriptores Aethiopici 87-88 (Louvain: Peeters, 1989), 2:40. 3. VanderKam, "Angel o f the Presence," 391. This essay represents the revised version of my article published in Bib 88 (2007): 153-73.1 am thankful to the editors o f Biblica for permission to reproduce the material in this publication.

131

Andrei

A. Jub

Orlov 3 0 : 1 2 , w h i c h retells a n d m o d i f i e s G e n 3 4 , r e p e a t s the

angel's

a u t h o r i a l c l a i m : " F o r this r e a s o n I h a v e w r i t t e n for y o u in the w o r d s of the law e v e r y t h i n g that the S h e c h e m i t e s d i d to D i n a h a n d h o w J a c o b ' s s o n s said: 'We will n o t give o u r d a u g h t e r to a m a n w h o h a s a f o r e s k i n b e c a u s e for us that w o u l d be a d i s g r a c e f u l t h i n g . ' "

4

E v e n m o r e p u z z l i n g is that in these p a s s a g e s the a n g e l insists on p e r ­ s o n a l l y writing

the d i v i n e w o r d s , t h u s c l a i m i n g the role of the celestial s c r i b e 5

in a f a s h i o n s i m i l a r to M o s e s . A l s o s t r i k i n g is that this n a m e l e s s a n g e l i c s c r i b e posits h i m s e l f as the w r i t e r of the P e n t a t e u c h ( " F o r I h a v e w r i t t e n (this) in the b o o k of the first l a w " ) , the a u t h o r s h i p of w h i c h the t r a d i t i o n as­ cribes to the s o n o f A m r a m . W h a t are w e to m a k e o f these a u t h o r i a l c l a i m s by the a n g e l of the presence? Is it p o s s i b l e that in this p u z z l i n g a c c o u n t a b o u t t w o p r o t a g o n i s t s , o n e h u m a n a n d the o t h e r a n g e l i c — b o t h of w h o m are scribes a n d a u t h o r s of the s a m e " l a w " — w e h a v e an a l l u s i o n to the idea of the h e a v e n l y c o u n t e r p a r t o f 6

a seer in the f o r m o f the a n g e l o f the p r e s e n c e ? In J e w i s h a p o c a l y p t i c a n d early m y s t i c a l literature s u c h h e a v e n l y d o u b l e s in the f o r m o f angels of the p r e s e n c e are often p r e s e n t e d as celestial s c r i b e s . T h e p u r p o s e o f this p a p e r is to p r o v i d e c o n c e p t u a l b a c k g r o u n d for the idea o f the a n g e l of the p r e s e n c e as the h e a v e n l y c o u n t e r p a r t of M o s e s in the b o o k of J u b i l e e s .

I. The Background: The Heavenly Counterpart of the Seer in the Jacob and the Enoch Traditions B e f o r e p r o c e e d i n g to a close analysis of the t r a d i t i o n s a b o u t the h e a v e n l y c o u n t e r p a r t of M o s e s a n d its p o s s i b l e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w i t h the a n g e l of the 4. V a n d e r K a m , The Book of Jubilees, 195. 5. T h e scribal office of Moses is reaffirmed throughout the text. Already in the begin­ ning (Jub 1:5, 7, 26) he receives a chain of c o m m a n d s to write d o w n the revelation dictated by the angel. 6. O n the angelology of the b o o k of Jubilees see R. H . Charles, The Book of Jubilees or the Little Genesis (London: Black, 1902), lvi-lviii; M . Testuz, Les idees religieuses du livre des Jubiles (Geneva: Droz, 1960), 75-92; K . Berger, "Das Buch der Jubilaen," in JSHRZ 2.3 (Gutersloh: Gutersloher Verlaghaus G e r d N o h n , 1981), 322-24; D. Dimant, "The Sons of Heaven: The T h e ­ ory o f the Angels in the B o o k of Jubilees in Light of the Writings o f the Q u m r a n C o m m u n i t y " (in Hebrew), in A Tribute to Sarah: Studies in Jewish Philosophy and Cabala Presented to Profes­ sor Sara A. Heller-Wilensky, ed. M . Idel, D. Dimant, a n d S. Rosenberg (Jerusalem: Magnes, 1994), 97-118; VanderKam, "Angel of the Presence," 378-93; H . Najman, "Angels at Sinai: Exege­ sis, Theology a n d Interpretive Authority," DSD 7 (2000): 313-33.

132

The Heavenly

Counterpart

of Moses

in the Book

of

Jubilees

p r e s e n c e , w e w i l l p r o v i d e a s h o r t e x c u r s u s o n the b a c k g r o u n d o f the i d e a o f the celestial d o u b l e o f a seer. O n e o f the s p e c i m e n s o f this t r a d i t i o n is f o u n d i n the t a r g u m i c e l a b o r a t i o n s o f the s t o r y o f the p a t r i a r c h J a c o b that d e p i c t his h e a v e n l y i d e n t i t y as his " i m a g e " e n g r a v e d o n the T h r o n e o f G l o r y .

The Jacob

Traditions

T h e t r a d i t i o n s a b o u t t h e h e a v e n l y " i m a g e " o f J a c o b are p r e s e n t in s e v e r a l targumic texts,

7

including

Targum

Fragmentary

Targum

s

Neofiti

}

and

Targum.

F o r e x a m p l e , i n Targum description

Pseudo-Jonathan,

9

Pseudo-Jonathan

for G e n 2 8 : 1 2 , the f o l l o w i n g

can be found: " H e [Jacob] had a dream, and behold, a ladder

w a s f i x e d in the e a r t h w i t h its t o p r e a c h i n g t o w a r d the h e a v e n s . . . a n d

on

t h a t d a y t h e y ( a n g e l s ) a s c e n d e d to the h e a v e n s o n h i g h , a n d s a i d , ' C o m e a n d see J a c o b the p i o u s , w h o s e i m a g e is f i x e d ( e n g r a v e d ) i n the T h r o n e o f G l o r y , a n d w h o m y o u h a v e d e s i r e d to s e e . ' "

1 0

Besides the tradition of " e n g r a v i n g "

7. T h e same tradition c a n b e f o u n d in the rabbinic literature. Genesis Rabbah 68:12 reads:

. . thus it says, Israel in w h o m I w i l l b e glorified (Isa. x l i x , 3 ) ; it is t h o u , [said the an­

gels,] w h o s e features are engraved o n high; they ascended o n h i g h a n d saw his features a n d they descended b e l o w a n d f o u n d h i m sleeping." Midrash

Rabbah,

1 0 vols. ( L o n d o n : S o n c i n o

Press, 1 9 6 1 ) , 2:626. O n J a c o b s i m a g e on the T h r o n e of G l o r y , see also Genesis Rabbah 78:3; 82:2; Numbers

Rabbah

4:1; b. Hullin

9 1 b ; Pirqe Rabbi Eliezer 35. O n the traditions a b o u t Ja­

cob's i m a g e engraved on the T h r o n e , see E . R . Wolfson, Along the Path: Studies in Myth, Symbolism,

and Hermeneutics

Kabbalistic

(Albany: State University of N e w York Press, 1995), 1 - 6 2 ,

111-86. 8. "And he d r e a m e d , a n d b e h o l d , a ladder w a s fixed o n the earth a n d its head reached to the height of the heavens; a n d b e h o l d , the angels that h a d a c c o m p a n i e d h i m from the h o u s e o f his father ascended to b e a r g o o d tidings to the angels on high, saying: ' C o m e a n d see the p i o u s m a n w h o s e i m a g e is engraved in the throne o f G l o r y , w h o m y o u desired to see.' A n d b e h o l d , the angels from before the L o r d ascended a n d descended a n d o b s e r v e d him." Targum

Neofiti

1: Genesis, trans. M . M c N a m a r a , M . S . C . , A r a m a i c Bible l A (Collegeville,

M i n n . : Liturgical Press, 1992), 1 4 0 . 9. "And he d r e a m t that there w a s a ladder set on the g r o u n d , w h o s e top reached to­ w a r d s the heavens; a n d behold the angels that h a d a c c o m p a n i e d h i m from his father s h o u s e ascended to a n n o u n c e to the angels of the heights: ' C o m e a n d see the p i o u s m a n , w h o s e i m ­ age is fixed to the throne of g l o r y . . . M . L . K l e i n , The Fragment-Targums according

to Their Extant

of the

Pentateuch

Sources, 2 vols., A B 76 ( R o m e : Biblical Institute Press, 1 9 8 0 ) , 1:57

and 2:20. 1 0 . Targum

Pseudo-Jonathan:

Genesis,

trans. M . Maher, M . S . C . , A r a m a i c Bible 1 B

(Collegeville, M i n n . : Liturgical Press, 1 9 9 2 ) , 9 9 - 1 0 0 .

133

Andrei

A.

Orlov

on the T h r o n e , s o m e J e w i s h m a t e r i a l s p o i n t to an even m o r e r a d i c a l identifi­ c a t i o n o f J a c o b ' s i m a g e w i t h Kavod,

an a n t h r o p o m o r p h i c

e x t e n s i o n o f the

Deity, often labeled there as the F a c e of G o d . Jarl F o s s u m ' s research d e m o n ­ strates that in s o m e t r a d i t i o n s a b o u t J a c o b ' s i m a g e , his celestial " i m a g e " o r " l i k e n e s s " is d e p i c t e d n o t s i m p l y as e n g r a v e d o n the h e a v e n l y t h r o n e , b u t as seated u p o n the t h r o n e of g l o r y .

1 1

F o s s u m a r g u e s that this s e c o n d t r a d i t i o n

is o r i g i n a l . C h r i s t o p h e r R o w l a n d offers a s i m i l a r v i e w in p r o p o s i n g to see J a ­ cob's i m a g e as " i d e n t i c a l w i t h the f o r m o f G o d o n the t h r o n e of g l o r y ( E z e k . 1.26f.)."

12

The Enoch

Traditions

S c h o l a r s h a v e p r e v i o u s l y n o t e d that E n o c h i c m a t e r i a l s w e r e also c o g n i z a n t of the t r a d i t i o n s a b o u t the h e a v e n l y d o u b l e o f a seer. T h u s , the idea a b o u t the h e a v e n l y c o u n t e r p a r t of the v i s i o n a r y a p p e a r s to b e p r e s e n t i n o n e of the b o o k l e t s of 1 ( E t h i o p i c ) E n o c h . It h a s b e e n o b s e r v e d

1 3

that the S i m i l i t u d e s

s e e m s to e n t e r t a i n the idea of the h e a v e n l y t w i n of a v i s i o n a r y w h e n it i d e n ­ tifies E n o c h w i t h the S o n o f M a n . S t u d e n t s o f the E n o c h i c t r a d i t i o n s h a v e b e e n l o n g p u z z l e d b y the idea that the S o n o f M a n , w h o in the p r e v i o u s chapters of the S i m i l i t u d e s is d i s t i n g u i s h e d f r o m E n o c h , s u d d e n l y b e c o m e s identified in l E n 7 1 w i t h the p a t r i a r c h . J a m e s V a n d e r K a m suggests that this p u z z l e can be e x p l a i n e d b y the J e w i s h n o t i o n , attested in s e v e r a l a n c i e n t J e w ­ ish texts, that a creature of flesh a n d b l o o d c o u l d h a v e a h e a v e n l y d o u b l e or counterpart.

14

To p r o v i d e an e x a m p l e , V a n d e r K a m p o i n t s to

traditions

a b o u t J a c o b in w h i c h the patriarch's "features are e n g r a v e d o n h i g h . "

15

He

11. J. F o s s u m , The Image of the Invisible God: Essays on the Influence of Jewish Mysti­ cism on Early Christology, N T O A 30 ( F r i b o u r g : Universitatsverlag Freiburg Schweiz; Gottingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1995), 140-41. 12. C . R o w l a n d , " J o h n 1.51, Jewish Apocalyptic a n d Targumic Tradition," NTS 30 (1984): 504. 13. See J. V a n d e r K a m , "Righteous O n e , Messiah, C h o s e n O n e , a n d S o n o f M a n in 1 E n o c h 3 7 - 7 1 , " in The Messiah: Developments in Earliest Judaism and Christianity; The First Princeton Symposium on Judaism and Christian Origins, ed. J. H . Charlesworth et al. ( M i n n e ­ apolis: Fortress, 1992), 182-83; M . K n i b b , "Messianism in the Pseudepigrapha in the Light o f the Scrolls," DSD 2 (1995): 177-80; F o s s u m , The Image, 144-45; C . H . T. Fletcher-Louis, LukeActs: Angels, Christology, and Soteriology, W U N T , ser. 2:94 (Tubingen: Mohr/Siebeck, 1997), 151. 14. V a n d e r K a m , "Righteous One," 182-83. 15. V a n d e r K a m , "Righteous One," 182-83.

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Counterpart

of Moses in the Book of

Jubilees

e m p h a s i z e s that this t h e m e o f the v i s i o n a r y ' s i g n o r a n c e of his h i g h e r a n g e l i c i d e n t i t y is o b s e r v a b l e , for e x a m p l e , in the P r a y e r o f J o s e p h . I h a v e a r g u e d that the idea of the h e a v e n l y c o u n t e r p a r t of the v i s i o n a r y is also present in a n o t h e r s e c o n d t e m p l e E n o c h i c text — 2 ( S l a v o n i c ) A p o c a ­ l y p s e of E n o c h .

1 6

2 E n 39:3-6 depicts the p a t r i a r c h w h o , d u r i n g his s h o r t trip

to the earth, retells to his c h i l d r e n his earlier e n c o u n t e r w i t h the F a c e . E n o c h relates:

Y o u , m y children, y o u see m y face, a h u m a n b e i n g created j u s t like y o u r ­ selves; I a m o n e w h o has seen the face of the L o r d , like iron m a d e b u r n ­ ing hot b y a fire, emitting s p a r k s . F o r y o u gaze into m y eyes, a h u m a n b e ­ ing created just like yourselves; but I have gazed into the eyes of the L o r d , like the rays of the shining s u n a n d terrifying the eyes of a h u m a n b e i n g . Y o u , m y children, y o u see m y right h a n d b e c k o n i n g y o u , a h u m a n b e i n g created identical to y o u r s e l v e s ; b u t I have seen the right h a n d of the L o r d , b e c k o n i n g m e , w h o fills heaven. Y o u see the extent of m y body, the s a m e as y o u r o w n ; but I have seen the extent of the L o r d , w i t h o u t m e a s u r e a n d w i t h o u t analogy, w h o has n o e n d .

1 7

E n o c h ' s d e s c r i p t i o n reveals a c o n t r a s t b e t w e e n the t w o identities of the v i s i o n a r y : the e a r t h l y E n o c h ("a h u m a n b e i n g created j u s t like y o u r s e l v e s " ) a n d his h e a v e n l y c o u n t e r p a r t

("the o n e w h o has seen the Face of G o d " ) .

E n o c h d e s c r i b e s h i m s e l f in t w o different m o d e s of existence: as a h u m a n b e ­ ing w h o n o w s t a n d s before his c h i l d r e n w i t h a h u m a n face a n d b o d y and as a celestial creature w h o has seen G o d ' s face in the h e a v e n l y r e a l m . T h e s e d e ­ s c r i p t i o n s of t w o c o n d i t i o n s ( e a r t h l y a n d celestial) o c c u r r e p e a t e d l y in tan­ d e m . It is p o s s i b l e that the p u r p o s e of E n o c h ' s i n s t r u c t i o n to his children is n o t to stress the difference b e t w e e n his h u m a n b o d y a n d the L o r d ' s b o d y , but to e m p h a s i z e the d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n this E n o c h , a h u m a n b e i n g "created j u s t like y o u r s e l v e s , " a n d the other a n g e l i c E n o c h w h o has s t o o d before the L o r d ' s face. E n o c h ' s p r e v i o u s t r a n s f o r m a t i o n into the g l o r i o u s o n e a n d his i n i t i a t i o n into the s e r v a n t of the d i v i n e p r e s e n c e in 2 E n 22:7 s u p p o r t this s u g g e s t i o n . It is u n l i k e l y that E n o c h has s o m e h o w " c o m p l e t e l y " a b a n d o n e d his s u p r a - a n g e l i c status a n d his u n i q u e place before the F a c e of the L o r d 16. A . Orlov, The Enoch-Metatron Tradition, T S A J 107 (Tubingen: Mohr/Siebeck, 2005), 165-76; Orlov, " T h e Face as the Heavenly C o u n t e r p a r t o f the Visionary in the Slavonic Ladder of Jacob? in From Apocalypticism to Merkabah Mysticism: Studies in the Slavonic Pseudepigrapha, ed. A . Orlov, JSJSup 114 (Leiden: Brill, 2007), 399-419. 17. F. Andersen, " 2 (Slavonic Apocalypse o f ) Enoch," in OTP, 1:91-221 (here 163).

135

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A.

Orlov

g r a n t e d to h i m in the p r e v i o u s c h a p t e r s . A n a c c o u n t of E n o c h ' s p e r m a n e n t i n s t a l l a t i o n c a n be f o u n d in c h a p . 36 w h e r e the L o r d tells E n o c h , b e f o r e his s h o r t v i s i t to the earth, that a p l a c e has b e e n p r e p a r e d for h i m a n d that he w i l l b e in front of the L o r d ' s face " f r o m now a n d f o r e v e r . "

18

W h a t is i m p o r ­

t a n t here is that the i d e n t i f i c a t i o n of the v i s i o n a r y w i t h his h e a v e n l y d o u b l e i n v o l v e s the i n s t a l l a t i o n of the seer into the office of the a n g e l (or the p r i n c e ) of the p r e s e n c e (sar happanim).

T h e i m p o r t a n c e of this a c c o u n t for the idea

of the h e a v e n l y c o u n t e r p a r t i n 2 E n o c h is a p p a r e n t b e c a u s e it p o i n t s to the s i m u l t a n e o u s existence o f E n o c h ' s a n g e l i c d o u b l e installed in h e a v e n a n d its h u m a n counterpart, w h o m G o d sends periodically on missionary errands. T a r g u m i c a n d r a b b i n i c a c c o u n t s a b o u t J a c o b also attest to this v i e w of the h e a v e n l y c o u n t e r p a r t w h e n they depict angels b e h o l d i n g J a c o b as o n e w h o at o n e a n d the s a m e t i m e is b o t h installed in h e a v e n a n d s l e e p i n g o n earth. I n r e l a t i o n to this p a r a d o x i c a l s i t u a t i o n , in w h i c h the seer is able n o t o n l y to b e u n i f i e d w i t h his h e a v e n l y c o u n t e r p a r t in the f o r m o f the a n g e l o f the p r e s ­ ence but also to retain the ability to travel b a c k into the earthly r e a l m , J o n a ­ t h a n S m i t h o b s e r v e s that "the c o m p l e t e p a t t e r n is m o s t a p p a r e n t in the v a r i ­ o u s texts that w i t n e s s to the c o m p l e x E n o c h t r a d i t i o n , p a r t i c u l a r l y 2

Enoch.

H e r e E n o c h w a s o r i g i n a l l y a m a n (ch. 1 ) w h o a s c e n d e d to h e a v e n a n d b e ­ c a m e a n a n g e l (22:9, cf. 3 E n lorjf. a n d 4 8 C ) , r e t u r n e d to earth as a m a n ( 3 3 : 1 1 ) , a n d finally r e t u r n e d a g a i n to h e a v e n to r e s u m e his a n g e l i c station (67:18)."

19

W h a t is also i m p o r t a n t in 2 E n o c h ' s a c c o u n t for o u r o n g o i n g i n v e s t i g a ­ tion is that w h i l e the " h e a v e n l y v e r s i o n " of E n o c h is installed in h e a v e n , his "earthly v e r s i o n " is d i s p a t c h e d b y G o d to a n o t h e r l o w e r realm w i t h the m i s ­ s i o n to deliver the h a n d w r i t i n g s m a d e b y the translated h e r o in h e a v e n . I n 2 E n 3 3 : 3 - 1 0 , for e x a m p l e , the L o r d e n d o w s E n o c h w i t h the m i s s i o n o f dis­ t r i b u t i n g the h e a v e n l y w r i t i n g s on earth:

A n d now, E n o c h , whatever I have e x p l a i n e d to y o u , a n d whatever y o u have seen in the heavens, a n d whatever y o u have seen on earth, and w h a t ­ ever J have written

in the books — b y m y s u p r e m e w i s d o m I have con­

trived it all. . . . A p p l y y o u r m i n d , E n o c h , a n d a c k n o w l e d g e the O n e w h o is speaking to y o u . A n d y o u take the books which I (!) have written.

. . .

A n d y o u go d o w n onto the earth a n d tell y o u r sons all that I have told y o u . . . . A n d deliver to t h e m the b o o k s in y o u r h a n d w r i t i n g s , and they

18. 2 E n 36:3. A n d e r s e n , " 2 E n o c h , " 1 6 1 , e m p h a s i s m i n e . 19. J. Z . S m i t h , "Prayer of Joseph," in OTP, 2:699-714 (here 7 0 5 ) .

136

The

Heavenly

Counterpart

of Moses in the Book of

Jubilees

will read t h e m and k n o w their Creator. . . . A n d distribute the b o o k s in y o u r h a n d w r i t i n g s to y o u r children a n d ( y o u r ) children to (their) chil­ dren; a n d the parents will read ( t h e m ) from generation to g e n e r a t i o n .

20

T h i s a c c o u n t is s t r i k i n g in that w h i l e c o m m a n d i n g the a d e p t to travel to the l o w e r r e a l m w i t h the h e a v e n l y b o o k s , G o d h i m s e l f s e e m s to a s s u m e the seer's u p p e r s c r i b a l identity. T h e D e i t y tells E n o c h , w h o is p r e v i o u s l y d e ­ p i c t e d as the s c r i b e of the b o o k s ,

2 1

that he w r o t e these b o o k s . T h i s s i t u a t i o n

is r e m i n i s c e n t o f s o m e d e v e l o p m e n t s f o u n d in Jubilees w h e r e the a n g e l of the p r e s e n c e also s e e m s to take o n the celestial s c r i b a l i d e n t i t y o f M o s e s . It is also n o t e w o r t h y that in J u b i l e e s , as in 2 E n o c h , the b o u n d a r i e s b e t w e e n the u p p e r s c r i b a l i d e n t i t y of the v i s i o n a r y w h o c l a i m s to b e the w r i t e r o f "the first l a w " a n d the D e i t y a p p e a r b l u r r e d .

2 2

In 2 E n 33 w h e r e the d i v i n e s c r i b a l figure c o m m a n d s the seventh ante­ d i l u v i a n h e r o to deliver the b o o k i n his ( E n o c h ' s ) h a n d w r i t i n g s , o n e p o s s i b l y w i t n e s s e s the u n i q u e , p a r a d o x i c a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n b e t w e e n the u p p e r a n d the l o w e r s c r i b a l identities. T h e fact that in 2 E n 33 the p a t r i a r c h is d i s p a t c h e d to e a r t h to deliver the b o o k s in " h i s h a n d w r i t i n g s , " the a u t h o r s h i p o f w h i c h the text a s s i g n s to the Deity, is also w o r t h y of a t t e n t i o n g i v e n that in the t r a d i t i o n s attested in J u b i l e e s , w h e r e M o s e s a p p e a r s as a h e a v e n l y c o u n t e r p a r t , the a n g e l of the p r e s e n c e c l a i m s a u t h o r s h i p of the m a t e r i a l s that the t r a d i t i o n e x p l i c i t l y a s ­ signs to M o s e s . H e r e , as in 2 E n o c h , b o o k a u t h o r s h i p c a n b e seen as a p r o c e s s e x e c u t e d s i m u l t a n e o u s l y b y b o t h e a r t h l y a n d h e a v e n l y a u t h o r s , t h o u g h it is the f u n c t i o n of the e a r t h l y c o u n t e r p a r t to deliver the b o o k s to h u m a n s .

Angels

of the

Presence

It is s i g n i f i c a n t that in b o t h E n o c h a n d J a c o b t r a d i t i o n s the t h e m e o f the h e a v e n l y c o u n t e r p a r t is conflated w i t h the i m a g e r y of the angels of the p r e s -

20. 2 E n 33:3-10 (the shorter r e c e n s i o n ) . A n d e r s e n , " 2 E n o c h , " 157, e m p h a s i s m i n e . 21. See 2 En 23:6: " I w r o t e e v e r y t h i n g accurately. A n d I w r o t e 366 b o o k s . " A n d e r s e n , " 2 E n o c h , " 140. 22. Cf. Jub 6:22 a n d 30:12. O n the b l u r r e d b o u n d a r i e s b e t w e e n the angel o f the pres­ ence a n d the D e i t y in Jubilees, see V a n d e r K a m , "Angel of the Presence," 390-92. It s h o u l d be n o t e d that the tendency to identify the seer s h e a v e n l y identity w i t h the D e i t y o r his anthro­ p o m o r p h i c extent ( k n o w n as his Kavod

o r the F a c e ) is discernible in all accounts dealing

w i t h the heavenly counterpart.

137

Andrei

A.

Orlov

e n c e . F o r o u r s t u d y of the t r a d i t i o n in J u b i l e e s , w h e r e the a n g e l of the p r e s ­ ence m i g h t b e s e r v i n g as the h e a v e n l y c o u n t e r p a r t of the s o n o f A m r a m , it is i m p o r t a n t to n o t e that b o t h J a c o b a n d E n o c h t r a d i t i o n s identify the heav­ enly c o u n t e r p a r t s o f the seers as angelic s e r v a n t s of the p r e s e n c e . T h u s , in 2 E n o c h the s e v e n t h a n t e d i l u v i a n h e r o is d e p i c t e d as the an­ gelic s e r v a n t of the p r e s e n c e p e r m a n e n t l y installed in front of G o d ' s f a c e .

23

T h e S l a v o n i c a p o c a l y p s e repeats a g a i n a n d a g a i n that the seer is installed b e ­ fore the d i v i n e F a c e f r o m " n o w a n d forever." T h e later merkabah

develop­

m e n t s reaffirm this p r o m i n e n t office o f E n o c h ' s u p p e r identity in the f o r m of a n g e l M e t a t r o n , p o r t r a y i n g h i m as a s p e c i a l s e r v a n t o f the d i v i n e p r e s ­ ence, sar

happanim.

In the J a c o b t r a d i t i o n s the h e a v e n l y c o u n t e r p a r t of the s o n of I s a a c is also d e p i c t e d as the a n g e l of the p r e s e n c e . T h u s , in the P r a y e r of J o s e p h , the text that gives o n e o f the m o s t s t r i k i n g d e s c r i p t i o n s o f the p r e e x i s t e n t heav­ enly d o u b l e of J a c o b , the h e a v e n l y v e r s i o n of the p a t r i a r c h reveals his i d e n ­ tity as the a n g e l of the p r e s e n c e : " I , Israel, the a r c h a n g e l of the p o w e r o f the L o r d a n d the chief c a p t a i n a m o n g the s o n s of G o d . . . the first minister the face of

before

24,

God?

T h e i m a g e r y of angels of the p r e s e n c e or the F a c e l o o m s l a r g e in the t r a d i t i o n s o f the h e a v e n l y c o u n t e r p a r t . W h a t is s t r i k i n g here is n o t o n l y that the h e a v e n l y d o u b l e o f the v i s i o n a r y is f a s h i o n e d as the a n g e l (or the p r i n c e ) of the p r e s e n c e , b u t also that the a n g e l i c g u i d e s w h o a c q u a i n t the seer w i t h his u p p e r celestial i d e n t i t y a n d its offices are d e p i c t e d as angels o f the p r e s ­ e n c e . I n this respect the figure of the a n g e l i c s e r v a n t of the d i v i n e p r e s e n c e is especially i m p o r t a n t . B o t h J a c o b a n d E n o c h m a t e r i a l s c o n t a i n

numerous

references to the a n g e l o f the p r e s e n c e u n d e r the n a m e U r i e l , w h o is also k n o w n in v a r i o u s t r a d i t i o n s u n d e r the n a m e s o f P h a n u e l a n d S a r i e l . In 2 E n 2 2 - 2 3 , U r i e l

2 5

p l a y s an i m p o r t a n t role d u r i n g E n o c h ' s initia­

t i o n s n e a r the T h r o n e o f G l o r y .

2 6

H e i n s t r u c t s E n o c h a b o u t different s u b -

23. 2 E n 21:3: "And the L o r d sent one of his g l o r i o u s ones, the archangel G a b r i e l . A n d he said to m e , ' B e brave, E n o c h ! D o n ' t b e frightened! Stand u p , a n d c o m e w i t h m e a n d stand in front o f the face o f the L o r d forever.'" 2 E n 22:6: "And the L o r d said to his servants, s o u n d ­ ing them out, 'Let E n o c h j o i n in and stand in front of m y face f o r e v e r ! ' " 2 En 36:3: " B e c a u s e a place has been prepared for y o u , and y o u will be in front o f m y face from n o w a n d forever." A n d e r s e n , " 2 E n o c h , " 136, 138, a n d 161. 24. S m i t h , "Prayer of Joseph," 713. 25. Slav.

Vereveil.

26. T h e b e g i n n i n g o f this tradition can be f o u n d in the A s t r o n o m i c a l B o o k w h e r e E n o c h writes the instructions of the angel Uriel regarding the secrets o f heavenly b o d i e s a n d

138

The Heavenly

Counterpart

of Moses

in the Book of

Jubilees

jects of esoteric k n o w l e d g e to p r e p a r e h i m for v a r i o u s celestial offices, in­ c l u d i n g the office of the h e a v e n l y s c r i b e , l E n 7 1 also refers to the s a m e angel b u t n a m e s h i m P h a n u e l . In the S i m i l i t u d e s he o c c u p i e s an i m p o r t a n t place a m o n g the four p r i n c i p a l angels, n a m e l y , the place u s u a l l y a s s i g n e d to U r i e l . In fact, the angelic n a m e P h a n u e l m i g h t be a title that e m p h a s i z e s the celes­ tial status o f U r i e l / S a r i e l as o n e of the s e r v a n t s o f the d i v i n e

27

Panim.

T h e title P h a n u e l is r e m i n i s c e n t o f the t e r m i n o l o g y f o u n d in v a r i o u s J a c o b a c c o u n t s . In G e n 32:31 J a c o b n a m e s the p l a c e of his w r e s t l i n g w i t h G o d Peniel — the F a c e of G o d . S c h o l a r s believe that the angelic n a m e a n d the place P e n i e l are e t y m o l o g i c a l l y c o n n e c t e d .

Phanuel

28

T h i s reference to U r i e l / S a r i e l / P h a n u e l as the a n g e l w h o i n s t r u c t s / w r e s ­ tles w i t h J a c o b a n d a n n o u n c e s to h i m his n e w angelic status a n d n a m e is documented

in several other sources, including

Targum

Neofiti

and

the

P r a y e r of J o s e p h . I n the P r a y e r of J o s e p h , for e x a m p l e , J a c o b - I s r a e l reveals that " U r i e l , the angel of G o d , c a m e forth a n d said that ' I [ J a c o b - I s r a e l ] h a d d e s c e n d e d to e a r t h a n d I h a d t a b e r n a c l e d a m o n g m e n a n d that I h a d b e e n called b y the n a m e o f Jacob.' H e e n v i e d m e a n d f o u g h t w i t h m e a n d w r e s t l e d with m e . "

2 9

In the S l a v o n i c L a d d e r of J a c o b , a n o t h e r i m p o r t a n t text attesting to the idea of the h e a v e n l y c o u n t e r p a r t , Jacob's identification w i t h his h e a v e n l y c o u n t e r p a r t , the angel Israel, a g a i n i n v o l v e s the i n i t i a t o r y e n c o u n t e r w i t h the angel S a r i e l , the angel of the d i v i n e p r e s e n c e or the F a c e . T h e s a m e state of events is o b s e r v a b l e in E n o c h i c m a t e r i a l s w h e r e U r i e l serves as a p r i n c i p a l h e a v e n l y g u i d e to a n o t h e r p r o m i n e n t v i s i o n a r y w h o h a s also

acquired

k n o w l e d g e a b o u t his o w n h e a v e n l y c o u n t e r p a r t , n a m e l y , E n o c h / M e t a t r o n . T h e a f o r e m e n t i o n e d t r a d i t i o n s p e r t a i n i n g to the angels o f the presence are i m p o r t a n t for o u r o n g o i n g i n v e s t i g a t i o n of the a n g e l i c figure in J u b i l e e s in v i e w o f their role in a c c e s s i o n to the u p p e r identity of the seer.

their m o v e m e n t s . M . K n i b b , The Ethiopic Book of Enoch: A New Edition in the Light of the Ar­ amaic Dead Sea Fragments, 2 vols. (Oxford: Clarendon, 1978), 2:173. 27. Hekhalot Rabbati (Synopse $ 1 0 8 ) refers to the angel Suria/Suriel as the Prince o f the Face. O n the identification o f Sariel with the Prince o f the presence, see H . Odeberg, 3 Enoch or the Hebrew Book of Enoch (New York: Ktav, 1973), 99; Smith, "Prayer o f Joseph," 709. 28. G . Vermes suggests that the angelic n a m e Phanuel "is dependent o n the Peniel/ Penuel o f Genesis 32." See G . Vermes, " T h e Impact of the Dead Sea Scrolls o n Jewish Studies," JJS 26 (1975): 13. 29. Smith, "Prayer of Joseph," 713.

139

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A.

Orlov

II. The Heavenly Counterpart of Moses The Exagoge

of Ezekiel

the

Tragedian

W i t h this e x a m i n a t i o n into the b a c k g r o u n d of the t r a d i t i o n s a b o u t the heav­ enly c o u n t e r p a r t f o u n d in the E n o c h a n d the J a c o b m a t e r i a l s in p l a c e , w e w i l l n o w p r o c e e d to s o m e M o s a i c a c c o u n t s that also attest to the idea o f the celestial d o u b l e o f the s o n of A m r a m . O n e s u c h early M o s a i c t e s t i m o n y has s u r v i v e d as a p a r t o f the d r a m a Exagoge,

a w r i t i n g attributed to E z e k i e l the

T r a g e d i a n , w h i c h depicts the p r o p h e t ' s e x p e r i e n c e at Sinai as his celestial en­ t h r o n e m e n t . P r e s e r v e d in f r a g m e n t a r y f o r m in E u s e b i u s of C a e s a r e a ' s Praeparatio

evangelica,

the Exagoge

3 0

67-90 r e a d s :

M o s e s : I had a v i s i o n of a great t h r o n e on the top of M o u n t Sinai a n d it reached till the folds of heaven. A n o b l e m a n w a s sitting o n it, w i t h a c r o w n a n d a large scepter in his left h a n d . H e b e c k o n e d to m e w i t h his right h a n d , so I a p p r o a c h e d and stood before the t h r o n e . H e gave m e the scepter a n d instructed m e to sit o n the great t h r o n e . T h e n he gave m e a royal c r o w n a n d got u p from the t h r o n e . I b e h e l d the w h o l e earth all a r o u n d a n d s a w b e n e a t h the earth a n d a b o v e the h e a v e n s . A m u l t i t u d e of stars fell before m y knees a n d I c o u n t e d t h e m all. T h e y p a r a d e d past m e like a battalion of m e n . T h e n I a w o k e from m y sleep in fear. R a g u e l : M y friend, this is a g o o d sign from G o d . M a y I live to see the day w h e n these things are fulfilled. Y o u w i l l establish a great throne, be­ c o m e a j u d g e a n d leader of m e n . A s for y o u r v i s i o n of the w h o l e earth, the w o r l d b e l o w a n d that a b o v e the heavens — this signifies that y o u w i l l see w h a t is, w h a t has been a n d w h a t shall b e .

3 1

S c h o l a r s a r g u e that, g i v e n its q u o t a t i o n b y A l e x a n d e r P o l y h i s t o r (ca. 8 0 - 4 0 B . C . E . ) , this M o s a i c a c c o u n t is a w i t n e s s to t r a d i t i o n s of the s e c o n d century B . C . E .

3 2

S u c h d a t i n g p u t s this a c c o u n t in close c h r o n o l o g i c a l p r o x ­

i m i t y to the b o o k of J u b i l e e s . It is also n o t e w o r t h y that b o t h texts ( J u b i l e e s 30. Eusebius preserves the seventeen fragments containing 269 iambic trimeter verses. Unfortunately, the limited scope o f o u r investigation does not allow us to reflect o n the broader context o f M o s e s ' dream in the Exagoge. 31. H . Jacobson, The Exagoge of Ezekiel (Cambridge: C a m b r i d g e University Press, 1983). 54-5532. C . R. Holladay, Fragments from Hellenistic Jewish Authors, vol. 2, Poets, S B L T T 3 0 , Pseudepigrapha Series 12 (Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1989), 308-12. 140

The Heavenly a n d Exagoge)

Counterpart

of Moses in the Book of

Jubilees

exhibit a c o m m o n t e n d e n c y to a d a p t s o m e E n o c h i c m o t i f s a n d

t h e m e s into the f r a m e w o r k of the M o s a i c t r a d i t i o n . T h e Exagoge

6 7 - 9 0 d e p i c t s M o s e s ' d r e a m in w h i c h he sees an en­

t h r o n e d celestial figure w h o v a c a t e s his h e a v e n l y seat a n d h a n d s o v e r to the s o n o f A m r a m his r o y a l attributes. T h e p l a c e m e n t of M o s e s o n the g r e a t t h r o n e in the Exagoge

a c c o u n t a n d his d o n n i n g of the r o y a l regalia h a v e of­

ten b e e n i n t e r p r e t e d b y s c h o l a r s as the p r o p h e t ' s o c c u p a t i o n of the seat of the D e i t y . Pieter v a n der H o r s t r e m a r k s that in the Exagoge "an a n t h r o p o m o r p h i c h y p o s t a s i s of G o d h i m s e l f . "

Moses becomes

33

T h e u n i q u e n e s s of the m o t i f of G o d v a c a t i n g the t h r o n e a n d transfer­ r i n g o c c u p a n c y to s o m e o n e else has l o n g p u z z l e d s c h o l a r s . A n a t t e m p t to deal w i t h this e n i g m a b y b r i n g i n g in the i m a g e r y of the v i c e - r e g e n t d o e s n o t c o m p l e t e l y solve the p r o b l e m ; the v i c e - r e g e n t s in J e w i s h t r a d i t i o n s (for e x ­ a m p l e , M e t a t r o n ) do n o t n o r m a l l y o c c u p y G o d ' s t h r o n e b u t instead h a v e their o w n g l o r i o u s chair that s o m e t i m e s serves as a replica of the d i v i n e Seat. T h e e n i g m a t i c i d e n t i f i c a t i o n of the p r o p h e t w i t h the d i v i n e F o r m c a n best b e e x p l a i n e d , n o t t h r o u g h the c o n c e p t o f a v i c e - r e g e n t , b u t r a t h e r the n o t i o n of the h e a v e n l y t w i n or

through

counterpart.

In v i e w of the a f o r e m e n t i o n e d t r a d i t i o n s a b o u t the h e a v e n l y t w i n s of E n o c h a n d J a c o b , it is p o s s i b l e that the Exagoge

o f E z e k i e l the T r a g e d i a n also

attests to the idea of the h e a v e n l y c o u n t e r p a r t o f the seer w h e n it identifies M o s e s w i t h the g l o r i o u s a n t h r o p o m o r p h i c e x t e n s i o n . A s w e recall, the text depicts M o s e s ' v i s i o n of "a n o b l e m a n " w i t h a c r o w n a n d a large scepter in the left h a n d installed o n the g r e a t t h r o n e . In the c o u r s e of the seer's initia­ t i o n , the attributes of this " n o b l e m a n , " i n c l u d i n g the r o y a l c r o w n a n d the scepter, are t r a n s f e r r e d to M o s e s , w h o is i n s t r u c t e d to sit o n the t h r o n e for­ m e r l y o c c u p i e d by the n o b l e m a n . T h e n a r r a t i v e t h u s clearly identifies the v i s i o n a r y w i t h his h e a v e n l y c o u n t e r p a r t , in the c o u r s e of w h i c h the seer liter­ ally takes the place a n d the attributes o f his u p p e r identity. M o s e s ' e n t h r o n e ­ m e n t is r e m i n i s c e n t of J a c o b ' s story, w h e r e J a c o b ' s h e a v e n l y identity is d e ­ picted as b e i n g " e n g r a v e d " or " e n t h r o n e d " o n the d i v i n e Seat. T h e a c c o u n t also e m p h a s i z e s that M o s e s a c q u i r e d his v i s i o n in a d r e a m b y r e p o r t i n g that he a w o k e f r o m his sleep in fear. H e r e , as in the J a c o b t r a d i t i o n , w h i l e the seer is s l e e p i n g o n earth his c o u n t e r p a r t in the u p p e r r e a l m is identified w i t h the Kavod.

33. P. W. v a n der Horst, " S o m e Notes o n the Exagoge

o f Ezekiel," Mnemosyne

37

(1984): 364-65 (here 3 6 4 ) .

141

Andrei

A.

Orlov

Conclusion

O n e of the i m p o r t a n t characteristics of the a f o r e m e n t i o n e d v i s i o n a r y a c ­ c o u n t s in w h i c h adepts b e c o m e identified w i t h their h e a v e n l y d o u b l e s is the t r a n s f e r e n c e o f p r o m i n e n t celestial offices to the n e w s e r v a n t s of the p r e s ­ e n c e . T h u s , for e x a m p l e , transference of the offices is d i s c e r n i b l e in the Exagoge

w h e r e the " h e a v e n l y m a n " h a n d s over to the seer his celestial regalia,

scepter a n d c r o w n , a n d then s u r r e n d e r s his h e a v e n l y seat, w h i c h the E n o c h M e t a t r o n t r a d i t i o n often identifies w i t h the d u t y of the celestial s c r i b e . I n ­ d e e d , the s c r i b a l role m a y r e p r e s e n t o n e of the m o s t i m p o r t a n t offices that angels of the p r e s e n c e often s u r r e n d e r to the n e w s e r v a n t s of the F a c e . T h u s , for e x a m p l e , 2 E n o c h d e s c r i b e s the i n i t i a t i o n of the seer b y Vereveil ( U r i e l ) in the c o u r s e of w h i c h this a n g e l of the p r e s e n c e , p o r t r a y e d in 2 E n o c h as a " h e a v e n l y recorder," c o n v e y s to the t r a n s l a t e d p a t r i a r c h k n o w l e d g e a n d skills p e r t a i n i n g to the s c r i b a l d u t i e s . W h a t is i m p o r t a n t in this a c c o u n t is its e m ­ p h a s i s o n the act of t r a n s f e r e n c e of the s c r i b a l duties f r o m Vereveil ( U r i e l ) to E n o c h , w h e n the a n g e l o f the p r e s e n c e s u r r e n d e r s to the h e r o the celestial li­ b r a r y a n d even the p e n f r o m his h a n d .

3 4

T h e s e d e v e l o p m e n t s are i n t r i g u i n g a n d m a y p r o v i d e s o m e insights into the p u z z l i n g t r a d i t i o n a b o u t the a n g e l of the p r e s e n c e in the b o o k o f J u ­ bilees.

35

J u b i l e e s , like the E n o c h i c a c c o u n t , has t w o s c r i b a l figures; o n e o f

t h e m is the a n g e l o f the p r e s e n c e a n d the other is a h u m a n b e i n g . Yet the e x ­ act r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n these t w o figures is difficult to establish in v i e w o f the s c a r c i t y a n d a m b i g u i t y o f the r e l e v a n t d e p i c t i o n s . D o e s the a n g e l of the p r e s e n c e in Jubilees p o s e , o n the f a s h i o n of U r i e l , as a celestial s c r i b e w h o is r e s p o n s i b l e for i n i t i a t i o n o f the a d e p t into the s c r i b a l duties? O r does he r e p ­ resent the h e a v e n l y c o u n t e r p a r t of M o s e s w h o is clearly d i s t i n g u i s h e d at this p o i n t f r o m the seer? A clear distance b e t w e e n the seer a n d his celestial i d e n ­ tity is n o t u n l i k e l y in the c o n t e x t o f the t r a d i t i o n s a b o u t the h e a v e n l y c o u n -

34. 2 E n 2 2 : 1 0 - 1 1 (the shorter r e c e n s i o n ) : " T h e L o r d s u m m o n e d Vereveil, o n e of his archangels, w h o w a s w i s e , who records all the Lord's deeds. A n d the L o r d said to Vereveil, ' B r i n g out the b o o k s from storehouses, a n d give a p e n to E n o c h and read h i m the b o o k s . ' A n d Vereveil h u r r i e d and b r o u g h t m e the b o o k s mottled with m y r r h . A n d he gave m e the pen from his hand." A n d e r s e n , "2 E n o c h , " 141. 35. W h e n o n e l o o k s m o r e closely at the angelic i m a g e r y reflected in the b o o k o f Jubi­ lees, it is intriguing that M o s e s ' angelic guide is defined as an angel o f the presence. A s has al­ ready b e e n d e m o n s t r a t e d , the process o f establishing t w i n s h i p w i t h the heavenly c o u n t e r ­ part not o n l y reflects the initiatory p r o c e d u r e o f b e c o m i n g a S e r v a n t o f the Face, it also always p r e s u p p o s e s the initiation p e r f o r m e d b y another angelic servant o f the Face.

142

The Heavenly

Counterpart

of Moses in the Book of

Jubilees

t e r p a r t . In fact, this distance b e t w e e n the t w o identities — o n e in the figure of the a n g e l a n d the other in the figure of a h e r o — represents a s t a n d a r d feature o f s u c h a c c o u n t s . T h u s , for e x a m p l e , the a l r e a d y m e n t i o n e d a c c o u n t f r o m the B o o k of the S i m i l i t u d e s clearly d i s t i n g u i s h e s E n o c h f r o m his heav­ enly c o u n t e r p a r t

in the f o r m of the angelic s o n of m a n t h r o u g h o u t

the

w h o l e n a r r a t i v e u n t i l the final u n i f i c a t i o n in the last c h a p t e r of the b o o k . T h e g a p b e t w e e n the celestial a n d e a r t h l y identities o f the seer is also dis­ c e r n i b l e in the t a r g u m i c a c c o u n t s a b o u t J a c o b ' s h e a v e n l y d o u b l e w h e r e the d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n the t w o identities is h i g h l i g h t e d b y a d e s c r i p t i o n o f the angels w h o b e h o l d J a c o b s l e e p i n g o n earth a n d at the s a m e t i m e installed in h e a v e n . A d i s t a n c e b e t w e e n the identity o f the seer a n d his h e a v e n l y t w i n is also o b s e r v a b l e in the Exagoge

w h e r e the h e a v e n l y m a n transfers to M o s e s

his regalia a n d v a c a t e s for h i m his h e a v e n l y seat. T h e r e is, m o r e o v e r , a n o t h e r i m p o r t a n t p o i n t in the stories a b o u t the h e a v e n l y c o u n t e r p a r t s that c o u l d p r o v i d e p o r t e n t o u s i n s i g h t into the n a t u r e of p s e u d e p i g r a p h i c a l a c c o u n t s w h e r e these stories are f o u n d . T h i s aspect p e r t a i n s to the issue o f the s o - c a l l e d e m u l a t i o n of the b i b l i c a l e x e m p l a r s in these p s e u d e p i g r a p h i c a l a c c o u n t s t h a t a l l o w s their a u t h o r s to u n v e i l n e w r e v e l a t i o n s in the n a m e o f s o m e p r o m i n e n t a u t h o r i t y of the p a s t .

3 6

The

i d e n t i t y o f the celestial s c r i b e in the f o r m o f the a n g e l o f the p r e s e n c e m i g h t further o u r u n d e r s t a n d i n g of the e n i g m a t i c p r o c e s s of m y s t i c a l a n d l i t e r a r y e m u l a t i o n o f the e x e m p l a r y figure, the c r y p t i c m e c h a n i c s of w h i c h often re­ m a i n b e y o n d the g r a s p o f o u r p o s t m o d e r n sensibilities. C o u l d the t r a d i t i o n of u n i f i c a t i o n o f the b i b l i c a l h e r o w i t h his angelic c o u n t e r p a r t b e p a r t of this p r o c e s s of e m u l a t i o n of the e x e m p l a r b y an a d ­ ept? C o u l d the i n t e r m e d i a t e a u t h o r i t a t i v e p o s i t i o n

3 7

of the a n g e l of the p r e s ­

ence, p r e d e s t i n e d to s t a n d " f r o m n o w a n d f o r e v e r " b e t w e e n the D e i t y h i m ­ self a n d the b i b l i c a l h e r o , s e r v e here as the safe h a v e n of the a u t h o r ' s identity,

36. O n the process o f the emulation o f the biblical exemplars in the second temple lit­ erature, see H . Najman, Seconding Sinai: The Development of Mosaic Discourse in Second Temple Judaism, JSJSup 77 (Leiden: Brill, 2003); Najman, "Torah o f Moses: P s e u d o n y m o u s Attribution in Second Temple Writings," in The Interpretation of Scripture in Early Judaism and Christianity: Studies in Language and Tradition, ed. C . A . Evans, J S P S u p 33 (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic, 2 0 0 0 ) , 202-16; Najman, "Authoritative Writing a n d Interpretation: A Study in the History of Scripture" (Ph.D. diss., H a r v a r d University, 1998). 37. This "intermediate" authoritative stand is often further reinforced b y the author­ ity o f the Deity himself through the identification o f the heavenly counterparts with the di­ vine form. O n this process, see o u r previous discussion about the blurring of boundaries be­ tween the heavenly counterparts a n d the Deity.

143

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Orlov

thus representing the important locus of mystical and literary emulation? Is it possible that in Jubilees, as in other pseudepigraphical accounts, the figure of the angel of the presence serves as a transformative and literary device that allows an adept to enter the assembly of immortal beings consisting of the heroes of both the celestial and the literary world? Is it possible that in the traditions of heavenly counterparts where the two characters of the story, one of w h o m is represented by a biblical exem­ plar, become eventually unified and acquire a single identity, w e are able to draw nearer to the very heart of the pseudepigraphical enterprise? In this re­ spect it does not appear to be coincidental that these transformational ac­ counts dealing with the heavenly doubles of their adepts are permeated with the aesthetics of penmanship and the imagery of the literary enterprise. In the course of these mystical and literary metamorphoses, the heavenly figure surrenders his scribal seat, the library of the celestial books, and even per­ sonal writing tools to the other, earthly identity w h o n o w becomes the new guardian of the literary tradition.

144

Jubilees and the Samaritan Tradition Lester L. Grabbe

One of the research delights with which m a n y have occupied themselves in recent years is "comparative midrash," "comparative haggadah," and inter­ pretative tradition. T h e most interesting focus of such w o r k is the book of 1

Genesis, which has so often been the basis for haggadic traditions. A prime example of "rewritten Bible," the b o o k of Jubilees cries out for comparison with other traditions relating to Genesis. Because the Samaritan tradition is still not very well k n o wn , though, little seems to have been done about com­ paring the Jubilees traditions with those a m o n g the Samaritans. A compre­ hensive, detailed comparison is beyond the scope of the present article, but m y aim is to look at some main areas where parallels exist and ask whether Jubilees and the Samaritan tradition spring from c o m m o n roots. The only study of which I am aware in this area came to negative con­ 2

clusions: the book of Jubilees is definitely not S a m a r i t a n . It indeed seems 1. In the late 1970s I proposed a project to compile a catalogue o f interpretative tradi­ tions on Genesis. The idea was presented to a meeting o f Philo scholars brought together by Professor Burton Mack of the Institute for Antiquity and Christianity at Claremont, to a fair a m o u n t o f skepticism as to the feasibility o f such a project. I nevertheless discussed it with several specialists who agreed to take part, but my own academic situation was overtaken by events: I moved to the U.K., my time was taken up with a new academic post, and m y re­ search interests moved down new paths. I a m not sure I have ever given up the idea, but the task would be a huge one, even if one stopped at 70 c.E. — if it went forward into the rab­ binic and patristic periods, it would be enormous. 2. R. Pummer, "The Book of Jubilees and the Samaritans," EgT 10 (1979): 147-78. This article did not c o m e to m y attention until m y research on the present paper was virtually

145

Lester L.

Grabbe

o n the surface that Jubilees is n o t a S a m a r i t a n w o r k , b u t m y a i m is s o m e w h a t different. T h e fact that Jubilees is p r o b a b l y n o t S a m a r i t a n does n o t b y itself rule out that it a n d the S a m a r i t a n s share h a g g a d i c a n d interpretative tradi­ t i o n s . We k n o w f r o m half a c e n t u r y of s t u d y that even t h o u g h the Q u m r a n g r o u p w a s p r o b a b l y an isolated c o m m u n i t y a n d m o v e m e n t — at least ac­ c o r d i n g to the m a j o r i t y o f s c h o l a r s — they still p r e s e r v e d m a n y literary a n d t h e o l o g i c a l parallels w i t h other Jews a n d J e w i s h g r o u p s . It w o u l d h a r d l y be s u r p r i s i n g if Jubilees h a d s o m e c o m m o n m a t e r i a l w i t h the S a m a r i t a n s , b u t w e c a n n o t k n o w u n t i l the m a t t e r is i n v e s t i g a t e d . T h e r e is a m a j o r p r o b l e m in any c o m p a r i s o n : the lack o f g o o d i n f o r ­ m a t i o n o n the d e v e l o p m e n t of m a n y S a m a r i t a n beliefs. M o s t of the S a m a r i ­ tan literature c a n n o t b e dated earlier t h a n the fourth c e n t u r y C . E . , a n d it is n o t p o s s i b l e to trace m u c h of S a m a r i t a n t h e o l o g y b e y o n d that date to an earlier p e r i o d . T h u s , if o n e w a n t s to k n o w w h e t h e r a p a r t i c u l a r S a m a r i t a n t r a d i t i o n w a s as early as Jubilees — or p e r h a p s even earlier — or o n l y d e v e l ­ o p e d m u c h later, in m a n y cases w e c a n n o t give a satisfactory a n s w e r . F o r this r e a s o n , in the p r e s e n t s t u d y I g e n e r a l l y do n o t talk a b o u t d e v e l o p m e n t s o f t h o u g h t or w h e t h e r the S a m a r i t a n t r a d i t i o n is likely to b e early or n o t . O n l y in the p e r i o d from the f o u r t h c e n t u r y to the present can e v o l u t i o n a n d d e ­ v e l o p m e n t be s k e t c h e d w i t h a n y c o n f i d e n c e . F r o m a t y p o l o g i c a l p o i n t of v i e w , the S a m a r i t a n s l o o k like a J e w i s h sect — or f r o m their p o i n t of v i e w , J u d a i s m is an Israelite sect w h i l e they are o r t h o d o x . Still, it is n o t a l w a y s easy to k n o w w h a t the S a m a r i t a n s b e l i e v e or h a v e b e l i e v e d in certain b a s i c areas. A p r o b l e m for a s t u d y such as this is the lack of g o o d e d i t i o n s a n d even b a s i c s c h o l a r s h i p o n S a m a r i t a n w r i t i n g s . M a n y of the S a m a r i t a n s o u r c e s are late, even from the twentieth

century.

T h i s d o e s n o t m e a n t h a t s u c h s o u r c e s do n o t c o n t a i n a n c i e n t e l e m e n t s , b u t c o m p a r e d w i t h m u c h J e w i s h literature, the S a m a r i t a n w r i t i n g s are c o m p a r a ­ tively u n s t u d i e d . T h e r e are n o t m a n y S a m a r i t a n specialists, a n d analysis of m u c h S a m a r i t a n literature has b a r e l y b e g u n . A b a s i c t o o l of research is A Companion

to Samaritan 3

The Samaritans.

Studies,

as w e l l as the c o l l e c t i o n of essays entitled

U n f o r t u n a t e l y , there is n o critical e d i t i o n of the S a m a r i t a n

complete; whether I w o u l d have continued with the project if I h a d seen P u m m e r ' s study earlier is an a c a d e m i c question that I cannot answer. 3. A . D. C r o w n , R . P u m m e r , a n d A . Tal, eds., A Companion ( T u b i n g e n : M o h r Siebeck, 1993); A . D . C r o w n , ed., The Samaritans

to Samaritan

Studies

( T u b i n g e n : M o h r Sie-

beck, 1989). See also the article s u r v e y i n g recent study: I. H j e l m , "What D o S a m a r i t a n s a n d Jews H a v e in C o m m o n ? Recent Trends in S a m a r i t a n Studies," Currents in Biblical

Research 3

(2004-5): 9-59. F o r a translation of a n u m b e r of S a m a r i t a n d o c u m e n t s , see J. B o w m a n , Sa-

146

Jubilees and the Samaritan

Tradition

4

Pentateuch. T h e supposed critical edition b y A . von G a l l is based on several manuscripts, but the editor m a d e arbitrary emendations, especially in the orthography. A . Tal has produced an edition based on manuscript no. 6 of the Samaritan synagogue in S h e c h e m , w h i c h will be the basic text used 5

h e r e . Editions of other Samaritan writings will be noted w h e n they are re­ ferred to. Fortunately, for Jubilees w e are in a better p o s i t i o n .

6

Chronology It is interesting that chronology is i m p o r t a n t both to the b o o k of Jubilees 7

and such Samaritan writings as the Tulidah

and the Asatir}

T h e Asatir is es­

sentially a paraphrase of m u c h of Genesis, and is thus a literary parallel to Jubilees. T h i s suggests that it m i g h t provide traditions in c o m m o n with J u ­ bilees. Both put a lot of chronological detail into their text. M o d e r n scholars can either regard this as a waste of space on inconsequential information or assume that the writers thought such data was important. It is well k n o w n

maritan Documents Relating to Their History, Religion, and Life, Pittsburgh Original Texts and Translations 2 (Pittsburgh: Pickwick, 1977). 4. A. F. v o n Gall, ed., Der Hebraische Pentateuch der Samaritaner

(Giessen: Topel-

m a n n , 1918; reprint, Berlin: T o p e l m a n n , 1966). 5. A. Tal, ed., The Samaritan Pentateuch Edited according to MS 6 (C) of the Shekhem Synagogue, Texts and Studies in Hebrew Language and Related Subjects 8 (Tel Aviv: Tel Aviv University Press, 1994). 6. Text and translations o f the Ethiopic text are cited from J. C. VanderKam, ed., The Book of Jubilees: Text and English Translation, 2 vols., C S C O 510-11, Scriptores Aethiopici 8788 (Louvain: Peeters, 1989). 7. N o n e o f the editions o f the Tulidah is satisfactory (also called Chronicle 3 in the numbering by J. Macdonald [ The Theology of the Samaritans, N T L (London: S C M , 1964), 4 4 - 4 9 ] ) ' The published editions include A. Neubauer, "Chronique samaritaine, suivie d'un appendice contenant de courtes notices sur quelques autres ouvrages samaritains," JA 14 (1869): 385-470 (text and French translation); M. Heidenheim, "Die Samaritan. Chronik des Hohenpriesters Elasar," Vierteljahrsschrift fur deutsch und englisch-theologische

Forschung

und Kritik 4 (1871): 347-89 (German translation only); J. B o w m a n , Transcript of the Original Text of the Samaritan Chronicle

Tolidah (Leeds: University o f Leeds, 1954 [text only, using a

different manuscript from Neubauer; apparently a number o f transcription e r r o r s ] ) . 8. These are part o f the so-called Samaritan chronicles. The Asatir is labeled Chroni­ cle 1 in Macdonald's scheme o f chronicle references (see previous note). A standard edition o f the Asatir is M. Gaster, The Asatir: The Samaritan Book of the "Secrets of Moses" Together with the Pitron or Samaritan Commentary and the Samaritan Story of the Death of Moses (London: Royal Asiatic Society, 1927). A better edition o f the text is Z . Ben-Hayyim, "TODS 1 3 0 , " Tarbiz 14 (1942-43): 104-90; Tarbiz 15 (1943-44): 71-87.

147

Lester L. Grabbe that Jubilees is named for a chronological system based on a forty-nine-year cycle of jubilees. This might seem strange since the Pentateuch appears to envisage a fifty-year cycle (Lev 2 5 : 8 - 1 2 ) . It also has often been commented that antediluvian patriarchs have three different chronological

schemes,

with each major version of Gen 1 - 1 0 having its o w n system of counting the 9

ages of the patriarchs. T h e following table shows the chronological data from A d a m to Jacob in the three versions. ( N . B . the dates are all A . M .

[anno

mundi, the era counting from creation]. T h e data in column 4 [Jubilees] has been reconstructed from the dates found in the table on pp. 1 5 0 - 5 1 . )

Biblical Text

SP

LXX

MT

Jubilees

5:6: Seth begets Enosh

130

230

130

130

5:9: Enosh begets Kenan

105

205

105

98

5:12: Kenan begets Mahalalel

90

190

90

97

5:15: Mahalalel begets Jared

70

170

70

70

5:18: Jared begets Enoch

65

165

65

66

5:21: Enoch begets Methuselah

62

162

162

61

5:25: Methuselah begets Lamech

65

165

65

65

5:28: Lamech begets Noah

67

167

187

[5:32; 11:10: Noah begets Shem]

53

188

182

49-55

7:11: Noah's age when flood came

[502]

[502]

[502]

[500-506]

600

600

600

601-7

98

98

98

101

100

100

100

103

135

[135]

35

[65]

5:3: Adam begets Seth

11:10: Shem's age at the time of the flood 11:10: Shem begets Arpachshad

65

11:12: Arpachshad begets Shelah [Cainan LXX, Jubilees] [11:13: Cainan begets Shelah LXX, Jubilees] 11:14: Shelah begets Eber

[130]

[57]

11:16: Eber begets Peleg

130

130

30

11:18: Peleg begets Reu

134

134

34

71 64

11:20: Reu begets Serug

130

130

30

12 [sic]

11:22: Serug begets Nahor

132

132

32

108

11:24: Nahor begets Terah

130

130

30

57

79

79*

29

62

"variant 179

9. A basic study o f various chronographic systems in early Jewish writings is L. L. Grabbe, "Chronography in Hellenistic Jewish Historiography," in Society of Biblical Literature 1979 Seminar Papers, ed. P. J. Achtemeier, SBLSPS17 (Missoula: Scholars Press, 1979), 2:43-68.

148

Jubilees and the Samaritan Biblical Text

SP

11:26: Terah begets Abram (11:32; 12:4) 17:17; 21:5: Abraham begets Isaac 25:26: Isaac begets Jacob

LXX

Tradition

MT

Jubilees

130 70

100

130

70

100

60

100

112

60

58

60

Jubilees has figures that only occasionally agree with the Samaritan Pentateuch, the Septuagint, or the Masoretic text. In most cases, though, it is closest to the Samaritan Pentateuch up until the flood, but after the flood it seems to go its o w n way. This will be investigated in the next section. One area where Jubilees contains information not found in the bibli­ cal text is that relating to the time when the sons of Jacob were born. T h e only other early Jewish writing providing such data is Demetrius the Chronographer, fragments of which are preserved in Eusebius's

Praeparatio

10

evangelica:

Biblical Text

Jubilees*

Demetrius**

29:32: Reuben born (Leah)

28:11:44.3.1:9/14(2122 A . M . )

9.21.3: 8:10

29:33: Simeon born (Leah)

28:13:44.3.3:10/21 (2124)

9.21.3: 9:8

29:34: Levi born (Leah)

28:14:44.3.6:1/1 (2127)

9.21.3: 10:6

29:35: Judah born (Leah)

28:15: 44.4.1:3/15 (2129)

9.21.3: 11:4

30:6: Dan born (Bilhah)

28:18:44.3.6:6/9 (2127)

[9.21.5: 14:8; originally 11:4?]

30:8: Naphtali born (Bilhah)

28:19:44.4.2:7/5(2130)

9.21.3: [12:2; see 9.21.8]

30:11: Gad born (Zilpah)

28:20:44.4.3:8/12 (2131)

9.21.3: 12:2

30:13: Asher born (Zilpah)

28:21:44.4.5:11/2 (2133)

9.21.3: 12:12

30:18: Issachar born (Leah)

28:22:44.4.4:5/4(2132)

9.21.4: 12:12

30:20: Zebulun born (Leah)

28:23:44.4.6:7/7 (2134)

9.21.5: 13:10

30:21: Dinah born (Leah)

ditto (twins)

9.21.5: [14:8; see 9.21.8]

30:23-24: Joseph born (Rachel)

28:24:44.4.6:4/1 (2134)

9.21.5: 14:8

35:18: Benjamin born (Rachel)

32:33:44.6.1:8/11 (2143)

9.21.10: [30:??]

*{Order of dates: jubilee.week.year:month/day)

**Praep. ev. (year:month)

There are problems because the text of Demetrius has clearly suffered some damage in transmission and thus does not always make sense. Editors lo. On Demetrius, see C. R. Holladay, Fragments from Hellenistic Jewish Authors, vol. l, Historians, Texts and Translations 20, Pseudepigrapha Series 10 (Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1983), 51-91; J. Hanson, "Demetrius the Chronographer," in OTP, 2:843-54.

149

Lester L. Grabbe tend to emend the text to a lesser or greater extent. Even though the emenda­ tions differ from editor to editor, the general understanding appears to be reasonably consistent. This is because it quickly becomes apparent that Demetrius is assuming ten months between births even though several of the children were born at the same time. W h e n the two texts are carefully compared, though, there is no correspondence between Demetrius and Jubi­ lees and no evidence of a connection. T h e two calculations seem indepen­ dent of one another. A n area where both Jubilees and Samaritan sources seem to have something in c o m m o n is the jubilee year. T h e Samaritan Tulidah gives the jubilee a pivotal role in its chronological scheme. T h e Samaritans, however, seem not to have counted the jubilee in the same w a y that the book of Jubi­ lees does. According to Tulidah 5 - 6 , five jubilees make 246 years. This is be­ cause the first jubilee is counted as 50 years but subsequent ones are counted as 49 years. T h e reason for this is not explained, but apparently the same cal­ culation is used for every five jubilees. T h u s ten jubilees are 4 9 2 years and twenty are 984 years; however, the sixtieth jubilee is inconsistently counted as 2,951 instead of 2,952, and the sixty-fifth as 3,196 instead of 3,198. Again, there is no explanation. In any event, the Tulidah and Jubilees are very close up to the Noachic deluge.

Jubilees and the Asatir Although the Asatir runs parallel to Jubilees, it is surprising how little over­ lap there is. Both evidently have interpretative material from their respective traditions, but the traditions are different. Below is a table summarizing this detail:

Jubilees

SP SP

3:15: Adam and Eve in Garden 7 years

Samaritan Tradition: Asatir [1:25: Adam a n d Eve 8 days in Garden]

4:1: Cain born in 6 4 - 7 0 A . M . ; Abel in 7 1 - 7 7 4:1: Awan daughter o f Adam and Eve Eve

1:3: Al'alah Altaian twin sister o f Cain; Makeda twin

4:2: Cain slays Abel ( 9 9 - 1 0 5 A . M . )

1:24: Cain slays Abel ( 3 0 A . M . )

sister o f Abel

4:7: Seth born in 130 A . M .

130

1:26: A d a m begets Seth ( 1 3 0 A . M . )

4:8: Azura daughter o f Adam and Eve 4:9: Cain marries his sister Awan 4:9: Cain builds city called Enoch

150

[1.4: Cain lives in city n a m e d Nikl]

Jubilees and the Samaritan Jubilees

SP

Tradition

Samaritan Tradition: Asatir

4:11: Seth marries his sister Azura 4:11: Seth begets Enosh ( 2 2 8 A . M . )

235

4:13: Enos begets Kenan ( 3 2 5 A . M . )

325

4:14: Kenan begets Mahalalel ( 3 9 5 A . M . )

395

4:15: Mahalalel begets Jared ( 4 6 1 A . M . )

460

4:16: Jared begets E n o c h ( 5 2 2 A . M . )

522

4:20: E n o c h begets Methuselah ( 5 8 7 A . M . )

587

4:27: Methuselah begets L a m e c h ( 6 5 2 A . M . )

654

4:28: L a m e c h begets Noah ( 7 0 1 - 7 0 7 A . M . )

707

2 : 3 2 , 3 3 - 3 9 : Enoch dies

4:30: day o f testimony in heaven = 1,000 years 4:33: Noah begets Shem ( 1 2 0 7 A . M . )

11209]

5:23: Flood c o m e s ( 1 3 0 8 A . M . )

1307

7:18: Shem begets A r p a c h s h a d ( 1 3 1 0 A . M . )

1309

4:21: from creation to day o f visitation: 1,307 years

8:1: Arpachshad begets Cainan ( 1 3 7 5 A . M . )

*

8:5: Cainan begets Shelah ( 1 4 3 2 A . M . )

1444

8:7: Shelah begets Eber ( 1 5 0 3 A . M . )

1574

8:8: Eber begets Peleg ( 1 5 6 7 A . M . )

1708

8 : 1 1 - 9 : 1 3 : Noah divides the earth

4 : 3 1 - 3 2 ; 5 : 1 2 - 2 8 : Nimrod

[4:13: Noah divides earth 6 2 years after flood]

a m o n g his 3 sons 10:18: Peleg begets Reu ( 1 5 7 9 A . M . ) .

1838

11:1: Reu begets Serug ( 1 6 8 7 A . M . )

1970

11:8: Serug begets Nahor ( 1 7 4 4 A . M . )

2100

11:10: Nahor begets Terah ( 1 8 0 6 A . M . )

2179

11:14: Terah begets Abram ( 1 8 7 6 A . M . )

2249

1 6 : 1 3 - 1 5 : A b r a m begets Isaac ( 1 9 8 8 A . M . )

2349

[4:19: after division of e a r t h , 4 , 2 9 3 years remaining o f 6 , 0 0 0 ]

(13:16; 15:1) 19:13: Isaac begets Jacob and Esau

2409

(2046 A . M . ) (19:1) 11:20: Moses foretold what would happen in next 3 , 2 0 4 years

*No Cainan in SP; Arpachshad begets Shelah.

Both the Asatir and Jubilees contain a good deal of detail not found in the text of Genesis. Yet neither tends to have m u c h overlap. Sometimes they

151

Lester L.

Grabbe

b o t h a d d detail to the text (e.g., the n a m e s of the w i v e s m a r r i e d b y the a n t e d i l u v i a l p a t r i a r c h s or the cities built b y t h e m ) , but the details h a v e n o re­ lation to o n e another. T o p i c s that are e v i d e n t l y i m p o r t a n t to o n e ( b e c a u s e space is d e v o t e d to t h e m ) do n o t o c c u r in the other or are m e n t i o n e d o n l y v e r y briefly. F o r e x a m p l e , Jubilees d o e s not s e e m to be interested in N i m r o d . T h i s is in c o n t r a s t to the l e g e n d f o u n d in s o m e other J e w i s h w r i t i n g s ,

1 1

but a

d e v e l o p e d l e g e n d o c c u r s in the Asatir. O n the other h a n d , Jubilees c o n t a i n s e x p a n d e d stories a b o u t J a c o b ' s w a r s w i t h the A m o r i t e s (34:2-9) a n d w i t h E s a u a n d his s o n s ( 3 7 - 3 8 ) , w h i c h h a v e n o place in the Asatir

n o r any other

Samaritan writing. O n the c h r o n o l o g i c a l side, the p r e v i o u s section n o t e d that the S a m a r i ­ tans also use the j u b i l e e , b u t t h e y calculate the first j u b i l e e as fifty y e a r s , then f o r t y - n i n e y e a r s until the fifth j u b i l e e . W h e t h e r b e c a u s e of this or in spite o f it, the f l o o d o c c u r s in 1 3 0 8 A . M . in Jubilees a n d 1 3 0 7 in the Asatir

a n d other

S a m a r i t a n s o u r c e s . T h e p r e f l o o d g e n e a l o g i e s o f Jubilees are close to the S a ­ m a r i t a n P e n t a t e u c h , b u t w i t h little e x a c t c o r r e s p o n d e n c e . F r o m the f l o o d o n , h o w e v e r , the S a m a r i t a n P e n t a t e u c h

tends to agree w i t h the

Septuagint,

w h e r e a s Jubilees tends to use s m a l l e r figures (but still greater t h a n t h o s e i n the M a s o r e t i c text) a n d is quite different f r o m the S a m a r i t a n . Jubilees does h a v e o n e a g r e e m e n t w i t h the S e p t u a g i n t : it i n c l u d e s C a i n a n

between

A r p a c h s h a d a n d S h e l a h (in c o n t r a s t to b o t h the S P a n d the M T , w h i c h m a k e S h e l a h the s o n o f A r p a c h s h a d ) . A s t u d y m u c h n e e d e d is a t h o r o u g h investi­ g a t i o n o f the Jubilees c h r o n o l o g y to d e t e r m i n e w h e t h e r i n t e r n a l p a t t e r n s are o p e r a t i n g . O n e factor that c o m p l i c a t e s any a t t e m p t to discern p a t t e r n s in the figures of Jubilees is that the Jubilees c h r o n o l o g y is n o t a l w a y s i n t e r n a l l y consistent. We h a v e the o b v i o u s error in the case of Peleg, w h o has a s o n at age t w e l v e ( 1 0 : 1 8 ) . B u t other p r o b l e m a t i c figures relate to A b r a h a m ' s age w h e n he begets I s h m a e l (14:24) and then I s a a c ( 1 6 : 1 3 - 1 5 ) . T h e c o n c e p t of h u m a n h i s t o r y e n c o m p a s s i n g 6,000 y e a r s , o n the a n a l ­ o g y of the w e e k , e n d i n g w i t h a 1 , 0 0 0 - y e a r "sabbath," is w e l l k n o w n f r o m later Jewish and Christian w r i t i n g s . the Asatir

1 2

We find the s a m e c h r o n o l o g i c a l s c h e m e in

(4:19; 1 1 : 2 0 ) , t h o u g h this is p r o b a b l y a m e d i e v a l w r i t i n g . W a s the

c o n c e p t f o u n d as early as the b o o k o f Jubilees? J u b 4:30 s p e a k s of a d a y e q u a l i n g 1,000 y e a r s in the t e s t i m o n y of h e a v e n . T h e full s c h e m e of 6,000 11. See L. Ginzberg, Legends of the Jews, J: Bible Times and Characters from the Cre­ ation to Jacob, trans. Henrietta Szold (Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society of A m e r i c a , 1909), 177-217; Ginzberg, Legends of the Jews, V: Notes to Volumes I and I], from the Creation to the Exodus (Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society o f A m e r i c a , 1925), 198-218. 12. See G r a b b e , "Chronography," 2:51-55.

152

Jubilees

and the Samaritan

Tradition

y e a r s of h u m a n h i s t o r y before the e s c h a t o n is n o t spelled o u t i n J u b i l e e s , w h i c h m e a n s that w e c a n n o t b e certain it existed for the w r i t e r o f that b o o k . B u t there is a p o s s i b l e p a r a l l e l h e r e .

Calendar A l o n g w i t h c h r o n o l o g y , b o t h Jubilees a n d the Asatir are c o n c e r n e d a b o u t the calendar. Jubilees states as f o l l o w s :

6:3oAll the days of the c o m m a n d m e n t s will be 52 w e e k s o f days; (they will m a k e ) the entire year c o m p l e t e . 6:3iSo it has b e e n engraved a n d o r d a i n e d on the heavenly tablets. O n e is n o t allowed to transgress a single year, year b y year. 6:32Now y o u c o m m a n d the Israelites to keep the years in this n u m b e r — 364 days. T h e n the year will be c o m p l e t e a n d it will n o t dis­ turb its time from its days o r from its festivals b e c a u s e e v e r y t h i n g will h a p p e n in h a r m o n y with their testimony. . . . 6:36There will b e p e o p l e w h o carefully observe the m o o n w i t h l u n a r o b s e r v a t i o n s b e c a u s e it is c o r r u p t (with respect to) the seasons a n d is early from year to year b y ten days.

A s is w e l l k n o w n , Jubilees f o l l o w e d a s o l a r c a l e n d a r o f 364 days (slightly s h o r t o f the true solar y e a r o f a b o u t 365.25 d a y s ) that c o u l d c o n v e n i e n t l y b e d i v i d e d into 52 weeks a n d four q u a r t e r s o f 13 w e e k s (91 days) each. T h e l u n a r c a l e n d a r w a s specifically rejected. T h e details o f the S a m a r i t a n c a l e n d a r are n o t easily g l e a n e d f r o m the Asatir

o r many other S a m a r i t a n d o c u m e n t s , but what soon b e c o m e s clear is

that the S a m a r i t a n s f o l l o w e d a l u n i - s o l a r calendar, i.e., a c a l e n d a r in w h i c h each m o n t h is d e t e r m i n e d b y the p h a s e s o f the m o o n b u t i n w h i c h the l u n a r y e a r is r e g u l a r l y adjusted to b r i n g it into line with the solar year. W h a t this m e a n s i n p r a c t i c e is that a thirteenth m o n t h is intercalated e v e r y t w o o r three y e a r s , so that o v e r a p e r i o d o f a l m o s t e x a c t l y n i n e t e e n y e a r s , the l u n a r a n d solar cycles c o m e into a l i g n m e n t . It is the s a m e p r i n c i p l e as the J e w i s h calendar,

13

i n c l u d i n g u s e o f the M e t o n i c cycle a n d the J u l i a n year. W h e r e a s

the m o d e r n J e w i s h c a l e n d a r is n o w c a l c u l a t e d , the p r i n c i p l e s o f the S a m a r i ­ tan c a l e n d a r h a v e b e e n a carefully g u a r d e d secret; h o w e v e r , there is e v i d e n c e

13. F o r m o r e details, see S. Stern, Calendar Calendar

2nd Century

BCE-ioth

Century

and Community:

A History

of the

Jewish

CE (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2 0 0 1 ) .

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that it is n o w also c a l c u l a t e d .

14

T h e two do not necessarily coincide because

of differences in the p a t t e r n of a d d i n g an i n t e r c a l a r y m o n t h .

Angelology A l t h o u g h the "fallen a n g e l s " t r a d i t i o n is p e r h a p s n o t as central to Jubilees as it is to 1 E n o c h , it is still i m p o r t a n t , o c c u r r i n g in m o r e t h a n o n e p a s s a g e :

5:iWhen m a n k i n d b e g a n to m u l t i p l y on the surface of the entire earth a n d daughters were b o r n to them, the angels of the L o r d — in a certain (year) of the jubilee — saw that they w e r e beautiful to l o o k at. So they m a r r i e d of t h e m w h o m e v e r they chose. T h e y gave birth to children for them and they were g i a n t s . . . . 5:6Against his angels w h o m he h a d sent to the earth he was a n g r y e n o u g h to u p r o o t t h e m from all their (positions of) authority. H e told us to tie t h e m u p in the depths of the earth; n o w they are tied w i t h i n them a n d are alone. 5:7Regarding their children there w e n t out from his presence an order to strike t h e m w i t h the s w o r d and to r e m o v e them f r o m beneath the sky. . . . s s H e sent his s w o r d a m o n g t h e m so that they w o u l d kill one another. T h e y began to kill each other until all of them fell b y the s w o r d and w e r e obliterated from the earth. 5:ioNow their fathers w e r e watching, but afterwards they were tied u p in the depths of the earth until the great day of j u d g m e n t w h e n there will be c o n d e m n a t i o n on all w h o have corrupted their ways and their actions before the L o r d .

A little further in the n a r r a t i v e a n o t h e r reference o c c u r s :

7:2iFor it w a s on a c c o u n t of these three things that the f l o o d w a s on the earth, since (it w a s ) due to fornication that the Watchers h a d illicit inter­ course — apart f r o m the m a n d a t e of their a u t h o r i t y — w i t h w o m e n . W h e n they m a r r i e d of t h e m w h o m e v e r they chose they c o m m i t t e d the first

( a c t s ) of u n c l e a n n e s s . 7:22They f a t h e r e d

(as t h e i r )

sons

the

N e p h i l i m . T h e y were all dissimilar (from o n e a n o t h e r ) and w o u l d de­ v o u r o n e a n o t h e r : the giant killed the N a p h i l ; the N a p h i l killed the E l y o ; the E l y o m a n k i n d ; a n d p e o p l e their fellows.

14. S. Powels, Der Kalender der Samaritaner unhand des Kitab Hisab as-Sinln und anderer Handschriften, Studia Samaritana 3 (Berlin and N e w York: D e Gruyter, 1977); Powels, " X I . T h e Samaritan Calendar a n d the Roots of Samaritan Chronology," in The Sa­ maritans, 691-742.

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Tradition

T h i s t r a d i t i o n o f the fallen angels is characteristic m a i n l y of l E n o c h a n d of J u b i l e e s . Parts of the "fallen a n g e l s " m y t h are f o u n d here a n d there, b u t the full m y t h o c c u r s o n l y in these two b o o k s . In Jubilees it is a b b r e v i a t e d , b u t it a p p e a r s to h a v e m u c h the s a m e c o n t e n t s as that in l E n o c h , as far as w e c a n tell. A l t h o u g h a S a t a n / d e v i l t r a d i t i o n is w i d e s p r e a d in J u d a i s m a n d later in Christianity,

15

i n c l u d i n g the idea that S a t a n fell from h e a v e n , the "fallen an­

gels" m y t h in these t w o b o o k s takes a p a r t i c u l a r f o r m . W h e n w e l o o k at the S a m a r i t a n s , w e certainly find angels, but S a m a r i t a n a n g e l o l o g y as a w h o l e r e m a i n s relatively u n d e v e l o p e d c o m p a r e d to other streams of J u d a i s m .

1 6

T h e S a m a r i t a n tradition has d e v e l o p e d s o m e i n d i v i d u a l

p e r s o n a l angels w i t h n a m e s a n d specific tasks. B u t c o m p a r e d to the angelic t r a d i t i o n of 1 E n o c h , it is fairly s i m p l e . Particularly i m p o r t a n t is the discourse on angels b y A b u ' l H a s a n .

1 7

T h e r e are four n a m e d angels ( P h a n u e l , A n u s a ,

K a b b a l a , a n d N a s i ) of the g o o d sort. T h e " A n g e l of the P r e s e n c e " (also called G o d ' s Kabod

[ " G l o r y " ] ) is i m p o r t a n t in v a r i o u s Pentateuchal p a s s a g e s .

18

W h a t is m o s t c u r i o u s , t h o u g h , is the n e a r a b s e n c e of evil a n g e l s . A l ­ t h o u g h a few n a m e s occur, a S a t a n / d e v i l t r a d i t i o n is n o t s t r o n g l y d e v e l o p e d in S a m a r i t a n literature. T h e r e are references to " s o n s of Belial," such as w e find in the b i b l i c a l text, a n d a reference to A z a z e l , b u t these are m a i n l y c o n ­ fined to the D a y of A t o n e m e n t . A b s e n t is a "fallen a n g e l s " t r a d i t i o n c o m p a ­ r a b l e in a n y w a y to the o n e in J u b i l e e s a n d 1 E n o c h , w h i c h led M a c d o n a l d to w r i t e , " N o case c a n be m a d e o u t for a S a m a r i t a n belief in evil angels or de­ m o n s as an i n t e g r a l p a r t o f their s y s t e m of b e l i e f . "

19

T h i s m e a n s that a core

belief of Jubilees has n o real p a r a l l e l in the S a m a r i t a n

tradition.

Afterlife Jubilees has o n e w e l l - k n o w n p a s s a g e a b o u t the afterlife: 23:3oThen the L o r d will heal his servants. T h e y will rise and see great p e a c e . H e w i l l expel his e n e m i e s . T h e righteous w i l l see (this), offer 15. Cf. L. L. Grabbe, " T h e Scapegoat Ritual: A Study in Early Jewish Interpretation," JSJ 18 (1987): 152-67. 16. Macdonald, The Theology, 397-404. 17. See the translation o f a central passage in B o w m a n , Samaritan Documents, 248-51. 18. J. E . Fossum, The Name of God and the Angel of the Lord: Samaritan and Jewish Concepts of Intermediation and the Origin of Gnosticism, W U N T 36 (Tubingen: M o h r Siebeck, 1985), 220-38. 19. Macdonald, The Theology, 404.

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praise, a n d be v e r y h a p p y forever a n d ever. T h e y will see all their p u n i s h ­ m e n t s a n d curses on their e n e m i e s . 23:3iTheir b o n e s w i l l rest in the earth a n d their spirits w i l l be v e r y happy. T h e y w i l l k n o w that the L o r d is o n e w h o executes j u d g m e n t b u t s h o w s k i n d n e s s to h u n d r e d s a n d t h o u s a n d s a n d to all w h o love h i m . T h e s t a n d a r d i n t e r p r e t a t i o n has b e e n that this r e p r e s e n t s a t y p e of " r e s u r r e c ­ t i o n o f the spirit"; i.e., in c o n t r a s t to s o m e f o r m s of J u d a i s m , the b o d y is n o t r e s u r r e c t e d . It r e m a i n s in the earth b u t the spirit c o n t i n u e s to live, u s u a l l y in a celestial r e a l m .

2 0

A s w i t h the J e w s , the e s c h a t o l o g i c a l v i e w s of the S a m a r i t a n s d e v e l o p e d over the c e n t u r i e s , a n d t h e r e w e r e differences b e t w e e n the s e c t s .

21

T h e r e are

s o m e r a b b i n i c s t a t e m e n t s to the effect that the S a m a r i t a n s d i d n o t b e l i e v e in the r e s u r r e c t i o n , a n d in " S a m a r i t a n s o u r c e s f r o m the f o u r t h c e n t u r y to the f o u r t e e n t h c e n t u r y the e v i d e n c e for a b e l i e f in r e s u r r e c t i o n is also u n c e r ­ tain."

22

H o w e v e r , it a p p e a r s that the D o s i t h e a n s sect d i d b e l i e v e in the r e s u r ­

rection.

23

In a n y event, r e s u r r e c t i o n h a s b e c o m e a p a r t o f S a m a r i t a n t h i n k ­

i n g in recent c e n t u r i e s , e v e n if it is difficult to trace it to an earlier p e r i o d . O n e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n is that the o r i g i n a l S a m a r i t a n e s c h a t o l o g y w a s l i m i t e d a n d set o n the earth; a m o r e t r a n s c e n d e n t v e r s i o n , w i t h the c o n c e p t s of the D a y of V e n g e a n c e (a s o r t of d a y o f j u d g m e n t or " d a y o f the L o r d " ) a n d the r e s u r r e c t i o n , d e v e l o p e d later, p e r h a p s s o m e k e y e l e m e n t s as late as m e d i e v a l or later t i m e s . W h e t h e r the S a m a r i t a n s h a d a b e l i e f like that in J u b i l e e s is u n ­ certain, b u t it is p o s s i b l e .

Messiah/Messianic Kingdom O n e a s p e c t o f S a m a r i t a n e s c h a t o l o g y is b e l i e f in the T a h e b . T h i s figure is of­ ten c o m p a r e d to the J e w i s h m e s s i a h . T h i s has b e e n d e n i e d b e c a u s e the T a h e b is b a s i c a l l y an e s c h a t o l o g i c a l p r o p h e t like M o s e s ; h o w e v e r , c o n s i d e r i n g the

20. G . W. E . Nickelsburg, Resurrection, Immortality, and Eternal Life in Intertestamental Judaism, H T S 26 ( C a m b r i d g e : Harvard University Press, 1972), 31-33. 21. F. Dexinger, "V. Samaritan Eschatology," in The Samaritans, 266-92; M . Gaster, The Samaritan Oral Law and Ancient Traditions, vol. 1, Samaritan Eschatology (London: Search Publishing C o . , 1932). 22. Dexinger, "V. Samaritan Eschatology," 283. 23. S. J. Isser, The Dositheans: A Samaritan Sect in Late Antiquity, S J L A 17 (Leiden: Brill, 1976), 143-50.

156

Jubilees

and the Samaritan

Tradition

v a r i e t i e s o f m e s s i a n i c b e l i e f i n s e c o n d t e m p l e J u d a i s m , b e l i e f i n the T a h e b does n o t l o o k o u t o f p l a c e .

2 4

The term "messiah" seems t o b e lacking, but

this is also the case w i t h s o m e J e w i s h figures w h o are l a b e l e d m e s s i a n i c . T h e T a h e b is a p r o p h e t b u t also a k i n g i n s o m e texts. H e sets u p a k i n g d o m o n earth a n d lives for n o y e a r s , after w h i c h h e dies b e f o r e the e s c h a t o n .

25

One

can c o m p a r e this w i t h the m e s s i a n i c figure i n 4 E z r a 7:28-44 w h o also dies (after a r e i g n o f 4 0 0 y e a r s ) . O n e c a n s p e a k o f a sort o f " m e s s i a n i c k i n g d o m " i n J u b i l e e s i n s u c h p a s s a g e s a s 1:29 a n d 2 3 : 2 6 - 3 1 . T h e r e s e e m s t o b e n o m e s s i a h a s s u c h , h o w e v e r ; the closest w e c o m e is a reference t o a p r i n c e f r o m the tribe o f J u d a h ( 3 1 : 1 8 2 0 ) . T h e w o r d i n g is r a t h e r v a g u e , t h o u g h , a n d it is n o t clearly a m e s s i a h . It c o u l d b e referring t o the future Israelite k i n g in the i m a g e o f D a v i d . T h e k i n g w a s o f c o u r s e a n o i n t e d a n d thus a " m e s s i a h , " b u t o n l y i n that sense does a m e s s i a h s e e m t o b e d i s c u s s e d . In a n y case, Jubilees a n d the S a m a r i t a n s a p ­ p e a r t o h a v e r a t h e r different c o n c e p t s .

Conclusions N o e v i d e n c e suggests that Jubilees is a S a m a r i t a n w o r k . T h e r e are t o o m a n y i n c o n g r u i t i e s w i t h S a m a r i t a n beliefs. To take o n e s m a l l e x a m p l e , Jubilees clearly gives a s p e c i a l p l a c e t o J e r u s a l e m i n 1:28-29:

i : 2 8 " T h e L o r d w i l l a p p e a r in the s i g h t o f all, a n d all w i l l k n o w that I a m the G o d o f Israel, the father o f all Jacob's children, a n d the king o n M t . Z i o n for the ages o f eternity. T h e n Z i o n a n d J e r u s a l e m w i l l b e c o m e holy." i:29The angel o f the presence, w h o w a s g o i n g along i n front o f the Israelite c a m p , t o o k the tablets ( w h i c h told) o f the d i v i s i o n s o f the years from the t i m e the l a w a n d the testimony w e r e created — for the w e e k s o f their j u b i l e e s , year b y year i n their full n u m b e r , a n d their jubilees from [the time of the creation until] the time o f the n e w creation w h e n the heavens, the earth, a n d all their creatures w i l l b e r e n e w e d like the p o w e r s o f the sky a n d like all the creatures o f the earth, until the time w h e n the temple o f the L o r d w i l l b e created i n J e r u s a l e m o n M t . Z i o n .

24. See L. L. Grabbe, Judaic Religion in the Second Temple Period: Belief and Practice from the Exile to Yavneh (London a n d N e w York: Routledge, 2 0 0 0 ) , 2 7 1 - 9 1 , a n d the literature cited there. 25. Dexinger, "V. Samaritan Eschatology," 272-76.

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T h e real q u e s t i o n w a s w h e t h e r Jubilees m i g h t h a v e certain s p e c i a l tra­ d i t i o n s o r i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s in c o m m o n w i t h the S a m a r i t a n t r a d i t i o n , a n d this w a s the q u e s t i o n investigated in the p r e s e n t p a p e r . It w a s n o t an easy q u e s ­ tion to a n s w e r b e c a u s e m a n y t r a d i t i o n s in Jubilees s e e m to h a v e n o parallels in the S a m a r i t a n t r a d i t i o n , w h i c h m e a n s that n o c o m p a r i s o n c o u l d be m a d e . N e v e r t h e l e s s , the t w o w r i t i n g s c o u l d be c o m p a r e d in s e v e r a l areas. T h e fol­ l o w i n g are the g e n e r a l results f r o m the areas s t u d i e d here:

•

B o t h J u b i l e e s a n d the S a m a r i t a n t r a d i t i o n h a v e d e v e l o p e d h a g g a d i c m a t e r i a l relating to the G e n e s i s stories that a d d m u c h

interpretative

detail. Yet m u c h o f this does n o t c o r r e s p o n d b e c a u s e o n e has h a g g a d i c m a t e r i a l w h e r e it is absent in the other. T h i s m e a n s that c o m p a r i s o n is n o t a l w a y s easy. • W h e r e b o t h t r a d i t i o n s have c o m p a r a b l e h a g g a d i c e x p a n s i o n , t h e y g e n ­ erally do n o t c o i n c i d e in the details. F o r e x a m p l e , d a u g h t e r s are b o r n to A d a m a n d E v e a n d b e c o m e the w i v e s of a n t e d i l u v i a l p a t r i a r c h s i n b o t h t r a d i t i o n s , b u t the n a m e s do n o t m a t c h in the t w o t r a d i t i o n s . S i m i l a r l y , b o t h talk o f cities f o u n d e d b y the p r e f l o o d figures, but a g a i n there is n o c o i n c i d e n c e o f detail. •

Jubilees s e e m s to h a v e a s i m i l a r r e c k o n i n g of the c h r o n o l o g y f r o m cre­ ation to the N o a c h i c deluge, b u t there is h a r d l y a n y a g r e e m e n t o n the exact figures for the a n t e d i l u v i a n g e n e a l o g i e s . F r o m the f l o o d o n , J u b i ­ lees is quite different, w i t h a m u c h shorter c h r o n o l o g y , differing f r o m the S a m a r i t a n b y a l m o s t 4 0 0 y e a r s b y the t i m e of A b r a h a m . T h u s , the a p p r o x i m a t e a g r e e m e n t u p to N o a h ' s flood does not a p p e a r at all signif­ icant, b u t further s t u d y of the v a r i o u s c h r o n o l o g i c a l s y s t e m s is n e e d e d .

• T h e Jubilees r e c k o n i n g of the ages o f J a c o b ' s s o n s is a l m o s t u n i q u e , but a p a r a l l e l is f o u n d in D e m e t r i u s the C h r o n o g r a p h e r . T h e t w o s y s t e m s do n o t a g r e e , t h o u g h . • T h e j u b i l e e y e a r is i m p o r t a n t Tulidah.

to b o t h Jubilees a n d the

Samaritan

T h e y use different w a y s of c a l c u l a t i n g the j u b i l e e , h o w e v e r ,

a n d there s e e m s little c o r r e s p o n d e n c e in detail. • T h e S a m a r i t a n t r a d i t i o n , like the J e w i s h a n d C h r i s t i a n , h a d d e v e l o p e d a s c h e m e o f 6,000 y e a r s of h u m a n h i s t o r y b e f o r e the e s c h a t o l o g i c a l m i l l e n n i a l "sabbath." It is n o t entirely clear that s u c h a s c h e m e c a n b e f o u n d in J u b i l e e s , b u t 4:30 m i g h t h i n t at this c o n c e p t . • T h e S a m a r i t a n s use a l u n i - s o l a r c a l e n d a r , w i t h m u c h in

common

w i t h the t r a d i t i o n a l J e w i s h c a l e n d a r , in c o n t r a s t to the s o l a r c a l e n d a r of Jubilees.

158

Jubilees and the Samaritan

•

Tradition

Although the Samaritans had an angelology, it does not seem to have been very extensively developed. But what is especially missing is a myth of evil fallen angels such as that in Jubilees and 1 E n o c h .

•

T h e Jubilees concept of "resurrection of the spirit" resembles the Sa­ maritan v i e w of the afterlife but probably no m o r e so than it resembles the Jewish view. Both sets of writing seem to be drawing on a c o m m o n stock of Jewish beliefs about the afterlife.

•

Jubilees does not seem to have a concept of a messianic figure (though one could argue for a "messianic kingdom"), unlike the Samaritan Taheb.

T h e present study has been far from exhaustive, but it has looked at some of the major areas where Jubilees and the Samaritan tradition can be compared. S o m e examples of coincidence in detail were found, but these mostly could be explained as accidental or arising from a c o m m o n Jewish tradition. It would have been interesting if clear examples of parallels could be found, but so far they have eluded me. M a n y early Jewish traditions have parallels in the Samaritan tradition and vice versa; the lack of coincidence between Jubilees and the Samaritan tradition seems in part a reflection of the fact that Jubilees often has unique traditions when compared with other early Jewish literature. T h u s , one should be careful about extrapolating from the situation with Jubilees to other Jewish writings. Each tradition — whether Jewish or Samaritan — must be examined individually before con­ clusions can be reached.

159

P A R T TWO

T H E M E L T I N G OF M O S A I C AND ENOCHIC TRADITIONS

Enochic Judaism — a Judaism without the Torah and the Temple? Helge S. Kvanvig

Master Narrative and Counterstory T h e biblical image of history is above all created through the addition of the Pentateuch and the Deuteronomistic W o r k of History. B y this combination there was created an image of history reaching from creation to exile with clear accents on foundational events that determined the fate of the people: election through A b r a h a m , exodus, the Torah on Sinai, conquest, temple, apostasy, and exile. B y ending in the exile, the narrative ends with a question mark provoking an answer to all subsequent readers: W h a t is the next turn of history? W h a t are the traces left in the narrative design of history that point toward a n e w future? To present this biblical image of history in compressed form, I have chosen the covenantal renewal in N e h 8 - 1 0 as a representative text. There for the first time the basic elements of the biblical image of history are woven together in one coherent picture in order to advocate a specific religious identity where the law and the temple play a major role. Neh 8 - 1 0 is accord­ ingly a micronarrative within the biblical macronarrative, and there is a clear interplay between the origin of the forceful macronarrative and the compos­ ing of N e h 8 - 1 0 . W e consider Neh 8 - 1 0 as representative for a distinct piety in Judaism. W e treat the narrative in its basic configuration as exemplary; we do not claim that there is direct genetic relationship between this particular text and the E n o c h i c writings. In comparing narratives we need a reflection on how narratives inter-

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act. I h a v e here c h o s e n a t e r m i n o l o g y b o r r o w e d f r o m H . L i n d e m a n n N e l s o n . She analyzes the r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n w h a t she designates as m a s t e r n a r r a ­ 1

tives, c o u n t e r s t o r i e s , a n d alternative s t o r i e s . She uses these d e s i g n a t i o n s to analyze s o c i a l i n t e r a c t i o n , h o w n a r r a t i v e identities c o u l d be o p p r e s s i v e or l i b e r a t i n g . I use these d e s i g n a t i o n s p u r e l y as literary c a t e g o r i e s . A m a s t e r n a r r a t i v e is a f o u n d a t i o n a l s t o r y in a larger c o m m u n i t y . It is at i n t e r p l a y w i t h other n a r r a t i v e s of a s i m i l a r k i n d . T o g e t h e r t h e y s u m m a r i z e s h a r e d u n d e r ­ s t a n d i n g s in the c o m m u n i t y a n d exercise a u t h o r i t y o v e r m o r a l n o r m s . T h e y h a v e the c a p a c i t y to p r e s e n t

a w o r l d v i e w that seems self-evident.

2

A

c o u n t e r s t o r y is a s t o r y that contests the w o r l d v i e w of the m a s t e r n a r r a t i v e , n o t b y t r y i n g to erase the n a r r a t i v e itself, but b y m a k i n g s i g n i f i c a n t c h a n g e s in its literary w e b . T h e result is that the n e w restored n a r r a t i v e c o m m u n i ­ cates s o m e t h i n g entirely different. T h e c o u n t e r s t o r y is definitely in o p p o s i ­ tion to the m a s t e r n a r r a t i v e , but n o t n e c e s s a r i l y p o l e m i c a l . It w o r k s c o u n t e r in a m o r e subtle w a y b y d i s s o l v i n g the c o m m u n i c a t i v e force of the m a s t e r 3

n a r r a t i v e , t h r o u g h d i s p l a c e m e n t of plots a n d c h a r a c t e r s . A l t e r n a t i v e stories also d e v i a t e f r o m m a s t e r n a r r a t i v e s , b u t they do n o t contest t h e m . T h e y can a d d , m o v e , a n d r e m o v e features f r o m the m a s t e r n a r r a t i v e to m a k e n e w ac­ cents in it, b u t n o t to dissolve its c o m m u n i c a t i v e force. A l t e r n a t i v e n a r r a t i v e s c a n live t o g e t h e r a n d l e n d a u t h o r i t y to each other. C . A . N e w s o m has m a d e a s o m e w h a t s i m i l a r distinction in her b o o k a b o u t the c o n s t r u c t i o n of r e l i g i o u s identity in Q u m r a n . S h e distinguishes b e ­ tween dominant discourse and counterdiscourse. The Q u m r a n

community

created a c o u n t e r d i s c o u r s e over against the d o m i n a n t d i s c o u r s e of the J u d e a n society.

4

H e r definitions of " d o m i n a n t " a n d " c o u n t e r " are close to those

f o u n d in L i n d e m a n n N e l s o n ' s a p p r o a c h , b e a r i n g in m i n d that d i s c o u r s e is a m u c h b r o a d e r c a t e g o r y t h a n n a r r a t i v e . It is also a m o r e d e m a n d i n g o n e , since a d o m i n a n t d i s c o u r s e of " n o r m a l " J u d a i s m has to b e c o n s t r u c t e d . In the f o l l o w i n g w e w i l l a p p l y the c a t e g o r i e s of m a s t e r

narrative,

c o u n t e r s t o r y , a n d alternative s t o r y to three texts: N e h 8 - 1 0 , the B o o k of the W a t c h e r s (1 E n 1 - 3 6 ) , a n d the A p o c a l y p s e of Weeks ( 1 E n 9 3 : 1 - 1 0 + 9 1 : 1 1 - 1 7 ) . T h e focus w i l l be o n h o w the T o r a h a n d the t e m p l e are c o n t e x t u a l i z e d in these texts. 1. H . L. Nelson, Damaged Identities, Narrative Repair (Ithaca, N.Y., and London: C o r ­ nell University Press, 2001), 6-20, 150-88. 2. Cf. Nelson, Damaged Identities, 6f. 3. Nelson, Damaged Identities, 152ft. 4. C . A . N e w s o m , The Self as Symbolic Space: Constructing Identity and Community at Qumran (Leiden: Brill, 2004), 17-21.

164

Enochic

Judaism

— a Judaism

without

the Torah and the

Temple?

Nehemiah 8 - 1 0 : A Master Narrative T h e w h o l e n a r r a t i v e starts w i t h the r e a d i n g of the T o r a h a n d the c e l e b r a t i o n of S u k k o t h ( 7 : 7 2 b - 8 : i 8 ) . T h e n c o m e s the p r a y e r w h e r e the

foundational

events in h i s t o r y are r e c o r d e d ( 9 : 1 - 3 1 ) : c r e a t i o n , A b r a h a m , e x o d u s , Sinai, w i l ­ derness w a n d e r i n g , c o n q u e s t , life in the l a n d e n d i n g in a final disaster. After the r e v e l a t i o n of the law at S i n a i , the a p o s t a s y o f the p e o p l e starts a n d in­ creases, especially after the c o n q u e s t . T h e p r a y e r ends in a petition for m e r c y 5

a n d a c o n f e s s i o n ( 9 : 3 2 - 3 7 ) . T h e n a r r a t i v e c o n t i n u e s in N e h 10 b y telling h o w the p e o p l e j o i n an a g r e e m e n t to follow the T o r a h , w h i c h i n c l u d e s r e n o u n c e ­ m e n t of m i x e d m a r r i a g e s , k e e p i n g the S a b b a t h r e g u l a t i o n s , a n d o b l i g a t i o n s t o w a r d the t e m p l e . T h e different p a r t s of the u n i t h a v e different o r i g i n s a n d d a t e s .

6

The

w h o l e c o m p o s i t i o n is g e n e r a l l y h e l d to b e o n e of the y o u n g e s t in the H e ­ b r e w B i b l e ; b o t h P a k k a l a a n d B l e n k i n s o p p see it as an i n s e r t i o n after the 7

C h r o n i c l e r ' s r e d a c t i o n of E z r a / N e h e m i a h . We are t h u s m o v e d at least to the b e g i n n i n g o f the H e l l e n i s t i c p e r i o d . T h e date a n d o r i g i n of the p r a y e r in 8

9:5ff. h a v e b e e n i n t e n s i v e l y d e b a t e d . After a l o n g d i s c u s s i o n B o d a dates the p r a y e r to the p e r i o d that p r e c e d e d E z r a a n d N e h e m i a h , i.e., in the v e r y early 9

p o s t e x i l i c p e r i o d . A n early p o s t e x i l i c date s e e m s unlikely, h o w e v e r , b e c a u s e t h e p r a y e r u s e s b o t h t h e P r i e s t l y s o u r c e to t h e P e n t a t e u c h

and

the

D e u t e r o n o m i s t i c W o r k o f H i s t o r y — for i n s t a n c e , it k n o w s the l i t e r a r y u n i t Exod 19-20. We w i l l first c o n c e n t r a t e o n the p r a y e r . A l r e a d y v o n R a d in 1 9 7 1 c h a r a c ­ terized the g e n r e of N e h 9 as Gerichtsdoxologie,

together w i t h especially E z r a

9:6-15 a n d D a n 9. T h e h i s t o r y of the c o m m u n i t y w a s recalled u n d e r the p e r ­ spective of d i s o b e d i e n c e to the T o r a h a n d c o n t r a s t e d to the p a t i e n c e a n d for­ giveness of G o d .

1 0

B o d a f o l l o w s v o n R a d a n d characterizes the p r a y e r as a

5. For the structure, cf. H . G . M . Williamson, "Structure a n d Historiography in Nehe­ miah 9," in Proceedings of the Ninth World Congress of Jewish Studies (Jerusalem: Magnes, 1985), 117-31 (here i 2 o f f ) . 6. Cf. J. Blenkinsopp, Ezra-Nehemiah,

O T L (Philadelphia: S C M , 1989), 284ff, 30iff.,

3ioff. 7. J. Pakkala, Ezra the Scribe: The Development of Ezra 7-10 and Nehemiah 8, B Z A W 347 (Berlin: D e Gruyter, 2 0 0 4 ) , 180-211; Blenkinsopp, Ezra-Nehemiah, 54f. 8. Cf. the discussion in M . J. B o d a , Praying the Tradition: The Origin and Use of Tradi­ tion in Nehemiah 9, B Z A W 277 (Berlin: D e Gruyter, 1999), 1 1 - 1 6 . 9. B o d a , Praying the Tradition, 189-97. 10. G . v o n R a d , "Gerichtsdoxologie," in Gesammelte Studien zum alten Testament II (Munich: Kaiser, 1973), 245-54.

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"penitential p r a y e r . "

11

T h e plots in these p r a y e r s consist of t w o e q u a l l y sig­

nificant e l e m e n t s that constitute the o v e r a l l n a r r a t i v e . T h e r e is a s t o r y p a r t w h e r e the h i s t o r y of the p e o p l e is recalled u n d e r the p e r s p e c t i v e of guilt, a n d there is the a c t u a l c o n f e s s i o n of sin, or p e n i t e n c e , w h e r e the o n e w h o en­ treats or the p e o p l e a p p e a l to the m e r c y of G o d . T h e i n t e n t i o n is to create a t u r n i n g p o i n t in h i s t o r y w h e r e the p e o p l e are freed from the guilt of the past a n d g i v e n a n e w future of g r a c e . S o m e i m p o r t a n t accents in this p r e s e n t a t i o n of h i s t o r y link the recall of h i s t o r y to the present situation of c e r e m o n i a l c o m m i t m e n t . T h e first is the role of the T o r a h . T h e T o r a h is central in all p a r t s of the n a r r a t i v e : in the first p a r t in the r e a d i n g of the T o r a h a n d the c e l e b r a t i o n of S u k k o t h ( 7 : 7 2 b 8:18), in the p r a y e r ( 9 : 3 , 1 3 - 1 4 , 26, 2 9 , 3 4 ) , a n d in the c e r e m o n i a l c o m m i t m e n t ( 1 0 : 2 9 - 3 0 ) . In the o b l i g a t i o n s t o w a r d the t e m p l e the T o r a h is referred to t w i c e (10:35, 37)- T h i s is especially i m p o r t a n t , b e c a u s e here w h a t b e c a m e the t w o m o s t i m p o r t a n t institutions in p o s t e x i l i c J u d a h are b r o u g h t together in o n e unity, the T o r a h a n d the t e m p l e . T h e s e c o n d accent is the berit, the c o v e n a n t . T h e r e are t w o i m p o r t a n t o b s e r v a t i o n s to b e m a d e h e r e . First, the c o v e n a n t is m a d e w i t h the p e o p l e t h r o u g h A b r a h a m , it is n o t l i n k e d to S i n a i . T h e r e f o r e the c o v e n a n t is a b i n d ­ i n g p r o m i s e f r o m G o d ( N e h 9:8). S e c o n d , the c o n t e n t o f the c o v e n a n t is the l a n d . E v e n t h o u g h the berit is m e n t i o n e d o n l y t w i c e , a b o u t A b r a h a m in 9:8 a n d in the a p p e a l in 9:32, the p r o m i s e of the l a n d is a t h e m e t h r o u g h

the

w h o l e recall o f history. T h u s in this h i s t o r i c a l c o n f i g u r a t i o n t w o b a s i c f o u n ­ d a t i o n s f r o m the past are lifted u p as the c o n d i t i o n s for the p e o p l e ' s s u r v i v a l , the p r o m i s e of the l a n d , the berit, a n d the c o m m i t m e n t to the T o r a h . A s a w h o l e , N e h 8 - 1 0 is the s t o r y a b o u t the rebirth o f the p e o p l e o f G o d . T h e y w e r e o n c e b o r n t h r o u g h the s a c r e d h i s t o r y of G o d l e a d i n g f r o m A b r a h a m to S i n a i . T h e n f o l l o w e d a l o n g , d a r k h i s t o r y of r e b e l l i o n w h e r e t h e y w e r e k e p t alive o n l y t h r o u g h the g r a c e o f G o d . N o w the p e o p l e are at the t u r n i n g p o i n t of their h i s t o r y a g a i n . T h r o u g h the c o m m i t m e n t to the T o r a h t h e y w i l l again enter into the h i s t o r y o f g r a c e , freed f r o m their p r e s e n t o p p r e s s o r s , cf. 9:34; 1 0 : 1 . A s a s t o r y a b o u t rebirth, this is also a s t o r y a b o u t identity. It lines out w h a t k i n d of p e o p l e f r o m n o w o n b e l o n g to the p e o p l e of G o d , a n d w h a t characterizes the p e o p l e of G o d . T h e s e characteristics c o n ­ cern b o t h the past a n d the present. T h e n e w i d e n t i t y e m b r a c e s b o t h the h i s ­ t o r y a n d the present c o m m i t m e n t . F r o m n o w o n a true J u d e a n is a p e r s o n f o r m e d t h r o u g h the h i s t o r y of berit a n d T o r a h ; he is s e p a r a t e d from other

1 1 . B o d a , Praying

166

the Tradition,

26-32.

Enochic

Judaism

— a Judaism

without

the Torah and the

Temple?

p e o p l e l i v i n g in the area t h r o u g h his ethnic purity, his T o r a h o b s e r v a n c e , a n d his cultic r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s t o w a r d the t e m p l e . T h e s e characteristics are the core characteristics in w h a t has b e e n labeled c o v e n a n t a l J u d a i s m .

1 2

T h e line of d e m a r c a t i o n b e t w e e n the insiders a n d the o u t s i d e r s is s h a r p l y d r a w n a n d s e e m s a b s o l u t e . N e v e r t h e l e s s , there is an a m b i g u i t y in this s h a r p d i s t i n c t i o n . It is s y m b o l i c rather t h a n real. T h e law in E z r a N e h e m i a h is n e v e r exactly defined; it is s i m p l y "the l a w o f M o s e s , " w h i c h clearly has an o p e n n e s s t o w a r d n e w i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s .

13

T h e r e a d i n g a n d rein­

t e r p r e t a t i o n of the T o r a h is t h u s a p a r t of w h a t N a j m a n d e s i g n a t e s as the M o s a i c d i s c o u r s e , starting with D e u t e r o n o m y . T h i s d i s c o u r s e has its clear l i m i t s , b e c a u s e it bases its l e g i t i m a c y on the a u t h o r i t y o f M o s e s , b u t it is flex­ ible in the w a y this a u t h o r i t y is c a r r i e d out in the a c t u a l

interpretation.

14

T h u s such i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s are alternative; t h e y exist t o g e t h e r w i t h i n the M o ­ saic d i s c o u r s e . Stories w i t h i n this m a s t e r p a r a d i g m c a n b e at t e n s i o n w i t h each other, but t h e y derive a u t h o r i t y f r o m a n d l e n d a u t h o r i t y to the M o s a i c Torah.

The Book of the Watchers T h e B o o k o f the W a t c h e r s is c o m p o s e d o f three m a i n p a r t s , w h i c h c a n b e a p ­ p r o x i m a t e l y dated f r o m the last p a r t o f the f o u r t h c e n t u r y to the m i d d l e of the third: the O r a c l e of J u d g m e n t (1 E n 1 - 5 ) , the W a t c h e r S t o r y ( 6 - 1 6 ) , a n d the J o u r n e y s of E n o c h ( 1 7 - 3 6 ) . T h e W a t c h e r S t o r y c o n t a i n s t w o s e c t i o n s : the R e b e l l i o n S t o r y ( 6 - 1 1 ) a n d the E n o c h S t o r y ( 1 2 - 1 6 ) . T h e r e is c o n s i d e r a b l e a g r e e m e n t a b o u t the g r o w t h of the b o o k .

1 5

The

R e b e l l i o n S t o r y ( 6 - 1 1 ) f o r m s the oldest p a r t . T h e n e x t step is the i n c l u s i o n of this s t o r y in the E n o c h S t o r y ( 1 2 - 1 6 ) , creating the W a t c h e r S t o r y ( 6 - 1 6 ) . T h e n c o m e s the a d d i n g o f the J o u r n e y s ( 1 7 - 3 6 ) , a n d as the final step the O r ­ acle of J u d g m e n t that i n t r o d u c e s the w h o l e b o o k ( 1 - 5 ) . T h e core of the b o o k is a c c o r d i n g l y the R e b e l l i o n Story. T h i s s t o r y tells h o w a p o s t a s y is b r e d into this w o r l d . T h e r e are three codes at play, f o r b i d d e n 12. Cf. the discussion in N e w s o m , Self as Symbolic Space, 23-36. 13. Cf. S. Japhet, " L a w a n d 'the L a w ' in Ezra-Nehemiah," in Proceedings of the Ninth World Congress of Jewish Studies, 99-115. 14. Cf. H . Najman, Seconding Sinai: The Development of Mosaic Discourse in Second Temple Judaism, JSJSup 77 (Leiden: Brill, 2003), 1-19. 15. Cf. the discussion in G . W. E . Nickelsburg, 1 Enoch 1: A Commentary Enoch 1—36, 81-106, Hermeneia (Minneapolis: Fortress, 2 0 0 1 ) , 25f.

on the Book of

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Helge S.

Kvanvig

sexuality, v i o l e n c e , a n d illegitimate k n o w l e d g e . In s t r u c t u r e the s t o r y f o l l o w s the f l o o d s t o r y .

16

T h i s s t o r y is again e x p l i c a t e d in l E n 1 2 - 1 6 a n d 1 - 5 .

1 7

We

m a y call these t w o sections "alternative stories" if w e c o n c e n t r a t e on the n a r ­ rative e l e m e n t s in 1 - 5 . T h e stories are alternative in the w a y t h e y b o t h use the R e b e l l i o n S t o r y as m a s t e r n a r r a t i v e , b u t utilize the b a s i c e l e m e n t s o f this s t o r y in a n e w n a r r a t i v e d e s i g n that does not c o n t r a d i c t the m a s t e r story. 1 E n 1 2 - 1 6 carries the R e b e l l i o n S t o r y further in its m y t h i c a l r e a l m . T h e b a s i c plot of the s t o r y is the p e n i t e n c e a n d the q u e s t i o n of petition for the W a t c h e r s a n d their o f f s p r i n g ( 1 3 : 4 - 5 ) . T h e three b a s i c codes f r o m the R e b e l ­ l i o n S t o r y are present, b u t there is a clear e m p h a s i s on f o r b i d d e n s e x u a l i t y as t r a n s g r e s s i o n of the d i v i n e o r d e r (12:4; 1 5 : 3 - 7 ) .

1 8

in the o r i g i n o f evil spirits on earth ( 1 5 : 8 - 1 6 : 1 ) .

T h i s t r a n s g r e s s i o n resulted 1 9

Suter said the W a t c h e r S t o r y w a s f o r m e d as a p o l e m i c against the J e r u ­ s a l e m p r i e s t h o o d , b e c a u s e priests m a r r i e d w o m e n o u t s i d e priestly fami­ lies.

20

N i c k e l s b u r g has a r g u e d the s a m e , but c o n f i n e d to the E n o c h Story,

w h i c h s e e m s m o r e likely since the c o d e o f s e x u a l i t y is m o r e f o c u s e d in this section.

21

N i c k e l s b u r g has c a r r i e d the a r g u m e n t further by p o i n t i n g out sev­

eral s i m i l a r i t i e s b e t w e e n the E n o c h S t o r y a n d the last chapters in E z r a : b o t h E n o c h a n d E z r a are titled " s c r i b e " (1 E n 1 2 : 3 - 4 ; E z r a 7 : 6 ) , E n o c h intercedes for the W a t c h e r s u s i n g w o r d s s i m i l a r to Ezra's p r a y e r o f c o n f e s s i o n (1 E n 1 3 : 4 - 5 ; E z r a 9:6), the plot is s i m i l a r in b o t h , a n d b o t h deal w i t h the t r a n s g r e s ­ s i o n of m a r r i a g e r u l e s .

2 2

T h e parallels to E z r a have m o s t b e a r i n g in relation to the t e m p l e . If the

16. Cf. H . S. Kvanvig, " C o s m i c L a w s a n d C o s m i c Imbalance: W i s d o m , Myth a n d Es­ chatology in the Early Enochic Writings," in The Early Enoch Tradition, ed. G . Boccaccini (Leiden: Brill, 2007). 17. Cf. D . R. Jackson, Enochic Judaism: Three Defining Paradigm Exemplars (London: Clark, 2 0 0 4 ) , 3iff. 18. Cf. A. Y. Reed, Fallen Angels and the History of Judaism and Christianity (Cam­ bridge: C a m b r i d g e University Press, 2005), 44-49. 19. H . S. Kvanvig, "Gen 6,3 and the Watcher Story," Hen 25 (2003): 287-92. 20. D. W. Suter, "Fallen Angels, Fallen Priests: T h e Problem o f Family Purity in 1 Enoch," HUCA 50 (1979): 115-35; Suter, "Revisiting 'Fallen Angel, Fallen Priest,'" in The Ori­ gins of Enochic Judaism, ed. G . Boccaccini, H e n o c h (Turin: Silvio Z a m o r a n i , 2002), 137-42. 21. G . W. E . Nickelsburg, "Enoch, Levi a n d Peter: Recipients o f Revelation in Upper Galilee," JBL 100 (1981): 575-600 (here 5 8 4 f ) . Broader material to support the argument is presented by M . Himmelfarb, "Levi, Phinehas, and the Problem of Intermarriage at the T i m e of the Maccabean Revolt," JSQ 6 (1999): 1-24. 22. Nickelsburg, j Enoch 1, 23of. T h e same argument was presented b y H . S. Kvanvig, Roots of Apocalyptic, W M A N T 61 (Neukirchen-Vluyn: Neukirchener, 1988), 101.

168

Enochic

Judaism

— a Judaism

without

the Torah and the

Temple?

Watchers are cast in the role of i m p u r e priests, as a parallel to the i m p u r e p e o ­ ple in E z r a , the E n o c h i c text is utterly critical to the l e g i t i m a c y of the cult in the s e c o n d t e m p l e . If E n o c h a n d E z r a stand parallel as intercessors in plots w i t h s i m i l a r traits, w e n o t e that the o u t c o m e of the intercession is o p p o s i t e . T h e s t o r y of E z r a is a s t o r y of penitence like N e h 8 - 1 0 , w h e r e also the p u r i t y of the p e o p l e is c o n c e r n e d . In b o t h stories the o u t c o m e is f o r g i v e n e s s . T h e stories create a p o i n t of d e m a r c a t i o n in h i s t o r y w h e r e the positive o u t c o m e serves to l e g i t i m i z e the practices of the future. T h e story in 1 E n 1 2 - 1 6 w o r k s in the o p p o s i t e d i r e c t i o n . T h e r e is n o forgiveness for the W a t c h e r s / p r i e s t s . T h e y are still u n d e r c o n d e m n a t i o n . In this sense the W a t c h e r S t o r y functions as a c o u n t e r s t o r y to stories of p e n i t e n c e a n d forgiveness related to the s e c o n d t e m p l e . It t u r n s the plot in the o p p o s i t e direction; the petition is d e n i e d . T h i s i m p l i e d p o l e m i c a g a i n s t the t e m p l e in J e r u s a l e m s e e m s also to be reflected in the g e o g r a p h i c a l setting of 1 E n 1 2 - 1 6 . E n o c h w e n t to the Waters of D a n , s o u t h of M o u n t H e r m o n , to receive his r e v e l a t i o n ( 1 3 : 7 ) . A n d f r o m there he a s c e n d e d to the h e a v e n l y t e m p l e , w h i c h is m o r e c o n n e c t e d M o u n t H e r m o n t h a n to Z i o n .

2 3

to

T h e v i s i o n itself s h o w s that E n o c h as a p a ­

t r o n o f the E n o c h i a n s w a s n o t d e p r i v e d access to the t e m p l e , b u t it w a s in h e a v e n , n o t in J e r u s a l e m .

Since 1 E n 1 - 5 frequently alludes to w r i t i n g s in the H e b r e w B i b l e , it is t e m p t ­ i n g to use t r a d i t i o n s p r e s e n t in these texts as a k e y to i n t e r p r e t the s e c t i o n . H a r t m a n c l a i m e d that the c o v e n a n t constituted the referential b a c k g r o u n d . H e f o u n d three specific m a r k e r s in the text that p o i n t e d t o w a r d the c o v e ­ n a n t : the t h e o p h a n y a n d j u d g m e n t c o n n e c t e d to S i n a i (1:4, 9 ) , the t e r m i n o l ­ o g y o f the d e n o u n c e m e n t s p e e c h , a n d the curses a n d b l e s s i n g s , s p r e a d all over 1 E n 2 - 5 , w h i c h b o t h reflected the p a t t e r n of a c o v e n a n t a l r i t u a l .

24

I

t h i n k the m a r k e r s are t o o v a g u e to p o i n t to a specific c o v e n a n t a l ritual, if s u c h a r i t u a l ever e x i s t e d . T h e closest w e c o m e in the p o s t e x i l i c p e r i o d is the c e r e m o n y in N e h 8 - 1 0 , w h i c h s h o w s n o links to 1 E n 1 - 5 . H o f f m a n n f o l l o w s a m o r e g e n e r a l a p p r o a c h . H e suggests that the n o ­ tion o f the M o s a i c T o r a h u n d e r l i e s the w i s d o m t e r m i n o l o g y of the E n o c h i c w r i t i n g s a n d that this n o t i o n has to be seen as the c o n t e x t at places w h e r e the M o s a i c T o r a h is n o t directly a d d r e s s e d .

25

T h u s he c l a i m s that "die N e n n u n g

23. Cf. N i c k e l s b u r g , " E n o c h , Levi and Peter," 582-87.

24. L. H a r t m a n , Asking for a Meaning:

A Study

of Enoch

1 - 5 , C o n B N T 12 ( L u n d :

G l e e r u p , 1975), I23f.

25. H . H o f f m a n n , Das Gesetz in der fruhjiidischen

Apokalyptik

(Gottingen: Vanden-

hoeck, 1999), I26f.

169

Helge S.

Kvanvig

des B e r g e s Sinai i m p l i z i e r t die G a b e der T o r a . "

26

L i k e w i s e , he c l a i m s that l E n 2 7

5:4 c o n t a i n s a reference to the M o s a i c T o r a h r e v e a l e d at S i n a i . 1 a m severely in d o u b t that the c o n c e p t of the M o s a i c Torah as w e k n o w it from N e h 8 - 1 0 a n d the P e n t a t e u c h s i m p l y can be taken for g r a n t e d in these p a s s a g e s . T h e b a c k g r o u n d of 1 E n 1 - 5 is n o t to b e s o u g h t o u t s i d e the E n o c h i c t r a d i t i o n s , but i n s i d e . 1 E n 1 - 5 is p r i m a r i l y f o r m e d on the basis of the W a t c h e r S t o r y as a m a s t e r n a r r a t i v e : 1:2 in relation to the v i s i o n in c h a p s . 1 4 15, the W a t c h e r s in 1:5, the p r o u d w o r d s a n d the curse in 1:9; 5:5-7 in relation to 6:3-5; "

n

o

p e a c e " in 5:4-5 in relation to 1 2 : 5 - 6 ; 1 3 : 1 ; 1 6 : 4 ; the fate o f the r i g h ­

t e o u s in 1:7-8; 5:6-9 in relation to 10:7, 1 6 - 2 2 ; 1 1 : 1 - 2 . T h e b a s i c plot in the t w o s e c t i o n s is the s a m e . B o t h the Watchers a n d the s i n n e r s have v i o l a t e d the c o s m i c order; cf. 2 : 1 - 5 : 4 . W h a t takes place in a m y t h i c a l r e a l m in 1 E n 6 - 1 6 is t r a n s f e r r e d to the h u m a n r e a l m in 1 E n 1 - 5 . B u t there are s o m e i m p o r t a n t differences. 1 E n 6 - 1 6 tends to depict h u ­ m a n s m o s t as v i c t i m s , w h i l e they are r e s p o n s i b l e for their acts in 1 - 5 . T h e d e ­ s c r i p t i o n of the r i g h t e o u s i n 1 0 : 1 6 - 1 1 : 2 has a m o r e u n i v e r s a l o u t l o o k : "all the s o n s of m e n w i l l b e c o m e r i g h t e o u s , " 1 0 : 2 1 . 5:5-9 is n a r r o w e r in its o u t l o o k ; the c h o s e n f o r m a distinct g r o u p over a g a i n s t the s i n n e r s . A n d i n 5:8 w i s d o m is p r o m i s e d for the c h o s e n , a m o t i f l a c k i n g in 1 0 : 1 6 - 1 1 : 2 . It s e e m s as if 1 E n 1— 5 reflects a later stage in h i s t o r y w h e n the E n o c h i a n s h a v e a m o r e distinct profile. T h r e e p a s s a g e s n e e d s p e c i a l a t t e n t i o n in r e g a r d to the T o r a h : 1 E n 1 : 4 , 9 , a n d 5 : 4 . 1 E n 1:4, 9 describes a t h e o p h a n y w h e r e G o d will c o m e w i t h m y r i a d s of h o l y o n e s f r o m his h e a v e n l y d w e l l i n g a n d tread o n M o u n t S i n a i to execute j u d g m e n t . T h i s text has t w o i m p o r t a n t referential b a c k g r o u n d s . First, the text clearly d r a w s on m o t i f s f o u n d in w h a t s c h o l a r s m a i n t a i n is the oldest S i ­ nai tradition.

28

G o d reveals h i m s e l f in a t h e o p h a n y c o m i n g f r o m S i n a i as his

d w e l l i n g to rescue his p e o p l e ( J u d g 5:4-5; D e u t 33:2; Ps 6 8 : 8 - 9 , 1 8 ) . T h e s e m o ­ tifs o f "the G o d o f Sinai," t h e o p h a n y , a n d rescue are c o m b i n e d w i t h the m o ­ tif of j u d g m e n t s i m i l a r to M i c 1:3-4. T h e s e c o n d i m p o r t a n t b a c k g r o u n d is to be f o u n d in the J o u r n e y s of E n o c h , w h e r e the e s c h a t o l o g i c a l d w e l l i n g places of G o d , the r i g h t e o u s , a n d the w i c k e d are r e v e a l e d . In 1 E n 2 5 - 2 7 t w o m o u n t a i n s are d e s c r i b e d . T h e first 26. Hoffmann, Das Gesetz in der fruhjitdischen Apokalyptik, 129. 27. Hoffmann, Das Gesetz in der fruhjitdischen Apokalyptik, 131. 28. F. C r u s e m a n n , The Torah: Theology and Social History of Old Testament Law (Ed­ inburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1999), 31-37: K . Koch, "Jahwas Ubersiedlung v o m Wustenberg nach Kanaan: Z u m Herkunft von Israels Gottesverstandnis," in Der Gott Israels und die Gotter des Orients (Gottingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 2007), 171-209 (here 190-92).

170

Enochic

Judaism

— a Judaism

without

the Torah and the

Temple?

is "the h i g h m o u n t a i n , " 25:3; the s e c o n d is "the h o l y m o u n t a i n " at the center of the earth, 2 6 : 1 - 2 . T h e t w o m o u n t a i n s are clearly to be identified as Sinai and Z i o n .

2 9

S i n a i s e e m s also a l l u d e d to as the t h r o n e of G o d in 18:8. B o t h in

18:8 a n d 25:3 the d e s c r i p t i o n of S i n a i has s o m e similarities w i t h w h a t is said a b o u t Sinai in 1:4: it is the l o c a t i o n o f G o d ' s final t h e o p h a n y .

30

T h e s e c o n d m o u n t a i n is Z i o n . H e r e the e s c h a t o l o g i c a l t e m p l e of G o d w i l l b e situated, 25:5-6, G r

P a n

: ev r o m p a y i w , TOV OIKOV TOU Oeoti, TO cryiov,

w i t h E t h i o p i c e q u i v a l e n c e s . T h i s is the eternal resting place of the r i g h t e o u s , 25:5-7, w h i l e the s i n n e r s after the j u d g m e n t are l o c a t e d in the H i n n o m V a l l e y b e n e a t h , 2 7 : 2 - 5 . T h e text collects from b r o a d t r a d i t i o n s k n o w n from the H e ­ b r e w B i b l e w h e r e Z i o n has the central role in the e s c h a t o l o g i c a l d r a m a ; see for instance the final section of Isaiah, 6 5 : 1 7 - 6 6 : 2 4 . T h e r e is a c c o r d i n g l y n o n e e d to e x p e c t a reference to the T o r a h in the p a s s a g e a b o u t Sinai in 1 E n 1:4. T h e p a s s a g e d r a w s o n the p r e s u m a b l y oldest Sinai t r a d i t i o n w h e r e Sinai is the a b o d e of G o d , w h o reveals h i m s e l f in theo p h a n i e s . T h e r e is, h o w e v e r , m o r e r e a s o n to ask w h y o n l y Sinai is p i c k e d u p f r o m the e s c h a t o l o g i c a l s c e n e r y in 1 E n 2 5 - 2 7 a n d Z i o n left out. In a b r o a d t r a d i t i o n in the H e b r e w B i b l e it is Z i o n , a n d n o t S i n a i , that is i n the center of the e s c h a t o l o g i c a l d r a m a . If there is any i m p l i e d p o l e m i c in 1 E n 1 : 4 , 9 , it is in the e x c l u s i o n of Z i o n in the final j u d g m e n t a n d s a l v a t i o n . If Sinai isolated d o e s n o t i m p l y the T o r a h in 1 E n 1:4, there is an i m p o r ­ tant link from 1:4 to 1:9 a n d further to 5:4 that m a y establish a T o r a h refer­ e n c e . 1 E n 1:9 c o n c l u d e s the t h e o p h a n y starting in 1:4 b y u n d e r l i n i n g

the

w i c k e d w o r d s a n d deeds o f the s i n n e r s . T h e n the deeds o f n a t u r e are listed as c o n t r a s t in 2 : 1 - 5 : 3 . In 5:4 the deeds of the sinners are p i c k e d u p a g a i n , creat­ ing a b r i d g e to i : 9 .

3 1

T h e central p a s s a g e in 5:4 is c o m m o n l y translated " y o u h a v e n o t acted a c c o r d i n g to his c o m m a n d m e n t s . " T h e w o r d " c o m m a n d m e n t "

translates

E t h i o p i c te'zaz a n d G r e e k evroXf]. T h e G r e e k w o r d is the c o m m o n transla­ tion in L X X for H e b r e w n i X D , the o r d i n a r y w o r d for " c o m m a n d m e n t " that often parallels "torah" in the H e b r e w B i b l e , frequently in N e h 8 - 1 0 ( 9 : 1 3 , 1 4 , 29, 34; 1 0 : 3 0 ) . T h e t e r m i n o l o g y of 5:4 is closely c o n n e c t e d to Sinai in 1:4. It is therefore t e m p t i n g to c o n n e c t S i n a i a n d law, a l t h o u g h o n e c o u l d a r g u e that 29. J. J. Collins, "Before the Fall: T h e Earliest Interpretations o f A d a m and Eve," in The Idea of Biblical Interpretation: Essays in Honor of James L. Kugel, ed. H . Najman and J. N e w m a n (Leiden: Brill, 2004), 293-308 (here 302-4); Nickelsburg, 1 Enoch 1, 5 4 f , 3i2ff. 30. Cf. K . C . Bautch, A Study of the Geography of 1 Enoch 17-19, JSJSup 81 (Leiden: Brill, 2003), 120-25. 31. Cf. Nickelsburg, 1 Enoch 1, i$jf.

171

Helge S.

Kvanvig

the E n o c h i c S i n a i t i c law h a d a n o t h e r c o n t e n t t h a n the M o s a i c o n e . E n o c h w o u l d , n e v e r t h e l e s s , h a v e j o i n e d the M o s a i c d i s c o u r s e . H o w e v e r , e n o u g h A r a m a i c text s u r v i v e s in 4 Q 2 0 1 , ii, 1 1 - 1 3 to restore a quite r e a s o n a b l e A r a m a i c w o r d i n g of the p a s s a g e in the t r a n s i t i o n f r o m 1 E n 5:3 to 5:4: " y e a r [after y e a r his w o r k s do n o t c h a n g e ] , they c a r r y o u t his w o r d . H o w e v e r , y o u have c h a n g e d y o u r w o r k s [and do n o t c a r r y o u t his w o r d . . . ] . " The

k e y w o r d s are here 1 3 1 3 7 , " w o r k , " a n d "IBNO, " w o r d , s p e e c h , c o m m a n d . "

T h e r e is a direct link in t e r m i n o l o g y b e t w e e n the w o r d of G o d that n a t u r e f o l l o w s in its w o r k a n d the s a m e w o r d of G o d that the s i n n e r s c h a n g e in their w o r k . T h e c o n c e p t is G o d ' s rule in n a t u r e , as it is p e r c e i v e d in c r e a t i o n h y m n s ; cf. Pss 3 3 : 4 - 1 5 a n d 1 4 8 : 5 - 1 3 . O f special interest here are t w o o c c u r ­ rences of me'mar

in the Targum

of Job, b o t h related to G o d ' s rule in n a t u r e .

In 1 1 Q 1 0 , x x v i i i , 9 it c i r c u m s c r i b e s H e b r e w "71p, G o d ' s " v o i c e " ( J o b 3 7 : 2 ) ; in x x x i i i , 8 it translates Job's " m o u t h , " HS, in the r h e t o r i c a l q u e s t i o n w h e t h e r Job

can be c o m p a r e d w i t h G o d in p o w e r ( J o b 3 9 : 2 7 ) . T h u s me'mar

is n o

t e c h n i c a l t e r m for l a w that i m p l i e s a reference to the T o r a h o n S i n a i ; it is a reference to the c o s m i c o r d e r that a c c o r d i n g to E n o c h s h o u l d rule b o t h n a ­ t u r e a n d h u m a n lives.

The

e x a m i n a t i o n o f the B o o k o f the W a t c h e r s p o i n t s in t w o different direc­

t i o n s c o n c e r n i n g the t e m p l e a n d the law. T h e r e are e n o u g h r e a s o n s to s u p ­ p o s e t h a t the s c r i b e s o f this b o o k w e r e critical t o w a r d the t e m p l e . It is n o s u r p r i s e that the t e m p l e is o f c o n c e r n since it is the b a s i c i n s t i t u t i o n of J u d a h that s h o u l d interest scribes w i t h p r i e s t l y a m b i t i o n s . T h e critical attitude is, h o w e v e r , n o t p r e s e n t e d in o p e n p o l e m i c . T h e critic w o r k s i n a m o r e subtle way,

as w e h a v e d e s c r i b e d in the relation b e t w e e n m a s t e r n a r r a t i v e a n d

c o u n t e r s t o r y . E s p e c i a l l y t r i c k y here is the p l o t created in 1 E n 1 2 - 1 6 w h e r e the W a t c h e r s w e r e cast in the roles of priests w h o h a d lost their p u r i t y in the s a m e m a n n e r as the p e o p l e in stories of p e n i t e n c e , but w e r e d e n i e d f o r g i v e ­ ness a n d placed u n d e r The

condemnation.

q u e s t i o n of the T o r a h is different. A s far as I c a n see, there is n o

reference to a M o s a i c T o r a h r e v e a l e d on S i n a i at all. T h i s c o u l d b e seen as a d e l i b e r a t e d e n i a l of its l e g i t i m a c y . B u t this w o u l d be a c o n c l u s i o n ex

silentio.

T h e r e is a c o n s i d e r a b l e difference b e t w e e n the t e m p l e as the b a s i c i n s t i t u ­ tion a n d the T o r a h of M o s e s as a l i t e r a r y c o n s t r u c t , k n o w n f r o m N e h 8 - 1 0 a n d the r e d a c t i o n a c t i v i t y in the f o r m a t i o n

of the P e n t a t e u c h

and

the

D e u t e r o n o m i s t i c W o r k of H i s t o r y . T h e silence a b o u t this M o s a i c T o r a h c o u l d therefore r a t h e r b e d i s r e g a r d e d , b e c a u s e it h a d n o t yet g a i n e d b r o a d a u t h o r i t y . F o r the oldest p a r t of the b o o k it c o u l d even b e i g n o r a n c e , b e -

172

Enochic

Judaism

— a Judaism

without

the Torah and the

Temple?

c a u s e t h e y w e r e n o t f a m i l i a r w i t h the plot created in the D e u t e r o n o m i s t i c tradition. I a m therefore hesitant to use the relation to the T o r a h at this early p o i n t of the E n o c h i c t r a d i t i o n as a t o u c h s t o n e for the r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n an E n o c h i c g r o u p a n d o t h e r parts o f the J u d e a n society. I t h i n k N i c k e l s b u r g is basically r i g h t w h e n he e m p h a s i z e s that it is the special c h a r a c t e r of the E n o c h i c r e v e a l e d w i s d o m that m a k e s it different f r o m M o s a i c J u d a i s m , rather than the lack of the T o r a h , at least at this early p o i n t of the E n o c h i c writings.

3 2

A s a s p e c i a l k i n d of c o m b i n a t i o n of w i s d o m a n d e s c h a t o l o g y , the

early E n o c h i c w r i t i n g s b e l o n g e d to a p a r t i c u l a r w i s d o m t r a d i t i o n . O n l y in the later d e v e l o p m e n t of this t r a d i t i o n d o e s it m e e t the M o s a i c J u d a i s m , as w e k n o w it f r o m for i n s t a n c e N e h 8 - 1 0 , as a c h a l l e n g e .

33

A t the b e g i n n i n g

there w a s created a m a s t e r n a r r a t i v e of the r e b e l l i o n in h e a v e n w i t h a p l o t v e r y different f r o m the m a s t e r n a r r a t i v e in N e h 8 - 1 0 a n d s i m i l a r n a r r a t i v e s in the Priestly a n d D e u t e r o n o m i s t i c t r a d i t i o n s .

The Apocalypse of Weeks T h e date of the A p o c a l y p s e of W e e k s (1 E n 9 3 : 1 - 1 0 + 9 1 : 1 1 - 1 7 ) has b e e n se­ verely d i s c u s s e d .

34

I a m i n c l i n e d to t h i n k it is a separate u n i t i n c o r p o r a t e d

into the E p i s t l e of E n o c h (1 E n 9 2 - 1 0 5 ) . F u r t h e r , I t h i n k that the l a c k of a n y reference to the M a c c a b e a n revolt p o i n t s to an earlier date t h a n this r e v o l t .

35

A c c o r d i n g l y , the A p o c a l y p s e is the first text k n o w n that r e c o u n t s the w h o l e h i s t o r y f r o m proton

to eschaton.

In the n a r r a t i o n E n o c h predicts the w h o l e

of h i s t o r y o n the b a s i s of w h a t is w r i t t e n on the h e a v e n l y tablets. T h e real au­ t h o r is to b e f o u n d in the seventh o f the ten w e e k s , thus f o r m i n g the past his­ t o r y from the first to the seventh w e e k as vaticinia

ex eventu

and his future

32. G . W. E . Nickelsburg, "Enochic W i s d o m : A n Alternative to the Mosaic Torah," in Hesed Ve-Emet: Studies in Honor of Ernest S. Frerichs, ed. J. Magness and S. Gitin (Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1998), 123-31. 33. T h i s w o u l d b e similar to the development in other w i s d o m traditions as they are described b y Sanders, with the difference that the Enochians never adopted the Mosaic To­ rah in the way it was done in for instance Ben Sira; cf. J. T. Sanders, "When Sacred Canopies Collide: T h e Reception of the Torah o f Moses in the W i s d o m Literature of the Second Tem­ ple Period," / S / 3 2 (2001): 121-36. 34. Cf. for a recent discussion, C. Berner, Jahre, Jahrewochen und jubilaen, B Z A W 363 (Berlin: D e Gruyter, 2006), 118-25. 35. Cf. Berner, Jahre, Jahrewochen und Jubilaen; Nickelsburg, 1 Enoch 1, 44of, 447-49.

173

Helge S.

Kvanvig

" h i s t o r y " up to the tenth w e e k as real p r e d i c t i o n s . T h i s has the c u r i o u s effect that the a u t h o r a n d his circle are p l a c e d w i t h i n the n a r r a t e d e v e n t s , a n d n o t at the e n d of t h e m as is n o r m a l in n a r r a t i v e recalls of history. In the recall o f past h i s t o r y from the first to the seventh w e e k , n a r r a t i v e h i s t o r y as w e k n o w it f r o m the H e b r e w B i b l e clearly f o r m s the b a c k b o n e . T h e r e are s o m e significant parallels to the recall o f h i s t o r y in N e h 9. First, w i t h the d i s t i n g u i s h e d place of A b r a h a m : in b o t h N e h 9:7-8 a n d in the A p o c ­ a l y p s e , third w e e k , 93:5, future Israel rests on the election of A b r a h a m . S e c ­ o n d , in the d i s t i n g u i s h e d place of the T o r a h : in N e h 9 : 1 3 - 1 4 the r e v e l a t i o n o f the T o r a h on S i n a i f o r m s the center of the g r a c i o u s acts of G o d , c o n s t i t u t i n g the p e o p l e . In the A p o c a l y p s e the T o r a h is the s e c o n d f o u n d i n g event after the election of A b r a h a m ( f o u r t h w e e k , 1 E n 9 3 : 6 ) . O n e c a n d i s c u s s w h e t h e r E t h i o p i c ser'athere

a n d in 93:4 s h o u l d m e a n " l a w " o r " c o v e n a n t . "

36

I am in­

clined to translate "law," since there is n o r e c e p t i o n of a c o v e n a n t a l t e r m i n o l ­ ogy.

3 7

In any case, this is n o t c r u c i a l , b e c a u s e the S i n a i t i c c o v e n a n t w o u l d i n ­

clude the T o r a h . T h i r d , in b o t h N e h e m i a h a n d the A p o c a l y p s e there is the n o t i o n o f a p o s t a s y as the p e o p l e r e s p o n d to the f o u n d i n g acts of G o d . In N e h e m i a h this starts i m m e d i a t e l y after the gift of the T o r a h a n d i n c r e a s e s d u r i n g the life in the l a n d ( N e h 9 : 2 6 - 2 9 ) . In the A p o c a l y p s e this is c o n c e n t r a t e d in the life in the l a n d (the sixth w e e k , 1 E n 93:8). F o u r t h , in b o t h cases the a p o s t a s y led to a severe disaster as G o d ' s p u n i s h m e n t ( N e h 9:32; 1 E n 93:8). Fifth, in b o t h cases the p e o p l e r e c o u n t i n g past h i s t o r y are p l a c e d in a s i t u a t i o n o f t r a n s i t i o n : in N e h e m i a h m a k i n g a v o w to the T o r a h as the basis for a n e w fu­ t u r e in the c o v e n a n t w i t h A b r a h a m ; in the A p o c a l y p s e , the seventh w e e k , 1 E n 9 3 : 1 0 , the p e o p l e r e a p p e a r as the c h o s e n t h r o u g h A b r a h a m . T h e r e are s o m e differences b e t w e e n N e h 9 a n d the A p o c a l y p s e . N e h 9 starts w i t h c r e a t i o n ( 9 : 6 ) , w h i c h is n o t told in the A p o c a l y p s e . T h e A p o c a ­ l y p s e r e c o u n t s the f l o o d a n d N o a h ( 9 3 : 4 ) , w h i c h is n o t told in N e h 9. M o r e n o t e w o r t h y , h o w e v e r , the A p o c a l y p s e lists the

first

t e m p l e as the t h i r d

f o u n d i n g e v e n t c o n s t i t u t i n g Israel (fifth w e e k , 93:7), w h i l e the first t e m p l e is p a s s e d in silence in N e h 9 — a l t h o u g h the cult of the s e c o n d t e m p l e is r o o t e d in the T o r a h in N e h 1 0 : 3 2 - 4 0 . T h e s t r u c t u r e of the s t o r y in N e h 9 is to list the f o u n d i n g acts o f G o d as told in the classical c r e d o s , a d d i n g S i n a i , a n d to c o n t r a s t these acts w i t h the a p o s t a s y o f the p e o p l e in the l a n d . T h e r e t h e y stress the n e g a t i v e s t a t e m e n t s k n o w n f r o m the D e u t e r o n o m i s t s . In this

36. Cf. Nickelsburg, 1 Enoch 1, 444, 446. 37. Berner, Jahre,

174

i36f.

Enochic

Judaism

— a Judaism

without

the Torah and the

Temple?

r e s p e c t the A p o c a l y p s e is m o r e in line w i t h the b o o k s of K i n g s and

the

Chronicler. T h e s e differences do n o t d i s t u r b the u n a n i m i t y of the t w o n a r r a t i v e r e c o r d s of history. If w e r e g a r d N e h 8 - 1 0 as an e x a m p l e of a m a s t e r n a r r a t i v e , the A p o c a l y p s e is an alternative n a r r a t i v e . S o m e features are i n c l u d e d , others are n e g l e c t e d , b u t they b e l o n g to the r e p e r t o i r e o u t of w h i c h N e h 8 - 1 0 is f o r m e d . A t this p o i n t the A p o c a l y p s e d o e s n o t contest the c o m m u n i c a t i v e force o f N e h 8 - 1 0 . T h e y b o t h c l a i m that t r u e Israel rests on the election of A b r a h a m a n d the c o m m i t m e n t to the T o r a h . In this v e i n H o f f m a n n

con­

cludes that a l t h o u g h the a p o c a l y p t i c s c l a i m to b e the o n l y t r u e interpreters of the T o r a h , there is n o d e g r a d a t i o n of or critical attitude t o w a r d the M o ­ saic T o r a h in the A p o c a l y p s e .

3 8

T h e r e are, however, s o m e disturbing elements to be c o n s i d e r e d . T h e first is the c o m m u n i c a t i v e f r a m e w o r k of the A p o c a l y p s e .

3 9

E n o c h addresses his

speech to his sons ( 4 Q 2 1 2 , iii, 1 9 - 2 0 = 1 E n 93:2). T h e s e sons are characterized as the "sons of r i g h t e o u s n e s s , the chosen of eternity a n d the plant of truth"; cf. for the last N r Q X ' '

in iii, 1 9 - 2 0 . T h e s a m e w o r d i n g o c c u r s in the election

of A b r a h a m in the third w e e k (93:5), a n d in the election of the c h o s e n ones in the seventh w e e k ( 9 3 : 1 0 ) ; cf. NH^S? t3t2?p ness," in iv, 1 2 - 1 3 . In this

w

a

"plant of everlasting r i g h t e o u s ­

y the h i s t o r y of Israel is e m b e d d e d in a speech of

E n o c h , d r a w i n g a line from h i m s e l f a n d his sons to A b r a h a m and to the c h o ­ sen of the seventh w e e k , freed f r o m a " p e r v e r s e generation." A further c o m p l i c a t i o n b e c o m e s clear w h e n w e c o n s i d e r the s t r u c t u r e of the w h o l e A p o c a l y p s e . A l t h o u g h it is clear that the p a t t e r n o f unities of s e v e n a n d the n u m b e r s e v e n are of u t m o s t i m p o r t a n c e , only structuring

4 0

these are n o t the

e l e m e n t s . V a n d e r K a m has p o i n t e d o u t that b e s i d e s the

s c h e m e s of s e v e n the A p o c a l y p s e is s t r u c t u r e d s y m m e t r i c a l l y in the r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n the w e e k s .

4 1

B e r n e r has e l a b o r a t e d this f e a t u r e .

42

The symmetrical

38. Hoffmann, Das Gesetz, 187. 39. Cf. Berner, Jahre, i33f. 40. Cf. K . K o c h , "Sabbatstruktur der Geschichte: D i e sogenannte Zehn-WochenApokalypse ( l H e n 93,1-10; 9 1 , 1 1 - 1 7 ) u n d das Ringen u m die alttestamentlichen C h r o n o l o g i e n im spaten Israelitentum," in Vor der Wende der Zeiten (Neukirchen-Vluyn: Neukirchener, 1996), 45-76; Collins, The Apocalyptic Imagination (New York: Crossroad, 1987), 5of; Collins, Apocalypticism in the Dead Sea Scrolls (London and N e w York: Routledge, 1997), 52-56; Berner, Jahre, 156-68; Kvanvig, " C o s m i c Law and C o s m i c Imbalance" (forthcoming). 41. J. C . V a n d e r K a m , "Studies in the A p o c a l y p s e o f Weeks," CBQ 46 (1984): 511-23 (here 5 1 8 - 2 1 ) . 42. Berner, Jahre, 149-55.

175

Helge S.

Kvanvig

r e l a t i o n s h i p s b e t w e e n the w e e k s are, h o w e v e r , c o m p l e x since they o c c u r o n m a n y levels a n d in m a n y details. We w i l l here c o n c e n t r a t e o n those features we t h i n k surface in the w a y they m a k e u p the b a c k b o n e . In the relation b e t w e e n the b e g i n n i n g a n d e n d of the A p o c a l y p s e there is a proton-eschaton

t y p o l o g y . W e t h i n k this b a s i c a l l y parallels the t w o first

w e e k s w i t h the tenth. T h e tenth w e e k i n t r o d u c e s w e e k s w i t h o u t

number

filled w i t h r i g h t e o u s n e s s ( 9 1 : 1 7 ) , j u s t as r i g h t e o u s n e s s e n d u r e s in the first w e e k . T h e tenth w e e k starts w i t h the j u d g m e n t of the W a t c h e r s

(91:15),

w h e r e the w o r d f p , "end," o c c u r s (iv, 2 3 ) . T h i s parallels the first e n d in the second week (93:/i).

43

F r o m the w e e k s 3-5 the f o u n d i n g events of the h i s t o r y of Israel are listed: the election of A b r a h a m , the r e v e l a t i o n of the T o r a h , a n d the b u i l d i n g of the t e m p l e ( 9 3 : 5 - 7 ) . T h e s e are f o u n d a t i o n s that are m a d e for the future: the election of the c h o s e n t h r o u g h A b r a h a m "forever a n d e v e r " (93:5), the T o r a h "for all g e n e r a t i o n s " (93:6), the t e m p l e " f o r e v e r " (93:7). T h e s e f o u n d ­ ing events are p a r a l l e l e d in two w a y s , first n e g a t i v e l y in the sixth w e e k (93:8), t h e n p o s i t i v e l y in the s e v e n t h - t o - n i n t h

weeks (93:10-91:14).

T h e events in the sixth w e e k c o n t r a d i c t w h a t is stated a b o u t the f o u n ­ d a t i o n a l events in the three w e e k s b e f o r e . First, all w h o live in this w e e k w i l l b e c o m e b l i n d a n d stray f r o m w i s d o m . T h i s contrasts the v i s i o n s a n d the rev­ elation o f the T o r a h on S i n a i .

4 4

T h e s e c o n d c o n t r a s t i n g e l e m e n t is that the

t e m p l e is b u r n t . T h e t h i r d is that the w h o l e race of the c h o s e n p l a n t w i l l be d i s p e r s e d . T h e s e c o n t r a d i c t i o n s to the everlasting election of the c h o s e n , the T o r a h for all g e n e r a t i o n s , a n d the t e m p l e forever m a k e u p the basic plot o f the A p o c a l y p s e . T h e t e n s i o n is s o l v e d in the three f o l l o w i n g w e e k s , starting w i t h the s e v e n t h w e e k of the a u t h o r a n d his circle. I n this w e e k the c h o s e n w i l l r e a p ­ p e a r ( 9 3 : 1 0 ) ; in the n e x t w e e k the n e w t e m p l e w i l l b e b u i l t ( 9 1 : 1 3 ) . T h e o n l y t h i n g m i s s i n g t h e n is the T o r a h for all g e n e r a t i o n s . I n the n i n t h w e e k w

k ennane

Hedeq in E t h i o p i c a n d Dlttfp f T in A r a m a i c (iv, 1 9 - 2 0 ) , " r i g h t e o u s

j u d g m e n t , " w i l l b e r e v e a l e d to all the s o n s of the w h o l e e a r t h ( 9 1 : 1 4 ) . T h e s a m e E t h i o p i c p h r a s e is u s e d a b o u t A b r a h a m in 93:5. W e do n o t k n o w a n y places w h e r e A b r a h a m e x e c u t e d j u d g m e n t of any k i n d . W h a t w e k n o w is 43. Cf. Kvanvig, " C o s m i c L a w and C o s m i c Imbalance." 44. T h e blindness o f the p e o p l e thus relates to the Sinai events in the s a m e m a n n e r as in the A p o c a l y p s e of A n i m a l s , 1 En 89:28-35; cf. J. C . V a n d e r K a m , " O p e n and C l o s e d Eyes in the A n i m a l A p o c a l y p s e (1 E n o c h 8 5 - 9 0 ) , " in The Idea of Biblical

Interpretation,

279-92 (here

28off.). T h e o n l y difference is that the law is missing in the A p o c a l y p s e of A n i m a l s . T h e blindness is related to the vision of G o d at Sinai; cf. 89:31-33.

176

Enochic

Judaism

— a Judaism

without

the Torah and the

Temple?

that he w a s the revealed of the b o o k s of his forefathers, i n c l u d i n g the p r i m e ­ val T o r a h in J u b i 2 : 2 5 - 2 7 .

45

N i c k e l s b u r g interprets the p h r a s e in the c o n t e x t

of T h i r d Isaiah w h e r e all h u m a n i t y w i l l j o i n the T o r a h a n d the c o v e n a n t (Isa 4 6

56:6-7; 6 0 ; 6 6 : i 8 - 2 4 ) . A n a l l u s i o n to the l a w m a y also be i n c l u d e d in the 1

p h r a s e Dttfp m i ? ? , "to the r i g h t e o u s w a y " (iv, 2 2 ) , since the H e b r e w e q u i v a ­ lent "|TT is often u s e d in relation to the T o r a h . A c c o r d i n g l y , there are r e a s o n s to i n t e r p r e t w h a t is r e v e a l e d in the n i n t h w e e k to all h u m a n i t y , n o t o n l y as j u d g m e n t , but also as the law, w h i c h f o r m s the basis for j u d g m e n t a n d r i g h ­ t e o u s n e s s . B u t w e m u s t a d m i t , the w o r d i n g is a m b i g u o u s , since the w o r d i n g f r o m the S i n a i t i c T o r a h in 93:6 is n o t r e p e a t e d . It is i m p o r t a n t to n o t i c e h o w these r e o c c u r r e n c e s of the c h o s e n o n e s , the t e m p l e , a n d the r i g h t e o u s law are a r r a n g e d . T h e o n l y r e o c c u r r e n c e u p to the t i m e of the a u t h o r is the c h o s e n o n e s , to w h i c h he b e l o n g s himself. T h e y are elected out of a p e r v e r s e g e n e r a t i o n . T h e two other r e o c c u r r e n c e s lie in the future. T h e r e o c c u r r e n c e of the law is especially tricky, b e c a u s e the ter­ m i n o l o g y here is n o t taken f r o m the S i n a i t i c T o r a h , b u t from A b r a h a m a n d the c h o s e n o n e s in the w a y these are d e s c r i b e d in the seventh a n d eighth w e e k ; cf. 1 E n 9 3 : 1 0 ; 9 1 : 1 2 ; a n d iv, 1 2 - 1 6 . T h e l a w to be r e v e a l e d in the future is n o t any l o n g e r s i m p l y the law from S i n a i , b u t the o n e r o o t e d in the w i s d o m f o l l o w i n g the line f r o m E n o c h to A b r a h a m to the c h o s e n o n e s , to w h i c h the author belongs. E l e c t i o n t h r o u g h A b r a h a m , election t h r o u g h the T o r a h , a n d election t h r o u g h the t e m p l e are all c o r n e r s t o n e s in the t w o n a r r a t i v e s N e h 8 - 1 0 a n d the A p o c a l y p s e . B u t w h e n w e r e a d this from the p e r s p e c t i v e of the p o s t e x i l i c p e r i o d , w e r e c o g n i z e that a c c o r d i n g to the A p o c a l y p s e there existed o n l y o n e g r o u p of c h o s e n o n e s in c o n t r a s t to the rest o f the p e o p l e , there existed n o l e g i t i m a t e t e m p l e , a n d there existed n o l e g i t i m a t e law, at least o u t s i d e the s e v e n f o l d w i s d o m a n d k n o w l e d g e the c h o s e n w e r e p r o v i d e d . T h u s in rela­ tion to N e h 8 - 1 0 as an e x a m p l e of a m a s t e r n a r r a t i v e , the A p o c a l y p s e dis­ plays all traits of a c o u n t e r s t o r y , c o n t e s t i n g the c o m m u n i c a t i v e force o f the m a s t e r n a r r a t i v e b y d i s p l a c i n g its plot. T h r o u g h this d i s p l a c e m e n t w e m u s t c o n c l u d e that the A p o c a l y p s e d i d n o t j o i n the M o s a i c d i s c o u r s e in p o s t e x i l i c J u d a i s m . It r a t h e r d e r i v e d its a u t h o r i t y from a n d lent its a u t h o r i t y to an Enochic discourse.

45. Cf. Berner, Jahre, I38f. 46. N i c k e l s b u r g , 1 Enoch 1 , 449. T h e A r a m a i c J^l is attested in the m e a n i n g "law"; cf.

M u r a b b ' a t 20,3.8:

y i , "law o f M o s e s " ; cf. K . Beyer, Die aramaischen

Texte vom

Toten

Meer ( G o t t i n g e n : V a n d e n h o e c k & Ruprecht, 1984), 309.

177

The Concept of Covenant in Jubilees William K. Gilders

I. Covenant in Jubilees: The Evidence of Jubilees 1 1

Covenant is a key category in the b o o k of Jubilees. Indeed, Jubilees is

funda­

2

mentally a covenantal d o c u m e n t . In the present form of the work, the con-

1. This paper draws on and is in dialogue with several studies that focus in some way on covenant in Jubilees: A. Jaubert, La Notion d'Alliance dan le Juda'isme aux abords de L'Ere Critienne

(Paris: Editions du Seuil, 1963), esp. 89-115; B . H a l p e r n - A m a r u , "The Meta-

historical Covenant o f Jubilees!' in H a l p e r n - A m a r u , Rewriting the Bible: Land and

Covenant

in Postbiblical Jewish Literature (Valley Forge, Pa.: Trinity, 1994), 25-54; E . Juhl Christiansen, "Covenant Consciousness in the Book o f Jubilees," in The Covenant in Judaism and Paul: A Study of Ritual Boundaries

as Identity Markers,

AGJU (Leiden: Brill, 1995), 67-103; J. C.

VanderKam, "Covenant and Biblical Interpretation in Jubilees 6," in The Dead Sea Scrolls Fifty Years after Their Discovery, 1947-1997:

Proceedings of the Jerusalem Congress, July 20-25,

1997, ed. L. H. Schiffman, E. Tov, and J. C. VanderKam (Jerusalem: Israel Exploration Soci­ ety, 2000), 92-104; J. van Ruiten, "The Covenant o f Noah in Jubilees 6.1-38," in The Concept of the Covenant in the Second Temple Period, ed. S. E . Porter and J. C. R. de R o o , JSJSup (Leiden: Brill, 2003), 167-90. See also my essay "Blood and Covenant: Interpretive Elaboration on Genesis 9.4-6 in the Book o f Jubilees," JSP 15 (2006): 83-118. 2. Pace J. M. Scott, who asserts that "Jubilees is not so m u c h a covenantal book as an apocalypse with a covenantal setting that inherently lends it authority" ("The Chronologies of the Apocalypse o f Weeks and the Book o f Jubilees," in this v o l u m e ) , covenant is not sim­ ply the context for the revelation to Moses but an essential element o f its content. W h a t is re­ vealed to Moses clarifies the significance, nature, role, and place o f covenant in God's dealing with the world and with Israel. As VanderKam emphasizes ("Covenant and Biblical Inter­ pretation," 9 2 ) , "Jubilees is a covenant b o o k in its structure and in its content."

178

The

Concept

of Covenant

in

Jubilees

text for the r e v e l a t i o n o f the b o o k itself is the m a k i n g ( o r better, the r e m a k ­ i n g o r the r e n e w a l ) o f c o v e n a n t at S i n a i . T h e date g i v e n for M o s e s ' a s c e n t to the t o p o f S i n a i to r e c e i v e the tablets o f "the l a w a n d the (prologue and i:i),

3

commandments"

the s i x t e e n t h d a y o f the t h i r d m o n t h , is s i g n i f i c a n t i n

this r e g a r d . T h a t is, M o s e s a s c e n d e d the m o u n t the d a y after the c o v e n a n t m a k i n g rites h a d b e e n p e r f o r m e d at the f o o t o f S i n a i o n the fifteenth d a y o f the t h i r d m o n t h , w h i c h J u b i l e e s r e p e a t e d l y i d e n t i f i e s as the d a y o f c o v e n a n t m a k i n g a n d for c o m m e m o r a t i n g a n d r e n e w i n g the c o v e n a n t . The

4

c o v e n a n t a l s i g n i f i c a n c e o f the b o o k is c l e a r l y e x p r e s s e d i n J u b 1:5,

w h e r e G o d s p e a k s to M o s e s a n d c o m m a n d s h i m to give careful a t t e n t i o n to all he w i l l b e told, r e c o r d i n g it i n a b o o k for the d e s c e n d a n t s of Israel, w h o w i l l , God

asserts, v i o l a t e the c o v e n a n t G o d is m a k i n g w i t h t h e m (cf. 1:7 a n d 1 : 2 2 ) .

Nevertheless, G o d makes a firm prior c o m m i t m e n t

n o t to b r e a k faith w i t h

t h e m . G o d w i l l n o t a b a n d o n the r e b e l l i o u s c h o s e n p e o p l e : " W r i t e ( t h e m ) i n a 5

b o o k so that their o f f s p r i n g m a y see that I h a v e n o t a b a n d o n e d t h e m b e c a u s e 6

o f all the evil they h a v e d o n e i n s t r a y i n g f r o m the c o v e n a n t b e t w e e n m e a n d you which I am making

7

t o d a y o n M o u n t S i n a i for their offspring."

3. Unless otherwise indicated, English translations o f the Ethiopic version of Jubilees are from J. C . V a n d e r K a m , The Book of jubilees, C S C O 511, Scriptores Aethiopici 88 ( L o u v a i n : Peeters, 1989). I will also refer to O. S. Wintermute's English translation ("Jubilees," in OTP, 2 : 5 2 - 1 4 2 ) , K . Berger's G e r m a n rendering (Unterweisung jubilaen,

JSHRZ2.3

in erzahlender

Form: Das Buch der

[Gutersloh: Gtitersloher Verlagshaus G e r d M o h n , 1 9 8 1 ] ) , a n d the m o d ­ ,

,

ern H e b r e w rendering by M . G o l d m a n n ("•' 7DT n "ISO," in •"'JTSTin D'HDOn, ed. A b r a h a m K a h a n a , 2 vols. [Jerusalem: M a k o r , 1 9 7 8 ] , 1 : 2 1 6 - 3 1 3 ) . F o r the Ethiopic text, I follow J . C . V a n d e r K a m , The Book of jubilees:

A Critical

Text, C S C O 5 1 0 , Scriptores Aethiopici 87

(Louvain: Peeters, 1989). F o r the fragmentary H e b r e w m a n u s c r i p t s from Q u m r a n , I have used the edition of J . C . V a n d e r K a m a n d J. T. Milik in Qumran

Cave 4.VIII:

Parabiblical

Texts, Part 1, D J D 13 (Oxford: C l a r e n d o n , 1994). 4. O n the identification a n d significance o f the fifteenth day o f the third m o n t h a n d of the date of M o s e s ' ascent, see Jaubert, Notion

dAlliance,

103-4; VanderKam, "Covenant

and Biblical Interpretation," 93; V a n d e r K a m , "Studies on the P r o l o g u e a n d jubilees 1," in For a Later Generation:

The Transformation

of Tradition

in Israel, Early Judaism,

and Early

Chris­

tianity, ed. R a n d a l A . Argall, Beverly A. B o w , a n d R o d n e y A. Werline ( H a r r i s b u r g , Pa.: Trin­ ity, 2 0 0 0 ) , 266-79 (here 273-79). 5. H e b . (4Q216 I 1 3 ) , Q n T m , "their generations." 6. V a n d e r K a m correctly, in m y view, renders the Ethiopic / " d ' T * (ser'dt) here to re­ 1 -

flect n n in the original Hebrew. See also W i n t e r m u t e . B e r g e r renders it "Ordnung," as if H e b r e w npn h a d been present. Christiansen ("Covenant Consciousness," 76 n. 35) follows Berger a n d makes far too m u c h of this translation, arguing that the "covenant" referred to in Jub 1:5 is to b e distinguished from what h a d been established at the foot of Sinai. For further discussion of "covenant" terms in Jubilees, see the a p p e n d i x to this chapter. 7. H e b . (4Q216 i 1 4 ) , m i D , "cutting."

179

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K.

Gilders

T h e p u r p o s e of the b o o k as a w h o l e is to stand as a w i t n e s s to the Isra­ elites that G o d h a d r e m a i n e d faithful to the c o v e n a n t despite their failures, that the sufferings o f Israel h a d n o t b e e n the result o f d i v i n e failure, b u t the p r e d i c t e d a n d p r o m i s e d c o n s e q u e n c e of their c o v e n a n t v i o l a t i o n . T h u s , w h e n all the p r e d i c t e d things h a p p e n as a result of Israel's d i s o b e d i e n c e , " T h e y w i l l r e c o g n i z e that I h a v e i n d e e d b e e n w i t h t h e m " ( 1 : 6 ) . T h e first chapter of the b o o k is c r u c i a l for u n d e r s t a n d i n g J u b i l e e s ' c o n ­ cept of c o v e n a n t . It establishes the f r a m e w o r k o f m e a n i n g . G o d is establish­ i n g a c o v e n a n t w i t h Israel in full k n o w l e d g e that they w i l l fail to a d h e r e to it. B u t this failure has n o u l t i m a t e s i g n i f i c a n c e , b e c a u s e G o d is c o m m i t t e d to the r e l a t i o n s h i p a n d k n o w s — a n d m a k e s k n o w n to M o s e s — that it w i l l u l ­ t i m a t e l y w o r k : " I will neither a b a n d o n t h e m n o r b e c o m e alienated from t h e m , for I a m the L o r d their G o d " ( 1 : 1 8 ) . G o d ' s r e l a t i o n a l identity is essential to J u b i l e e s ' v i e w of c o v e n a n t ; G o d is c o m m i t t e d to the p e o p l e , c o m m i t t e d to b e i n g their G o d . T h u s , in J u b 1:2225 G o d r e s p o n d s to M o s e s ' plea for the p e o p l e b e g g i n g G o d n o t to a l l o w the p r e d i c t e d disasters to o c c u r . G o d affirms that he k n o w s that Israel w i l l n o t o b e y u n t i l t h e y h a v e b e e n b r o u g h t to a n a c k n o w l e d g m e n t o f their s i n s . T h e n , w h e n t h e y finally t u r n to G o d , G o d w i l l act to t r a n s f o r m the p e o p l e into t h o s e w h o are fully able to obey. T h i s p a s s a g e e m p h a s i z e s the u l t i m a t e a c c o m p l i s h m e n t of G o d ' s p u r p o s e a n d h i g h l i g h t s the n a t u r e of the r e l a t i o n ­ s h i p G o d w i l l establish. It w i l l be a father-child b o n d : " I w i l l b e c o m e their fa­ ther a n d they w i l l b e c o m e m y c h i l d r e n . A l l of t h e m w i l l b e called c h i l d r e n o f the l i v i n g G o d . E v e r y a n g e l a n d e v e r y spirit w i l l k n o w t h e m . T h e y w i l l k n o w that t h e y are m y c h i l d r e n a n d that I a m their father in a j u s t a n d p r o p e r w a y a n d that I love t h e m "

(1:24^25).

II. Relationship and Covenant A t the b e g i n n i n g of Jubilees G o d m a k e s it clear that Israel's v i o l a t i o n of the c o v e n a n t is i n e v i t a b l e a n d fully k n o w n . G o d ' s insistence that G o d w i l l n o t a b a n d o n the Israelites, despite their v i o l a t i o n s of the c o v e n a n t , indicates that the d i v i n e c o m m i t m e n t d e p e n d s o n s o m e t h i n g m o r e f u n d a m e n t a l t h a n the c o v e n a n t m a d e at S i n a i . It is n o t the c o v e n a n t itself that b i n d s G o d . T h e c o v ­ enant s i m p l y expresses G o d ' s c o m m i t m e n t . T h i s p o i n t is r e i n f o r c e d a n d illu­ m i n a t e d in the s e c o n d chapter of the w o r k , in a p a s s a g e that relativizes the c o v e n a n t , i n d i c a t i n g that it is o n l y the f o r m a l e n a c t m e n t of a d i v i n e c h o i c e m a d e l o n g b e f o r e Israel c a m e into e x i s t e n c e . After establishing the S a b b a t h ,

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of Covenant

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Jubilees

G o d a n n o u n c e s to the angels, w h o m he has j u s t c o m m a n d e d "to k e e p s a b ­ b a t h w i t h h i m in h e a v e n a n d on earth" ( 2 : 1 8 ) :

I will n o w separate a p e o p l e for m y s e l f from a m o n g m y n a t i o n s . They, too, will keep sabbath. I will sanctify the p e o p l e for m y s e l f a n d will bless t h e m as I sanctified the sabbath day. I will sanctify t h e m for myself; in this w a y I will bless them. T h e y will b e c o m e m y p e o p l e a n d I will b e ­ c o m e their G o d . I have chosen the descendants of J a c o b a m o n g all those w h o m I have seen. I have r e c o r d e d t h e m as m y first-born s o n a n d have sanctified t h e m for m y s e l f t h r o u g h o u t the ages of eternity. I will tell t h e m a b o u t the sabbath days so that they m a y keep sabbath from all work on them. (2:19-20)

T h e c u l m i n a t i n g act of creation is G o d ' s a n n o u n c e m e n t of the election o f the d e s c e n d a n t s of J a c o b , G o d ' s d e c i s i o n to establish a u n i q u e relation­ 8

ship w i t h t h e m as set a p a r t a n d h a l l o w e d , like the S a b b a t h . A l l that f o l l o w s in the b o o k m u s t be read in the light of this p r i m o r d i a l

announcement,

w h i c h precedes any specific e n a c t m e n t of a c o v e n a n t a n d m a k e s all such en­ a c t m e n t s d e p e n d e n t u p o n it. In s h o r t , the c o v e n a n t d o e s n o t create a rela­ 9

t i o n s h i p , it signals i t . J u b i l e e s ' a d o p t i o n o f the b i b l i c a l f a t h e r - s o n c h a r a c t e r ­ i z a t i o n o f the c o v e n a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p — a n d its utter n e g l e c t of the m a r r i a g e m e t a p h o r — is s i g n i f i c a n t . M a r r i a g e is a r e l a t i o n s h i p that is c o n t r a c t u a l in n a t u r e a n d c a n b e d i s s o l v e d . T h e p a r e n t - c h i l d b o n d , in contrast, is o r g a n i c a n d c a n n o t t r u l y b e b r o k e n . T h i s v i e w o f the r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n G o d a n d Israel is i n t e g r a l to its c o n c e p t of c o v e n a n t . T h e first two chapters of the w o r k establish that G o d has a m a s t e r p l a n , w h i c h m u s t b e b r o u g h t to fulfillment. T h e rest o f the w o r k , therefore, a n d w h a t it says a b o u t c o v e n a n t , m u s t b e r e a d in the light of this k e y t h e m e . 8. It is not accidental, therefore, that the w o r k ends with Sabbath legislation. A s the b e g i n n i n g of the b o o k m a k e s clear, the establishment o f the Sabbath w a s the m o m e n t of G o d ' s a n n o u n c e m e n t o f the election o f Israel, and Israel is equated with Sabbath as set apart a n d hallowed. W h i l e the term "covenant" is absent from the final chapter, the concept is firmly present. O b s e r v a n c e o f Sabbath m a r k s Israel's u n i q u e relationship w i t h G o d . O n the Sabbath in Jubilees, and its significance for Israel's identity, see L. D o e r i n g , " T h e C o n c e p t of the Sabbath in the B o o k o f Jubilees," in Studies in the Book of Jubilees,

ed. Matthias A l b a n i ,

J o r g Frey, and A r m i n L a n g e ( T u b i n g e n : J. C . B . M o h r [Paul S i e b e c k ] , 1997), 179-205 (esp. 181, 183, 2 0 1 ) . 9. T h u s , as Scott notes in his article, "the Sinaitic covenant is s o m e w h a t relativized." H o w e v e r , even as it is somewhat

relativized, the covenant is m a d e m o r e significant by b e i n g

tied to a p r i m a l , predestined relationship.

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III. The Establishment of the Covenant F o l l o w i n g the f l o o d , a c r u c i a l m o m e n t is r e a c h e d in J u b i l e e s . F o r the first t i m e the d i v i n e p l a n b r e a k s into h u m a n reality w i t h the e s t a b l i s h m e n t of a c o v e n a n t b e t w e e n G o d a n d a h u m a n b e i n g . Jubilees here f o l l o w s its b i b l i c a l s o u r c e text v e r y closely, for this is the first p o i n t in G e n e s i s w h e r e a c o v e n a n t is m a d e b e t w e e n G o d a n d h u m a n k i n d . H o w e v e r , Jubilees s i g n i f i c a n t l y alters the n a t u r e o f this c o v e n a n t b y m a k i n g it the f o u n d a t i o n a l iteration of the ex­ clusive c o v e n a n t w i t h I s r a e l .

10

G o d m a k e s a c o v e n a n t w i t h N o a h as the p r o ­

g e n i t o r of Israel, n o t as the p r o g e n i t o r of all h u m a n k i n d . A g a i n , G o d ' s fore­ k n o w l e d g e a n d the p r i m o r d i a l d e c i s i o n are c r u c i a l . G o d k n o w s a l r e a d y that he w i l l h a v e a r e l a t i o n s h i p o n l y w i t h Israel, a n d the r e a d e r of Jubilees k n o w s this f r o m h a v i n g r e a d the b e g i n n i n g of the b o o k . T h e fact that the c o v e n a n t w i t h N o a h is s i m p l y the first t h i s - w o r l d l y it­ eration of the c o v e n a n t w i t h Israel is e m p h a s i z e d b y the explicit l i n k a g e m a d e b e t w e e n N o a h ' s c o v e n a n t a n d M o s e s ' c o v e n a n t at S i n a i . T h e a n g e l o f the p r e s e n c e e x p l a i n s to M o s e s that it is p r e c i s e l y b e c a u s e N o a h a n d his s o n s m a d e the c o v e n a n t w i t h an o a t h in the third m o n t h that M o s e s has d o n e the s a m e ( J u b 6 : 1 1 a ) . F u r t h e r m o r e , the b l o o d rite of the S i n a i c o v e n a n t cere­ m o n y a n d the o n g o i n g Israelite cultic m a n i p u l a t i o n s of sacrificial b l o o d are linked to the f u n d a m e n t a l p r o v i s i o n o f N o a h ' s c o v e n a n t : the b a n o n c o n ­ s u m i n g a n i m a l b l o o d a n d s h e d d i n g h u m a n b l o o d ( 6 : n b - i 4 ) . L e g i t i m a t e use o f b l o o d s t a n d s over against its p r o h i b i t e d

mistreatment.

11

In J u b i l e e s ' c o n s t r u c t i o n o f the N o a c h i c c o v e n a n t a n d its c o n n e c t i o n to the S i n a i c o v e n a n t , the r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n the b i b l i c a l a c c o u n t s of the N o a c h i c a n d S i n a i c o v e n a n t s is dialectical. It is n o t s i m p l y the case that the a u t h o r o f Jubilees interprets the S i n a i c o v e n a n t in the light of N o a h ' s c o v e ­ n a n t . R a t h e r , the Sinai c o v e n a n t plays a c r u c i a l role in s h a p i n g J u b i l e e s ' c o n ­ c e p t i o n o f the c o v e n a n t m a d e i m m e d i a t e l y after the f l o o d . O f p a r t i c u l a r sig­ nificance is the r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f N o a h ' s sacrifices as p r e c u r s o r s to G o d ' s announcement

of the c o v e n a n t ( J u b 6 : 1 - 4 ) . T h i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n

of the se­

q u e n c e of events p r e s e n t e d in G e n e s i s , g i v i n g t h e m m e a n i n g , reflects the e x ­ plicit j u x t a p o s i t i o n of sacrifice a n d c o v e n a n t - m a k i n g in E x o d 2 4 : 3 - 8 . F u r ­ t h e r m o r e , the a s s e r t i o n that N o a h m a d e his c o v e n a n t w i t h an oath d e p e n d s

1 0 . For Jubilees, there is really only o n e covenant, w h i c h reaches its complete form at Sinai. See H a l p e r n - A m a r u , "Metahistorical C o v e n a n t , " 28; van Ruiten, " C o v e n a n t of N o a h , " 190. 1 1 . G i l d e r s , " B l o o d and C o v e n a n t , " 95-96.

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Concept

of Covenant

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Jubilees

on the fact that in E x o d u s the e s t a b l i s h m e n t of the c o v e n a n t i n v o l v e s s e v e r a l v e r b a l d e c l a r a t i o n s of c o m m i t m e n t b y the Israelites, w h i c h c a n be seen as oaths (see, in p a r t i c u l a r , E x o d 2 4 : 7 ) . Finally, the date of N o a h ' s c o v e n a n t de­ p e n d s o n the dating of the S i n a i c o v e n a n t - m a k i n g to the t h i r d m o n t h ( E x o d 1 9 : 1 ) . O f c o u r s e , Jubilees itself presents the influence as g o i n g entirely in the o p p o s i t e d i r e c t i o n . E v e r y t h i n g that is d e s c r i b e d in E x o d u s , a c c o r d i n g to J u ­ bilees, d e p e n d s on the o r i g i n a l c o v e n a n t a l event after the f l o o d . T h e c o m m o n date of the t w o c o v e n a n t events is then m a d e b y Jubilees to s t e m f r o m the fact that this date h a d a l w a y s b e e n significant. T h e Festival of S h a v u o t h ("this entire festival") h a d b e e n celebrated in h e a v e n f r o m the t i m e of c r e a t i o n ( J u b 6 : 1 8 ) . T h u s , w h e n N o a h m a d e sacrifice in the m i d d l e of the third m o n t h to p u r i f y the earth b e c a u s e of its sins a n d to offer t h a n k s for his d e l i v e r a n c e , he w a s s i m p l y realizing o n earth w h a t h a d a l r e a d y existed in h e a v e n . T h e h e a v e n l y b r o k e into the earthly. A g a i n , this fact m u s t be v i e w e d in the light of the d i v i n e i n t e n t i o n e x p r e s s e d early in the b o o k . B r i n g i n g the Festival of S h a v u o t h into the w o r l d a n d t y i n g it to an earthly c o v e n a n t is a step t o w a r d the realization of G o d ' s p l a n to create a n d m a i n t a i n a u n i q u e re­ lationship with Israel. T h e n a r r o w i n g o f the focus of the c o v e n a n t also c o m e s o u t in the b r i e f p a r a p h r a s e of G e n 9 : 1 2 - 1 7 in Jub 6 : 1 5 - 1 6 , w h e r e w e are told that the b o w in the c l o u d s w a s g i v e n b y G o d to N o a h a n d his s o n s as a " s i g n o f the eternal c o v e n a n t that there w o u l d n o t h e n c e f o r t h be f l o o d w a t e r s o n the

earth"

( 6 : 1 6 ) . A b s e n t f r o m the p a r a p h r a s e is the e m p h a s i s in G e n e s i s o n G o d ' s c o m ­ m i t m e n t to all flesh a n d o n the b o w as a m e a n s b y w h i c h G o d w o u l d r e m e m ­ b e r this c o m m i t m e n t . Jubilees c o n t i n u e s b y d e c l a r i n g , " F o r this r e a s o n it has b e e n o r d a i n e d a n d w r i t t e n o n the h e a v e n l y tablets that t h e y s h o u l d celebrate the festival of w e e k s d u r i n g this m o n t h — o n c e a y e a r — to r e n e w the c o v e n a n t each a n d e v e r y y e a r " ( 6 : 1 7 ) . W h e r e a s in G e n e s i s the c o v e n a n t c o m m i t m e n t is entirely o n e - s i d e d , G o d p r o m i s i n g n e v e r a g a i n to send a flood to d e s t r o y the earth, here Jubilees has the o b s e r v a n c e o f a c o v e n a n t - r e n e w a l festival f o l l o w as a c o n s e q u e n c e of the d i v i n e p r o m i s e , precisely b e c a u s e G o d h a d g i v e n assur­ ance that there w o u l d n e v e r again be a f l o o d . A s the w o r k c o n t i n u e s , the r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n the t w o iterations of the o n e c o v e n a n t is further d e v e l o p e d . M o s e s is m a d e p a r t y to G o d ' s fore­ k n o w l e d g e . Just as G o d k n o w s that Israel w i l l fail to o b e y the c o v e n a n t , so G o d k n e w , w h e n m a k i n g the c o v e n a n t w i t h N o a h , that its p r o v i s i o n s w o u l d b e a b a n d o n e d a n d w o u l d have to be restored ( 6 : 1 8 - 1 9 ) . A g a i n , the c o v e n a n t itself is n o g u a r a n t e e of h u m a n faithfulness, a n d n o d e t e r m i n a n t of d i v i n e

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loyalty. It is s i m p l y the e x p r e s s i o n w i t h i n the w o r l d of that l o y a l t y a n d of the d i v i n e desire for a r e s p o n d i n g h u m a n faithfulness.

IV. The Reestablishment of the Covenant T h e n a r r a t i v e sets o u t the p r o c e s s of h u m a n failure. T h e n it describes the res­ toration of the c o v e n a n t a l relationship. First, A b r a m s h o w s h i m s e l f to be a w o r t h y heir to N o a h . F r o m c h i l d h o o d he recognizes that h u m a n i t y has g o n e astray, a n d he reaches out to G o d in his y o u t h ( J u b 1 1 : 1 6 - 1 7 ) . Finally, A b r a m calls o u t to G o d for g u i d a n c e ( J u b 1 2 : 1 6 - 2 1 ) , a n d G o d r e s p o n d s ( 1 2 : 2 2 - 2 4 ) . G o d ' s call to A b r a m b e g i n s m o r e or less as it does in G e n e s i s ( 1 2 : 1 - 3 ) . B u t then Jubilees m a k e s a c r u c i a l a d d i t i o n . G o d a n n o u n c e s that he will have a special r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h A b r a m a n d his d e s c e n d a n t s : " I will b e c o m e G o d for y o u , y o u r s o n , y o u r g r a n d s o n , a n d all y o u r d e s c e n d a n t s . . . . F r o m n o w until all the g e n e r a t i o n s of the earth I a m y o u r G o d " ( J u b 1 2 : 2 4 ) . H e r e , crucially, G o d shares his p r i m o r d i a l d e c i s i o n w i t h its object a n d a n n o u n c e s the r e l a t i o n s h i p . T h e r e l a t i o n s h i p n o w exists in h u m a n reality, a n d it exists a p a r t f r o m a n y for­ m a l e n a c t m e n t of the c o v e n a n t . T h a t f o r m a l e n a c t m e n t will c o m e later. Jub 1 4 : 1 - 2 0 is b a s e d o n G e n 1 5 : 1 - 2 1 a n d d e s c r i b e s the f o r m a l c o v e n a n t r e n e w a l , w h i c h c o n f i r m s a n d affirms the r e l a t i o n s h i p for A b r a m a n d his de­ s c e n d a n t s . T h e a d d i t i o n s a n d m o d i f i c a t i o n s m a d e to the b i b l i c a l s o u r c e re­ flect J u b i l e e s ' v i e w of c o v e n a n t . First, Jubilees gives a date for the c o v e n a n t event, the m i d d l e of the third m o n t h ( 1 4 : 1 0 ) , a n d m a k e s it clear that this date is significant; the c o v e n a n t is m a d e w i t h A b r a m o n the s a m e date as the c o v ­ e n a n t w a s m a d e w i t h N o a h ( 1 4 : 2 0 ) . T h e result is that A b r a m r e n e w s the l a p s e d c o v e n a n t festival ( 1 4 : 2 0 a ) . I n d e e d , Jubilees m a y declare that A b r a m ' s action r e n e w e d the c o v e n a n t itself ( 1 4 : 2 0 b ) .

1 2

F o l l o w i n g N o a h ' s e x a m p l e , a n d a n t i c i p a t i n g the a c t i o n s of M o s e s , A b r a m sets the stage for the r e n e w a l of the c o v e n a n t b y offering sacrifice, g u i d e d in this a c t i v i t y b y G o d . Jubilees takes the a m b i g u o u s l y sacrificial rit­ u a l o f G e n e s i s a n d m a k e s it u n a m b i g u o u s l y sacrificial. A b r a m b u i l d s an al­ tar, a n d w h e n he slaughters the specified v i c t i m s he applies their b l o o d to the altar ( J u b 1 4 : 1 1 ) , a n d at the c u l m i n a t i o n of the r i t u a l p r o c e s s he offers the 12. T h e E t h i o p i c version, as translated by V a n d e r K a m , says that A b r a m "renewed the festival (fl*iA) and the o r d i n a n c e {/"Ch't)

for himself forever." W i n t e r m u t e also renders

/"C^-r* as "ordinance," and B e r g e r has "Ordnung." H o w e v e r , it is certainly possible to trans­ late "covenant" here and to a s s u m e that the original H e b r e w had n^TD. For further discus­ sion of this point, see the a p p e n d i x to this essay.

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v i c t i m s u p in the altar fire, a l o n g w i t h cereal offerings a n d w i n e ( 1 4 : 1 9 ) . H e r e w e see a g a i n the b a s i c p a t t e r n that is c r u c i a l for J u b i l e e s . T h e e n a c t i n g of c o v e n a n t b y G o d always f o l l o w s from a n d is i n t i m a t e l y b o u n d up w i t h sacri­ fice. In the n e x t chapter, reflecting this p a t t e r n , Jubilees a d d s sacrifice w h e r e it is c o m p l e t e l y absent in the b i b l i c a l s o u r c e text.

V. Covenant and Circumcision Jub 15 is b a s e d o n G e n 1 7 , a central c o v e n a n t a l p a s s a g e in G e n e s i s . Jubilees b u i l d s on the c o v e n a n t a l e m p h a s i s of the s o u r c e text in s o m e significant w a y s . First, as I h a v e n o t e d , the a u t h o r a d d s sacrificial a c t i o n s as p r e c u r s o r s to the t h e o p h a n y a n d a n n o u n c e m e n t

of the c o v e n a n t ( J u b 1 5 : 2 ) . F u r t h e r ­

m o r e , the a u t h o r p r o v i d e s the c r u c i a l date for A b r a m ' s sacrificial p e r f o r ­ m a n c e , the m i d d l e of the third m o n t h , in c o n n e c t i o n w i t h the festival of firstfruits, the c o v e n a n t festival ( 1 5 : 1 ) . I n this chapter A b r a m is s h o w n as act­ ing o n his o w n initiative, faithfully a d h e r i n g to the p r o v i s i o n s o f the r e n e w e d c o v e n a n t he has i n h e r i t e d f r o m N o a h . H e celebrates the p r i m a r y festival of G o d ' s c o v e n a n t (cf. 1 : 1 0 ) o n the specified date, d o i n g w h a t N o a h ' s other de­ s c e n d a n t s h a d failed to d o , t h e r e b y r e n e w i n g the c o v e n a n t (cf. 6 : 1 7 ) . G o d ' s r e s p o n s e is to r e n e w the c o v e n a n t with A b r a m , a d d i n g to it a p r o v i s i o n , the sign of c i r c u m c i s i o n . T h i s sign, h o w e v e r , is n o t really n e w , as the e l a b o r a t i o n a d d e d to the b i b l i c a l s o u r c e text m a k e s clear. C i r c u m c i s i o n , as a w a y to m a r k the elect as distinct f r o m the rest of h u m a n k i n d , f u n c t i o n s to assimilate t h e m to the su­ p e r n a t u r a l r e a l m . T h e angels, a c c o r d i n g to J u b i l e e s , w e r e created c i r c u m ­ c i s e d . C i r c u m c i s i o n of those w h o b e l o n g to the elect p e o p l e a l l o w s t h e m to share in this h e a v e n l y p e r f e c t i o n ( 1 5 : 2 7 ) .

1 3

W h e r e a s in G e n 17 c i r c u m c i s i o n is

a m a r k o f m e m b e r s h i p in the c h o s e n f a m i l y o f A b r a h a m , d i s t i n g u i s h i n g its m e m b e r s f r o m n o n m e m b e r s , in J u b i l e e s c i r c u m c i s i o n t r a n s f o r m s a h u m a n b o d y to the likeness of the angelic b o d y , effecting an o n t o l o g i c a l c h a n g e . It also, even m o r e crucially, b i n d s the c i r c u m c i s e d m a l e to G o d : "he b e l o n g s to the L o r d " ( J u b 1 5 : 2 6 b ) . G e n 17 m a k e s n o m e n t i o n o f a b o n d w i t h G o d . A g a i n , the c o v e n a n t is n o t itself the r e l a t i o n s h i p . It is the e n a c t m e n t of that rela­ t i o n s h i p . G o d has c h o s e n Israel to be his u n i q u e p o s s e s s i o n , to h o l d the sta-

13. C h r i s t i a n s e n , " C o v e n a n t C o n s c i o u s n e s s , " 98-99. C i r c u m c i s i o n also p r o t e c t s against d e m o n i c forces. See G i a n a n t o n i o B o r g o n o v o , " J u b i l e e s ' R a p p r o c h e m e n t o f E n o c h i c a n d M o s a i c Traditions," Hen 3 0 , n o . 2 (2008).

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tus of G o d ' s f i r s t b o r n s o n . T h e rite of c i r c u m c i s i o n v i s i b l y m a r k s that d i v i n e c h o i c e . It is a "rite of a f f i r m a t i o n . "

14

Since the m a r k m a k e s a d i v i n e c h o i c e effective in the w o r l d , a n d since the existence of the m a r k d e p e n d s o n h u m a n a c t i o n , failure to o b e y the c o m m a n d m e n t w i l l result in loss of the c o v e n a n t a l r e l a t i o n s h i p . T h o s e w h o are u n c i r c u m c i s e d fail to b e c o m e or r e m a i n m e m b e r s of the c a t e g o r y o f those w h o b e l o n g to G o d , "the s o n s of the c o v e n a n t " ( 1 5 : 2 6 a ) .

1 5

They be­

c o m e s i m p l y like the rest of h u m a n i t y , w h o are d o o m e d — b y d i v i n e decree — to r e m a i n alienated f r o m G o d . M o r e o v e r , those w h o h a d the p o t e n t i a l to b e " s o n s of the c o v e n a n t " b u t failed to be c i r c u m c i s e d will suffer d e s t r u c t i o n as a result of their a l i e n a t i o n (15:26b; see also 1 5 : 3 4 ) , m a k i n g their fate w o r s e t h a n that o f G e n t i l e h u m a n i t y . A g a i n , in g i v i n g the p r a c t i c e of c i r c u m c i s i o n , G o d k n o w s that Israel w i l l fail to adhere to the c o m m a n d m e n t

that g u a r a n t e e s their c o v e n a n t a l

i d e n t i t y ( 1 5 : 3 3 ) . D i r e c o n s e q u e n c e s w i l l f o l l o w for the p e o p l e o f Israel ( 1 5 : 3 4 ) . B u t , a g a i n , this p r e d i c a t i o n has to b e r e a d in the light o f the g u a r a n t e e s e x ­ p r e s s e d at the b e g i n n i n g of the b o o k . G o d w i l l s u c c e e d in b r i n g i n g into exis­ tence an Israel c a p a b l e of l i v i n g in r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h G o d . T h e n , c i r c u m c i ­ s i o n will be faithfully o b s e r v e d .

V I . Jacob as the Covenantal Focus For all his s i g n i f i c a n c e , A b r a h a m is n o t the central focus o f G o d ' s c o v e n a n t a l a t t e n t i o n . R a t h e r , it is J a c o b , the e p o n y m o u s a n c e s t o r o f the c h o s e n p e o p l e , w h o is at the center of G o d ' s p l a n .

1 6

T h i s has a l r e a d y b e e n m a d e clear in J u b

2 , w h e r e G o d a n n o u n c e s his election o f "the d e s c e n d a n t s o f J a c o b " (v. 2 0 ) , a n d it is then w o r k e d o u t in the p a r t s of the b o o k b a s e d on the J a c o b n a r r a ­ tives i n G e n e s i s . W o r t h y of special n o t e in this c o n n e c t i o n is J u b 4 4 : 1 - 6 , w h i c h is b a s e d o n G e n 4 6 : 1 - 4 . T h e changes a n d additions m a d e to the biblical base text reflect J u ­ bilees' specific c o v e n a n t a l e m p h a s e s . First, Jubilees supplies the date for the b e ­ g i n n i n g of Jacob's j o u r n e y to B e e r S h e v a — the first day of the third m o n t h — a n d for Jacob's sacrifices there — the seventh of the m o n t h . T h e text then adds 14. T h i s is Christiansen's apt characterization ( " C o v e n a n t C o n s c i o u s n e s s , " 96, 1 0 1 ) . 1 5 . 1 follow Wintermute's translation here. O n "sons o f the covenant," see the a p p e n ­ dix to this paper. 16. O n Jacob's covenantal significance for Jubilees, see H a l p e r n - A m a r u , " M e t a historical C o v e n a n t , " 3 6 - 4 1 ; Christiansen, " C o v e n a n t C o n s c i o u s n e s s , " 80-82, 88-89.

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the i n f o r m a t i o n that J a c o b w a s hesitant to c o n t i n u e d o w n to E g y p t , a n d that he w a i t e d at B e e r S h e v a for s o m e k i n d of d i v i n e r e s p o n s e to his anxiety. T h i s a d d i t i o n serves to e x p l a i n the t h e o p h a n y that o c c u r s there. In Jubilees, it c o m e s as G o d ' s r e s p o n s e to Jacob's hesitation. B u t there is m o r e . W h i l e w a i t i n g for an a n s w e r to his c o n c e r n s , Jubilees tells us, J a c o b celebrated the festival of the firstfruits of w h e a t (using old g r a i n , since the f a m i n e m a d e it i m p o s s i b l e to get n e w g r a i n ) . Faithful to his role as the bearer of the c o v e n a n t a l relationship, J a c o b observes the c o v e n a n t a l festival, w h i c h r e n e w s the c o v e n a n t ( J u b 6 : 1 7 ) . T h e n , o n the sixteenth of the m o n t h , the d a y after the festival, G o d speaks to J a c o b (44:5). T h e pattern is familiar: the c o v e n a n t festival is o b s e r v e d , and then G o d a p p e a r s to enact or affirm the c o v e n a n t . In this case, the c o n n e c t i o n w i t h past c o v e n a n t a l t h e o p h a n i e s is reinforced b y a c h a n g e the a u t h o r m a k e s to the b a s e text. In G e n e s i s (46:2), G o d speaks to J a c o b in a d r e a m . B u t in Jubilees (44:5), G o d a p p e a r s to J a c o b (hh-tCh?"),

just as he h a d a p p e a r e d to A b r a h a m

(cf. Jub 15:3 a n d G e n 1 7 : 1 ) . J a c o b experiences the s a m e direct c o m m u n i c a t i o n his g r a n d f a t h e r did. W h i l e the term " c o v e n a n t " does n o t o c c u r in this passage, c o v e n a n t is clearly its focusing c o n c e r n , a n d this focus is affirmed b y the au­ thor's r e w o r k i n g of the biblical source so that G o d ' s direct t h e o p h a n y c o m e s , as in the past, in r e s p o n s e to the c o v e n a n t a l festival.

V I I . Distinctive Features of Jubilees' Concept of Covenant T h e a t t e n t i o n g i v e n to c o v e n a n t in Jubilees indicates its i m p o r t a n c e to the w o r k ' s a u t h o r . A t the s a m e t i m e , h o w e v e r , Jubilees insists that the c o v e n a n t d o e s n o t create G o d ' s u n i q u e r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h Israel. R a t h e r , it enacts that r e l a t i o n s h i p , w h i c h preexists the c o v e n a n t . I n d e e d , the r e l a t i o n s h i p even preexists the p e o p l e w i t h w h o m the c o v e n a n t is m a d e . T h e o f f s p r i n g of J a ­ cob are d e s i g n a t e d b y G o d to h o l d the status of G o d ' s f i r s t b o r n s o n — the heir — at the c u l m i n a t i o n o f c r e a t i o n . B e i n g G o d ' s s o n m a k e s Israel like G o d . Israel's s a n c t i f i c a t i o n is at o n c e a c o n d i t i o n a n d result of the u n i q u e re­ l a t i o n s h i p . C o v e n a n t b r i n g s the r e l a t i o n s h i p into t e m p o r a l e x p r e s s i o n a n d p r o v i d e s the m e a n s of realizing the n e c e s s a r y s a n c t i f i c a t i o n o f I s r a e l . T h e N o a c h i c c o v e n a n t is the first iteration of c o v e n a n t a n d the basis of s u b s e q u e n t c o v e n a n t s , w h i c h are therefore n o t n e w c o v e n a n t s , but s i m p l y reiterations of that o r i g i n a l c o v e n a n t . W h a t this m e a n s is that a c o v e n a n t m a d e — in t h e o r y — w i t h all h u m a n k i n d b e c o m e s a c o v e n a n t o n l y w i t h Is­ rael. G o d ' s u n i v e r s a l c o m m i t m e n t to the w h o l e of c r e a t i o n finds e x p r e s s i o n in a special c o m m i t m e n t to o n e p a r t of h u m a n i t y . T h i s c o m m i t m e n t w i l l

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K.

Gilders

n e v e r c h a n g e , as J u b i l e e s ' e s c h a t o l o g i c a l s t a t e m e n t s m a k e clear. T h e full real­ i z a t i o n of G o d ' s r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h Israel w i l l be Israel's e x p a n s i o n a n d d o m i ­ n a t i o n o v e r the w h o l e earth a n d all w h o are n o t p a r t of Israel (see, e.g., J u b 32:18-19). W h i l e Ps 50:5 is n e v e r directly q u o t e d in Jubilees, the a u t h o r of Jubilees w o u l d surely have affirmed its b a s i c thrust, that c o v e n a n t is m a d e w i t h s a c r i ­ fice.

17

R e a d i n g G e n 8 : 2 0 - 9 : 1 7 in the light of E x o d 24:3-8, the a u t h o r of Jubilees

established a b a s i c p a t t e r n : G o d a l w a y s s p o k e the t e r m s of the c o v e n a n t after sacrifice h a d b e e n m a d e . T h i s p a t t e r n s h a p e s the retelling of several G e n e s i s n a r r a t i v e s . T h u s , the ritual d e s c r i b e d in G e n 15 is explicitly treated as sacrifi­ cial in Jubilees, a n d a sacrificial p e r f o r m a n c e is a d d e d to the n a r r a t i v e of the c o v e n a n t of c i r c u m c i s i o n b a s e d on G e n 1 7 . O n e p o s s i b l e r e a s o n for this e m ­ p h a s i s o n sacrifice is tied to the sacrificial use of b l o o d . T h i s l e g i t i m a t e use stands o v e r against illegitimate t r e a t m e n t of h u m a n a n d a n i m a l b l o o d , a n d serves as a sign a n d r e m i n d e r of the f u n d a m e n t a l c o v e n a n t a l o b l i g a t i o n to a b ­ stain f r o m s h e d d i n g h u m a n b l o o d a n d f r o m c o n s u m i n g a n i m a l b l o o d . It also a p p e a r s that Jubilees u n d e r s t a n d s sacrifice in relational t e r m s . It is the m e a n s b y w h i c h a h u m a n b e i n g expresses a desire for or a c o m m i t m e n t to a r e l a t i o n ­ s h i p to G o d . G o d r e s p o n d s to such h u m a n o v e r t u r e s b y a f f i r m i n g the desired r e l a t i o n s h i p t h r o u g h establishing or reestablishing c o v e n a n t .

Appendix: Occurrences of "Covenant" in Ethiopic and Hebrew Jubilees B y m y c o u n t , the E t h i o p i c w o r d h.^"> (kidan)

o c c u r s a total of t h i r t y - t w o

t i m e s in E t h i o p i c J u b i l e e s . N i n e t e e n t i m e s it a p p e a r s w i t h o u t a suffix (6:4, 1 0 b , 1 1 [ 2 X ] , 1 6 , 1 7 , 3 5 ; 1 4 : 1 8 , 20 [ 2 x ] ; 1 5 : 1 9 , 2 6 , 28, 29; 1 6 : 1 4 ; 2 1 : 1 1 ; 23:19 [ 2 x ] ; 3 0 : 2 1 ) ; n i n e t i m e s w i t h the f i r s t - p e r s o n s i n g u l a r suffix ( " m y c o v e n a n t " ; 1 : 1 0 ; 15:4, 9 , 1 1 , 1 3 , 1 4 , 1 9 , 2 1 ; 2 4 : 1 1 ) ; three t i m e s it has the t h i r d m a s c u l i n e s i n g u l a r suffix ("his c o v e n a n t " ; 15:34; 2 1 : 4 ; 2 2 : 1 5 ) ; a n d o n c e it a p p e a r s w i t h the s e c o n d m a s c u l i n e s i n g u l a r suffix ( " y o u r c o v e n a n t " ; 2 2 : 3 0 ) . to a c o v e n a n t b e t w e e n G o d a n d h u m a n b e i n g s . ,

1 8

In e v e r y case, it refers

1 9

,l

17. n3T- 7S7 T T H l 'HID ''"TOn 7-1DDX ("Gather to m e m y devoted ones, w h o m a d e m y covenant with sacrifice"). 18. T h i s s u m m a r y o f occurrences of

corrects o m i s s i o n s and errors in v a n

Ruiten's otherwise extremely helpful s u m m a r y o f covenantal language in Jubilees ( " C o v e ­ nant o f N o a h , " 1 6 8 - 7 0 ) . 19. A s v a n Ruiten notes ("Covenant of Noah," 168), Jubilees never uses the w o r d for a

188

The

Concept

of Covenant

in

T h e r e s e e m s to be n o d i s p u t e a m o n g s t interpreters that h.fit o c c u r r e n c e s in Jubilees s t a n d s for H e b r e w 1 T H 3 .

Jubilees in all its

A n u m b e r of lines of e v i ­

d e n c e s u p p o r t this c o n s e n s u s . First, in the E t h i o p i c P e n t a t e u c h ,

fre­

q u e n t l y r e n d e r s H e b r e w J T H D . S e c o n d , in cases w h e r e Jubilees s e e m s to q u o t e b i b l i c a l texts directly, the E t h i o p i c m o s t often has tuftl

w h e r e the b i b ­

1

lical s o u r c e text has n T 3 . T h i r d , a n d m o s t decisively, a Q u m r a n f r a g m e n t o f Jubilees in H e b r e w reads T P T D w h e r e the E t h i o p i c reads h . f l ' J f . However, another

Ethiopic word, / " C l ^

-

(ser'at),

2 0

appears several

t i m e s i n J u b i l e e s w h e r e it s e e m s r e a s o n a b l e to a s s u m e that the o r i g i n a l H e ­ b r e w w o u l d have h a d 1THD.

T h e difficulty here is that f"C°i-\-

also r e n d e r s

H e b r e w n p n , w h i c h is m a d e clear b y the fact that 4 Q 2 1 6 ii 8 has T H p n w h e r e the E t h i o p i c ( J u b 1:10) has / " C V ^ - P . T h u s , there are g r o u n d s for u n c e r t a i n t y a b o u t w h i c h w o r d s t o o d in the o r i g i n a l H e b r e w . A s a result, s c h o l a r s differ in their a p p r o a c h to t r a n s l a t i n g

/"CI'K

T h u s , W i n t e r m u t e a n d V a n d e r K a m b o t h r e n d e r / " C l t as " c o v e n a n t " in J u b 1:5 a n d 2 3 : 1 6 , a n d V a n d e r K a m r e t r o v e r t s the E t h i o p i c to JTHDn in his r e c o n s t r u c t i o n of 4 Q 2 1 6 i 14, w h i c h c o r r e s p o n d s to J u b 1:5. T h i s m o v e is s u p ­ p o r t e d b y the fact that m i D a p p e a r s clearly o n the H e b r e w f r a g m e n t , a n d this v e r b c o m m o n l y takes TTHn as its o b j e c t in the H e b r e w B i b l e . In contrast, -

B e r g e r r e n d e r s / " C l - t as " O r d n u n g " in J u b 1:5 a n d 2 3 : 1 6 , a n d e v e r y w h e r e else it o c c u r s in the text. In t e n s i o n w i t h their t r a n s l a t i o n o f

in J u b 1:5 a n d 2 3 : 1 6 , b u t in

agreement with Berger's approach, Wintermute and V a n d e r K a m distinguish b e t w e e n / " C l - J - a n d K^Tr in their t r a n s l a t i o n s o f J u b 1 5 . B o t h r e n d e r h . ^ ? w i t h "covenant," b u t W i n t e r m u t e

renders / " C I - )

-

with "ordinance"

and

V a n d e r K a m uses "pact," e v e n t h o u g h the E t h i o p i c w o r d s t a n d s in J u b i l e e s w h e r e the b i b l i c a l s o u r c e text has 1 1 ' " I D . In their t r a n s l a t i o n of the m a t e r i a l a d d e d o n t o the b i b l i c a l b a s e text (Jub

15:25-34),

they

maintain

this

W i n t e r m u t e r e n d e r s (D"(ff. • /^C'i't

distinction,

except

that

in 1 5 : 2 6

as "the s o n s o f the c o v e n a n t " w h i l e

V a n d e r K a m has "the p e o p l e of the pact." It is certainly the case that there are o c c u r r e n c e s of / " C I I

-

in J u b i l e e s

w h e r e it is u n l i k e l y or e v e n i m p o s s i b l e that D ' T D s t o o d in the o r i g i n a l H e ­ b r e w . H o w e v e r , in a n u m b e r of instances it s e e m s a p p r o p r i a t e to c o n c l u d e pact o r a g r e e m e n t between p e o p l e , in contrast to G e n e s i s , where r P I D several times desig­ 2

nates such an agreement (see G e n 14:13; 21:27, 3 : 26:28; 3 1 : 4 4 ) .

20. 4Q216 ii 8, as reconstructed by V a n d e r K a m , reads 'nlXajrlKl Tllpn [nx 131»] ['Bnj? I1S1 ' m m © nxi ] n'-|3 '[737B n S l , w i t h n n 3 in the Hebrew where the Ethiopic ,

has

,

Mlt.

189

William

K.

that

Gilders

did a p p e a r in the H e b r e w . T h e E t h i o p i c version's use of two w o r d s

to r e n d e r JVnD likely arose f r o m a translator's desire for l i t e r a r y v a r i a t i o n . C o m p a r e for this p h e n o m e n o n J u b 6:14, w h e r e t w o different E t h i o p i c v e r b s are u s e d w h e r e the H e b r e w a l m o s t certainly h a d "HSD t w o t i m e s ( a n d cf. L X X E x o d 29:36-37, w h e r e t w o different G r e e k v e r b s r e n d e r 1 2 3 ) .

2 1

N o t e , also,

that the E t h i o p i c v e r s i o n o f G e n 1 7 uses three different w o r d s to r e n d e r X T H D : h . ' S ? ( 1 7 : 2 , 4, 7a, 1 3 b , 1 9 b , 2 1 ) , / " C l - r (17:7b, 9 ) -

1

(17:10, 11, 13a, 1 4 , 1 9 a ) , and

thl

2 2

H e r e , I list the o c c u r r e n c e s of / " C I ' T ' w h e r e I v i e w the presence o f J T H 3 in the o r i g i n a l H e b r e w as b e i n g m o s t likely, a n d indicate briefly the e v ­ i d e n c e or r e a s o n s for this c o n c l u s i o n . Jub 1:5: T h i s verse is e q u i v a l e n t to 4 Q 2 1 6 i 1 4 , w h e r e I l T D a p p e a r s . T h e H e b r e w ITHn is the e x p e c t e d object for this v e r b in this context. A s I n o t e d above, Wintermute and V a n d e r K a m both render / " C l ^

-

here as "covenant."

Jub 1 4 : 2 0 : T h i s verse refers to A b r a m as r e n e w i n g the c o v e n a n t a l festi­ val in c o n n e c t i o n w i t h G o d ' s m a k i n g a c o v e n a n t w i t h h i m . Since the p u r ­ p o s e of h u m a n o b s e r v a n c e of this festival, a c c o r d i n g to J u b i l e e s , is the re­ n e w a l o f the c o v e n a n t ( 6 : 1 7 ) , it is a p p r o p r i a t e

h e r e to see J u b i l e e s as

s p e c i f y i n g that A b r a m ' s o b s e r v a n c e of the festival a c h i e v e d this effect. I n ­ d e e d , a p a r t f r o m u s i n g A^d-t

instead of h . ' S ? , the f o r m u l a t i o n in J u b 1 4 : 2 0

is identical to w h a t a p p e a r s in J u b 6:17 (see also 2 2 : 1 5 , 3 ° ) - T h u s , it is a p p r o ­ -

priate to r e n d e r / " C I - ) here as " c o v e n a n t " a n d to a s s u m e that the o r i g i n a l Hebrew had I T H 3 . Jub 15:6: T h i s v e r s e is e q u i v a l e n t to G e n 1 7 : 4 , w h i c h has 'ITHS w h e r e the E t h i o p i c Jubilees reads / " C l ^ f . G o l d m a n n ' s H e b r e w t r a n s l a t i o n follows G e n e s i s here. Jub 15:9: T h i s verse is e q u i v a l e n t to G e n 1 7 : 7 , w h i c h h a s r P I D t w i c e . T h e first o c c u r r e n c e , T f H D . , is clearly r e n d e r e d b y E t h i o p i c h . # 7 P . T h e sec­ 1

o n d o c c u r r e n c e , i n the e x p r e s s i o n 0*7157 ITHD, ?, is clearly reflected in the E t h i o p i c / " C I * : H °i 9°. Jub 1 5 : 1 1 : T h i s v e r s e consists of G e n 1 7 : 9 , 1 0 b , a n d 1 1 . T h e e q u i v a l e n t of Gen

1 7 : 1 0 a is m i s s i n g , a l m o s t c e r t a i n l y s i m p l y d u e to s c r i b a l e r r o r , a

h a p l o g r a p h y resulting f r o m a scribe's eye j u m p i n g f r o m T H I I N at the e n d of G e n 17:9 to T H r l N at the b e g i n n i n g o f G e n 1 7 : 1 0 b , o m i t t i n g e v e r y t h i n g in b e -

21. F o r further detail on the different renderings o f 1 D 3 in Jubilees, see G i l d e r s , " B l o o d and Covenant," 98-99.

22. It should be noted that this variation cannot reflect the influence of L X X , since it is consistent in having 5ia0fJKr| throughout G e n 17.

190

The

Concept

of Covenant

in

Jubilees

t w e e n . At the b e g i n n i n g of J u b 15:9 h . # ? P stands w h e r e G e n 17:9 has T P I D . T h e o c c u r r e n c e of V I ' 1 3 at the b e g i n n i n g of G e n 1 7 : 1 0 is n o t r e p r o d u c e d in 1

Jubilees d u e to the h a p l o g r a p h y . G e n 1 7 : 1 1 has A ' 1 3 fllX ? w h i l e the E t h i o p i c ;

reads th9°C-t-

•• / " C i - H : H °i 9°, w h i c h indicates the a d d i t i o n of 0*7157 in -

0

the H e b r e w text of J u b i l e e s . C o m p a r e J u b 15:28, w h e r e w e find • J K 9 C ' M ( •' h.&t,

w h i c h m u s t reflect s o m e t h i n g like nXTH/ntn n ' T S n n i X . Jub 1 5 : 1 3 : T h i s verse is e q u i v a l e n t to G e n 1 7 : 1 3 , a n d there is a v i r t u a l l y

w o r d - f o r - w o r d c o r r e s p o n d e n c e b e t w e e n the b i b l i c a l H e b r e w text a n d the E t h i o p i c . T h u s , it is m o s t likely that the H e b r e w o f Jubilees s i m p l y r e p r o ­ d u c e d w h a t a p p e a r s in the b i b l i c a l s o u r c e , such that D3"H1>33 V I ' 1 3 nnVH D^IS? n n 3 7 1

f»?\\ar>-

s t a n d s b e h i n d the E t h i o p i c fflJcVhrn-? : h . f l ? f

:

fl>-n+

••

/ " C I * : H 1 9°, despite the fact that the E t h i o p i c r e n d e r s the

:

t w o o c c u r r e n c e s of J T H 3 w i t h t w o different E t h i o p i c t e r m s . C o m p a r e Jub 0

1 5 : 1 9 , w h i c h has wh'KD-9

• h . ^ 7 f : 9°nA,W- : h . 3 V : H °i 9° w h e r e G e n 1 7 : 1 9

reads D^IJ? n 1 3 7 inN V P I S - I I K V I Q p m , r e n d e r i n g b o t h o c c u r r e n c e s of ,

1

J T H 3 in this case w i t h h . ' S ? . Jub 15:25: T h i s is a m o r e p r o b l e m a t i c e x a m p l e than those d i s c u s s e d a b o v e , since this v e r s e b e g i n s the a d d i t i o n s to the b i b l i c a l b a s e text a n d there is n o H e b r e w text w i t h w h i c h to c o m p a r e the E t h i o p i c . A d m i t t e d l y , " o r d i ­ n a n c e " (as in b o t h W i n t e r m u t e ' s a n d V a n d e r K a m ' s t r a n s l a t i o n s ) a p p a r e n t l y m a k e s m o r e sense here, since the w o r d / " C l ' h refers to the p r a c t i c e (rhl)

commanded

a n d is said to be " o r d a i n e d a n d w r i t t e n o n the h e a v e n l y tab­

lets." I p r o p o s e that here D^IS? flpn m a y v e r y w e l l h a v e a p p e a r e d in the o r i g i ­ nal H e b r e w .

2 3

H o w e v e r , it is w o r t h y o f n o t e that the e x p r e s s i o n n^iy

nn3

does a p p e a r in the P e n t a t e u c h in s u c h a w a y that its m e a n i n g c o u l d b e taken as "eternal c o v e n a n t a l o r d i n a n c e " ( E x o d 3 1 : 1 6 ) . T h u s , it is p o s s i b l e that the a u t h o r of Jubilees u s e d it here in that sense a n d that the o r i g i n a l H e b r e w d i d read Jub

15:26: W i n t e r m u t e

is a l m o s t certainly c o r r e c t to take dy-frf.

:

/ " C I ' J - as s t a n d i n g for H e b r e w lTH3[ri] ' 3 3 ("the s o n s of the c o v e n a n t " ) , g i v e n that the t e r m " s o n s " m o s t n a t u r a l l y i n d i c a t e s m e m b e r s h i p or p a r t i c i ­ p a t i o n , n o t in the o r d i n a n c e o f c i r c u m c i s i o n itself, b u t in the c o v e n a n t it l

s e r v e s . It is also w o r t h n o t i n g that the E t h i o p i c v e r b u s e d here, •h lP.R (takdyada),

u s u a l l y has h.£"> as its object. ;

a

Jub 15:28: In this verse w e h a v e th9 C-t-ll a b o v e m u s t reflect s o m e t h i n g like nXTH/ntn

• u.^">, w h i c h as I n o t e d ,

n T 3 H fllS, followed by

1

23. F o r D ? ^ Dpn in the Pentateuch, see, e.g., E x o d 1 2 : 1 4 , 1 7 ; 27:21; 29:9; Lev 3:17; 7:36; 16:29, 3 1 , 34; 17:7; N u m 15:15; 1 9 : 1 0 , 2 1 .

191

William K. /"C1^ sents

Gilders H I J " . A s in 15:25, it is possible that this latter expression repre­

nVlS?

Dpn. However, it is also possible that the H e b r e w had n ' 1 3

1

D ^ i y f ? ] , again reflecting E x o d 31:16. Jub 23:16: A s I noted above, both Wintermute and VanderKam render /"Cl^

here as "covenant." This verse refers to abandoning

nant "which G o d made" (H+»LF X. • hllLh-ttthC).

the cove­

Again, the Ethiopic uses

language that refers to covenant, and this suggests that the original Hebrew read D'HI^K

192

ma -wx nnan rm.

From a Movement of Dissent to a Distinct Form of Judaism: The Heavenly Tablets in Jubilees as the Foundation of a Competing Halakah Gabriele

Boccaccini

1. Jubilees: Neither "Rewritten Torah" nor "New Torah" In 1 9 9 7 M i c h a e l T h o m a s D a v i s translated into E n g l i s h a n d m a d e available to the i n t e r n a t i o n a l

a u d i e n c e a 1 9 8 4 S p a n i s h article b y F l o r e n t i n o

Garcia

M a r t i n e z , w h i c h still r e m a i n s the m o s t c o m p r e h e n s i v e s t u d y o n the h e a v e n l y 1

tablets in J u b i l e e s . G a r c i a M a r t i n e z p o i n t e d o u t that the f u n c t i o n o f the h e a v e n l y tablets in Jubilees c o u l d n o t b e r e d u c e d to their b e i n g "the d i v i n e , 2

p r e e x i s t i n g a r c h e t y p e of the [ M o s a i c ] T o r a h . " In m o s t cases "the i n s t r u c ­ tions c o n t a i n e d in these tablets do not c o i n c i d e w i t h the b i b l i c a l text" a n d introduce "new halakhot."

3

G a r c i a M a r t i n e z c o n c l u d e d his analysis b y af­

f i r m i n g that " i n m o r e t h a n h a l f of the cases in Jubilees . . . the H e a v e n l y T a b ­ lets f u n c t i o n in the s a m e w a y as the O r a l T o r a h . . . in R a b b i n i c J u d a i s m . T h e H e a v e n l y Tablets constitute a h e r m e n e u t i c a l r e c o u r s e w h i c h p e r m i t s the p r e ­ s e n t a t i o n of the 'correct' i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of the L a w a d a p t i n g it to the c h a n g ­ ing s i t u a t i o n s of life."

4

1. F. G a r c i a M a r t i n e z , " T h e H e a v e n l y Tablets in the B o o k o f Jubilees," in Studies in the Book of Jubilees, ed. M . Albani et a l . , T S A J 65 ( T u b i n g e n : M o h r Siebeck, 1997), 243-59; in S p a n ­ ish: " L a s Tablas Celestes en el Libro de los Jubileos," in Palabrasy

Vida, ed. A . Vagas M a c h u c a

a n d G . R u i z ( M a d r i d : U n i v e r s i d a d de C o m i l l a s , 1984), 333-49. F o r an earlier treatment of the subject, see R. E p p e l , "Les tables de la L o i et les tables celestes," RHPR

17 (1937): 4 0 1 - 1 2 .

2. G a r c i a M a r t i n e z , " T h e H e a v e n l y Tablets," 243. 3. G a r c i a M a r t i n e z , " T h e H e a v e n l y Tablets," 251 a n d 255. 4. G a r c i a M a r t i n e z , " T h e H e a v e n l y Tablets," 248.

193

Gabriele

Boccaccini

F o l l o w i n g G a r c i a M a r t i n e z ' s w o r k , in 1998 and 1999 M a r t h a H i m m e l ­ farb, H i n d y N a j m a n , a n d G a b r i e l e B o c c a c c i n i — w o r k i n g i n d e p e n d e n t l y o f o n e a n o t h e r — r e a c h e d s t r i k i n g l y s i m i l a r c o n c l u s i o n s that, w h i l e c o n f i r m i n g G a r c i a M a r t i n e z ' s o v e r a l l analysis of the h e a v e n l y tablets in J u b i l e e s , p o i n t e d 5

to a different r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n Jubilees a n d the M o s a i c T o r a h . We all e m p h a s i z e d that, c o n t r a r y to the r a b b i n i c v i e w o f the oral T o r a h , J u b i l e e s ' c o n c e p t of the h e a v e n l y tablets w a s not m e a n t to e n h a n c e the centrality o f the M o s a i c T o r a h . In d e s c r i b i n g the attitude of the a u t h o r of J u b i l e e s , w e c a m e to the v e r y s a m e c o n c l u s i o n , f o r m u l a t e d even w i t h the v e r y s a m e v o ­ c a b u l a r y — as a result of the i n t r o d u c t i o n of the c o n c e p t of the h e a v e n l y tablets, the " u n i q u e n e s s " of the M o s a i c T o r a h w a s "lost," " d o w n g r a d e d , " "relativized," " u n d e r m i n e d . "

Gabriele Boccaccini (1998):

Jubilees c l a i m s that the Z a d o k i t e t o r a h d o e s n o t c o n t a i n G o d ' s entire w i l l ; it is o n l y o n e of several i n c o m p l e t e v e r s i o n s o f the h e a v e n l y tab­ lets. . . . T h e Z a d o k i t e t o r a h d o e s n o t even c o n t a i n the entire r e v e l a t i o n given to M o s e s ; it is o n l y "the b o o k of the first T o r a h " ( 6 : 2 2 ) , w i t h J u ­ bilees also c l a i m i n g a M o s a i c o r i g i n . . . . T h e centrality a n d

uniqueness

of the Z a d o k i t e t o r a h are lost in its b e i n g o n l y o n e d o c u m e n t in a larger written

tradition,

including Enochic documents

and

Jubi­

lees. . . . T h e h e a v e n l y tablets are the o n l y a n d a l l - i n c l u s i v e r e p o s i t o r y of G o d ' s r e v e l a t i o n .

6

Martha Himmelfarb (1999):

T h e heavenly tablets serve as a source of divine authority that t r u m p s the a u t h o r i t y of the Torah. T h u s they put Jubilees a n d the Torah on a similar footing. B o t h are s u b o r d i n a t e to the heavenly archive that appar­ ently contains e v e r y t h i n g that appears in either of t h e m a n d m o r e as well. F r o m this angle of v i s i o n , then the existence of a heavenly p r o t o ­ t y p e of the Torah serves not to strengthen the authority of the Torah but 5. G . Boccaccini, Beyond the Essene Hypothesis (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1998); M . Himmelfarb, "Torah, Testimony, a n d Heavenly Tablets: T h e C l a i m o f Authority o f the B o o k of Jubilees," in A Multiform Heritage (Festschrift Robert A. Kraft), ed. B . G . Wright (At­ lanta: Scholars Press, 1999), 19-29; H . Najman, "Interpretation as Primordial Writing: Jubi­ lees a n d Its Authority Conferring Strategies," JSJ 30 (1999): 379-410. 6. Boccaccini, Beyond the Essene Hypothesis, 9 0 , emphasis added.

194

From to relativize

a Movement

of Dissent

to a Distinct

Form

of

Judaism

it. . . . Jubilees suggests that even as a b o o k of law the Torah

has limitations. N o t only h a d other b o o k s already revealed s o m e of its contents (the s a m e is true for Jubilees itself), but there are laws e n g r a v e d on the heavenly tablets that are not to be f o u n d in the T o r a h . T h u s Jubi­ lees demotes the Torah b y undermining

its claims to uniqueness

completeness, c l a i m i n g for itself a separate but equal s p h e r e .

and

7

Hindy Najman (1999):

L o n g before M o s e s ascended M o u n t Sinai, the calendrical a n d historical tradition inscribed u p o n the heavenly tablets w a s transmitted, in the f o r m of a written tradition, to E n o c h and then N o a h and the patri­ archs. . . . While the authority of M o s e s ' revelation at Sinai is invoked o n behalf of the solar calendar, that authority is at the s a m e time graded.

down­

M o s e s w a s not unique; he w a s o n e of the m a n y b o o k i s h heroes

c h a r g e d w i t h the transcription of heavenly t a b l e t s . . . . Jubilees' insistence on the pre-Sinaitic origin of its heavenly tradition . . . underminejs] special authority that h a d b e e n accorded to the M o s a i c T o r a h .

the

8

W e all a g r e e d that l a b e l i n g Jubilees as " r e w r i t t e n T o r a h " w o u l d b e i m ­ 9

p r o p e r a n d " m i s l e a d i n g , " as the d o c u m e n t w a s n o t " m o t i v a t e d b y an o u t ­ b u r s t o f c u r i o s i t y a n d trust in the i n e x h a u s t i b l e c o m p r e h e n s i v e n e s s of the Mosaic revelation."

10

O n the other h a n d , Jubilees w a s n o t even the " s u p e r -

c a n o n i c a l text" that B e n Z i o n W a c h o l d e r b e l i e v e d it to be, a i m e d to " r e p l a c e " the M o s a i c T o r a h as a m o r e a u t h o r i t a t i v e a n d reliable t e s t i m o n y of G o d ' s will.

1 1

N o t h i n g in the text of Jubilees suggests that the M o s a i c T o r a h s h o u l d

b e a b a n d o n e d or d i s r e g a r d e d . "In c o n t r a s t to the f a m i l i a r C h r i s t i a n c l a i m to s u p e r s e d e the S i n a i t i c c o v e n a n t with a n e w c o v e n a n t . . . J u b i l e e s b e l o n g s to a f a m i l y of texts that c l a i m s an e q u i v a l e n t o r p e r h a p s even a h i g h e r a u t h o r i t y t h a n that a c c o r d e d to M o s a i c r e v e l a t i o n insofar as the H e a v e n l y Tablets w e r e

7. Himmelfarb, "Torah," 27-28. 8. Najman, "Interpretation as Primordial Writing," 385, 388, 4 1 0 . 9. Najman, "Interpretation as Primordial Writing," 409 {pace J. C. Endres, Biblical In­ terpretation in the Book of Jubilees, C B Q M S 18 [Washington, D.C.: Catholic Biblical Associa­ tion of A m e r i c a , 1987]). 10. Boccaccini, Beyond the Essene Hypothesis, 89-90. 11. B . Z . Wacholder, "Jubilees as the Super C a n o n : Torah-Admonitions versus Torah C o m m a n d m e n t , " in Legal Texts and Legal Issues, ed. M . Bernstein et al., S T D J 23 (Leiden: Brill, 1997), 195-211.

195

Gabriele

Boccaccini 12

r e v e a l e d p r i o r to S i n a i t i c r e v e l a t i o n . " neither

to strengthen

the Pentateuch

In s u m : the author

nor to replace

of Jubilees

wanted

it.

A t first sight the w o r k o f the a u t h o r of Jubilees m a y a p p e a r s i m i l a r to that of an exegete w h o " m o v e s t h r o u g h the f a m i l i a r texts . . . solves v a r i o u s p r o b l e m s that arise f r o m t h e m a n d at t i m e s p r o v i d e s l o n g e r clarifications re­ g a r d i n g the m e a n i n g a n d s i g n i f i c a n c e of the b i b l i c a l events a n d ters."

13

charac­

Yet, this w a s not the a u t h o r o f J u b i l e e s ' s e l f - u n d e r s t a n d i n g . T h e d o c ­

u m e n t w a s n e i t h e r a n e w b o o k o f C h r o n i c l e s , as R . H . C h a r l e s i n t e n d e d ,

1 4

n o r an early m i d r a s h that m a k e s explicit w h a t is s u p p o s e d l y already i m p l i c i t in the text a n d clarifies the u n w r i t t e n , o u t of r e s p e c t for the a u t h o r i t y

and

u n i q u e n e s s o f the M o s a i c T o r a h . " U n l i k e C h r o n i c l e s , Jubilees presents itself as a r e v e l a t i o n f r o m an a n g e l . "

15

J u b i l e e s c l a i m s to c o n t a i n a w r i t t e n t r a d i t i o n that p r e d a t e s S i n a i — a t r a d i t i o n that s t a r t e d , l o n g b e f o r e the e x o d u s , w i t h E n o c h , a n d w a s i m p l e ­ m e n t e d b y N o a h , A b r a h a m , J a c o b , a n d L e v i a n d his s o n s . T h i s parallel w r i t ­ ten t r a d i t i o n w a s finally r e v e a l e d to M o s e s o n M o u n t S i n a i a l o n g w i t h the P e n t a t e u c h , o r "the b o o k o f the first T o r a h " ( J u b 6 : 2 2 ) . T h e existence o f the h e a v e n l y tablets as the celestial u r t e x t e x p l a i n s b o t h the s i m i l a r i t i e s a n d the differences b e t w e e n M o s a i c a n d E n o c h i c t r a d i ­ t i o n s . T h e y are s i m i l a r i n a s m u c h as t h e y b o t h d e p e n d o n the s a m e s o u r c e . T h e y are different i n a s m u c h as n e i t h e r is a full c o p y of the celestial a r c h e ­ t y p e . " J u b i l e e s u n d e r s t a n d s the H e a v e n l y Tablets as an a r c h i v e o f d i v i n e k n o w l e d g e . T h e T o r a h a n d Jubilees even in c o m b i n a t i o n c o n s t i t u t e o n l y a l i m i t e d p u b l i c a t i o n of its c o n t e n t s . "

16

T h e h e a v e n l y tablets, n o t Jubilees or

the M o s a i c T o r a h , are the o n l y c o m p r e h e n s i v e r e p o s i t o r y o f G o d ' s w i l l .

2. Mosaic or Enochic? W h a t m a k e s the b o o k o f Jubilees u n i q u e is the explicit reference to b o t h the M o s a i c T o r a h , the P e n t a t e u c h (a t r a d i t i o n that h i s t o r i c a l l y w a s h a n d e d d o w n 1 2 . N a j m a n , "Interpretation as P r i m o r d i a l Writing," 394. See also H i m m e l f a r b , " T o ­ rah," 28: "Wacholder's claim that Jubilees represents itself as s u p e r - c a n o n i c a l is inaccurate"; a n d J . C . V a n d e r k a m , The Book of Jubilees

(Sheffield: A c a d e m i c , 2 0 0 1 ) , 12: "[Jubilees'] p u r ­

p o s e w a s not to replace the first b o o k s of the Bible." 13. V a n d e r K a m , The Book of jubilees, 1 2 . 14. R . H . C h a r l e s , APOT, 2:7: " T h e a u t h o r of Jubilees s o u g h t to do for G e n e s i s w h a t the C h r o n i c l e r h a d d o n e for S a m u e l a n d Kings." 15. V a n d e r K a m , The Book of Jubilees, 1 6 . H i m m e l f a r b , "Torah," 28.

196

135.

From

a Movement

of Dissent

to a Distinct

Form

of

Judaism

by the Z a d o k i t e p r i e s t h o o d ) , a n d the E n o c h i c t r a d i t i o n , as p r e s e r v e d in the b o o k s o f E n o c h (a p a r a l l e l p r e - M a c c a b e a n t r a d i t i o n Zadokite elements).

1 7

with strong

anti-

In earlier texts, M o s a i c a n d E n o c h i c t r a d i t i o n s s h o w

e v i d e n c e of m u t u a l i n f l u e n c e , even c o m p e t i t i o n a n d dissent, b u t as far as w e k n o w , Jubilees is the first d o c u m e n t to m e n t i o n e x p l i c i t l y b o t h

traditions

a n d to a d d r e s s t h e o r e t i c a l l y the p r o b l e m o f their r e l a t i o n s h i p . A s w i t h any m e r g i n g of t r a d i t i o n s , the q u e s t i o n of w h i c h c o m p o n e n t (the Z a d o k i t e or the E n o c h i c ) p r e v a i l e d in their m e e t i n g f r o m the i d e o l o g i ­ cal p o i n t of v i e w is delicate a n d v e r y difficult to assess. If w e l o o k at the figures

of E n o c h a n d M o s e s , there is n o d o u b t that in

the n a r r a t i v e of Jubilees the figure o f M o s e s s u p e r s e d e s E n o c h as the central m e d i a t o r a n d S i n a i e m e r g e s as the p r i v i l e g e d p l a c e of r e v e l a t i o n , as J o h n B e r g s m a a n d D o r o t h y Peters c o r r e c t l y p o i n t o u t .

1 8

E n o c h w a s "the first w h o

l e a r n e d w r i t i n g " ( J u b 4 : 1 7 ) , b u t it w a s M o s e s w h o on M o u n t S i n a i w a s the re­ p o s i t o r y of b o t h the P e n t a t e u c h a n d J u b i l e e s . M o s e s ( n o t E n o c h ) is the d'union

trait

of b o t h t r a d i t i o n s . T h e role of E n o c h as r e v e a l e r r e m a i n s c o n f i n e d to

p r o g e n i t o r o f o n e t r a d i t i o n only, that of J u b i l e e s . O n the other h a n d , if w e l o o k at the ideologies

of E n o c h and M o s e s , we

h a v e a different p i c t u r e . T h e r e c o g n i t i o n of the p r i m a c y o f M o s e s as the cen­ tral r e v e l a t o r y figure d o e s not m e a n u n c r i t i c a l a c c e p t a n c e o f the Z a d o k i t e w o r l d v i e w . O n the c o n t r a r y , b y t a k i n g u p the m y t h o f the fallen angels ( J u b 7 : i 2 f f . ) , Jubilees shares the g e n e r a t i v e idea o f E n o c h i c J u d a i s m , that the u n i ­ v e r s e a n d h i s t o r y are u n d e r the i n f l u e n c e of r e b e l l i o u s d e m o n i c forces. A s a c o n s e q u e n c e , h i s t o r y is c o n d e m n e d to be a p r o c e s s o f decline a n d d e g e n e r a ­ tion until the t i m e o f G o d ' s final v i n d i c a t i o n — an e s c h a t o l o g i c a l a n d a p o c ­ a l y p t i c " c o u n t e r s t o r y " that is totally e x t r a n e o u s to the " m a s t e r n a r r a t i v e " of the M o s a i c T o r a h a n d d r a m a t i c a l l y alters its t h e o l o g i c a l o u t l o o k . In m y Beyond

the Essene

Hypothesis,

after s t r e s s i n g these m a n y ele­

m e n t s o f c o n t i n u i t y b e t w e e n the E n o c h i c t r a d i t i o n

and Jubilees, I con­

c l u d e d t h a t J u b i l e e s w a s the w o r k o f an a u t h o r w h o , f o l l o w i n g the t r a d i ­ tion of E n o c h , succeeded "in h a r m o n i z i n g M o s a i c revelation and E n o c h i c r e v e l a t i o n , a n d in s u b o r d i n a t i n g the f o r m e r to the l a t t e r . "

19

I n this s e n s e I

w a r n e d that the e x a l t a t i o n o f M o s e s a n d "the a c c e p t a n c e o f the M o s a i c 17. G . Boccaccini, Roots of Rabbinic Judaism (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2 0 0 2 ) . 18. John S. B e r g s m a , " T h e Relationship between Jubilees a n d the Early Enochic B o o k s (Astronomical B o o k a n d B o o k of the Watchers)," in this volume; Dorothy Peters, " N o a h Traditions in Jubilees: Evidence for the Struggle between Enochic a n d Mosaic Authority," Hen 31, no. 1 (2009). 19. Boccaccini, Beyond the Essene Hypothesis, 90.

197

Gabriele

Boccaccini

revelation [i.e., the Pentateuch] must not obfuscate the real intentions of the author."

20

Other authors have reached similar conclusions in their analyses, no­ tably:

Andreas Bedenbender ( 2 0 0 0 )

l E n o c h 1 - 5 and the later E n o c h literature testify to a process of "Mosaisierung des Wachterbuches."

21

Helge Kvanvig ( 2 0 0 4 ) :

The author mediates between two basic different attitudes toward the divine revelation, the Mosaic known from the Pentateuch, and the Enochic, known from the Enochic books. T h e Pentateuch is used exten­ sively both in regard to its laws and to its narrative, that forms the back­ bone of the story in Jubilees, but the perspective is Enochian

Jubilees

mediates between the Mosaic and Enochic traditions, using Moses to emphasize the importance of E n o c h .

22

David Jackson ( 2 0 0 4 ) :

Jubilees seems to be the earliest attempt to read the Mosaic Torah within the framework of the calendar and paradigm exemplars of the Books of Enoch.

23

Paolo Sacchi (2005):

Jubilees explicitly acknowledges the law of Moses, though considering it subordinate to the laws of the heavenly tablets which are eternal. . . . Zadokite tradition is accepted, but it is inserted into the Enochic theol-

20. Boccaccini, Beyond the Essene Hypothesis, 89. 21. A. Bedenbender, Der Gottder Welt trittauf den Sinai. Entstehung, Entwicklung und Funktionsweise der fruhjudischen Apokalyptik (Berlin: Institut Kirche und Judentum, 2 0 0 0 ) , 215-30. 22. H . S. Kvanvig, "Jubilees — between E n o c h and Moses: A Narrative Reading," JSJ 35, no. 3 (2004): 243-61 (here 260, 2 4 3 ) . 23. D. Jackson, Enochic Judaism: Three Defining Paradigm Exemplars (London: T. 8t T. Clark, 2 0 0 4 ) , 170.

198

From

a Movement

of Dissent

to a Distinct

Form

of

Judaism

ogy. . . . T h e author's a i m in Jubilees is to unify the theologies of Enochism and Z a d o k i t i s m .

2 4

M y interest w a s p r i m a r i l y in l o c a t i n g J u b i l e e s as an essential l i n k w i t h i n the c h a i n o f d o c u m e n t s ( i n c l u d i n g E n o c h i c texts) l e a d i n g m o r e d i ­ rectly to the e m e r g e n c e of the Q u m r a n c o m m u n i t y . W h a t m y " s y s t e m i c a n a l y s i s " m a d e a p p a r e n t w a s the g r o w t h of an intellectual m o v e m e n t , n o t the h i s t o r y of a single, h o m o g e n e o u s s o c i a l g r o u p . T h e " Q u m r a n c h a i n of d o c u m e n t s " w a s n o t i n t e n d e d to suggest that m e m b e r s of the s a m e g r o u p w r o t e o n e after the other the entire literature. In this sense m y w o r k w a s an e x p a n s i o n a n d clarification o f an i n t u i t i o n a l r e a d y f o r m u l a t e d in 1958 b y F r a n k M . C r o s s in the aftermath o f the d i s c o v e r y of the D e a d Sea S c r o l l s : " T h e c o n c r e t e contacts in t h e o l o g y , t e r m i n o l o g y , c a l e n d r i c a l p e c u l i a r i t i e s , a n d p r i e s t l y interests, b e t w e e n the e d i t i o n s of E n o c h , J u b i l e e s , a n d the Testa­ m e n t s of L e v i a n d N a p h t a l i f o u n d at Q u m r a n o n the o n e h a n d , a n d the d e ­ m o n s t r a b l y s e c t a r i a n w o r k s o f Q u m r a n o n the other, are so s y s t e m a t i c a n d d e t a i l e d that w e m u s t p l a c e the c o m p o s i t i o n o f these w o r k s w i t h i n a single line o f t r a d i t i o n . "

25

M o r e decidedly, D a v i d J a c k s o n has seen in J u b i l e e s a r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f E n o c h i c J u d a i s m ("It is n o t so m u c h that 1 E n o c h o r J u b i l e e s are w o r k s o f the Q u m r a n sect, but r a t h e r that the Q u m r a n s e c t a r i a n w o r k s are w o r k s of Enochic Judaism"),

2 6

a p o s i t i o n he reiterated at the c o n f e r e n c e : " J u b i l e e s

represents a s i g n i f i c a n t a n d g r o u n d b r e a k i n g stage of d e v e l o p m e n t in the e a r l y h i s t o r y of E n o c h i c J u d a i s m . " W h i l e a g r e e i n g on the existence of a v e r y close r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n J u ­ bilees a n d E n o c h i c J u d a i s m , I a m hesitant to f o l l o w J a c k s o n in labeling J u b i ­ lees as o n e of the " w o r k s of E n o c h i c J u d a i s m . " In spite of its a n t i - Z a d o k i t e at­ titude a n d its d e p e n d e n c e o n E n o c h i c c o n c e p t s , there are t o o m a n y e l e m e n t s of discontinuity, t o o m a n y things that Jubilees a p p a r e n t l y did n o t like in the earlier E n o c h i c t r a d i t i o n . T h e differences are m a n y a n d p r o f o u n d ( b o t h J o h n B e r g s m a a n d A n n e t t e R e e d h i g h l i g h t t h e m in their c o n t r i b u t i o n s to this v o l ­ u m e ) , a n d all of t h e m go in the d i r e c t i o n of e n h a n c i n g h u m a n r e s p o n s i b i l i t y a n d s a f e g u a r d i n g the eternal v a l i d i t y o f G o d ' s c o v e n a n t w i t h Israel. 24. P. Sacchi, " H i s t o r y o f the Earliest E n o c h i c Texts," in Enoch and Qumran New Light on a Forgotten

Connection,

Origins:

ed. G . B o c c a c c i n i ( G r a n d R a p i d s : E e r d m a n s , 2 0 0 5 ) ,

4 0 1 - 7 (here 4 0 4 ) .

25. F. M . C r o s s , The Ancient

Library

oj Qumran

( G a r d e n City, N.Y.: D o u b l e d a y , 1958),

148.

26. Jackson, Enochic Judaism,

221.

199

Gabriele

Boccaccini

B e s i d e s , w h i l e it is true that the u n i q u e n e s s o f the M o s a i c T o r a h is s o m e h o w d i m i n i s h e d i n J u b i l e e s , the s a m e a p p l i e s to the E n o c h i c b o o k s ; " n o w r i t i n g , E n o c h i c o r M o s a i c , is the exact t r a n s c r i p t o f the H e a v e n l y Tablets; the m o s t that e v e n J u b i l e e s c a n do is to q u o t e t h e m o c c a s i o n a l l y . "

27

3. Neither Mosaic nor Enochic: A Synthesis of Mosaic and Enochic Traditions We t h e n m e e t in Jubilees a text that m e r g e s E n o c h i c a n d M o s a i c t r a d i t i o n s , a s t r a n g e text in w h i c h M o s a i c a n d E n o c h i c e l e m e n t s a p p e a r side b y side. If M o s e s is the chief revealer, E n o c h can b e said to b e the l e a d i n g t h e o l o g i a n . If M o s e s is the speaker, E n o c h is his g h o s t w r i t e r . If M o s e s is the k i n g , E n o c h is his e m i n e n c e g r i s e . Jubilees is i n d e e d a p u z z l i n g text w h e r e , as A n n e t t e R e e d , in h e r p a p e r p r e s e n t e d at the c o n f e r e n c e , says, " p e r s u a s i v e a r g u m e n t s for the s u p e r i o r i t y of o n e [ M o s e s ] c a n r e a d i l y be m a t c h e d b y p e r s u a s i v e a r g u m e n t s for the s u p e r i o r i t y of the o t h e r [ E n o c h ] . " M a y b e the p r o b l e m of w h o p r e v a i l e d ( E n o c h o r M o s e s ) is a false p r o b ­ l e m . Were it a g a m e , w e w o u l d say it w a s a tie — n o clear w i n n e r , n o clear loser. Is it not after all w h a t w e s h o u l d e x p e c t f r o m a w e l l - c o n c e i v e d synthesis? T h e M o s a i c T o r a h is c o n s p i c u o u s l y absent i n the early E n o c h i c litera­ t u r e . M a n y scholars h a v e tried to solve the " m y s t e r y " of this a b s e n c e . In his p a p e r presented at the conference, H e l g e K v a n v i g is " h e s i t a n t " to infer ex silentio "a deliberate denial of its legitimacy," a n d w i t h G e o r g e N i c k e l s b u r g tends to see the lack of reference to the M o s a i c T o r a h as a c o n s e q u e n c e of "the special character of the E n o c h i c revealed w i s d o m . "

2 8

I find these

arguments

p e r s u a s i v e a n d in n o w a y c o n t r a d i c t o r y to the idea that the E n o c h i a n s w e r e i n d e e d an a n t i - Z a d o k i t e m o v e m e n t o f dissent. W h a t a p p e a r s i n c o n c e i v a b l e to m e is that a Z a d o k i t e priest — w h i l e offering the m o r n i n g sacrifice in the t e m p l e — c o u l d p r e a c h that this w o r l d w a s the perfect a n d eternal o r d e r reg­ ulated b y the M o s a i c T o r a h a n d in the e v e n i n g , s i m p l y to d e n o u n c e priestly e n d o g a m y , c o n t r a d i c t h i m s e l f a n d claim that the d i v i n e o r d e r h a d b e e n irre­ m e d i a b l y c o r r u p t e d b y the sin of fallen angels. I do not see h o w w i t h Seth S c h w a r t z w e c o u l d r e d u c e the entire a p o c a l y p t i c literature to "the p r o d u c t o f

27. B o c c a c c i n i , Beyond

the Essene Hypothesis,

89; see also H i m m e l f a r b , "Torah," 28.

28. See G . W. E . Nickelsburg, " E n o c h i c W i s d o m : A n Alternative to the M o s a i c Torah,"

in Hesed

Ve-Emet:

1998), 1 2 3 - 3 2 .

200

Studies

in Honor

of Ernest

S. Frerichs,

B J S 320 (Atlanta: Scholars Press,

From

a Movement

of Dissent

to a Distinct

Form

of

Judaism

the s a m e s c r i b a l a n d priestly elites a n d subelites w h o p r o d u c e d J e w i s h litera­ ture in general," a n d d i s m i s s the s u b v e r s i v e character of the E n o c h i c literature as a m e r e optical illusion, "a trick of p e r s p e c t i v e . "

29

W h a t e v e r the m o t i v a t i o n s

of its p r o m o t e r s w e r e , since its i n c e p t i o n " E n o c h i c J u d a i s m " e x p r e s s e d in its " c o u n t e r s t o r y " a p a r a d i g m of d i s r u p t i o n that c h a l l e n g e d the M o s a i c " m a s t e r n a r r a t i v e " a n d d e n i e d the Z a d o k i t e p a r a d i g m of order. In C o l l i n s ' s w o r d s ,

T h e idea of a m o v e m e n t w i t h i n J u d a i s m that is not centered on the M o ­ saic Torah m a y seem a n o m a l o u s in the context of the Hellenistic age, but it w a s not w i t h o u t precedent. T h e biblical w i s d o m literature

distin­

g u i s h e d precisely b y its lack of explicit reference to either the M o s a i c T o ­ rah or the history of Israel, and it retains this character as late as the b o o k of Qoheleth, w h i c h m a y be r o u g h l y c o n t e m p o r a r y w i t h the early E n o c h l i t e r a t u r e . . . . J u d a i s m in the early second century B C E w a s not u n i f o r m l y Torah centered, even a m o n g those w h o were familiar w i t h the Torah a n d respected it as o n e source of w i s d o m a m o n g others. I w o u l d agree then, with B o c c a c c i n i a n d others, that the E n o c h literature reflects a distinctive f o r m of J u d a i s m in the late third/early s e c o n d century B C E .

3 0

W h i l e "the i n v o c a t i o n of the p r e - d i l u v i a n E n o c h rather t h a n M o s e s as the revealer of essential w i s d o m " is o n e of "the d i s t i n g u i s h i n g traits of this f o r m of J u d a i s m , "

31

it w o u l d b e incorrect, h o w e v e r , to talk o f E n o c h i c J u d a i s m

as "a J u d a i s m w i t h o u t the Torah." T h e p r o b l e m w a s not the M o s a i c T o r a h ; "at n o p o i n t is there any p o l e m i c against the M o s a i c T o r a h . "

32

T h e c o n c e r n of the

E n o c h i a n s w a s rather their o w n v i c t i m i z a t i o n , w h i c h they t o o k as a p a r a d i g m of the v i c t i m i z a t i o n of all of h u m a n k i n d . A g r o u p of priests w h o felt e x c l u d e d f r o m , or m a r g i n a l i z e d w i t h i n , the Z a d o k i t e p r i e s t h o o d gave c o s m i c d i m e n s i o n to their e x c l u s i o n . F r o m their s e l f - u n d e r s t a n d i n g they derived the i m p o s s i b i l ­ ity of f o l l o w i n g any laws ( i n c l u d i n g the M o s a i c T o r a h ) in a universe that h a d

29. S. Schwartz, Imperialism and Jewish Society, 200 BCE to 640 CE (Princeton: Prince­ ton University Press, 2 0 0 1 ) , 1 5 , 2 . E . P. Sanders also viewed Jubilees as representative of "com­ m o n Judaism"; see E . P. Sanders, Paul and Palestinian Judaism (Philadelphia: Fortress, 1977), 362-86. 30. J. J. Collins, " H o w Distinctive Was Enochic Judaism?" in Meghillot: Studies in the Dead Sea Scrolls V-VI, ed. M . B a r - A s h e r a n d E . Tov (Haifa: University o f Haifa, 2 0 0 7 ) , 17-34 (here 32-33). 31. Collins, " H o w Distinctive," 33. 32. Collins, " H o w Distinctive," 3 1 .

201

Gabriele

Boccaccini

b e e n disrupted b y the presence of evil. In m y o p i n i o n , this is the reason w h y there is n o explicit a n t i - M o s a i c p o l e m i c and, as K v a n v i g says, "there is n o E n o c h i c p u r i t y c o d e , n o E n o c h i c Torah." T h e w i s d o m the E n o c h i a n s received p r e v e n t e d t h e m from d e v e l o p i n g any c o m p e t i n g h a l a k a h . T h e i r revelation w a s telling t h e m that the w o r l d w a s n o t w h a t it s h o u l d have b e e n . G r a n t M a c a s k i l l e m p h a s i z e s that " E n o c h i c J u d a i s m a n d Z a d o k i t e J u ­ daism had actually m u c h m o r e c o m m o n g r o u n d " than generally t h o u g h t .

3 3

I t h i n k he is c o r r e c t . Yet, this d o e s n o t e l i m i n a t e the E n o c h i c n o n c o n f o r m i s t attitude. T w o g r o u p s that share the s a m e priestly w o r l d v i e w a n d — ideally — the s a m e h a l a k a h m a y w e l l find t h e m s e l v e s at o d d s w i t h each other. W h i l e o p p o s i n g the Z a d o k i t e l e a d e r s h i p , the early Enochians with Moses,

they were merely

complaining.

were not

competing

T h e y s a w an illegitimate priest­

h o o d s e r v i n g i n the t e m p l e a n d evil s p r e a d i n g o n e a r t h o u t of G o d ' s c o n t r o l . C o n t r a r y to w h a t the Z a d o k i t e s c l a i m e d , t h e y c o n c l u d e d that the L a w o f M o s e s w a s n o t r u l i n g o n earth. A s l o n g as the M o s a i c T o r a h w a s the l a w o f the Z a d o k i t e p r i e s t h o o d , a n y r a p p r o c h e m e n t w a s i m p o s s i b l e . T h e M a c c a b e a n r e v o l t m a r k e d a t u r n i n g p o i n t . Ironically, the t r a g i c events o f those y e a r s h e l p e d s t r e n g t h e n b o t h E n o c h i c a n d M o s a i c t r a d i t i o n s . O n o n e h a n d , the collapse of the Z a d o k i t e o r d e r a n d the h a r d s h i p o f the p e r s e c u t i o n c o n f i r m e d the E n o c h i c v i e w that the w o r l d w a s p r o f o u n d l y c o r r u p t e d a n d evil. T h e l e g i t i m a c y o f the Z a d o k i t e p r i e s t h o o d relied essen­ tially o n their c o n t i n u o u s success; their d o w n f a l l p r o v e d their i l l e g i t i m a c y . O n the other h a n d , the M o s a i c T o r a h u n d e r w e n t a r a d i c a l t r a n s f o r m a ­ tion f r o m b e i n g the l a w of the r u l i n g p r i e s t h o o d to b e c o m i n g the n a t i o n a l law of Israel. " T h e g r e a t n e s s of the M a c c a b e e s w a s to p r e s e n t t h e m s e l v e s n o t as the leaders of a r i v a l priestly family, as t h e y w e r e , but as c h a m p i o n s of the n a t i o n a l t r a d i t i o n a g a i n s t the G r e e k s . . . . It w a s t h r o u g h the e x p e r i e n c e o f the M a c c a b e a n revolt that the Z a d o k i t e t o r a h b e c a m e the J e w i s h t o r a h court as the essential e l e m e n t o f J e w i s h n a t i o n a l i d e n t i t y . "

34

tout

It w a s n o w p o s s i ­

ble to be " p r o - M o s a i c " w i t h o u t b e i n g " p r o - Z a d o k i t e . " T h e n e w s i t u a t i o n o p e n e d the p a t h to a p r o c e s s of r a p p r o c h e m e n t b e ­ t w e e n E n o c h i c a n d M o s a i c t r a d i t i o n s , w h i c h is e v i d e n t in m a n y s o u r c e s o f the p e r i o d , i n c l u d i n g E n o c h i c literature. T h e b o o k s of D a n i e l a n d D r e a m V i s i o n s offer e x a m p l e s of texts w h e r e M o s a i c a n d E n o c h i c t r a d i t i o n s are in­ t e g r a t e d . B u t n e i t h e r text p r o d u c e d a real s y n t h e s i s .

33. G r a n t M a c a s k i l l , "Priestly Purity, M o s a i c Torah, a n d the E m e r g e n c e of E n o c h i c Judaism," Hen 3 1 , no. 1 ( 2 0 0 9 ) .

34. Boccaccini, Beyond

202

the Essene Hypothesis,

91.

From

a Movement

of Dissent

to a Distinct

Form

of

Judaism

In D r e a m V i s i o n s the M o s a i c T o r a h s i m p l y offers the h i s t o r i c a l f r a m e ­ w o r k that s u p p o r t s the E n o c h i c p r i n c i p l e s of d e g e n e r a t i o n . I s r a e l is affected b y evil as m u c h as a n y o n e else. T h e r e is n o alternative h a l a k a h . T h e r e is o n l y the r e p e a t e d m e s s a g e that b e i n g r i g h t e o u s , or d o i n g a n y g o o d , is a difficult if n o t i m p o s s i b l e task b e c a u s e of the c o r r u p t i o n of the u n i v e r s e . E v i l is a s o r t of g e n e t i c disease that s p r e a d s g e n e r a t i o n after g e n e r a t i o n , a n d there is n o m e d i c i n e . T h e r i g h t e o u s n e s s o f the c h o s e n p e o p l e m a y m a k e t h e m better off t h a n the rest of h u m a n k i n d (they are " s h e e p " i n s t e a d of " c a m e l s " or "ele­ p h a n t s " ) , but it does n o t a b s o l u t e l y spare t h e m f r o m evil (they h a v e lost their o r i g i n a l n a t u r e o f " b u l l s " a n d are r u l e d b y d e m o n i c f o r c e s ) . D a n i e l does n o t present his " w i s d o m " as a n e w r e v e l a t i o n but as a p o s t Sinaitic "interpretation." T h i s interpretation

i n c l u d e s even the full u n d e r ­

s t a n d i n g of the true m e a n i n g of ancient S c r i p t u r e s (in D a n 9 the seer u n d e r ­ stands J e r e m i a h in light of L e v 2 6 ) . D a n i e l is in n o w a y the recipient of an o r a l or w r i t t e n t r a d i t i o n that parallels S c r i p t u r e . D a n i e l is a p o s t - S i n a i t i c p r o p h e t , w h o lived l o n g after M o s e s a n d the T o r a h . Its w i s d o m challenges neither the l e g i t i m a c y o f the Z a d o k i t e p r i e s t h o o d n o r the centrality o f the T o r a h . It nei­ ther replaces n o r d o w n p l a y s the T o r a h ; it interprets the T o r a h . S o m e k e y p r i n ­ ciples of E n o c h i c J u d a i s m ( d e g e n e r a t i o n o f history, d e m o n i c forces, e n d o f t i m e s , etc.) are i n t r o d u c e d as if they w e r e i n h e r e n t to S c r i p t u r e .

4. A Sectarian-Born Movement, Eager to Become Normative W h i l e D r e a m V i s i o n s a n d D a n i e l p r o v i d e e v i d e n c e of a m e r g i n g of E n o c h i c a n d M o s a i c t r a d i t i o n s , n e i t h e r offers a real synthesis in w h i c h b o t h E n o c h a n d M o s e s m a i n t a i n their a u t o n o m y a n d l e g i t i m a c y . In the n a m e o f M o s e s only, D a n i e l r e a f f i r m e d the v a l i d i t y of the M o s a i c h a l a k a h a n d d e f e n d e d the Z a d o k i t e p r i e s t h o o d b u t c o u l d o n l y offer a p e r s p e c t i v e of suffering a n d m a r ­ t y r d o m in this w o r l d . In the n a m e of E n o c h only, D r e a m V i s i o n s reiterated the c r i t i c i s m t o w a r d the Z a d o k i t e p r i e s t h o o d a n d its s k e p t i c i s m o n the effec­ tiveness of the M o s a i c h a l a k a h b u t offered n o alternative h a l a k a h if n o t the h o p e for G o d ' s e s c h a t o l o g i c a l i n t e r v e n t i o n . N o t e v e r y b o d y w a s p e r s u a d e d . In the aftermath of the M a c c a b e a n re­ v o l t a g r o u p of priests ( i n f l u e n c e d or i n s p i r e d b y E n o c h i c p r i n c i p l e s ) s a w in the d e m i s e of the H o u s e o f Z a d o k n o t o n l y the c o n f i r m a t i o n o f their antiZ a d o k i t e attitudes b u t for the first t i m e the c o n c r e t e p o s s i b i l i t y of b u i l d i n g a p o s i t i v e alternative in this w o r l d . In their u n d e r s t a n d i n g , the M a c c a b e a n e x ­ p e r i e n c e p r o v e d that the w o r l d w a s as evil as the earlier E n o c h i c t r a d i t i o n

203

Gabriele

Boccaccini

c l a i m e d b u t the s i t u a t i o n w a s not as h o p e l e s s . T h e y did not d e n y that de­ m o n s p l a y e d a v e r y i m p o r t a n t role in b r i n g i n g evil to earth — w h o c o u l d h a v e d e n i e d it in the w a k e o f the t r a g e d y of those days? — yet t h e y c l a i m e d that the d e m o n s ' role w a s l i m i t e d to the o u t s i d e w o r l d a n d to the traitors o f Israel.

35

T h e " t r u e " Israelites h a d after all the p o s s i b i l i t y to take their destiny

in their o w n h a n d s , p r o v i d e d they r e m a i n e d s e p a r a t e d f r o m the i m p u r i t y o f the G e n t i l e s . T h e b a l a n c e d s y n t h e s i s of E n o c h i c a n d M o s a i c e l e m e n t s a l l o w e d t h e m to t r a n s f o r m w h a t w a s a tiny m o v e m e n t o f dissent a n d protest o f d i s e n f r a n ­ c h i s e d priests into a n e w f o r m of J u d a i s m , "a f o r m o c c u p y i n g a s p a c e b e ­ tween Enochic and Zadokite J u d a i s m , "

3 6

which (being both Zadokite

E n o c h i c ) s h o u l d n o l o n g e r b e labeled either

and

Z a d o k i t e or E n o c h i c . In the

n a m e of M o s e s a n d E n o c h , Jubilees c o u l d s t r e n g t h e n G o d ' s c o n t r o l over the universe through

a strict h i s t o r i c a l a n d c a l e n d r i c a l d e t e r m i n i s m ,

while

m a i n t a i n i n g the idea of c o r r u p t i o n a n d decline of history. B y m a k i n g G o d ' s c o v e n a n t w i t h Israel n o t a h i s t o r i c a l d e a l but o n e o f the u n c h a n g e a b l e a n d p r e o r d a i n e d rules of the u n i v e r s e , Jubilees m a d e a s t r o n g p o i n t that the sin of the fallen angels h a d n o t d e s t r o y e d the u n i q u e n e s s o f the c h o s e n p e o p l e but affected o n l y the rest o f the w o r l d . A s the c o v e n a n t w a s u n c o n d i t i o n a l l y offered (the Jews are b o r n in the c o v e n a n t ) a n d n o c o r r u p t i o n h a d d i s r u p t e d the c o v e n a n t , the p r o b l e m w a s n o w h o w to r e m a i n b l a m e l e s s in the c o v e n a n t in a c o r r u p t w o r l d . T h a t is the great g e n i u s of J u b i l e e s . T h e c o v e n a n t s t a n d s f i r m l y n o t be­ cause

the u n i v e r s e is u n c o r r u p t e d

and incorruptible

c l a i m e d ) b u t in spite of the c o r r u p t i o n

(as the

Zadokites

of the u n i v e r s e . C o n t r a r y to

the

E n o c h i c t r a d i t i o n , Israel is n o t defenseless. T h e r e is a " m e d i c i n e " g i v e n to the s o n s o f N o a h a n d the c o v e n a n t e m b r a c e s a n d p r o t e c t s the c i r c u m c i s e d J e w s , unless they e x p o s e t h e m s e l v e s to the i m p u r i t y of the o u t s i d e w o r l d that is d o m i n a t e d b y evil forces. A s the c h o s e n p e o p l e are subjected to the d e m o n s only if t h e y do n o t f o l l o w G o d ' s w i l l , the p a t h is o p e n e d to a d i s c u s s i o n o n w h i c h b e h a v i o r s h o u l d b e k e p t in o r d e r "to stay in" a n d w h i c h b e h a v i o r in­ stead causes a p o s t a s y a n d leads Israel "out." T h e "shift in f o c u s : f r o m the threat o f d e m o n s to the d a n g e r of a s s o c i a t i n g w i t h Gentiles," w h i c h R e e d h i g h l i g h t e d at the c o n f e r e n c e , is a shift f r o m a passive to a p r o a c t i v e attitude t o w a r d the p r e s e n c e of evil t h a t early E n o c h i a n s h a d so d r a m a t i c a l l y de-

35. J. C . V a n d e r K a m , " T h e D e m o n s in the ' B o o k o f Jubilees,'" in Die Damonen, A r m i n L a n g e et al. ( T u b i n g e n : M o h r Siebeck, 2 0 0 3 ) , 339-64. 36. Sacchi, "History," 404.

204

ed.

From

a Movement

of Dissent

to a Distinct

Form

of

Judaism

n o u n c e d — a shift that lays the f o u n d a t i o n s for the d e v e l o p m e n t of an alter­ native h a l a k a h ( w h a t the E n o c h i a n s h a d n e v e r d o n e b e f o r e ) . J u b i l e e s o v e r ­ c o m e s the sense o f d e s p a i r a n d h o p e l e s s n e s s o f the E n o c h literature a n d calls p e o p l e to f o l l o w alternative r u l e s . W h o e v e r w a s b e h i n d J u b i l e e s , t h e y w e r e tired of o n l y c o m p l a i n i n g a n d b e i n g r e s i g n e d , a n d m u c h m o r e eager to c o m ­ pete aggressively. T h e c o n c e p t of the h e a v e n l y tablets is at the f o u n d a t i o n of the entire i d e o l o g i c a l b u i l d i n g of Jubilees. It w a s the c o r n e r s t o n e that m a d e p o s s i b l e a synthesis of E n o c h i c and Mosaic principles, where both c o m p o n e n t s were g i v e n e q u a l dignity. It w a s the f o u n d a t i o n that m a d e p o s s i b l e the d e v e l o p ­ m e n t of a c o m p e t i n g h a l a k a h , w h i c h w a s n o t c o m p l e t e l y s e p a r a t e d f r o m the M o s a i c T o r a h , w h i l e able to " c o r r e c t " a n d integrate m a n y of the key e l e m e n t s of the M o s a i c t r a d i t i o n ( c a l e n d a r , p u r i t y laws, etc.).

5 . A Reform Movement, Becoming (against Its Hopes) Partisan (and Sectarian) A l l interpreters r e c o g n i z e that the a u t h o r of Jubilees addresses h i m s e l f to the J e w i s h p e o p l e as a w h o l e ( n o t to a m i n o r i t y g r o u p o r a g r o u p of c h o s e n a m o n g the c h o s e n ) .

3 7

A s R e g e v p r e s e n t e d at the conference, " J u b i l e e s r e p r e ­

sents a g r o u p w h i c h a i m s to c h a n g e s o c i e t y rather t h a n w i t h d r a w from it." In the aftermath of the M a c c a b e a n revolt, this attitude left o p e n three o u t c o m e s :

a. If J u b i l e e s ' p r o g r a m w e r e a c c e p t e d b y the m a j o r i t y o f the J e w i s h p e o p l e (as the a u t h o r o b v i o u s l y e x p e c t e d ) , J u b i l e e s a n d its h a l a k a h w o u l d b e ­ come normative. b . If J u b i l e e s ' p r o g r a m g a i n e d n o s i g n i f i c a n t a c c e p t a n c e (in spite of the a u t h o r ' s c o n f i d e n c e ) , the m o v e m e n t w o u l d d i s a p p e a r in total failure. c. If J u b i l e e s ' p r o g r a m w e r e e m b r a c e d o n l y b y a m i l i t a n t m i n o r i t y , it w o u l d s u r v i v e as the p l a t f o r m of a p a r t y o r a sect, d i s t i n g u i s h e d or s e p ­ arated ( m o r e or less r a d i c a l l y ) f r o m the rest of the p e o p l e .

T h e s t u d y o f s e c o n d t e m p l e J u d a i s m tells us that J u b i l e e s n e v e r r e a c h e d an u n d i s p u t e d status of S c r i p t u r e , c o m p a r a b l e to that of the P e n t a t e u c h . A clear d i s t i n c t i o n m u s t b e m a d e b e t w e e n w h a t J u b i l e e s w a n t e d to b e a n d w h a t it

37. M . H i m m e l f a r b , "Jubilees a n d Sectarianism," in Enoch and Qumran Light on a Forgotten

Connection,

Origins:

New

ed. G . B o c c a c c i n i ( G r a n d R a p i d s : E e r d m a n s , 2 0 0 5 ) , 1 2 9 - 3 1 .

205

Gabriele

Boccaccini

w a s . J a c k s o n is c o r r e c t w h e n he m a i n t a i n s that r e c o g n i z i n g the " n o n s e c t a r i a n " or " p r e s e c t a r i a n " c h a r a c t e r of Jubilees does n o t m e a n to state that the d o c u m e n t w a s n o r m a t i v e , w i d e s p r e a d , c o m m o n to all J e w i s h g r o u p s of the t i m e , or representative of the c o m m o n J e w i s h h e r i t a g e in s e c o n d t e m p l e J u ­ daism.

3 8

O n the other h a n d , the p o p u l a r i t y of J u b i l e e s , far b e y o n d the m a n y

copies f o u n d at Q u m r a n a n d v i c i n i t y , d o e s p r o v e that its l e g a c y s u r v i v e d in i n f l u e n t i a l circles o f s e c o n d t e m p l e J u d a i s m , n o t o n l y in s e c t a r i a n c l i q u e s . B o r n to be a n o r m a t i v e text, Jubilees d i d n o t g a i n u n i v e r s a l r e c o g n i t i o n . U s e d in s e c t a r i a n m i l i e u s , Jubilees w a s n o t restricted to t h e m . T h e alternative is n o t b e t w e e n b e i n g " n o r m a t i v e " a n d b e i n g "sectarian." J u b i l e e s w a s n e i ­ ther; it lived the g l o r i o u s career of a " p a r t i s a n " text. Since the b e g i n n i n g o f m o d e r n research o n J u b i l e e s , s c h o l a r s h a v e t r i e d to identify the " p a r t y " that p r o d u c e d a n d t r a n s m i t t e d J u b i l e e s . T h e p r i e s t l y c h a r a c t e r of the text m a d e s o m e o f the earlier interpreters, such as R u d o l f L e s z y n s k y a n d G e o r g e H e r b e r t B o x , l o o k at J u b i l e e s as a S a d d u c e a n text.

39

B u t the o b v i o u s p r i e s t l y c h a r a c t e r o f Jubilees d o e s n o t n e c e s s a r i l y i n ­

dicate c o n t i n u i t y w i t h the Z a d o k i t e t r a d i t i o n , w h i l e the e m p h a s i s o n the s o ­ lar c a l e n d a r a n d the p a r t i c u l a r i t i e s of J u b i l e e s ' h a l a k a h s h o w s that the d o c u ­ m e n t w a s at o d d s w i t h the r u l i n g a u t h o r i t i e s o f the J e r u s a l e m t e m p l e . As w e h a v e seen, F l o r e n t i n o G a r c i a M a r t i n e z ( w h o w r o t e his article in the early 1 9 8 0 s ) stressed the s i m i l a r i t i e s b e t w e e n the f u n c t i o n o f the h e a v e n l y tablets in Jubilees a n d that of the oral T o r a h in r a b b i n i c literature (Aboth 1 : 1 ) a n d of the " t e a c h i n g s of the fathers" of the P h a r i s e e s ( J o s e p h u s , Ant

13.297).

T h e r e w a s in fact a l o n g t r a d i t i o n c o n n e c t i n g Jubilees w i t h the P h a r i s e e s , a t r a d i t i o n that started w i t h A u g u s t D i l l m a n n , the father of m o d e r n research o n the d o c u m e n t , a n d w a s c o n s o l i d a t e d b y the t w o m o s t d i s t i n g u i s h e d inter­ preters a n d translators of Jubilees o f the early t w e n t i e t h century, F r a n c o i s Martin and Robert H e n r y C h a r l e s .

4 0

T h e d i s c o v e r y o f the D e a d Sea Scrolls

m a d e it a p p a r e n t that the w r i t t e n t r a d i t i o n of Jubilees c o n t a i n e d h a l a k a h that in n o w a y w a s c o m p a t i b l e w i t h that of the P h a r i s e e s .

41

B u t for s o m e

38. Jackson, Enochic Judaism, 2-13. 39. R . Leszynsky, Die Sadduzaer (Berlin: Mayer & Miiller, 1912), 179-236; G . H . B o x , "Introduction to the B o o k o f Jubilees," in R. H . Charles, The Book of Jubilees or the Little Genesis (London: S P C K , 1917), vii-xxxiii. 40. Charles, APOT, 2:1-82; F. Martin, "Le Livre des Jubiles. But et procedes de l'auteur. Ses doctrines," RB 8 (1911): 321-44, 502-33; A. Dillmann a n d H . Ronsch, Das Buch der Jubilaen (Leipzig: Fues, 1874). 41. E . Rivkin, " T h e B o o k o f Jubilees: A n Anti-Pharisaic Pseudepigraph," Erlsr 16 (1982): 193-98-

206

From

a Movement

of Dissent

to a Distinct

Form

of

Judaism

t i m e Jubilees c o n t i n u e d to b e c o m m o n l y p r e s e n t e d , if n o t as a P h a r i s a i c text, as the p r e c u r s o r of r a b b i n i c h a g g a d a h or at least a t e s t i m o n y of the a n t i q u i t y of the r a b b i n i c c o n c e p t of the o r a l T o r a h .

4 2

H o w e v e r , b o t h the " t e a c h i n g s of the fathers" o f the P h a r i s e e s a n d the r a b b i n i c c o n c e p t of the o r a l T o r a h are a s y m m e t r i c a l t e r m s of c o m p a r i s o n . T h e " t e a c h i n g s of the fathers" are said to b e h a n d e d d o w n in an o r a l ( n o t w r i t t e n ) f a s h i o n b y "a c h a i n of t r a d i t i o n " b u t are n o t said to d e r i v e f r o m a h e a v e n l y a r c h e t y p e or to be r e v e a l e d on M o u n t S i n a i . N o t even the core of the M i s h n a h m a k e s this c l a i m , except for a few h a l a k o t h . It is o n l y w i t h Aboth

that for the first t i m e w e h a v e the idea that "the t e a c h i n g s of the fa­

thers" are also " T o r a h , " w h i c h w i l l lead to the d e v e l o p m e n t of the r a b b i n i c c o n c e p t of the " d u a l Torah," as the o r a l a n d w r i t t e n sides of the " p r e e x i s t e n t Torah."

43

B u t for Jubilees w h a t is p r e e x i s t e n t are the h e a v e n l y tablets, n o t the

M o s a i c T o r a h . O n M o u n t S i n a i M o s e s r e c e i v e d " t w o " written

traditions,

b o t h o f t h e m e q u a l l y b a s e d o n the s a m e h e a v e n l y u r t e x t . A s N a j m a n has ef­ fectively p o i n t e d out, the o p p o s i t e m e t a p h o r s of " o r a l i t y " a n d " w r i t t e n n e s s " h i g h l i g h t m o r e t h a n a n y t h i n g else the different attitudes a n d strategies o f J u ­ bilees a n d the r a b b i s w h i l e facing "the c o m p l e x r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n the a u ­ t h o r i t y o f s a c r e d w r i t i n g a n d the a u t h o r i t y of

interpretation."

44

To better u n d e r s t a n d the place of J u b i l e e s in a n c i e n t J e w i s h t h o u g h t , w e h a v e to l o o k e l s e w h e r e . F r o m a n c i e n t J e w i s h s o u r c e s w e k n o w t h a t there w a s a g r o u p of Jews w h o in the s e c o n d c e n t u r y B . C . E . p a r t e d f r o m the rest o f the p e o p l e . T h e y w e r e called " E s s e n e s . " T h e s t r i k i n g i d e o l o g i c a l s i m i l a r i t i e s b e t w e e n Jubilees a n d the E s s e n e s d i d n o t g o u n n o t i c e d e v e n before the 1950s by authors

like A d o l f J e l l i n e k a n d A b r a h a m E p s t e i n ,

s t r e n g t h e n e d b y the d i s c o v e r y of the D e a d Sea S c r o l l s .

46

4 5

and were only

James VanderKam's

consistent c o n c l u s i o n since his earliest studies in the 1 9 7 0 s that "the a u t h o r b e l o n g e d to or w a s an i m m e d i a t e f o r e r u n n e r o f the b r a n c h o f J u d a i s m that

42. Joseph P. Schultz, "Two V i e w s of the Patriarchs: Noachides a n d Pre-Sinai Israel­ ites," in Text and Responses: Studies Presented to N. N. Glatzer, ed. M . A . Fishbane (Leiden: Brill, 1975), 41-59; S. Tedesche, "Jubilees, B o o k of," IDB 2 (1962), 1002-3. 43. M . S. Jaffee, Torah in the Mouth: Writingand Oral Tradition in Palestinian Judaism, 200 BCE—400 CE ( N e w York: O x f o r d University Press, 2 0 0 1 ) ; G . B o c c a c c i n i , " T h e Preexistence of the Torah: A C o m m o n p l a c e in Second Temple Judaism, o r a Later Rabbinic D e v e l o p m e n t ? " Hen 17 (1995): 329-50. 44. N a j m a n , "Interpretation as Primordial Writing," 4 1 0 . 45. A . Jellinek, Uber das Buch der Jubilaen und das Noah-Buch (Leipzig: Vollrath, 1855); A. Epstein, Beitrdge zur jiidischen Althertumskunde (Vienna: L i p p e , 1887). 46. M . Testuz, Les idees religieuses du livre des jubiles (Geneva: D r o z , i960).

207

Gabriele

Boccaccini

we k n o w as E s s e n e , "

4 7

as well as L a w r e n c e S c h i f f m a n ' s s t a t e m e n t that "the

h i g h status a c c o r d e d to this w o r k b y the Q u m r a n sect" d e m o n s t r a t e s that it w a s c o m p o s e d b y "circles the sect r e g a r d e d as its s p i r i t u a l f o r e r u n n e r s , "

48

are

e l o q u e n t e v i d e n c e of the c u r r e n t c o n s e n s u s in c o n t e m p o r a r y s c h o l a r s h i p . Jubilees is a k e y text in s e c o n d t e m p l e J e w i s h h i s t o r y a n d literature as it testi­ fies to the v e r y b e g i n n i n g o f the E s s e n e m o v e m e n t . W h a t has c h a n g e d a n d is c h a n g i n g in o u r u n d e r s t a n d i n g of these c o m ­ p l e x p h e n o m e n a is a new, g r o w i n g a w a r e n e s s of the E n o c h i c r o o t s of Jubilees — an e l e m e n t that in the past w a s a l r e a d y suggested b y the s e m i n a l yet then isolated v o i c e s of B e n j a m i n B a c o n a n d C h a n o c h A l b e c k .

4 9

Garcia Martinez's

article, p u b l i s h e d in 1984 after J a m e s V a n d e r K a m ' s studies a n d P a o l o Sacchi's c o m m e n t a r y , signals the t u r n i n g p o i n t in c o n t e m p o r a r y r e s e a r c h .

50

While

still h o n o r i n g the then g e n e r a l c o n s e n s u s of a r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n Jubilees a n d the r a b b i n i c c o n c e p t o f the oral T o r a h , G a r c i a M a r t i n e z h i g h l i g h t e d w i t h e q u a l v i g o r "the d e p e n d e n c y o f Jubilees u p o n the E n o c h i c literature, f r o m w h i c h is d e r i v e d the n o t i o n of the H e a v e n l y Tablets as a B o o k o f D e s t i n y i n w h i c h is n o t o n l y f o u n d the i n s c r i p t i o n o f h u m a n evil or g o o d , b u t the c o m ­ plete c o u r s e o f h i s t o r y . "

51

In recent y e a r s the " E n o c h i c p e r s p e c t i v e " has b e ­

c o m e the r e c o g n i z e d starting p o i n t of any research in the i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of J u ­ bilees, r e c e i v i n g n e w strength and m e a n i n g also b y a n e w , g r o w i n g a w a r e n e s s of the role p l a y e d b y E n o c h i c literature i n E s s e n e a n d Q u m r a n o r i g i n s .

5 2

We c a n n o w l o o k w i t h different eyes also at the t e s t i m o n y o f J o s e p h u s and P h i l o .

5 3

N o t s u r p r i s i n g l y , they say that the E s s e n e s v e n e r a t e d M o s e s as

"the l a w g i v e r " [Jewish

War 2 . 1 4 5 ; Apologia

pro Judaeis

1 ) , thus e m p h a s i z i n g

— as in Jubilees — the p r i m a c y of the figure of M o s e s o v e r against E n o c h . S e c o n d , J o s e p h u s c l a i m s that at the center of E s s e n e t h o u g h t w a s the c o n c e p t of h i s t o r i c a l d e t e r m i n i s m (Ant 1 3 . 1 7 1 - 1 7 2 ) w h i l e P h i l o m a i n t a i n s that t h e y at47. V a n d e r K a m , The Book of jubilees, 143; see already his Textual and Historical Studies in the Book of jubilees (Missoula: Scholars Press, 1977). 48. Cf. also L. H . Schiffman, Reclaiming the Dead Sea Scrolls (New York: Doubleday, 1995), 188. 49. C . Albeck, Das Buch der Jubilaen und die Halacha (Berlin: Scholem, 1930); B . W. Bacon, "The Calendar o f E n o c h a n d Jubilees," Hebraica 8 (1892): 124-31. 50. J. C . V a n d e r K a m , "Enoch Traditions in Jubilees and Other S e c o n d - C e n t u r y Sources," in S B L S P (1978), 229-51; P. Sacchi, "Libro dei Giubilei," in Apocrifi ell'Antico Testamento 1 (Turin, 1981), 179-411. 51. Garcia Martinez, " T h e Heavenly Tablets," 258. 52. See Boccaccini, Enoch and Qumran Origins. 53. For a detailed analysis o f Josephus's and Philo's testimony o n the Essenes, see m y Beyond the Essene Hypothesis.

208

From

a Movement

tributed n o evil to G o d (Quod

of Dissent

omnis probus

to a Distinct

Form

of

Judaism

liber sir 8 4 ) , t h u s e m p h a s i z i n g

the p r i m a c y — as in J u b i l e e s ' intellectual d i s c o u r s e — of the ideology

of

E n o c h , w h i c h is so d i s t i n c t i v e l y m a r k e d b y the c o n t e m p o r a n e o u s stress o n human

responsibility and victimization. But even m o r e

significantly,

J o s e p h u s a d d s t h a t the E s s e n e s w e r e the o n l y g r o u p to h a v e " b o o k s o f their o w n " [Jewish

War 2 . 1 4 2 ) , t h u s g i v i n g e v i d e n c e to their synthesis

of

written

t r a d i t i o n s — a claim that in s e c o n d t e m p l e literature is for the first t i m e e x ­ plicitly stated by Jubilees ( a n d o n l y later in 4 E z r a 1 4 : 4 5 - 4 8 ) .

6. Conclusion A n e w s c e n a r i o is b e f o r e u s . F a r f r o m b e i n g a g r o u p of n o s t a l g i c Z a d o k i t e s ,

5 4

the E s s e n e s w e r e a g r o u p o f priests t h a t like the earlier E n o c h i a n s h a d n o a p ­ p r e c i a t i o n w h a t s o e v e r for the role o f the H o u s e of Z a d o k in the early s e c o n d t e m p l e p e r i o d a n d n o r e g r e t for their d e m i s e , b u t b e i n g faithful to the T o r a h , t h e y d i d n o t w a n t to give u p the u n i q u e n e s s a n d effectiveness of the M o s a i c c o v e n a n t w i t h I s r a e l a n d leave evil the full c o n t r o l o f this w o r l d . A t the center of their r e v o l u t i o n w a s the c o n c e p t o f the h e a v e n l y tablets, w h i c h a l l o w e d t h e m to take w h a t t h e y d e e m e d w a s the b e s t o f b o t h M o s e s a n d E n o c h . B y m a k i n g the c o v e n a n t p a r t o f G o d ' s eternal order, t h e y g a v e Israel a s a c r e d h a ­ v e n s u r r o u n d e d b y s t r o n g p r o t e c t i v e w a l l s , a n i c h e of safety as l o n g as t h e y w o u l d k e e p t h e m s e l v e s s e p a r a t e d f r o m the rest o f the evil w o r l d . U n l i k e the E n o c h i a n s , t h e y b e l i e v e d the Israelites w e r e g i v e n rules to f o l l o w that c o u l d effectively p r o t e c t t h e m f r o m i m p u r i t y a n d evil, as l o n g as t h e y w o u l d keep t h e m . U n l i k e the Z a d o k i t e s , t h e y d i d n o t h a v e to m a i n t a i n against all e v i ­ dence that this w o r l d w a s G o d ' s perfect w o r l d . T h e b o o k of Jubilees w a s their creed a n d p u b l i c m a n i f e s t o , their reli­ g i o u s a n d p o l i t i c a l p l a t f o r m . In the aftermath of the M a c c a b e a n r e v o l t , t h e y h o p e d to b e c o m e the n e w l e a d e r s h i p in the t e m p l e a n d in the J u d e a n society. T h e y did n o t s u c c e e d , but t h e y did n o t give u p either. A s E s s e n e s they w o u l d s o o n l e a r n h o w to live s e p a r a t e d f r o m the rest of the p e o p l e , as a m i n o r i t y , s e l f - p r o c l a i m e d p a r t y of " c h o s e n a m o n g the chosen," if n o t as the sect of the o n l y " c h i l d r e n o f light." L i k e in a b e s i e g e d city s u r r o u n d e d b y m u l t i p l e w a l l s against p o w e r f u l d e m o n i c e n e m i e s , t h e y retreated to the citadel w h e n t h e y saw the o u t e r w a l l b r e a c h e d or on the v e r g e of c o l l a p s e (a g r o u p of t h e m

54. Pace H . Lignee, " L a place dii livre des Jubiles et d u R o u l e a u d u Temple dans l'histoire d u m o u v e m e n t essenien," RevQ 13 (1988): 3 3 1 - 4 5 .

209

Gabriele

Boccaccini

even fled to the wilderness of Judah). Whatever city of refuge they chose, there they kept those practices that in their opinion guaranteed the integrity of the covenant and the survival of the chosen people, patiently waiting for the time G o d would vindicate their righteousness and faithfulness — a time they hoped for for centuries and never saw.

210

Abram's Prayer: The Coherence of the Pericopes in Jubilees 12:16-27 Jacques van Ruiten

In this contribution I will concentrate on the prayer of A b r a m and the sur­ rounding events in the b o o k of Jubilees ( 1 2 : 1 6 - 2 7 ) . ' To be able to address the question of coherence and tradition of this passage, I will first distinguish the smaller pericopes from each other within this passage on the basis of their use of words and theme. I will then try to show h o w they are inter­ related. Finally, I will look into the w a y Jub 1 2 : 1 6 - 2 7

l s

embedded in the book

and try to identify the traditions within this passage.

1. T h e Pericopes in Jubilees 12:16-27 The events that take place around Abram's prayer (12:16-27)

c

a

n

be divided

into four pericopes: (a) A b r a m observes the stars ( w . 1 6 - 1 8 ) ; (b) Abram's prayer (io,-22a); (c) God's answer ( 2 2 ^ 2 4 ) ; and (d) A b r a m learns H e b r e w ( 2 5 - 2 7 ) . With the exception of the third pericope, which is a rewriting of G e n 1 2 : 1 - 3 , these pericopes can be considered additions to the biblical text of Genesis. T h e y are distinguished from each other by subject and the repeti­ tion of words. Because of the length of the passages as a whole, I will present first the text of the smaller pericopes, followed by a short description of the literary unity of each pericope with regard to subject and use of words. For

1.1 will speak consistently about A b r a m , since his n a m e is changed to Abraham only in Gen 17:5 (Jub 15:7).

211

Jacques van

Ruiten

1 2 : 2 2 - 2 4 I will also go into the rewriting of the biblical text. After this, I will deal with the coherence of the four pericopes as a whole.

Jubilees 12:16-18 (Abram observes the stars) 16a

2

In the sixth week, during its fifth year, Abram sat at night — at the beginning of the seventh month — to observe the stars from evening until morning in order to see what would be the character of the year with respect to the rains.

b

H e was sitting

c

and he was observing.

17a

A voice came in his heart

b

and he said:

c

"All the signs of the stars and signs of the m o o n and the sun — all are in the hand of the Lord,

d

W h y am I seeking?

18a

If he wishes

b

he will make it rain in the morning and evening;

c

and if he wishes,

d e

he will not make it fall. Everything is in his hand."

This first small passage shows the following repetition of words and phrases: "stars" (12:16a, 17c); "to observe" (12:16a, 16c); "signs" (12:17c); "eve­ ning" and "morning" (12:16a, 18b); "rain" (12:16a, 18b); "to sit" (12:16a, 1 6 b ) ; "all / everything is in his hand" (12:17c, i8e); and "if he wishes" (12:18a, 1 8 c ) . The direct speech ( i 2 : i 7 c - i 8 ) can be characterized as a monologue (12:17a: "A voice came in his heart"). Unlike the narrative context, the direct speech shows a poetical structure in that there is balance between the lines. Within this structure 12:17c ("all are in the hand of the Lord") balances with I2:i8e ("Everything is in his hand"). In between these lines, there are two sentences with an identical beginning (12:18a, c: "if he wishes") followed by an anti­ thetical effect (12:18b, d ) . It is striking that I 2 : i 7 d ("Why am I seeking?") is not balanced by another line. In this w a y it acquires a certain emphasis.

2. The translation is based o n J. C. VanderKam, The Book of Jubilees, II, C S C O 511, Scriptores Aethiopici, 88 (Louvain: Peeters, 1989). However, I feel free to deviate from this translation to do justice to the repetition o f words.

212

Abram's

Prayer

Jubilees 1 2 : 1 9 - 2 2 3 (Abram's prayer) 19a

That night he prayed

b

and he said:

c

" M y G o d , m y G o d , G o d most High,

d

You alone are m y G o d .

e

You have created everything;

f

Everything that was and has been is the work of your hands,

g

You and your kingdom I have chosen.

20a

Save me from the hand of the evil spirits w h o rule the thoughts of the people's heart,

b

M a y they not lead me astray from following you, m y G o d .

c

D o establish me and my seed until eternity,

d

M a y w e not go astray from n o w until eternity."

21a

A n d he said:

b

"Shall I return to U r of the Chaldeans w h o are seeking me to return to them?

c d

O r am I to sit here in this place? Make the path that is straight before you prosper through the hand of your servant so that he may do (it),

e

M a y I not proceed in the going astray of m y heart, my God."

22a He finished his speaking and his praying.

This second passage is introduced with a form of "to pray" (12:19a). It also ends with a form of "to pray" (12:22a). Abram's prayer can be subdi­ vided into two units: 1 2 : 1 9 - 2 0 and 12:21, with both units introduced by "and he said" (12:19b, 2 1 a ) . T h e prayer consists of a combination of a h y m n ( i 2 : i 9 C - f ) and a supplication (i2:2oa-d, 2 i d - e ) . T h e prayer also includes a question that cannot be characterized as a supplication ( i 2 : 2 i b c ) . This pas­ sage shows the following repetition of words: "to pray" (12:19a, 2 2 a ) ; "hand" ( 1 2 : 1 9 ^ 20a, 2 i d ) ; "to go astray" (12:20b, 2od, 2ie); "until eternity" (12:20c, 2od);

"return" (12:21b [ 2 x ] ) ; "my G o d " (12:19c [ 2 x ] , I 9 d , 2 0 b , 2 i e ) ; and

"heart" (12:20a, 2 i e ) . T h e prayer has a poetical structure in that two subse­ quent lines are balanced by each other with regard to the use of words and contents (12:19c and I 2 : i 9 d ; 12:19c and 12:19!; 12:20a and 12:20b; 12:20c and 3

i2:2od; 12:21b and 12:21c; i2:2id and i 2 : 2 i e ) . Also in this passage is one un­ balanced line (i9g: "You and y o u r kingdom I have chosen").

3. T h e passage shows parallelismus

membrorum,

which is characteristic o f the

prosodic structure o f poetry in the Hebrew Bible.

213

Jacques van Ruiten The third pericope, in which G o d answers Abram's prayer, can be con­ sidered a rewriting of Gen 1 2 : 1 - 3 , the call to go to Canaan. Therefore, I will n o w put both texts side by side.

4

Genesis 1 2 : 1 - 3

Jubilees ia:22b-24 (God's answer)

la

22b

And the Lord said to Abram:

And behold, the word of the Lord was sent to him through my hand, saying:

lb

"Go from your land and your

c

family and your father's house

land, from your family, and

to the land that I will show

your father's house to the land

you. 2a

"Now you, come from your

I will make of you a great [ ]

that I will show you. d

people.

I will establish you into a large A N D P O P U L O U S people.

2b

I will bless you,

23a

2c

and make your name great.

b

I will bless you, and make your name great.

2d

You will become a blessing [ ] .

c

You will become blessed I N THE LAND.

d

All the peoples of the land will be blessed in vou.

3a

I will bless those w h o bless

e

you, 3b

and him w h o curses you I will

f

curse; 3c

Those w h o bless you I will bless, and those w h o curse you I will curse.

and all the families of the land will be blessed in vou." 24a

I W I L L B E C O M E GODFOR YOU, YOUR SON, YOUR GRANDSON, A N D A L L YOUR SEED.

b C

DO NOT B E A F R A I D . FROM NOW UNTIL A L L THE FAMILIES GENERATIONS OF T H E L A N D I A M YOUR GOD."

4. In the following synoptic overview, I have tried to present a classification o f the similarities and dissimilarities between Genesis and Jubilees. I have used small caps to high­ light those elements o f Genesis that do not occur in Jubilees, and vice versa, i.e., the omis­ sions and additions. I have used "normal script" for the corresponding elements between both texts, i.e., the verbatim quotations o f one or m o r e words from the source text in Jubi­ lees, besides additions or omissions. Sometimes there is a rearrangement o f words and sen­ tences. I have underlined those elements.

214

Abram's

Prayer

T h e t h i r d p e r i c o p e , in w h i c h G o d a n s w e r s A b r a m ' s p r a y e r , c a n b e c o n ­ s i d e r e d a r e w r i t i n g o f G e n 1 2 : 1 - 3 , the

c a i 1

to go to C a n a a n . T h i s p a s s a g e

s h o w s the f o l l o w i n g r e p e t i t i o n of w o r d s : "to b l e s s " ( 1 2 : 2 3 a , 23c, 2 3 d , 23c [ 2 x ] ) ; "to c u r s e " ( 1 2 : 2 3 0 ; " l a n d " ( 1 2 : 2 2 c [ 2 x ] , 2 3 c , 2 3 d , 2 4 c ) ; " I w i l l b e c o m e G o d for y o u " ( 1 2 : 2 4 a ; cf. 1 2 : 2 4 c ) ; a n d " f a m i l y " ( 1 2 : 2 2 c , 2 4 c [ " g e n e r a t i o n s " ] ) . T h e p o e t ­ ical s t r u c t u r e of the p a s s a g e is reflected in the b a l a n c e b e t w e e n the t w o s u b ­ s e q u e n t lines ( 1 2 : 2 2 c a n d i 2 : 2 2 d ; 12:23a a n d 1 2 : 2 3 b ; 1 2 : 2 3 c a n d 1 2 : 2 3 d ; 1 2 : 2 3 c a n d 12:23ft 12:24a a n d 1 2 : 2 4 c ) . O n e line is n o t b a l a n c e d , n a m e l y , 12:24b ("do not be afraid"). W i t h r e g a r d to the text o f G e n 1 2 : 1 - 3 , l i b i 2 : 2 2 b - 2 4 s h o w s a d d i t i o n s (i2:22d; 12:23c; 12:24), variations (12:22b, 2 2 d ) , and rearrangement

(12:23d).

J u b 1 2 : 2 2 b can b e c o n s i d e r e d a v a r i a t i o n o f G e n 1 2 : 1 a . In fact, it also has s o m e a d d i t i o n s : " a n d b e h o l d " ; "the w o r d of"; a n d " s a y i n g , " in a d d i t i o n to the v a r i ­ ation " w a s sent t h r o u g h m y h a n d " instead of "said," a n d "to h i m " i n s t e a d o f "to A b r a m . " T h i s r e w r i t i n g results in an a v o i d a n c e o f a direct c o n t a c t b e ­ t w e e n G o d a n d A b r a m . It is the a n g e l w h o m e d i a t e s b e t w e e n t h e m . T h i s m e ­ d i a t i o n o c c u r s also in the a d d i t i o n 1 2 : 2 5 - 2 6 . In J u b 13:3 (cf. G e n 1 2 : 7 ) , j u s t af­ ter A b r a m e n t e r e d the l a n d o f C a n a a n , the L o r d here s p e a k s directly to A b r a m w i t h o u t the i n t e r m e d i a r y of an a n g e l . F r o m t h e n o n w a r d G o d a d ­ dresses h i m s e l f directly to A b r a ( h a ) m . J u b I 2 : 2 2 d u s e s the w o r d "to p u t ; to e s t a b l i s h " (rassaya), 12:2a has "to m a k e "

(!TtP37;

where Gen

L X X : rcoieco). T h e s a m e w o r d is u s e d in A b r a m ' s

p r a y e r ( 1 2 : 2 0 c ) . P o s s i b l y the u s e o f rassaya b l e s s i n g in G e n 1 3 : 1 6 ("I w i l l e s t a b l i s h [DIP]

h a s b e e n i n f l u e n c e d b y the y o u r d e s c e n d a n t s like the d u s t

of the e a r t h " ) for w h i c h J u b 1 3 : 2 0 b r e a d s : " I w i l l establish [rassaya]

your

5

d e s c e n d a n t s like the s a n d s o f the s e a . " A l s o , the a d d i t i o n " a n d p o p u l o u s " in J u b I 2 : 2 2 d is p o s s i b l y i n f l u e n c e d b y a p a r a l l e l p a s s a g e . I refer to G e n 18:18

1

(01X371 VlTA 'IS ?: "a

great and p o p u l o u s p e o p l e " ) . Also, one textual

w i t n e s s of the S e p t u a g i n t G e n 1 2 : 2 a (d 458) a d d s " a n d p o p u l o u s " TTOXU).

(Kai

6

Jub 1 2 : 2 3 c s h o w s a c o m b i n a t i o n of v a r i a t i o n ( " b l e s s e d " i n s t e a d o f "a b l e s s i n g " ) a n d a d d i t i o n ("in the l a n d " ) . T h i s t r a n s f o r m a t i o n stresses the fact that A b r a m is the o n e w h o is b l e s s e d . It d o e s n o t f o c u s on his role as b e i n g a 5. See also G e n 21:18 ("I will m a k e h i m [IIO'IPK] a great nation," where Jub 17:7 reads: "I will m a k e h i m [rassaya] into a great nation"). C o m p a r e G e n 46:3 ("for I will there m a k e of you [*Jft tl>N] a great nation," where Jub 44:5 reads: " I will m a k e [sar'a] y o u into a great na­ tion there"), b u t the difference between the Ethiopic verbs rassaya a n d sar'a seems to b e v e r y small. Cf. V a n d e r K a m , Book of Jubilees, II, 289. 6. Cf. V a n d e r K a m , Book of Jubilees, II, 73. ,

215

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Ruiten

b l e s s i n g / o r others, as c a n b e a r g u e d f r o m G e n I 2 : 2 d . t h a t A b r a m is b l e s s e d wasta 1 2 : 2 3 d ) as " i n the l a n d . "

8

madr,

7

Moreover, Jubilees adds

w h i c h I have translated here (and

T h i s is in c o n f o r m i t y w i t h the t r a n s l a t i o n o f

in

rmdr

in 1 2 : 2 2 c . M o r e o v e r , b o t h in G e n e s i s a n d in J u b i l e e s the b l e s s i n g o f A b r a m is r e l a t e d to his e n t r a n c e i n t o the l a n d . B o t h in G e n e s i s a n d J u b i l e e s the p r o m ­ ise o f a n a b u n d a n c e o f o f f s p r i n g is c o m b i n e d w i t h the p r o m i s e o f the l a n d .

9

T h e r e a r r a n g e m e n t o f G e n 1 2 : 3 c in J u b 1 2 : 2 3 d is p o s s i b l y d u e to a s p e ­ cific v i e w o f the p o e t i c s t r u c t u r e o f the p a s s a g e . I n G e n 1 2 : 1 - 3

o

n

e

c

a

n

point

to a b a l a n c e b e t w e e n 1 2 : 1 b a n d 1 2 : 2 a ; 1 2 : 2 b a n d 1 2 : 2 c ; 1 2 : 3 a a n d 1 2 : 3 c . I n this s t r u c t u r e b o t h G e n I 2 : 2 d a n d 1 2 : 3 c are n o t b a l a n c e d b y a n y a d j a c e n t l i n e . B y p u t t i n g G e n 1 2 : 3 c after G e n I 2 : 2 d (in J u b I 2 : 2 3 c d ) a n d , m o r e o v e r , b y a d d i n g the w o r d s " i n the l a n d " to G e n i 2 : 2 d , J u b i l e e s s t r e n g t h e n s the b a l a n c e b e ­ t w e e n t h e s e lines ( G e n I 2 : 2 d , 3 c ) . T h e u s e o f "peoples" " f a m i l i e s " (firlSttfQ; E t h . 'azmad)

('ahzab)

instead of

is p o s s i b l y i n f l u e n c e d b y the use o f " p e o ­

p l e s " in c o m p a r a b l e c o n t e x t s : G e n 1 8 : 1 8 ( " a n d all the peoples

o f the l a n d w i l l

b e b l e s s e d in h i m " ) a n d G e n 2 2 : 1 8 (cf. G e n 2 6 : 4 ) ( " a n d in y o u r s e e d w i l l all the peoples

o f the l a n d bless t h e m s e l v e s " ) . N o t e , h o w e v e r , t h a t G e n 2 8 : 1 4 u s e s

the w o r d " f a m i l i e s " ( " a n d in y o u a n d y o u r s e e d w i l l all the families

o f the

land be blessed"). T h e r e a d i n g in J u b i 2 : 2 3 f ("those w h o c u r s e y o u " ; p l u r a l ) instead o f the

7. R. W. L . Moberly, The Bible,

Theology,

and Faith: A Study

oj Abraham

and Jesus,

C a m b r i d g e Studies in Christian D o c t r i n e 5 ( C a m b r i d g e : C a m b r i d g e University Press, 2 0 0 0 ) , 1 2 4 , a n d Keith N . G r i i n e b e r g , Abraham, Exegetical

Study of Genesis 12:3 in Its Narrative

Blessing,

and the Nations:

A Philological

and

Context, B Z A W 332 (Berlin: D e Gruyter, 2 0 0 3 ) ,

have argued that G e n I2:2d does n o t m a k e A b r a m a source of blessing to others, b u t rather p r o m i s e s that he will b e signally blessed in such a w a y that others will notice. 8. S o also O. S. Wintermute, "Jubilees:

A N e w Translation a n d Introduction," in OTP,

2:81. However, in J u b 12:23d he translates this b y "of the earth " R . H . C h a r l e s , The Book of Ju­ bilees or the Little

Genesis:

Translated

from

the Editor's

Charles Black, 1 9 0 2 ) , 95, a n d V a n d e r K a m , Book of jubilees, b y "the earth." K . Berger, Das Buch der Jubilaen,

JSHRZ,

Ethiopic

Text ( L o n d o n : A d a m &

II, 73, translate nudr in b o t h cases V.3 (Giitersloh: G e r d M o h n , 1 9 8 1 ) ,

395, reads "auf d e r Erde." 9. Israel h a s the status o f G o d ' s p e o p l e from the creation o n w a r d . Israel is separated from the other peoples a n d lives in a sacred space. F o r the centrality of the l a n d in the b o o k of Jubilees, see J. M . Scott, On Earth as in Heaven: The Restoration

of Sacred Time and Sacred

Space in the B o o k of Jubilees, J S J S u p 91 (Leiden: Brill, 2 0 0 5 ) , 1 6 1 - 2 0 9 . Scott stresses that the holy land o f Israel w i t h its central sanctuary is the focal point of the concept that the goal o f history is the realignment o f sacred space w i t h sacred time so that everything will b e c o m e "on earth as in heaven." T h e universalistic strains in the b o o k are subordinated

to its

particularistic e m p h a s i s o n Israel a n d the temple in the land. T h e exact b o u n d a r i e s o f the land are precisely defined.

216

Abram's

Prayer

M a s o r e t i c text o f G e n 1 2 : 3 b ("him w h o curses y o u " ; s i n g u l a r ) reflects the p l u r a l r e a d i n g that is also f o u n d i n the S a m a r i t a n P e n t a t e u c h ,

Septuagint,

a n d the Peshitta. It is n o t necessary, therefore, to c o n s i d e r this a v a r i a t i o n . Finally, the m o s t s t r i k i n g e l e m e n t in the r e w r i t i n g is the a d d i t i o n o f Jub 1 2 : 2 4 . I n G e n 1 2 : 1 - 3 there are n o clues t h a t c o u l d e x p l a i n this a d d i t i o n . One could, of course, think of a possible influence from comparable pas­ sages, especially f r o m the i n t r o d u c t i o n to the c o n c l u d i n g o f the c o v e n a n t i n G e n 1 7 ( G e n 1 7 : 1 - 8 ) . A p a r t f r o m the p r o m i s e o f the l a n d a n d o f n u m e r o u s o f f s p r i n g , the c o n c l u s i o n o f the c o v e n a n t i n c l u d e s a p r o m i s e that G o d m a k e s to A b r a m a n d h i s d e s c e n d a n t s ( G e n 1 7 : 7 - 8 : " A n d I w i l l establish m y c o v e n a n t b e t w e e n m e a n d y o u , a n d y o u r d e s c e n d a n t s after y o u t h r o u g h o u t their g e n ­ e r a t i o n s , for a n everlasting c o v e n a n t , to be God to you and to your seed you.

after

A n d I w i l l give to y o u , a n d to y o u r d e s c e n d a n t s after y o u , the l a n d o f

y o u r s o j o u r n i n g s , all the l a n d o f C a n a a n , for a n everlasting p o s s e s s i o n , and I 10

will be their God").

A l t h o u g h I w o u l d n o t e x c l u d e the p o s s i b i l i t y that 1 2 : 2 4

alludes to the c o v e n a n t o f G e n 1 7 , G o d ' s a n s w e r i n 1 2 : 2 4 is

a

confirmation of

A b r a m ' s s u p p l i c a t i o n i n the first p l a c e a n d reflects the m u l t i p l e i n v o c a t i o n o f " M y G o d , m y G o d , G o d m o s t h i g h . Y o u a l o n e a r e m y G o d " (i2:icjcd). In the last p e r i c o p e o f this p a s s a g e A b r a m learns H e b r e w :

Jubilees 12:25-27 ( A b r a m learns Hebrew) 25a

T h e n the L o r d G o d said to m e :

b

" O p e n his m o u t h a n d his ears to hear

c

a n d s p e a k w i t h his t o n g u e i n the revealed language."

d

F o r from the d a y o f the collapse it h a d d i s a p p e a r e d from the m o u t h ( s ) o f all m a n k i n d .

26a

I o p e n e d his m o u t h , ears, a n d lips

b

a n d b e g a n to speak H e b r e w with h i m — in the l a n g u a g e of the creation.

27a

H e t o o k his fathers' b o o k s

b

(they were written i n H e b r e w )

c

and copied them.

d

F r o m that time he b e g a n to s t u d y them,

e

w h i l e I w a s telling h i m e v e r y t h i n g that he w a s u n a b l e (to understand).

f

H e studied t h e m t h r o u g h o u t the six rainy m o n t h s .

10. T h e rewriting o f G e n 17:7-8 in Jub 15:9-10 is v e r y literal.

217

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In this p e r i c o p e the n a r r a t i v e in w h i c h the a c t i o n s o f A b r a m p l a y a p a r t is d o m i n a n t . T h i s w a s also t r u e i n the first p a s s a g e ( 1 2 : 1 6 - 1 8 ) . A s far as the s u b ­ ject is c o n c e r n e d ( t h e l e a r n i n g o f H e b r e w a n d the s t u d y i n g o f the b o o k s o f his f a t h e r ) , this p e r i c o p e is s o m e w h a t l o o s e l y c o n n e c t e d w i t h the o t h e r p e ­ r i c o p e s . W i t h i n the p e r i c o p e the f o l l o w i n g r e p e t i t i o n o f w o r d s a n d p h r a s e s o c c u r s : "to s p e a k in the l a n g u a g e " ( 1 2 : 2 5 c , 2 6 b ) ; "to o p e n m o u t h a n d e a r s " (12:25b, 26a); a n d " H e b r e w " (12:26b, 2 7 b ) .

2. T h e Coherence of Jubilees 1 2 : 1 6 - 2 7

T h e f o u r p e r i c o p e s are d i s t i n g u i s h e d f r o m each o t h e r b y s u b j e c t a n d the u s e of w o r d s . H o w e v e r , there is c o h e r e n c e i n t h e f o u r p a s s a g e s as a w h o l e . I n t h e first p l a c e , all the p e r i c o p e s a r e l o c a t e d i n H a r a n . I n the s e c o n d p l a c e , o n e c a n p o i n t to a u n i t y o f t i m e to a g r e a t extent. T h e events take p l a c e w h e n A b r a m w a s s e v e n t y - f i v e y e a r s o f age (cf. 1 2 : 1 6 : " I n the s i x t h w e e k , d u r i n g its fifth year," w h i c h is 1951 A . M . ) . T h e d e s t r u c t i o n o f the h o u s e o f i d o l s in t h e p r e c e d i n g p a s s a g e t o o k place i n the sixtieth y e a r o f A b r a m ' s life ( 1 2 : 1 2 ) , after w h i c h it is m e n t i o n e d that t h e y s t a y e d f o r f o u r t e e n y e a r s i n H a r a n ( 1 2 : 1 5 ) . I n the f o l l o w i n g p a s s a g e h i s d e p a r t u r e is dated t w o y e a r s after the p r a y e r (cf. 1 2 : 2 8 : " I n the s e v e n t h y e a r o f t h e s i x t h w e e k " ) . T h e a s p e c t o f t i m e is s p e c i f i e d in that the o b s e r v a t i o n o f the stars a n d the p r a y e r t o o k place d u r i n g t h e n i g h t (cf. 1 2 : 1 6 a , 1 9 a ) a n d the s t u d y i n g o f the b o o k s d u r i n g a p e r i o d o f s i x m o n t h s (cf. I 2 : 2 7 f ) . M o r e o v e r , b o t h i n the b e g i n n i n g a n d at the e n d the text c l i m a t o l o g i c a l c i r c u m s t a n c e s are referred to, n a m e l y , the rain (cf. 1 2 : 1 6 a , 1 8 , 2 7 ) . I n the third p l a c e , o n e c a n p o i n t to the u s e o f p e r s o n s . B o t h in the p r e ­ c e d i n g ( 1 2 : 1 2 - 1 5 ) a n d i n the f o l l o w i n g p a s s a g e ( 1 2 : 2 8 - 1 3 : 6 ) s e v e r a l m e m b e r s of A b r a m ' s f a m i l y are m e n t i o n e d ,

1 1

w h e r e a s in 1 2 : 1 6 - 2 7 it is m a i n l y A b r a m

w h o is the p e r s o n a c t i n g . O n e sees h i m w a t c h i n g the stars all a l o n e ( 1 2 : 1 6 - 1 8 ) , after w h i c h he a d d r e s s e s G o d in p r a y e r ( 1 2 : 1 9 - 2 2 3 ) . G o d a n s w e r s A b r a m ' s p r a y e r t h r o u g h an a n g e l ( 1 2 : 2 2 - 2 4 , 2 5 - 2 6 ) . Finally, it is A b r a m w h o c o p i e s a n d studies the H e b r e w b o o k s ( 1 2 : 2 7 ) . M o r e o v e r , o n e c a n p o i n t to the r e p e t i t i o n s o f s o m e w o r d s that o c c u r in m o r e t h a n o n e p a s s a g e : " n i g h t " ( 1 2 : 1 6 a , 1 9 a ) , "to sit" ( 1 2 : 1 6 a , 1 6 b , 2 1 c ) , " ( a l l /

1 1 . In 1 2 : 1 2 - 1 5 : " H a r a n " (14a), "his father Terah" (14c!), "Terah" (15a), "he a n d his sons" (15a), a n d "his father" (i5d). I n 12:28-13:7: "his father" (12:28a), "his father Terah" (12:29a), "Lot the son o f y o u r brother H a r a n " (i2:3od; 1 3 : 1 b ) , "your brother N a h o r " (12:31a), a n d "his wife Sarai" (13:1b).

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e v e r y t h i n g in his) h a n d " ( 1 2 : 1 7 c , i8e, io,f; cf. 1 2 : 2 0 a , 2 i d , 2 2 b ) , "to seek" ( i 2 : i 7 d , 2 1 b ) , " s e e d " ( 1 2 : 2 0 c , 2 4 a ) , "to establish" ( 1 2 : 2 0 c , 2 2 d ) , a n d

"heart"

(12:17a, 20a, 2ie). T h e s e c o n d ( A b r a m ' s p r a y e r ) a n d the third p e r i c o p e ( G o d ' s a n s w e r ) are e s p e c i a l l y interrelated. A b r a m ' s q u e s t i o n i n g of w h e t h e r he has to r e t u r n to U r of the C h a l d e a n s ( i 2 : 2 i b c ) n o t o n l y refers b a c k to the b u r n i n g d o w n of the h o u s e of idols ( 1 2 : 1 2 - 1 4 ) , but also p r e p a r e s G o d ' s call to leave his l a n d a n d his father's h o u s e in o r d e r to go to the l a n d that he w i l l s h o w h i m ( 1 2 : 2 2 c ) . T h e s u p p l i c a t i o n in 1 2 : 2 0 c ( " D o establish m e a n d m y seed until e t e r n i t y " ) is reflected in the p r o m i s e that G o d w i l l bless A b r a m in this l a n d a n d establish h i m as p r o g e n i t o r o f a large a n d p o p u l o u s p e o p l e ( i 2 : 2 2 d - 2 3 ) . T h e m u l t i p l e i n v o c a t i o n of " M y G o d , m y G o d , G o d m o s t h i g h . Y o u alone are m y G o d " ( i 2 : i 9 c d ) is reflected in G o d ' s a n s w e r o f " I w i l l b e c o m e G o d for y o u " ( 1 2 : 2 4 a ) . T h e s u p p l i c a t i o n to save h i m from the h a n d of the evil spirits ( i 2 : 2 o a b ) is not a n s w e r e d explicitly. H o w e v e r , the call to leave his father's h o u s e to go to the l a n d that G o d w i l l s h o w h i m ( 1 2 : 2 2 c ) c a n b e u n d e r s t o o d as a l i b e r a t i o n f r o m the p o w e r o f the evil spirits. In the n e w l a n d A b r a m w i l l p r o s p e r a n d b e b l e s s e d . H e n e e d n o t b e afraid. S e v e r a l e l e m e n t s in the p r a y e r a n d its a n s w e r are p u t chiastically in the text, as is s h o w n in the f o l l o w i n g table:

A

Y o u alone are m y G o d ( i 9 d )

B

Establish m e a n d m y seed (20c)

C

Shall I r e t u r n to U r of the C h a l d e a n s or sit in this place (2ibc)?

C

C o m e from y o u r c o u n t r y (22c)

B'

I will establish y o u into a large a n d p o p u l o u s p e o p l e ( 2 2 d - 2 3 )

A'

I will b e c o m e G o d for y o u (24a, c)

3. Abram's Prayer in Relation to Other Prayers in Jubilees T h e s t r o n g s i m i l a r i t y in f o r m a n d c o n t e n t w i t h other p r a y e r s in the b o o k of J u b i l e e s c o n f i r m s the u n i t y of the p a s s a g e as a w h o l e ( 1 2 : 1 6 - 2 7 ) . O n e c a n p o i n t specifically to N o a h ' s p r a y e r ( 1 0 : 1 - 1 4 ) , b u t M o s e s ' p r a y e r ( 1 : 1 9 - 2 1 ) is also r e l e v a n t in this respect. A s far as the c o n t e n t is c o n c e r n e d , o n e c a n refer also to A b r a m ' s b l e s s i n g o f J a c o b ( 1 9 : 2 6 - 2 9 ) . T h e s e texts s h o w an affinity to each o t h e r n o t o n l y b e c a u s e the o n e w h o p r a y s b e g s for G o d ' s h e l p to h o l d b a c k the influence of the evil spirits, b u t also b e c a u s e the c a u s e for the prayer, its f o r m , a n d G o d ' s r e a c t i o n s h o w s i m i l a r i t i e s .

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3 . 1 . Abram's

Prayer

and Noah's

Prayer

T h e f o l l o w i n g s c h e m e s h o w s the s i m i l a r s t r u c t u r e of A b r a m ' s p r a y e r a n d that o f N o a h , t o g e t h e r w i t h the c a u s e for the p r a y e r a n d G o d ' s r e a c t i o n :

N o a h ' s p r a y e r ( J u b 10:1-14)

A b r a m ' s p r a y e r ( J u b 12:16-27)

1. Cause for the prayer: d o m i n i o n of

1. Cause for the prayer: rejection of

the evil spirits ( 1 0 : 1 - 2 )

a s t r o l o g y t h r o u g h the recognition of G o d ' s p o w e r ( 1 2 : 1 6 - 1 8 ) ; d o m i n i o n of the evil spirits ( i 2 : 2 o a b )

2. Form of the prayer

2. Form of the prayer

a. praise ( i o : 3 c - h )

a. praise (i2:i9c-f; cf. 12:4)

b. s u p p l i c a t i o n (io:3hi, 4, 5 b - 6 )

b. s u p p l i c a t i o n (12:20, 2 i d - e ; cf.

3. Actions

3. Actions

n:i7bc). after the

prayer

a. A t G o d ' s request the angels b i n d

after the

prayer

a. G o d a n s w e r s A b r a m t h r o u g h an

90 percent of the evil spirits

angel, a n d calls h i m to the l a n d

after intercession b y M a s t e m a

(l2:22b-24)

(10:7-9, n ) b. G o d orders the angels to teach N o a h a b o u t the m e d i c i n e s

b. G o d orders the angels to teach A b r a m the H e b r e w language

(10:10, 12-13)

(12:25-26)

c. N o a h w r i t e s in a b o o k a n d gives it to his eldest son ( 1 0 : 1 3 , 1 4 )

c. A b r a m takes the b o o k s of his father a n d copies t h e m (12:27)

T h e c a u s e that b r o u g h t a b o u t the p r a y e r is f o r m u l a t e d in

different

w a y s . W h e r e a s the d o m i n i o n of the evil spirits a n d their t h r e a t e n i n g Noah's grandchildren

(10:1-2)

of

f o r m the d i r e c t c a u s e for N o a h ' s p r a y e r ,

A b r a m ' s p r a y e r is c a u s e d b y the r e c o g n i t i o n of the o m n i p o t e n c e of G o d w h e n he p r a c t i c e s a s t r o l o g y ( 1 2 : 1 6 - 1 8 ) . H o w e v e r , A b r a m does p r a y to save h i m s e l f " f r o m the h a n d of the evil spirits w h o rule the t h o u g h t s of the p e o ­ ple's h e a r t " ( i 2 : 2 o a b ) . H e c o n t i n u e s , p r a y i n g that t h e y m a y not lead h i m astray f r o m f o l l o w i n g G o d . It is p o s s i b l e that the practice of a s t r o l o g y s h o u l d be u n d e r s t o o d as a m a n i f e s t a t i o n of the m i s l e a d i n g o f the evil spirits. O t h e r p a s s a g e s in Jubilees s h o w a clear c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n the d e m o n s a n d astrol­ ogy. In 8:1-4 a s t r o l o g y is identified w i t h the illegal t e a c h i n g o f the w a t c h e r s . After K a i n a n w a s i n s t r u c t e d in the art o f w r i t i n g ( 8 : 2 b ) , he f o u n d an i n s c r i p ­ tion o n a r o c k that d e s c r i b e d the a s t r o l o g i c a l t e a c h i n g s of the w a t c h e r s " b y

220

Abram's

Prayer

w h i c h they used to o b s e r v e the o m e n s of the s u n , m o o n , a n d stars, a n d e v e r y h e a v e n l y s i g n " (8:3). T h e s e signs w e r e p r o b a b l y u s e d to p r e d i c t the f u t u r e .

12

K a i n a n c o p i e d these i n s t r u c t i o n s f r o m the stone " a n d s i n n e d on the basis of w h a t w a s in it." T h e t e a c h i n g s of the w a t c h e r s c o n t r a s t w i t h the t e a c h i n g s of the p a t r i a r c h s , w h i c h w e r e r e c e i v e d f r o m the a n g e l s .

13

A s far as the a s t r o l o g i ­

cal t e a c h i n g s of the w a t c h e r s are c o n c e r n e d , the a u t h o r is p r o b a b l y referring to an E n o c h i c t r a d i t i o n . I n 1 E n 6 - 1 1 the w a t c h e r s are n o t o n l y i n v o l v e d in i l ­ licit s e x u a l p r a c t i c e s a n d v i o l e n c e , b u t they are also i n v o l v e d in a s t r o l o g i c a l t e a c h i n g s . 1 E n 8:3 says that " B a r a k i e l t a u g h t a s t r o l o g e r s , a n d K o k a b e l p o r ­ tents, a n d T a m i e l t a u g h t moon."

1 4

a s t r o l o g y a n d A s r a d e l t a u g h t the p a t h of the

It is r e m a r k a b l e that o f all the illicit a n g e l i c i n s t r u c t i o n s of the

w a t c h e r s m e n t i o n e d in the B o o k of the W a t c h e r s ( m e t a l w o r k i n g , c o s m e t i c s , sorcery, p h a r m a c o l o g y , s p e l l b i n d i n g , a n d celestial d i v i n a t i o n ) , Jubilees in­ cludes only o n e .

1 5

In 1 1 : 8 o n e can r e a d that A b r a m ' s g r a n d f a t h e r N a h o r l e a r n e d f r o m his father S e r u g "the studies o f the C h a l d e a n s : to p r a c t i c e d i v i n a t i o n a n d to a u ­ g u r b y the s i g n s o f the sky." T h i s f o r m s the direct b a c k g r o u n d for A b r a m ' s p r e d i c t i o n s o f the w e a t h e r for the c o m i n g y e a r in 1 2 : 1 6 - 1 8 .

1 6

Although 11:8

d o e s n o t s h o w an e x p l i c i t d i s a p p r o v a l o f "the studies of the C h a l d e a n s , " it is s t r i k i n g that in the c o n t e x t of Serug's b i r t h the threats o f the evil spirits a n d their l e a d e r M a s t e m a are m e n t i o n e d ( 1 1 : 4 - 5 ) . T h i s m e a n s that the studies of the C h a l d e a n s o n the p r a c t i c e of d i v i n a t i o n are closely related to the influ12. M . Segal, The Book of Jubilees: Rewritten Bible, Redaction, Ideology, and Theology, JSJSup 117 (Leiden: Brill, 2 0 0 7 ) , 260 n. 8. 13. A l t h o u g h this is the first time in Jubilees that the watchers are connected with as­ trological teachings, it should b e remembered that E n o c h was b o r n immediately after the watchers came d o w n o n earth (4:15-16). T h e first thing he wrote d o w n w a s concerned with calendrical and astronomical affairs: "the signs o f the sky in accord with the fixed pattern o f their months, so that mankind would k n o w the seasons o f the years according to the fixed patterns o f each of their m o n t h s " (4:17). T h e angels showed h i m the d o m i n i o n o f the sun (4:21), after w h i c h the text continues with mention o f the watchers a n d their illicit inter­ course. 14. A . Lange points to the heavy emphasis o n the rejection of astrology in 1 E n 8:3, which is developed further in Jub 8:3. Cf. A . Lange, " T h e Essene Position o n M a g i c a n d Divi­ nation," in Legal Texts and Legal Issues: Proceedings of the Second Meeting of the International Organization for Qumran Studies; Published in Honour of Joseph M. Baumgarten, ed. M . Bernstein, F. Garcia Martinez, a n d J. K a m p e n , S T D J 23 (Leiden: Brill, 1997), 377-435 (here 400-402). 15. A . Y. Reed, Fallen Angels and the History of Judaism and Christianity (Cambridge: C a m b r i d g e University Press, 2005), 92-93. Cf. Lange, " T h e Essene Position," 400. 16. Segal, The Book of Jubilees, 260.

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ence o f the evil spirits. In 1 0 : 5 , the o n l y p l a c e in Jubilees that explicitly refers to a c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n the evil spirits a n d the w a t c h e r s (the w a t c h e r s are "fathers of these s p i r i t s " ) , the r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n a s t r o l o g y a n d evil spirits is s t r e n g t h e n e d .

17

O n e c a n c o n c l u d e that in b o t h cases the r e a s o n that

b r o u g h t forth the p r a y e r is m o r e or less the s a m e . A s far as the f o r m of the p r a y e r p r o p e r is c o n c e r n e d , it consists of a c o m b i n a t i o n of p r a i s e a n d s u p p l i c a t i o n . In the p r a i s e , N o a h ( 1 0 : 3 ) p u t s e m ­ p h a s i s on G o d ' s g r a c e ( " Y o u h a v e s h o w n k i n d n e s s to m e , s a v e d m e a n d m y s o n s f r o m the flood w a t e r s , a n d did not m a k e m e p e r i s h as y o u d i d to the p e o p l e m e a n t for d e s t r u c t i o n , b e c a u s e y o u r m e r c y for m e h a s b e e n l a r g e , a n d y o u r k i n d n e s s to m e has b e e n g r e a t " ) , w h e r e a s A b r a m (i2:iox-f; 1 2 : 4 ) p u t s an e m p h a s i s o n G o d ' s o m n i p o t e n c e ( " M y G o d , m y G o d , G o d m o s t H i g h , y o u a l o n e are m y G o d . Y o u h a v e created e v e r y t h i n g ; e v e r y t h i n g that w a s a n d has b e e n is the w o r k o f y o u r h a n d s " ) .

1 8

In N o a h ' s p r a y e r the s u p p l i c a t i o n c o n t a i n s t w o e l e m e n t s . O n the o n e h a n d , N o a h p r a y s that the evil spirits m a y n o t rule o v e r N o a h ' s c h i l d r e n (io:3i: " A n d m a y the evil spirits n o t rule t h e m in o r d e r to d e s t r o y t h e m f r o m the earth"; cf. 1 0 : 5 - 6 ) . O n the other h a n d , he p r a y s for a b l e s s i n g u p o n h i m a n d his c h i l d r e n ( 1 0 : 4 : " N o w y o u bless m e a n d m y c h i l d r e n so that w e m a y i n c r e a s e , b e c o m e n u m e r o u s , a n d fill the e a r t h " ) . B o t h e l e m e n t s o c c u r also in the s u p p l i c a t i o n in A b r a m ' s prayer. T h e r e q u e s t to save h i m f r o m the evil spirits plays an i m p o r t a n t p a r t ( i 2 : 2 o a b : " S a v e m e f r o m the h a n d of the evil spirits w h o rule the t h o u g h t s of the p e o p l e ' s heart. M a y they n o t lead m e astray f r o m f o l l o w i n g y o u , m y G o d " ) . T h e e l e m e n t o f b l e s s i n g has its p a r a l l e l in that A b r a m asks to establish h i m a n d his seed for eternity ( 1 2 : 2 0 c ) a n d that he as G o d ' s s e r v a n t m a y w o r k o n the r i g h t p a t h ( i 2 : 2 i d ) . W i t h r e g a r d to the a c t i o n s that take place i m m e d i a t e l y after the prayer, in b o t h cases there is a t w o f o l d action of G o d , f o l l o w e d b y an a c t i o n o f the s u p p l i c a n t . In b o t h cases G o d a d d r e s s e s h i m s e l f n o t to the s u p p l i c a n t b u t to an a n g e l ( 1 0 : 7 , 1 0 - 1 2 ; 1 2 : 2 2 b , 2 5 - 2 6 , 2 7 e ) . G o d ' s first r e a c t i o n to N o a h ' s p r a y e r is his c o m m a n d m e n t to b i n d all the d e m o n s . After M a s t e m a , the leader o f the spirits, protests a n d asks for s o m e of t h e m to be left b e f o r e h i m so he c a n

17. A c c o r d i n g to Segal (The Book of Jubilees,

1 7 9 - 8 0 ) , it is difficult to connect the story

of the watchers (a o n e t i m e event in h i s t o r y ) with a system that sets up the w o r l d order from creation o n w a r d with G o d a n d Israel o n o n e side a n d M a s t e m a , the evil spirits, a n d the other nations o n the other (cf. Jub 2 : 1 9 - 2 1 ; 1 5 : 3 0 - 3 2 ) . Segal considers the c o n n e c t i o n between these two v i e w p o i n t s as a s e c o n d a r y d e v e l o p m e n t . It is the result of the w i s h to integrate the spirit traditions from 1 E n o c h into a dualistic w o r l d v i e w . 18. C o m p a r e also 12:4 ("He created e v e r y t h i n g by his w o r d " ) .

222

Abram's

Prayer

exercise his a u t h o r i t y a m o n g m a n k i n d ( 1 0 : 8 ) , G o d a l l o w s h i m a tenth o f t h e m , a n d gives o r d e r s to b i n d 90 p e r c e n t of the evil spirits ( 1 0 : 9 ) . G o d ' s first r e a c t i o n to A b r a m ' s p r a y e r is a direct address to A b r a m t h r o u g h an a n g e l in w h i c h A b r a m is s u m m o n e d to leave his l a n d a n d his father's h o u s e , a n d to go to the l a n d that G o d w i l l s h o w h i m ( 1 2 : 2 2 - 2 4 ) . T h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t in the n e w l a n d s e e m s to have a c o m p a r a b l e f u n c t i o n as the b i n d i n g of the evil spirits. In the l a n d w h e r e A b r a m a n d his d e s c e n d a n t s are to b e b l e s s e d a b u n ­ dantly, the d e m o n s w i l l h a v e n o i n f l u e n c e .

19

In the case of b o t h N o a h a n d A b r a m , G o d ' s initial r e a c t i o n s e e m s n o t to b e sufficient to save their d e s c e n d a n t s f r o m the i n f l u e n c e o f the evil s p i r ­ its. In the s u b s e q u e n t s e c o n d a c t i o n , G o d instructs the a n g e l s . T h e y s h o u l d teach N o a h all the m e d i c i n e s , w h i c h c o u l d protect h i m a n d his s o n s a g a i n s t attacks f r o m the evil spirits ( 1 0 : 1 0 , 1 2 ) , a n d teach A b r a m the H e b r e w l a n ­ guage (12:25-26). Finally, there is a r e a c t i o n b y the o n e w h o p r a y s , w h i c h is c o m p a r a b l e in b o t h texts. N o a h w r i t e s d o w n in a b o o k e v e r y t h i n g the angels h a v e t a u g h t h i m . Thereafter, he gives all his b o o k s to his oldest son S h e m ( 1 0 : 1 3 - 1 4 ) . A b r a m , w h o is f r o m the line of S h e m , l e a r n s H e b r e w , takes his

2 0

father's

b o o k s , t h e n c o p i e s a n d studies t h e m ( 1 2 : 2 7 ) . T h e m e n t i o n o f "his father's b o o k s " in 1 2 : 2 7 m a k e s the c o n n e c t i o n w i t h 1 0 : 1 3 - 1 4 e x p l i c i t . N e i t h e r

the

b i n d i n g of 90 percent of the d e m o n s n o r his e s t a b l i s h m e n t in the l a n d w i l l give c o m p l e t e p r o t e c t i o n against the threat of the spirits. B o o k s s h o u l d also 19. C o m p a r e this with N o a h ' s supplication in w h i c h the request that the evil spirits m i g h t n o t rule over N o a h ' s children is put next to the request for a blessing u p o n his chil­ dren (cf. io:3i a n d 4 a - d ) . 20. A c c o r d i n g to Segal (The Book of Jubilees,

1 7 1 - 7 3 ) , the " b o o k " (singular) in 1 0 : 1 3

c a n n o t b e identical w i t h the " b o o k s " (plural) in 1 0 : 1 4 . T h e reason to hand over the b o o k s to S h e m ("because he loved h i m m u c h m o r e than all his s o n s " ) does not match up with the m e d i c i n e s , which were m e a n t for all N o a h ' s offspring. T h e transition from singular to p l u r a l even p o i n t s to separate sources. T h e nature o f the " b o o k s " (plural), w h i c h N o a h h a n d e d over to his son S h e m , should b e u n d e r s t o o d in the light of the chain of tradition in w h i c h k n o w l e d g e is h a n d e d over from generation to generation (7:38-39; 12:27; 2 1 : 1 0 ; 39:6; 45:16). In m y o p i n i o n , o n e s h o u l d n o t stress too m u c h the transition f r o m singular to plural. T h e fact that N o a h writes a b o o k w i t h regard to m e d i c i n e s (10:13) does not exclude the fact that he has written other b o o k s . E n o c h has written a b o o k (4:17-19, 2 1 - 2 3 ) ,

a n

d in the end o f his tes­

t a m e n t (7:38-39) N o a h refers to that tradition. It is quite plausible that the n e w k n o w l e d g e that N o a h has received is going to b e l o n g to the chain of tradition. M o r e o v e r , it is really the offspring of S h e m w h o have to b e protected against the influence o f the spirits. T h e spirits are p e r m i t t e d to have influence o n l y over other p e o p l e s ( 1 5 : 3 1 - 3 2 ; cp. 1 0 : 8 ) . Nevertheless, it is true that the plural in 1 0 : 1 4 s h o w s that it is not just the k n o w l e d g e w i t h regard to m e d i c i n e s that is h a n d e d over.

223

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b e s t u d i e d , b o o k s that c o n t a i n , a m o n g o t h e r t h i n g s , m e d i c i n e s against the attacks of evil spirits. In c o n c l u s i o n , the c o m p a r i s o n of A b r a m ' s p r a y e r w i t h that of N o a h s h o w s the s i m i l a r s t r u c t u r e of b o t h texts. T h i s c o n f i r m s , m o r e o v e r , the for­ m a l u n i t y a n d the c o h e r e n c e in r e g a r d to the c o n t e n t of 1 2 : 1 6 - 2 7 .

3.2.

Abram's

Prayer

and Moses'

Prayer

T h e r e is also a s i m i l a r i t y b e t w e e n A b r a m ' s p r a y e r w i t h its p r e c e d i n g a n d fol­ l o w i n g events a n d M o s e s ' p r a y e r ( 1 : 1 9 - 2 1 ) in the c o n t e x t of 1:5—2:1. T h e fol­ l o w i n g s c h e m e s h o w s the s t r u c t u r e of M o s e s ' prayer, together w i t h the c a u s e for it, a n d G o d ' s r e a c t i o n :

Moses' prayer (Jub 1:5-2:1) 1. Cause for the prayer 2.

Form of the prayer

3. Actions

after the

(1:5-18) — supplication (1:19-21)

prayer

a. G o d a n s w e r s M o s e s w i t h r e g a r d to his d e a l i n g w i t h the

people

( 1 : 2 2 - 2 4 ) ; M o s e s receives an o r d e r to w r i t e (1:25) b. G o d o r d e r s the a n g e l of the p r e s e n c e to dictate the s t o r y o f h i s t o r y to M o s e s ( 1 : 2 7 - 2 : 1 ) D e s p i t e a structure c o m p a r a b l e to A b r a m ' s prayer, the cause for M o s e s ' prayer s e e m s to be s o m e w h a t different. M o s e s is reacting to a direct speech from G o d to h i m ( 1 : 5 - 1 8 ) in w h i c h the D e u t e r o n o m i s t i c s c h e m e of sin, p u n i s h ­ m e n t , repentance, a n d restoration can be f o u n d . B e c a u s e of the direct interac­ tion b e t w e e n G o d and M o s e s , G o d addresses M o s e s directly t h r o u g h the reac­ tions to the prayer ( 1 : 2 2 - 2 5 )

a n

d

n

o

t

t h r o u g h an angel, as w a s the case w i t h

N o a h ' s a n d A b r a m ' s p r a y e r s . It is r e m a r k a b l e , h o w e v e r , that G o d also addresses M o s e s indirectly t h r o u g h an angel, since he orders the angels to dictate the s t o r y of Jubilees to M o s e s . M o s e s ' prayer ( 1 : 1 9 - 2 1 ) m a i n l y consists of s u p p l i c a ­ tion, a l t h o u g h s o m e elements of praise are integrated (20a: " y o u r m e r c y " ; 2 1 a : " w h o m y o u have r e s c u e d from E g y p t i a n control b y y o u r great p o w e r " ) . T h e s t r u c t u r e of the s u p p l i c a t i o n s h o w s s t r o n g p a r a l l e l i s m b e t w e e n the p a r t s o f the p r a y e r :

A

O L o r d m y G o d , do n o t allow y o u r p e o p l e a n d y o u r inheritance to go along in the strayings of their hearts ( i 9 d )

224

Abram's B

Prayer

and do not deliver t h e m into the h a n d s of the n a t i o n s , w i t h the result that they rule over t h e m ( i 9 e f ) ,

C

lest they m a k e t h e m sin against y o u ( i 9 g ) .

A'

M a y y o u r mercy, L o r d , be raised over y o u r p e o p l e ( 2 0 a ) . Create for t h e m a j u s t spirit ( 2 0 b ) .

B'

M a y the spirit of Belial n o t rule over t h e m ( 2 0 c ' )

D

so as to b r i n g charges against t h e m before y o u ( 2 0 c " )

C

and to ensnare t h e m a w a y from e v e r y p r o p e r path ( 2 o d ) so that they m a y be w i p e d a w a y from y o u r presence ( 2 o e ) .

A"

T h e y are y o u r p e o p l e and y o u r inheritance w h o m y o u have r e s c u e d f r o m E g y p t i a n c o n t r o l ( h a n d s ) b y y o u r great p o w e r ( 2 1 a ) . C r e a t e for t h e m a p u r e heart a n d a h o l y spirit ( 2 1 b ) .

C"

M a y they n o t b e t r a p p e d in their sins from n o w to eternity ( 2 1 c ) .

T h e p r a y e r requests a j u s t spirit from G o d for his p e o p l e lest t h e y f o l l o w the s t r a y i n g s of their h e a r t ( A ) . T h e p a r a l l e l i s m b e t w e e n B a n d B ' s h o w s that the n a t i o n s are p u t p a r a l l e l w i t h the "spirit o f Belial." B o t h c a n r u l e o v e r I s r a e l . T h i s m e a n s at the s a m e t i m e that b o t h can c a u s e I s r a e l to sin a g a i n s t G o d ( C ) . W h e r e a s the n a t i o n s c a n n o t b r i n g c h a r g e s a g a i n s t I s r a e l b e f o r e G o d , the spirit of B e l i a l is able to do so ( D ) . C o m p a r e 1 : 1 9 - 2 1 in this r e s p e c t w i t h 1 5 : 3 0 3 3 , in w h i c h G o d lets the spirits r u l e o v e r the n a t i o n s . G o d h i m s e l f c h o o s e s Israel to be his p e o p l e . O n l y G o d is Israel's ruler. A s far as the use of w o r d s a n d p h r a s e s is c o n c e r n e d , M o s e s ' p r a y e r has several similarities w i t h N o a h ' s a n d A b r a m ' s p r a y e r s . I refer to i:i9d

("the

s t r a y i n g s of their hearts"; see i 2 : 2 o a b , d, 2 i e ; cf. 1 1 : 1 7 ) ; 1:20a ( " M a y y o u r m e r c y , L o r d , b e lifted o v e r y o u r p e o p l e " (cf. i o : 3 h ) ; 1:20c ( " M a y the spirit o f Belial n o t r u l e o v e r t h e m so as to b r i n g charges against t h e m b e f o r e y o u " ; see 1 2 : 2 0 ; io:3i, 6 a ) ; i : 2 o d ("to e n s n a r e t h e m a w a y f r o m e v e r y p r o p e r path"; cf. I 2 : 2 i d ) . W i t h r e g a r d to the a c t i o n s that take place i m m e d i a t e l y after the prayer, there is a t w o f o l d a c t i o n b y G o d f o l l o w e d b y an a c t i o n n o t b y the s u p p l i c a n t , b u t b y the a n g e l of the p r e s e n c e . G o d a d d r e s s e s h i m s e l f directly to the s u p ­ plicant (1:22-26)

a n d n o t to an a n g e l , as w a s the case after N o a h ' s

and

A b r a m ' s p r a y e r s ( 1 0 : 7 , 1 0 - 1 2 ; 1 2 : 2 2 b , 2 5 - 2 6 , 2 7 c ) . G o d ' s first r e a c t i o n is a s p e e c h to M o s e s in w h i c h he tells a b o u t the future r e p e n t a n c e a n d r e s t o r a ­ t i o n of the p e o p l e . In this s p e e c h M o s e s is o r d e r e d to w r i t e d o w n e v e r y t h i n g G o d m a k e s k n o w n . In the s u b s e q u e n t , s e c o n d s p e e c h , G o d i n s t r u c t s the a n ­ gel o f the p r e s e n c e to dictate the s t o r y to M o s e s ( 1 : 2 7 - 2 8 ) . F i n a l l y , the a n g e l

225

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takes the tables of the d i v i s i o n o f the y e a r s a n d starts to dictate to M o s e s the c o n t e n t of h i s t o r y ( 1 : 2 9 - 2 : 1 ) .

3 . 3 . Abram's

Prayer

and Abraham's

Blessing for

Jacob

Finally, I w o u l d like to refer to A b r a h a m ' s b l e s s i n g for J a c o b ( 1 9 : 2 6 - 2 9 ) . T h e r e are s e v e r a l s i m i l a r i t i e s w i t h A b r a m ' s prayer. A b r a h a m begs G o d to p r o t e c t J a c o b against the evil spirits (19:28a: " M a y the spirits of M a s t e m a n o t rule over y o u a n d y o u r d e s c e n d a n t s to r e m o v e y o u f r o m f o l l o w i n g the L o r d who

is y o u r G o d f r o m n o w a n d f o r e v e r " ) . T h e t e r m i n o l o g y that is u s e d re­

s e m b l e s that of A b r a m ' s p r a y e r ( i 2 : 2 o ) .

2 1

I m m e d i a t e l y after this A b r a h a m

p r a y s that G o d m a y be J a c o b ' s father a n d J a c o b his f i r s t b o r n s o n (19:29: "May

the L o r d G o d b e c o m e y o u r father a n d y o u his f i r s t - b o r n s o n a n d p e o ­

ple for all t i m e " ) . F r o m the p o i n t o f v i e w of J u b i l e e s , this m e a n s that G o d has c h o s e n J a c o b (Israel) f r o m the b e g i n n i n g o f t i m e to be his u n i q u e p e o p l e a n d his f i r s t b o r n s o n (cf. 2 : 2 0 ) . T h e c o n s e q u e n c e o f this election is G o d ' s d i ­ rect d o m i n i o n o v e r I s r a e l . In c o n t r a s t to this, spirits are a p p o i n t e d to c o n t r o l the other n a t i o n s (cf. D e u t 32:8-9; 4 : 1 9 - 2 0 ; Sir 1 7 : 1 7 ; J u b 1 5 : 3 0 - 3 2 ) . T h e spirits m i s l e a d the n a t i o n s on p u r p o s e a n d let t h e m s i n .

2 2

A l t h o u g h a father-son re­

l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n G o d a n d I s r a e l is n o t at stake in A b r a m ' s prayer, o n e c o u l d say the c o n f i r m a t i o n of " I w i l l b e c o m e G o d for y o u , y o u r s o n , y o u r g r a n d s o n , a n d all y o u r s e e d " ( 1 2 : 2 4 ) i m p l i e s that the spirits c a n n o t take o n that r o l e . T h e spirits rule o n l y over the other n a t i o n s . T h e c o n f i r m a t i o n in 12:24

can therefore be taken as an a n s w e r to A b r a m ' s s u p p l i c a t i o n to save

h i m f r o m the d o m i n i o n o f the evil spirits.

4. Enochic Traditions A l t h o u g h the text of Jubilees is g u i d e d to a large extent b y the b i b l i c a l b o o k s of G e n e s i s a n d E x o d u s as far as c o n t e n t a n d s e q u e n c e are c o n c e r n e d , o n e s h o u l d a c k n o w l e d g e that other s o u r c e s a n d t r a d i t i o n s are also i n c o r p o r a t e d into the b o o k . T h e third p e r i c o p e ( J u b 1 2 : 2 2 ^ 2 4 ) can b e c o n s i d e r e d a re­ w r i t i n g of G e n 1 2 : 1 - 3 . T h e other p e r i c o p e s are a d d i t i o n s w i t h r e g a r d to the b i b l i c a l text. A b r a m ' s p r a y e r is closely c o n n e c t e d w i t h the other p r a y e r s in

21. C o m p a r e also 1:20; 10:8; 1 1 : 5 .

22. Cf. Segal, The Book of Jubilees,

226

257-59.

Abram's

Prayer

the b o o k . T h e p r a y e r s are c a u s e d b y the t h r e a t o f e v i l s p i r i t s . I n the B i b l e t h e r e is n o d e m o n o l o g y . I n G e n e s i s o n e c a n r e a d n o t h i n g a b o u t

demons.

W i t h i n Jubilees, however, d e m o n s o c c u r in several places, especially in rela­ t i o n to the s p r e a d o f m a n k i n d o n the e a r t h after the f l o o d . T h e y b e l o n g to the t i m e o f N o a h a n d the e a r l y A b r a m , a l t h o u g h t h e y c o n t i n u e to o p e r a t e i n later t i m e s . A p a r t f r o m the t e r m " d e m o n " ( 1 : 1 1 c ; 7:27; 1 0 : 1 , 2 ; 2 2 : 1 7 ) , " ( e v i l ) s p i r i t " is also u s e d ( 1 0 : 3 , 5, 8 , 1 1 , 1 3 ; 1 1 : 4 , 5; 1 2 : 2 0 ; 1 5 : 3 1 , 3 2 ; 1 9 : 2 8 ) . T h e d e m o n s are c h a r g e d w i t h c a u s i n g b l o o d s h e d a n d w i t h i n c i t i n g p e o p l e to kill e a c h o t h e r . In this r e s p e c t J u b i l e e s s e e m s to b e i n f l u e n c e d b y o t h e r s o u r c e s . T h e t e a c h i n g a b o u t the d e m o n s s e e m s to b e p a r t o f the w i d e r i n f l u e n c e o f m a t e ­ r i a l o r i g i n a t i n g f r o m the E n o c h i c t r a d i t i o n s .

2 3

O n e c a n p o i n t e s p e c i a l l y to

the i n f l u e n c e o f 1 E n o c h ( B o o k o f the W a t c h e r s ) . J u b i l e e s s h a r e s the

funda­

m e n t a l p a t t e r n o f the B o o k o f the W a t c h e r s i n w h i c h the a n g e l s d e s c e n d e d from heaven, married w o m e n , and sinned with them. Their children were the g i a n t s . In 1 E n 1 5 : 8 - 1 6 : 1 it is d e s c r i b e d h o w the e v i l s p i r i t s c a m e o u t o f the c a r c a s s e s o f the g i a n t s a n d h o w t h e y w e r e t h r e a t e n i n g h u m a n i t y : t h e y d o v i ­ o l e n c e , m a k e d e s o l a t e , a t t a c k a n d w r e s t l e a n d h u r l u p o n the e a r t h .

2 4

Jubilees

s e e m s n o t to b e c o m p l e t e l y c o n s i s t e n t h e r e i n t h a t the d e m o n s a r e

men­

t i o n e d as the e m a n a t i o n s f r o m the a n g e l s t h e m s e l v e s ( 1 0 : 5 : " y o u r w a t c h e r s , the f a t h e r s o f these s p i r i t s " ) , w h e r e a s it also u n d e r s t a n d s s o n s o f the w a t c h e r s ( 5 : 1 , 6 - 1 0 ) .

2 5

the g i a n t s as the

M o r e o v e r , it s h o w s s o m e d e v i a t i o n s f r o m

23. F o r the influence o f E n o c h i c traditions in the b o o k o f Jubilees, see especially J . C . V a n d e r K a m , " E n o c h Traditions in Jubilees a n d O t h e r S e c o n d - C e n t u r y Sources," in S B L S P 1 (1978), 229-51 (reprinted in V a n d e r K a m , From Revelation ble and Second Temple Literature,

to Canon: Studies in the Hebrew Bi­

J S J S u p 62 [Leiden: Brill, 2 0 0 0 ] , 3 0 5 - 3 1 ) . T h i s w o r k influ­

enced h i s Enoch and the Growth of an Apocalyptic

Tradition,

C B Q M S 16 (Washington, D . C . :

C a t h o l i c Bible A s s o c i a t i o n o f A m e r i c a , 1984), 179-88, a n d f o r m e d the basis of a chapter in Enoch: A Man for All Generations,

Studies on Personalities o f the Old Testament ( C o l u m b i a :

University of South C a r o l i n a Press, 1995), 1 1 0 - 2 1 . See also, s o m e o f his predecessors: R. H . C h a r l e s , The Book of Jubilees

or the Little Genesis ( L o n d o n , 1 9 0 2 ) , xliv, 36-39, 43-44; P. Grelot,

" L a legende d ' H e n o c h d a n s les a p o c r y p h e s et d a n s la Bible. O r i g i n e et signification," R SR 46 (1958): 5-26, 1 8 1 - 2 1 0 ; J. T. M i l i k , The Book of Enoch: Aramaic

Fragments

of Qumran

Cave 4

(Oxford: O x f o r d University Press, 1 9 7 6 ) . V a n d e r K a m is followed by, e.g., G . W. E . Nickels­ b u r g , 1 Enoch 1: A Commentary

on the Book of 1 Enoch,

Chapters

1-36; 81-108,

Hermeneia

( M i n n e a p o l i s : Fortress, 2 0 0 1 ) , 7 1 - 7 6 . 24. J. C . V a n d e r K a m , " T h e D e m o n s in the B o o k of Jubilees," in Demons: ology of Israelite-Jewish

and Early

Christian

Literature

in Context

The

Demon­

of Their Environment,

ed.

A . L a n g e , H . Lichtenberger, a n d K . F. Diethard R o m h e l d ( T u b i n g e n : M o h r Siebeck, 2 0 0 3 ) , 339-64 (here 3 4 8 - 5 0 ) ; Nickelsburg, 1 Enoch 1 , 267-75. 25. Jubilees p o s s i b l y p r e s e r v e s several o l d e r t r a d i t i o n s a b o u t the w a t c h e r s . See D i m a n t , V a n d e r K a m , Segal.

227

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van

Ruiten

its s o u r c e text, e.g., the d e m o n s are p u t u n d e r the a u t h o r i t y o f M a s t e m a (10:8; 1 1 : 5 ; 19:28; 49:2; cf. 1 1 : 1 1 ; 1 7 : 1 6 ; 1 8 : 9 , 1 2 ; 48:2, 3 - 4 , 9 , 1 2 - 1 8 ) . T h i s leader o f the d e m o n s is p r o b a b l y n o d e m o n himself, but a sort of evil a n g e l . H e is, h o w e v e r , n o t o n e of the w a t c h e r s , b e c a u s e they are tied u p in the depths o f the earth u n t i l the g r e a t d a y o f j u d g m e n t ( 5 : 6 - 1 1 ) . T h e d e m o n s do e v e r y t h i n g M a s t e m a tells t h e m , so that he is able to exercise the a u t h o r i t y o f his w i l l a m o n g m a n k i n d to p u n i s h t h e m for their evil (cf. 1 0 : 8 ) .

5. Conclusion In the p r a y e r o f A b r a m a n d the s u r r o u n d i n g events ( J u b 1 2 : 1 6 - 2 7 ) , I i d e n t i ­ fied f o u r p e r i c o p e s that are d i s t i n g u i s h e d f r o m each o t h e r b y s u b j e c t a n d the use of w o r d s . T h e s e p e r i c o p e s are n o t d i s c o n n e c t e d , h o w e v e r . I p o i n t e d to the c o h e r e n c e of the f o u r p a s s a g e s as a w h o l e . T h e r e is u n i t y o f p l a c e ( H a r a n ) , of t i m e (the seventy-fifth y e a r in A b r a m ' s life), a n d o f p e r s o n s ( m a i n l y A b r a m ) . A c o m p a r i s o n o f A b r a m ' s p r a y e r w i t h other p r a y e r s in the b o o k o f Jubilees ( 1 : 1 9 - 2 1 ; 1 0 : 1 - 1 4 ; 1 9 : 2 6 - 2 9 ) s h o w e d the s t r o n g c o n n e c t i o n b e ­ t w e e n t h e m in s t r u c t u r e a n d c o n t e n t . T h e p r a y e r s are m o s t l y i n c l u d e d in the b o o k o f J u b i l e e s as a d d i t i o n s w i t h r e g a r d to the b i b l i c a l text o f G e n e s i s a n d E x o d u s . T h e y are c a u s e d b y the t h r e a t o f evil spirits. In G o d ' s a n s w e r to the p r a y e r ' s s u p p l i c a t i o n , s e v e r a l m e a n s are p u t into a c t i o n , s u c h as dictating f r o m the h e a v e n l y tablets, b i n d i n g 90 p e r c e n t of the evil spirits, t e a c h i n g a b o u t m e d i c i n e s , c o p y i n g a n d s t u d y i n g b o o k s , a n d m a k i n g a p r o m i s e to live in the l a n d . A b r a m ' s a n d N o a h ' s p r a y e r s , the p r e c e d i n g e v e n t s , a n d their acts o f w r i t i n g afterward c a n be seen as a s o r t of p r e f i g u r a t i o n of M o s e s ' p r a y e r a n d the d i c t a t i n g a n d c o p y i n g of the b o o k of Jubilees itself. In all these cases, there is a r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n the t e a c h i n g of the angels a n d the c o n t e n t o f the b o o k . T h e b o o k s c o n t a i n the i n f o r m a t i o n n e c e s s a r y in the conflict w i t h the e v i l s p i r i t s a n d are h a n d e d

d o w n from generation

to

generation.

T h r o u g h J a c o b , i n f o r m a t i o n is h a n d e d over to L e v i ( J u b 4 5 : 1 6 ) , M o s e s ' g r e a t ­ grandfather.

26

26. An important element in the rewriting o f Genesis and Exodus in the book o f Jubi­ lees is the struggle against foreign influences, from evil spirits to other nations. The rewrit­ ing seems n o t to be a rewriting for no particular reason, but a means o f using the biblical text in this struggle.

228

Reconsidering Jubilees: Prophecy and Exemplarity Hindy

Najman

W h a t is at stake in h o w w e characterize the b o o k of Jubilees? Perhaps most importantly, w e m u s t be aware that the current generic labels for the b o o k of 1

Jubilees all stake s o m e claim about canon in the second century. T h e impli­ cations extend to seminal Q u m r a n d o c u m e n t s as well.

l. See recent discussion o f genre distinctions by C. A. Newsom, "Spying O u t the Land: A Report from Genology," in Seeking Out the Wisdom of the Ancients: Essays Offered to Honor Michael

V. Fox on the Occasion of His Sixty-fifth Birthday, ed. R. L. Troxel, K. G.

Friebel, and D. R. Magary ( W i n o n a Lake, Ind.: Eisenbrauns, 2005), 437-60. O n rewritten Bi­ ble as a genre, see P. S. Alexander, "Retelling the Old Testament," in It Is Written: Citing Scripture; Essays in Honour of Barnabas Lindars,

Scripture

SSF, ed. D. A. Carson and H. G. M .

Williamson (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987), 99-121. For a history o f scholar­ ship o n the issue, see M . J. Bernstein, '"Rewritten Bible': A Generic Category Which H a s Outlived Its Usefulness?" Text 22 (2005): 169-96. See also G. J. Brooke, "Rewritten Bible," in EDSS, Current

777-80; S. D. Fraade, "Rewritten Bible and Rabbinic Midrash as Commentary," in Trends in the Study

B. H a l p e r n - A m a r u , Rewriting

of Midrash,

ed. C . Bakhos (Leiden: Brill, 2 0 0 6 ) , 5 9 - 7 8 ;

the Bible: Land and Covenant in Postbiblical Jewish

Literature

(Valley Forge, Pa.: Trinity, 1994); D. J. Harrington, "The Bible Rewritten (Narratives)," in Early Judaism and Its Modern Interpreters, ed. R. A. Kraft and G. W. E . Nickelsburg (Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1986), 239-47; G. W. E . Nickelsburg, "The Bible Rewritten and Expanded," in Jewish Writings of the Second Temple Period, ed. M. Stone (Assen: Van G o r c u m ; Philadelphia: Fortress, 1984), 89-156; E . Tov, "Biblical Texts as Reworked in S o m e Q u m r a n Manuscripts with Special Attention to 4 Q R P and 4QparaGen-Exod," in The Community

of the Renewed

I thank J. Collins, P. Franks, F. Garcia Martinez, E . Tigchelaar, R. A. Kraft, E. Mroczek, and B. G. Wright III for their helpful conversations and generous c o m m e n t s . — H N

229

Hindy

Najman S u p p o s e w e c h a r a c t e r i z e Jubilees as r e w r i t t e n B i b l e . T h e n w e are c o m ­

m i t t i n g o u r s e l v e s to the p o s i t i o n that there w a s a l r e a d y an a u t h o r i t a t i v e or c a n o n i c a l P e n t a t e u c h in the s e c o n d century, d u r i n g w h i c h it w a s p o s s i b l e to r e p l a c e the P e n t a t e u c h w i t h a text like J u b i l e e s . A s I a r g u e d in Seconding nai,

Si­

I find the p o s i t i o n v e r y p r o b l e m a t i c :

Like the classification of texts as p s e u d e p i g r a p h i c , the characterization of S e c o n d T e m p l e texts as " R e w r i t t e n B i b l e " is p r o b l e m a t i c . Use of the term can suggest an anachronistic

conception

of a text — as a fixed set of

claims e m b o d i e d in specific l a n g u a g e , such that t a m p e r i n g w i t h that l a n g u a g e is t a n t a m o u n t to interfering w i t h an author's property. W h e n s c h o l a r s w h o e m p l o y such a c o n c e p t e n c o u n t e r b i b l i c a l a n d e x t r a biblical texts that r e c o u n t biblical narratives w i t h v a r i a t i o n s a n d inser­ tions, t h e y m a y b e t e m p t e d to infer that these texts aspire to replace an older, authentic biblical tradition w i t h a n e w v e r s i o n . Instead, w e s h o u l d ask w h e t h e r these biblical a n d extra-biblical writers s h a r e d o u r c o n t e m ­ p o r a r y c o n c e p t i o n of a text. A l t h o u g h biblicists a s s u m e the existence of a s o m e w h a t fixed biblical text as early as the Persian p e r i o d , they a c ­ k n o w l e d g e the fluidity of biblical traditions. E v e n if it is still p o s s i b l e to s p e a k of rewriting, the distinction b e t w e e n the transmission terpretation

and the in­

of biblical traditions w a s n o t as s h a r p as the term

Bible i m p l i e s .

Rewritten

2

We do n o t h a v e e v i d e n c e that entitles us to s p e a k of a fixed a n d e x c l u s i v e c a n o n at the t i m e o f J u b i l e e s ' c o m p o s i t i o n . H o w e v e r , there is e v i d e n c e for a stabilized, c i r c u l a t i n g , a n d a u t h o r i t a t i v e text m u c h like w h a t is e v e n t u a l l y called the P e n t a t e u c h . In a d d i t i o n , w e k n o w that Jubilees shares m a n y t r a d i Covenant: The Notre Dame Symposium on the Dead Sea Scrolls, ed. E. Ulrich and J. C. VanderKam (Notre Dame, Ind.: University o f Notre Dame Press, 1994), 111-34. See also ear­ lier scholarship by G. Vermes, who coined the term "Rewritten Bible": Scripture and Tradi­ tion in Judaism: Haggadic Studies, 2 n d rev. ed., StPB 4 (Leiden: Brill, 1973; 1st ed. 1961), 1 0 , and by C. Perrot on the notion o f "texte continue": Pseudo-Philon: Les antiquites bibliques. Tome II: Introduction litteraire, commentaire et index, SC 230 (Paris: Cerf, 1976). For a recent discussion see M. Segal, The Book of Jubilees: Rewritten Bible, Redaction, Ideology, and Theol­ ogy, JSJSup 117 (Leiden: Brill, 2007). 2. H. Najman, Seconding Sinai: The Development of Mosaic Discourse in Second Tem­ ple Judaism, JSJSup 77 (Leiden: Brill, 2 0 0 3 ) , 7 - 8 . See also m y discussion o f why this term is deeply problematic in "Interpretation as Primordial Writing: Jubilees and Its Authority Conferring Strategies," / S / 3 0 (1999): 3 7 9 - 4 1 0 . 1 prefer to jettison the term altogether because it obscures more than it illuminates in the world o f ancient Judean traditions.

230

Reconsidering

Jubilees:

Prophecy

and

Exemplarity

t i o n s a n d texts that w e h a v e s i n c e c o m e to k n o w as P e n t a t e u c h a l o r p r o ­ phetic.

3

P e r h a p s , t h e n , w e c o u l d a r g u e that J u b i l e e s is i n t e r p r e t i n g texts w e

k n o w as P e n t a t e u c h a l . B u t if w e c l a i m t h a t J u b i l e e s reflects s o m e o f the earliest i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of the P e n t a t e u c h — t h e n w e are a s s i g n i n g a s e c o n d a r y status to J u b i l e e s v i s ­ a - v i s the P e n t a t e u c h . B u t this flies in the face o f J u b i l e e s ' s e l f - p r e s e n t a t i o n : J u b i l e e s c l a i m s that it is itself a r e v e l a t i o n that is a l r e a d y a n d a l w a y s i n s c r i b e d i n the h e a v e n l y tablets, l o n g b e f o r e S i n a i . It is J u b i l e e s ' c l a i m to b e r e v e a l e d that h a s led s o m e to s a y t h a t J u b i l e e s i n t e n d s to r e p l a c e G e n e s i s o r the P e n t a t e u c h .

4

H o w e v e r , s u c h a s u g g e s t i o n is

also i n t e n s i o n w i t h J u b i l e e s ' s e l f - p r e s e n t a t i o n . J u b i l e e s k n o w s o f a first T o ­ r a h a n d u n d e r s t a n d s that it is o f f e r i n g a s e c o n d T o r a h that is a l r e a d y p r i o r to the first T o r a h f r o m S i n a i , b u t J u b i l e e s n e v e r c l a i m s to r e p l a c e the first T o r a h , w h i c h it t r e a t s as h a v i n g c o n t i n u e d

authority.

I n d e e d , there are s o m e p a s s a g e s in J u b i l e e s w h e r e the c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n o f " i n t e r p r e t a t i o n " s e e m s m o r e apt, a n d o t h e r s w h e r e w h a t s e e m s called for is a characterization

of "parallel traditions" or even "expanded traditions,"

of

w h i c h w e p o s s e s s m u c h s h o r t e r v e r s i o n s i n the P e n t a t e u c h . To b e s u r e , w e c a n state w i t h

confidence

—

as h a s b e e n

argued

most

recently by

Aharon

5

S h e m e s h — that J u b i l e e s p l a y e d a p r o m i n e n t role f o r s o m e o f the a u t h o r s a n d

3. See the exemplary discussion by G. J. Brooke, "The F o r m a t i o n and Renewal o f Scriptural Tradition," in Biblical

Traditions

in Transmission:

Essays in Honour

of Michael

A.

Knibb, ed. C. Hempel and J. Lieu (Leiden: Brill, 2 0 0 5 1 , 3 9 - 6 0 . See also J. C. Reeves, "Exploring the Afterlife o f Jewish Pseudepigrapha in Medieval Near Eastern Religious Traditions: Some Initial Soundings," JSJ30

(1999): 148-77, and R. A. Kraft, "The Pseudepigrapha in Christian­

ity," in Tracing the Threads:

Studies

in the Vitality

of Jewish

Pseudepigrapha,

ed. J. C. Reeves,

SBLEJL 6 (Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1 9 9 4 ) , 55-86. 4. See, for example, B. Z. Wacholder, "Jubilees as the Super Canon: Torah-Admonition versus Torah-Commandment," in Legal Texts and Legal Issues: Proceedings of the Second ing of the International

Organization

for Qumran

Studies,

Cambridge

Meet­

1995, ed. M. Bernstein,

F. Garcia Martinez, and J. Kampen, STDJ 23 (Leiden: Brill, 1997), 195-211. For an incisive and critical assessment o f Wacholder's argument, see M . Himmelfarb, "Torah, Testimony, and Heavenly Tablets: The Claim to Authority in the Book o f Jubilees," in A Multiform Studies

on Early Judaism

and Christianity

in Honor

Heritage:

of Robert A. Kraft, ed. B. G. Wright III,

Homage Series 24 (Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1999), 19-29; see her most recent discussion o f Jubi­ lees' status in A Kingdom

of Priests: Ancestry and Merit in Ancient Judaism

(Philadelphia: Uni­

versity o f Pennsylvania Press, 2 0 0 6 ) , 53-55. For another view o f Jubilees' self-understanding vis-a-vis the Pentateuch, see C. W e r m a n , "The ' [ torn] and the [ teudd]'

Engraved on the Tab­

lets," DSD 9 (2002): 75-103 (esp. 93-95). 5. See A. Shemesh's essay for this volume, "4Q265 and the Authoritative Status o f Ju­ bilees at Qumran."

231

Hindy Najman 6

copyists at Qumran. Along these lines, Martha Himmelfarb suggests that "the existence [at Qumran] of a work or works labeled Pseudo-Jubilees (4Q225-27) 7

indicates that Jubilees was of sufficient stature to warrant imitation." Beyond that, we cannot say for sure that it was authoritative for any second temple community, much as in the case of the earliest Enochic writings. It is very hard to determine the reception and dissemination of texts within second temple Judaism. But how then are we to label this work we call Jubilees? Under what category should it be subsumed? Having rejected "rewritten Bible," or "new Torah," or even "interpretation," I will offer a very simple and perhaps obvious alternative. It is not that I think these labels are in all senses inadequate for understanding aspects of the materials or tradi­ tions found in Jubilees. Rather, I think that each is inadequate for character­ izing the book as a whole. Moreover, each betrays, in its own way, what Rob­ ert Kraft has called "the tyranny of canonical assumptions."

8

The alternative I want to recommend is at once both obvious and bound to be provocative. If we are to characterize Jubilees as a whole, we should pay attention to its self-presentation. The book claims to be revela­ tory and to have a divine, angelic, and heavenly origin. It is, by its own ac­ count, part of the larger family of works from earlier exilic and postexilic traditions that we have come to know as biblical prophecy. My claim, then, is that Jubilees should be contextualized within the traditions of biblical prophecy, especially exilic and postexilic prophecy. One source of resistance is easily anticipated, for the well-rehearsed claims that prophecy ended are very familiar to us all. But these claims — that prophecy ceases and that apocalyptic or wisdom literature emerges in­ stead — simply do not resonate with the texts we have from late ancient Ju­ daism. For the texts repeatedly make claims to be prophetic, and more broadly, to be revelatory. Of course, throughout late ancient Judean tradi­ tions, claims of persistent revelation are made in many different ways. But this reflects the variety we see in earlier Israelite and contemporaneous nonIsraelite and non-Judean religious traditions. Angelic revelation and medi­ ated intervention, human access to heavenly writings, symbolic prophecy, 6. See J. C. VanderKam, "Authoritative Literature in the Dead Sea Scrolls," DSD 5, no. 3 (1998): 382-402, and E. C. Ulrich, "The Bible in the Making: The Scriptures Found at Qumran," in The Bible at Qumran: Text, Shape, and Interpretation, ed. P. W. Flint (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2001), 51-66. 7. Himmelfarb, A Kingdom of Priests, 53. 8. R. A. Kraft, "Para-mania: Beside, Before, and Beyond Bible Studies," JBL126 (2007): 5-V.

232

Reconsidering

Jubilees:

Prophecy

and

Exemplarity

a p o c a l y p t i c v i s i o n , a n d i n s p i r e d i n t e r p r e t a t i o n are all features of b o t h exilic 9

a n d p o s t e x i l i c p r o p h e c y . T h e texts do n o t reflect a n y l i n e a r d e v e l o p m e n t f r o m o n e c o n c e p t o f the r e v e l a t o r y to a n o t h e r . In a d d i t i o n , the d i c h o t o m y o f w i s d o m a n d a p o c a l y p t i c or p r o p h e c y a n d a p o c a l y p t i c has b e e n c h a l l e n g e d in r e c e n t y e a r s .

1 0

B y categorizing Jubi­

lees as a p o c a l y p t i c as o p p o s e d to w i s d o m , o r as M o s a i c as o p p o s e d to E n o c h i c , o r as r e w r i t t e n B i b l e as o p p o s e d to n e w T o r a h , w e s i m p l y c o m p r o ­ m i s e o u r ability to r e a d the texts w i t h the o p e n n e s s a n d clarity r e q u i r e d to carefully c h a r t the d e v e l o p m e n t of s e c o n d t e m p l e J u d a i s m a l o n g w i t h the i n ­ sight r e q u i r e d to c o n t e x t u a l i z e the b o o k of J u b i l e e s . D e s p i t e all this, I w a n t to a c k n o w l e d g e that there is s o m e t h i n g a c c u r a t e a n d p r o f o u n d a b o u t c l a i m s to the cessation of r e v e l a t i o n . It w o u l d b e m o r e a c c u r a t e , h o w e v e r , to s p e a k of the transformation

of r e v e l a t i o n after the first

exile in the sixth c e n t u r y B . C . E . We n e e d to c o n s i d e r that despite the b u i l d ­ i n g o f the s e c o n d t e m p l e , the d e s t r u c t i o n of the first t e m p l e w a s n e v e r o v e r ­ come.

1 1

T h e r e w a s , t h u s , f r o m 587 B . C . E . o n , a sense o f lost i n t i m a c y w i t h the

d i v i n e , w h i c h is reflected in t e x t u a l w i t n e s s e s f r o m the s e c o n d t e m p l e a n d the p o s t - 7 0 e r a s .

1 2

B u t it w a s t h r o u g h l e a r n i n g h o w to m o u r n loss that these

texts g a i n e d access to the d i v i n e in a different w a y . It also c o n c e r n s the e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f access to the d i v i n e . To b e sure, there are p r o p h e c i e s that c o m m u n i c a t e a s p e c i a l r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h the di­ v i n e , or i n a c c e s s i b l e i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t the p a s t . O n e g o a l of r e v e l a t i o n in the s e c o n d t e m p l e p e r i o d w a s to r e c o v e r a lost r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n G o d a n d h u m a n i t y . T h u s , the desire for r e v e l a t i o n is the a s p i r a t i o n to a p p r o a c h a n d p e r h a p s even i m i t a t e d i v i n e p e r f e c t i o n b y r e c o v e r i n g an idyllic past a n d i m a g i n i n g an i n s p i r e d future.

9. See my new work on this topic, "Defining Prophecy," in Prophetic Ends: Concepts of the Revelatory in Late Ancient Judaism (forthcoming). 10. For the most recent discussion of the relations between apocalyptic and wisdom literature, see Conflicted Boundaries in Wisdom and Apocalypticism, ed. B. G. Wright and L. M. Wills, SBLSymS (Atlanta: Society of Biblical Literature, 2005). On the relationship be­ tween prophecy and apocalyptic, see J. C. VanderKam's two essays now reprinted in From Revelation to Canon: Studies in the Hebrew Bible and Second Temple Literature, JSJSup 62 (Leiden: Brill, 2000): "The Prophetic-Sapiential Origins o f Apocalyptic Thought," 241-54, and "Prophecy and Apocalyptics in the Ancient Near East," 255-75. 11. See M. A. Knibb, "Exile in the Damascus Document," JSOT 25 (1983): 99-117, and "The Exile in the Literature o f the Intertestamental Period," HeyJ 17 (1976): 253-72. 12. See the important discussion o f persistent exile in B. Nitzan's engagement of peni­ tential prayer in her "The Penitential Prayer o f Moses in Jubilees 1 and Its Relation to the Penitential Tradition o f the Post-Exilic Judaism," Hen 30, no. 2 (2008).

233

Hindy Najman But what happens to the aspiration to perfection within a community that undergoes the destruction of its political and religious institutions, and that is exiled from its homeland? Is perfection, or progress toward perfec­ tion, to be thought of only in terms of restoration and return from exile? Or are there ways in which perfection, or progress toward perfection, is possible even in the midst of suffering — perhaps even by means of suffering? In the case of Jubilees, the idea of a pre-Sinaitic context for Sinaitic revelation provides a ready instrument for the explanation both of loss and of the access of a privileged few to the requisites of salvation. Those who know only what was revealed at Sinai but who are ignorant of its pre-Sinaitic backdrop do not know how to observe the law properly. This proper obser­ vance — heavily but not exclusively focused on the solar calendar — is avail­ able only to those who know the traditions revealed first to Enoch, and then passed on through a succession of worthy individuals. The task of Jubilees is to set the story straight by putting the revelation at Sinai in its pre-Sinaitic context, thanks to privileged information about exactly what the angel of the presence said to Moses at Sinai. Loss of intimacy with the divine turns out to be part of the story itself, as does the promise of recovery, for some at least. Thus Jubilees presents itself as revelation that reveals a falling away from rev­ elation, as well as the possibility of a return. I anticipate another kind of resistance to my suggestion. As modern, post-Enlightenment scholars, are we ready to take any text's self-presentation at face value? Should we not rather be skeptical or suspicious? I suggest that we treat Jubilees' self-description as revealed — as Mo­ saic and angelic — in just the same way that we treat the self-descriptions of the books of Jeremiah and Isaiah. In none of these cases, I think, are we in a situation where we can associate the text decisively with some historical au­ thor, and in all of them a complex history of composition and redaction ap­ pears to undermine any such attribution. But to decide that these works are therefore inauthentic is to contrast them with some set of authentic, canoni­ cal texts, which is to allow confessional presuppositions to trespass in the field of scholarship. And to decide that they are forgeries is to employ what I have argued elsewhere is an anachronistic conception of authorial attribu­ tion. In a recent essay, I wrote: The problems facing those of us who work on pseudepigrapha may seem insuperable. However, we should not assume that political contextualization or religious affiliation is the only way of doing history, or the most important. I want to suggest that intellectual, cultural and 234

Reconsidering

Jubilees:

Prophecy

and

Exemplarity

spiritual practices also constitute contexts w i t h i n w h i c h texts can b e ren­ dered intelligible. Instead of constituting an obstacle, a u t h o r i a l selfeffacement s h o u l d be an object of study. B y c o n s i d e r i n g the practices of a u t h o r i a l effacement a n d p s e u d e p i g r a p h i c attribution, w e can c o m e to u n d e r s t a n d m u c h a b o u t the w a y the u n k n o w n a n d u n k n o w a b l e authors related to their o w n p r e s e n t .

13

In this p a r t i c u l a r case, w e s h o u l d t r y to u n d e r s t a n d h o w Jubilees u n d e r ­ s t a n d s itself as b u i l d i n g u p o n the e x p a n s i o n o f E x o d u s that o c c u r s a l r e a d y in D e u t e r o n o m y , all a t t r i b u t e d to the figure o f M o s e s . It is a n i n s t a n c e o f w h a t I h a v e e l s e w h e r e called M o s a i c D i s c o u r s e . A t the s a m e t i m e , h o w e v e r , as I h a v e a r g u e d e l s e w h e r e , it is also angelic d i s c o u r s e , since it presents itself as a rec­ o r d of w h a t the a n g e l of the p r e s e n c e s a i d to M o s e s , w h i c h M o s e s dutifully recorded.

1 4

A s s c h o l a r s , o u r task is n o t to j u d g e the a u t h e n t i c i t y o f J u b i l e e s '

c l a i m to b e r e v e a l e d . It is rather to c o n t e x t u a l i z e that claim w i t h i n the p r a c ­ tices of late a n c i e n t J u d a i s m . In w h a t f o l l o w s I w a n t to d e v e l o p m y p r e v i o u s w o r k o n J u b i l e e s in t w o respects: I. I w a n t to d e v e l o p the p o i n t , w h i c h I h a v e a l r e a d y i n t r o d u c e d , that the b o o k o f Jubilees b e l o n g s to the c o r p u s of b o o k s s a i d to b e revelatory, o r even p r o p h e t i c .

1 5

O n c e w e i n c l u d e Jubilees in this g r o u p , w e see the c l a i m s

of the b o o k in a v e r y different light. T h e angelic r e v e l a t i o n , the M o s a i c i n ­ s c r i p t i o n , a n d the r e c o r d o f h e a v e n l y t r a d i t i o n s r e s o n a t e w i t h the betterk n o w n b i b l i c a l t r a d i t i o n s . W h i l e s c h o l a r s h a v e e m p h a s i z e d that J u b i l e e s is p a r t of the " Q u m r a n Bible," o r the " a u t h o r i t a t i v e literature" o f the s e c o n d t e m p l e p e r i o d for s o m e J e w s , w e m u s t still e x p l o r e the i m p l i c a t i o n s of that c l a i m . O u r c o n c e p t i o n of Jubilees is altered, a l o n g w i t h other k n o w n p r o ­ p h e t i c w o r k s , o n c e w e c o n s i d e r these w o r k s to be representatives of a g e n r e , s o m e o f w h o s e m e m b e r s later c a m e to b e classified as b i b l i c a l .

16

I I . In m y earlier w o r k I f o c u s e d o n Jubilees as an e x a m p l e of w h a t I called d i s c o u r s e tied to a f o u n d e r — in the case of Jubilees, M o s a i c D i s c o u r s e .

13. H. Najman, "How Should We Contextualize Pseudepigrapha? Imitation and E m u ­ lation in 4Ezra," in Flores Florentino: Dead Sea Scrolls and Other Early Jewish Studies in Hon­ our oj Florentino Garcia Martinez, ed. A. Hilhorst, E. Puech, and E. Tigchelaar (Leiden: Brill, 2007). 14. See my essay "Interpretation as Primordial Writing." 15. In m y forthcoming study of ancient Jewish revelation, I discuss features that Jubi­ lees shares with other members o f the prophetic corpus. See "Defining Prophecy," in Pro­ phetic Ends. 16. Cf. Kraft, "Para-mania."

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N o w , I w a n t to further d e v e l o p this claim b y e x a m i n i n g the w a y the e x e m p l a r (the f o u n d i n g figure associated w i t h this t r a d i t i o n ) f u n c t i o n s in this text. O f c o u r s e , there are other texts in w h i c h the f o u n d i n g figure functions p r o m i ­ nently as the p s e u d o n y m o u s author, e.g., 1, 2, a n d 3 E n o c h a n d 4 E z r a a n d 5 E z r a , a m o n g other e x a m p l e s . H e r e , h o w e v e r , I w a n t to c o n s i d e r the role o f the e x e m p l a r in the b o o k of Jubilees, on t w o levels. T h e first is the a n g e l of the p r e s e n c e a n d the figure of M o s e s . T h e s e t w o figures are the ones a u t h o r i z i n g this w o r k . T h e y h a v e p r o d u c e d it t h r o u g h d i v i n e r e v e l a t i o n a n d h a v e s e c u r e d the h e a v e n l y stature a n d status of this n o w earthly c o p y to w h i c h w e have a c ­ cess. O f c o u r s e , M o s e s a n d the a n g e l of the p r e s e n c e are the t w o m o s t perfect figures to w h i c h a n e w d i s c o u r s e of this sort s h o u l d b e a t t r i b u t e d . T h e angelic figure dictates faithfully a n d the e x e m p l a r y scribe w r i t e s as they b o t h fulfill the d i v i n e charge w i t h i n s p i r a t i o n a n d accuracy. T h e r e is, h o w e v e r , a s e c o n d level at w h i c h the e x e m p l a r o p e r a t e s . T h i s s e c o n d level r e t u r n s us to the q u e s ­ tion m e n t i o n e d a b o v e a b o u t the role of interpretation or e x p a n s i o n of texts w e r e c o g n i z e f r o m biblical t r a d i t i o n . T h e b o o k o f Jubilees is an a s s e m b l y o f n a r r a t i v e s r e c o u n t i n g the h i s t o r y of e x e m p l a r i t y . T h e s e figures are d e s e r v i n g of the gift o f w r i t i n g a n d the d i v i n e , h e a v e n l y tablets. T h e y are figures of the past o n b o t h the first ( M o s e s ) a n d s e c o n d (the p a t r i a r c h s , J a c o b , etc.) levels, they are the n e w p r o p h e c y for the i n t e n d e d a u d i e n c e , a n d t h e y u l t i m a t e l y c o m e to p l a y i m p o r t a n t roles for i m a g i n i n g p e r f e c t i o n a n d c o n c e i v i n g of rev­ elation in s e c o n d t e m p l e J u d a i s m .

I. Jubilees as a Revelatory Text In earlier w o r k I h a v e f o c u s e d on J u b i l e e s ' f a s c i n a t i o n w i t h w r i t t e n n e s s a n d scribalism.

17

H e r e it is n e c e s s a r y to d i s c u s s o n c e a g a i n the c l a i m o f a cessa­

tion of p r o p h e c y , this t i m e f r o m a different a n g l e . F o r s c h o l a r s h a v e l o n g c l a i m e d that p r o p h e c y w a s t r a n s f o r m e d f r o m that earlier i m m e d i a t e d i v i n e c o m m u n i c a t i o n called p r o p h e c y into s c r i b a l i s m a n d t e x t u a l

interpretation.

O n this v i e w , the cessation o f p r o p h e c y is e x p l a i n e d in t e r m s o f an e n d i n g o f o n e f o r m of d i v i n e c o m m u n i c a t i o n (i.e., t h r o u g h direct d i v i n e u t t e r a n c e ) into a m e d i a t e d f o r m o f d i v i n e access t h r o u g h the text. T h e c l a i m p r e s u p ­ p o s e s that textuality a n d w r i t t e n n e s s b e c a m e the p r e d o m i n a n t f o r m of a c ­ cessing the d i v i n e .

1 8

T h e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n is u n d e r s t o o d as linear a n d d e m o n -

17. Najman, "Interpretation as Primordial Writing." 18. See H. Najman, "Angels at Sinai: Exegesis, Theology and Interpretive Authority," DSD 8 ( 2 0 0 0 ) : 3 1 3 - 3 3 .

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Prophecy

and

Exemplarity

strable o n the b a s i s of the textual w i t n e s s e s f r o m the p e r i o d of s e c o n d t e m p l e J u d a i s m . W h i l e it is true that there are m a n y e x a m p l e s of w r i t t e n a u ­ t h o r i t y a n d s c r i b a l figures w h o are i n t e r p r e t i n g the earlier texts, w e can find s u c h e x a m p l e s of p r o p h e t i c w r i t t e n n e s s in p r e e x i l i c m a t e r i a l s as w e l l as in a n c i e n t N e a r E a s t e r n t r a d i t i o n s . I n a d d i t i o n , texts that e x h i b i t the features of w h a t is c a t e g o r i z e d as prophetic ple t e x t s .

19

c o n t i n u e to be f o u n d in the late s e c o n d t e m ­

R a t h e r t h a n t h i n k i n g o f i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of texts a n d the d e v e l o p ­

m e n t of p r o p h e c y , w e s h o u l d c o n s i d e r it o n e of m a n y f o r m s of r e v e l a t i o n in preexilic and postexilic texts.

20

T h r o u g h o u t the s e c o n d t e m p l e p e r i o d a n d

b e y o n d w e h a v e texts that c o n t i n u e to c l a i m that t h e y are able to c o n n e c t w i t h the d i v i n e v i a h e a v e n l y j o u r n e y , c o n v e r s a t i o n w i t h a n g e l s , a n d i n s p i r e d i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f older, a u t h o r i t a t i v e p r o p h e t i c texts a n d / o r

traditions.

B u t surely the idea of r e v e l a t i o n as i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s o u n d s p a r a d o x i c a l . For, a c c o r d i n g to w e l l - e s t a b l i s h e d w a y s of t h i n k i n g , r e v e l a t i o n a n d i n t e r p r e ­ t a t i o n are distinct: there is r e v e l a t i o n , w h i c h s o m e h o w gives rise to s c r i p t u r e ; a n d t h e n there is i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , w h i c h a i m s to u n d e r s t a n d a n d a p p l y s c r i p ­ ture, a n d h e n c e to g r a s p w h a t is r e v e a l e d in r e v e l a t i o n . T h e p r o j e c t of w r i t i n g a n d r e w o r k i n g earlier r e v e l a t i o n is s o m e t i m e s c o n s i d e r e d r a d i c a l l y distinct f r o m r e c e i v i n g p r o p h e c y . S o m e h o w textuality itself is c o n s i d e r e d earthly (as o p p o s e d to h e a v e n l y ) a n d bereft of the i m m e d i a c y ( e v e n p r i s t i n e q u a l i t y ) o f divine vision. T h e act of w r i t i n g itself a n d a w r i t t e n w i t n e s s to r e v e l a t i o n c a n be f o r m s of the r e v e l a t o r y (e.g., Esther, Josiah's d i s c o v e r e d scroll, M i s h n e h T o ­ rah, a m o n g o t h e r s ) .

2 1

B u t the act of w r i t i n g itself can also b e a r w i t n e s s to the

p e r m a n e n c e o f d i v i n e p r e s e n c e for the c o m m u n i t y even in the face o f i m ­ p e n d i n g or recalled d e s t r u c t i o n (e.g., J u b 1 ) . Jubilees c a n tell us a great deal a b o u t the n a t u r e of an o p e n c o r p u s of p r o p h e t i c texts in s e c o n d t e m p l e J u d e a n t r a d i t i o n . T h e p r o p h e t i c c o r p u s is n o t a closed c a n o n : n e w t r a d i t i o n s are b e i n g c o m p o s e d as the c o r p u s o f a u ­ thoritative literature g r o w s . S c h o l a r s h a v e c h a l l e n g e d the d i c h o t o m y b e ­ t w e e n the a p o c a l y p t i c a n d the p r o p h e t i c , a n d thereby o p e n e d u p the p a t h to

19. For a recent discussion o f prophecy at Q u m r a n , see A. P. Jassen, Mediating the Di­ vine: Prophecy and Revelation in the Dead Sea Scrolls and Second Temple Judaism, STDJ (Leiden: Brill, forthcoming). 20. See my forthcoming work on this subject, "Discourse Attributed to a Heavenly Founder: Emulation and Imitation," in Prophetic Ends. 21. See m y essay "The Symbolic Significance o f Writing in Prophetic Traditions," in Theldea of Biblical Interpretation: Essays in Honor ofJames L. Kugel, ed. H. Najman and J. H. Newman, JSJSup 83 (Leiden: Brill, 2 0 0 4 ) , 139-73.

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c o n s i d e r i n g these texts p r o p h e t i c .

22

M o r e o v e r , w e h a v e n o e v i d e n c e that

these texts are any less t h a n "scriptural," "authoritative," or " b i b l i c a l " at Q u m r a n (these t e r m s , o f c o u r s e , h a v e an a n a c h r o n i s t i c d i m e n s i o n in the third a n d s e c o n d c e n t u r i e s B . C . E . ) . T h u s , to classify Jubilees as p r o p h e c y , in the w a y w e m i g h t call D a n i e l or 4 E z r a or even Pesher H a b a k k u k p r o p h e c y ,

23

enables us to c o n s i d e r these

texts in their o w n c o n t e x t . T h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f w r i t i n g n e w interpretive a n d li­ t u r g i c a l a n d even m y s t i c a l texts w a s still alive in late s e c o n d t e m p l e J u d a i s m . We see t i m e a n d a g a i n that the p o s s i b i l i t y of p r o p h e t i c i n s p i r a t i o n a n d a n ­ gelic v i s i t a t i o n is i n v o k e d . B y a l l o w i n g o u r s e l v e s to r e a d Jubilees in the c o n ­ text o f the texts a n d t r a d i t i o n s it a p p r o p r i a t e s , w e h a v e b e g u n to c o n s t r u c t a c o n t e x t for a text that has deliberately effaced its o w n o r i g i n . Jubilees is l o ­ cated at a t i m e w h e n s c r i p t u r e w a s b e i n g w r i t t e n a n d w a s v e r y m u c h in c o n ­ v e r s a t i o n w i t h the old as it attached itself to a d i s c o u r s e tied to a f o u n d e r , w h i c h is a u t h o r i t a t i v e l y old b y the t i m e of the s e c o n d c e n t u r y B . C . E .

II. Exemplars in Jubilees: Two Levels I will n o w t u r n to the role of the a u t h o r in J u b i l e e s . A s I h a v e a r g u e d else­ w h e r e , the figure of M o s e s is i n v o k e d to a u t h o r i z e the w o r k in the s a m e m a n n e r as f o u n d in D e u t e r o n o m y .

2 4

In Seconding

Sinai

I a r g u e d that it is

useful to b r i n g F o u c a u l t ' s c o n c e p t of a u t h o r s h i p to b e a r o n the D e u t e r o n o m i c tradition:

W h a t is the alternative to seeing this l o n g - t e r m e x p a n s i o n of M o s e s ' role — this long history of p s e u d o n y m o u s attribution a n d rewriting — as a 22. G. W. E. Nickelsburg, "The Nature and Function o f Revelation in 1 Enoch, Jubi­ lees, and Some Qumranic Documents," in Pseudepigraphical Perspectives: The Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha in Light of the Dead Sea Scrolls; Proceedings of the International Sympo­ sium of the Orion Center for the Study of the Dead Sea Scrolls and Associated Literature, 12-14 January, 199/, ed. E. G. Chazon and M. E. Stone, STDJ 31 (Leiden: Brill, 1999), 9 1 - 1 1 9 ; once again, see J. C. VanderKam's two seminal articles that challenged the dichotomy between prophecy and apocalyptic and prophecy and wisdom literature: "The Prophetic-Sapiential Origins o f Apocalyptic Thought" and "Prophecy and Apocalyptics in the Ancient Near East"; see n. 10 above. See also I. Grunewald's discussion o f what he calls para-prophecy in From Apocalypticism to Gnosticism (Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang, 1988), 17-18. 23. Cf. J. Barton, Oracles of God: Perceptions of Ancient Prophecy in Israel after the Exile (New York: Oxford University Press, 1988). 24. See m y discussion o f this in Seconding Sinai, chap. 1.

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Reconsidering Jubilees: Prophecy and Exemplarity history of fraud and tampering? Although Foucault is not primarily con­ cerned, in his discussion of the author function, with ancient texts, and although he does not directly address the Hebrew Bible, one of his exam­ ples provides a useful contemporary analogue to the cases I am consider­ ing. It is the example of discourses that are inextricably linked to their founders, such as Marxism or Freudianism. When someone proclaims "Back to Marx!" or "Back to Freud!" she claims to represent the authentic doctrine of Marx or Freud, although she may express it in different words. Of course, today such people make known their own names, un­ der which they author books. But, in some ancient cultures, the way to continue or return to the founder's discourse was precisely to ascribe what one said or wrote, not to oneself, but rather to the founder. 25

In the above passage, I consider the claim that "Moses" wrote Deuteronomy or Jubilees. If we are to take that claim seriously, what is involved? First, we must seriously consider what it could mean in general — in the exilic and postexilic periods — to attribute a tradition to a figure, to say, for example, that Isaiah wrote Second Isaiah or that Moses wrote Deuteronomy or that Jeremiah wrote the whole of Jeremiah. Regardless of whether there is a historical Isaiah, what is important is that the earliest traditions about Isaiah seem to have generated even more traditions that would attach themselves to the earlier Isaianic traditions. Just as we speak of Pythagorean texts — which are surely not physically or his­ torically produced by Pythagoras himself, but which participate in a dis­ course attached to a founder — and just as we speak of Marxist or Freudian texts that were not written by either Marx or Freud, so we should perhaps speak of Isaianic texts, participating in an Isaianic discourse. Between founding figure and discourse there is a reciprocal and dynamic relation­ ship: ascriptions to the figure constitute the discourse, while developments of the discourse constitute the figure's evolving identity. What I want to argue is that Jubilees presents itself as part of the larger corpus of revelatory literature insofar as it participates in an already inspired discourse associated with a founder. These figures from the remote past keep writing, or at least communicating to later writers, traditions that are said to be part of a revered and inspired past. I want to distinguish my position here from someone who might ar­ gue that there are analogues to Greco-Roman schools of philosophy in late 25. Seconding Sinai, 12.

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Hindy Najman ancient Judaism. I do not claim that we can establish in any way that there are schools of Mosaic, Enochic, or Ezran Judaisms. Neither do I think that we have the evidence that we can clearly distinguish communities that dis­ cuss Mosaic Law and Torah from those that do not. On my reading of these texts (e.g., Jubilees, 1 Enoch, Ben Sira), none of them defines a school. Nei­ ther do Jubilees or early Enochic traditions demonstrate that there were de­ bates between actual schools of thought, or even show that there was an estab­ lished framework of discipleship within a school. In short, there is simply no explicit textual or material evidence of the kind in the third and second cen­ turies that supports the existence of two distinct schools associated with Enoch and Moses.

26

Instead, distinctive founders are linked to particular discourses. These discourses are not mutually exclusive, but are instead overlapping — some­ times even within a single text. Jubilees is an example, as is 4 Ezra. In Jubilees we can find traces of Jeremianic, Deuteronomic, Enochic, and Mosaic tradi­ tions; all these have other expressions of these discourses that function and grow beside and apart from the book of Jubilees itself. But what we can see in Jubilees is that these discourses that are linked to different founders can be absorbed within a single work without any obvious tension.

27

It seems

strange to construct or to posit schools when we don't have the evidence to support them. We do have much in the way of silence — and I am not pre­ pared to construct arguments or communities or schools out of that silence. Rather, I want to focus on what we can reconstruct from the texts. Many texts are linked and associated with the figure of Moses, and others with Enoch, and still others with Ezra. We can trace those traditions and understand that one way in which traditions were composed and devel­ oped in the ancient world was by attaching new tradition to older figures and according that new tradition the status of the old, i.e., prophetic status. I 26. For a different view in support of Mosaic and Enochic schools, see G. Boccaccini, Beyond the Essene Hypothesis: The Parting of the Ways between Qumran and Enochic Judaism (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1998). 27. See A. Y. Reed's contribution to this conference, "Enochic and Mosaic Traditions in Jubilees: The Evidence of Angelology and Demonology." In it she discusses the author of Jubilees: "If it is difficult to determine Jubilees' assessment of the relative worth of Enochic and Mosaic texts, this is perhaps not accidental. The task of weighing the relative worth of the constitutive elements of Israel's literary heritage does not seem particularly central for the text itself. Rather, the main function of Jubilees' epistemology — aside, of course, from asserting its own authority — may be to argue that the Jewish people actually possessed a lit­ erary heritage that predated the life of Moses." See also the earlier discussion of Enoch and Moses in Jubilees in I. Grunewald, From Apocalypticism to Gnosticism, 35.

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Reconsidering Jubilees: Prophecy and Exemplarity think it would be very helpful to link these figures to textual traditions that we come to know as "biblical." These traditions emerged over many centu­ ries through copying, the growth and transformation of community, and in­ terpretation of the past in the present. The founding figure is the exemplar — here, Moses and the angel of the presence. It is clear that both Moses and the angel confer authority, but they are also responsible for the accuracy of the dictation and inscription of the traditions included in the book of Jubilees. They are the ones to whom the text is attributed. They are not only characters, but they are also given re­ velatory roles. So, at the level of authorship the text is both angelic and Mo­ saic.

28

The figures of the angel and Moses are trusted as the tradents and

producers as they accord a heavenly and prophetic status to the tradition that builds upon and expands an already established and authoritative Mo­ saic tradition.

29

There is, however, a second level throughout the book of Jubilees, a level on which well-known biblical figures function as exemplars, without 30

the authorship or the dictation of the book being attributed to them. The book itself is comprised of narratives that are built upon the reputations of selected exemplaryfigures— all of whom play a significant role in the trans­ mission of the very same tablets now being dictated to Moses by the angel of the presence. But these figures are worthy of receiving these traditions pre­ cisely because of their own adherence to the law, their observance of the cor­ rect calendar, and their perfect sacrifices. Finally, they will receive the tablets and copy them, or preserve them and transmit them to the next tradent. The very first tradent, Enoch, along with later tradents, who figure prominently in Jubilees as well as in the Pentateuch and other prophetic tra­ ditions, belongs to what I want to call a second level of exemplarity. It is not that the text itself is attributed to Abraham or Enoch. Nor does the fact that they are entrusted with the heavenly tablets render them authors of the text of Jubilees. Rather, they serve as examples to the reader of how to be worthy

28. See J. C. VanderKam, "The Angel of the Presence in the Book of Jubilees," DSD 7 (2000): 378-93, and Najman, "Angels at Sinai." See also the discussion of the angel of the presence in A. Orlov's conference paper and a more expanded version of this paper in "Mo­ ses' Heavenly Counterpart in the Book of Jubilees and the Exagoge of Ezekiel the Tragedian," Bib 88, no. 2 (2007).

29. Here, see the first two chapters of Seconding Sinai. 30. See B. G. Wright III, "From Generation to Generation: The Sage as Father in Early Jewish Literature," in Biblical Traditions in Transmission: Essays in Honour of Michael A. Knibb, ed. C. Hempel and J. M. Lieu, JSJSup IU (Leiden: Brill, 2006), 309-32. 241

Hindy

Najman

of r e c e i v i n g the h e a v e n l y tablets. T h e n a r r a t i v e s a b o u t t h e m , their o w n p e r ­ s o n a l a n d s p i r i t u a l t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s , a n d the successful t r a n s m i s s i o n o f the tablets to their p r o g e n y enable us to u n d e r s t a n d the r e d e m p t i v e n a t u r e o f the tablets t h e m s e l v e s as they are p r e s e r v e d u n t i l the t i m e of M o s e s a n d (as the r e a d e r s o f Jubilees k n o w ) b e y o n d . T h e m y t h o f c o n t e x t , i.e., that the text itself is w r i t t e n in the t i m e of M o s e s , is a c t u a l l y a r e d e m p t i v e n a r r a t i v e o f p r e s e r v a t i o n a n d t r a n s m i s s i o n of the a u t h o r i t a t i v e

tradition.

E a c h figure — be it N o a h or E n o c h , A b r a h a m or L e v i — s h o w s h i m s e l f to b e p a r t of the d i s t i n g u i s h e d , holy, a n d i n s p i r e d line r e c e i v i n g a n d t r a n s ­ m i t t i n g the t r a d i t i o n s . T h e b o o k o f Jubilees is a b o o k that

demonstrates

w h a t it is to be e x e m p l a r y a n d w o r t h y of p r o p h e c y . T h e stories constitute the h i s t o r y o f the h e a v e n l y t r a d i t i o n a n d its interface w i t h earthly t r a n s m i t t e r s . T i m e does n o t p e r m i t m e to e x p l o r e the v a r i o u s w a y s in w h i c h the sec­ o n d level of e x e m p l a r s is d e v e l o p e d a l o n g w i t h the f r a m e w o r k o f the first level of M o s a i c a n d angelic e x e m p l a r s in J u b i l e e s . It is the case, h o w e v e r , w h e t h e r it is P e n t a t e u c h a l r e w o r k i n g o r the a b s o r p t i o n o f l a r g e r t r a d i t i o n s available b o t h to the P e n t a t e u c h a l c o m p i l e r ( s ) a n d to J u b i l e e s , that the n a r ­ ratives a b o u t those w h o are w o r t h y o f t r a n s m i t t i n g the t r a d i t i o n p r o v i d e us w i t h a c o n t e x t in w h i c h w e c a n b e g i n to u n d e r s t a n d b o t h the w a y s e c o n d t e m p l e t r a d i t i o n s are e m e r g i n g a n d h o w the a u t h o r s a n d c o m m u n i t i e s b e ­ h i n d these " n e w " texts s e e m to u n d e r s t a n d t h e m s e l v e s to be e x t e n d i n g a n d expanding older p a r a d i g m s .

3 1

III. Conclusion Jubilees p a r t i c i p a t e s in p r o p h e t i c d i s c o u r s e b y a t t a c h i n g its o r i g i n to M o s a i c r e c o r d i n g a n d a n g e l i c d i c t a t i o n . T h u s the text is p r e s e n t e d as a r e v e l a t i o n i n ­ sofar as it is the e a r t h l y c o p y of an a l r e a d y e s t a b l i s h e d d i v i n e a n d h e a v e n l y o r i g i n a l . T h i s is d o n e b y e m p h a s i z i n g the role of the e x e m p l a r in g e n e r a t i n g a n d s u s t a i n i n g n e w d i s c o u r s e s in J u d e a n t r a d i t i o n s f r o m s e c o n d

temple

t i m e s . T h u s , the e x e m p l a r is h i m s e l f the p r o p h e t w h o receives a n d t r a n s m i t s i n s p i r e d t r a d i t i o n . B u t in a d d i t i o n to this, w e m u s t c o n s i d e r the role of the e x e m p l a r s e m b e d d e d w i t h i n the n a r r a t i v e o f Jubilees itself. T h e s e are the ex­ e m p l a r s w h o d e m o n s t r a t e in their o w n life a k i n d of p e r f e c t i o n that m e r i t s r e c e i v i n g the gift of r e a d i n g a n d w r i t i n g a n d the tablets o f the h e a v e n s . T h e e v i d e n c e w e have p o i n t s to discourses associated w i t h p a r t i c u l a r

31. On this point see A. Y. Reed's contribution to this volume.

242

Reconsidering

Jubilees: Prophecy and

Exemplarity

founders, such as Enoch, Moses, or Ezra. This is surely not a catchall for second temple Jewish texts or, even more broadly, traditions in antiquity. However, the consideration of the exemplar is a w a y of organizing specific groups of materi­ als. B y attributing this "new" discourse to a founder of old, the new texts achieve a kind of continuity with the old. A n d yet, m a n y additional traditions are part of the "new" discourse and can transform the earlier traditions. T h e text of Jubilees understands itself to stand in the long line of pro­ phetic traditions associated with Moses. A n d , just as traditions associated with Daniel and Jeremiah continue to g r o w during the period of Jubilees and later, so too can traditions associated with Moses continue to be part of Mosaic prophecy — not pseudoprophecy, but texts and traditions as au­ thentic as the very words of the prophets of old. T h e textual evidence shows us that w h e n w e try to classify these nonbiblical but authoritative texts from second temple times, they turn out to be almost indistinguishable from bib­ lical traditions of that time. W h e n w e stop thinking in terms of later theo­ logical and canonical divides, what w e find are texts like Jubilees — texts that easily move back and forth between the E n o c h i c and the Mosaic, between the heavenly and the earthly, and between the esoteric and the accessible.

243

PART T H R E E

JUBILEES BETWEEN ENOCH AND QUMRAN

4Q265 and the Authoritative Status of Jubilees at Qumran Aharon Shemesh

4 Q 2 6 5 , n o w titled Miscellaneous Rules, was k n o w n earlier as Serek D a m a s ­ cus. T h e rationale behind that name was the scroll's inclusion of sections re­ sembling both the Rule of the C o m m u n i t y and the Damascus D o c u m e n t .

1

Joseph Baumgarten, the editor of this scroll for its official publication in D J D 35, found the title Serek D a m a s c u s inadequate and preferred the less de­ fined title Miscellaneous Rules. A s an example of the scroll's odd, diverse content, he points to frg. 7, which "embraces the following subjects: Shabbat rules; Prohibition of priestly sprinkling on the Shabbat; Permission to walk two thousand cubits to graze animals on the Shabbat; T h e eschatological C o m m u n a l Council; A d a m and Eve in Paradise and Purification after child­ 2

birth." While Baumgarten is undoubtedly right in pointing to the difficul­ ties with regard to the content and structure of frg. 7, it should be admitted that this is not the case for the other six fragments of the scroll. In contrast to frg. 7, each of the other fragments has a well-defined single subject. T h u s , frg. 1 contains the remains of what seems to be a pesher to Isa 5 4 : 1 - 2 , frg. 3 mentions the Passover sacrifice, and frg. 4 consists of a short version of the

1. L. H . Schiffman, "Serekh-Damascus," in EDSS, 868. 2. J. M. Baumgarten, "4Q265: 4QMiscellaneous Rules," in Qumran Cave 4.XXV: Halakhic Texts, ed. J. M. Baumgarten et al., DJD 35 (Oxford: Clarendon, 1999), 58. Baumgarten, "Scripture and Law in 4Q265," in Biblical Perspectives: Early Use and Interpretation of the Bi­ ble in Light of the Dead Sea Scrolls; Proceedings of the First International Symposium of the Orion Center for the Study of the Dead Sea Scrolls and Associated Literature, 12-14 May 1996, ed. M. E . Stone and E . G. Chazon, STDJ 28 (Leiden: Brill, 1998), 25-33.

247

Aharon

Shemesh

s e c t a r i a n P e n a l C o d e and a p a r t i a l d e s c r i p t i o n o f the p r o c e d u r e for a c c e p t ­ i n g n e w m e m b e r s to the c o m m u n i t y . O n l y a few w o r d s s u r v i v e d of frg. 5, w h i c h m o s t p r o b a b l y has to do w i t h a g r i c u l t u r e l a w s , a n d frg. 6 c o n t a i n s a series of S h a b b a t l a w s s i m i l a r in c o n t e n t a n d p h r a s e o l o g y to the D a m a s c u s D o c u m e n t . T h e f r a g m e n t a r y c o n d i t i o n of the scroll's r e m a i n s is i n d e e d an u n f o r t u n a t e s i t u a t i o n , b u t w e s h o u l d b e careful n o t to b l a m e its a u t h o r for o u r i n a b i l i t y to g r a s p the o v e r a l l s e q u e n c e a n d c o n t e n t of the s c r o l l . A s i n m a n y o t h e r cases, w e h a v e n o w a y to estimate w h a t the o r i g i n a l length of the c o m p o s i t i o n w a s , h o w m u c h has c o m e to us, a n d h o w m u c h has b e e n lost. T h e r e f o r e , it is v e r y difficult to s p e c u l a t e a b o u t the o r i g i n a l contexts of the survived fragments. W i t h these facts in m i n d , w e are c o m i n g b a c k to frg. 7, w h i c h p r e s e n t s the m o d e r n s c h o l a r w i t h a real c h a l l e n g e . C a n w e s o l v e this

conundrum:

R e v e a l the b a c k g r o u n d b e h i n d it a n d e x p l a i n its c o n t e n t a n d the s e q u e n c e 3

of its d e t a i l s ? M y r e s e a r c h e x p e r i e n c e o f the last y e a r s teaches m e t h a t it's worth a try.

4

4Q265, Fragment 7

H e r e is the text i n his o r i g i n a l H e b r e w a n d an E n g l i s h t r a n s l a t i o n b a s e d o n B a u m g a r t e n ' s e d i t i o n , t h o u g h I o m i t t e d his r e c o n s t r u c t i o n s a n d m a d e s o m e necessary changes. A s will be explained below, some of Baumgarten's recon­ s t r u c t i o n s w o r s e n the s i t u a t i o n a n d m a k e it e v e n h a r d e r to g r a s p the p a s ­ sage's o v e r a l l s t r u c t u r e . ]H QV3 "?[ ]

O n the d a y o f [[ 1

[ d a ] y o f the S h a b b a t a n d n o t [ [Le]t n o m a n o f the seed o f A Aaarroonn

J S ? ! nwn

1

D[V ]

2

H I ] ]i3 1T1HK SHtfi B^K V "?[K]

3

,

sprinkle w [ a t e r for purification [ ] *s [ ] *m b i g will fast o n the d a y [ [a]n [ a ] n i m a l m a y w a l k two t h o u s a n d cubits

3. F o r a p r e l i m i n a r y suggestion to explain the collection o f laws in frg. 7, see M . Kister, "Lexical a n d Linguistic G l e a n i n g from the D e a d Sea Scrolls," Leshoneneu

67 ( 2 0 0 7 ) : 4 1 , a n d

note 78. 4. See m y article "4Q251: Midrash 5. B a u m g a r t e n reads D I K I .

248

Mishpatim"

DSD 12 (2005): 280-302.

4Q265

and the Authoritative

Status

of Jubilees

at

Qumran

[ ]holy t h i r t y stadia. Let n [ o ] [ W ] h e n there will be in the c o u n c i l o f the C o m m u n i t y fif[teen [The p]rophets. The council o f the C o m m u n i t y is established Pleasing a n d a sweet o d o u r to a t o n e for the l [ a ] n d Will perish in the j u d g m e n t s o f t h e p e r i o d s o f iniquity. O n t h e first week [until] he was b r o u g h t to the G a r d e n o f Eden and a bone did she have until she was b r o u g h t to hi[m] [for] t h e G a r d e n o f E d e n is sacred a n d every y o u n g s h o o t w h i c h is in its m i d s t is a c o n s e c r a t e thing ( s h e ) will be i m p u r e for seven days as in t h e days o f h e r m e n s t r u a t i o n ( t h e b l o o d ) o f h e r purity. A n d if she will b e a r a female she shall be i m p u r e [shall r e m a i n ] n in the blood o f h e r purity. [ N o ] c o n s e c r a t e thing [shall she t o u c h ] .

T h e fragment m a y be d i v i d e d into four parts. T h e first unit, consisting of lines 1 - 6 , c o n t a i n s the r e m a i n s of s o m e halakic r u l i n g s . T h e y are p h r a s e d in the a b ­ stract style characteristic of the D a m a s c u s D o c u m e n t laws. T h e s e c o n d unit, lines 7 - 1 0 , has a clear sectarian n a t u r e . It m e n t i o n s the " c o u n c i l of the C o m ­ m u n i t y " twice: in line 7 a n d in line 8, a n d in line 10 there a p p e a r s the p h r a s e " p e r i o d s of iniquity," w h i c h is t y p i c a l of the sectarian v o c a b u l a r y . T h e third p a r t (11. 1 1 - 1 4 ) is

a

retelling of the G e n e s i s story of the creation of Eve from

A d a m ' s rib a n d G o d ' s p l a c i n g t h e m in p a r a d i s e . T h e fourth p a r t (11. 1 5 - 1 7 ) is again halakic in nature, dealing w i t h the laws of i m p u r i t y after childbirth. N o w , the easiest parts to identify as to b a c k g r o u n d are p a r t s 3 a n d 4. B a u m g a r t e n h a d a l r e a d y p o i n t e d o u t that these t w o subjects — the s t o r y of

6. Baumgarten reads HDD1.

249

Aharon

Shemesh

the G a r d e n o f E d e n a n d the laws of p u r i f i c a t i o n after c h i l d b i r t h —

are

j o i n e d together in J u b 3, a n d that the text o f these units of 4 Q 2 6 5 is a c t u a l l y a s h o r t e r v e r s i o n of the s a m e t r a d i t i o n . A c c o r d i n g to J u b i l e e s , A d a m w a s cre­ ated in the first w e e k a n d E v e in the s e c o n d . G o d b r o u g h t A d a m to the G a r ­ den of E d e n forty days after his c r e a t i o n , a n d he j o i n e d E v e to h i m f o r t y days later at the eightieth d a y of his c r e a t i o n . T h e n , in w h a t is k n o w n to be a u n i q u e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of J u b i l e e s , the c o m p o s i t i o n ' s editor associates the l a w of c h i l d b i r t h to this n a r r a t i v e : " A n d therefore the c o m m a n d w a s w r i t t e n in the h e a v e n l y tablets for o n e w h o b e a r s , T f she b e a r s a m a l e , she shall r e m a i n seven days in her i m p u r i t y like the first s e v e n d a y s , A n d t h i r t y - t h r e e days she shall r e m a i n in the b l o o d of her purity. A n d she shall n o t t o u c h

anything

holy. A n d she shall n o t enter the s a n c t u a r y until she has c o m p l e t e d these days w h i c h are i n a c c o r d w i t h (the r u l e for) a m a l e ( c h i l d ) . A n d that w h i c h is in a c c o r d w i t h (the rule for) a female is t w o w e e k s — like the t w o first w e e k s — in h e r i m p u r i t y . A n d s i x t y - s i x days she shall r e m a i n in the b l o o d of h e r purity. A n d their total w i l l b e e i g h t y d a y s ' " ( 3 : i o - n ) .

7

T h e s e c o n d u n i t h a s , as I m e n t i o n e d , clear s e c t a r i a n flavor. T h e scroll's editor has a l r e a d y n o t e d its close affinity w i t h l Q S 8 : 1 - 1 0 . F u r t h e r m o r e , I ' m n o w c o n v i n c e d b y M e n a h e m K i s t e r that this u n i t is a c t u a l l y a p a r a p h r a s e o r even a v a r i a n t v e r s i o n of that p a r a g r a p h in l Q S . T h u s line 7 in o u r f r a g m e n t , " [ W ] h e n there w i l l b e in the c o u n c i l o f the C o m m u n i t y fif[teen m e n ] , " p a r ­ allels l Q S 8:1, " I n the C o m m u n i t y c o u n c i l (there shall b e ) twelve m e n a n d three priests," a n d the p h r a s e " T h e c o u n c i l o f the C o m m u n i t y is e s t a b l i s h e d " (1. 8) a p p e a r s in l Q S 8:5. A l s o , line 1 0 in o u r f r a g m e n t is a v a r i a n t of l Q S 8:9, a n d s i m i l a r l y the w o rdsH ?!!? ' S p ttQW&ri H S C are w i t h m o s t p r o b a b i l i t y a 1

p a r a p h r a s e of l Q S 8:10, HS/ttn

, r

1

l " i n ? 1 . In light of these parallels the

c o n t e n t of u n i t 2 in o u r frg. 7 b e c o m e s clear. T h e c o u n c i l of the yahad that is • "71J7 DS7t073 (an eternal p l a n t ) will g r o w , d e v e l o p , a n d s u r v i v e the e s c h a t o ­ l o g i c a l future. T h e yahad

is tlHIp fl'S for Israel, a n d its m e m b e r s w e r e c h o ­

sen b y G o d . T h e i r r i g h t e o u s d e e d s please G o d a n d are accepted like s a c r i ­ fices, a n d t h u s h a v e the p o w e r to atone for the l a n d .

8

Let's go b a c k to the first u n i t of frg. 7. Its c o n t e n t , w e recall, is h a l a k a h a n d h a d at least six r u l i n g s , p r o b a b l y seven or eight. S o m e of these are w i t h n o d o u b t c o n c e r n i n g S h a b b a t law. T h e S h a b b a t is explicitly m e n t i o n e d in line 2 , t h o u g h in this case the c o n t e n t o f the l a w d i d n ' t s u r v i v e . T h e S h a b b a t

7. All Jubilees' translations are from OTP, vol. 2, slightly revised when needed.

8. See J. Licht, The Rule Scroll: A Scroll from the Wilderness of Judaea, Text, Introduction,

250

and Commentary

lQS, iQSa,

(Jerusalem: Mossad Bialik, 1965), 168-75.

lQSb;

4Q265 and the Authoritative Status of Jubilees at Qumran is also the subject of the laws at the beginning of lines 3 and 5. The first (1.3) rules that the priests will not sprinkle the purification water on that day. As noted by Baumgarten, the same halakah appears in 4 Q 2 7 4 (4QTohorot A ) as follows:

'jrarcn vbv

,

,

?^^• DXI

9

na»n[ m -nap "ias j"o narca r

I13tPn QVa. The halakah in line 5 is also known from another place, that

is, C D 11:5: D'S^K DK ' 3 rp»» fin nninV nanan -ins

i"?' "PS

1

naS3, which serves Baumgarten for its reconstruction: ITV ? fin "fpniian] HBK

1

WSh8, "f?' nana p ] n [» mm ?.

As the subject offrg.6 is also the laws

of the Shabbat, it is most plausible that our fragment (7) is indeed its direct continuation. Apparently, 4 Q 2 6 5 had a substantial section dealing with Shabbat laws. In light of the above, I find Baumgarten's suggestions for the recon­ struction of lines 4 and 6 not satisfying: in my opinion, they also ought to do with Shabbat laws. Baumgarten read and reconstructed line 4 as dealing with

QniB'an UV (the Day of Atonement): [CTISan] D V 3 D1X1 *?m IDfaa' S ?! ism' K*?!] ("[let them not bathe nor laun]der [on the] 1

great

[d]ay and fast, on the Day [of Atonement]"). I submit that the word D1X1 mentioned in this law is not a noun that describes the great day; rather it should be read as a verb, D 1 X \

1 0

The law is not concerning the Day of Atone­

ment, but rather, like the surrounding injunctions, its subject is the Shabbat. Though I don't yet have a full reconstruction to offer, there is no doubt in my mind that the law's intent is to prohibit fasting on Shabbat. Fasting on the Shabbat is explicitly prohibited by Jub 5 o : i 2 - i 3 .

u

Similarly I decline to accept Baumgarten's reconstruction for lines 5-6: TIN -IttO

VaSV 0 1 D'WTW Bnpta ? anp n«n 1

("[Let no man eat

meat of an ox or lamb near the Tejmple by a distance of thirty stadia"). This reconstruction is based on Temple Scroll 52:16-17, where the distance of "thirty stadia" is mentioned in connection with eating nonsacrificial meat in the tem­ ple surroundings:

pirn natoKin nanywa ma na w> iws minon

0 1 D'tPrVtP tPTpaa ("and every pure animal in which there is a blemish you may eat it at your gates (cities) far from my Temple at a radius of thirty sta­ dia"). Though this quotation from the Temple Scroll is indeed the only other place in the scrolls where the term "thirty stadia" is mentioned, this is by no 9- 4 Q 2 7 4 . 2 , 1 , 1 (DID 3 5 . 1 0 3 ) -

10. The first letter is more likely to b e ' than 1, as its leg is clearly shorter than that of the third letter in the word. A possible reconstruction may be: DV3 UVf "?VT1 Q [X JDp OK

[nawn]. 11. On fasting on the Shabbat in rabbinic tradition, see Y. D. Gilat, Studies in the De­ velopment of the Halakhah (Ramat Gan: Bar-Ilan University Press, 1992), 107-22. 251

Aharon

Shemesh

m e a n s a g o o d e n o u g h reason to reconstruct 4 Q 2 5 6 a c c o r d i n g to it. " T h i r t y sta­ dia" is a w e l l - k n o w n u n i t used in R o m a n Hellenistic culture as a s t a n d a r d m e a s u r e m e n t for the outer b o r d e r s of a t o w n . T h u s w e read in m. Qamma

Bava

7:7 " T h e y m a y not set snares for p i g e o n s unless it be thirty stadia from

an inhabited place" ( C H CPPlVP 3 W H p

pim

DTI p

T h e Persian equivalent to thirty stadia is the persanga,

, !

DX N^N t m 7 ) .

w h i c h is m e n t i o n e d a

few times in the B a b y l o n i a n T a l m u d in similar contexts. T h u s , for e x a m p l e , w h i l e discussing the prayer one s h o u l d say w h e n g o i n g on a j o u r n e y , the Tal­ m u d (b. Berakhot

3 0 a ) asks: " w h e n s h o u l d he p r a y it?" R . Y a a k o v the son o f 12

H i s d a h says: " w h e n he is already o n the r o a d — persanga!'

L i n e 6 , 1 suggest,

o u g h t to be read in line w i t h the p r e v i o u s law of line 5. T h e first states that one is allowed to w a l k an a n i m a l 2,000 cubits, a n d the s e c o n d decrees that in other c i r c u m s t a n c e s ( w h i c h w e r e specified in the m i s s i n g texts) one is a l l o w e d "[to w a l k o n the S a b b a t h day of h]oliness thirty stadia" ( P i p on

1

[ D 3 P D I P "J ?'']

n n z n ^ p ) . w e s h o u l d not b e s u r p r i s e d that the scroll distinguishes b e ­

tween different situations w i t h r e g a r d to the a l l o w e d w a l k i n g distance, as this is exactly w h a t w e find in the D a m a s c u s D o c u m e n t . W h i l e C D 11:5 allows g r a z ­ ing a n i m a l s in a distance of 2,000 cubits, C D 1 0 : 2 1 states that a m a n b y h i m s e l f s h o u l d n o t p r o c e e d m o r e t h a n 1,000 c u b i t s .

13

It is clear b y n o w that the legal section of frg. 7 is h o m o g e n e o u s in that all its details are c o n c e r n e d w i t h the S a b b a t h . T h i s o b s e r v a t i o n a c t u a l l y p r e ­ sents us w i t h the k e y to u n d e r s t a n d i n g frg. 7's s t r u c t u r e in g e n e r a l a n d the m e a n i n g o f its s e c o n d u n i t ( m e n t i o n i n g the yahad)

in p a r t i c u l a r . To recall,

the last p a r t of o u r p a s s a g e ( w h i c h deals w i t h the s t o r y of the G a r d e n o f E d e n a n d the laws of i m p u r i t y after c h i l d b i r t h ) parallels J u b 3. Is it s u r p r i s ­ ing that the subject of c h a p . 2 is the S h a b b a t , j u s t like in o u r d o c u m e n t ? ! I n w h a t follows I h o p e to establish that 4 Q 2 6 5 is a r e w r i t t e n v e r s i o n of Jubilees, as e v i d e n t from the s t r u c t u r e o f frg. 7. A s a result, the c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n o t h e r f r a g m e n t s of the scroll m a y also b e d i s c e r n e d . Jubilees tells the s t o r y of c r e a t i o n r e t r o s p e c t i v e l y f r o m the s t a n d p o i n t of the S h a b b a t . " A n d the angel of the p r e s e n c e s p o k e to M o s e s a c c o r d i n g to the w o r d o f the L o r d , s a y i n g : Write the c o m p l e t e h i s t o r y of the c r e a t i o n , h o w in six days the L o r d G o d finished all H i s w o r k s a n d all that H e created, a n d kept S a b b a t h o n the s e v e n t h d a y a n d h a l l o w e d it for all a g e s " ( 2 : 1 ) . T h i s is to e m p h a s i z e the i m p o r t a n c e of the S h a b b a t as the u l t i m a t e g o a l of the cre­ ation. T h e n in vv. 2 - 1 5 , G o d ' s deeds of the six days are d e s c r i b e d f o l l o w e d b y

12. Cf. b. Berakhot

16a.

13. For this see L. H. Schiffman, Halakhah

252

at Qumran

(Leiden: Brill, 1975), 91-98.

4Q265

and the Authoritative

Status

of Jubilees

at

Qumran

a detailed a c c o u n t of the first S h a b b a t , to w h i c h w e shall r e t u r n s o o n (vv. 1 6 2 6 ) . F r o m v. 26 o n w a r d the c o m m a n d m e n t to the Israelites to k e e p the S h a b b a t is g i v e n . V v . 3 1 - 3 2 s u m u p the issue as f o l l o w s : " T h e creator o f all b l e s s e d it, but he d i d not sanctify any p e o p l e or n a t i o n s to k e e p the S a b b a t h t h e r e o n w i t h the sole e x c e p t i o n of Israel. H e g r a n t e d to t h e m alone that t h e y m i g h t eat a n d d r i n k a n d keep the S a b b a t h t h e r e o n u p o n the earth. A n d the creator of all, w h o created this d a y for a b l e s s i n g a n d s a n c t i f i c a t i o n a n d glory, blessed it m o r e t h a n all d a y s . T h i s l a w a n d t e s t i m o n y w a s g i v e n to the children of Israel as an eternal law for their g e n e r a t i o n s . " To recall, the s u b ­ ject of the i m m e d i a t e l y f o l l o w i n g c h a p . 3 is the s t o r y of the c r e a t i o n of E v e f r o m A d a m ' s rib, the e n t r a n c e of the c o u p l e into the G a r d e n o f E d e n , fol­ l o w e d b y the h a l a k i c i n s t r u c t i o n s c o n c e r n i n g p u r i f i c a t i o n after c h i l d b i r t h . T h e s e q u e n c e o f the n a r r a t i v e in this p o r t i o n of Jubilees is thus: •

the list of S h a b b a t p r o h i b i t i o n s ,

•

the election of the c h i l d r e n of Israel f r o m a m o n g the n a t i o n s , a n d

•

the c r e a t i o n of E v e , the e n t r a n c e to the G a r d e n of E d e n , a n d laws of i m p u r i t y after c h i l d b i r t h .

T h e last sentence (vv. 3 1 - 3 2 ) stresses that the p e o p l e of I s r a e l w e r e s a n c t i f i e d a n d elected f r o m all the n a t i o n s to k e e p the S a b b a t h . T h i s d e c l a r a t i o n is a c o n d e n s e d r e p e t i t i o n of the n a r r a t i v e that a p p e a r s earlier in this c h a p t e r ( w . 20-22). A n d he ( G o d ) said to us (the a n g e l s ) , " B e h o l d I shall separate for m y s e l f a p e o p l e from a m o n g all the n a t i o n s . A n d they will also keep the S a b ­ bath. A n d I w i l l sanctify t h e m for myself, a n d I will bless t h e m a n d they will b e m y p e o p l e a n d I w i l l be their G o d . "And

I have chosen the seed of Jacob from a m o n g all that I have

seen. A n d I have r e c o r d e d h i m as m y firstborn son, a n d have sanctified h i m for m y s e l f forever a n d ever. A n d I will m a k e k n o w n to t h e m the Sabbath day so that they m i g h t o b s e r v e therein a Sabbath from all w o r k , a n d bless the o n e w h o created all things a n d has chosen t h e m f r o m all the n a t i o n s so that t h e y m i g h t keep the S a b b a t h together w i t h us 1

( D T O I P 1 3 0 S7 i m n V D ? ! ) . S o that their deeds (the k e e p i n g of the S a b ­ bath) w i l l go up as sweet o d o u r , w h i c h is acceptable before h i m all the

days(nps?m t r a T i "73 IMS'? n x r -iwx m m m-i n"?!?' v m i x a ) . "

1 4

14. The translation provided here reflects the Hebrew version as emerged from the Q u m r a n fragments of Jubilees (4Q216, col. 7 ) . The Ethiopian has a longer version.

253

Aharon

Shemesh

T h e s e verses h a v e b e e n d i s c u s s e d b y s c h o l a r s f r o m several different a n g l e s .

1 5

F o r o u r p u r p o s e s I w i s h to c o n c e n t r a t e o n the last t w o v e r s e s . T h e angel o f the p r e s e n c e tells M o s e s that G o d c h o s e the seed of J a c o b f r o m all the n a ­ 1

tions so that "they m i g h t keep the S a b b a t h t o g e t h e r w i t h (TIT' n i T l ? ! 13057) us. So that their deeds (the k e e p i n g of the S a b b a t h ) w i l l go u p as s w e e t o d o u r , w h i c h is acceptable b e f o r e h i m all the days (H^SP I T 1 1 X 8 ntt>5772l 1

D'a'n

"73 l ' J B ? n S T "IB7K m m

m)."

T h e last w o r d s of this v e r s e c o r r e ­

s p o n d a l m o s t v e r b a t i m to line 9 in 4 Q 2 6 5 frg. 7: " P l e a s i n g a n d a s w e e t o d o r 1

to atone for the l [ a ] n d ( ] * » p [ X ] n

"757 "IDa ? m m

mi

im)."

The

m e a n i n g o f this p h r a s e in b o t h , in 4 Q 2 6 5 a n d in its o r i g i n in l Q S , is that the yahad

has a s p e c i a l status as the c h o s e n p e o p l e , so that its m e m b e r s ' r i g h ­

t e o u s deeds h a v e the p o w e r to atone for the l a n d . T h e a u t h o r of 4 Q 2 6 5 chose to integrate this s h o r t p a r a g r a p h f r o m l Q S (or m a y b e a v a r i a n t o f it) in this specific l o c a t i o n at the heart o f frg. 7 in order, I s u g g e s t , to e m p h a s i z e a n d s t r e n g t h e n the sect's h i s t o r i c a l - r e l i g i o u s p e r c e p t i o n o f itself as the true Israel a n d as b e i n g the p r e s e n t - d a y "seed of Jacob." In so d o i n g , 4 Q 2 6 5 presents the p a r a g r a p h from l Q S as an exegetical i m p l e m e n t a t i o n of J u b i l e e s . N o t e also the a p p e a r a n c e o f the w o r d yahad

( T I T ) at the b e g i n n i n g of the v e r s e , just as

in lines 7-8 of o u r f r a g m e n t . It is n o t far-fetched to a s s u m e that this l i n g u i s ­ tic s i m i l a r i t y s t i m u l a t e s h i m to do s o . A c t u a l l y in its c u r r e n t c o n t e x t at the m i d d l e of frg. 7 o f 4 Q 2 6 5 , the citation f r o m l Q S f u n c t i o n s as a r e w r i t i n g o f Jubilees. W h i l e in Jubilees the c h o s e n p e o p l e are the "seed of Jacob," in 4 Q 2 6 5 it is the yahad

a n d its m e m b e r s .

1 6

15. O n Jacob as God's firstborn son, see J. L. Kugel, "4Q369 'Prayer o f Enosh' and An­ cient Biblical Interpretation," DSD 5 (1998): 1 1 9 - 4 8 . The association o f the election of Israel with the Sabbath finds its expression in some other compositions from Q u m r a n . See, for ex­ ample, 4Q503 (daily prayers), 24-25 (DJD 7 [Oxford: Clarendon, 1 9 8 2 ] , 1 0 5 - 3 6 ) . Interestingly, this idea is also the focus o f one o f the relatively late versions o f the Shabbat prayer, used in the traditional Jewish prayer book for the Shabbat Morning Prayer (Shacharit).

The text re­

lates as follows: "And You, Lord our God, did not give it (the Shabbat) to the nations o f the world, n o r did You, o u r King, g r a n t it as a heritage to idol-worshippers, n o r c a n uncircumcised participate in its rest — for You have given it in love to Your people Israel, to the descendents o f Jacob w h o m You have chosen." For the dating and history o f this text, see N. Wieder, "The Controversy about the Liturgical Composition 'Yismach sition and Defense," in Studies in Aggadah, Heinemann,

Targum, and Jewish Liturgy

Moshe' — O p p o ­

in Memory

of

Joseph

ed. E. Fleischer and Y. Patohovski (Jerusalem: Magnes, 1 9 8 1 ) , 75-99.

16. The perception of the yahad

as the true elected Israel is manifested throughout

a

the scrolls. See i Q H , 7 , 2 6 - 2 7 ; rQS, 4 , 2 2 . See also D. Dimant, "Qumran Sectarian Literature," in Jewish 536-38.

254

Writing

of the Second Temple Period,

ed. M. E . Stone (Philadelphia: Assen, 1984),

4Q265

an

d

the Authoritative Status of Jubilees at Qumran

The picture that emerges from the above analysis is that the sequence of frg. 7's content follows closely that of chaps. 2 and 3 of Jubilees. It opens with a series of laws concerning the Shabbat (in fact, this unit begins in frg. 6), it moves then to describe the election of the yahad (the new "real" Israel) for observing the Shabbat with God and the angels, and it continues with the story of Adam and Eve in the Garden of Eden and the laws of purification af­ ter childbirth. Recognizing the heavy dependence of 4Q265 on Jubilees enables us to further suggest possible explanations for the inclusion of some of the other fragments in this scroll, though it should be admitted that these are proposi­ tions that can't be proved. As is well known, Jubilees deals with Shabbat laws twice: first within the context of the creation in chap. 2 , and a second time at the end of the book in chap. 50. At the beginning of that chapter Jubilees relates not only to the Shabbat Day but also to the Sabbath of the land — the seventh year and the Jubilee year: "And I also related to you the Sabbath of the land on Mount Sinai. And the years of Jubilee in the Sabbaths of years I related to y o u . . . . And the land will keep the Sabbaths when they dwell upon it" (50:1-3). The subject of the previous chapter, 49, is the celebration of the Passover cen­ tered upon the paschal sacrifice in the temple. To recall, the subject of frg. 3 is the paschal sacrifice and frg. 5 concerns some agriculture laws that may very well be the laws of the Shmita (the seventh year): the fragment men­ tions "all that is sown in the earth" (1. 1) and the word (makes bloom) in line 2 . If all this is not mere accident, we may assume that, similar to other re­ written compositions, the author of 4 Q 2 6 5 collected the material concerning the Shabbat from the entire book of Jubilees. It may well be that he started his task by reviewing the legal material at the end of the book: Passover, sev­ enth year, and Shabbat laws. This last issue — the Shabbat law — led him from the end of the book to its beginning, where he found additional mate­ rial on the same subject. While there, he continued with the election of Israel and the story of the Garden of Eden along with chap. 3 of the book.

1QS 5:13-20: "The Laws of Separatism" and Jubilees 22:16-22 In light of the above discussion, I wish to return to another example of a similar phenomenon that I dealt with in the past. This example is not as clear as the one just analyzed; consequently I didn't recognize its full mean255

Aharon Shemesh ing at that time. It is thus worthwhile to repeat it here before concluding our findings and their meanings. The Rule of the Community requires the new member to swear that he will "separate from all the men of deceit" (lQS 5:10) and comply with the fol­ lowing rules (lQS 5:13-20): He must not enter the water in order to touch the purity of the men of holiness

No one may be united with him in his work or his wealth,

17

lest he burden him (with) guilty iniquity. But he shall keep far away from him in everything, for thus it is written: "Keep far away from ev­ erything false" (Exod 2 3 : 7 ) . " No man of the men of the Community shall respond to their utterance with respect to any law or judgment. No one must either eat or drink anything of their property, or accept any­ thing whatever from their hand without payment, as it is written: "Have nothing to do with the man whose breath is in his nostrils, for wherein can he be accounted?" (Isa 2:22). For all those who are not accounted within his covenant, they and everything they have must be excluded. The man of holiness must not lean on any worthless works, for worth­ less are all who do not know his covenant. But all those who spurn his word he will destroy from the world, and all their works are impure be­ fore him, and all their property unclean.

The Cave 4 fragments of the Rule of the Community have a shorter (and with all probability earlier) version for this series of injunctions.

19

And all who enter into the Council of the Community will take upon his soul by oath [to return t]o the [T]orah of Mose[s] with all (the) heart and with all (the) soul, (to) everything revealed from [the Torah] to the [multitude of] the Council of the men [of] the Community [and to sep­ arate from all the men of] deceit. They will not approach the purity of 20

the men of [holine]ss. One will not eat with him "Tn'a. No man of the men of the Community shall respond to their utterance with respect to any law or judgment. And no one shall be united with him in wealth and work. And no man of the men of holiness shall eat of their property; 17. Cf. CD 20:6-8.

18. Compare the Mekhilta de-Rabbi Ishmael (327 in the Horowitz-Rabin edition). 19. On the relation between lQS and 4QS, see S. Metso, The Textual Development of the Qumran Community Rule, STDJ (Leiden: Brill, 1997). 20. See the discussion below. 256

4Q265 and the Authoritative

Status of Jubilees at

Qumran

neither shall he receive anything from their hands. A n d they shall not lean upon any works of worthless, for worthless are all who do not know his covenant.

C o m p a r i s o n of this text (in its two versions) to the following passage from Jubilees (22:16-22) is illuminating. T h i s is Abraham's testament to his grandson Jacob, which he issued on his deathbed.

i6And you also, my son Jacob, remember my words, and keep the commandments of Abraham, your father. Separate yourself from the gentiles, and do not eat with them, and do not perform deeds like theirs. A n d do not become associates of theirs. Because their deeds are defiled, and all of their ways are contaminated, and despicable, and abominable. n T h e y slaughter their sacrifices to the dead, and to the demons they b o w down. A n d they eat in tombs. A n d all their deeds are worthless and vain. . . . wBut (as for) you, m y son, Jacob, may G o d Most High help you, and the G o d of heaven bless you. A n d may he turn you away from their defilement, and from their errors. 2oBe careful, m y son, Jacob, that you not take a wife from any of the seed of the daughters of Canaan, because all of his seed is (destined) for uprooting from the earth; 21 . . . and all of his seed will be blotted out from the earth, and all his remnant, and there is none of his w h o will be saved. 22And for all of those who worship idols and for the hated ones, there is no hope in the land of the living; because they will go down in Sheol. A n d in the place of judgment they will walk, and they will have no m e m o r y upon the earth. Just as the sons of Sodom were taken from the earth, so (too) all of those who worship idols shall be taken away.

257

Aharon Shemesh There is a remarkable similarity between this passage from Jubilees and the one quoted above from the Rule of the Community in both rhetoric and the content of the injunctions listed in them. We should first consider the list of phrases Abraham used to condemn Gentile deeds. He described their actions as "defiled," "despicable," and "abominable," which are exactly the same terms lQS uses to depict his opponents' behavior. According to the Rule, a nonmember of the community is forbidden to touch the pure food "for (he remains) impure among all those who transgress his words," and the community's members are warned not to "lean on any worthless works ("?3n ' T O ) , for worthless ("73H) are all who do not know his covenant." Finally, we must point out the similarity between the two in describing the fate of the enemy. The author of lQS promises that "all those who spurn his word he will destroy from the world" while Jubilees predicts: "And for all of those who worship idols and for the hated ones, / there is no hope in the land of the living; / because they will go down in Sheol." As for the content of the injunctions themselves: Abraham instructs Jacob to separate himself from the Gentiles, not to eat with them, not to be­ have as they do, and not to associate himself with them. These prohibitions are very similar to those of the Rule of the Community in both content and order. This is especially evident in the Cave 4 version where, as in Jubilees, the injunction to "separate from all the men of deceit" is immediately fol­ lowed by the prohibition: "One will not eat with him "TriM." The word beyahad in this sentence is not a reference to the sect (as translated in the Charlesworth edition: "within the community") but means "together," as in the following sentence: "No one may be united (IIV) with him in his work or his wealth." In the Cave 1 version, this interdiction is followed by the ad­ monition "lest he burden him with guilty iniquity," which shows that the fo­ cus is not on economic cooperation as such but on the fear that such a part­ nership may lead the member of the sect to be influenced by an outsider and subsequently fall into error and thus parallel the injunction in Jubilees: "Do not become associates of theirs." It seems, then, that very much as was the case for 4(3265, Jubilees is the source for this piece of legislation in the Rule of the Community. Like the author of 4 Q 2 6 5 , the Rule of the Community adjusts the original material he drew from Jubilees to his sectarian worldview: what Jubilees prohibits as separatism from Gentiles — "do not eat with them, and do not perform deeds like theirs" — the Rule of the Community prohibits as disassociation from Jews who are not part of the sect — "No one must either eat or drink anything of their property" and "No one may be united with him in his duty 258

4Q265

and the Authoritative

Status

of Jubilees

at

Qumran

or his property." T h i s is b e c a u s e the sectarian a u t h o r o f the R u l e o f the C o m ­ m u n i t y b e l i e v e d that o n l y the m e m b e r s o f the yahad w e r e the t r u e I s r a e l a n d therefore e v e r y o n e else s h o u l d be c o n s i d e r e d G e n t i l e s .

Conclusions: The Status of Jubilees in Qumran T h e i m p o r t a n c e of Jubilees for the yahad

a n d its h i g h status in the c o m m u ­

nity's l i b r a r y w a s r e c o g n i z e d b y s c h o l a r s l o n g a g o .

2 1

T h i s is e v i d e n t f r o m the

large n u m b e r of copies ( m o r e t h a n ten) of this b o o k f o u n d in

Qumran.

M a n y t h i n k the b o o k o f Jubilees is explicitly m e n t i o n e d in the D a m a s c u s D o c u m e n t . C D 1 6 : 1 - 4 relates: " T h e r e f o r e a m a n shall b i n d h i m s e l f b y o a t h to r e t u r n to the L a w of M o s e s , for in it e v e r y t h i n g is s p e c i f i e d . A n d the e x p l i c a ­ tion of their t i m e s w h e n Israel t u r n s a b l i n d eye, b e h o l d it is specified in the Book of the Divisions

of the Times into their Jubilees

and Weeks? A c c o r d i n g to

this r e a d i n g , "the B o o k " m e n t i o n e d in C D is J u b i l e e s , a n d it is b e i n g here d e ­ s c r i b e d as the a u t h o r i t a t i v e s o u r c e for the true m e a n i n g o f the T o r a h o f M o ­ ses a n d its d e t a i l s .

22

T h e f i n d i n g s of the c u r r e n t d i s c u s s i o n h i g h l i g h t three aspects of this s p e c i a l status of J u b i l e e s in Q u m r a n . T h e first aspect is J u b i l e e s ' b e i n g s u b ­ ject to a literary a c t i v i t y r e s e m b l i n g the r e w r i t i n g of the B i b l e ; 4 Q 2 6 5 ' s inte­ g r a t i o n o f a p a s s a g e f r o m l Q S into the n a r r a t i v e that f o l l o w s J u b 2 a n d 3 f u n c t i o n s in the s a m e w a y as other c o m p o s i t i o n s f r o m Q u m r a n do in their r e w r i t i n g of a p o r t i o n o f the B i b l e . O n e of the g o a l s of this r e w r i t i n g a c t i v i t y is to i n c o r p o r a t e the n e w s e c t a r i a n ( h a l a k i c or t h e o l o g i c a l ) stances into the a u t h o r i z e d h o l y s c r i p t u r e . T h u s , for e x a m p l e , the T e m p l e S c r o l l ( 6 6 : 1 6 - 1 7 ) ,

21. For a comprehensive survey o f the scholarly debate with regard to Jubilees' origins and dating, see J. C. VanderKam, "The Origins and Purposes o f the Book o f Jubilees," in Studies in the Book of jubilees,

ed. M. Albani, J. Frey, and A. Lange (Tubingen: M o h r Siebeck,

1 9 9 7 ) , 3-24. Some scholars tend toward a later dating for Jubilees, and some even think it is a sectarian composition authored within the yahad c o m m u n i t y ; see M . Kister, "The History of the Essenes: A Study o f the 'Animals Vision,' Jubilees and Damascus Document," Tarbiz^G (1987): 8-18; C. W e r m a n , "The Attitude towards Gentiles in the B o o k o f Jubilees and Q u m r a n Literature C o m p a r e d with Early Tanaaic Halakha and C o n t e m p o r a r y Pseudepigra­ pha" (Ph.D. diss., Hebrew University, 1995), 30-35. 22. Against this reading of CD, see D. Dimant, "Two 'Scientific' Fictions: The Socalled Book of Noah and the Alleged Quotation of Jubilees in C D 16:3-4," in Studies in the Hebrew

Bible,

Qumran,

and Septuagint,

Presented

to Eugene

Ulrich, ed. P. W. Flint, E. Tov,

and J. C. VanderKam (Leiden: Brill, 2 0 0 6 ) , 230-49. For a survey and bibliography of earlier scholarly publications concerning this issue, see there 242-43 and notes 49-51.

259

Aharon Shemesh while rewriting the biblical list of illicit unions, incorporates into it the sec­ tarian prohibition against marrying the niece: "A man is not to take his brother's daughter or his sister's daughter because it is an abomination" (113 TIN IK V n S M

m

1

np' S ?

imns). This is exactly what 4 Q 2 6 5

is

doing by integrating the passage from lQS into frg. 7. The result of this inte­ gration is a new retelling version of Jubilees, which has the yahad as the cho­ sen people instead of the "seeds of Jacob" as in the original. The second aspect of Jubilees' status as scripture in Qumran is its use as a source for halakah. One example of this role of Jubilees in Qumran is the "laws of separatism" discussed above. In order not to repeat myself, let me here offer another example. The halakic scrolls mention a few times the prohibition not to draw water from a well on the Shabbat. Thus C D 1 1 : 1 - 2 , 'hO *7D 'JS

VKl VTaii? "?» 7\T\W ("let him drink where he stands, but

let him not draw [water] into any vessel"). Likewise in 4 Q 2 4 1 , n, 3 : 1 1 3 [V [T\2W]2 U » a 3 S » ' "?»

n3in

7\W ("[and if by the well he is camping let 23

him not draw from it on t[he Shabbat]"). There is no reference to such a prohibition in the Torah; its origin is in Jubilees, where it is mentioned twice (2:29; 50:8).

There is yet another expression of a book's canonical status. In my arti­ cle on 4 Q 2 5 1 1 showed that the scroll's editor used Exod 2 1 - 2 3 (the book of the covenant) as a skeleton to hang upon it and to arrange along it the halakic material he had at his disposal. The scroll is a collection of passages of diverse genres: some of them are abstract rulings in the style of the Damascus Docu­ ment; others are pieces of rewritten passages of the Torah. This fact strength­ ens the assumption that most of the scroll's passages weren't composed in their current context but were collected by the editor from various sources. It was the editor's close knowledge of Torah and his familiarity with the biblical text that made it a natural medium for arranging the extra material he had. It might very well be that 4 Q 2 6 5 exhibits the same phenomenon, but this time with regard to the book of Jubilees. At the outset of this article I emphasized the diverse literary nature of the scroll's fragments. It includes law and narrative, pesher and admonition. If the analysis I offered in this ar­ ticle proves to be true, then Jubilees functions here in a very similar way to the function of Exodus's portion in 4 Q 2 5 1 , and this testifies to the close fa­ miliarity of the scroll's editor with the text of Jubilees and to its canonical status in Qumran.

23. The reading is from V. Noam and E. Qimron, "A Qumran Composition on the Laws of the Sabbath and Its Contribution to Early Halakhic History," Tarbiz 74 (2005): 513.

260

Purity and Impurity in the Book of Jubilees Lutz Doering

The

issue of purity and impurity in Jubilees has provoked recent debate.

While some scholars assign Jubilees and the Temple Scroll "to the same legal and exegetical tradition"

1

and place them, together with the texts from 2

Q u m r a n , within the ancient priestly halakah, others perceive profound dif­ 3

ferences. L . Ravid concludes from the absence of ritual defilement in the story of Abraham's death in Jub 2 3 : 1 - 7 that "it does not seem probable that the author agreed with the Pentateuchal concepts of purity and impurity, or 4

with those represented in the Judean Desert scrolls." According to Ravid, Jubilees is a polemic against the priesthood w h o then controlled the temple. In response, J . VanderKam suggests reading Jubilees in line with the putative setting of the b o o k in a period without a sanctuary and indebted to the tra­ 5

ditions this b o o k reworks. M y o w n reading of Jubilees is closer to the latter,

1. Thus the classic formulation by J. C. VanderKam, "The Temple Scroll and the Book of Jubilees," in Temple Scroll Studies, ed. G. J. Brooke, JSPSup 7 (Sheffield: JSOT Press, 1989), 211-36, 232. 2. E.g., C. W e r m a n , "The Rules o f Consuming and Covering the Blood in Priestly and Rabbinic Law," RevQ 16, no. 64 (1995): 621-36. 3. E.g., J. Klawans, Impurity and Sin in Ancient Judaism (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000); M . Himmelfarb, "Sexual Relations and Purity in the Temple Scroll and the Book o f Jubilees," DSD 6 (1999): 11-36. 4. L. Ravid, "Purity and Impurity in the Book o f Jubilees," JSP 13 (2002): 61-86, 63. 5. J. VanderKam, "Viewed from Another Angle: Purity and Impurity in the Book o f Jubilees? JSP 13 (2002): 209-15.

261

Lutz

Doering

a l t h o u g h R a v i d has raised s o m e i m p o r t a n t q u e s t i o n s . H o w e v e r , w e n e e d to cast o u r net w i d e e n o u g h to b e able to g a u g e the full r a n g e o f J u b i l e e s ' take o n ( i m ) p u r i t y . In w h a t f o l l o w s I shall h e u r i s t i c a l l y accept the d i s t i n c t i o n b e ­ t w e e n " r i t u a l " a n d " m o r a l " i m p u r i t y : " r i t u a l " i m p u r i t y , as reflected in L e v 1 1 - 1 5 , N u m 1 9 , a n d related texts, is n a t u r a l , c o n t r a c t e d b y c o n t a g i o n , a n d c a n in m o s t cases b e p u r g e d b y p u r i f i c a t i o n rituals; it is n o t sinful b u t d i s q u a l i ­ fies f r o m contact w i t h sancta

(I shall, h o w e v e r , i n c l u d e d i e t a r y l a w s a n d

priestly a b l u t i o n s here t o o ) . In contrast, " m o r a l " i m p u r i t y , as reflected in L e v 1 8 , 2 0 , a n d related texts, consists o f certain c r i m e s ; defiles the sinner, the l a n d , a n d the t e m p l e ; a n d c a n n o t b e p u r g e d b y p u r i f i c a t i o n r i t u a l s . H o w e v e r , since I t h i n k the t e r m s " r i t u a l " a n d " m o r a l " are n o t u n p r o b l e m a t i c ,

and

since I also n o t e c e r t a i n " r i t u a l " aspects o f i m p u r i t i e s d e s i g n a t e d as " m o r a l , " the t e r m s c o m e in q u o t a t i o n m a r k s .

I. "Ritual" Impurity, Purity, and Purification in Jubilees 1 . The impurity

and purification

of the parturient.

J u b 3:8-14* c o n t a i n s a t r a d i ­

tion a b o u t the e n t r y o f A d a m a n d "his w i f e " ( n o t n a m e d b e f o r e 3:33) into the G a r d e n o f E d e n w i t h w h i c h the p e r i o d s o f i m p u r i t y a n d p u r i f i c a t i o n after c h i l d b i r t h f a m i l i a r f r o m L e v 12 are e t i o l o g i c a l l y l i n k e d . T w o aspects are d e ­ v e l o p e d . First, h a r m o n i z i n g the t w o c r e a t i o n n a r r a t i v e s (cf. G e n 1:27; 2 : 1 8 2 2 ) , J u b 3:8 states that a l t h o u g h A d a m a n d his wife w e r e created in the first w e e k , o n l y in the s e c o n d w e e k w a s she s h o w n to h i m . F r o m this, the " c o m ­ m a n d m e n t " is inferred that w o m e n g i v i n g b i r t h to a s o n shall be kept "in w

their d e f i l e m e n t " ( G e ' e z westa rek son)

for s e v e n d a y s , t h o s e g i v i n g b i r t h to a

daughter, for f o u r t e e n . L e v 12 clarifies that the p a r t u r i e n t d u r i n g this p e r i o d ,

is i m p u r e like a m e n s t r u a n t (v. 2: NODD miTT ITT J a 3 ; v. 5: niTT3D; cf. 4 Q 2 6 5 7 1 5 ) . A p p a r e n t l y , the tertium

,

b e t w e e n L e v 1 2 : 2 , 5 a n d J u b 3:8 is that af­

ter this p e r i o d of i m p u r i t y a w o m a n w o u l d be a l l o w e d to m a t e a g a i n w i t h h e r h u s b a n d . S e c o n d , a l o n g e r p e r i o d of less severe i m p u r i t y is l i n k e d to the e n t r y of A d a m a n d his wife into the G a r d e n . B o t h h a v e b e e n created o u t s i d e the G a r d e n , a n d angels b r i n g A d a m in after forty days b u t his wife after e i g h t y days ( J u b 3 : 9 ) . A g a i n , a " c o m m a n d m e n t " is inferred, this t i m e w r i t t e n o n the h e a v e n l y tablets, m e n t i o n i n g the " d e f i l e m e n t " of s e v e n or twice s e v e n days a n d a d d i t i o n a l l y a p e r i o d of t h i r t y - t h r e e days for a m a l e child a n d s i x t y -

6. Text and translation: J. C. VanderKam, The Book of Jubilees, Scriptores Aethiopici 87-88 (Louvain: Peeters, 1989).

262

2 vols., C S C O 5 1 0 - 5 1 1 ,

Purity and Impurity in the Book of Jubilees six days for a daughter that the woman spends "in the blood of purification" (westa dama nesh; Jub 3 : 1 0 - 1 1 ) . This agrees with the periods mentioned in Lev 12:4-5. The rationale for this link with Eden clearly is the notion of Eden 7

as sanctuary. Lev 12:4 states that the woman during her period of purifica­ tion may not touch any sancta ( P i p ) nor enter the sanctuary ( W T p a n ) , sim­ ilarly Jub 3:13. There is a close parallel to the Jubilees passage in 4 Q 2 6 5 frg. 7,* already referred to above. However, a few questions remain open. How does the purification re­ late to Adam's and his wife's entry into the Garden? It should be the mother who needs to wait, but there is no mother here. One might perhaps reckon with influence of a tradition extending the purification period to the male or a

female child.' However, 4 Q 2 6 6 ( = 4 Q D ) 6 ii 1 1 , in a similar context, men­ tions a wet nurse that, according to some, was intended to prevent the child's defilement, which would suggest that the child is not necessarily deemed im­ pure like the mother; but the passage is too fragmentary to allow for a defi­ nite answer, and this explanation of the presence of a wet nurse has recendy been questioned altogether.

10

Ultimately, the link between the protoplasts

and later humanity is as symbolic as the one between Eden and the temple: although not born from a mother, Adam and his wife represent human be­ ings (construed as Israelites) confronted with the sanctuary and become part of the life cycle entailing defilement (as we shall see presently, not 11

merely after the fall). Unlike Lev 12:6, Jub 3 does not link the end of the pe7. Jub 3:12; 8:19; cf. 4Q265 7 14; iQH' 16 (8 Suk-):io-i3. Cf. B. Ego, "Heilige Zeit — heiliger Raum — heiliger Mensch: Beobachtungen zur Struktur der Gesetzesbegrundung in der Schttpfungs- und Paradiesgeschichte des Jubilaenbuchs," in Studies in the Book of Jubi­ lees, ed. M. Albani, J. Frey, and A. Lange, TSAJ 65 (Tubingen: Mohr Siebeck, 1997), 207-19, 214: Eden and temple "stehen in einem symbolischen Reprasentationszusammenhang." Cf. G. Anderson, "Celibacy or Consummation in the Garden? Reflections on Early Jewish and Christian Interpretations of the Garden of Eden," HTR 82 (1989): 121-48,129-31. 8. Cf. I. M. Baumgarten, "Purification after Childbirth and the Sacred Garden in 4Q265 and Jubilees," in New Qumran Texts and Studies: Proceedings of the First Meeting of the International Organization for Qumran Studies, Paris 1992, ed. G. J. Brooke with F. Garcia Martinez, STDJ 15 (Leiden: Brill, 1994), 3-10. A. Shemesh, in his contribution to this volume, views 4Q265 as rewritten Jubilees, but it is not impossible that it draws on a tradition similar or identical to Jubilees' source. 9. George Syncellus, Chronographia 9 [5 Mosshammer); perhaps Luke 2:22 (a) rjulpcn TOO KaSapicuoO aurffiv). Cf. Baumgarten, "Purification," 5-6; H. K. Harrington, The Purity Texts, Companion to the Qumran Scrolls 5 (London: T. & T. Clark, 2004), 62. 10. Cf. C. Wassen, Women in the Damascus Document, Academia Biblica 21 (Leiden: Brill, 2005), 56-58.

11. Ravid's own suggestion that the purification period is related to a preparation for 263

Lutz Doering riods of purification with a sacrifice. However, this does not imply "that a 12

birthing woman has no way of becoming pure" but rather reflects the liter­ ary choice and perhaps the traditions of the author: before the apparent in­ vestiture of Adam to priesdy service (Jub 3 : 2 6 - 2 7 ) , there is no priest in the narrative world, let alone animal sacrifice. Purification is simply achieved by waiting for the set number of days. 2. Awareness of ritual defilement through sexual intercourse. In Jubilees, as G. Anderson has convincingly argued, Adam and his wife have sex before and after their sojourn in Eden, but not in the Garden itself, according to Jub 3:6, dealing with the time before they were brought to Eden, Adam "knew her (wa'a'mara)." And after their departure from Eden, we learn in 3:34 that "They 13

were childless throughout the first jubilee; afterwards he knew her?

Thus, no

sex in Paradise, but there had been some before, outside Eden. It stands to rea­ son that this is again a reflection of the notion of Eden as sanctuary, just as C D a

12:1-2 and n Q T 45:11-12 ban intercourse or someone having had intercourse from the Temple City. If this is correct, Jubilees can be said to share and apply the notion of sexual intercourse as ritually defiling (cf. Lev 15:18). Additionally, this seems to stand in the background of the prohibition of intercourse on the Sabbath as well. Just as Eden is holier than any other place in the primeval world (see n. 7 ) , so the Sabbath is "holier than all (other) days" (Jub 2:26, with extant Hebrew: 4Q218 1 2; cf. Jub 2 : 3 0 , 3 2 ) . According to Jub 5 0 : 8 , " the one "who lies with a woman" on the Sabbath incurs the death penalty. Ritual de­ filement by intercourse on the Sabbath is to be avoided because it is incom­ mensurate with the holiness of the Sabbath (cf. C D 1 1 : 4 - 5 ) .

15

a higher degree ofpurity ("Purity and Impurity," 80) is unconvincing, since it makes no sense of the specific periods of forty and eighty days. 12. Thus, however, Ravid, "Purity and Impurity," 77. 13. Cf. Anderson, "Celibacy," 128-29. Ravid's claim that pre-Eden sex would "contra­ dict the texts as we have them" ("Purity and Impurity," 78) is misleading. 14. L Ravid, "The Relationship of the Sabbath Laws in Jubilees 50:6-13 to the Rest of the Book" (in Hebrew), Tarbiz 69 (2000): 161-66, claims that Jub 50:6-13 is a secondary addi­ tion to Jubilees, but her arguments are unconvincing; cf. L. Doering, "Jub. 50:6-13 als Schlussabschnitt des Jubildenbuchs — Nachtrag aus Qumran oder ursprunglicher Bestandteil des Werks?" RevQ 20, no. 79 (2002): 359-87; J. C. VanderKam, "The End of the Matter? Jubilees 50:6-13 and the Unity of the Book," in Heavenly Tablets: Interpretation, Iden­ tity, and Tradition in Ancient Judaism, ed. L LiDonnici and A. Lieber, JSJSup 119 (Leiden: Brill, 2007), 267-84.

15. Cf. Anderson, "Celibacy," 129-30 (temple-Sabbath analogy); L. Doering, "The Concept of the Sabbath in the Book of Jubilees," in Studies in the Book of Jubilees, 179-205,196 ("sanctification" analogous to Exod 19:10,14-15). 264

Purity

3. Priestly ablutions

and Impurity

in the Book of

Jubilees

with water figure in the i n s t r u c t i o n s g i v e n to I s a a c

b y A b r a h a m in J u b 2 1 : 1 6 (cf. 4 Q 2 1 9 ii 1 3 ) . T h e closest parallels are A L D 1 9 - 2 1 ( = 7 : 1 - 3 , G r e e n f i e l d , S t o n e , a n d E s h e l ) , 26 (8:2), 53-54 ( 1 0 : 6 - 7 ) ,

a

s

w e l l as

T L e v i 9 : 1 1 . J u b i l e e s s e e m s to refer to three acts of w a s h i n g , o n e c o n c e r n i n g the w h o l e b o d y (cf. A L D 19 [ 7 : 1 ] ; T L e v i 9 : 1 1 ) , the other t w o h a n d s a n d feet. W h a t is the r a t i o n a l e for these a b l u t i o n s ? It is u n l i k e l y that they relate to the r

i m p u r i t i e s c o v e r e d b y L e v 1 1 - 1 5 , s u m m a r i z e d in L e v 2 2 : 2 - 7 f ° priests w i s h ­ ing to c o n s u m e sancta, since w e w o u l d e x p e c t p u r i f y i n g priests n o r m a l l y to w a i t until

sunset

to b e c o m e clean (cf. N u m 1 9 : 7 ) . S h o u l d the

m e r e l y " e n h a n c e the s a n c t i t y of the ' h o l y s e e d ' " ?

1 6

ablutions

T h i s m a k e s t o o little of

the fact that w e are d e a l i n g w i t h specific rules for priests related to sacrifices. B a t h i n g b e f o r e priestly office or w a s h i n g h a n d s a n d feet b e f o r e sacrificing is indeed required in some biblical texts.

17

H o w e v e r , w a s h i n g h a n d s a n d feet

after the sacrifice g o e s b e y o n d these texts, b u t it is reflected in A L D 53-54 a r

( 1 0 : 6 - 7 ) > d T L e v i 9:11. S i n c e b o t h A L D 26 (8:2), 53 ( 1 0 : 6 ) a n d n Q T

a

26:10 re­

late w a s h i n g o f h a n d s a n d feet to p r e v i o u s c o n t a c t w i t h blood a n d this fig­ ures in J u b i l e e s i m m e d i a t e l y after as w e l l ( 2 1 : 1 7 ) ,

1 8

it is p o s s i b l e that J u b i l e e s '

final a b l u t i o n is to r e m o v e any b l o o d f r o m h a n d s a n d feet. A t a n y rate, J u b i ­ lees here shares a specific t r a d i t i o n 4. Ritual

purity

as prerequisite

19

of s c r u p u l o u s priestly purity. for celebrating

Passover.

Jubilees c o m ­

m e n t s o n this issue m e r e l y in p a s s i n g , b u t it s h o u l d n o t be o v e r l o o k e d . In line w i t h N u m 9:13, J u b 49:9 declares that any " m a n w h o is p u r e " (be'si

'enza

nesuh, reiterated later in the verse [not so N u m 9:13]) a n d " n e a r b y " b u t " d o e s n o t c o m e " to k e e p the P a s s o v e r o n its d a y is to be u p r o o t e d . T h e s t a t e m e n t affirms the n o t i o n o f " r i t u a l " p u r i t y relative to the ( n a r r a t i v e l y : future) t e m -

16. Thus Ravid, "Purity and Impurity," 74. 17. Bathing: Exod 29:4; 40:12: Lev 8:6; 16:4, (24); cf. ALD la, v. 2 [2:5]; washing hands and feet: Exod 30:19-21; cf. m. Middot 3:6; m. Yoma 4:5; m. Tamid 1:4; 2:1. Cf. H. Drawnel, An Aramaic Wisdom Text from Qumran: A New Interpretation of the Levi Document, JSJSup 86 (Leiden: Brill, 2 0 0 4 ) , 270-71, 276, 298. 18. O n Jubilees' concern with blood see further below and Werman, "Rules," passim. Note that blood is one o f the liquids transmitting impurity in m. Makhshirin 6:4-5; cf. the is­ sue o f oil stains in C D 12:15-17; n Q T 49:11-12. 19. Contra Ravid, "Purity and Impurity," 74 n. 22, who claims that Jubilees has "emu­ lated . . . the dual purification of the High Priest on the Day of Atonement" (cf. Lev 1 6 : 4 , 2 4 ) , but the second one is bathing rather than washing hands and feet, as well as changing vest­ ments. Cf. further on the matter M. Himmelfarb, "Earthly Sacrifice and Heavenly Incense: The Law o f the Priesthood in Aramaic Levi and Jubilees," in Heavenly Realms and Earthly Re­ alities in Late Antique Religions, ed. R. S. Boustan and A. Yoshiko Reed (Cambridge: C a m ­ bridge University Press, 2 0 0 4 ) , 103-22. a

265

Lutz

Doering

pie. O n e m a y ask, of c o u r s e , w h y S e c o n d P a s s o v e r , for those u n a b l e to p u r i f y in a t i m e l y w a y , is n o t m e n t i o n e d in J u b i l e e s ,

20

but I w o u l d urge some cau­

tion here: the a b s e n c e of certain issues m a y p r i m a r i l y be m o t i v a t e d b y liter­ a r y c o n c e r n s ; Jubilees does n o t c o v e r e v e r y legal detail. Surely, w e s h o u l d n o t infer that Jubilees d i s p e n s e s w i t h " r i t u a l " p u r i t y for P a s s o v e r — the d o u b l e reference in J u b 49:9 suggests o t h e r w i s e . 5. Second tithe becomes impure

after one year. A c c o r d i n g to J u b 3 2 : 1 0 - 1 4 ,

s e c o n d tithe is to be eaten in the t e m p l e w i t h i n o n e y e a r o f its specific "sea­ s o n s " (i.e., firstfruits) for "seed," w i n e , a n d oil. V. 13 states that a n y t h i n g left b e y o n d its r e s p e c t i v e s e a s o n ( " g r o w s o l d " ) is to be v i e w e d as " c o n t a m i n a t e d " (se'uba);

"it is to be b u r n e d u p b e c a u s e it has b e c o m e i m p u r e " (rekusa).

This

is a different t y p e o f p u r i t y rule t h a n the o n e s d i s c u s s e d so far, b u t it is "rit­ u a l " i n n a t u r e . We k n o w a b o u t distinct firstfruit festivals for w h e a t , w i n e , a n d oil f r o m 4 Q 2 5 1 frg. 9 (olim 5) a n d f r o m n Q T tion in n Q T

a

a

43:4-10.

2 1

The continua­

4 3 : 1 1 - 1 2 also p r o v i d e s a p a r a l l e l to J u b i l e e s ' rule o n s e c o n d tithe,

a l t h o u g h its unfitness is e x p r e s s e d b y a f o r m of ttfTp, h e r e : "to b e for­ feited."

22

In c o n t r a s t to r a b b i n i c h a l a k a h ,

2 3

Jubilees a n d n Q T

a

insist o n c o n ­

s u m p t i o n of the s e c o n d tithe " y e a r b y year," as s p e c i f i e d in D e u t 1 4 : 2 2 . T h e " i m p u r i t y " (or " f o r f e i t u r e " ) of a n y leftover tithe a p p a r e n t l y results f r o m its m i s s i n g its p r o p e r t i m e , as w e l l as f r o m the m i x t u r e b e t w e e n old a n d n e w it implies. 6. The problem ual" purity

in Jubilees.

of corpse impurity

and the role of the sanctuary

for

"rit­

S o m e w h a t p e r p l e x i n g is the l a c k o f c o n c e r n for c o r p s e

i m p u r i t y in the s t o r y o f A b r a h a m ' s death a n d b u r i a l in J u b 2 3 : 1 - 7 : J a c o b is ly­ i n g in his g r a n d f a t h e r ' s b o s o m , u n a w a r e that he has j u s t p a s s e d away, then realizing he is d e a d ( w . 2 - 3 ) ; even I s a a c , r u s h i n g to the scene, "fell o n his fa­ ther's face, c r i e d , a n d k i s s e d h i m " (v. 4 ) . H o w e v e r , w e n e e d to recall that J u b i ­ lees closely f o l l o w s the p e r s p e c t i v e o f the a n g e l i c d i s c o u r s e (i.e., at M o u n t S i 20. See the paper by Stephane Saulnier, "Jub 4 9 : 1 - 1 4 and the Second Passover: H o w (and W h y ) to D o Away with an Unwanted Festival," Hen 3 1 , no. 1 (2009). 21. Cf. J. M. Baumgarten, "4Q Halakah",

the Law o f Hadash, and the Pentecontad Cal­

endar," JJS 27 (1976): 36-46. However, whereas these texts clearly assume a pentecontad festi­ a

2

J

val sequence (cf. n Q T 1 8 - 2 3 ; 4 Q 5 9 4 - 6 ) , there is no such indication in Jubilees. For Jubi­ lees' peculiar calendrical agenda, see further the chapter in this volume by Jonathan BenDov, "Tradition and Innovation in the Calendar o f Jubilees." 22. J. Maier, Die Tempelrolle

vom Toten Meer und das "Neue Jerusalem,"

3 r d ed. ( M u ­

nich: E. Reinhardt, 1997), 176: "als Heiliges verfallen, tabuisiert, daher auch fur anderweitige Verwendung unrein," referring to Deut 22:9. 23. Allowing storage up to three years (m. Maaser tithe" every third year instead (m. Avot 5:9).

266

Sheni 5:6) and prescribing "poor

Purity

and Impurity

in the Book of

Jubilees

n a i ) o n the m a t e r i a l this d i s c o u r s e r e w r i t e s (i.e., G e n e s i s to m i d - E x o d u s ) . T h u s , V a n d e r K a m has aptly p o i n t e d o u t that Jubilees m o d e l s Isaac's c o n t a c t w i t h his father's c o r p s e on Joseph's d e m e a n o r in G e n 5 0 : 1 , a n d that the p a t r i ­ archs in Jubilees o b e y o n l y such laws "that would 24

times."

have been fitting

for

their

M o r e o v e r , w e n e e d to b e a r in m i n d that the reference p o i n t of the

r i t u a l p u r i t y laws is the t e m p l e , w h i c h is yet to c o m e in J u b i l e e s ' setting. C o n v e r s e l y , w h e n w e do find " r i t u a l " p u r i t y a d d r e s s e d in J u b i l e e s , it n o r m a l l y entails a reference

to a sanctuary,

b e it past, future, or t e m p o r a l : the

G a r d e n o f E d e n ( a b o v e , § 1 , 2 ) ; the future t e m p l e (§4, 5 ) , w h i c h is the place w h e r e priests w i l l o b s e r v e p u r i t y in h a n d l i n g sacrifices ( § 3 ) ; a n d p e r h a p s the S a b b a t h as a " s a n c t u a r y in t i m e " ( § 2 ) . Interestingly, Jubilees retains a n d re­ w o r k s a reference to a p u r i f i c a t i o n r i t u a l in the c o n t e x t o f J a c o b ' s s e c o n d visit to B e t h e l . In J u b 3 1 : 1 , after the D i n a h n a r r a t i v e , he c o m m a n d s his m e n , " P u r i f y y o u r s e l v e s a n d c h a n g e y o u r c l o t h e s " (neshu wa-walletu

'elbasikemu).

W h e r e a s in G e n 35:2 this f o l l o w s the r e q u e s t to r e n o u n c e the i d o l s , in J u b i ­ lees it p r e c e d e s it a n d is t h u s not p r e s e n t e d as a r e s p o n s e to the r e n u n c i a t i o n . W h a t e v e r i m p u r i t y it s h o u l d p u r g e , the p u r i f i c a t i o n here is m o r e closely l i n k e d w i t h setting o u t a n d g o i n g u p to B e t h e l t h a n in G e n e s i s . N o w , the w a y B e t h e l is p r e s e n t e d — "the h o u s e of the L o r d " ( J u b 27:25) w h e r e J a c o b erects a s t o n e "to b e c o m e the h o u s e o f the L o r d " (v. 2 7 ) a n d later an altar (31:3) — clearly r i n g s o f t e m p l e t e r m i n o l o g y for r e a d e r s in s e c o n d t e m p l e t i m e s , a n d Jub 32:3-9 n a r r a t e s the investiture of L e v i to the p r i e s t h o o d , his first s a c r i ­ fices, a n d J a c o b ' s g i v i n g tithe precisely at B e t h e l . N o t o n l y this: J a c o b even decides to b u i l d a t e m p l e ( 3 2 : 1 6 ) , o n l y s t o p p e d b y an a n g e l (v. 2 2 ) .

2 5

The im­

p o r t a n c e of L e v i ' s o r d i n a t i o n at B e t h e l is also stressed in A L D 9 - 1 0 ( 5 : 1 - 5 ) ; T L e v i 7:4; 8; 9:3, a n d the l i n k w i t h the later t e m p l e is reflected in the refer­ ence to the " c o v e n a n t I m a d e w i t h J a c o b at B e t h e l " in n Q T

a

2 9 : 9 - 1 0 (cf. 5 Q 1 3

2 6 ) . In s h o r t , it s e e m s that B e t h e l , in o r d e r to a l l o w for L e v i ' s investiture, takes o n traits of a " t e m p l e in nuce," a n d the a p p r o a c h to it aptly entails a p u ­ rification r i t u a l — the o n l y o n e m e n t i o n e d (albeit in direct s p e e c h ) w i t h i n the s t o r y line o f J u b i l e e s .

2 5

It is interesting that A L D 19 ( 7 : 1 ) has a p u n o n

24. VanderKam, "Viewed from Another Angle," 2 1 1 - 1 3 (quotation: 213, emphasis in original). 25. On Bethel in Jub 32, cf. E. Eshel, "Jubilees 32 and the Bethel Cult Traditions in Sec­ ond Temple Literature," in Things Revealed: Studies in Early Jewish and Christian Literature in Honor of M. E. Stone, ed. E. G. Chazon, D. Satran, and R. A. Clements, JSJSup 89 (Leiden: Brill, 2 0 0 4 ) , 21-36, with further literature. 26. I.e., apart from the ablutions above, $ 3 . This qualifies James Kugel's remark that "Neither Jacob nor anyone else in Jubilees is ever said to undergo ritual purification": The

267

Lutz

Doering

"Bethel," r e q u i r i n g b a t h i n g a n d c l o t h i n g " w h e n y o u arise to enter the t e m p l e

of G o d

27

T\^)r

7. Pure and impure

animals.

T h e d i e t a r y laws f o r m a distinct r u b r i c ,

w h o s e r e l a t i o n to " r i t u a l " a n d " m o r a l " i m p u r i t y is v a r i o u s l y i n t e r p r e t e d .

28

D e s p i t e its r a t h e r c a s u a l c o m m e n t , J u b i l e e s is u n a m b i g u o u s a b o u t the d i s ­ t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n p u r e a n d i m p u r e a n i m a l s (cf. L e v 1 1 ; D e u t i 4 : 3 - 2 i ) :

2 9

when

J a c o b g a v e his tithe at B e t h e l , " h e tithed all the clean a n i m a l s a n d m a d e an offering of t h e m . H e gave his s o n L e v i the u n c l e a n a n i m a l s " ( J u b 3 2 : 8 ) . It has b e e n s u g g e s t e d that the a u t h o r is d e p e n d e n t o n a p a r t i c u l a r s o u r c e h e r e ,

3 0

b u t the aspect in q u e s t i o n d o e s n o t s t a n d in t e n s i o n to the rest of the b o o k .

II. "Moral" Purity and Impurity in Jubilees D e s p i t e the e v i d e n c e for " r i t u a l " purity, it is fair to say that J u b i l e e s is m u c h m o r e c o n c e r n e d w i t h " m o r a l " p u r i t y . A l l three classic " m o r a l " i m p u r i t i e s are dealt w i t h : b l o o d s h e d , s e x u a l sins, a n d i d o l a t r y . L i k e m o r e severe f o r m s o f " r i t u a l " i m p u r i t y , they defile the s a n c t u a r y f r o m afar (cf. L e v 2 0 : 3 ) , as in J u b 30:15

a n d p r o b a b l y also in 2 3 : 2 1 . W h i l e the r o o t NOD is u s e d w i t h s u c h

" m o r a l " i m p u r i t i e s , there are o t h e r t e r m s like n2371fi, " a b o m i n a t i o n . "

31

In

fact, the E t h i o p i c text m a y n o t r e p r e s e n t the s e m a n t i c field accurately, s i n c e w

it o c c a s i o n a l l y translates rl3S7in w i t h f o r m s d e r i v i n g f r o m rek s, " i m p u r i t y , " a t e n d e n c y in the E t h i o p i c v e r s i o n of L e v i t i c u s as w e l l .

3 2

P r i o r to the classic

" m o r a l " i m p u r i t i e s , w e shall discuss a r e m a r k a b l e c o n c e p t u a l shift.

Ladder of Jacob: Ancient Interpretations of the Biblical Story of Jacob and His Children (Prince­ ton: Princeton University Press, 2 0 0 6 ) , 251. For an explanation o f Jacob's side trip to Hebron after he erected an altar at Bethel and before Levi's investiture, cf. 138-41. 27. Cf. Drawnel, Aramaic Wisdom Text, 254. 28. Cf. the discussion in Klawans, Impurity and Sin, 3 1 - 3 2 . On consumption o f blood, see below. 29. Ravid, "Purity and Impurity," 65, 80, erroneously claims that Jubilees does not mention impure animals. 30. M. Kister, "Some Aspects o f Qumranic Halakhah," in The Madrid Qumran Con­ gress: Proceedings of the International Congress on the Dead Sea Scrolls, Madrid, 18-21 March, 1991, ed. J. Trebolle Barrera and L. Vegas Montaner, 2 vols., STDJ 11 (Leiden: Brill, 1992), 2:571-88, 586-87, because o f the tension with Jub 32:15. 31. Cf. Lev 18:22, 26, 27, 29, 30; 20:13. Cf. also ^pn hifil, N u m 35:33 (otherwise only Prophets and Writings). 32. Proof is Jub 21:23 (rek somu), for which 4 Q 2 2 1 1 5 - 6 gives DT13S7in, 4Q219 ii 28 the plural nQrP m n y i n . Similarly, the Latin (ed. Ronsch) has at times abominatio where Ge'ez w

268

Purity 1 . Conceptual

extension:

defilement

and Impurity

in the Book of

Jubilees

of holy time. We h a v e seen that

Isra­

elites m u s t n o t b e c o m e defiled " r i t u a l l y " t h r o u g h s e x u a l i n t e r c o u r s e o n a c ­ c o u n t of the S a b b a t h . T h i s spatial c o n s t r u c t i o n o f the S a b b a t h o c c u r s a g a i n , w i t h t y p i c a l differences, in the " m o r a l " r e a l m . In J u b i l e e s , h o l y t i m e itself can b e defiled b y i m p r o p e r a c t i o n s . T h u s , J u b 2:25-26 parallels the t r a n s g r e s s i o n of " d o i n g any w o r k " on the S a b b a t h w i t h "defiling it" ( r o o t raVsa),

and

m o r e g e n e r a l l y J u b 6:37 p r e d i c t s the c o n f u s i o n of " h o l y " a n d " i m p u r e " days w

P r o v i d e d the t r a n s l a t i o n is faithful, w e thus find "defile­

ment" (root

w h e r e n o r m a l l y " p r o f a n a t i o n " ( r o o t V^rl) w o u l d b e e x ­

(rekusa,

rek esta).

p e c t e d . A c c o r d i n g to J . M i l g r o m , s u c h c o n c e p t u a l instability o c c u r s first in a

the b o o k o f E z e k i e l a n d has p a r a l l e l s in n Q T . 2 . Bloodshed

defiles the earth/land.

3 3

B l o o d s h e d is twice explicitly related

to i m p u r i t y in the b o o k (but cf. also J u b 1 1 : 5 ) . In J u b 7 : 2 7 - 2 9 , 3 2 - 3 3 it figures in N o a h ' s e x h o r t a t i o n to his s o n s , a l l u d i n g to G e n 9:6. Instead of G e n e s i s ' s a p ­ p e a l to the imago Dei, Jubilees h o l d s that the earth "is not p u r e " from the b l o o d s h e d o n it a n d can o n l y " b e c o m e p u r e " b y the b l o o d o f the o n e w h o has shed it. B u t Jubilees follows G e n 9:4-6 in c o n n e c t i n g this w i t h the p r o h i b i t i o n of eating b l o o d , so that b l o o d s h e d , the failure of c o v e r i n g the b l o o d , a n d the c o n s u m p t i o n o f b l o o d all c o n t r i b u t e to the defilement o f the e a r t h / t h e l a n d . A p p a r e n t l y , this n o t i o n o f an effect o n the e a r t h / l a n d is i n f o r m e d b y N u m :

_

35 33 34> even m o r e clearly alluded to in the s e c o n d p a s s a g e , J u b 2 1 : 1 9 - 2 0 . H e r e , the E t h i o p i c v e r b is yaxatte'a, s p o n d s to rpn

hifil,

" w i l l spoil it," w h i c h a p p a r e n t l y c o r r e ­

N u m 35:33. T h e v i o l e n c e , b l o o d s h e d , a n d b l o o d d r i n k i n g

of the G i a n t s h a v e a s i m i l a r effect o n the earth a c c o r d i n g to 1 E n 7:4-6; 9:9. 3. The impurity

of sexual sins, particularly

of intermarriage.

S e x u a l l y en­ w

c o d e d references to i m p u r i t y a b o u n d in Jubilees. Often " i m p u r i t y " (rek s) derivates are c o n j o i n e d in lengthy strings w i t h " f o r n i c a t i o n " (zemmut), t a m i n a t i o n " (gemmane),

"sin" (xati'ator

r o r " (gegay), or " a b o m i n a t i o n " (saqorar).

'abbasd), " c o r r u p t i o n " (musend),

and "con­ "er­

S u c h c o n n e c t i o n s a p p e a r in d e s c r i p ­

tions of c o m m i t t e d s e x u a l sins ( J u b 9:15; 20:5), p r e d i c t i o n s of future s e x u a l i m m o r a l i t y (9:15; 2 3 : 1 4 ) , w a r n i n g s against such i m m o r a l i t y (7:20; 2 0 : 3 , 6 ; 3 3 : 1 9 ) , a n d the a n n o u n c e m e n t of its eschatological absence (50:5). O f central i m p o r ­ tance is the qualification of s e x u a l transgression as zemmut,

w h i c h translates

has reVslrekus, e.g., Jub 16:5. Cf. further W. Loader, Enoch, Levi, and Jubilees on Sexuality: At­ titudes towards Sexuality in the Early Enoch Literature, the Aramaic Levi Document, and the Book of Jubilees (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2 0 0 7 ) , 216-29. For Ethiopic Leviticus, cf. the pas­ sages in n. 31. 33. Cf. J. Milgrom, "The Concept of Impurity in Jubilees and the Temple Scroll? RevQ 16, no. 62 (1993): 277-84, 279-80.

269

Lutz Doering

niJT, "fornication."

34

Inter alia, it is used of the Watchers' "fornication" with

women, who thus "committed the first (acts) of uncleanness" (7:21, in retro­ spective; cf. 4:22; 20:5; 1 En 8:2; 9:8; 10:11; 15:4); of the inhabitants of Sodom and Gomorrah who "defiled themselves and fornicated and did what is impure on earth" (Jub 16:5; cf. 20:5-6); of Tamar's reported "fornication,"qualified as "im­ purity in Israel" (41:16-17); and of illicit sexual unions (33:20 [mss.: zemmuna]; 35

cf. 4 i : 2 5 - 2 6 ) , as with Reuben's intercourse with Bilhah. Here, the rationale for Jubilees' strong criticism is stated: that Israel is a holy and priestly people, "a priestly kingdom" (mangeita kehnat) and God's "possession" (terir; 33:20). This is clearly an allusion to Exod 19:5-6, a text also referred to at Jub 16:17-18, where Abraham learns from the angel(s) that one of Isaac's sons 36

would become a "holy seed" (zar' qeddus),

not to be reckoned amongst the

nations but forming "a nation of possession ( ? ) . . . , a priesthood, and a holy 37

people." An important qualification of this view inherited from Exod 19:5-6 is the literal understanding of both holiness and priesthood, which applies these terms to all Israel to some extent realistically. Although Jubilees is partic­ ularly interested in the priesthood of Levi, all Israel are to live up to the stan­ dards of priestly holiness. Under the influence of the Holiness Code (H), this holiness becomes a reflection of God's own holiness (Jub 16:26; cf. Lev 19:2); thus, fornication and impurity must not be found in Israel (Jub 30:8; 33:20). H further focuses on the land defiled by sexual impurity (16:5; 3 3 : 1 0 , 1 4 ; contrast the future in 50:5; cf. 1 En 10:20, 22) as well as bloodshed (see above), from which the offenders will be uprooted (Jub 21:21-22; 30:22; 33:19; cf. Lev 18:25,28; 20:22). Within this framework, Jubilees applies H's provision for a priest's daughter engaging in "fornication" (Lev 21:9) to all Israelite women and girls: "Burn her in fire," is what Abraham tells his sons about such a woman (Jub 20:4) and what Judah suggests to do with Tamar ( 4 1 : 1 7 , 2 8 , with reference to Abraham's rule; but cf. already Gen 38:24). In addition, Jubilees seems to link 34. Cf. C. Werman, "Jubilees 30: Building a Paradigm for the Ban on Intermarriage" HTR 90 (1997): 1-22,14. For sexual transgression in Jubilees, cf. the paper by William Loader, "Jubilees and Sexual Transgression," Hen 30, no. 2 (2008), and Loader, Enoch, 125-235. Cf. the association of HSOD with m i l and WIS in AID 16 (6:3). 35. Cf. Lev 18; 20; 1 1 Q T * 66:11-17; 4Q251 frg. 17; CD 5:7-11. Note the use of JllJt in CD

4:17,20; 4:20-5:2 refers most probably to polygyny, but it is unclear whether 5:7-11 (marriage of nieces) still belongs to that rubric. 36. In the Hebrew Bible only Isa 6:13 and particularly Ezra 9:2; see below. In Jubilees, cf. 22:27; 25:3.12> 18. Cf. ALD 17 [6:4).

37. Cf. further Jub 19:15; 22:9,15 and particularly 2:19-21 (election and sanctification), although there is no consistent rendering of if?30 OS in Ge'ez. For this motif, cf. also Deut 7:6; 14:2; 26:18.

270

Purity

and Impurity

in the Book of

Jubilees

this p u n i s h m e n t with the other instance in w h i c h H prescribes b u r n i n g : a m a n h a v i n g sex w i t h his m o t h e r - i n - l a w ( L e v 2 0 : 1 4 ) ; the r e c i p r o c a l presentation of the i n v o l v e d parties in Jub 41:25-26 resembles the r e a s o n i n g of C D 5 : 9 - i o .

38

H o w e v e r , the m a i n f o c u s in m a t t e r s of s e x u a l i m p u r i t y is a r g u a b l y o n the issue of i n t e r m a r r i a g e , w h e r e Jubilees c o m b i n e s the stance of E z r a 9 - 1 0 ; N e h 1 3 : 2 3 - 3 1 w i t h H ' s p r o v i s i o n s for zenut, a v i e w s i m i l a r l y u n d e r l y i n g A L D 16-17

(6:3-4),

4QMMT

a

(= 4 Q p s J u b ) , and 4 Q 5 1 3 .

B 4 0

75-82,

3 9

and

probably

4QTQahat,

4Q225

J u d a h a n d T a m a r ' s t r a n s g r e s s i o n has its d e e p e r

c a u s e in this p r o b l e m (cf. J u b 34:20; 4 1 : 1 - 2 , 2 0 ) . W a r n i n g against i n t e r m a r ­ riage b e g i n s w i t h A b r a h a m . I n the c o n t e x t of a c o m m a n d to separate f r o m the n a t i o n s a n d keep a w a y " f r o m their i m p u r i t y a n d f r o m all their e r r o r " (Jub 2 2 : 1 9 ) , he e x h o r t s J a c o b n o t to m a r r y o n e of the C a n a a n i t e s b e c a u s e t h e y are d e s t i n e d "for b e i n g u p r o o t e d f r o m the earth" ( 2 2 : 2 0 ) ; the h o l i n e s s of Jacob's seed (cf. E z r a 9:2) features a b u n d a n t l y in the c o n t e x t ( J u b 2 2 : 1 1 , 1 3 , 1 5 , 2 4 ) . R e b e c c a r e n e w s this w a r n i n g , a c c u s i n g the C a n a a n i t e s o f " i m p u r i t y , " "fornication," " l e w d n e s s , " a n d " e v i l " ( 2 5 : 1 ) . J a c o b , at the age o f s i x t y - t h r e e , assures h e r he n e v e r c o n s i d e r e d m a r r y i n g a C a n a a n i t e b u t w o u l d w e d o n e of U n c l e L a b a n ' s d a u g h t e r s in M e s o p o t a m i a ( 2 5 : 4 - 1 0 ) , w h e r e u p o n R e b e c c a praises h i m as "a p u r e s o n a n d h o l y o f f s p r i n g " (25:12; cf. I s a a c , J u b 2 7 : 9 - 1 2 , a n d his n e g a t i v e v e r d i c t o n E s a u , 3 5 : 1 4 , w h o " h a s g o n e after his w i v e s , after i m p u r i t y [refc^s], a n d after their e r r o r s " ) . T h e m o s t p a r a d i g m a t i c chapter, h o w e v e r , is Jub 3 0 , the s t o r y of D i n a h . B y sleeping w i t h her, S h e c h e m — a n d b y e x t e n s i o n the S h e c h e m i t e s , w h o h a d a b d u c t e d her — "defiled h e r " ( J u b 3 0 : 2 - 3 , 5 - 6 ) , a n o t i o n a l r e a d y p r e s e n t in G e n 34:5, 1 3 , 27 (cf. l Q a p G e n 2 0 : 1 5 , o n S a r a i ) . In J u b i l e e s , h o w e v e r , the is­ sue is d e e p e r t h a n treating D i n a h like a w h o r e (thus G e n 3 4 : 2 1 ) : it is ulti­ m a t e l y a b o u t d e f i l e m e n t of Israel ( J u b 3 0 : 8 - 9 ) ,

4 1

creating an i m p u r i t y f r o m

w h i c h " I s r a e l w i l l not b e c o m e clean" ( 3 0 : 1 4 ) unless t h e y eradicate the p e r p e -

38. Cf. A. Shemesh, Punishments and Sins: From Scripture to the Rabbis (in Hebrew) (Jerusalem: Magnes, 2 0 0 3 ) , 16-17; further literature in Loader, Enoch, 183 n. 467. 39. With C. E. Hayes, Gentile Impurities and Jewish Identities: Intermarriage and Con­ version from the Bible to the Talmud (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2 0 0 2 ) , 82-91 (assum­ ing marriage with converted Gentiles); different is E. Qimron and J. Strugnell, Qumran Cave 4.V: Miqsat Ma'ase ha-Torah, DJD 10 (Oxford: Clarendon, 1994), 5 5 , 1 7 1 n. 178a (marriage be­ tween priests and Israelites). Note that, contrary to Jubilees, M M T applies the prohibition of • 'SVD (Lev 19:19; Deut 22:9). 40. Cf. esp. 4QTQahat 1 i 8-9; 4Q225 1 1 ; 4Q513 1-2 ii 1-6; 10 ii 3-8. 41. With forms o f 'ark asa, "defile," with Israel as implied referent; Latin in 30:8: polluerit cum. w

271

Lutz

Doering

t r a t o r s . A g a i n , the a p p l i c a t i o n o f the m o d e l o f priests c o m m i t t i n g zenut

be­

c o m e s r e l e v a n t . A c c o r d i n g l y , a w o m a n g i v e n to a f o r e i g n e r is b u r n e d like a priest's d a u g h t e r c o m m i t t i n g zenut

( J u b 30:7; cf. L e v 2 1 : 9 ) ; in a d d i t i o n , her

father is to b e s t o n e d a c c o r d i n g to the l a w for those g i v i n g their d e s c e n d a n t s to M o l e c h ( J u b 3 0 : 7 - 1 0 ; cf. L e v 1 8 : 2 1 ; 2 0 : 2 - 5 ) . T h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f c i r c u m c i s i o n is n o t raised; it " d o e s n o t c o n v e r t p r o f a n e seed into h o l y seed, a n d t h u s m i s ­ c e g e n a t i o n is forever a n d a l w a y s zenwf."

42

A l t h o u g h J u b 30 f o r b i d s i n t e r m a r ­

riage w i t h any G e n t i l e s , in the o t h e r references the m a i n e m p h a s i s is o n Canaanites;

for J o s e p h , m a r r y i n g an E g y p t i a n w o m a n is n o t

problematic

(Jub 4 0 : 1 0 ) , a n d S i m e o n a n d J u d a h even m a r r y C a n a a n i t e w o m e n ( b u t see the latter's t r o u b l e , a b o v e ) . Jubilees is i n f o r m e d here b y different c o n c e r n s : " b i b l i c a l " p r e c e d e n t , literary patterns, a n d c o n t e m p o r a r y i s s u e s .

43

C . H a y e s has l a b e l e d this t y p e o f i m p u r i t y " g e n e a l o g i c a l i m p u r i t y , " c l a i m i n g it to b e a specific t y p e of " m o r a l " i m p u r i t y b e c a u s e its real effect c o m e s a b o u t in the o f f s p r i n g , t h r o u g h the " s p o i l i n g " of the p u r i t y of l i n e a g e ; it is n o t " r i t u a l . "

44

H o w e v e r , a l t h o u g h p u r i t y of l i n e a g e d o e s p l a y a m a j o r

role, s h e n a r r o w s the issue t o o m u c h d o w n to this w h e n it is in fact w i d e r : Jub 2 2 : 1 6 - 1 8 is a comprehensive

call for s e p a r a t i o n f r o m the n a t i o n s , entailing

p r o h i b i t i o n s against eating w i t h t h e m , b e h a v i n g as t h e y d o , a n d b e c o m i n g i5

their c o m p a n i o n (bisa).

W h i l e o n e o f the c o n c e r n s is i d o l a t r y (see b e l o w ) ,

"eating" w i t h G e n t i l e s m a y i n c l u d e d i e t a r y a n d p e r h a p s " r i t u a l " i s s u e s . F r o m a different a n g l e , O l y a n has a r g u e d that a l r e a d y E z r a - N e h e m i a h deal w i t h G e n t i l e i m p u r i t y in m o r e t h a n o n e w a y a n d that at least in N e h 13:4-9 ( p u r i ­ fication of the c h a m b e r of T o b i a h the A m m o n i t e ) the issue is " r i t u a l " in n a ­ ture.

4 6

T h e r e are f u r t h e r

pointers suggesting that "ritual" i m p u r i t y of

G e n t i l e s w a s n o t a total i n n o v a t i o n in T a n n a i t i c l i t e r a t u r e .

47

The demarca­

tion of t y p e s o f i m p u r i t y s h o u l d n o t be t o o r i g i d .

42. Hayes, Gentile Impurities, 77. 43. See further Loader, Enoch, 1 7 6 - 8 6 , 1 9 2 - 9 6 . 44. Cf. Hayes, Gentile Impurities, 6 9 - 7 0 , 7 3 , 76-77, taking issue with Werman, "Jubilees 30," 1 4 - 1 6 , who perceives a conflation of impurity through physical contact and nonphysical defilement o f Israel. 45. Still useful though not exhaustive is E. Schwarz, Identitat dutch Abgrenzung: Abgrenzungsprozesse in Israel im 2 . vorchristlichen Jahrhundert und ihre traditionsgeschichtlichen Voraussetzungen. Zugleich ein Beitrag zur Erforschung des Jubiliienbuches, E H S Theologie 162 (Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang, 1982), esp. 23-30. For the last item, one might compare 1 Mace 1:11 (5ia0iouc0a 5ia0pKnv UETCX TCOV e6vtov T U V KUKXIO f|U(5v). 46. S. M. Olyan, "Purity Ideology in Ezra-Nehemiah as a Tool to Reconstitute the Community," JSJ 35 (2004): 1-16, 10-12. 47. Most importantly, 4Q266 5 ii 4-9 (1. 6: D f l N E U D n ? ?!"! ?); cf. Josephus, Jewish War 1

272

1

1

Purity 4. The impurity

of idolatry.

and Impurity

in the Book

of

Jubilees

In J u b 2 1 : 3 - 5 A b r a h a m w a r n s I s a a c a g a i n s t

i d o l a t r y . T h e H e b r e w in 4 Q 2 2 0 1 1 ( = J u b 21:5) s h o w s that o n e of the w o r d s for " i d o l s " is in E z e k i e l .

4 8

,1

I

D ?'1 7J., often

o c c u r r i n g in the c o n t e x t of i m p u r i t y , p a r t i c u l a r l y

T h e t r a n s l a t o r r e a d i l y uses " u n c l e a n t h i n g s " (rekusdn) w

S i m i l a r l y , in " A r a " t h e y h a d m a d e " u n c l e a n t h i n g s " (rek sa)

here.

and other idols,

a n d the "spirits of the s a v a g e o n e s " h e l p e d to c o m m i t sins a n d i m p u r i t y ( J u b 1 1 : 4 ; cf. 1 E n 1 9 : 1 ) . A b a n d o n i n g the c o v e n a n t b r i n g s a b o u t i m p u r i t y , a b o m i ­ n a t i o n s , a n d c o n t a m i n a t i o n ( 2 3 : 1 7 ) . B e f o r e J a c o b travels to B e t h e l to b u i l d an altar, the i d o l s m u s t b e d e s t r o y e d ( 3 1 : 1 - 2 ; cf. G e n 3 5 : 2 - 4 ) . In J u b 2 2 : 1 6 - 1 8 Isaac's w a r n i n g a g a i n s t i d o l a t r y is p l a c e d in the c o n t e x t o f s e p a r a t i o n f r o m the n a t i o n s ; it c o m b i n e s established a n t i - i d o l p o l e m i c

4 9

w i t h q u a l i f i c a t i o n of

the " a c t i o n s " a n d " w a y s " o f the n a t i o n s as s o m e t h i n g i m p u r e , c o n t a m i n a t e d , a n d a b o m i n a b l e . A p a r t f r o m E z e k i e l , H h a s b e e n i n f l u e n t i a l , w h e r e the p r o ­ h i b i t i o n of i d o l a t r y a n d m a g i c reflects Israel's o b l i g a t i o n to b e h o l y ( L e v 1 9 : 4 , 3 1 ; 2 0 : 1 - 8 , 27; 2 6 : 1 ) ; m a g i c is v i e w e d as zenut ( L e v 2 0 : 6 ,

DmrlN nUT ?), 1

and

i d o l a t r y defiles the s a n c t u a r y ( L e v 2 0 : 3 ) . We find s i m i l a r c o n c e r n s , b u t m o r e dependence

o n D e u t e r o n o m y , in n Q T

a

6 0 : 1 6 - 2 1 (cf. D e u t 1 8 : 9 - 1 3 )

and

4 Q M M T C 6-7 (cf. D e u t 7 : 2 6 ) .

III. Summary and Evaluation 1. Jubilees a c k n o w l e d g e s both " r i t u a l " a n d " m o r a l " p u r i t y a n d i m p u r i t y . W h i l e issues of " m o r a l " ( i m ) p u r i t y , p a r t i c u l a r l y s e x u a l m o r a l i t y a n d i n t e r m a r r i a g e , take literary a n d i d e o l o g i c a l p r e c e d e n c e , the a f f i r m a t i o n of the laws of the p a r t u r i e n t , the n o t i o n o f s e x u a l i n t e r c o u r s e as ritually defiling, " r i t u a l " p u r i t y as r e q u i r e d for Passover, priestly a b l u t i o n s , t e m p o r a l limits for c o n s u m p t i o n of s e c o n d tithe, a n d d i e t a r y laws s h o u l d n o t b e o v e r l o o k e d . W h i l e there is n o c o n f l a t i o n of " r i t u a l " a n d " m o r a l " i m p u r i t y as c l a i m e d for Q u m r a n

by

K l a w a n s , s o m e i t e m s s e e m to fall into m o r e t h a n o n e r u b r i c ( b l o o d w h e n shed defiles the l a n d , priests m u s t w a s h after sacrifice; G e n t i l e s are g e n e a l o g i ­ cally i m p u r e b u t also i d o l a t r o u s , o n e s h o u l d n o t eat w i t h t h e m ) .

2.150: Essenes purify themselves (airoAoueaSai) after contact with neophytes KaQ&mp aXkofyvhw

ouu(j>upEVTC the directives Moses gives to the elders. 12. The report presents a variant of the forecast in Exod 11:5. 13. The narrator simply indicates that "the Israelites went and did so; just as the Lord had commanded Moses and Aaron, so they did" (Exod 12:28). 2

312

n

The

Festivals

of Pesah and Massot

in the Book of

Jubilees

as w e l l " ) ( J u b 49:2) executes the p r e d i c t i o n in E x o d 1 1 : 5 ; a n d the s a v i n g of the Israelites ("the p l a g u e did n o t c o m e o n t h e m to d e s t r o y . . . from cattle to m a n ­ k i n d to d o g s " )

1 4

( J u b 49:4) o c c u r s m u c h as foretold in E x o d 1 1 : 7 a n d 1 2 : 1 3 .

T h e m o s t creative exegesis is the t r e a t m e n t of E x o d 1 2 : 2 3 , w h i c h ,

m

con­

trast to the other forecasts of the p l a g u e in E x o d u s , i n t r o d u c e s a " D e s t r o y e r " as its chief executor. T h e u n u s u a l p e r s o n i f i c a t i o n all b u t invites the i n s e r t i o n of a m o t i f i n v o l v i n g M a s t e m a , p r o v o c a t e u r of the testing of A b r a h a m .

1 5

H o w e v e r , since M a s t e m a h i m s e l f h a d b e e n b o u n d a n d l o c k e d u p f r o m the fourteenth

o n w a r d ( J u b 4 8 : 1 5 ) , "the forces of M a s t e m a " replace "the D e ­

s t r o y e r " a n d , acting strictly in a c c o r d a n c e w i t h G o d ' s directives ( 4 9 : 2 - 4 ) , b e ­ c o m e "the L o r d ' s forces" (49:4). T h e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s — f r o m "the D e s t r o y e r " to "the forces o f M a s t e m a " to "the L o r d ' s forces" — not o n l y resolve the ten­ s i o n b e t w e e n E x o d 12:23

a n

d passages that present G o d as the sole e x e c u t o r of 2

2

the p l a g u e ( E x o d 1 1 : 4 ; 1 2 : 1 2 - 1 3 , 7 > S>)> b u t also associate the s a v i n g of the Isra­ elites f r o m M a s t e m a ' s forces w i t h the rescue of Isaac in the Jubilees A k e d a h narrative.

16

A n even closer c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n A b r a h a m ' s "festival o f the L o r d " (Jub 18:18) a n d the c e l e b r a t i o n o f the pesah o n the n i g h t of the fifteenth is e v ­ ident in the d e s c r i p t i o n o f the n i g h t o f c e l e b r a t o r y eating as "the b e g i n n i n g of the festival a n d the b e g i n n i n g o f j o y " ( 4 9 : 2 ) . W i t h o u t b i b l i c a l p a r a l l e l , the J u b i l e e s - c r e a t e d p h r a s i n g is artfully c o n s t r u c t e d . T h e direct article before "festival" suggests that the Israelites are c e l e b r a t i n g a p r e v i o u s l y established festival on the n i g h t w h e n they are eating the Pesah, a n d the r e p e a t e d p h r a s e , " b e g i n n i n g of," i m p l i e s that the festival a n d its j o y e x t e n d b e y o n d a single day. C l e a r l y , the intent is to i m p l y that the Israelites are c o m m e m o r a t i n g the b e g i n n i n g of the s e v e n - d a y p a t r i a r c h a l festival o r d a i n e d for J a c o b ' s d e s c e n ­ dants "to celebrate . . . j o y f u l l y for s e v e n d a y s " ( 1 8 : 1 9 ) . U n d a t e d a n d w i t h o u t rituals in its p a t r i a r c h a l c o n t e x t , the first n i g h t of A b r a h a m ' s "festival of the L o r d " n o w a c q u i r e s b o t h a date — the n i g h t of the fifteenth in the first m o n t h — a n d rituals — "eating the p a s c h a l m e a t , d r i n k i n g the w i n e , g l o r i ­ fying, b l e s s i n g a n d p r a i s i n g the L o r d G o d o f their fathers" ( 4 9 : 6 ) .

14. The inclusion o f "the dogs" is an adaptation of "not a dog shall snarl" (Exod 1 1 : 7 ) . 15. In contrast, the introduction of Mastema into the Akedah narrative requires the addition o f a Job-like preface. See J. van Ruiten, "Abraham, Job and the Book of Jubilees: The Intertextual Relationship of Genesis 2 2 : 1 - 1 9 , J ° b 1 : 1 - 2 : 1 3 rifice of Isaac: The Aqedah

a n

d Jubilees 1 7 : 1 5 - 1 8 : 1 9 , " in The Sac­

(Genesis 22) and Its Interpretations,

ed. E. N o o r t and E. Tigchelaar

(Leiden: Brill, 2 0 0 2 ) , 58-85 (here 7 1 - 8 3 ) . 16. In contrast to M. Segal ("The Composition of Jubilees," in this volume), I see exegetical harmonization at work in Jub 49:4.

313

Betsy

Halpern-Amaru

The Date of Pesah F o l l o w i n g the r e c o l l e c t i o n are a series o f c o m m a n d s s t i p u l a t i n g w h e n , h o w , why,

a n d w h e r e the p o s t e x o d u s P e s a h is to b e c e l e b r a t e d . A J u b i l e e s

flpn

riDSn c o m p o s e d f r o m m u l t i p l e b i b l i c a l a l l u s i o n s , it s e l e c t i v e l y i n t e g r a t e s d i ­ r e c t i v e s for the E g y p t P e s a h w i t h T o r a h c o m m a n d s r e l a t i n g to P e s a h , t h e r e b y c l a r i f y i n g the statutes Pesah

in E x o d 1 2 : 1 4

Sheni i n s t i t u t e d in N u m 9

in E x o d 12:43-49

a

n

1 8

^ Num 9:14.

a

n

d

i3:io

1 7

and precluding both

the

a n d the p a r t i c i p a t i o n o f the ger p e r m i t t e d 1 9

W i t h i n the s t a t u t e the s c h e d u l e o f t h e

c o m m e m o r a t i o n r e c e i v e s the m o s t a t t e n t i o n . It is the p r i n c i p a l s u b j e c t o f s i x c o m m a n d s — t h r e e d i r e c t l y i n v o l v i n g date ( 4 9 : 7 - 9 ) , t h r e e the t i m e o f d a y ( 4 9 : 8 - 1 0 ) — a n d a s e c o n d a r y t h e m e i n five o t h e r c o m m a n d s ( 4 9 : 1 0 , 1 4 - 1 8 ) . The

t h r e e d a t e - f o c u s e d c o m m a n d s are s t r u c t u r e d to p r o v i d e s u p p o r t f o r a

P e s a h c o m m e m o r a t i o n t h a t s p a n s t w o d a t e s (the f o u r t e e n t h - f i f t e e n t h )

and

to e x p l i c i t l y p r o s c r i b e a d e l a y s u c h as the Pesah Sheni p e r m i t t e d i n N u m 9:91 4 o r a d e f e r m e n t s u c h as d e c r e e d b y H e z e k i a h i n 2 C h r o n 3 0 : 2 , 1 3 , 1 5 . T h e e x ­ c l u s i o n o f Pesah

Sheni

m a y b e u n i q u e to J u b i l e e s , f o r the

d e l a y is r e f e r e n c e d i n b o t h Q u m r a n a n d r a b b i n i c t e x t s .

institutionalized

2 0

17. Standing between God's directives for the night o f the plague and a prescription for eating unleavened bread, Exod 12:14

m

a

y he understood as relating to future c o m m e m o ­

ration o f either Pesah or Massot. If the former, its context, like that o f Exod 12:24, implies that the c o m m e m o r a t i o n includes the blood rite o f the Egypt Pesah. Equally problematic, the statute in Exod 1 3 : 1 0 lacks content. 18. As the following analysis will demonstrate, the case for the exclusion o f Pesah Sheni in Jubilees is not simply an argument from silence. It is based on the Jubilees abstrac­ tion o f phrases from verses that explicitly involve Pesah Sheni in N u m 9 and the placement of those phrases into contexts that expressly forbid any change whatsoever to the prescribed date for the c o m m e m o r a t i o n o f Pesah. The tactic is employed at a number o f points in the legislation (Jub 49:7, 8, 9, 1 4 , 1 6 - 1 7 ) . In his paper, S. Saulnier reaches the same conclusion ("Jub 4 9 : 1 - 1 4 and the Second Passover: How (and W h y ) to Do Away with an Unwanted Festi­ val," Hen 3 1 , no. 1 [ 2 0 0 9 ] ) . O n the other hand, L. Doering, who attributes n o significance to the multiple Jubilees injunctions against changing the date o f the c o m m e m o r a t i o n , cautions against such a conclusion ("Purity and Impurity in the Book o f Jubilees," in this volume). 19. Exod 12:44, 48 permits only the circumcised ger to eat the pesah. N u m 9:14 permits the ger, without qualification, to celebrate the pesah. I do not deal directly with the issue o f the ger in this essay. 20. Pesah Sheni clearly appears in the Q u m r a n mishmarot

texts (4Q259 viii 1; 4 Q 3 2 0 4

iii 4 , 1 4 I iv 9; v 3 , 1 2 ; vi 7I; 4 Q 3 2 1 2 ii 5, 9; iii 8). A n injunction against advancing or delaying festivals appears in several sectarian texts (lQS 1 : 1 3 - 1 5 ; 4Q266 2 i 1; 4Q268 i, 4 ) , but the prohi­ bition does n o t reference Pesah Sheni. If, as Yadin suggested, a c o m m a n d regarding Pesah Sheni appeared in the missing part at the top o f col. xviii o f the Temple Scroll, it would be

314

The

Festivals

of Pesah and Massot

in the Book of

T h e c o m p o s i t i o n a l d e s i g n of the d a t e - c o m m a n d s

is m o s t

Jubilees striking.

W i t h the e x c e p t i o n o f o n e c o m m a n d w h e r e the f o u r t e e n t h is s p e c i f i e d ( J u b 4 9 : 1 0 ) , n o dates are m e n t i o n e d . I n s t e a d date n u m b e r s are r e p r e s e n t e d b y t e r m s — " o n its day," "at its time," "the t i m e of its day," "the day o f its time," "its festal d a y " — that i n d i c a t e the f o u r t e e n t h , fifteenth, or b o t h . T h e date (or dates) d e s i g n a t e d b y each d a y - t e r m is r e v e a l e d t h r o u g h an i n g e n i o u s s y s ­ tem of a l l u s i o n s e m p l o y e d in the w o r d i n g of the c o m m a n d . T h i s system of a l l u s i o n s has three distinctive features: (a) m o s t i m p o r t a n t l y , the t i m i n g of events as set forth in the p r e s c r i p t i v e , n a r r a t i v e r e c o l l e c t i o n (49:1-6) is p r e ­ s u m e d , i.e., the f o u r t e e n t h is i n d i c a t e d b y explicit reference a n d a l l u s i o n s to sacrifice of the pesah a n d the fifteenth b y e x p l i c i t a n d a l l u d e d references to the tenth p l a g u e a n d / o r eating the pesah; ( b ) the a l l u s i o n s are t r i g g e r e d b y the p a r t i c u l a r c o n t e n t of a c o m m a n d , b y a full o r p a r t i a l citation, b y an a b ­ s t r a c t e d b i b l i c a l p h r a s e , a n d b y o n e o f the d a t e - t e r m s ;

(c) e a c h

date-

c o m m a n d is deliberately c o m p o s e d to p o i n t to b o t h the f o u r t e e n t h a n d the fifteenth. T h e f o l l o w i n g table illustrates h o w this c o m p l e x system of a l l u s i o n s f u n c t i o n s in the first three c o m m a n d s of the l e g i s l a t i o n .

49:7 N o w y o u remember

21

this day all the days of your lifetime.

Celebrate it from

year to year all the days all y o u r lifetime, once a year on its day in accord with all of its law. T h e n y o u w i l l n o t c h a n g e a day from the day or from m o n t h to month. Date(s) Allusion

Source Source

Content Content

Indicated

(1) remember this

Exod 12:14 12:14

Memory Memory of night of plague

15th 15th (eating)

day . . . all the days of your

Deut 16:3-4;

Phrase from context that relates

lifetime

cf. cf. Num 33:3 33:3

eating of pesah to memory of day of exodus

(2) from year to year

Exod 13:10 13:10

"Keep this statute . . . from year to

15th 15th (eating)

year"

the single reference in that scroll (Y. Yadin, The Temple Scroll, 3 vols. [Jerusalem: Israel E x ­ p l o r a t i o n Society, 1 9 7 7 - 1 9 8 3 ] , 2 : 7 6 ) . O n the rabbinic t r e a t m e n t o f Pesah m. Pesahim

Sheni,

see

9:1-4.

2 1 . The analysis of the date- and time-related c o m m a n d s adapts and, at certain points, reconsiders material I presented in "The Use of Bible in Jubilees Time o f the Pesah Celebration " Meghillot

4 9 : T h e Date and

6 (2007).

315

Betsy Half em-Amaru Date(s) Indicated

Source

Content

Exod 12:43

Statute of the pesah dealing with who is to eat the pesah

(3) on its day (faTeta/rova)

Lev 23:5,37

Offerings for sacred occasions at set 14th (sacrifice) times; 14th for pesah

(4) in accord with all its law

Num 9:14

Pesah Sheni; participation of resident alien in sacrifice and eating of pesah

Allusion

14th-15th (sacrifice and eating)

Comments i. The two phrases access biblical commands that deal with remembering. One, Exod 12:14 ("this day shall be one of remembrance"), immediately fol­ lows a forecast of the events on the night of the plague. The second, Deut 16:3-4, associates the exodus with the eating of the pesah (as well as with the prohibition of unleavened bread). Selectively drawing phrases from each passage, Jubilees connects three themes — the night of the plague, the exo­ dus, and the eating of the pesah — all of which occurred on the fifteenth. 2 . "This statute" in Exod 13:10 is understood as referring back to the 22

statute in Exod 12:43 that deals with who is to eat the pesah.

3 . The phrase, which is drawn from the Leviticus sacrificial calendar, is frequendy used in the Jubilees legislation as an indicator for the fourteenth. 4. The phrase appears in the plural in Num 9:3. Jubilees accesses the sin­ gular form in Num 9:14, a passage that involves both sacrifice and eating, hence indicating the fourteenth-fifteenth. Note that this is one of several verses where words borrowed from a passage involving Pesah Sheni are placed within a command prohibiting any change to the date of the pesah commemoration. 49:8 For it is an eternal statute and it is engraved on the heavenly tablets re­ garding the Israelites that they are to celebrate it each and every year on its day, once a year, throughout all their generations (lit.). There is no temporal limit because it is ordained forever. 22. R. Akiba makes the same connection between Exod 13:10 and Exod 12:43 (b. Menahot36b; b. Eruvin 96a). The opposing position of R. Jose relates "this statute" to the command regarding phylacteries (b. Menahot 36b; b. Eruvin 96a; cf. Mekilta Bo 17; Targum Pseudo-Jonathan on Exod 13:10). 316

The Festivals of Pesah and Massot

in the Book of Jubilees

Date(s) Allusion

Source

Content

(1) eternal statute

Exod 12:14

Statute to commemorate night of

15th (plague,

plague

eating)

Offerings for sacred occasions at set

14th (sacrifice)

on its day

Lev 2 3 : 5 , 3 7

Indicated

times, 14th prescribed for the pesah offering (1) throughout all

Exod 12:14

15th (plague, eating, exodus)

their generations

Night of plague a festival

Exod 12:42

Night of plague a vigil

Comments l. T h e c o m m a n d is constructed to connect Pesah with festival ( E x o d 1 2 : 1 4 ) , the night of the plague ( 1 2 : 1 4 ) , and the night of the vigil c o m m e m o r a t i n g the exodus ( 1 2 : 4 2 ) , all of w h i c h involve the fifteenth.

49:9

The man who is pure but does not come to celebrate it — on the time of its

day (lit.) to bring a sacrifice that is pleasing before the Lord and to eat and drink before the Lord on the day of His festival

— that m a n w h o is pure and

nearby is to be uprooted because he did not bring the Lord's sacrifice at its time. T h a t m a n will bear responsibility for his o w n s i n .

23

Date(s) Allusion

Source

Content

(1) the man who is

Num 9:13

Full, but slightly altered citation

Indicated 14th-15th

pure . . . that man

(sacrifice and

who is pure . . . at its

eating)

time (2) on the time of its

None

14th (sacrifice)

day (3) day of His festival

Exod 12:14

Celebrate this day "as a festival to

15th (eating)

the Lord" Exod 23:18

Prohibition against leaving the fat of offerings of "my festival" until morning

23. Positioning o f dashes mine. The positioning in VanderKam's translation obfus­ cates the specification o f two activities o n two different dates.

317

Betsy

Halpern-Amaru Date(s)

Allusion

Source Exod 34:25

Content

Indicated

Prohibition against leaving the pesah offering until morning

(1) at its time

Num 9:13

Part of citation

14th (sacrifice)

Comments l. D i s p l a c e d from its b i b l i c a l Pesah Sheni c o n t e x t , the cited v e r s e is split b y an i n s e r t i o n that specifies t w o t i m e s for t w o activities, each of w h i c h has its own

day, i.e., date — "to b r i n g a sacrifice o n the t i m e o f its d a y " a n d "to eat

a n d d r i n k b e f o r e the L o r d on the d a y o f H i s festival." 2. A v a r i a n t o f the b i b l i c a l "at its t i m e " ( U S / I B S ) , this J u b i l e e s - c r e a t e d t e r m is an i n d i c a t o r , d e p e n d i n g o n c o n t e x t , for either the f o u r t e e n t h or the fifteenth. 3. I n t e r p r e t i n g E x o d 23:18 in the light of E x o d 34:25, " M y festival" is u n ­ d e r s t o o d as referring to Pesah. T h e p h r a s e "festival to the L o r d " also serves as an i n t r a t e x t u a l a l l u s i o n to A b r a h a m ' s "festival o f the L o r d " in J u b 18:18.

The Times of Day for Sacrifice and Eating of the Pesah T h e s y s t e m o f c o d e d d a t e - a l l u s i o n s also a p p e a r s in J u b 4 9 : 1 0 - 1 2 , b u t the p r i ­ m a r y c o n c e r n o f these three verses is p r e s c r i p t i o n o f the t i m e of d a y for the t w o - p h a s e d c e l e b r a t i o n . M u c h as the three initial date-related collectively i n t e r p r e t E x o d 1 2 : 1 4 ,

s o

commands

these c o m m a n d s e n g a g e in an e x e g e t i c a l

t r e a t m e n t of the p h r a s e " b e t w e e n the e v e n i n g s " in E x o d 1 2 : 6 . In that d i r e c ­ tive for the E g y p t Pesah, the term " b e t w e e n the e v e n i n g s " d e s i g n a t e s the t i m e w h e n the p a s c h a l a n i m a l is to b e s l a u g h t e r e d o n the f o u r t e e n t h . T h e p h r a s e also a p p e a r s in L e v 23:5 a n d N u m 9:3, but w i t h o u t reference to a p a r t i c u l a r aspect o f the r i t u a l . O n l y in the directives for Pesah Sheni d o e s c o n t e x t sug­ gest that the t i m e f r a m e e n c o m p a s s e s b o t h sacrifice a n d eating ( N u m 9 : 1 1 ) . A l l u d i n g to L e v 23:5 a n d N u m 9 : 3 ,

24

Jubilees a d o p t s the u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f

N u m 9 : 1 1 , b u t a g a i n d e c o n s t r u c t s its c o n t e x t .

24. T h e o p e n i n g clause o f Jub 49:10 ( " T h e Israelites are to c o m e and celebrate the pesah")

cites N u m 9:3; Jub 49:11 ( " T h i s is w h a t the L o r d c o m m a n d e d y o u — to celebrate it

b e t w e e n the e v e n i n g s " ) refers to the legislation in Lev 23:5.

318

The In a mismarot-like

Festivals

of Pesah and Massot

in the Book of

Jubilees

d i v i s i o n , the J u b i l e e s exegesis s e p a r a t e s d a y a n d

n i g h t i n t o three p a r t s , w i t h the last t h i r d o f the d a y a n d first t h i r d o f the n i g h t b o t h t e r m e d " e v e n i n g . " H e n c e " b e t w e e n the e v e n i n g s " refers to the p e r i o d o f t i m e b e t w e e n the e v e n i n g of the d a y a n d the e n d o f the e v e n i n g of the day, i.e., " f r o m the t h i r d p a r t o f the d a y u n t i l the third p a r t of the n i g h t " (Jub

4 9 : 1 0 ) . T h e o f f e r i n g is to b e s a c r i f i c e d " i n the b o u n d a r y of the e v e n i n g "

of the d a y ( 4 9 : 1 2 ) , a t i m e f r a m e r e f i n e d in 49:19 b y a p h r a s e f r o m D e u t 16:6, WAWH

("in the e v e n i n g w h e n the s u n s e t s " ) . N o t a b l y , that

s a m e p h r a s e is e m p l o y e d in the p r e s c r i p t i o n of J u b 49:1 to d e n o t e the t i m e of the e a t i n g o f the pesah.

Still, the exegesis r e m a i n s c o n s i s t e n t . U n d e r ­

s t a n d i n g TTHTYN NIDD DTJ/D as w h e n the s u n b e g i n s its d e s c e n t (the e v e ­ n i n g o f the d a y ) , the c o m m a n d in the P e s a h statute c o m b i n e s the p h r a s e w i t h " i n the t h i r d p a r t of the d a y " (fub 4 9 : 1 9 ) to d e n o t e the t i m e for the s a c ­ rifice, i.e., the e i g h t h h o u r of the d a y .

2 5

C o n v e r s e l y , t r e a t i n g the p h r a s e as re­

f e r r i n g to the t i m e w h e n the s u n c o m p l e t e s its d e s c e n t (the e v e n i n g o f the n i g h t ) , the p r e s c r i p t i o n in J u b 4 9 : 1 c o m b i n e s it w i t h "at night," an a l l u s i o n to D e u t 1 6 : 1 , to d e n o t e the t i m e for the e a t i n g . A c o m p a r a b l e t i m e f r a m e for the eating is g i v e n in the P e s a h statute ( J u b 4 9 : 1 2 ) . T h e sacrifice is to b e eaten " d u r i n g the e v e n i n g h o u r ( s ) u n t i l the t h i r d p a r t of the night," i.e., the eighth h o u r o f the n i g h t , w i t h its e n d p o i n t e m p h a s i z e d b y a n e m e n d e d v e r ­ s i o n of E x o d 1 2 : 1 0 .

2 6

Prescriptive Recollection of Massot The

J u b i l e e s t r e a t m e n t of M a s s o t is i m m e d i a t e l y a p p e n d e d to the P e s a h stat­

ute. I n d e e d , w i t h i n the s a m e v e r s e , the P e s a h statute closes w i t h a restate­ m e n t of the c o m m a n d for a c o m m e m o r a t i o n that s p a n s t w o dates ( J u b 49:22a)

2 7

a n d M a s s o t is i n t r o d u c e d as a c o m m e m o r a t i o n of the s e v e n re-

25. The argument from the plural o f evening is unique to Jubilees; but the extension of time for the sacrifice is also found in Philo (Laws 2.145) Bo 5; m. Pesahim

a n

d rabbinic literature

(Mekilta

5:1).

26. "You shall not leave any o f it over until morning; if any of it is left until morning, you shall b u r n it" (Exod 1 2 : 1 0 ) . "Any o f its meat that is left over from the third part o f the night and beyond is to be burned" (Jub 4 9 : 1 2 ) . 27. The restatement, like all the date-related legislation in the statute, employs coded terminology — "Now you Moses order the Israelites to keep the statute o f the pesah as it was c o m m a n d e d to you so that you m a y tell them . . . the day o f t h e days (lit.)," i.e., the day (date) o f the sacrifice and the day (date) o f the eating.

319

Betsy Halpern-Amaru maining days of Abraham's "festival of the Lord" (49:22b). Albeit far more brief, the treatment of Massot structurally parallels that of Pesah in 49:1-6. Again, legislation for future commemoration of the festival is comple­ mented by a recollection that functions as a proof text; intertextual allusions to biblical passages are creatively interwoven with intratextual references; and identical strategies are employed to prompt the intratextual exegesis — importation of the theme of joyous celebration, utilization of a motif and subtle phrases that associate Massot with the patriarchal protofestival. The prescription for future celebration of the festival combines bibli­ cal commands — eating unleavened bread (Exod 12:15; 13:6; 23:15; 34:18; Lev 23:6; Num 28:17; Deut 16:3) and bringing daily sacrifices (Lev 23:8; Num 28:24) — with an implied obligation to rejoice ("during those seven joyous days," sabu' mawa'ela fesseha) (Jub 49:22b) that has no counterpart in the Torah.

28

The Hebrew equivalent phrase, n n a t P ' 0 ' NS?3tP, appears in the

Chronicler's account of a fused Pesah/Massot celebration that is not only de­ layed, but also extended an additional seven days ( 2 Chron 30:23), neither of which is acceptable to the author of Jubilees. So, much as he had done with Pesah Sheni in Num 9, he abstracts the phrase from the offending context and employs it as an intratextual allusion to the requirement, expressed with another "joy" phrase

1

(TinBtt?3 C O n S D t P in Ezra 6:22; 2 Chron 30:21), that

all Jacob's descendants joyously commemorate Abraham's "festival of the Lord" (Jub 18:19). Again the legislation is supported by a recollection, this time of the Is­ raelites celebrating "this festival hastily" from the time they departed Egypt until they crossed the sea (Jub 49:23). The phrase "this festival" also appears in the account of the patriarchal celebration, indeed awkwardly so, for the demonstrative pronoun has no preceding point of reference (18:18). That awkwardness suggests a deliberate setup for the intratextual allusion that now links Massot to the patriarchal festival whose celebration had begun on the night of eating the pesah. That the celebration involves a travel motif is another evocation of Abraham's festival, instituted "in accord with the seven days during which he went and returned safely" (18:18). Like the patriarchal journey, the Israelite one entails seven days of travel and deliverance (in Abraham's case from the plotting of Mastema, in this instance from the 28. There is no Torah mandateforjoyous celebration of Pesah or Massot. Indeed, its absence is particularly glaring in Deut 16 where rejoicing is prescribedforthe celebrations of both Shabu'ot (Deut 16:11) and Succot (Deut 16:14-15), but not for celebration of the fused Pesah/Massot festival. On the motif of joy and rejoicing in Jubilees, see B. Halpern-Amaru, "Joy as Piety in the Book of Jubilees" JJS 66, no. 2 (2005): 185-205. 320

The

Festivals

of Pesah and Massot

threat o f the E g y p t i a n s at the R e e d S e a ) .

2 9

in the Book of

Jubilees

M o r e o v e r , a c c o r d i n g to the b i b l i ­

cal d e s c r i p t i o n of the r o u t e taken b y the Israelites, t h e y also " w e n t a n d re­ t u r n e d safely" — from E g y p t to "the edge of the w i l d e r n e s s " ( E x o d 1 3 : 2 0 ) , b a c k t o w a r d the sea ( 1 4 : 2 ) , a n d , after c r o s s i n g the sea, safely b a c k to the w i l ­ derness ( i 5 : 2 2 ) .

3 0

Lastly, the Israelite c e l e b r a t i o n a d d s a n o t h e r ritual to the p r o t o f e s t i v a l — the eating o f u n l e a v e n e d b r e a d (instead o f the c u s t o m a r y festive l o a v e s ) —

b e c a u s e the Israelites celebrated the a n c i e n t festival " h a s t i l y " f r o m

the

t i m e t h e y left E g y p t until they c r o s s e d the sea "into the w i l d e r n e s s of Sur," w h e r e t h e y " c o m p l e t e d it o n the s e a s h o r e " ( J u b 4 9 : 2 3 ) . T h e e x p l a n a t i o n is a creative r e w o r k i n g o f a m o t i f a s s o c i a t e d w i t h b o t h Pesah a n d M a s s o t . H a s t e is the r e a s o n g i v e n for the u n l e a v e n e d b r e a d in E x o d 12:39

a n

d D e u t 16:3 (cf.

E x o d 1 2 : 3 ) , b u t i n those passages it relates to a h a s t y d e p a r t u r e , n o t to a h u r ­ r i e d c e l e b r a t i o n . T h e n o t i o n of a h a s t y c e l e b r a t i o n a p p e a r s o n l y in the c o n ­ text o f P e s a h ( E x o d 1 2 : 1 1 ) , a n d , as w e h a v e seen, it is an aspect that Jubilees e x c l u d e s f r o m b o t h the r e c o l l e c t i o n of the E g y p t c e l e b r a t i o n a n d the P e s a h statute. R e t a i n i n g the m o t i f in a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h M a s s o t , b u t r e a r r a n g i n g it to the c o n t e x t of a centuries-later c e l e b r a t i o n of the p a t r i a r c h a l festival, the a u ­ t h o r o f J u b i l e e s s u s t a i n s his p o r t r a y a l o f a p e o p l e " r e a d y to leave the E g y p ­ tian y o k e a n d evil s l a v e r y " ( J u b 4 9 : 6 ) , a v o i d s the i n d i g n i t i e s o f the h a r r i e d flight f r o m E g y p t d e s c r i b e d in E x o d i 2 : 3 i - 3 9 ,

3 1

a n d affirms the i m a g e o f a

b o l d , defiant Israelite d e p a r t u r e d e p i c t e d in N u m 33:3 (cf. E x o d 1 4 : 8 ) .

Conclusion T h e Jubilees t r e a t m e n t of Pesah. a n d M a s s o t is f o r e m o s t an interpretive re­ w o r k i n g of E x o d 1 2 - 1 3 . Its a u t h o r d e s i g n s an i n g e n i o u s c o m p o s i t i o n a l s t r u c -

29. Since the author uses the Mastema m o t i f in his recollection o f the Egypt Pesah, he does n o t repeat it with Massot. However, in his account of the exodus, Mastema does appear as the instigator o f the Egyptian pursuit (Jub 48:12, 1 5 - 1 7 ) . 30. The biblical account gives no date for the crossing o f the sea. The Jubilees notion that it was the twenty-second of the first m o n t h (the seventh day o f Massot) does have a par­ allel in rabbinic tradition. The calculation is based on the assumption that P h a r a o h began pursuing the Israelites three days after their departure on the fifteenth (Exod 3:18; 5:3). In the course o f those three days the Israelites arrived at the edge of the desert (Exod 1 3 : 2 0 ) , but then retraced their steps (a second three-day journey) back to the sea (Exod 1 4 : 2 ) , which they crossed on the twenty-second (b. Megillah

3 1 a ; Rashi on E x o d 14:5).

31. The rejection o f a hurried departure m a y also reflect the influence o f Isa 52:12.

321

Betsy

Halpern-Amaru

ture that brings order and coherence to the chaotic mixture of directives for and narratives about the E g y p t Pesah, ordination of a Pesah statute for fu­ ture commemoration, and legislation for Massot. H e also develops a Pesah statute that fills lacunae in its Exodus counterparts with content that refer­ ences the corpus of Pesah-related material in the Pentateuch through an in­ tricate system of allusions. Lastly, in presenting Pesah and Massot as separate consecutive festivals permanently merged as c o m m o n celebrations of a sin­ gle patriarchal protofestival, this author not only serves his o w n interest, but may also be responding, much like modern source critics, to the discrete and fused presentations of Pesah/Massot in the biblical text.

322

Eschatological Impulses in Jubilees John C. Endres, S.J.

T h e b o o k of Jubilees p r e s e n t s itself as a " h i s t o r y " of Israel t h r o u g h the p e r ­ s p e c t i v e o f M o s e s . It b e g i n s at M o u n t S i n a i ( E x o d 2 4 ) w i t h the r e v e l a t i o n to M o s e s b y G o d , w h o tells h i m that I s r a e l w o u l d stray f r o m the c o v e n a n t t h e y h a d j u s t c o n c l u d e d w i t h G o d ; t h e y w o u l d sin a n d b e p u n i s h e d until they re­ p e n t e d a n d r e t u r n e d to G o d . T h i s c o u r s e o f events w o u l d s e r v e to d e m o n ­ strate G o d ' s great m e r c y in d e a l i n g w i t h Israel. L a t e r in c h a p . 1 G o d tells M o ­ ses to w r i t e d o w n this entire m e s s a g e , w h i c h an a n g e l of p r e s e n c e w o u l d dictate to h i m f r o m the ( h e a v e n l y ) tablets o n w h i c h this entire s t o r y w a s al­ r e a d y i n s c r i b e d . T h i s a n g e l p r o c e e d s to r e c o u n t Israel's life a n d h i s t o r y f r o m the c r e a t i o n of the w o r l d to the first P a s s o v e r o f the H e b r e w s in E g y p t ( G e n 1 t h r o u g h E x o d 2 4 ) . M u c h of this b o o k reads like a w o r k of " r e w r i t t e n Bible," retelling the b i b l i c a l t r a d i t i o n w i t h a p a r t i c u l a r focus o n the lives of the p a ­ triarchs a n d m a t r i a r c h s as the setting for Israel's self-identity. A s this a u t h o r retells the a n c i e n t story, his e m p h a s e s i n c u l c a t e a n u m b e r o f i m p o r t a n t m o ­ tifs, i n c l u d i n g : the c o v e n a n t b e t w e e n G o d a n d the p e o p l e , the laws that a l l o w p e o p l e to r e m a i n faithful c o v e n a n t p a r t n e r s , the significant J e w i s h festivals of the year, the solar c a l e n d a r b y w h i c h they s h o u l d b e c a l c u l a t e d a n d o b ­ s e r v e d , clear n o t i o n s a b o u t the spirit w o r l d a n d d e m o n s , a n d the i m p o r t a n c e of p r a y e r to G o d . O n e c o u l d t h i n k of it as a t h e o l o g i c a l h i s t o r y w h o s e i d e o l ­ o g y is clearly d i s c e r n e d f r o m the w a y it r e w r i t e s earlier s o u r c e s . S c h o l a r s h a v e e x c a v a t e d this text for i n f o r m a t i o n o n m a n y aspects of early J e w i s h life in the s e c o n d c e n t u r y B . C . E . S t u d i e s o f its h a l a k a h , of c o u r s e , c o n c e r n c o r r e ­ s p o n d e n c e s w i t h the different r e l i g i o u s g r o u p i n g s of the era, b u t the signifi-

323

John

C. Endres,

S.J.

c a n c e o f the v e r y strict i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s o f certain h a l a k o t h m o s t likely c o n ­ cerns issues that establish m o r e s e c u r e f o u n d a t i o n s for J e w i s h

identity.

A m o n g the chief c o n c e r n s t o d a y are the s o l a r calendar, r e l i g i o u s festivals (es­ p e c i a l l y S h a v u o t h ) , c o m p a r i s o n of legal c o n c e r n s here w i t h o t h e r J e w i s h g r o u p s or sects, i n c l u d i n g the w r i t e r of the T e m p l e S c r o l l . In recent d e c a d e s c o n s i d e r a b l e a t t e n t i o n has f o c u s e d o n the a p p a r e n t p r a c t i c e of r e w r i t i n g b i b l i c a l texts, b r i n g i n g n e w i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s to the f a m i l i a r a n d s a c r e d s t o r y of the p e o p l e I s r a e l . T h e w o r l d of the spirits, e s p e c i a l l y evil spirits, receives m u c h m o r e a t t e n t i o n in J u b i l e e s t h a n in s e v e r a l o t h e r J e w i s h w o r k s c o n s i d ­ ered c o n t e m p o r a n e o u s w i t h this b o o k . A l t h o u g h s e c o n d t e m p l e a n d Q u m r a n studies e v i n c e g r e a t interest in m e s s i a n i c t e n d e n c i e s , i n c l u d i n g e s c h a t o l o g y , in the v a r i o u s d o c u m e n t s , the e s c h a t o l o g y of J u b i l e e s has n o t b e e n a m o n g the m o s t s t u d i e d i t e m s in re­ 1

search o n J u b i l e e s . Often the d i s c u s s i o n of J u b i l e e s focuses o n m e s s i a n i s m ,

2

or on the s t u d y o f the o n e a p o c a l y p s e in J u b 2 3 . G e n e D a v e n p o r t ' s disserta­ t i o n a n d s u b s e q u e n t m o n o g r a p h w a s d e v o t e d to this i s s u e , i.e., 3

of the Book of Jubilees;

Eschatology

b u t b e c a u s e his i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f e s c h a t o l o g i c a l p a s ­

sages w a s tied to a r e d a c t i o n a l t h e o r y a n d a s c h e m a o f h i s t o r i c a l d e v e l o p ­ m e n t o f the text that d i d n o t m e e t w i d e s p r e a d r e c e p t i o n , the issue of e s c h a ­ tology, w h i c h m o t i v a t e d his study, h a s n o t received the k i n d of a t t e n t i o n a n d i m p a c t it d e s e r v e s . S c h o l a r s have l o n g n o t e d c o n n e c t i o n s b e t w e e n this b o o k , h o w e v e r , a n d v a r i o u s tendencies a n d beliefs in the Q u m r a n scrolls, w h i c h are frequently l i n k e d w i t h an a r r a y of e s c h a t o l o g i c a l t e n d e n c i e s . T h i s c o n g r u e n c e of t h e o ­ logical tendencies also m u s t be c o n s i d e r e d a l o n g with the i n t r i g u i n g fact that f o u r t e e n (or fifteen) m a n u s c r i p t s of Jubilees w e r e d i s c o v e r e d at Q u m r a n .

4

I. Defining Eschatology V a r y i n g d e f i n i t i o n s of e s c h a t o l o g y r e n d e r this d i s c u s s i o n c o m p l e x , since a g r e e m e n t o n its c o n s t i t u e n t e l e m e n t s a n d i n t e r p r e t a t i o n is s e l d o m a t t a i n e d . 1. J. VanderKam, The Book of Jubilees, Guides to Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 2001), comments: "To be sure, eschatology is not a dominant concern in Jubilees, as it is in some of the Enoch literature" (132). 2. For example, J. Klausner, The Messianic Idea in Israel: From Its Beginning to the Completion of the Mishnah, trans. W. F. Stinespring (New York: Macmillan, 1955), 302-9. 3. G. L. Davenport, The Eschatology of the Book of Jubilees, SPB (Leiden: Brill, 1971). 4. VanderKam, The Book of Jubilees, 16.

324

Eschatological

Impulses

in

Jubilees

H i s t o r i c a l l y s p e a k i n g , this t e r m has a s u r p r i s i n g l y b r i e f shelf life in o u r

field,

since it w a s " f o r m e d artificially a n d i n t r o d u c e d o n l y in 1 8 0 4 b y the G e r m a n 5

dogmatic theologian K . G . Bretschneider." Continental theologians always c o n s i d e r e d it c o n n e c t e d w i t h the " d o g m a t i c locus De Novissimis,

expressing 6

the c o n c e p t of the 'last t h i n g s ' (eschata)

e x p e c t e d b y C h r i s t i a n b e l i e v e r s . " Its

earliest roots can b e f o u n d in p r e r a b b i n i c J e w i s h u s a g e , e.g., in the b o o k of E c c l e s i a s t i c u s ( B e n S i r a ) 48:24, w h e r e he says of the p r o p h e t I s a i a h : " B y his d a u n t l e s s spirit he s a w the future, a n d c o m f o r t e d the m o u r n e r s in Z i o n " ( N R S V ) . T y p i c a l h e a d i n g s d e f i n i n g these "last t h i n g s " are, a c c o r d i n g to the classical d o g m a t i c teachers of L u t h e r a n i s m , De morte et statu animarum mortem, coeliJ

De resurrectione

mortuorum,

De extremo judicio,

De

post

consummatione

To b e g i n w i t h , e s c h a t o l o g y p o i n t s us t o w a r d the future even as w e are

c o n c e r n e d w i t h issues of the p r e s e n t day. F u r t h e r r e f i n e m e n t s follow. B o u s s e t (Die Religion spiithellenistischen

Zeitalter)

des Judentums

im

c l a i m e d that J e w i s h e s c h a t o l o g i c a l a n d m e s s i ­

a n i c beliefs differ, since e a c h c o r r e s p o n d s to different n e e d s a m o n g the J e w ­ ish p e o p l e . M e s s i a n i c h o p e w a s p u r p o r t e d l y tied to the " h o p e for r e s t o r a t i o n of Israel's glories," w h e r e a s e s c h a t o l o g y r e s p o n d e d to a n e e d "for o r i e n t a t i o n in the individual

lives o f the b e l i e v e r s " ( p a r t i c u l a r l y a m o n g the

classes) r a t h e r t h a n the " U t o p i a o f the c o m m o n m a n . "

8

educated

F o r B o u s s e t , then,

e s c h a t o l o g y h a s a m o r e distinctive c h a r a c t e r t h a n d o e s m e s s i a n i s m , l i n k e d as it often is to n a t i o n a l i s t i c h o p e s . F o r his p a r t , D a v e n p o r t ' s

monograph

s p e a k s m o r e generally, seeing e s c h a t o l o g y as "any v i e w of the future in w h i c h there are events a n t i c i p a t e d as h a v i n g s i g n i f i c a n c e for the life o f Israel a n d the w o r l d , events b e y o n d w h i c h life w i l l b e s i g n i f i c a n t l y different."

9

T o d a y there is a m o v e m e n t to a p p r o a c h the issue of definition b y d e ­ s c r i b i n g clusters of e l e m e n t s or m o t i f s t y p i c a l o f e s c h a t o l o g i c a l texts. G e z a X e r a v i t s , for e x a m p l e , defines the adjective " e s c h a t o l o g i c a l " "as 'related o r p e r t a i n i n g to the e s c h a t o l o g i c a l age.' B y ' e s c h a t o l o g i c a l a g e ' w e m e a n a p r e ­ e m i n e n t p e r i o d of the histoire reaches its c l i m a x . "

1 0

sainte,

w h e n the a c t u a l p e r i o d of h i s t o r y

H e then suggests characteristics that m a r k off such p e -

5. J. Schaper, Eschatology in the Greek Psalter, W U N T 2. Reihe (Tubingen: J. C. B. Mohr [Paul Siebeck], 1995), 26. 6. Schaper, Eschatology, 26. 7. Schaper, Eschatology, 26. 8. Schaper, Eschatology, 27-28. 9. Davenport, Eschatology, 8. 1 0 . G. Xeravits, King, Priest, Prophet: Positive Eschatological Protagonists oj the Qumran Library, STDJ 47 (Leiden and Boston: Brill, 2003), 3.

325

John

C. Endres,

S.J.

r i o d s : " G o d ' s j u d g e m e n t over the created w o r l d , G o d ' s v i c t o r y over evil, the c o m p l e t e e r a d i c a t i o n of evil, a n d the t r i u m p h of G o d ' s p e o p l e . "

11

Michael

K n i b b presents a larger cluster o f characteristics f a m i l i a r f r o m s e c o n d t e m ­ ple J e w i s h l i t e r a t u r e .

12

T h e s e i n c l u d e : the idea of a final j u d g m e n t w h e r e the

r i g h t e o u s w i l l be r e w a r d e d a n d the w i c k e d p u n i s h e d ; the idea o f a last great battle w i t h forces of evil; d e s c r i p t i o n s (in the f o r m of b l e s s i n g s ) of the b l e s s ­ i n g s o f the n e w age; the e x p e c t a t i o n of a n e w J e r u s a l e m ; rules for o r d e r i n g life in a n e w age; an e x p l a n a t i o n for the delay in e x p e c t e d t i m e o f the e n d ; b e l i e f in r e s u r r e c t i o n of the dead; m e s s i a n i c beliefs. I will i n d i c a t e the p r e s ­ ence o f s e v e r a l o f these m o t i f s in the J u b i l e e s ' texts to b e c o n s i d e r e d .

II. Eschatological Texts Par Excellence S c h o l a r s of Jubilees g e n e r a l l y identify two lengthy texts w i t h strong eschato­ logical l a n g u a g e a n d c o n t e n t .

13

T h e first is G o d ' s m e s s a g e to M o s e s on M o u n t

Sinai, in 1 : ^ - 2 9 (a n a r r a t i v e w i t h clear roots in E x o d 2 4 ) . It follows the m e s ­ sage in the p r o l o g u e , that w e h a v e here "the w o r d s r e g a r d i n g the d i v i s i o n s o f the times of the l a w a n d of the testimony, o f the events of the y e a r s , of the w e e k s of their jubilees t h r o u g h o u t all the years of eternity as he related ( t h e m ) to M o s e s o n M t . S i n a i w h e n he w e n t u p to receive the stone tablets" ( p r o l o g u e , first p a r t ) .

1 4

T h e s e c o n d passage is the a p o c a l y p s e in Jub 2 3 : 1 4 - 3 1 , w h i c h fol­

lows the death of A b r a h a m ( 2 3 : 1 - 8 ) . I will describe a n d discuss each text, sug­ gest s o m e c o m m o n t h e m e s a n d patterns, a n d indicate w a y s in w h i c h they offer a perspective t h r o u g h w h i c h o n e can v i e w the entire b o o k of Jubilees.

11. Xeravits, King, Priest, Prophet, 3. 12. M. Knibb, "Eschatology and Messianism in the Dead Sea Scrolls," in The Dead Sea Scrolls after Fifty Years: Volume II, ed. P. Flint and J. VanderKam (Leiden, Boston, and C o ­ logne: Brill, 1999), 379-402 (here 381-82). 13. J. VanderKam, "The End of the Matter? Jubilees 50:6-13 and the Unity of the Book," in Heavenly Tablets: Interpretation, Identity, and Tradition in Ancient Judaism, ed. L. LiDonnici and A. Lieber, JSJSup (Leiden and Boston: Brill, 2 0 0 7 ) , 267-84 (esp. 267-72). VanderKam, 270, notes that "the passages which Testuz considered additions were eschato­ logical ones," i.e., 1:7-25,28; 23:11-32; and 2 4 : 2 8 ^ 3 0 ; cf. M. Testuz, Les idees religieuses du Livre des Jubiles (Geneva: Librairie E. Droz; Paris: Librairie Minard, 1960), 39-40. VanderKam ex­ amines a third passage, Jub 50:6-13, also considered eschatological (VanderKam, 270). The salient point is the identification o f "odd" passages as likely candidates for the presentation of an eschatological vision in this book. 14. Unless otherwise noted, all translations are from J. VanderKam, trans., The Book of Jubilees, CSCO 88 (Louvain: Peeters, 1989), hereafter VanderKam, Jubilees.

326

Eschatological Impulses in Jubilees

III. God's Message to Moses at Sinai (1:40-29) Moses' sojourn of forty days and nights at Mount Sinai forms the scene of the first eschatological passage. During this time the Lord showed to him all that had happened before, and what would happen in the future; all these events were related to the division of all the times, both of the law and of the testimony (v. 4). God ordered Moses to pay careful attention to all the words revealed to him on this holy mountain, so that he could write them all down in a book. This record can be used to educate their offspring on this fact: God has not abandoned them because of all their "straying from the cove­ nant" between God and them. So the covenant they are making this very day on Mount Sinai (v. 5) will not be a vehicle for their destruction but will help them to see that the Lord is more faithful to them than they are to him; in­ deed, the Lord has remained present to them (v. 6). The message follows a typical pattern, known from Deuteronomic writings: sin, punishment, re­ turning to God, saving acts of G o d .

Sin

15

(17-u)

God already knew the people's stubbornness before he brought them into the land of promise, a land of "milk and honey" (v. 7). But this people will still commit sin. They will turn to strange gods who cannot deliver them (v. 8) and they will forget all of God's commandments, follow the ways of Gentiles, and serve the Gentiles' gods (v. 9 ) .

1 6

As a result, they will suffer

greatly: many among this people will be taken captive and will perish be­ cause they forsook their covenant with God. The message returns to Israel's sins, that they forgot God's statutes, commandments, covenant festivals, 15. R. Werline, Penitential Prayer in Second Temple Judaism: The Development ofa Re­ ligious Institution, SBLEJL 13 (Atlanta: Society of Biblical Literature, 1998), 110-11. In his study of these passages, J. Scott speaks of the scheme of "sin-exile-restoration (SER)"; cf. J. Scott, On Earth as in Heaven: The Restoration of Sacred Time and Sacred Space in the Book ofJubilees, JSJSup (Leiden and Boston: Brill, 2005), 77. This rich study of these topics in Jubi­ lees provides a wide-ranging proposal for the chronology of the book, much of which "spec­ ifies" the eschatological perspective. For reasons that will become apparent, I prefer to retain the notion of "repentance" in the Deuteronomic scheme. 16. That these sins of the nations probably include sexual sins is argued by W. Loader, Enoch, Levi, and Jubilees on Sexuality: Attitudes toward Sexuality in the Early Enoch Litera­ ture, the Aramaic Levi Document, and the Book of Jubilees (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2007), 117.

327

John C. Endres, S.J. Sabbaths, holy things, tabernacle, and temple (v. 1 0 ) . They will follow some horrendous practices: constructing "high places" and "(sacred) groves," us­ ing "carved images" for their worship, and — most shocking of all — offer­ 17

ing in sacrifice their own children. The language for sinful ways employed here recalls similar charges against Israel in Deuteronomic language (Deut 31:20-21 and 2 Kings 17:15), a fact that corresponds with the Deuteronomic theology of history: sin, oppression, outcry to God/repentance, God's saving activity.

Punishment/Suffering

(122-14)

God tries to move Israel toward repentance by telling Moses what will hap­ pen in the future ( w . 1 2 - 1 8 ) . God will send them witnesses, but Israel will not listen to them; rather they will slay them and persecute those who diligently study the Torah (v. 1 2 ) . The people will attempt to change and overturn ev­ erything, thus working evil "in my presence" (v. 1 2 ) ; it is a pattern well known from prophetic texts and the Chronicler (e.g., Jer 25:4; 2 Chron 24:19). Then God will remove his presence from them, handing them over to their enemies, "for captivity, for booty, and for being devoured" (v. 1 3 ) , even for dispersal among the nations. After all this, even then this people will for­ get all of God's law, commandments, judgments; rather they will err regard­ ing "the beginning of the month, the sabbath, the festival, the jubilee" (mat­ ters of the Jubilees' calendar, so important to this author), and also the "decree" (v. i ) .

1 8

4

Repentance

(1:15)

Then the Israelites will turn to God: "After this they will return to me from among the nations with all their minds, all their souls, and all their strength" (1:15 Ethiopic). This pattern of repeated turning to God ( 3 W , shuv) is clear, and the author uses familiar Deuteronomic language (the people search, and are found) to express this pattern of repentance (v. 1 5 ) .

1 9

17. Recall the condemnation of King Ahaz for such crimes: 2 Chron 28:3 ("made his sons pass through fire"); here they will offer them to "demons" and to other products of their own imagination and creativity. 18. Cf. Scott, On Earth, 86-87, f ° this assessment. 19. This section of Jubilees exists in the Qumran 4Q216, II (1. 17). The editor, r

328

Eschatological

Impulses

R e p e n t a n c e a n d r e t u r n to G o d h a v e f o l l o w e d u p o n sin a n d

in

Jubilees

punishment,

a n d G o d s e e m s ever p a t i e n t w i t h t h o s e w h o h a v e s e a r c h e d for h i m " w i t h all their m i n d s a n d w i t h all their s o u l s " a n d p r o m i s e s to " d i s c l o s e to t h e m a b u n d a n t peace" in response.

Saving

Acts of God

(1:16-18)

T h e n e x t step s p e a k s of G o d t r a n s f o r m i n g t h e m into a "plant o f r i g h t e o u s ­ ness," r e m i n d i n g the b i b l i c a l r e a d e r of Jer 32:41 a n d Ps 80:9. T h e l a n g u a g e for effecting this c h a n g e m i g h t catch readers u n a w a r e s , w h e n G o d p r o c l a i m s that he w i l l act " w i t h all my m i n d a n d all my s o u l " (v. 1 6 a ) ; here the d i v i n i t y a p p r o p r i a t e s l a n g u a g e u s u a l l y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h the p e o p l e ' s r e s p o n s e to G o d , e.g., D e u t 6:5 (the Shem'a

Yisrael). A s a result, this p e o p l e shall b e "a b l e s s i n g ,

n o t a c u r s e " (v. 1 6 b ) , e c h o i n g G o d ' s w o r d s to J u d a h a n d I s r a e l in Z e c h 8 : 1 3 . T h e shift f r o m curse to b l e s s i n g m a y b e u n d e r s t o o d as an o l d e r c o v e n a n t for­ m u l a r y that has u n d e r g o n e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n in s o m e s e c o n d t e m p l e texts. In his s t u d y of the c o v e n a n t , K l a u s B a l t z e r suggests that the c u r s e s (seen in the h i s t o r i c a l past, or even the p r e s e n t of the p e o p l e ) are b a l a n c e d b y b l e s s i n g s that s e e m c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y a n e s c h a t o l o g i c a l l a n g u a g e a n d t o n e .

2 0

Spe­

cifically, G o d w i l l g a t h e r t h e m f r o m a m o n g the G e n t i l e s b a c k to their l a n d (v. 1 5 b ) , w i l l t r a n s f o r m t h e m into a " r i g h t e o u s p l a n t " (v. 1 6 ) , w i l l ( r e ) b u i l d the t e m p l e a m o n g t h e m a n d live w i t h t h e m (v. 1 7 ) a n d b e c o m e their G o d , a n d t h e y w i l l b e c o m e G o d ' s "true a n d r i g h t e o u s p e o p l e . " G o d w i l l n e v e r again alienate or a b a n d o n t h e m , for " I a m the L o r d their G o d " (v. 1 8 ) . M o s t significant for an e s c h a t o l o g i c a l v i s i o n is the e n d o f G o d ' s s p e e c h in v. 1 5 : " I w i l l r i g h t l y disclose to t h e m abundant

peace!'

J. VanderKam, retrojects from the Ge'ez version a Hebrew word, citing as a good parallel for his decision a similar text in l Kings 8:48: "if they repent (IMP!) with all their heart and soul in the land o f their enemies . . ." ( N R S V ) . 20. K. Baltzer, The Covenant

Formulary

in Old Testament,

Jewish,

and Early

Christian

Writings, trans. D. Green (Philadelphia: Fortress, 1 9 7 1 ) . In several places, dealing with Jewish texts, especially lQS, Jubilees, C D (Damascus D o c u m e n t ) , and Testaments in Jubilees and Testaments o f the Twelve Patriarchs, the author notes a transformation of the blessings and curses with a fairly specific "eschatology" in the text of the blessings ( 1 0 4 - 1 0 5 , 1 0 7 , Manual of Discipline; 1 1 7 , Damascus D o c u m e n t ; 153-155, Testament of the Twelve Patriarchs). He does not discuss Jub 1 or 23.

329

John

C. Endres, Prayer

S.J.

of Moses

(i:ig-2i)

After G o d ' s p r o m i s e o f a blessed future, M o s e s p r a y s to G o d for his p e o p l e ( w . 1 9 - 2 1 ) , that G o d not forsake t h e m or deliver t h e m into the p o w e r o f their 21

e n e m i e s (v. 1 9 ) . H e b e g s G o d to s h o w t h e m mercy

a n d "create for t h e m a

just spirit" (v. 2 0 a ) . M o s e s also p r a y s that "the spirit o f Belial n o t rule t h e m " (v. 2 0 b ) . A s if G o d r e q u i r e s m o t i v a t i o n to act, M o s e s r e m i n d s the L o r d that "they are y o u r p e o p l e a n d y o u r h e r i t a g e w h o m y o u h a v e r e s c u e d " f r o m E g y p t i a n p o w e r . N e a r the e n d of his p r a y e r the w o r d s " C r e a t e for t h e m a p u r e m i n d a n d a h o l y s p i r i t " r e m i n d the hearers of Ps 5 1 : 1 0 . T h e final w i s h is that t h e y n o t be c a u g h t u p in their sins forever (v. 2 1 ) . In the s e c o n d t e m p l e era, to ask G o d to g r a n t a spirit of holiness m a y b e a w a y of e x p r e s s i n g the n o ­ t i o n o f a s p i r i t u a l t r a n s f o r m a t i o n of G o d ' s p e o p l e "at the eschaton," since s p e a k i n g of the spirit o f h o l i n e s s "denotes a n e w s p i r i t u a l d i s p o s i t i o n i m ­ p a r t e d b y G o d to i n d i v i d u a l J e w s . "

2 2

T h e y n e e d these gifts to g u a r d their

f r e e d o m f r o m the spirit o f B e l i a l . M o s e s asks G o d for mercy, a n o t i o n that m a y p o i n t f o r w a r d to the " k i n d n e s s " o f the L o r d in the J u b i l e e s A p o c a l y p s e ( 2 3 : 3 1 ) . T h e m e n t i o n of the ( m a t e r n a l ) n o t i o n of " m e r c y " here m a y r e s o n a t e w i t h " k i n d n e s s " in the later text.

Response

of God:

Recapitulates

the Pattern of Sin and Return

(1:22-25)

G o d tells M o s e s that he k n o w s the sinful past a n d w a y s o f this p e o p l e , b u t later t h e y w i l l r e t u r n to G o d " i n a fully u p r i g h t m a n n e r a n d w i t h all (their) m i n d s a n d all (their) s o u l s " (v. 2 3 a ) . M o s t i m p o r t a n t , G o d w i l l "cut a w a y the foreskins o f their m i n d s a n d the foreskins of their d e s c e n d a n t s ' m i n d s " (v. 2 3 b ) . To c i r c u m c i s e "the h e a r t s of the Israelites a n d their d e s c e n d a n t s " is an act i n t e n d e d to e l i m i n a t e "all p o s s i b i l i t y of future a p o s t a s y . "

23

The divine

21. This t e r m appears several times in Jubilees, including three times in Rebekah's blessing prayer for Jacob, 25:2, 1 9 , 23 (where it is translated by VanderKam as "(my) affec­ tion"). The word mehrat has connotations of "compassion, pardon, mercy, pity, clemency," and may relate to the Heb. rhmym.

In the Ge'ez Bible this term mehrat and also its cognate

forms appear frequently, often in reference to the deity. 22. B. Smith, " 'Spirit o f Holiness' as Eschatological Principle o f Obedience," in Chris­ tian Beginnings

and the Dead

Sea Scrolls, ed. J. Collins and C. Evans (Grand Rapids: Baker

Academic, 2 0 0 6 ) , 75-99 (here 7 6 ) . 23. Smith, "Spirit o f Holiness," 77.

330

Eschatological Impulses in Jubilees response has a public character as well, since God promises that all spirits and angels will know them and the special relationship between Israel and God. All "of them will be called children of the living God," who is here called "their father" (v. 2 5 ) . Moses' prayer leads God to promise that sin will be followed by joyful "return."

God Orders the Writing Down of the Message

(1:26-29)

The message constitutes a vision of the blessings of a new age and a new Je­ rusalem, both eschatological motifs. There appear to be two commands to write down all these words; the first, in v. 26, contains an imperative form, seemingly directed to Moses, to write down all the words God "will tell you on this mountain." In a second line, God tells the angel of presence, "Dictate to Moses" all this history, from the very beginning until its ending time, when God will descend and actually live with his people (v. 2 7 ) . This change, a command to Moses in the first and an order to the angel to dictate in the second, has long proved a crux interpretum; Davenport interpreted it as evi­ dence of redactional activity, arguing that the notion of a dictating angel 24

corresponds to a later redactional level. VanderKam suspects that the dif­ ferent verbs in Ethiopic could reflect imprecisions of the Greek translator, who might have failed to recognize the difference between qal and hiphil forms of the verb.

25

Then the Lord will appear so that all can see and recognize him as "the God of Israel, the father of all Jacob's children, and the king on Mt. Zion" (v. 2 8 ) . The covenant promise, originally associated with Moses as the cen­ tral figure, greatly expands here as it now extends to all Jacob's family of twelve descendants, but finally to the claim that Jerusalem and Zion are holy — even more surprising in the earlier worldview. This chapter concludes (v. 29) when the angel of presence takes the tablets with all this information inscribed on them and displays them. In a foretaste of things to come in this book, the audience learns that these tablets will contain a complete picture of all the "times" important for their history, including a look ahead to the renewal of all creatures, when the Lord's temple will be created in Jerusalem. Even the luminaries will be renewed, so that they can effect "healing, health,

24. Davenport, Eschatology, 15C This point was a key element for his reconstruction of the redactional history of this text. 25. VanderKam, Jubilees, 6, note to v. 27.

331

John C. Endres, S.J. and blessing for all the elect ones of Israel" (v. 2 9 ) . The imagery here con­ tains significant eschatological motifs, including the glowing descriptions of the "blessings of the new age," the expectation of a "new Jerusalem," and 26

rules for ordering life in a new age. This eschatological horizon in Jub 1 should provide a helpful lens for grasping the ultimate end of the interpre­ tive retelling of many narratives in the lives of the patriarchs and matriarchs of Israel: taken together, the eschatological and narrative elements suggest concrete ways for the people of Israel to live out their covenant responsibili­ ties, with a focus on the reality to come.

IV. The Apocalypse in Jubilees (23:14-31) The second eschatological passage comes at an odd place in the narrative, direcdy after the description of Abraham's death ( w . 1 - 7 ) but before the cycle of stories about Isaac and his family. This cycle begins with the well-known story of Esau selling his birthright to Jacob (Jub 24:2-8), leaving a gap be­ tween Abraham's death and the sale of the birthright. The book of Genesis also features a type of hiatus between these two events, but there it contains a genealogy of Ishmael (Gen 25:12-18) and the birth account of Esau and Ja­ cob (Gen 2 5 : 1 9 - 2 7 ) . Jubilees has greatly altered the sequence of events in this part of the narrative. Since Jacob and Esau were born while Abraham was yet living (Jub 1 9 : 1 3 - 1 4 ) , in this version there passed fifteen years while Abraham was living and able to see these two grandsons. The audience hears of Abraham's love for Jacob (19:15-31) and his last words to his children and grandchildren. Jubilees recalls Abraham celebrating Shavuoth with his sons Isaac and Ishmael, and also Jacob, and there follows a farewell address of Abraham to his grandson Jacob (22:10-23). This testamentary speech contains many ele­ ments of a typical covenant formulary: repeating the blessings to Jacob's forebears, a clear list of covenant stipulations, and a renewed version of the blessing prayer for Jacob.

27

Grandfather Abraham inveighed against any

kind of mixing with Gentiles ( 2 2 : 1 6 - 1 7 ) , idolatry (22:18 and 2 2 ) , intermar­ riage (22:20), and warned that idolaters can expect "to descend to sheol and 26. Knibb, "Eschatology and Messianism," 381-82. 27. In Jubilees the blessing was uttered by Abraham, though in Genesis Isaac pro­ claimed it. For analysis of this section, cf. J. Endres, S.J., Biblical Interpretation in the Book of Jubilees, CBQMS 18 (Washington, D.C.: Catholic Biblical Association of America, 1987), 4344332

Eschatological

Impulses

in

Jubilees

go to the p l a c e of j u d g m e n t " ( 2 2 : 2 2 b ) . In this afterlife the deceased h a v e "no h o p e in the l a n d of the l i v i n g a n d n o r e m e m b r a n c e o f t h e m after

death."

28

After this s p e e c h the t w o of t h e m lay d o w n , J a c o b s l e e p i n g "in the b o s o m of his g r a n d f a t h e r A b r a h a m " ( 2 2 : 2 6 ) . A b r a h a m b l e s s e d h i m a g a i n ( 2 2 : 2 7 - 3 0 ) , a n d t h e n A b r a h a m e x p i r e s , a t t e n d e d o n l y b y J a c o b , w h o is n o t a w a r e o f his death until he a w a k e n s to find his g r a n d f a t h e r " c o l d as ice" ( 2 3 : 3 ) . So Jubilees has g r e a t l y altered the f l o w of the story, w i t h m a n y f a m i l y events o c c u r r i n g after the b i r t h o f E s a u a n d J a c o b but before A b r a h a m ' s d e a t h . T h e a u t h o r m a y h a v e d i s c o v e r e d an exegetical a n o m a l y in the G e n e s i s text, i.e., that the n a r r a t i v e f l o w of events does n o t c o r r e s p o n d to the c h r o ­ n o l o g y d i s c e r n e d in the ( p r i e s t l y ) text of G e n e s i s .

2 9

T h e s e c h a n g e s also serve

to h e i g h t e n the p o s i t i v e c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n o f A b r a h a m , w h i c h is v e r y i m p o r ­ t a n t for Jubilees at this p o i n t of the a c c o u n t . T h e a d d i t i o n a l stories a b o u t A b r a h a m a n d his f a m i l y in Jubilees a l m o s t force the a u t h o r to e x p l a i n w h y A b r a h a m , "perfect w i t h the L o r d in e v e r y t h i n g that he did," lived a m u c h s h o r t e r life t h a n the ancients h a d . B e f o r e the f l o o d , their lives g e n e r a l l y e x ­ t e n d e d n i n e t e e n j u b i l e e s (19 x 49 = 9 3 1 y e a r s ) , b u t A b r a h a m dies after o n l y 175 y e a r s ("three j u b i l e e s a n d f o u r w e e k s o f y e a r s " ; 3 x 49 p l u s 4 x 7 y e a r s ) . T h e n e w e s c h a t o l o g i c a l s e c t i o n w i l l offer a s o l u t i o n to this p r o b l e m : the i n ­ crease o f evil in the w o r l d has i n e v i t a b l y led to a s h o r t e r life s p a n for h u ­ m a n s . N o clearer i n d i c a t o r of the evil c a n be i m a g i n e d t h a n their s h o r t e r life s p a n ( J u b 2 3 : 1 1 ) , especially as they " g r o w old q u i c k l y " b e f o r e "the great d a y of judgment!'

A n o t h e r a n d m o r e d e v a s t a t i n g p r o b l e m is that " k n o w l e d g e

w i l l leave t h e m b e c a u s e o f their o l d a g e " (v. 1 1 ) . In this l i t e r a r y b u i l d u p to the A p o c a l y p s e ( w . 1 4 - 3 1 ) , the readers a l r e a d y e n c o u n t e r the e s c h a t o l o g i c a l fears a n d h o p e s o f the c o m m u n i t y , e s p e c i a l l y c o n c e r n i n g the d a y of j u d g m e n t , a s h o r t e r life s p a n ( o n e a n d o n e - h a l f j u b i l e e s ) , a n d the p r e m a t u r e

loss of

k n o w l e d g e . T h e y e a r s they live will b e p l a g u e d b y "difficulties, toil, and dis­ tress w i t h o u t p e a c e " (v. 12) d e r i v i n g f r o m injuries a n d b l o w s t h e y w i l l receive c o n t i n u a l l y as p u n i s h m e n t s (v. 1 3 ) . O n e a p p r o a c h to this text is to attend to the r e w r i t i n g a n d r e d a c t i o n of b i b l i c a l t r a d i t i o n s in this e s c h a t o l o g i c a l section of the t e x t .

30

Traditions from

Jer 6:23a ( J u b 23:23b) a n d D e u t 28:49-50 ( J u b 23:23) a n d Ps 79:2 ( J u b 23:23) a l l o w e d this a u t h o r to m e d i t a t e o n the m e s s a g e f r o m the a n g e l a n d to reflect

28. Endres, Biblical

Interpretation,

29. For details, cf. Endres, Biblical

45. Interpretation,

24. The author of Jubilees m a y have

been following a priestly chronology.

30. Endres, Biblical

Interpretation,

52-62.

333

John

C. Endres,

S.J.

it in a n e w text. A D e u t e r o n o m i c h i s t o r i c a l p a t t e r n o f c o v e n a n t life w i t h G o d also s h a p e s this text, w h i c h c o n t a i n s the f o u r " m o m e n t s " of sin ( w . 1 6 - 2 1 ) , punishment ( w . 22-25),

a

t u r n i n g p o i n t (v. 2 6 ) , a n d s a v i n g a c t i o n o f G o d

( w . 2 7 - 3 1 ) . C o m m e n t a t o r s h a v e n o t e d this p r o g r e s s i o n ,

31

and I previously

c o n s i d e r e d the s e c t i o n t h r o u g h the lens of i n t e r t e x t u a l i t y a n d r e w r i t i n g .

32

T h e A p o c a l y p s e b e g i n s w i t h a s t a t e m e n t that the m a n y a n d v a r i e d suf­ ferings o f h u m a n s c o m e as a result of the sin of m a k i n g the "earth c o m m i t sin t h r o u g h s e x u a l i m p u r i t y , c o n t a m i n a t i o n , a n d their detestable a c t i o n s " (v. 1 4 ) .

3 3

T h e text again m e n t i o n s that the length of days for h u m a n s has

b e e n d e c r e a s i n g — f r o m as m a n y as a t h o u s a n d y e a r s in days of o l d to a life of s e v e n t y y e a r s , or e i g h t y for the s t r o n g , i n the p r e s e n t d a y (v. 1 5 a ) . E v e n the days w e h a v e are evil, a n d "there is n o p e a c e d u r i n g the d a y s o f that evil g e n ­ e r a t i o n " (v. 1 5 b ) .

Sin

(23:16-21)

H e a r e r s of this a c c o u n t m a y b e w o n d e r i n g w h e n a n d h o w the p r e s e n t evils w i l l e n d , so the a u t h o r p u l l s together a v a r i e t y o f n o t i o n s o f sin, g o i n g b e ­ y o n d the earlier m e n t i o n of s e x u a l i m p u r i t y a n d c o n t a m i n a t i o n a n d s i m i l a r a c t i o n s . Y o u n g p e o p l e s t r u g g l e w i t h their elders b e c a u s e of sin a n d injustice, w h i l e other p e o p l e a b a n d o n k e y aspects of the c o v e n a n t a n d forget the w o r ­ ship r e g u l a t i o n s a n d c a l e n d a r g i v e n t h e m b y G o d . A n d there are m a n y other evils. A s a result, p e o p l e suffer, w a r s i n c r e a s e , the entire c o s m o s w i l l b e d e ­ g r a d e d , as the m e s s a g e specifies that "the earth w i l l i n d e e d be d e s t r o y e d b e ­ c a u s e o f all that t h e y d o " (v. 1 8 ) . W a r f a r e a n d v i o l e n c e result f r o m the sins o f this g e n e r a t i o n , as do also the r a p a c i o u s n e s s o f the rich a g a i n s t the p o o r , a n d finally, d e f i l e m e n t o f the H o l y o f H o l i e s (v. 2 1 ) . S i n r u n s the g a m u t o f the h u ­ m a n a r e n a : w o r s h i p , sexuality, s o c i a l injustice, v i o l e n c e , d e f i l e m e n t o f s a c r e d p e r s o n s , t i m e s , a n d s p a c e s ; there is here n o p a r t i a l , restricted v i e w o f life.

DSD time past lees,

334

31. Werlinc, Penitential Prayer, 1 1 3 - 1 6 . Klausner, Messianic Idea in Israel, 306. 32. For a very different approach to this text, cf. J. Kugel, "The Jubilees Apocalypse," 1, no. 3 (1994): 322-37. His reading of this apocalypse, with Ps 90 as intertext, points to a of suffering followed by "a golden age" (337), but also provides a way of reading their history. 33. For comment on the sexual nature o f these sins, cf. Loader, Enoch, Levi, and Jubi­ 122-25.

Eschatological Impulses in Jubilees Punishment

(2322-25)

Punishment will come as the people are delivered up to the violence of "sin­ ful nations who will have no mercy or kindness for them and who will show partiality to no one" (v. 2 3 ) . There are visions of bloodshed and chaos and young children whose "heads will turn white with gray hair" (v. 2 5 ) . Their condition will be dire. Even their outcries to God and prayers for rescue will go unheeded (v. 2 4 ) .

Turning Point/Repentance

(2326)

As usual in this pattern, there comes a turning point; here it is signaled only by the notice that "the children will begin to study the laws, to seek out the commands, and to return to the right way." Perhaps all three verbs function synonymously: studying laws, searching out God's commands, and return­ ing to God's ways. The verb "return" (myt/meta, probably translating 2W) also appeared in the similar passage in Jub 1:15, in which God says, "After this they will return to me." One connotation of this verb is "to be converted (relig. sense),

34

and it fits well this context.

Salvation by God

(232,7-31)

Salvation by God has a dual appearance in this text: an earthly, newly ac­ 35

quired longevity, and passing through death of the just. God's saving acts are not explicitly political, even though the punishments in w . 2 2 - 2 5 have of­ ten been interpreted in this way.

36

Eschatological signs of salvation include

longer lifetimes, lived in peace and joy, without satans or evil destroyers; in short, people in the eschaton will enjoy lives of "blessing and healing" (v. 2 9 ) . Especially significant is the notion that the life span of the just may again 34. T. Lambdin, Introduction to Classical Ethiopic (Ge'ez), HSS 24 (Missoula: Scholars Press, 1978), 41735. Cf. G. Aranda Perez, "Los Mil Aflos en el Libro de los Jubileos y Ap 20,1-10," EstBib 57 (1999): 3 9 - 6 o , esp. 44-47.

36. For example, R. Charles saw in w. 22-23 a description of "the sufferings of the na­ tion during the civil wars and internal trouble that took place down to Simon's high priest­ hood (142-135 B.C.)": Charles, The Book of Jubilees or the Little Genesis (London: Adam and Charles Black, 1902), 148. 335

John C. Endres, S.J. reach a thousand years (v. 2 7 ) , seemingly the perfect age for humans (which Adam did not attain because he had eaten of the fruit in the garden [Jub 4:30]). Then the message reaches its peak and terms that might be taken as eschatological impulses appear in italics: 3oThen the Lord will heal his servants. They will rise and see great peace. He will expel their enemies. The righteous will see (this), offer praise, and be very happy forever and ever. They will see all the punishments and curses on their enemies. 3iTheir bones will rest in the earth and their spirits will be very happy. They will know that the Lord is one who exe­ cutes judgmentbxit shows kindnessto hundreds and thousands and to all who love him. These eschatological blessings include several of the categories identified earlier as eschatological: triumph of God's people (v. 3 0 ) , descriptions of the blessings of the new age ( w . 2 9 - 3 0 , with great peace and blessing), the notion of a final judgment with reward for the righteous (v. 3 0 ) , and the triumph of the righteous. Another sign of the eschaton comes in Jub 23:31, which considers the crisis of individuals who have proven faithful to the covenant. Jubilees ad­ dresses the issue of life after death for the righteous, but in very muted terms: their bones will rest in peace in the ground, but their "spirits will be very happy" (v. 3 1 ) . VanderKam assesses the teaching of this passage thus: "the writer does not anticipate a physical resurrection of the righteous dead (the wicked do not come into consideration because they are destroyed) but a continued existence for their spirits. In that form they will participate in the new age." The precise meaning of the phrase continues to elicit inter­ pretive work. 37

A covenant formulary seems to stand in the background of this apoca­ lypse, while its final stage, the blessings, is transformed into an eschatologi­ cal vision of a hopeful future, with an added note that the spirits of the faith­ ful ones of Israel will continue. The eschatological horizon, however, strongly suggests a perspective for viewing their life and relationship with God. God's friend Abraham represents the hopes of all of Jacob's descen­ dants: when they study the laws (Torah), seek out God's commands, and re­ turn/repent, they will experience a type of life characterized by all the signs of the eschaton. The eschatological vision of this apocalypse should instill 37. VanderKam, The Book of Jubilees, 59.

336

Eschatological

Impulses in Jubilees

hope for the future, for m a n y of the descendants of A b r a h a m : living the life of covenant with the G o d of mercy offers hope for the future.

V. Conclusion In m y opinion, the most important aspect of these eschatological passages is the n e w perspective they offer for the reading of the rest of the b o o k of Jubi­ lees. T h e y assess characters in new ways, focusing on their living the appro­ priate halakah within the perspective of both past and future life of the peo­ ple. T h e text clarifies m a n y points of Jewish law, showing their significance in the overall covenant pattern of their life as a people. It particularly invites readers to fasten on notions of peace and healing as eschatological reality, and thus contributes to a notion of the G o d of Israel as ultimately a G o d whose mercy is greater than anything their actions deserve.

337

Amplified Roles, Idealized Depictions: Women in the Book of lubilees Kelley Coblentz Bautch

One contribution of contemporary scholarship to the study of Judaism and Christianity in antiquity has been a focus on matters related to gender and sexuality. This interest is reflected in several fine studies of the b o o k of Jubi­ lees undertaken in the last decade that have concentrated on the depiction of w o m e n and sexuality. T w o of the most comprehensive works that deserve mention are Betsy Halpern-Amaru's Empowerment

of Women in the Book of

Jubilees (Brill, 1999) and most recently William Loader's Enoch, Levi, and Ju­ bilees on Sexuality: Attitudes towards Sexuality the Aramaic Levi Document,

in the Early Enoch

Literature,

and the Book of Jubilees (Eerdmans, 2 0 0 7 ) . Since

Maxine Grossman has recently examined masculinity in the book of Jubi­ 1

lees, I will direct m y comments especially to the depiction of w o m e n in J u ­ bilees and h o w these representations relate to those of w o m e n in the Enochic corpus. There is good reason to compare Jubilees with these texts associated with E n o c h as Jubilees draws upon m a n y E n o c h i c traditions and perhaps texts in its rewriting of Genesis and E x o d u s .

2

1. "Affective Masculinity: The Gender o f the Patriarchs in Jubilees," Hen 3 1 , no. 1 (2009). 2. On Jubilees' use of Enochic works, see, for example, J. C. VanderKam, "Enoch Tra­ ditions in Jubilees and Other Second-Century Sources," in SBLSP 18, ed. P. Achtemeier (Missoula: Scholars Press, 1978), 1:229-51; also in From Revelation to Canon: Studies in HeI would like to acknowledge St. Edward's University and its Presidential Excellence Award which allowed m e to undertake the research for this paper. — KCB

338

Amplified

Roles, Idealized

Depictions:

Women

in the Book of

Jubilees

T h e b o o k o f Jubilees is i n d e e d a m e a t y text to e x p l o r e for the s c h o l a r interested in r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s of w o m e n in s e c o n d t e m p l e p e r i o d texts. In this rewriting of m u c h of Genesis and Exodus, w o m e n appear more prominently 3

t h a n t h e y do in the b i b l i c a l n a r r a t i v e s . R o l e s o f w o m e n f a m i l i a r f r o m the b i b l i c a l texts are d e v e l o p e d further or n u a n c e d , or n e w f e m a l e characters are i n t r o d u c e d altogether. S o m e t i m e s these m e t a m o r p h o s e s a n d a d d i t i o n s re­ s p o n d to e x e g e t i c a l c o n c e r n s , s o m e t i m e s to p o l e m i c s ; the r a t i o n a l e s for s u c h r e v i s i o n s are n o t a l w a y s m u t u a l l y e x c l u s i v e . A s H a l p e r n - A m a r u

demon­

strates, f e m a l e c h a r a c t e r s are s i g n i f i c a n t for the b o o k of Jubilees b e c a u s e of the w o r k ' s c o n c e r n for e n d o g a m y a n d the p r o p e r l i n e a g e . I n that respect o n e has the o p p o r t u n i t y to l e a r n m u c h as w e l l a b o u t the v i e w o f s e x u a l i t y that is i m p l i c i t l y a n d explicitly p r e s e n t e d in the text; such a s t u d y has in fact b e e n undertaken by Loader.

4

O n e m i g h t h o p e that Jubilees w o u l d s h e d light on w o m e n a n d their status in v a r i o u s r e l i g i o u s c o m m u n i t i e s of the s e c o n d c e n t u r y B . C . E . P e r ­ h a p s , o n o c c a s i o n , the b o o k d e l i v e r s . T h e interjection o f h a l a k a h into the n a r r a t i v e a n d references to l e g i s l a t i o n , for e x a m p l e , are i n f o r m a t i v e a b o u t p o s i t i o n s taken b y the a u t h o r o n suitable m a r r i a g e p a r t n e r s , i n t e r m a r r i a g e , 5

a n d v i e w s o f p u r i t y a n d i m p u r i t y that relate to w o m e n . W h i l e o n e m a y n o t b e able to u n c o v e r as m u c h as o n e w o u l d like a b o u t the lives o f real w o m e n , w h e n w e e x a m i n e d e p i c t i o n s of w o m e n a g a i n s t E n o c h i c literature, w e m a y g a i n n e w i n s i g h t as to h o w w e s h o u l d v i e w the b o o k of Jubilees w i t h i n the m a t r i x o f s e c o n d t e m p l e p e r i o d J u d a i s m . I b e g i n w i t h an o v e r v i e w of h o w brew Bible and Second Temple Literature, JSJSup 62 (Leiden: Brill, 2 0 0 0 ) , 305-31, and M. Knibb, "Which Parts of 1 Enoch Were Known to Jubilees? A Note o n the Interpretation of Jub. 4.16-25," in Reading from Right to Left: Essays on the Hebrew Bible in Honour of Da­ vid J. A. Clines, ed. J. C. E x u m and H. G. M. Williamson, JSOTSup 373 (London: Sheffield Academic Press, 2 0 0 3 ) , 254-62. For a counterview, see J. T. A. G. M. van Ruiten, "A Literary Dependency of Jubilees on 1 Enoch: A Reassessment o f a Thesis o f J. C. VanderKam," Hen 26 (2004): 205-9. 3.1 use the word "biblical" to identify those texts we associate with the Hebrew Bible today; I do n o t imply that such works were part of a fixed canon in the early second temple period. Texts like Genesis and Exodus clearly had great appeal to certain communities and were understood by these as authoritative. See also VanderKam, "Biblical Interpretation in 1 Enoch and Jubilees," in From Revelation to Canon, 276-304 (here 277-78). 4. W. Loader, Enoch, Levi, and Jubilees on Sexuality: Attitudes towards Sexuality in the Early Enoch Literature, the Aramaic Levi Document, and the Book of Jubilees (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2 0 0 7 ) . 5. O n such matters, see the contribution o f L. Doering ("Purity and Impurity in the Book o f Jubilees") to this volume, and that o f W. Loader ("Jubilees and Sexual Transgres­ sion," Hen 3 1 , no. 1 [2009]).

339

Kelley Coblentz Bautch Jubilees represents women and then compare these depictions to representa­ tions of women in Enochic texts.

I. The Amplification of Women in Jubilees Many of the female characters in Jubilees are presented in an idealized form, shaped to speak to the concerns of the author, while communicating too little about the lives of real women at the time of the work's composition. At the same time, women are prominent within the book of Jubilees, and when compared to Genesis and Exodus, their roles are amplified. The matriarch Rebekah provides the most striking instance of a character whose story is sig­ 6

nificantly augmented and refined in Jubilees. Not only is Rebekah's visibility increased in Jubilees through the addition of material (Abraham entrusts Rebekah with the news that Jacob will continue the patriarchal line and charges her to guard him [Jub 19:16-30]; Rebekah is informed by Jacob about Abraham's death and, in turn, tells Isaac [Jub 23:4]; Rebekah instructs Jacob about marriage partners and blesses him [Jub 25:1-23; cf. Gen 26:35; 27:46; 28:1]), but also she is presented, in the words of Loader, "as an ideal woman."

7

Just as Jacob is valorized by Jubilees, so too is the mother who favors him.* In recasting Rebekah, the book of Jubilees eliminates aspects of her story that might be thought unflattering or unhelpful to the larger aims of the work. There is no reference to Rebekah being barren and to Isaac en­ treating God on her behalf, for example (cf. Gen 25:21); perhaps this could be 9

taken as an inauspicious introduction. Likewise, Rebekah's part in the de-

6. See, for example, J. C. Endres, S.J., Biblical Interpretation in the Book of Jubilees, CBQMS18 (Washington, D.C.: Catholic Biblical Association of America, 1987), 51-84,173-76, 217-18; B. Halpera-Amaru, The Empowerment of Women in the Book of Jubilees, JSJSup 60 (Leiden: Brill, 1999), 37-42; and R. Chesnutt, "Revelatory Experiences Attributed to Biblical Women in Early Jewish Literature," in "Women Like This": New Perspectives on Jewish Women in the Greco-Roman World, ed. A.-J. Levine, Early Judaism and Its Literature 1 (At­ lanta: Scholars Press, 1991), 107-25 (here 108-11). For a critical text of the book of Jubilees, I refer to J. C. VanderKam, The Book of Jubilees: A Critical Text, CSCO 510 (Louvain: Peeters, 1989), and for translation, VanderKam, The Book of Jubilees, CSCO 511 (Louvain: Peeters, 1989). For a survey of the scope, theology, and history of the book of Jubilees, see, for exam­ ple, J. C. VanderKam, The Book of Jubilees (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 2001). 7. Loader, Enoch, Levi, and Jubilees, 260. 8. See Endres, Biblical Interpretation, 85-119, esp. 92. 9. Cf. Halpern-Amaru, Empowerment of Women, 56, and Loader, Enoch, Levi, and Ju­ bilees, 255. Halpern-Amaru (34) observes that Jubilees also omits initial reference to the bar340

Amplified Roles, Idealized Depictions: Women in the Book of Jubilees ception of Isaac (Jub 26:1-13; Gen 27:1-17) seems understandable within Jubi­ lees in light of Abraham's directives concerning Jacob (Jub 1 9 : 1 6 - 3 0 ) . In sum, Rebekah is the impeccable matriarch with no awkward history. Moreover, an outstanding aspect to the story of this biblical figure is Rebekah's extensive blessing for Jacob, which, as John Endres observes, is the 10

longest in Jubilees. For Endres, Jubilees' shaping of Rebekah recalls the role of a prophetess; for Halpern-Amaru, Jubilees emphasizes Rebekah's mater­ 11

nal concern and promotes her as partner in an ideal marriage. In any event, the portrait of Rebekah is a sympathetic one according to the Weltan­ schauung of Jubilees, as the matriarch even appears to outshine Isaac in this work.

12

Matriarchs like Sarah and Rebekah enjoy elevated roles in Jubilees,

according to Halpern-Amaru, because they are partners with their husbands in promoting and safeguarding the covenant, in addition to being wives and mothers of patriarchs.

13

Also, the portraits of women in Jubilees are often keyed to exegesis. Of­ ten the reworkings provide additional information about female figures when the biblical text requires clarification or when divergent biblical tradi­ tions might suggest the need for reconciliation.

14

Such dynamics seem to

stand behind the developing portraits of several women in large measure. For example, how does one account for God creating the human being, male and female, in his image according to Gen 1:26-28 and then creating first Adam in Gen 2:7 and then Eve at a later time from Adam's rib (Gen 2:21-25)? The book of Jubilees clarifies the discrepancy: the man and woman were created in the first week of creation, which corresponds to the events of Gen 1 (Jub 2:14); on the sixth day of the second week, the woman is taken out of man, completed 15

and presented to him (Jub 3 : 8 ) . This harmonization of creation accounts, which allows Adam's earlier appearance, also provides an etiology for the law renness of Sarah (cf. Gen 11:30). Though the motif of barrenness serves well the purposes of Genesis, it does not conform to the aims or concerns of Jubilees and thus is ignored. The topic does emerge, however, with the introduction of Hagar as a surrogate wife (cf. Jub 14:2124). Loader, 251. 10. Endres, Biblical Interpretation, 84. 11. Respectively, Biblical Interpretation, 84, and Empowerment of Women, 60-61,63. 12. See, for example, Endres, Biblical Interpretation, 83-84,217-18. 13. Halpern-Amaru, Empowerment of Women, 5,55-64. 14. Cf., for example, Halpern-Amaru, Empowerment of Women, 6 , 1 3 3 - 4 6 . 15. Halpern-Amaru, Empowerment of Women, 11. Cf. also van Ruiten, Primaeval His­ tory Interpreted: The Rewriting of Genesis 1-11 in the Book of Jubilees, JSJSup 66 (Leiden: Brill, 2000), 75, and J. R. Levison, Portraits of Adam in Early Judaism from Sirach to 2 Baruch, JSPSup 1 (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press [JSOT], 1988), 90-91. 214-15 n. 10. 341

Kelley

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Bautch

of the p a r t u r i e n t of L e v 1 2 : 1 - 5 : w o m e n r e m a i n i m p u r e for seven days after the b i r t h of a m a l e child a n d fourteen days for a female child ( J u b 3 : 8 ) .

16

Jubilees' c o m m i t m e n t to p a r t i c u l a r t h e o l o g i c a l p o s i t i o n s or to p o l e m i ­ cal v i e w s also affects the r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s of b i b l i c a l w o m e n . F o r e x a m p l e , J u ­ bilees elaborates u p o n G e n 35:22 (cf. also G e n 49:4 a n d 1 C h r o n 5 : 1 ) , w h i c h o n l y briefly notes s e x u a l relations b e t w e e n R e u b e n a n d B i l h a h . T h e a c c o u n t in Jubilees n o t o n l y clarifies the n a t u r e of the e n c o u n t e r , but also entirely ex­ culpates B i l h a h . J u b 33:2-8 m a k e s clear that B i l h a h d o e s n o t p a r t i c i p a t e in any w a y in the e n c o u n t e r ; she is i n n o c e n t . In fact, Jubilees defends B i l h a h b y p r e s e n t i n g her as a v i c t i m of r a p e .

1 7

T h e r e m a y be a responsibility, h o w e v e r ,

to defend B i l h a h as m o t h e r of N a p h t a l i , a tribal chief t o w a r d w h o m Jubilees is s y m p a t h e t i c .

18

Jubilees m a g n i f i e s w o m e n especially t h r o u g h the a d d i t i o n of c h a r a c ­ ters to the g e n e a l o g i c a l r e c o r d , w o m e n l a c k i n g in the biblical n a r r a t i v e s . W i v e s and m o t h e r s o f the p a t r i a r c h s are g i v e n n a m e s ; similarly, p a t e r n a l lin­ eage — in this context, i n fact, w h a t a m o u n t s H a l p e r n - A m a r u — is i d e n t i f i e d .

19

to their credentials, p e r

W h e r e a s G e n e s i s d o e s n o t a d d r e s s the

m a t t e r o f the w i v e s of C a i n a n d Seth (their i d e n t i t y o r o r i g i n ; cf. G e n 4 : 1 7 , 2 6 ; 5 : 6 - 7 ) , J u b i l e e s s u p p l i e s the n a m e s o f their w i v e s (respectively, A w a n [ J u b 4:9]

a n d A z u r a [Jub 4:11]), w h o are also p r e s e n t e d as their sisters. A d d i ­

tionally, J u b i l e e s i n c l u d e s a n d n a m e s the w i v e s of the p a t r i a r c h s w h o de­ s c e n d f r o m Seth (cf. G e n 5 ) . T h e c o n c e r n for c o m p r e h e n s i v e n e s s in listing the w o m e n w h o are p a r t of the Sethite line is e x t e n d e d t h r o u g h o u t Jubilees ( C a i n ' s line is i g n o r e d , h o w e v e r , f o l l o w i n g his death [Jub 4 : 3 1 - 3 2 ] , a n d s u b s e ­ q u e n t l y the g e n e a l o g y of Irad to L a m e c h o f G e n 4 : 1 8 - 2 4 is o m i t t e d ) .

2 0

T h e a d d i t i o n of these w o m e n addresses o m i s s i o n s in the b i b l i c a l g e n e ­ alogies a n d also serves p o l e m i c p u r p o s e s as w e l l . S u c h a c o n c e r n for c o m p r e ­ h e n s i v e n e s s in the g e n e a l o g i e s is tied to h e r a l d i n g p r o p e r u n i o n s , and m a r ­ riage is n o s m a l l m a t t e r i n J u b i l e e s g i v e n its e m p h a s i s o n e n d o g a m y .

2 1

The

16. M. Segal, The Book of Jubilees: Rewritten Bible, Redaction, Ideology, and Theology, JSJSup 117 (Leiden: Brill, 2 0 0 7 ) , 52. 17. Segal, The Book ofJubilees, 74; cf. Halpern-Amaru, Empowerment of Women, 1 1 0 - 1 1 . 18. Halpern-Amaru, Empowerment of Women, 108, 118-19. 19. Halpern-Amaru, Empowerment of Women, 4, and "The First Woman, Wives and Mothers in Jubilees" JBL 113 (1994): 609-26 (here 622). 20. Van Ruiten, Primaeval History Interpreted, 1 1 9 , 174-75. 21. See, for example, Halpern-Amaru, Empowerment of Women, 4-5; VanderKam, The Book of Jubilees, 132; Loader, Enoch, Levi, and Jubilees, 186-96; and also L. Arcari, "The Myth of the Watchers and the Problem o f Intermarriage in Jubilees," Hen 31, no. 1 (2009).

342

Amplified

Roles, Idealized

Depictions:

Women

in the Book of

Jubilees

b o o k of Jubilees d e m o n s t r a t e s a keen interest in the w i v e s a n d m o t h e r s o f the a n t e d i l u v i a n a n d p a t r i a r c h a l p e r i o d s since w o m e n , t h r o u g h their role in c h i l d b e a r i n g , are critical to the m a i n t e n a n c e of the p r o p e r l i n e a g e . Jubilees c o m m u n i c a t e s this c o n c e r n at n u m e r o u s p o i n t s in its retelling of the b i b l i c a l narrative. W h e r e the b i b l i c a l texts take u p g e n e a l o g y b u t o m i t reference to w i v e s or m o t h e r s , Jubilees fills in the g a p a n d even s u p p l i e s the n a m e s o f such fig­ ures to c o m p l e t e the g e n e a l o g i c a l r e c o r d , especially that o f the p u r e f a m i l y line that is t r a c e d .

22

W h a t ' s in a n a m e ? T h e b o o k of Jubilees c o n v e y s a g r e a t

deal of i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t the w o m e n it inserts into the n a r r a t i v e a n d / o r a b o u t the c o n s e q u e n c e or o u t c o m e of the u n i o n s m a d e w i t h the w o m e n t h r o u g h the n a m e s g i v e n to these c h a r a c t e r s . W i v e s of p a t r i a r c h s in the p r e ­ ferred f a m i l y line are g i v e n n a m e s that c o n v e y p o s i t i v e s e n t i m e n t s , a n d n o t c o i n c i d e n t a l l y their m a r r i a g e s a n d o f f s p r i n g are s a n c t i o n e d w i t h i n the n a r ­ rative. T h u s , the n a m e o f Seth a n d A z u r a h ' s d a u g h t e r , N o a m , is related to DIM, a r o o t that c o n n o t e s "to b e lovely." N o a m is m a r r i e d to her b r o t h e r E n o s h ( 4 : 1 3 ) , the first to call u p o n the L o r d ' s n a m e ( J u b 4 : 1 2 ) ; this is an e x ­ a m p l e o f an a u s p i c i o u s u n i o n . T h e i r s o n K e n a n m a r r i e s M u a l e l i t , w h o s e n a m e s u g g e s t s a f o r m of

1

V ?!"!, "to

p r a i s e " ( m a y b e "she w h o praises G o d " ) .

2 3

W i v e s of i g n o b l e characters h a v e n a m e s that c o m m u n i c a t e n e g a t i v e traits or set the reader u p for an u n f a v o r a b l e o u t c o m e or g e n e r a t i o n ; it is n o s u r p r i s e that the wife of C a i n is n a m e d A w a n ( J u b 4:9), a n a m e that is p r o b a ­ bly related to the H e b r e w w o r d for " i n i q u i t y " a n d "guilt" (J157) or for " w i c k ­ e d n e s s " a n d " t r o u b l e " (JIN).

24

A s J o h n R o o k o b s e r v e s , i m m e d i a t e l y after n o t ­

i n g her birth ( J u b 4 : 1 ) , Jubilees m a k e s reference to the m u r d e r of A b e l (4:24).

2 5

S u c h telltale n a m e s are also g i v e n to offspring of q u e s t i o n a b l e u n i o n s

(see b e l o w ) . It is d e b a t e d w h e t h e r Jubilees w a s d e p e n d e n t u p o n sources for these n a m e s . T h e r e is s o m e o v e r l a p b e t w e e n n a m e s g i v e n to w i v e s in Jubilees a n d other texts of the s e c o n d t e m p l e p e r i o d .

22. Van Ruiten, Primaeval

History Interpreted,

2 6

I t h i n k R o o k is correct to state

369.

23. See J. Rook, "The Names o f the Wives from A d a m to A b r a h a m in the B o o k of Ju­ bilees," JSP 7 (1990): 1 0 5 - 1 7 (here 1 0 8 - 9 ) , who follows W. L. Lipscomb, "A Tradition from the Book of Jubilees in Armenian," JJS 29 (1978): 149-63 (here 1 5 3 ) , and R. H. Charles, The Book of Jubilees

or the Little Genesis (London: A. & C. Black, 1 9 0 2 ) , 33 n. 4.

24. Rook ("Names of the Wives," 1 0 7 ) favors the former translation. 25. Rook, "Names o f the Wives," 108. 26. For example, the Genesis A p o c r y p h o n includes the names o f Bitenos and A m zara, wives respectively o f L a m e c h and Noah, which Jubilees supplies as Betanosh ("daugh­ ter o f humankind") and E m z a r a (possibly "mother o f offspring"; see Rook, "Names o f the

343

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that w h i l e it m a y b e i m p o s s i b l e to d e t e r m i n e w h e t h e r Jubilees relied on a s o u r c e , it is clear that these n a m e s c o n t r i b u t e to a n d f u n c t i o n w i t h i n the n a r ­ rative a n d assist in defining u n i o n s a n d a f a m i l y or g e n e r a t i o n .

27

K i n s h i p also c o m m u n i c a t e s i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t respective u n i o n s . A s H a l p e r n - A m a r u o b s e r v e s , " T h e level of k i n s h i p relation b e t w e e n

husband

a n d wife . . . b e g i n s at the closest d e g r e e of c o n s a n g u i n i t y a n d p r o g r e s s i v e l y m o v e s further

out."

28

It is i m p o r t a n t for the a u t h o r that e n d o g a m y is at

w o r k f r o m the b e g i n n i n g o f the f a m i l y l i n e . T h u s , the initial m a r r i a g e s f r o m Seth to A z u r a ( J u b 4 : 1 1 ) a n d K e n a n to M u a l e l i t (4:14) are

brother-sister

u n i o n s . T h i s e n s u r e s that the f a m i l y n e e d n o t i n t e r m a r r y w i t h C a i n i t e s . Thereafter, as the d e s c e n d a n t s

of Seth h a v e g r o w n a n d the n u m b e r

29

of

w o m e n available w i t h i n the f a m i l y h a s i n c r e a s e d , m a r r i a g e s o c c u r b e t w e e n first c o u s i n s .

3 0

A t t e n t i o n to close k i n s h i p w a n e s b y the fifteenth

generation,

s u c h that the line of S h e m is diluted b y i r r e g u l a r u n i o n s . To s i g n a l a r e t u r n to order, the b r o t h e r - s i s t e r u n i o n r e a p p e a r s ( t h u s , A b r a m ' s m a r r i a g e to S a r a i [Jub 1 2 : 9 ] ) . O n c e e n d o g a m o u s relations are r e e s t a b l i s h e d in this m a n n e r , c o u s i n m a r r i a g e s , such as that of Isaac to R e b e k a h ( J u b 1 9 : 1 0 ) a n d J a c o b to Leah and Rachel (27:10; 28:1-10), r e s u m e .

3 1

S u c h u n i o n s c a n n o t afford to be c a s u a l l y u n d e r t a k e n . To give o n e e x ­ a m p l e , H a l p e r n - A m a r u has o b s e r v e d that in its retelling of the s t o r y o f the w a t c h e r s w h o m a t e w i t h w o m e n , Jubilees e m p h a s i z e s that the sin o f the w a t c h e r s consists of their m a r r i a g e to w h o m e v e r t h e y c h o s e ;

3 2

that p o i n t —

that the w a t c h e r s selected m a t e s a c c o r d i n g to their preferences ( J u b 7 : 2 1 ) —

Wives," 1 1 3 - 1 4 ) ; cf. Jub 4:28, 33. Similarly the Animal Apocalypse lists the n a m e o f Enoch's wife as Edna (1 En 85:3), not entirely dissimilar from Jubilees' Edni (Jub 4:20); see van Ruiten, Primaeval

History

Interpreted,

123; Rook, n o , and also below.

27. Rook, "Names o f the Wives," 1 0 6 . 28. H a l p e r n - A m a r u , Empowerment

of Women, 149.

29. See, for example, H a l p e r n - A m a r u , Empowerment

of Women,

1 9 , and "The First

Woman," 617. 3 0 . The descendant would m a r r y the daughter o f their father's brother or sister (for example, Malalael marries Dinah, presented as the daughter o f Barakiel, the brother o f Malalael's father [Jub 4 : 1 5 ! ) . 31. Cf. H a l p e r n - A m a r u , Empowerment

of Women,

34-37. In this instance, one might

think Jubilees to be addressing the scenes of Gen 1 2 : 1 1 - 1 3 and 20:2 in which A b r a m presents Sarai as his sister. H a l p e r n - A m a r u suggests that since Jubilees does not feature a deception when A b r a m is in Egypt (Sarai was taken by force and there is no reference to their relation­ ship as siblings) and omits the account o f A b r a m in Gerar altogether, the intent does not seem to be the clarification of the biblical text. Cf. H a l p e r n - A m a r u , 36. 32. Halpern-Amaru, Empowerment

344

of Women,

2 2 , 147.

Amplified

Roles, Idealized

Depictions:

Women

in the Book of

Jubilees

is f o l l o w e d i m m e d i a t e l y b y reference to the b i r t h of the giants a n d b y a n o ­ tice of the i n c r e a s e of w i c k e d n e s s o n earth ( J u b 5 : 1 - 2 ; cf. G e n 6 : 1 1 ) . T h e p r o o f of the p r o b l e m is to b e o b s e r v e d in the o f f s p r i n g . A s L o a d e r s u g g e s t s , the n a ­ t u r e o f the s i n , for J u b i l e e s , is that the r e l a t i o n s (here f o r n i c a t i o n , zemmut)

w

33

led to u n c l e a n n e s s (rek s).

or

T h e sin, essentially, is o n e of m i x i n g

w i t h i n a p p r o p r i a t e p a r t n e r s , a n d such m i x i n g defiles (cf. J u b 4 : 2 2 ) . U n l i k e the h a p h a z a r d m i x i n g of the angels, Jubilees stresses that m a r r i a g e s are to b e arranged with great c a r e ;

3 4

for e x a m p l e , the u n a n t i c i p a t e d m e e t i n g b e t w e e n

Isaac a n d R e b e k a h of G e n 2 4 : 6 4 - 6 7 is o m i t t e d in J u b i l e e s , w h i c h prefers, in­ stead, a b r i e f n o t i c e that A b r a h a m b r o k e r e d the r e l a t i o n s h i p ("he t o o k a w i f e for his s o n , I s a a c " ; J u b 1 9 : 1 0 ) .

3 5

M a r r i a g e s m a d e w i t h less care a n d u n i o n s

w i t h u n s u i t a b l e p a r t n e r s are reflected in the p r o g e n y o f such u n i o n s , as n o t e d a b o v e in the case of the g i a n t s , o f f s p r i n g t h a t c a n s e e m d e t e r m i n a t i v e of the n a t u r e of an entire g e n e r a t i o n . T h e child o f Peleg a n d L o m n a , a w o m a n of u n c e r t a i n l i n e a g e , for e x a m p l e , is n a m e d R a g e w ( " e v i l " ) ; his b i r t h c o i n c i d e s w i t h the b u i l d i n g o f the T o w e r o f B a b e l ( J u b 1 0 : 1 8 - 2 6 ) . W h i l e the retelling o f G e n e s i s a n d E x o d u s affords an o p p o r t u n i t y for " s u b t l e " c r i t i q u e o f e x o g a m y b y h i g h l i g h t i n g p r o b l e m a t i c u n i o n s a n d their o f f s p r i n g , the p r o h i b i t i o n o f i n t e r m a r r i a g e is r e i n f o r c e d t h r o u g h the i n ­ s t r u c t i o n s o f A b r a h a m to his s o n s a n d g r a n d s o n J a c o b ( J u b 2 0 : 3 - 6 , esp. 2 0 : 4 ; 2 2 : 2 0 ) , a n d o f R e b e k a h to J a c o b ( J u b 2 5 : 1 - 3 ) . F u r t h e r , the a c c o u n t of the r a p e of D i n a h ( J u b 3 0 : 1 - 2 6 ; G e n 3 4 : 1 - 3 1 ) p r o v e s the o c c a s i o n for an explicit d e ­ n o u n c e m e n t of i n t e r m a r r i a g e . T h e b o o k o f Jubilees o m i t s entirely H a m o r a n d J a c o b ' s d i s c u s s i o n o f i n t e r m a r r i a g e a n d the p r o p o s a l of c i r c u m c i s i o n as a c o n d i t i o n (cf. G e n 3 4 : 6 - 2 4 ) . E v e n the p r o s p e c t o f c o n v e r s i o n — not s i m p l y 36

i n t e r m a r r i a g e — in fact, is off-limits for J u b i l e e s . S i m e o n a n d L e v i are p o r ­ trayed

unambiguously

as h e r o e s , w h o

mete

out

punishment

on

the

S h e c h e m i t e s that h a d b e e n d i v i n e l y p r e o r d a i n e d ( J u b 3 0 : 5 ) . T h e b r o t h e r s ' s l a u g h t e r o f the S h e c h e m i t e s is justified b y the a n g e l of the p r e s e n c e w h o m a k e s clear that n o Israelite is to give his d a u g h t e r or sister to a foreigner, n o r is he to m a r r y a foreign w o m e n ( J u b 30:7, 1 1 ) .

3 7

e s

33. Loader, Enoch, Levi, and Jubilees, 126-45, P 34. Loader, Enoch, Levi, and Jubilees, 156-57. 35. Halpern-Amaru, Empowerment of Women, 3 8 , 4 1 - 4 2 . See also, though, Endres, Bib­ lical Interpretation, 21, who understands the omission as related to Jubilees' disinterest in Isaac. 36. See, for example, Halpern-Amaru, Empowerment of Women, 129-58; Loader, Enoch, Levi, and Jubilees, 167. 37. Though endogamous unions are favored for the patriarchs and matriarchs,

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Coblentz

Bautch

W h i l e m o r e can b e ( a n d has b e e n ) said a b o u t the d e p i c t i o n of w o m e n in J u b i l e e s , w e h a v e o b s e r v e d t h r o u g h s u c h p o r t r a i t s m u c h a b o u t the v a l u e s a n d c o n c e r n s of this s e c o n d - c e n t u r y w o r k . W o m e n are h i g h l y v i s i b l e in the b o o k of J u b i l e e s , a n d s e e m i n g l y m o r e c r u c i a l to the events of G e n e s i s a n d E x o d u s in s o m e respects t h a n are their b i b l i c a l c o u n t e r p a r t s . E v e n so, J u b i ­ lees' r e c a s t i n g of w o m e n c h a r a c t e r s is a l o n g i d e o l o g i c a l lines a n d at t i m e s exegetically d r i v e n . T h e w o m e n , f r o m their d e p i c t i o n to their n a m e s , t e n d to be v e r y stylized c o n s t r u c t s ; in this respect, t h e y serve w e l l the a u t h o r ' s c o n ­ c e r n s , as t h e y c a n b e c i p h e r s

e s p e c i a l l y in a d d r e s s i n g

the

matter

of

e n d o g a m o u s a n d e x o g a m o u s u n i o n s . In the c o n t e x t of the s e c o n d t e m p l e p e r i o d , the e x p a n d e d or a m p l i f i e d roles g i v e n to w o m e n in Jubilees are c o m ­ p a r a b l e to w h a t o n e e n c o u n t e r s in J o s e p h a n d A s e n e t h a n d T h e T e s t a m e n t o f Job.

3 8

G i v e n the s h a r e d t r a d i t i o n s w e find i n E n o c h i c literature a n d J u b i l e e s ,

it is s t r i k i n g t h e n that E n o c h i c d e p i c t i o n s of w o m e n are so little d e v e l o p e d . A s w e w i l l see w i t h E n o c h i c literature, w o m e n are c e r t a i n l y n o t as v i s i b l e a n d n o t n e a r l y as utilized to u n d e r s c o r e f u n d a m e n t a l

concerns.

II. The Depiction of Women in Enochic Traditions T h e r e is a c h a l l e n g e t h a t w o u l d a c c o m p a n y a n y c o m p a r i s o n o f E n o c h i c lit­ e r a t u r e a n d the b o o k o f J u b i l e e s . First, w h i l e Jubilees m a y reflect the use o f different s o u r c e s or r e d a c t i o n ,

3 9

E n o c h i c literature w o u l d b e d i s t i n g u i s h e d

H a l p e r n - A m a r u and C. W e r m a n ("Jubilees

3 0 : Building a Paradigm for the Ban on Inter­

marriage," HTR 90 [1997]: 1-22, here 3) have argued that Jubilees tolerates marriages of the patriarchs to lower-status wives o f other backgrounds, so long as they are not Canaanite. For example, Hagar poses no difficulty for Jubilees — and her presentation is not altered (Jub 14:22-23) — since the descendants of H a m , including Egyptians, are not cursed even while Canaan is (Jub 7:10 and 1 0 : 2 9 - 3 3 ) . W h e r e the backgrounds of wives are not provided in the biblical text, Jubilees supplies the genealogical data that will render a w o m a n fit or inappro­ priate for marriage to a patriarch. H a l p e r n - A m a r u , Empowerment

oj Women, 104. Thus, Ju­

bilees portrays Keturah, the third wife o f Abraham, and Bilhah, concubine or wife to Jacob, as w o m e n from the households in order to remove speculation that they are women o f the land (Jub 1 9 : 1 1 ; 28:6). H a l p e r n - A m a r u , Empowerment Enoch,

Levi, and Jubilees,

of Women, 1 0 3 - 6 . See, however, Loader,

192-93, who argues that Jubilees is m o r e tolerant o f marriage to

Egyptians than to other Gentiles in general (cf. Jub 1 1 : 9 ) . 38. See Chesnutt, "Revelatory Experiences Attributed to Biblical W o m e n in Early Jewish Literature." 39. See Segal, The Book of Jubilees, volume.

346

and also "The Composition of Jubilees," in this

Amplified Roles, Idealized Depictions: Women in the Book of Jubilees on this matter by degree, as it is more heterogeneous. Enochic literature re­ fers to a variety of works — for example, the anthology 1 Enoch — that emerge from diverse contexts.

40

In some instances, like the Book of the

Watchers, individual works betray use of several sources. To further com­ plicate the task of comparison, while certain interests or foci — for exam­ ple, eschatological concerns — are found in many of these texts associated with Enoch, the works also indicate development, as well as attempts to nu­ ance and perhaps even to discount theological positions taken in others of the writings.

41

Given the complexity of and diverse perspectives taken

within Enochic works, the portrayal of women in this literature not sur­ prisingly also is varied. Second, the temporal scope of Enochic literature — here I refer to the aforementioned collection of texts in 1 Enoch as well as the Book of the Gi­ ants (1Q23; 1 Q 2 4 ; 2 Q 2 6 ; 4 Q 2 0 3 ; 4 Q 5 3 0 - 5 3 3 ; 6 Q 8 ) — is considerably narrower than Jubilees. With the exceptions of the Animal Apocalypse (1 En 8 5 - 9 0 ) and the Apocalypse of Weeks (93:1-10; 9 1 : 1 1 - 1 7 ) , both historical apocalypses, the narratives of such Enochic texts are situated in the antediluvian world of the patriarch Enoch. Though the literature frequently anticipates the time of God's visitation at the end of the current era, other chapters of Israelite his­ tory are not of interest. Thus, the women who appear prominently in these texts are Eve (32:6; 69:6; 85:3-8); the wives of the watchers (especially 6:1-2; 7:1-2; 8:1,3; 9:8-9; 1 0 : 3 , 9 , 1 1 , 1 5 ; 12:4; 15:3; 19:2; 69:4-5); the wife of Enoch, Edna (85:3); and the unnamed wives of Methuselah and Lamech (106:1). As the portraits we do encounter are limited to antediluvian women, we will not find a depiction of Rebekah, for example, to hold against that in Jubilees. Like Jubilees, though, the women can serve as ciphers for assorted val­ ues and concerns of the respective authors of Enochic literature. The litera­ ture's concern for eschatological judgment and the antediluvian context in which its hero, Enoch, lives are related to the literature's fascination with the tradition of the fallen watchers. That tradition, even variously expressed, not only serves to illustrate the result of disobedience, but it also communicates 40.1 am not suggesting a fixed canon of Enochic literature or that the booklets and order of our contemporary 1 Enoch reflect a collection from the second temple period; I simply refer to those texts from the second temple period in which Enoch and traditions as­ sociated with the patriarch are especially prominent. 41. Cf. my "Adamic Traditions in the Parables? A Query on 1 Enoch 69:6" in Enoch and the Messiah Son of Man: Revisiting the Book of Parables, ed. Gabriele Boccaccini, with J. von Ehrenkrook (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2007), 352-60 (here 359-60), and "Enoch, First Book of," in NIDB (2007), 2:262-65 (here 264). 347

Kelley

Coblentz

Bautch

a c o n c e r n for i n t e r m a r r i a g e o r s e x u a l m i s d e e d s , b o u n d a r y c r o s s i n g , a n d i l ­ licit k n o w l e d g e . T h e s e c o n c e r n s i n f l u e n c e as w e l l the d e p i c t i o n o f w o m e n i n E n o c h i c literature. I n c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h the s t o r y o f the a n g e l s ' d e s c e n t , w o m e n are e s p e ­ c i a l l y d e f i n e d i n E n o c h i c l i t e r a t u r e as s e x u a l b e i n g s , t h o u g h t h e y are n o t p a r ­ t i c u l a r l y c o n d e m n e d o r d e m o n i z e d as s u c h .

4 2

A s if to u n d e r s c o r e the p o i n t ,

the B o o k o f t h e W a t c h e r s h a s G o d a n n o u n c e t h a t w o m e n w e r e e s s e n t i a l l y c r e a t e d to r e p r o d u c e a n d p e r p e t u a t e the m a l e l i n e (cf. l E n 1 5 : 7 ) .

4 3

It is c l e a r

f r o m s o m e o f the s t r a t a t h a t w o m e n are n o t faulted for the a n g e l s ' d e c i s i o n to d e s c e n d , as t h e y are i n o n e o f the earliest t r a d i t i o n s c o n c e r n i n g the w a t c h ­ ers' s i n , a n a r r a t i v e t h a t f o c u s e s o n the d e s c e n t o f S h e m i h a z a h a n d his b a n d of

rebellious a n g e l s .

4 4

In this n a r r a t i v e , for e x a m p l e , the

angels led b y

S h e m i h a z a h h a t c h a p l a n to c h o o s e f o r t h e m s e l v e s w i v e s a n d t h r o u g h t h e m to b e g e t c h i l d r e n ( l E n 6 : 2 ) . A s V a n d e r K a m h a s o b s e r v e d o f this s t r a t u m , the g u i l t f o r the s i n f u l u n i o n lies w i t h t h e a n g e l s a l o n e a n d n o t the w o m e n . The

4 5

w i v e s a p p e a r as r a t h e r a m b i v a l e n t figures i n E n o c h i c l i t e r a t u r e ,

h o w e v e r , for t w o r e a s o n s . F i r s t , t h e y b e c o m e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h

forbidden

k n o w l e d g e a n d the p r a c t i c e o f illicit crafts, a t o p i c w e a d d r e s s b e l o w . S e c o n d , v a r i a n t r e a d i n g s o f 1 E n 8:1 ( S y n c e l l u s ) a n d 1 E n 19:2 ( E t h . M S S T a n a 9, B e r l i n , a n d G a r r e t t ) s u g g e s t that the w i v e s led a s t r a y o r s e d u c e d the a n g e l s , a n d c e r ­ t a i n later t r a d i t i o n s o u t s i d e the E n o c h i c c o r p u s ( T R e u 5:5-6; Targum

Pseudo-

42. As Loader demonstrates, sexuality and procreation are not deemed negative for humankind within these traditions. See his Enoch, Levi, and jubilees, 80. O n women as sex­ ual beings, thusly defined through their service to husbands, see G. W. E . Nickelsburg, 1 Enoch 1: A Commentary

on the Book ofi Enoch 1-36, 81-108,

Hermeneia (Minneapolis: For­

tress, 2 0 0 1 ) , 1:272, and Marie-Theres Wacker, "'Rettendes Wissen' im athiopischen H e n o c h buch," in Rettendes und im fruhen

Wissen. Studien

Christentum,

zum Fortgang weisheitlichen

Denkens

im

Fruhjudentum

ed. K. Loning, AOAT 3 0 0 (Munster: Ugarit-Verlag, 2 0 0 2 ) , 115-54

(here 1 5 0 ) . 43. According to 1 E n 15:5, m e n , mortal beings, are given women so that they might have children through them; angels, eternal spirits, have no need for children, and therefore w o m e n are not created for them (15:7). This latter statement implies that heavenly, spiritual beings are male. See K. Sullivan, "Sexuality and Gender o f Angels," in Paradise on Early Jewish and Christian

Mysticism,

Now: Essays

ed. A. DeConick (Atlanta: Society o f Biblical Litera­

ture, 2 0 0 6 ) , 2 1 1 - 2 8 (here 2 1 4 ) . 44. On this stratum within 1 En 6 - 1 1 , see, for example, S. Bhayro, The Shemihazah Asael Narrative

of 1 Enoch 6-11: Introduction,

ence to Ancient

Near Eastern

and Biblical

Text, Translation, Antecedents,

and Commentary

with

and Refer­

AOAT 322 (Munster: Ugarit-Verlag,

2 0 0 5 ) , 29-31. 45. See J. C. VanderKam, Enoch: A Man for All Generations South Carolina Press, 1995), 32-33.

348

(Columbia: University o f

Amplified Roles, Idealized Depictions: Women in the Book of Jubilees Jonathan; Gen 6:2) certainly make this point.

46

One observes that while the

wives could have been used to make points about eschatology within the Enochic texts, as is the case with the watchers and their sons whose punish­ ments are elaborated, there is only brief allusion to the fate of the women (1 En 19:2), which most likely points to their demise and their relative lack of 47

importance to the Enochic authors. This helps us to account for the fact that the ultimate outcome of the wives has been curiously ignored in second temple and late antique works that do offer colorful expansions of Enochic texts and traditions concerning the fate of the fallen watchers. There is a certain anxiety, however, about miscegenation and inter­ marriage that is communicated through various Enochic works, and it is in that regard that wives (and not only those of the watchers!) in this literature 48

receive much attention. The Animal Apocalypse, drawing on traditions re­ lated to both Shemihazah and Asael, takes up in allegorical fashion inappro­ 49

priate sexual activity that involves intermingling. While calling attention to the tradition of the forbidden union of the angels and mortal women, the Animal Apocalypse seems also to hold Asael accountable for provoking in­ 50

termarriage between the Sethites and Cainites. Moreover, 1 En 1 0 6 - 1 0 7 , like the Genesis Apocryphon, takes up the matter of sexual misdeeds and dem­ 51

onstrates some anxiety about miscegenation. Given the baby Noah's other­ worldly appearance (1 En 1 0 6 : 2 - 3 , 5 ; cf. also lQapGen 2 - 5 ) , the paternity is in question; Methuselah consults with Enoch, on his son's pleading, to deter46. On Syncellus's reading, see S. Bhayro, "The Use of Jubilees in Medieval Chronicles to Supplement Enoch: The Case for the 'Shorter' Reading," Hen 31, no. 1 (2009), and my "Decoration, Destruction and Debauchery: Reflections on 1 Enoch 8 in Light of 4QEn ," DSD (2008). On text-critical matters relating to 19:2, see my "What Becomes of the Angels' 'Wives'? A Text Critical Study of 1 En. 19:2," JBL125 (2006): 766-80 (here 769 n. 15). 47. Bautch, "What Becomes," 778-79. 48. Concern with intermarriage may be expressed further in the story of the watchers to the extent that the account is intended to be a parody that disparages priests who have en­ tered into inappropriate marriages or engaged in prohibited sexual conduct. See D. W. Suter, "Fallen Angel, Fallen Priest: The Problem of Family Purity in 1 Enoch," HUCA 50 (1979): 11535; G. W. E. Nickelsburg, "Enoch, Levi, and Peter: Recipients of Revelation in Upper Galilee," JBL 100 (1981): 575-600; and E. Tigchelaar, Prophets of Old and the Day of the End: Zechariah, the Book of Watchers, and Apocalyptic, OtSt 35 (Leiden: Brill, 1996), 198-203. 49. Loader, Enoch, Levi, and Jubilees, 61. 50. See, for example, Nickelsburg, 1 Enoch 1,1:373; Loader, Enoch, Levi, and Jubilees, 61. 51. For a comparison of the two, see G. W. E. Nickelsburg, "Patriarchs Who Worry about Their Wives: A Haggadic Tendency in the Genesis Apocryphon," in George W. £ Nickelsburg: An Ongoing Dialogue of Learning, ed. J. Neusner and A. J. Avery-Peck, JSJSup 80 (Leiden: Brill, 2003), 177-212. b

349

Kelky Coblentz Bautch mine whether one of the angels joined with Lamech's unnamed wife to fa­ ther the unusual-looking baby (1 En 1 0 6 : 7 - 8 ) . " Even while the narratives may not indicate that the women are culpa­ ble in provoking the sexual encounters, the watchers are portrayed as defiled through these unions (1 En 7 : i ) .

53

Defilement, as in the book of Jubilees, is

the result of the watchers having sexual intercourse with people forbidden to them.

54

As one sees in Jubilees, itself dependent on these or comparable tra­

ditions, forbidden unions result in troublesome offspring; in the Enochic lit­ erature the problematic progeny are giants who initiate violence and leave as a legacy their immortal spirits as demons (1 En 6; 7:2-6; 9:7-8; 1 5 ) . The illicit nature of the sexual relationship is also reflected in how the Book of the Watchers refers to the offspring of the union: bastards, half-breeds, and sons of miscegenation ( 1 0 : 9 ) . " Women also appear in Enochic texts in association with illicit knowl­ 56

edge, a significant theme that runs throughout this literature. In one of the strata that make up 1 En 6 - 1 1 , angels teach the wives sorcery, charms, and the cutting of roots and plants after they have sexual relations (cf. 7:1; 8:3; 1 6 : 3 ) . "

52. While Enoch selects a mateforhis son, Methuselah, the Greek (Chester BeattyMichigan Papyrus) of 1 En 106:1 suggests that Lamech chooses his own wife; this detail sets the stage for the remarkable (and troubling) appearance of Noah. One recalls that choosing one's mate, from the perspective of Jubilees, could be seen as a careless and dangerous ap­ proach to matrimony. Cf. Jub 7:20-21; Halpern-Amaru, Empowerment of Women, 3 8 , 4 1 - 4 2 , and above. 53. Loader observes that the Ethiopic features dammara ("were promiscuous with," "united with," or "mixed with"), whereas Panopolitanus reads uiaivsoSai ("to defile"). Enoch, Levi, and Jubilees, 12 n. 28. The theme of women defiling the watchers occurs also in 1 En 9:8; 10:11; and 15:4. For possible interpretations of these occurrences, see Loader, Enoch, Levi, and Jubilees, 12-15, and Helge Kvanvig, "Gen 6,3 and the Watcher Story," Hen 25 (2003): 277-300 (here 291). 54. Loader, Enoch, Levi, and Jubilees, 15. See also Arcari, "The Myth of the Watchers and the Problem of Intermarriage in Jubilees" 55. See Loader, Enoch, Levi, and Jubilees, 22. 56. On the theme of illicit knowledge, see A. Yoshiko Reed, Fallen Angels and the His­ tory of Judaism and Christianity: The Reception of Enochic Literature (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005), 29-49. 57. The Book of the Watchers includes a third stratum that also takes up illicit knowl­ edge. In this instance the angel Asael teaches the manufacturing of weapons of war, adorn­ ments, and cosmetics. These forbidden arts then lead to impiety (1 En 8:1-2). Because Asael teaches men the arts, who, in fact, produce adornments and cosmeticsfortheir daughters as well as the weapons of war for themselves, I do not see the daughters given special censure in the narrative. 350

Amplified

Roles, Idealized

Depictions:

Women

in the Book of

Jubilees

Tal I l a n p o s i t s that w o m e n c a m e to b e associated w i t h such arts b e c a u s e " o f their e x p e r i e n c e w i t h c h i l d b i r t h , h e a l i n g , the p r e p a r a t i o n m e d i c i n e s a n d even l a m e n t a t i o n s at the g r a v e . "

5 8

of p o t i o n s

and

This particular narrative

p r o v i d e s an e t i o l o g y for a n d n e g a t i v e e v a l u a t i o n o f s u c h p r a c t i c e s that m a y h a v e b e e n u n i q u e l y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h w o m e n in this p e r i o d . L o a d e r also a s s o ­ ciates such p r a c t i c e s ( a n d " d a n g e r o u s k n o w l e d g e " ) w i t h foreign w i v e s in p a r t i c u l a r a n d suggests that this t r a d i t i o n m a y b e r o o t e d in c o n c e r n for endogamous relations.

59

T h e a s s o c i a t i o n of w o m e n , e s p e c i a l l y o f the w i v e s

of the a n g e l s , w i t h f o r b i d d e n or illicit k n o w l e d g e d i m i n i s h e s w i t h i n

the

E n o c h i c w o r k s . T h e A n i m a l A p o c a l y p s e a n d J u b i l e e s , even w h i l e t h e y m a y k n o w the t r a d i t i o n c o n c e r n i n g A s a e l , for e x a m p l e , m a k e n o m e n t i o n o f the theme.

6 0

In g e n e r a l , the w i v e s of the w a t c h e r s s e e m less "interesting" to later

Enochic works. Eve e x c h a n g e s places w i t h the w i v e s in these n a r r a t i v e s as E n o c h i c texts d e m o n s t r a t e an i n c r e a s i n g u n e a s i n e s s w i t h the first w o m a n . T h e earli­ est reference to E v e a m o n g E n o c h i c texts o c c u r s in the B o o k of the W a t c h e r s . Eve, like A d a m , is a s s o c i a t e d w i t h w i s d o m a n d the p r o t a g o n i s t of the litera­ ture, the p a t r i a r c h E n o c h ( l E n 3 2 : 3 - 6 ) . I n later t r a d i t i o n s , s u c h as the s e c o n d c e n t u r y B . C . E . A n i m a l A p o c a l y p s e a n d first c e n t u r y B . C . E . o r C . E . P a r a b l e s , Eve's lot w o r s e n s as she b e c o m e s d i s t a n c e d f r o m A d a m a n d a s s o c i a t e d w i t h the C a i n i t e line (85:3) or w i t h b e i n g d e c e i v e d b y a m a l e v o l e n t a n g e l ( 6 c ; : 6 ) .

61

In c o n c l u s i o n , E n o c h i c w o r k s d o n o t a m p l i f y w o m e n in the s a m e m a n n e r as the b o o k o f J u b i l e e s . T h e d e p i c t i o n s of w o m e n f a m i l i a r f r o m the a n t e d i l u v i a n w o r l d of G e n e s i s are n o t s h a r p l y d r a w n ; the references to s u c h w o m e n are not in great s u p p l y . In c o n t e x t , E n o c h i c literature d o e s not share in the t r e n d to e x p a n d roles for w o m e n f a m i l i a r f r o m the H e b r e w B i b l e , as o n e o b s e r v e s in the case of J u b i l e e s , J o s e p h a n d A s e n e t h , a n d the T e s t a m e n t of J o b .

6 2

M o r e o v e r , b e c a u s e of the c o m p l e x n a t u r e o f the v a r i o u s w o r k s w e

a s s o c i a t e w i t h E n o c h i c l i t e r a t u r e , w e are n o t a b l e to p r e s e n t

a single

58. T. Ilan, Jewish Women in Greco-Roman Palestine: An Inquiry into Image and Status (Tubingen: J. C. B. Mohr [Paul Siebeck], 1995), 225. 59. Loader, Enoch, Levi, and Jubilees, 46. Tigchelaar has also read the account of the watchers as an indictment on intermarriage between Jerusalem priests and Samaritan women. See Prophets of Old, 198-203. 60. See Segal, The Book of Jubilees, 117, who also notes that Jubilees lacks the tradition of angels teaching women crafts of a questionable nature. 61. See m y "Adamic Traditions," 355-58. 62. See Chesnutt, "Revelatory Experiences Attributed to Biblical Women in Early Jewish Literature."

351

Kelley Coblentz Bautch "Enochic view of women." The study of the depiction of women illumines key themes within both the book of Jubilees and Enochic literature; women are, however, far more prominent within and seemingly useful for the book of Jubilees.

352

Enochic and Mosaic Traditions in Jubilees: The Evidence of Angelology and Demonology Annette Yoshiko Reed

For those w h o propose the existence of a distinctive "Enochic Judaism" in second temple times and/or w h o see an opposition between E n o c h i c and Mosaic traditions, the retellings of the angelic descent myth in the B o o k of the Watchers and Jubilees have proved pivotal (1 E n 6 - 1 6 ; Jub 4:15-22; 5 : 1 - 1 1 ; 7:21-25; 8:3-4; 10:5). Paolo Sacchi has d r a w n attention to the B o o k of the Watchers' claim that evil originated with the antediluvian descent of the an­ gels (cf. G e n 6 : 1 - 4 ) , proposing that this idea lies at the heart of a distinctive m o v e m e n t within second temple J u d a i s m .

1

Building on Sacchi's w o r k ,

Gabriele Boccaccini has interpreted Jubilees' version of the angelic descent myth, not only as evidence for its dependence on the B o o k of the Watchers, 2

but also as an emblem of its alignment with "Enochic Judaism." In his esti­ mation, Jubilees "stems from the same priestly party that produced the 1. P. Sacchi, Jewish Apocalyptic and Its History, trans. W. J. Short, JSPSup 20 (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1997), esp. 47-87; Sacchi, "History o f the Earliest Enochic Texts," in Enoch and Qumran Origins: New Light on a Forgotten Connection, ed. G. Boccaccini (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2005), 401-7. 2. G. Boccaccini, Beyond the Essene Hypothesis: The Parting of the Ways between Qumran and Enochic Judaism (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1998), 86-98. For a survey of the ev­ idence for Jubilees' use o f Enochic literature, see, e.g., J. Bergsma in this volume. For their c o m m e n t s and suggestions o n earlier forms o f this essay, special thanks to B. Halpern-Amaru, G. Boccaccini, D. Boyarin, G. Davenport, T. Hanneken, M. Himmelfarb, H. Kvanvig, and H . Najman; it also benefited much from the lively discussion in the Enoch Seminar session on angels and demons in Jubilees.

353

Annette

Yoshiko

Reed

b o o k s o f E n o c h " a n d " s h a r e s the g e n e r a t i v e i d e a o f E n o c h i c J u d a i s m , the i d e a that e v i l is s u p e r h u m a n (7:2iff.)."

3

and

is c a u s e d b y the

sin o f the

Watchers

For Boccaccini, Jubilees' interweaving of traditions from G e n 6:1-

4 a n d the B o o k o f the W a t c h e r s t h u s e x e m p l i f i e s its efforts to b r i d g e t w o c o m p e t i n g w o r l d v i e w s : ( 1 ) the " E n o c h i c J u d a i s m " t h a t p u r p o r t e d l y e x a l t e d the p r e - S i n a i t i c s a g e , d o w n p l a y e d the s i g n i f i c a n c e o f the P e n t a t e u c h ,

and

s a w the p r i e s t h o o d o f the s e c o n d t e m p l e as c o r r u p t , a n d ( 2 ) the " Z a d o k i t e J u d a i s m " that h e l d a u t h o r i t y in the t e m p l e , f o r m e d the T a n a k h , a n d b r a c e d M o s e s as c e n t r a l to J e w i s h

identity.

em­

4

Just h o w c e n t r a l , h o w e v e r , is the a n g e l i c d e s c e n t m y t h to J u b i l e e s ' t h e ­ 5

o l o g y , c o s m o l o g y , a n d n a r r a t i v e ? A r e B o c c a c c i n i a n d o t h e r s c o r r e c t to r e a d its i n t e g r a t i o n o f this m y t h as a s i g n o f its a g r e e m e n t w i t h the B o o k o f t h e W a t c h e r s ' b e l i e f s i n the s u p e r n a t u r a l o r i g i n s o f evil? I n s o f a r as m o s t r e s e a r c h o n J u b i l e e s h a s p r o c e e d e d f r o m the a s s u m p t i o n o f its c l o s e r e l a t i o n s h i p the P e n t a t e u c h ,

6

we might

also q u e s t i o n

the

to

d e g r e e to w h i c h its u s e o f

E n o c h i c t r a d i t i o n s s t a n d s i n t e n s i o n w i t h its o v e r a r c h i n g a p p e a l to M o s a i c a u t h o r i t y . Is o u r u n d e r s t a n d i n g

o f J u b i l e e s a i d e d b y the a s s u m p t i o n o f a n

early o p p o s i t i o n b e t w e e n E n o c h i c and M o s a i c traditions? T r a d i t i o n s a b o u t a n g e l s a n d d e m o n s w i l l h e r e s e r v e as a f o c u s for r e ­ f l e c t i n g o n these q u e s t i o n s . I w i l l b e g i n w i t h a b r i e f s u r v e y o f the a n g e l o l o g y

3. Boccaccini, Beyond

the Essene Hypothesis, 87.

4. Boccaccini, Beyond

the Essene Hypothesis,

1 2 - 1 6 , 68-79; see also his contribution in

this volume for a m o r e nuanced articulation o f the same argument. A similar point is m a d e in H. Kvanvig, "Jubilees — between E n o c h and Moses: A Narrative Reading," JSJ 35, no. 3 ( 2 0 0 4 ) : 243-45. Kvanvig here suggests that Jubilees integrates Mosaic traditions into an Enochic worldview, pointing to the interpretation o f Gen 6:3 in Jub 5 as paradigmatic; he re­ frains, however, from any generalizations about distinct "Judaisms." 5. Assessments o f Jubilees that downplay the significance o f the fallen angels within the text as a whole include J. C. VanderKam, "The Angel Story in the Book o f Jubilees," in Pseudepigraphic

Perspectives:

The Apocrypha

and Pseudepigrapha

in Light of the Dead

Sea

Scrolls, ed. E. G. Chazon and M. E . Stone (Leiden: Brill, 1999), esp. 154; T. R. Hanneken, "An­ gels and D e m o n s in the Book o f Jubilees a n d C o n t e m p o r a r y Apocalypses," Hen 28 ( 2 0 0 6 ) : 1 4 - 1 8 . See also L. Stuckenbruck's contribution to this volume. 6. Its close relationship to the corresponding portions o f Genesis and Exodus has been established by a number o f studies on Jubilees as exegesis; this approach and its value are exemplified by J. van Ruiten, Primaeval in the Book of Jubilees

History Interpreted:

The Rewriting

of Genesis 1—11

(Leiden: Brill, 2 0 0 0 ) . In addition, its resonance with the rest o f Exodus

(esp. 19; 23:10-33; 2 4 ) has been recently established by J. C. VanderKam, "The Scriptural Set­ ting o f the B o o k o f Jubilees," DSD 13 ( 2 0 0 6 ) : 6 1 - 7 2 . Its discursive and epistemological conti­ nuities with Deuteronomy are richly explored in H. Najman, Seconding ment of Mosaic Discourse

354

in Second Temple Judaism,

Sinai: The

Develop­

JSJSup 77 (Leiden: Brill, 2 0 0 3 ) , 16-69.

Enochic

and Mosaic

Traditions

in

Jubilees

a n d d e m o n o l o g y o f J u b i l e e s . T h e n , I will ask h o w fallen angels fit w i t h i n its s c h e m a . Lastly, I w i l l c o n s i d e r w h a t these t r a d i t i o n s m a y tell us a b o u t its a u ­ t h o r ' s attitudes t o w a r d the P e n t a t e u c h a n d early E n o c h i c l i t e r a t u r e .

7

i. Angels, Knowledge, and the Exaltation of Israel D e p i c t i o n s of angels in Jubilees r e v o l v e a r o u n d t w o m a i n t h e m e s : ( l ) the t r a n s m i s s i o n o f k n o w l e d g e a n d ( 2 ) the e l e v a t i o n of Israel. 8

T h e first is e x e m p l i f i e d b y the a n g e l of the p r e s e n c e . In 1 : 2 7 - 2 9 , G o d o r d e r s this a n g e l to "dictate for M o s e s f r o m the b e g i n n i n g o f the c r e a t i o n u n t i l the t i m e w h e n M y t e m p l e is built a m o n g t h e m t h r o u g h o u t the ages of 9

e t e r n i t y " ( i : 2 7 ) . T h e rest of Jubilees is p r e s e n t e d as the w o r d s o f this a n g e l , w h o is t h u s p l a c e d in an a u t h o r i a l a n d a u t h o r i z i n g p o s i t i o n in relation to J u ­ bilees itself, w i t h M o s e s as his s c r i b e .

1 0

T h r o u g h o u t J u b i l e e s ' n a r r a t i v e p o r t i o n s , angels also serve a m e d i a t o r y f u n c t i o n closely c o n n e c t e d w i t h r e v e l a t i o n a n d w r i t i n g . N o t o n l y do they d e ­ liver d i v i n e m e s s a g e s to h u m a n k i n d

( 1 2 : 2 2 - 2 4 ) , b u t t h e y m a k e t r u t h s in

h e a v e n k n o w n o n earth b y r e v e a l i n g the contents o f h e a v e n l y w r i t i n g s to h u ­ m a n s , w h o i n s c r i b e their r e v e l a t i o n s in earthly b o o k s ( 4 : 1 8 - 9 ; 8:11; 1 0 : 1 3 ; 12:25-27; 21:10; 32:21-26; 4 5 : 1 6 ) .

1 1

F o r this, angels are d e p i c t e d as s p e c i a l l y

qualified, i n a s m u c h as t h e y are also said to serve as w i t n e s s e s to the w o r d s a n d deeds o f G o d (3:4; 1 0 : 2 2 - 2 4 )

a n

d to w a t c h h u m a n k i n d , see e v e r y t h i n g ,

a n d r e p o r t e v e r y t h i n g to G o d ( 4 : 6 ) . For J u b i l e e s ' a s s o c i a t i o n of angels a n d k n o w l e d g e , there is s o m e p r e c e -

7. In this article, I thus limit myself to exploring parallels with the Pentateuch and early Enochic literature. Points of contact with other early Jewish traditions about angels and

demons are further explored, e.g., by G. Ibba and I. Frohlich in their E n o c h Seminar

contributions. It is indeed important to remember that, even as the authors/redactors of Ju­ bilees convey a relatively systematic and rationalizing account of the place o f otherworldly spirits in the divinely ruled cosmos, they seem to weave this orderly a c c o u n t from the threads o f apotropaic prayers, folklore, and popular "magic," no less than from Pentateuchal and Enochic precedents. 8. J. C. VanderKam, "The Angel o f the Presence in the Book o f Jubilees," DSD 7 ( 2 0 0 0 ) : 382-84. 9. J. C. VanderKam, "The Putative Author o f Jubilees"

JSS 26 (1981): 2 0 9 - 1 7 .

1 0 . H. Najman, "Interpretation as Primordial Writing: Jubilees and Its Authority Conferring Strategies," JSJ 30 (1999): 4 0 0 - 4 0 6 . 1 1 . H. Najman, "Angels at Sinai: Exegesis, Theology and Interpretive Authority," DSD 7 (2000): 315-17.

355

Annette Yoshiko Reed dent in the Pentateuch's presentation of angels as messengers (e.g., Gen 16:711; 19:1; 21:17; 2 2 : 1 1 , 1 5 ; Exod 3:2). Enochic parallels, however, are far more ex­ tensive. Both the Astronomical Book and the Book of the Watchers depict angels as revealing heavenly truths to humankind (1 En 33:3-4; 81:1; 82:2; 82:7). In addition, the Episde of Enoch stresses that angels witness all human deeds (1 En 98:6-8; 99:3; 100:10-11; 104:1). The second major role of angels in Jubilees is as foils for the exaltation of Israel and its priests. Angels are paralleled to Israel inasmuch as they are circumcised, observe Sabbath, and celebrated Shavuoth prior to Noah (Jub 2:17-21; 15:27). They also serve as the heavenly parallels to Israel's earthly priesthood (30:18). Yet angels are subordinated to Israel inasmuch as they a

do not serve God by choice (cf. 12:19) ° d insofar as they have no path to atonement if they sin (cf. 5:17). Accordingly, in Jubilees' patriarchal narra­ tives, the angelic tasks of teaching are increasingly taken over by Israel's an­ cestors. Moreover, in the end, angels stand outside of God's special relation­ ship to Israel, as evident both in his direct rule of the chosen nation (15:32) and in his sole involvement in their eschatological punishment and re­ demption ( 2 3 : 3 0 - 3 1 ) .

12

For the relationship between angels and Israel in Jubilees, we may also find some precedent in Enochic literature. In the Book of the Watchers, an­ 13

gels are likened to priests in the heavenly temple, and Enoch's own angel­ like status is suggested by his actions of mediating the petition of the Watchers (1 En 13:4-6; cf. 15:2), entering the heavenly temple (chap. 1 4 ) , and rebuking the Watchers (12:4-6; 13:8; 15:2). Yet the Book of the Watchers de­ picts the human sage Enoch as granted direct access to God, in a manner not available even to angels (14:21). In effect, Jubilees extends Enoch's preroga­ tives to all of Israel, proposing that this nation's status as the children of God ultimately surpasses the status of God's angels.

14

12. Hanneken, "Angels," 13-14, 22-23. 13. M. Himmelfarb, Ascent to Heaven in Jewish and Christian Apocalypses (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1993), 20-23. 14. This pattern mirrors Jubilees' extension of the priestly prerogatives in the Penta­ teuch to all o f Israel, as discussed in M. Himmelfarb, A Kingdom of Priests: Ancestry and Merit in Ancient Judaism (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2006), 53-84. On the significance of the depiction of all Israel as angels, see also Himmelfarb's contribution to this volume. 356

Enochic

and Mosaic

Traditions

in

Jubilees

2 . Demons, Gentiles, and the Testing of Israel A l t h o u g h J u b i l e e s ' a n g e l o l o g y o w e s m u c h to E n o c h i c t r a d i t i o n s , its d e m o n o l o g y m a y b e m o r e i n d e b t e d to P e n t a t e u c h a l a n d other b i b l i c a l m o d e l s . In Jubilees d e m o n s s e r v e t w o m a i n r o l e s . First a n d f o r e m o s t is their role as agents of d i v i n e j u s t i c e . U n d e r the l e a d e r s h i p of M a s t e m a , d e m o n s

are

c h a r g e d w i t h testing h u m a n k i n d , b r i n g i n g h u m a n sins to G o d ' s a t t e n t i o n , a n d d e s t r o y i n g the w i c k e d at G o d ' s b e h e s t ( J u b 1:20; 1 0 : 1 1 ; 48:15; 4 9 : 2 ) . S e c ­ o n d is their role as the overseers o f G e n t i l e s . N o t o n l y do they rule G e n t i l e n a t i o n s (15:31; 4 8 ) , b u t t h e y also are objects of n o n - J e w i s h w o r s h i p ( 1 : 1 1 ; 1 1 : 4 ) a n d the forces b e h i n d the efficacy of f o r e i g n " m a g i c " ( 4 8 : 9 - 1 1 ) . A c c o r d i n g l y , in Jubilees d e m o n i c i n f l u e n c e is first felt w h e n the n a t i o n s take f o r m , w i t h the s e p a r a t i o n of the earth b e t w e e n N o a h ' s s o n s ( 1 1 : 2 - 6 ) .

1 5

W h e n Israel a n d

its a n c e s t o r s live u n d e r f o r e i g n rule ( 1 : 2 0 ; 1 1 : 1 8 - 2 2 ; 4 8 ) , they t o o are affected by the strife, b l o o d s h e d , f a m i n e , a n d disease c a u s e d b y d e m o n s . C o n v e r s e l y , d e m o n i c i n f l u e n c e is a b s e n t w h e n J a c o b r u l e s E g y p t a n d w h e n Israel's ene­ m i e s are finally d e s t r o y e d f r o m the earth (23:29; 40:9; 46:2; 5 0 : 5 ) . In d e p i c t i n g d e m o n s as a g e n t s o f d i v i n e j u s t i c e , J u b i l e e s a p p e a r s to d e v e l o p b i b l i c a l t r o p e s o f the satan ( e s p . J o b 1 ) , as is p a r t i c u l a r l y e v i d e n t in its c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n o f M a s t e m a (e.g., J u b 1 0 : 1 1 ) . L i k e w i s e , its a s s o c i a t i o n o f d e m o n s w i t h G e n t i l e s m a y b e r o o t e d in D e u t 32:8-9 a n d Ps 1 0 6 : 3 5 - 3 7 . may

1 6

We

also see traces o f E n o c h i c i n f l u e n c e i n J u b i l e e s ' d e m o n o l o g y . F o r i n ­

s t a n c e , the i m a g e o f d e m o n s as o b j e c t s o f s a c r i f i c i a l w o r s h i p finds p r e c e ­ dent in the B o o k o f the W a t c h e r s (1 E n 1 9 : 1 ) , as d o e s the u n d e r s t a n d i n g of d e m o n s as d e r i v i n g f r o m the spirits o f the slain s o n s o f the fallen a n g e l s (i :8- ). 5

1 7

9

N e v e r t h e l e s s , J u b i l e e s ' d e m o n o l o g y d e p a r t s f r o m E n o c h i c literature in significant w a y s . In the B o o k of the W a t c h e r s , the d e m o n i c t e r r o r i z a t i o n o f h u m a n k i n d is definitive o f p o s t d i l u v i a n h i s t o r y ; after the flood, the w i c k e d spirits o f the G i a n t s rise u p against h u m a n k i n d (1 E n 1 5 : 1 1 ) , a n d it is p r o ­ c l a i m e d that they w i l l c o n t i n u e to do so u n t i l the last j u d g m e n t ( 1 6 : 1 ; 1 9 : 1 ) . In J u b i l e e s the spirits o f the W a t c h e r s ' s o n s c a u s e sin, b l o o d s h e d , p o l l u t i o n , ill­ ness, a n d f a m i n e after the f l o o d (esp. J u b 1 1 : 2 - 6 ) . It is m a d e explicit, h o w e v e r , 15. Hanneken, "Angels," 18. 16. J. C. VanderKam, "The D e m o n s in the B o o k o f Jubilees," in Die Ddmonen,

ed.

A. Lange, H. Lichtenberger, and K. F. Diethard Romheld (Tubingen: M o h r Siebeck, 2 0 0 3 ) , 353-5417. See Giovanni Ibba, "The Evil Spirits in Jubilees and the Spirits o f the Bastards in 4 Q 5 1 0 , with Some Remarks on Other Q u m r a n Manuscripts," Hen 3 1 , no. 1 ( 2 0 0 9 ) .

357

Annette

Yoshiko

Reed

that they do so as p a r t o f G o d ' s p l a n . D u r i n g the lifetime of N o a h , d e m o n s are d i m i n i s h e d in n u m b e r a n d s u b o r d i n a t e d to M a s t e m a to help h i m in his d i v i n e l y a p p o i n t e d task of d e s t r o y i n g a n d m i s l e a d i n g the w i c k e d ( 1 0 : 8 - 9 ) . Lest the reader i m a g i n e M a s t e m a a n d his h o s t s as the d a r k side of a c o s m i c d u a l i s m a n d / o r as evil forces in active conflict w i t h G o d , Jubilees stresses that their existence o n the earth is the result of G o d ' s a c k n o w l e d g m e n t o f h u m a n k i n d ' s c h r o n i c w i c k e d n e s s ( 1 0 : 8 - 9 ) . D e m o n s m a y c a u s e suffering, b u t the r e a d e r is a s s u r e d that their a c t i o n s are p a r t of an u n e r r i n g l y fair s y s t e m of d i v i n e j u s t i c e (cf. 5 : 1 3 - 1 4 ) . M o r e o v e r , d e m o n i c i n f l u e n c e d i m i n i s h e s as the n a r r a t i v e p r o g r e s s e s . D e m o n s h a v e n o c o n t r o l over Israel ( 1 5 : 3 2 ) . A n d , j u s t as Israel takes on the f u n c t i o n s o f G o d ' s angels, so G e n t i l e s c o m e to replace d e m o n s as the m a i n e n e m y a g a i n s t w h o m I s r a e l s t r u g g l e s . E v e n t h o u g h foreign n a t i o n s are r u l e d by d e m o n s ( 1 5 : 3 1 ) , t h e y are n o t forces of i n d e p e n d e n t evil a n y m o r e t h a n the spirits t h e y s e r v e ; J u b i l e e s stresses, in fact, that all n a t i o n s b e l o n g to G o d ( 1 5 : 3 1 ) . C o n s i s t e n t w i t h D e u t e r o n o m i s t i c p r i n c i p l e a n d its e x p a n s i o n in b i b ­ lical p r o p h e c y , G e n t i l e s c a n o v e r t a k e I s r a e l o n l y w h e n G o d c o m m a n d s ( 1 : 1 3 ; 2 3 : 2 3 ) . J u s t as the satan is an a g e n t of d i v i n e j u s t i c e , testing a n d a c c u s i n g h u ­ m a n k i n d , so f o r e i g n n a t i o n s h a v e their p l a c e in the s y s t e m o f d i v i n e j u s t i c e as a m e a n s for p u n i s h i n g Israel's d i s o b e d i e n c e (e.g., 1 : 1 3 ; 2 3 : 2 3 ) . In o n e sense, then, J u b i l e e s ' d e m o n o l o g y m a y b e best u n d e r s t o o d as a development

of D e u t e r o n o m i s t i c

understandings

of divine justice, ex­

p a n d e d b y m e a n s o f the t y p o l o g i c a l e q u a t i o n of G e n t i l e s w i t h

demons.

G e n t i l e s a n d d e m o n s share the s a m e f u n c t i o n in s a c r e d history, n a m e l y , to test Israel's faithfulness a n d to m e d i a t e G o d ' s p u n i s h m e n t o f their u n f a i t h ­ fulness. M u c h like the n a t i o n s in the D e u t e r o n o m i s t i c h i s t o r y a n d b i b l i c a l p r o p h e c y , d e m o n s in Jubilees p o s e a threat to Israel o n l y w h e n m e m b e r s o f the c h o s e n n a t i o n stray f r o m G o d a n d his

commandments.

3 . Fallen Angels and the Temptations of Apostasy W h a t , then, of fallen angels? J u b i l e e s ' v e r s i o n of the a n g e l i c descent m y t h has g a r n e r e d so m u c h s c h o l a r l y a t t e n t i o n that w e m i g h t b e t e m p t e d to take their i n c l u s i o n for g r a n t e d . W h e n w e c o n s i d e r the rest of its a n g e l o l o g y a n d de­ m o n o l o g y , h o w e v e r , their p r e s e n c e stands in n e e d of s o m e e x p l a n a t i o n . A s w e h a v e seen, J u b i l e e s ' d e p i c t i o n of angels a n d d e m o n s serves to e v o k e an o r ­ d e r l y c o s m o s in w h i c h b o t h g o o d a n d b a d spirits s e r v e his w i l l a n d in w h i c h the e a r t h is c l e a r l y d i v i d e d b e t w e e n G o d - r u l e d J e w s a n d

358

demon-ruled

Enochic

and Mosaic

Traditions

in

Jubilees

G e n t i l e s . W h y w o u l d the a u t h o r ( s ) c h o o s e to i n c l u d e sinful angels w h o b l u r these b o u n d a r i e s ? In early E n o c h i c literature, c h a o s a n d e a r t h l y evils are c o n s i s t e n t l y a s ­ s o c i a t e d w i t h angels w h o t r a n s g r e s s their p r o p e r r o l e s . T h e A s t r o n o m i c a l B o o k d e s c r i b e s angels w h o d e v i a t e f r o m their celestial duties a n d t h u s frus­ trate h u m a n a d h e r e n c e to the c o r r e c t c a l e n d a r ( l E n 80:6-8; cf. 1 8 : 1 5 ) .

1 8

The

first v i s i o n in the B o o k of D r e a m s b l a m e s b o t h angels a n d h u m a n s for a n ­ g e r i n g G o d ( 8 4 : 4 ) . L i k e w i s e , the A n i m a l A p o c a l y p s e alludes b o t h to fallen angels w h o c a m e to earth b e f o r e the f l o o d ( 8 6 : 1 - 6 ) a n d to the a n g e l i c leaders w h o w e r e p l a c e d over all h u m a n n a t i o n s , o n l y to stray a n d c o m m i t v i o l e n c e against their c h a r g e s ( 8 9 : 5 9 - 9 0 : 2 5 ) . E v e n m o r e striking is the f u n c t i o n of angelic d i s o b e d i e n c e in the B o o k of the W a t c h e r s . W h e r e a s the A s t r o n o m i c a l B o o k a n d E p i s t l e of E n o c h stress h u m a n r e s p o n s i b i l i t y for sin (1 E n 8 0 : 1 ; 9 8 : 4 ) ,

1 9

the B o o k of the W a t c h e r s

p r o p o s e s that h u m a n sinfulness w a s p r e c i p i t a t e d b y a b r e a c h in h e a v e n l y h a r m o n y . T h e W a t c h e r s a b a n d o n e d h e a v e n , their a p p o i n t e d h o m e ( 1 5 : 3 , 7, 1 0 ) . W h e n t h e y t o o k o n the h u m a n p r e r o g a t i v e s of l i v i n g o n e a r t h , m a r r y i n g w o m e n , a n d h a v i n g c h i l d r e n ( 1 5 : 4 - 5 ) , their acts i n v e r t e d the d i v i n e l y set roles in the c o s m i c order. T h e p r o b l e m o r i g i n a t e d in h e a v e n , a n d the results w e r e d i s a s t r o u s for earth: their t e a c h i n g s c o r r u p t e d h u m a n k i n d , a n d their s o n s s l a u g h t e r e d e a r t h l y creatures. B y contrast, Jubilees integrates E n o c h i c t r a d i t i o n s a b o u t fallen angels into a c o s m o l o g i c a l a n d t h e o d i c a l f r a m e w o r k that diffuses their p o w e r as c o s m i c forces of c h a o s a n d r e b e l l i o n . T h e r e a d e r is a s s u r e d that n o b r e a c h in h e a v e n l y h a r m o n y b r o u g h t evil to the earth. H e r e , h u m a n b e i n g s are far f r o m b e i n g u n w i t t i n g v i c t i m s o f evils w r o u g h t b y o t h e r w o r l d l y forces. S i n r e m a i n s a strictly e a r t h l y p h e n o m e n o n — even for the angels ( J u b 4:15; 5 : 1 ) . M o r e o v e r , in place o f the B o o k o f the W a t c h e r s ' e m p h a s i s on the c o r r u p t i n g ;

force of the fallen a n g e l s ' t e a c h i n g s (1 E n 7 : 1 ; 8 : 1 - 3 ; 9 6 ) , w e here find a stress on the p o s i t i v e influence of a n g e l i c i n s t r u c t i o n t h r o u g h o u t h u m a n h i s t o r y .

20

18. Whereas the Book o f the Watchers presents angelic rebellion as a cause of sin and suffering on earth, the Astronomical Book depicts the corruption as spreading upward — from earthly sinners (80:1) to the earth (80:2-3) to the luminaries (80:4-5) to the angels who rule them (80:6). 19. On the departure from the Book of the Watchers' understanding of the fallen an­ gels in the Book o f Dreams and the Epistle of Enoch, see A. Y. Reed, Fallen Angels and the History of Judaism and Christianity: The Reception of Enochic Literature (Cambridge: C a m ­ bridge University Press, 2005), 71-80. 20. Reed, Fallen Angels, 87-95.

359

Annette Yoshiko Reed According to Jubilees, heavenly angels even instructed humans in gardening (Jub 3:15), medicine (10:10-14),

a n

d the Hebrew language (12:26-27); fallen

angels taught only divination (8:3-4). If their influence is so diminished, why are fallen angels even included in Jubilees? What part do they play in its angelology, demonology, cosmology, and covenantal theology? To answer these questions, it might prove helpful to look to the literary function of these figures. In the Book of the Watchers, for 21

instance, fallen angels function as foils for the elevation of Enoch. Whereas they abandon heaven for earth and catalyze earthly corruption through their teachings, he is taken from earth to heaven and, as a result, can teach salvific knowledge that inspires righteous deeds among his sons. In the Book of the Watchers, Enoch is thus presented as a paradigm for the proper epistemological process, whereas the fallen angels emblematize knowledge falsely gained and improperly transmitted. Inasmuch as Jubilees downplays the teachings of the fallen angels, this particular dichotomy is here not oper­ ant. In its place, however, we may find a related function, rooted instead in the Israel-angels/Gentiles-demons typology so central to the rest of Jubilees. Fallen angels are atypical of Jubilees' overarching angelology and de­ monology: they are the only spirits depicted as transgressing the boundaries of their divinely ordained role in the cosmos. This, however, may be pre­ cisely the reason for their significance. Betsy Halpern-Amaru has demon­ strated that Jubilees uses the Watchers both as narrative exemplars of the dangers of exogamy and as literary markers that draw the reader's attention 22

to human genealogies marred by improper marriages. We might take her insight even further, suggesting that the fallen angels serve both as prece­ dents for intermarriage and as paradigms for the Jewish adoption of Gentile practices more broadly. Intermarriage is a central concern of Jubilees (20:4; 22:20-22; 3 0 : 7 - 1 7 ) . The practice is here presented as defiling, not just for the individual and de­ scendants, but also for the whole nation, the divine name, and the sanctuary (30:10,15-16).

23

Like incest and the abandonment of circumcision (15:33-34;

21. A. Y. Reed, "Heavenly Ascent, Angelic Descent, and the Transmission of Knowl­ edge in 1 Enoch 6-16," in Heavenly Realms and Earthly Realities in Late Antique Religions, ed. R. S. Abusch and A. Y. Reed (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004), 47-66. 22. B. Halpern-Amaru, The Empowerment of Women in the Book of Jubilees, JSJSup 60 (Leiden: Brill, 1999), 20-28; see also Kvanvig, "Jubilees," 249-50, and Luca Arcari, "The Myth of the Watchers and the Problem of Intermarriage in Jubilees!' Hen 31, no. 1 (2009). 23. C. Werman, "Jubilees 30: Building a Paradigm for the Ban on Intermarriage," HTR 90 (1997): 12-15; Himmelfarb, A Kingdom of Priests, 69-72. 360

Enochic and Mosaic Traditions in Jubilees 33:13-14; 41:25-26), this act is presented as a sin for which no atonement is possible (30:13-16). Hence, it is perhaps telling that Jubilees stresses the fallen angels' sexual sins and describes them as acts of fornication and impurity (4:22; 7:21; 20:5-6) — two categories also paired in the description of inter­ marriage in 30:7-17. In Noah's testimony, their sin is called the "beginning of impurity" (7:21); together with the bloodshed caused by the Giants, their acts are said to defile the earth and necessitate the flood. Abraham's speech similarly cites the destruction of the Giants to warn against fornication and impurity: just as the fallen angels saw the Giants slain by God's sword in 5:9, so the human children of fornication and impurity will be doomed to de­ struction by the sword (20:5-6; cf. 30:5). In light of Jubilees' association of Israel with the angels, the possibility arises that the sins of the fallen angels are meant to be paradigmatic of the broader phenomenon of Jewish apostasy. Notably, the text's preoccupation with intermarriage is just one expression of its recurrent concern with Jews who abandon the covenant to follow Gentile practices (e.g., 1:8-11; 3:31; 6:35; 15:33-34; 21:22-23; 2 2 : 1 6 - 2 2 ) . Here, moreover, Jews can be defiled, not just through marriage to Gentiles, but also through contact with them and through adoption of their practices (1:9; 21:23; 22:16). In this regard, it is in­ teresting to note the Watchers' punishment for their sins: they are "up­ rooted) from (positions of) authority" and bound in prisons beneath the earth (5:6-7), just as Jews who do not circumcise their sons make "them­ selves like the nations so as to be uprooted from the earth" (10:33) >d just as those who walk in the ways of the nations are "uproot(ed) from the earth" ar

(21:21).

One of the effects of Jubilees' Israel-angels/Gentiles-demons typology is to depict the act of adopting Gentile practices as contrary to the cosmic order that governs heaven as well as earth. When Jews adopt foreign worship and festivals, marry non-Jews, and refrain from circumcising their sons, they are committing sins with dire consequences: they align themselves with Gentiles, thereby placing themselves under the rule of demons, dooming their children to destruction, and exempting themselves and their children from the special angel-like status granted to Israel. The temptation to transgress, moreover, is poignantly expressed by Ju­ bilees' distinctive approach to the Watchers' earthly sojourn. Angelic sin is here imagined, not as a breach of heavenly harmony (cf. Gen 6:1-2; 1 En 6:1-3; 15:3), but as a corruption that occurred during the prolonged earthly sojourn of certain angels from heaven. They descended with good intentions (Jub 4:15), and they did not sin until after they had already spent fourteen jubilees 361

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on earth. Just as Israel is likened to the angels, so the d e s c r i p t i o n of the e a r t h l y c o r r u p t i o n of the fallen angels r e s o n a t e s w i t h its r e p e a t e d w a r n i n g s to Jews a b o u t G e n t i l e t e m p t a t i o n s to a p o s t a s y ( 1 : 1 9 - 2 0 ; 2 1 : 2 2 - 2 3 ; 2 2 : 1 6 - 2 3 ; 3 0 : 7 - 1 5 ) . T h e i r p u n i s h m e n t (5:6-7) thus serves as an apt w a r n i n g for Jews who

are t e m p t e d — p a r t i c u l a r l y d u r i n g p e r i o d s of f o r e i g n rule ( 1 : 1 9 ) — to

f o l l o w the " w a y s of the n a t i o n s " a n d / o r to take f o r e i g n w i v e s . If I a m c o r r e c t to d r a w this c o n n e c t i o n , then the r e d e p l o y m e n t o f E n o c h i c t r a d i t i o n s m a y s e r v e the i m p o r t a n t p u r p o s e o f e x t e n d i n g J u b i l e e s ' a n g e l o l o g i c a l a n d d e m o n o l o g i c a l s c h e m a to s p e a k to the p r o b l e m s of its o w n t i m e . W i t h i n its c o s m o l o g y a n d t h e o d i c y , a n g e l - l i k e Jews w i l l e v e n t u a l l y be s a v e d , a n d d e m o n - r u l e d G e n t i l e s d e s t r o y e d . T h o s e w h o p o s e a p r o b l e m are the o n e s in b e t w e e n . F o l l o w i n g the l o g i c of J u b i l e e s ' p u r i t y r e g u l a t i o n s ,

24

the acts of these J e w s threaten all of Israel a n d defile the s a n c t u a r y . W h e n even a single J e w i s h m a n or w o m a n i n t e r m a r r i e s , the w h o l e p e o p l e suffer " b l o w u p o n blow, curse u p o n curse" (30:14-15). F r o m J u b i l e e s ' z e a l o u s w a r n i n g s a g a i n s t the a b a n d o n m e n t of S a b b a t h o b s e r v a n c e (2:25-27; 5 0 : 8 - 9 , 1 2 - 1 3 ) , c i r c u m c i s i o n ( 1 5 : 1 4 , 2 5 - 2 6 , 3 3 - 3 4 ) , a n d e n ­ d o g a m y ( 2 2 : 2 0 - 2 1 ; 3 0 : 1 0 - 1 6 , 2 2 ) , w e m i g h t infer that the text is p a r t i c u l a r l y c o n c e r n e d w i t h Jews w h o are t e m p t e d to a b a n d o n the p r a c t i c e s that differ­ entiate t h e m f r o m n o n - J e w s . A s w i t h the r e p e a t e d w a r n i n g a g a i n s t f o l l o w i n g "the w a y s o f the nations," this c o n c e r n fits w e l l w i t h w h a t w e k n o w a b o u t the t u m u l t u o u s d e c a d e s s u r r o u n d i n g the M a c c a b e a n revolt. In this r e g a r d , it is p e r h a p s n o t s u r p r i s i n g that Jubilees d e s c r i b e s "the evil g e n e r a t i o n " as a d ­ dicted to the sins of f o r n i c a t i o n a n d p o l l u t i o n (23:14; cf. 2 3 : 1 7 ; 50:5); b e f o r e the e s c h a t o l o g i c a l r e d e m p t i o n a n d p u r i f i c a t i o n , the text w a r n s that the earth a n d the s a n c t u a r y w i l l b e defiled (23:18, 2 1 ) a n d that Israel w i l l suffer " b l o w u p o n b l o w , w o u n d u p o n w o u n d , distress u p o n distress, b a d n e w s u p o n b a d n e w s , disease u p o n d i s e a s e " ( 2 3 : 1 3 ) . If w e f o l l o w this r e a d i n g of the a n g e l i c descent m y t h , the fallen angels e m e r g e as an i m p o r t a n t e l e m e n t in J u b i l e e s ' s a c r e d history. T h e y are n o t p a r ­ a d i g m s for h u m a n sin in any u n i v e r s a l s e n s e . N e i t h e r d o e s their i n c l u s i o n in Jubilees suffice to s i g n a l its e m b r a c e of a c o s m o l o g y in w h i c h s u p e r n a t u r a l forces c a u s e evil on earth. R a t h e r , they serve as p r e c u r s o r s , m o r e specifically, for an " i n - b e t w e e n " c a t e g o r y of s p e c i a l interest to the a u t h o r , n a m e l y , m e m ­ bers o f the c h o s e n n a t i o n w h o sin — or are t e m p t e d to sin — b y e m b r a c i n g non-Jewish ways and wives. T h i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n also raises the p o s s i b i l i t y that J u b i l e e s o w e s yet a n -

24. Himmelfarb, A Kingdom

362

of Priests,

61-72.

Enochic and Mosaic Traditions in Jubilees other debt to the Book of the Watchers. David Suter and George Nickelsburg have shown how the Book of the Watchers' depiction of fallen angels (esp. 1 En 1 2 - 1 6 ) resonates with polemics against the impure marriage practices of priests of their own times.

25

Jubilees may expand this polemic in a manner 26

consistent with its extension of priestiy prerogatives to all of Israel. Rather than symbolizing fallen priests, Jubilees' fallen angels may provide protological precedents for Jews who defile nation, earth, and sanctuary by choos­ ing to align themselves with Gentiles. Inasmuch as they sin in the twentyfifth jubilee, it is fitting that Moses learns of them in the fiftieth, just prior to the rebellious generation of the wilderness. It is also fitting that the au­ thors) may write of them in years surrounding the Maccabean revolt, when some Jews were engaging Hellenistic culture and dismissing the need for separation from other nations (1 Mace i:n).

27

4. Angelology, Epistemology, and the Status of the Pentateuch and Enochic Literature What, then, might Jubilees' angelology and demonology tell us about its atti­ tudes toward Enochic and Mosaic traditions? In my view, its representation of angelic teaching may prove especially telling, allowing us to consider the relative value of different earthly books from the perspective of Jubilees' own epistemology.

28

Jubilees' epistemology centers on a view of heaven as the ultimate source for all true knowledge. Angelic teachings are here cited to explain hu­ man access to a rather dazzling array of information, including agricultural, astronomical, and medicinal skills as well as laws, records of all human deeds, predictions of the future, and information about astronomical, festal, and eschatological cycles. According to Jubilees, selections from this knowl-

25. D. W. Suter, "Fallen Angel, Fallen Priest: The Problem of Family Purity in 1 Enoch 6-16," HUCA 50 (1979): 115-35; G. W. E. Nickelsburg, "Enoch, Levi, and Peter: Recipients of Revelation in Upper Galilee," JBL 100 (1981): 575-600. 26. Himmelfarb, A Kingdom of Priests, 51-84. 27. In dating Jubilees, recent scholarship has generally followed J. C. VanderKam, Textual and Historical Studies in the Book of Jubilees, HSM 14 (Missoula: Scholars Press, 1977)) 207-85. For a new approach to dating this text and explaining its preoccupation with intermarriage, however, see Himmelfarb, A Kingdom of Priests, 77-78. 28. On Jubilees' epistemology in relation to sapiential and prophetic approaches to knowledge, see the contributions of B. Wright and H. Najman in this volume. 363

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edge h a v e b e e n revealed to certain h u m a n s c r i b e s , such that h e a v e n l y k n o w l ­ edge — i n c l u d i n g i n f o r m a t i o n f r o m the h e a v e n l y t a b l e t s

29

— n o w circulates

on earth in w r i t t e n f o r m s . I n a s m u c h as angels m e d i a t e access to such k n o w l e d g e , its t r a n s m i s s i o n f r o m h e a v e n to earth is l i m i t e d to the c h o s e n line of Israel. O n c e o n earth, the b o o k s c o n t a i n i n g h e a v e n l y k n o w l e d g e s e e m to b e t r a n s m i t t e d in a single line: E n o c h ' s b o o k s pass to N o a h , a n d N o a h ' s l i b r a r y passes to S h e m , j u s t as A b r a h a m , J a c o b , a n d L e v i i n h e r i t the library, as e x p a n d e d b y a d d i t i o n a l w r i t i n g s , each u p o n the death of its p r e v i o u s g u a r d i a n . T h e a s s u r a n c e of the a n g e l of the p r e s e n c e to M o s e s that L e v i ' s d e s c e n d a n t s p o s s e s s a n d r e n e w this t r o v e of w r i t i n g s "until this d a y " (45:16) serves to trace the line o f t r a n s ­ m i s s i o n to M o s e s ' o w n t i m e .

3 0

Insofar as this m o d e l of textual t r a n s m i s s i o n grants h e a v e n l y pedigrees to all b o o k s in this line, Jubilees' e p i s t e m o l o g y a p p e a r s to p r e s u p p o s e the w i d e ­ s p r e a d practice o f biblical p s e u d e p i g r a p h y . Interestingly, it also e x p l a i n s a n d defends it. Lest a n y o n e d o u b t the a n t i q u i t y a n d authenticity of E n o c h i c litera­ ture, for instance, Jubilees p u r p o r t s to record e v i d e n c e for E n o c h ' s acts of au­ t h o r s h i p as w e l l as e v i d e n c e for the t r u s t w o r t h y t r a n s m i s s i o n of his b o o k s . T h i s e v i d e n c e , m o r e o v e r , is attributed to n o less a figure than the angel of the presence, w h o has seen e v e r y t h i n g that h a p p e n e d on earth from the b e g i n n i n g of history! E n o c h i c b o o k s are a d d i t i o n a l l y verified a n d v o u c h s a f e d b y d e s c r i p ­ tions of their use b y r i g h t e o u s m e n o f the past, such as N o a h a n d A b r a h a m . F u r t h e r m o r e , the b o o k s of E n o c h , N o a h , A b r a h a m , J a c o b , a n d M o s e s are p r e s e n t e d as h a r m o n i o u s i n s o f a r as t h e y s t a n d in the s a m e t r a d i t i o n o f t r a n s m i s s i o n ( p a t r i a r c h a l a n d p r i e s t l y ) a n d i n a s m u c h as they derive f r o m the s a m e u l t i m a t e s o u r c e ( a n g e l i c r e v e l a t i o n a n d / o r h e a v e n l y t a b l e t s ) . In ef­ fect, Jubilees takes the s e l f - a u t h o r i z i n g c l a i m s o f earlier b o o k s like the A s t r o ­ n o m i c a l B o o k a n d the B o o k of the W a t c h e r s a n d situates t h e m w i t h i n the h i s t o r y of Israel u p to the t i m e of M o s e s . Just as Jubilees accepts a n d e x t e n d s E n o c h i c m o d e l s of t e x t u a l a u t h o r -

29. O n the heavenly tablets, see, e.g., M. Himmelfarb, "Torah, Testimony, and Heav­ enly Tablets: The Claim to Authority o f the Book o f Jubilees," in A Multiform Heritage: Studies on Early Judaism and Early Christianity in Honor of Robert A. Kraft, ed. B. G. Wright (Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1999), 19-29, here 27; F. Garcia Martinez, "The Heavenly Tablets in the Book of Jubilees," in Studies in the Book of Jubilees, ed. M. Albani et al., TSAJ 65 (Tubingen: Mohr Siebeck, 1997), 243-60; Najman, "Interpretation as Primordial Writing," 389-400; Boccaccini in this volume. 30. Cf. E. Tigchelaar, "Jubilees and 1 Enoch and the Issue o f Transmission," in Enoch and Qumran Origins, 1 0 0 .

364

Enochic and Mosaic Traditions in Jubilees ity, so it utilizes Pentateuchal models. As Najman has shown, the text adopts a stance akin to Deuteronomy, authorizing its own contribution with appeal to the Sinaitic setting, Mosaic mediation, and divine revelation of covenantal and priestiy Law as described in Exodus, Leviticus, and Num­ bers.

31

In the process, Jubilees also defends the authority of the Pentateuch

against anyone who might assume that this anonymous writing is merely an earthly creation: it begins by emphasizing the Sinaitic revelation as a privi­ leged occasion for the transmission of heavenly knowledge to earth and, throughout the narrative, reminds the reader of its angelic narrator. And, lest anyone wonder why Israel's purportedly eternal and immutable laws 32

were revealed at such a suspiciously late date in human history, it traces some laws back to the distant past, reveals some as written on heavenly tab­ lets, and parallels some to angelic practices in heaven. By describing Enoch as penning multiple books on different topics during his sojourn with the angels ( 4 : 1 7 - 1 9 ) , the text also grounds the plausibility for its own claim that multiple books on different matters came down to us from Moses and Mount Sinai — not just the Pentateuch but also Jubilees itself. Following Jubilees' own model of "authorship" and transmission, the authority of the Pentateuch and Enochic literature is subordinated to the 33

heavenly writings from which Jubilees also draws its authority. Does this subordination imply a challenge to Mosaic authority and/or Jubilees' affilia­ tion with a "Judaism" in which the Pentateuch was not always accepted as authoritative? To make such an argument, one would need to assume that the text of the Pentateuch was already accepted by other Jews, not just as an authoritative source for law, wisdom, and history, but as revealed and au­ thoritative in a unique sense not granted to any other books. Personally, I am not sure whether our data can bear the weight of such an assumption. In light of our evidence for the continued production and circulation of other revealed literature — in the second century and well beyond — we may not be able to assume that any book held a status akin to that of "the Bible" in the later Jewish and Christian sense of that term (i.e., an exclusively privi­ leged site for interpretation, the very text of which is sacred, immutable, and omni-significant); for, indeed, the boundaries of scriptural authority re-

31. Najman, Seconding Sinai, 16-69. 32. On the broader cultural context of the impulse to "back-date" Pentateuchal law, see J. C. VanderKam, "The Origins and Purpose of Jubilees," in his Textual and Historical Studies in the Book of Jubilees, 19-22; Kvanvig, "lubilees," 257-58. 33. Najman, "Angels at Sinai," 317-18; Himmelfarb, "Torah," 27. 365

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m a i n e d fluid for quite s o m e t i m e , a n d even a u t h o r i t a t i v e b o o k s c i r c u l a t e d in different

text-traditions.

34

It m a y be m o r e apt to a p p r o a c h the m i d - s e c o n d c e n t u r y B . C . E . as a m o m e n t in the p r e h i s t o r y of the b i b l i c a l c a n o n , m a r k e d b y d i v e r s i t y a n d d y ­ namism.

3 5

E v e n if all Jews a c c e p t e d the a u t h o r i t y o f the P e n t a t e u c h b y then,

it is likely that t h e y — like Jews a n d C h r i s t i a n s l o n g after t h e m — held a b r o a d r a n g e o f different o p i n i o n s a b o u t the precise n a t u r e of its authority, the s c o p e of k n o w l e d g e that c o u l d be g a i n e d f r o m it, its status in r e l a t i o n to other I s r a e l i t e / J e w i s h b o o k s , a n d its status in r e l a t i o n s h i p to n o n - J e w i s h books. In m y v i e w , the c o n t r a s t b e t w e e n " Z a d o k i t e J u d a i s m " a n d " E n o c h i c J u ­ d a i s m " p r o v e s helpful insofar as it forces us to take s e r i o u s l y the full r a n g e o f o u r extant e v i d e n c e , as n o w e x p a n d e d b y the D e a d S e a Scrolls. T h e r e is n o d o u b t that the s c h o l a r l y m o d e l p r o p o s e d b y B o c c a c c i n i also p u s h e s us to seek a n e w u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f texts t r a d i t i o n a l l y d i s m i s s e d as " O l d T e s t a m e n t P s e u d e p i g r a p h a " a n d w h a t t h e y m i g h t tell us a b o u t the r e l i g i o u s l a n d s c a p e of s e c o n d t e m p l e J u d a i s m . H i s t h e o r i e s e x p o s e the m e t h o d o l o g i c a l p r o b l e m s i n v o l v e d in a s s u m i n g , e v e n after the Q u m r a n d i s c o v e r i e s , that there w a s a single " n o r m a t i v e " or " m a i n s t r e a m " J u d a i s m in s e c o n d t e m p l e t i m e s f r o m w h i c h r a b b i n i c J u d a i s m d e v e l o p e d a n d f r o m w h i c h C h r i s t i a n i t y b r o k e . In a d d i t i o n , the v e r y idea of " E n o c h i c J u d a i s m " r e p r e s e n t s a b o l d — a n d n e c e s ­ s a r y — c h a l l e n g e to the often u n q u e s t i o n e d a s s u m p t i o n that the P e n t a t e u c h h e l d an e x c l u s i v e or central p o s i t i o n for all Jews in s e c o n d t e m p l e t i m e s . N e v e r t h e l e s s , it m a y be telling that Jubilees itself — as o u r m o s t e x ­ plicit early e v i d e n c e for the a c c e p t a n c e o f E n o c h i c b o o k s — p r e s e n t s the B o o k of the W a t c h e r s as c o n s o n a n t w i t h the P e n t a t e u c h a n d reads the t w o as s u p p l e m e n t a r y a c c o u n t s of e a r t h l y events as i n t e r p r e t e d f r o m a h e a v e n l y p e r s p e c t i v e . In the n a r r a t i v e p o r t i o n s o f J u b i l e e s , w e see s o m e hints that the text of the P e n t a t e u c h is g r a n t e d a level of a u t h o r i t y n o t g r a n t e d the text o f the B o o k of the W a t c h e r s .

36

Yet E n o c h i c m o d e l s are a r g u a b l y m o r e central

for the text's o v e r a r c h i n g d e p i c t i o n of t e x t u a l authority, its angelic m e d i a ­ tors, a n d its h u m a n a g e n t s .

37

J u b i l e e s ' d e p i c t i o n of angels a n d fallen angels

d r a w s h e a v i l y o n E n o c h i c m o d e l s . Yet it t r a n s f o r m s these m o d e l s b y s u b o r 34. Himmelfarb, "Torah," 28-29.

35. J. C. VanderKam, From Revelation Temple Literature,

to Canon:

Studies in Hebrew

Bible and

36. I. van Ruiten, "A Literary Dependency o f Jubilees on 1 Enoch?" in Enoch Qumran

Origins,

90-93.

37. Kvanvig, "Jubilees," esp. 260.

366

Second

JSJSup 62 (Leiden: Brill, 2 0 0 0 ) , 1-30.

and

Enochic and Mosaic Traditions in Jubilees dinating them to a theodicy more in line with the Deuteronomistic princi­ ple, and its depiction of demons falls closer to Job's image of the satan and to Deuteronomistic and prophetic views of the role of "the nations" in the his­ tory of Israel. Arguments for the superiority of one can readily be matched by arguments for the superiority of the other. If it is difficult to determine Jubilees' assessment of the relative worth of Enochic and Mosaic texts, this is perhaps not accidental. The task of weighing the relative worth of the constitutive elements of Israel's literary heritage does not seem particularly central for the text itself. Rather, the main function of Jubilees' epistemology — aside, of course, from asserting 38

its own authority — may be to argue that the Jewish people actually pos­ sessed a literary heritage that predated the life of Moses. Indeed, perhaps the most striking element of Jubilees' presentation of earthly knowledge is the categorical exclusion of all non-Jews from any claim to wisdom. True knowledge is here presented, always and everywhere, as a prerogative of the chosen people.

39

The trope of angelic revealers and

narrators serves to render the human practice of composing true writings inseparable from the heavenly practice of selecting worthy scribes. Likewise, the transmission of books on earth is shaped by decisions about the righ­ teousness of potential tradents. Noah, for instance, chooses to give the books that protect humankind from demons to Shem alone, thereby dooming Japheth and Ham to demonic destruction (10:14). Later, Jacob selects the righteous Levi (45:16). Jubilees thus asserts that Israel's ancestors were privy to angelic revela­ tions, which were regularly renewed and faithfully transmitted by the most worthy among them. By contrast, the closest thing that Gentiles have to re­ vealed wisdom is the corrupting knowledge about divination spread by fallen angels (8:3-4; n : 9 ) .

40

Within Jubilees, knowledge and chosenness are

coterminous categories, and Gentiles are excluded from both. Tacit is the suggestion that Jews have no need for the books or learning of Gentiles, whether philosophical, religious, or "scientific"; their own literary heritage includes information — directly from heaven — about astronomy, medi38. Najman, "Interpretation as Primordial Writing," 379-410. 39. For an elegant assessment of the broader cultural context of this concern, see Stuckenbruck in this volume. 40. This raises another possible reason that the teachings of the Watchers are here limited to divination — perhaps it was important for Jubilees to associate illicit angelic in­ struction with something that good Jews do «of practice; contrast, e.g., the association of the Watchers with metalworking in the Book of the Watchers (1 En 8:1). 367

Annette

Yoshiko Reed

cine, calendar, laws, h u m a n history, the beginning of time, and the end of the w o r l d . A s with its concerns for Jewish temptations to apostasy, this concern may well resonate with the temptations posed by Hellenistic culture in par­ ticular. In light of its calendar and its status at Q u m r a n , Jubilees has often been culled for hints of inner-Jewish schisms and debates. Yet, far from ex­ alting a righteous remnant, Jubilees depicts Israel as a unified whole — so m u c h so, in fact, that the sins of individuals threaten to defile the entire peo­ ple.

41

Perhaps tellingly, the only Jews actively excluded from the bounds of

Israel are those w h o exclude themselves, by choosing to abandon the marks of Jewish separateness (e.g., circumcision, Sabbath, e n d o g a m y ) . Like the an­ gels w h o lingered too long on earth in the days before the flood, some of the author's contemporaries m a y have found themselves tempted to join Gentiles in meals, marriage, festivals, and friendship. To them, Jubilees re­ veals the cosmic ramifications of such seemingly m u n d a n e acts: to follow "the ways of the nations" is to trade away the status of angels for the rule of demons.

41. Himmelfarb, A Kingdom of Priests, 51-84.

368

Worship in Jubilees and Enoch Erik Larson

Worship in Genesis was simple, direct, and personal. People sacrifice, set up a pillar and pour oil on it, pray, worship, prostrate themselves, and bless. There is only one priest of the true G o d mentioned in Genesis, Melchizedek. There is no one place where G o d is worshiped. Instead, there are many sites where altars are built and m a n y places where worship takes place such as M o u n t Ararat, Bethel, Beersheba, M a m r e , M o u n t Moriah, and Shechem. There are m a n y acts of sacrifice, but never is there an act of atonement in Genesis.

1

T h e question this paper seeks to address is h o w the b o o k of Jubilees re­ sponds to this situation. W h a t aspects of the worship of G o d does its author play up and what aspects does he minimize? A n d not only that, but whose worship does he play up and whose does he minimize? W e will then c o m ­ pare the results with how worship is described in the works that make up 1 Enoch.

Worship in Jubilees T h e sole act of worship attributed to A d a m in Jubilees is the burning of in­ cense. According to Jub 3:27, "On that day, as he was leaving the Garden of

1. The word kipper does occur in Gen 6:14 and 32:20. But in the first instance it refers to covering the ark with pitch, and in the second to Jacob's attempt at appeasing Esau when he goes back to the land of Canaan.

369

Erik

Larson

E d e n , he b u r n e d i n c e n s e as a p l e a s i n g f r a g r a n c e — f r a n k i n c e n s e , g a l b a n u m , stacte, a n d a r o m a t i c spices — in the early m o r n i n g w h e n the sun r o s e at the t i m e w h e n he c o v e r e d his s h a m e . "

2

O n e c o u l d h a v e h o p e d for m o r e . A s

A d a m w a s the first to b e a r the d i v i n e i m a g e a n d likeness, to see the p r i s t i n e s p l e n d o r of G o d ' s c r e a t i o n , a n d to c o m m u n i c a t e directly w i t h the C r e a t o r w i t h n o sense of guilt or s h a m e , his w o r s h i p before the fall c o u l d h a v e b e e n v e r y useful to the a u t h o r o f Jubilees as a p a t t e r n for all his posterity. B u t in­ stead w e catch o n l y a g l i m p s e o f the w o r s h i p of P a r a d i s e as A d a m is o n his w a y out. It is m o r e t h a n w e l e a r n f r o m G e n e s i s . A c u r i o u s b e g i n n i n g , b u t a b e g i n n i n g n o n e t h e l e s s . A d a m is a p r i e s t .

3

T h e earliest rite of w o r s h i p , for the a u t h o r of J u b i l e e s , is the b u r n i n g of i n c e n s e . W h a t is the r e a s o n for this? O n e p o s s i b l e a n s w e r is that at the t i m e of A d a m h u m a n s w e r e n o t a l l o w e d to eat a n i m a l s a n d so it w a s n o t fitting for A d a m to offer u p a n i m a l sacrifice. F u l l use of a n i m a l s w o u l d c o m e i n the days of N o a h , a n d for the a u t h o r of Jubilees he w o u l d b e the first to offer t h e m . T h e p r o b l e m w i t h this s o l u t i o n is the sacrifice of C a i n a n d A b e l , w h i c h is p r e - N o a c h i c . O n e c o u l d persist b y n o t i n g that w h i l e the w o r d " s a c r i f i c e " is u s e d in the Jubilees a c c o u n t o f C a i n a n d A b e l , it is n o w h e r e explicitly stated w h a t those sacrifices w e r e . B u t s e v e r a l p a s s a g e s in Jubilees s e e m to p r e s u p ­ p o s e that the reader has k n o w l e d g e of G e n e s i s , a n d the C a i n a n d A b e l s t o r y is likely o n e o f t h e m . A l t e r n a t i v e l y , a n o t h e r r e a s o n for i n c e n s e m i g h t b e that the w o r s h i p of the first h u m a n s h o u l d c o m e closest to that o f h e a v e n , a n d in h e a v e n n o a n i m a l sacrifices are m a d e . P e r h a p s . T h a t A d a m b u r n s the i n c e n s e o n his w a y o u t of E d e n is significant since a c c o r d i n g to J u b 4:26, this is o n e o f the four places o n earth that b e ­ l o n g s to the L o r d . It is w h e r e E n o c h offers his sacrifice as w e l l . A d a m p e r ­ f o r m s his act of w o r s h i p at the rising of the s u n , as w o u l d later be c o m ­ m a n d e d in E x o d 3 0 : 7 . A s n o t e d , the first sacrifice a c c o r d i n g to G e n e s i s is offered b y C a i n a n d A b e l . In G e n 4:3-5 the H e b r e w minchah

is u s e d to d e s c r i b e the offerings o f

b o t h b r o t h e r s . T h i s w o r d c a n m e a n either a sacrifice or a n o n s a c r a l gift. In the L X X this d i s t i n c t i o n is r e c o g n i z e d so that minchah

is translated either b y

thusia ( 1 4 0 t i m e s ) or doron (30 t i m e s ) . Interestingly, the L X X refers to C a i n ' s offering as thusia

a n d A b e l ' s as down,

likely to e m p h a s i z e that there w a s a

2. All quotations of Jubilees are from J. C. VanderKam, The Book of Jubilees, C S C O 511 (Louvain: Peeters, 1989). 3. This becomes clear by comparison with the author's description in Jub 4:25 o f E n o c h as a priest who offered incense, on which see the discussion below.

370

Worship

in Jubilees

and

Enoch

d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n w h a t the t w o b r o t h e r s p r e s e n t e d to G o d . B u t n o a t t e m p t at differentiation is f o u n d i n J u b 4:2 w h e r e A b e l ' s offering is referred to as a sacrifice. T h i s agrees w i t h J o s e p h u s , w h o l i k e w i s e refers to the a c t i o n s o f b o t h b r o t h e r s u s i n g the w o r d s thuein

a n d thusia

{Ant 1.54). M o r e i m p o r ­

tantly, h o w e v e r , the a u t h o r o f J u b i l e e s has p a s s e d o v e r a n o p p o r t u n i t y to e x ­ plain h o w the p r a c t i c e o f sacrifice c a m e into b e i n g a n d w h a t it is that m a k e s a sacrifice a c c e p t a b l e o r u n a c c e p t a b l e .

4

In the g e n e r a t i o n after C a i n a n d A b e l , i n the days o f E n o s h , a p r a c t i c e 5

to call u p o n the n a m e o f the L o r d w a s b e g u n ( G e n 4 : 2 6 ) . S o b e g i n s c o m m u ­ n i c a t i o n w i t h G o d b y m e a n s o f s p e e c h , o r w o r s h i p o f the w o r d . J u b i l e e s notes the fact w i t h o u t further c o m m e n t , m e r e l y c h a n g i n g the indefinite " w a s b e g u n " to specify E n o s h himself: " H e w a s the first o n e to call o n the L o r d ' s n a m e o n the earth" ( J u b 4 : 1 2 ) . Interestingly, i n all the o t h e r p a s s a g e s in G e n e s i s w h e r e " c a l l i n g o n the n a m e o f the L o r d " is m e n t i o n e d , it is i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h the b u i l d i n g o f a n altar ( G e n 12:8; 1 3 : 4 ; 2 6 : 2 5 ) . T h e a u t h o r of J u b i l e e s i n c l u d e s all three o f these p a s s a g e s i n h i s retelling a n d a d d s i n c h a n g e s o f his o w n . I n the first t w o , w h i c h m e n t i o n A b r a h a m ' s w o r s h i p , the w r i t e r gives the a c t u a l w o r d s o f A b r a h a m ' s a d d r e s s to G o d a n d e x p l i c i t l y states that sacrifice w a s offered. T h e t h i r d r e g a r d s I s a a c , a n d o n e c a n see the changes below:

Gen 26:25

J u b 24:23

" S o h e built a n altar there, called o n

" T h e r e h e built the altar w h i c h his

the n a m e of the L O R D , a n d p i t c h e d

father A b r a h a m h a d first built. H e

his tent there."

called o n the L o r d ' s n a m e a n d offered a sacrifice to the G o d o f his father A b r a h a m . "

4. Gary Herion, in considering Genesis, has suggested the very simple and appealing answer that Cain's sacrifice was unacceptable because it was an offering from the ground that until the time o f Noah lay under a curse. T h e curse lasted from the time o f Gen 3:17 un­ til Noah's sacrifice, which elicited God's promise never again to curse the ground. If this so­ lution works for Genesis, it works even better for Jubilees where the atoning significance o f Noah's sacrificing is stressed. Cf. G. Herion, "Why God Rejected Cain's Offering: T h e Obvi­ ous Answer," in Fortunate bration

of His Seventieth

the Eyes That See: Essays in Honor of David Birthday,

Noel Freedman

in Cele­

ed. Astrid B. Beck, Andrew H. Bartelt, Paul R. Raabe, and

Chris A. Franke (Grand Rapids: E e r d m a n s , 1995), 52-65. 5. So MT, though the text is somewhat ambiguous. Cf. the discussion in S. Fraade, "Enosh and His Generation Revisited," in Biblical

Figures

outside

the Bible, ed. M. E. Stone

and T. Bergren (Harrisburg, Pa.: Trinity, 1 9 9 8 ) , 6 0 - 6 1 .

371

Erik

Larson

In this i n s t a n c e , the w o r d s o f the p r a y e r are not g i v e n , b u t sacrifice is s p e c i ­ fied o n c e a g a i n . M o r e i m p o r t a n t l y , the a u t h o r t w i c e m e n t i o n s A b r a h a m to e m p h a s i z e the c o n t i n u a t i o n

b e t w e e n the practices o f Isaac a n d his father.

T h e fact that n o such c o n n e c t i o n s are m a d e b e t w e e n the calling of E n o s h a n d that of A b r a h a m / I s a a c invites s p e c u l a t i o n . It c o u l d be that he w a s a w a r e of the t r a d i t i o n f o u n d in the later r a b b i n i c w r i t i n g s that G e n 4:26 a c t u a l l y 6

d e s c r i b e s the b e g i n n i n g of i d o l a t r y . B u t the fact that he a c k n o w l e d g e s that E n o s h called o n the L o r d w o u l d m e a n that he d i d n o t agree w i t h that inter­ p r e t a t i o n . T h i s is further s u p p o r t e d b y the fact that in J u b 1 9 : 2 4 - 2 5 , a p a s s a g e not

paraphrasing

Genesis, Abraham

d e s c r i b e s his l i n e a g e as

running

through Shem, N o a h , E n o c h , Malaleel, E n o s , Seth, and A d a m . E n o c h plays a significant role in J u b i l e e s , as is w e l l k n o w n . A b o u t his w o r s h i p J u b 4:25 states, " H e [ E n o c h ] b u r n e d the e v e n i n g i n c e n s e of the 7

s a n c t u a r y w h i c h is acceptable before the L o r d o n the m o u n t a i n of

incense!'

T h e c o n t e x t indicates that this m o u n t a i n is in or n e a r E d e n . J u b 4:26 g o e s o n to s a y that there are f o u r places o n earth w h e r e the L o r d w i l l accept sacrifice: the G a r d e n of E d e n , the m o u n t a i n o f the east ( p r o b a b l y M o u n t L u b a r , w h e r e 8

the ark c o m e s to rest in J u b 5:28 a n d w h e r e N o a h w i l l s a c r i f i c e ) , M o u n t S i ­ n a i , a n d M o u n t Z i o n . C l e a r l y E n o c h is a p r i e s t . T h e offering u p o f i n c e n s e c o n n e c t s his a c t i v i t y w i t h that o f A d a m . T h e c o m p l e m e n t a r y n a t u r e o f their w o r s h i p is s h o w n b y the fact that A d a m b u r n e d his i n c e n s e in the m o r n i n g ( E x o d 30:7) w h i l e E n o c h offers incense in the e v e n i n g ( E x o d 3 o : 8 ) .

9

T h e a u t h o r o f Jubilees c e r t a i n l y k n e w a b o u t s e v e r a l of the texts that 6. Cf. Fraade, "Enosh," 74-80 and 81 n. 7 1 . 7. R. H. Charles (The Book of Jubilees

or the Little Genesis [London: A d a m 8c Charles

Black, 1 9 0 2 ] , 39) suggested, and O. W i n t e r m u t e ("Jubilees," in OTP 2:63 n. n ) attempted to demonstrate, that E n o c h offered incense o n the m o u n t o f the east. Charles further proposed as one possibility that this m o u n t was close to Eden. W i n t e r m u t e on the other hand leaned toward Taima/Teiman in Arabia due to its connections with the spice trade. But since Jub 3:27 already has Adam burning precisely incense in Eden, we should not rule out Eden since 4:23-24 clearly locates him there. If E n o c h is in Eden, then we can see the m o u n t o f the east as another place, and I prefer Ararat since it is where Jubilees has N o a h offer his sacrifice. This is another o f Charles's alternatives. F o r a full discussion o f the view that E n o c h is in Eden, cf. J. C. VanderKam, Enoch and the Growth

of an Apocalyptic

Tradition,

C B Q M S 16

(Washington, D.C.: Catholic Biblical Association, 1984), 184-88. 8. That the mountain of the east is not near the other three places mentioned here is also indicated from Jub 8:19, which says that Eden, Mount Sinai, and M o u n t Zion all face each other. The only one not mentioned is the m o u n t a i n of the east, which is most likely M o u n t Ararat referred to in 8:21. 9. For the textual problem regarding the phrase "evening incense of the sanctuary," cf. the discussion in VanderKam, The Book of Jubilees,

372

28.

Worship presently m a k e u p the w o r k w e refer to as 1 E n o c h .

1 0

in Jubilees

and Enoch

B u t the idea of E n o c h as

priest d i d n o t c o m e f r o m l E n o c h . A n d there is n o m e n t i o n i n a n y o f the i n ­ d i v i d u a l E n o c h i c d o c u m e n t s that he offered incense o r sacrifice o f any k i n d . H o w e v e r , they d o state m a n y times that E n o c h b l e s s e d a n d p r a i s e d G o d , ei­ ther as a result o f his b e h o l d i n g the o r d e r a n d g l o r y o f creation ( l E n 36:4; 81:3; 8 3 : 1 1 - 8 4 : 3 ) o r b e c a u s e o f the r e v e l a t i o n o f G o d ' s justice in j u d g i n g the 2

:

2

:

w i c k e d a n d r e w a r d i n g the r i g h t e o u s (22:14; 5 7 J 7 5 ! 81:3; 9 0 : 4 0 ) . T h e a u t h o r of Jubilees passes over in silence this aspect o f E n o c h ' s w o r s h i p . G e n e s i s gives m o r e attention to N o a h t h a n to a n y o n e p r e v i o u s . J u b i ­ lees f o l l o w s suit. T h e first a n d o n l y act o f w o r s h i p p e r f o r m e d b y N o a h i n G e n e s i s is sacrifice. H e r e is a c o m p a r i s o n b e t w e e n w h a t w e find i n G e n e s i s a n d w h a t is in J u b i l e e s :

Gen 8:20-21

Jub 6:1-4

" T h e n N o a h built a n altar to the

" O n the first o f the third m o n t h he

L O R D , a n d t o o k of every clean

left the a r k a n d built a n altar o n this

a n i m a l a n d o f every clean bird, a n d

m o u n t a i n . H e appeared o n the

offered b u r n t offerings o n the altar.

earth, t o o k a k i d , a n d a t o n e d w i t h

And

its b l o o d for all the sins o f the earth

w h e n the L O R D s m e l l e d the

pleasing odor, the L O R D said in his

b e c a u s e everything that w a s o n it

heart, T w i l l never again curse the

h a d b e e n obliterated except for

g r o u n d b e c a u s e o f h u m a n k i n d , for

those w h o w e r e in the a r k w i t h

the inclination o f the h u m a n heart

N o a h . H e placed the fat o n the altar.

is evil from y o u t h .

T h e n he t o o k a bull, a r a m , a sheep, goats, salt, a turtledove, a n d a dove and offered (them as) a b u r n t offering o n the altar. H e p o u r e d o n them an offering m i x e d with oil, sprinkled with wine, and put frankincense o n e v e r y t h i n g . H e sent u p a pleasant fragrance that was pleasing before the L o r d . T h e L o r d smelled the pleasant fragrance a n d m a d e a covenant w i t h h i m that there w o u l d b e n o flood waters w h i c h w o u l d destroy the earth. . . ."

1 0 . Cf. J. C. VanderKam, Enoch: A Man Jor All Generations

(Columbia: University o f

South Carolina Press, 1995), 1 1 0 - 2 1 .

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N o a h ' s a c t i o n s in Jubilees are m u c h m o r e explicit t h a n w h a t w e find in G e n ­ esis. H e m a k e s a t o n e m e n t for the sins of the e a r t h .

11

H e offers sacrifices o f

o n l y the a n i m a l s that are later p r e s c r i b e d b y the T o r a h . A n d the details a b o u t the w i n e , oil, a n d f r a n k i n c e n s e are l i k e w i s e in a c c o r d w i t h w h a t is f o u n d in the T o r a h (cf. E x o d 2 9 : 4 0 ) . C l e a r l y N o a h j o i n s the r a n k s of the p r e - M o s a i c priests a l o n g w i t h A d a m a n d E n o c h .

1 2

T h e c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n N o a h a n d E n o c h is p a r t i c u l a r l y stressed b y the a u t h o r o f J u b i l e e s . In J u b 7:38-39 N o a h says the a g r i c u l t u r a l laws he gave to his s o n s in the p r e c e d i n g verses c a m e o r i g i n a l l y from E n o c h . A n d in J u b 2 1 : 1 0 , w h e r e A b r a h a m i n s t r u c t s I s a a c a b o u t the p r o p e r w a y to sacrifice, he says, "All w h o eat it [a p e a c e offering left until the third d a y ] w i l l b r i n g guilt on t h e m s e l v e s b e c a u s e this is the w a y I f o u n d (it) w r i t t e n in the b o o k of m y a n c e s t o r s , in the w o r d s of E n o c h a n d the w o r d s o f N o a h . " Priestly k n o w l e d g e c o m e s to the c h o s e n p e o p l e v i a E n o c h a n d N o a h . T h e sacrifice of N o a h is f o l l o w e d b y the w e l l - k n o w n p r o h i b i t i o n of eat­ ing m e a t w i t h b l o o d in it. In Jubilees, n o t o n l y is N o a h g i v e n this c o m m a n d , b u t he a n d his s o n s s w e a r that they will k e e p it as a c o v e n a n t forever ( J u b 6 : 1 0 ) , a detail n o t f o u n d in G e n e s i s . T h i s c o v e n a n t w i t h N o a h , as those w i t h A b r a h a m ( 1 4 : 2 0 ) a n d M o s e s ( 1 : 1 ) , is p l a c e d in the third m o n t h . A s a y e a r l y re­ n e w a l o f it, N o a h a n d his s o n s kept the Feast of W e e k s ( 6 : 1 7 - 1 8 ) . B u t w h e n N o a h d i e d , his s o n s b o t h left off o b s e r v i n g the feast a n d v i o l a t e d the p r o h i b i ­ tion of eating m e a t w i t h b l o o d . T h e Feast o f W e e k s w o u l d b e o b s e r v e d again o n l y w h e n A b r a h a m , I s a a c , a n d J a c o b r e v i v e d it ( 6 : 1 9 ) . T h e i m p l i c a t i o n s e e m s to be that n o w o n l y the Israelites h a v e the right to celebrate this festival (as al­ r e a d y indicated in 6 : 1 4 ) . T h i s is s i m i l a r to the s e n t i m e n t expressed earlier in Jubilees a b o u t the S a b b a t h . J u b 2:30-33 b e g i n s b y s a y i n g that the S a b b a t h has been g i v e n to all h u m a n i t y , but q u i c k l y c h a n g e s to say that G o d "did n o t s a n c ­ tify any p e o p l e ( s ) a n d n a t i o n s to keep S a b b a t h o n it except Israel alone." So does this m e a n that the a u t h o r of Jubilees s a w n o w o r s h i p o f G o d fitting

for G e n t i l e s ? W e r e they c o m p l e t e l y shut out? A p p a r e n t l y n o t . Jub 7:20

states: " D u r i n g the t w e n t y - e i g h t h j u b i l e e N o a h b e g a n to p r e s c r i b e for his g r a n d s o n s the o r d i n a n c e s a n d the c o m m a n d m e n t s — e v e r y statute w h i c h he k n e w . H e testified to his s o n s that t h e y s h o u l d do w h a t is right, cover the s h a m e of their b o d i e s , bless the o n e w h o h a d created t h e m , h o n o r father a n d a

11. lQapGen 10:13 l s ° refers to Noah atoning for the earth. 12. D. Dimant, "Noah in Early Jewish Literature," in Biblical

Figures outside the

Bible,

142, notes the association of Noah with proper calendar and calendrical calculation in Jubi­ lees and concludes, "Noah was, then, the one best qualified for celebrating festivals, namely, for functioning as a priest."

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Worship

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and

Enoch

m o t h e r , love o n e another, a n d k e e p t h e m s e l v e s f r o m f o r n i c a t i o n , u n c l e a n ness, a n d f r o m all injustice." T h i s p a s s a g e i n d i c a t e s that b l e s s i n g G o d w a s as i n c u m b e n t on h u m a n i t y after the f l o o d as c o v e r i n g one's b o d y a n d h o n o r i n g father a n d m o t h e r . A u n i v e r s a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y . G e n e s i s reveals m o r e o f A b r a h a m ' s w o r s h i p t h a n of a n y other c h a r a c ­ ter. T h e a c t i v i t y m o s t c o m m o n l y a t t r i b u t e d to h i m is sacrifice. T h e r e are six i n s t a n c e s w h e r e A b r a h a m offers sacrifice in G e n e s i s a n d s e v e n in J u b i l e e s :

Genesis

Jubilees

12:7

13H

Shechem

12:8

137-9 13:15-16

Bethel

13:3-4 13:18

Location

Bethel Hebron

15:7-21

22:13

14:7-20

Hebron

1 5 : 1 - 2 Weeks

Hebron

1 6 : 2 0 - 3 1 Tabernacles

Beersheba

18:12 Passover

M o u n t a i n in M o r i a h

Just as w a s the case w i t h N o a h , A b r a h a m t o o keeps the F e a s t o f W e e k s . B u t w i t h N o a h the text o f G e n e s i s p r o v i d e d a nice l e a d - i n r e g a r d i n g the date w i t h its s t a t e m e n t that the f l o o d h a d s u b s i d e d a n d the earth w a s d r y at the e n d of the s e c o n d m o n t h . T h e c o v e n a n t of G e n 8:20 c o u l d therefore

be

p l a c e d at the b e g i n n i n g of the third m o n t h a n d u n d e r s t o o d as the Feast o f Weeks. For A b r a h a m , Jubilees manufactures

an entirely n e w occasion,

t h o u g h c o m i n g close o n the heels o f the c o v e n a n t c e r e m o n y d e s c r i b e d in Gen

15:7-21 ( = Jub 14:7-20). A n e w feast instituted b y A b r a h a m is the Feast o f T a b e r n a c l e s . T h e

event is g i v e n o n l y the slightest c o n n e c t i o n to the text of G e n e s i s in that it takes p l a c e w h e n A b r a h a m a n d S a r a h are r e j o i c i n g at the i m m i n e n t b i r t h of I s a a c . T h e feast is celebrated in B e e r s h e b a , a n d Jubilees tells us that A b r a h a m built an altar there, t h o u g h n o m e n t i o n of this is f o u n d in G e n e s i s . B u t for the feast to b e o b s e r v e d p r o p e r l y the a u t h o r n e e d s an altar, a n d since I s a a c was k n o w n to h a v e built o n e there later ( G e n 2 6 : 2 5 ) , it w a s easy e n o u g h to a s s u m e that A b r a h a m b u i l t o n e too (cf. J u b 2 4 : 2 3 ) .

13. A l s o G e n 21:33,

a

1 3

B e e r s h e b a w a s also the

verse not used in Jubilees, does associate A b r a h a m w i t h w o r s h i p

in B e e r s h e b a in that he planted a t a m a r i s k tree a n d called u p o n the n a m e o f the L o r d there. Since the latter activity is often c o n n e c t e d w i t h b u i l d i n g an altar, it w o u l d b e easy e n o u g h to i m a g i n e that an altar w a s built in this instance as well.

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p l a c e w h e r e A b r a h a m w a s the first to celebrate the Feast of U n l e a v e n e d B r e a d ( J u b 1 8 : 1 8 - 1 9 ) j u s t after the sacrifice of I s a a c o n M o u n t Z i o n , w h i c h the a u t h o r of Jubilees c o n n e c t s w i t h P a s s o v e r ( J u b 1 8 : 1 - 1 3 ) .

1 4

In c o n n e c t i o n w i t h t w o of the sacrificial o c c a s i o n s in the table a b o v e , A b r a h a m is also said to call u p o n the n a m e o f the L o r d ( G e n 1 2 : 8 ; 1 3 : 4 ) . B u t in neither of these d o e s G e n e s i s tell w h a t A b r a h a m s a i d . Jubilees fills in the l a c u n a e . In the first he says, " Y o u , m y G o d , are the eternal G o d , " a n d in the s e c o n d , " Y o u , L o r d , m o s t h i g h G o d , are m y G o d forever a n d e v e r " ( J u b 13:8, 1 6 ) . In fact, in Jubilees A b r a h a m ' s v e r y first r e a c h i n g o u t to G o d is t h r o u g h prayer. A s he realized the errors of p a g a n i s m , "he b e g a n to p r a y to the cre­ ator of all that he w o u l d save h i m f r o m the errors of m a n k i n d " ( J u b 1 1 : 1 7 ) . S o m e y e a r s later, as he l o o k e d u p a n d o b s e r v e d the stars: " T h a t n i g h t he p r a y e d a n d s a i d : M y G o d , m y G o d , G o d m o s t H i g h , Y o u a l o n e are m y G o d . Y o u h a v e created e v e r y t h i n g ; e v e r y t h i n g that w a s a n d has b e e n is the p r o d u c t of y o u r h a n d s . Y o u a n d y o u r l o r d s h i p I h a v e c h o s e n . Save m e f r o m the p o w e r of the evil spirits w h o rule the t h o u g h t s o f p e o p l e ' s m i n d s . M a y t h e y n o t m i s l e a d m e f r o m f o l l o w i n g y o u , m y G o d . D o establish m e a n d m y p o s t e r i t y forever. M a y w e n o t go astray f r o m n o w u n t i l eternity" ( J u b 1 2 : 1 9 - 2 0 ) . In re­ s p o n s e to this prayer, G o d calls A b r a h a m to leave U r a n d p r o m i s e s to m a k e of h i m a g r e a t p e o p l e . N o t o n l y is A b r a h a m a m a n o f prayer, b u t he is a m a n of b l e s s i n g as w e l l . S i x t i m e s Jubilees says that A b r a h a m " b l e s s e d the L o r d " (13:7; 1 3 : 1 5 ; 1

:2

1 6 : 2 6 - 2 7 ; 7 ~3i

2 2 : 4 - 6 ; 2 3 : 1 ) , w h e r e a s the v e r b is n e v e r u s e d w i t h A b r a h a m as

s u b j e c t in G e n e s i s . M o r e o v e r , as is fitting i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h the j o y o u s Feast of T a b e r n a c l e s , each m o r n i n g d u r i n g the festival " h e w o u l d give p r a i s e a n d j o y f u l l y offer h u m b l e t h a n k s to his G o d for e v e r y t h i n g " ( J u b 1 6 : 3 1 ) . If, there­ fore, Jubilees e n h a n c e s the p o r t r a y a l o f A b r a h a m ' s w o r s h i p t h r o u g h s a c r i ­ fice, it d o e s so even m o r e w i t h r e g a r d to A b r a h a m ' s s p o k e n acts o f w o r s h i p . In contrast, h o w e v e r , the r e m a r k a b l e p r a y e r s of the u n n a m e d s e r v a n t w h o goes to H a r a n to get a wife for I s a a c in G e n 24 are totally o m i t t e d f r o m the a c c o u n t in J u b i l e e s . A n d w h i l e o t h e r e x p l a n a t i o n s are p o s s i b l e , o n e w o n ­ ders if s o m e of the l a c k of interest is d u e to the fact that the s e r v a n t w a s n o t f r o m the c h o s e n l i n e .

1 5

14. Cf. B. H a l p e r n - A m a r u , "The Festivals o f Pesah and Massot in the Book o f Jubi­ lees," in this volume. 15. Betsy H a l p e r n - A m a r u suggests that the main cause o f the author's disapproval was the irregularity o f the way the marriage arrangements were m a d e , though apparently Josephus did n o t share this feeling since he includes the servant's prayers in his account in Ant 1.242-255.

376

Worship in Jubilees and Enoch Of all the Gentiles mentioned in connection with Abraham, the most interesting and important is Melchizedek. Genesis clearly acknowledges him as a true priest of God and records that he blessed God (Gen 14:20). If Melchizedek's role is lessened and his blessing of God passed over in silence, one could argue that there was an intentional effort to minimize mention of Gentiles offering acceptable worship to God. Unfortunately, there is a lacuna in all known manuscripts of Jubilees here that keeps us from knowing whether Melchizedek was described as a true priest of God and whether the words of his blessing were recounted. The only thing we know for sure is that Abraham gave Melchizedek the tithe from his spoils. Still, there is no men­ 16

tion of Melchizedek elsewhere in Jubilees, as there is of Enoch and Noah. And unlike Enoch and Noah, Melchizedek is not said to have passed down writings, or regulations about sacrificial procedure and worship, or predic­ tions about future events. These facts justify the conclusion that the figure of Melchizedek was not of special significance for the author of Jubilees in es­ tablishing true religion, either among the Gentiles or among the children of Abraham. So the question remains whether with the advent of Abraham and the concept of the chosen people, there is any role left for the Gentiles in the worship of the true and living God. The answer is difficult to discern. At the end of his life, Abraham keeps the Feast of Weeks one last time with his sons Isaac and Ishmael. After he ate of the feast prepared by Isaac, "he blessed the most high God who created the heavens and the earth, who made all the fat things of the earth, and gave them to mankind to eat, drink, and bless their Creator" (Jub 2 2 : 6 ) . We might think from this that the principle of blessing God holds for all mankind, but this is countered by the fact that Abraham's blessing is connected to a feast that would later serve to mark Israel as God's covenant people. This point is strengthened when we note that eating, drinking, and blessing the Creator are activities connected with the Sabbath in Jub 2:21, which is given only to Israel. Moreover, just a little later Abraham on his deathbed addresses Jacob and warns him to separate from the na­ tions, "for all their actions are something that is impure, and all their ways are defiled and something abominable and detestable" (22:16). Then follows a denunciation of their sacrifices made to the dead and their worship offered

16. There is no indication that the author of Jubilees equated Melchizedek with Shem, as later the rabbis would do, in order to explain that his priesthood passed to Levi. Cf. F. L. Horton, The Melchizedek Tradition, SNTSMS 3 0 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1976), 114-24.

377

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Larson

to d e m o n s ( 2 2 : 1 7 - 2 2 ) . It is difficult to see h o w the w o r s h i p o f p e o p l e w h o are d e s c r i b e d in these t e r m s c o u l d ever b e a c c e p t a b l e to G o d .

1 7

F a r less space is d e v o t e d to Isaac t h a n to either A b r a h a m or J a c o b in G e n e s i s . T h e s a m e is true in J u b i l e e s . O n e a d d i t i o n Jubilees d o e s m a k e in its a c c o u n t of I s a a c is his c e l e b r a t i o n of the Feast of W e e k s w i t h A b r a h a m j u s t b e f o r e his death, as m e n t i o n e d in the p r e v i o u s p a r a g r a p h . A l t h o u g h b o t h I s h m a e l a n d I s a a c c o m e to H e b r o n , it is I s a a c w h o s l a u g h t e r s the sacrifice o n his father's altar there. A n d it is I s a a c w h o p r e p a r e s "a j o y f u l feast in front o f his b r o t h e r I s h m a e l " ( J u b 2 2 : 3 - 4 ) . T h e p a s s i v e i n v o l v e m e n t of I s h m a e l s h o w s the future c o u r s e of his d e s c e n d a n t s a w a y f r o m the s e r v i c e of G o d . T h i s m a y also e x p l a i n w h y in J u b 2 0 : 1 - 9 A b r a h a m c o m m a n d s b o t h I s h m a e l a n d I s a a c to c i r c u m c i s e their c h i l d r e n a n d w o r s h i p the M o s t H i g h G o d rather t h a n i d o l s , a l t h o u g h in J u b 15:30, in the m i d s t o f a n o t h e r p a s s a g e d e a l i n g w i t h cir­ c u m c i s i o n , the r e v e a l i n g a n g e l says G o d d i d n o t c h o o s e to give the c o v e n a n t to I s h m a e l or E s a u , b u t c h o s e Israel instead. T h i s w r i t i n g o u t o f the G e n t i l e s b y the a u t h o r o f Jubilees c o n t i n u e s in the n a r r a t i v e a b o u t J a c o b . T h i s m a y b e seen w h e n J a c o b leaves H a r a n a n d is p u r s u e d b y his f a t h e r - i n - l a w L a b a n . In G e n 31:53 L a b a n a n d J a c o b s w e a r an oath b y "the G o d o f A b r a h a m a n d the G o d o f N a h o r . " B u t Jubilees s i m p l y says, " J a c o b s w o r e to L a b a n a n d L a b a n to J a c o b " ( J u b 2 9 : 7 ) . A l s o , in Jubilees J a c o b does n o t ask his k i n s f o l k to h e l p b u i l d the h e a p of s t o n e s that is to s t a n d as a w i t n e s s b e t w e e n h i m s e l f a n d L a b a n ( J u b 29:8). J a c o b is thus cleared of i n v o l v e m e n t in any act that m i g h t c o n n e c t h i m w i t h the r e l i g i o n of his father-in-law, w h o after all w a s a p a g a n .

1 8

M o s t significant is the retelling of the story of D i n a h ' s r a p e b y S h e c h e m a n d the r e v e n g e taken b y L e v i a n d S i m e o n . T w o p o i n t s stand out. First, in J u ­ bilees, i m m e d i a t e l y after the basic s t o r y has been told, the a n g e l of the p r e s ­ ence, w h o is relating it to M o s e s , b r e a k s in to give a d i s c o u r s e a b o u t the evil o f i n t e r m a r r i a g e . H e w a r n s : " I f o n e does this or shuts his eyes to those w h o d o i m p u r e things a n d w h o defile the L o r d ' s s a n c t u a r y a n d to those w h o p r o f a n e his h o l y n a m e , then the entire n a t i o n will be c o n d e m n e d together b e c a u s e o f all this i m p u r i t y a n d this c o n t a m i n a t i o n . T h e r e w i l l b e n o f a v o r i t i s m n o r p a r -

17. Cf. also Jub 15:26-34 where, although it is stated that all nations belong to God (v. 3 1 ) , circumcision is given to Israel in order to make them like the angels who were created circumcised (v. 2 7 ) . All those not part of this human-angelic assembly, i.e., the Gentiles, are destined for destruction. If true worship is to imitate or join with the angels, then it would seem the Gentiles are excluded from it. 18. Cf. also Jub 3 1 : 2 , which explicitly says the idols Rachel stole from her father were destroyed later on.

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and

Enoch

tiality; there will b e n o r e c e i v i n g from h i m o f fruit, sacrifices, offerings, fat, o r the a r o m a of pleasing fragrance so that he s h o u l d accept it. ( S o ) is any m a n or w o m a n in Israel to b e w h o defiles his s a n c t u a r y " ( J u b 3 0 : 1 5 - 1 6 ) . Clearly, for the a u t h o r o f Jubilees the entire sacrificial system is threatened b y i n t e r m a r ­ r i a g e . S e c o n d , the a n g e l a n n o u n c e s that L e v i a n d his d e s c e n d a n t s are d e s t i n e d for the p r i e s t h o o d b e c a u s e of his desire to see j u s t i c e d o n e ( J u b 3 0 : 1 8 ) . T h e p r e d i c t i o n m a d e is fulfilled in J u b 3 2 , t h o u g h for a different r e a s o n . R a c h e l is p r e g n a n t w i t h B e n j a m i n a n d J a c o b is g i v i n g his tithe of all he h a d to the L o r d , i n c l u d i n g p e o p l e . C o u n t i n g his s o n s in o r d e r from B e n j a m i n u p , the tenth w a s L e v i a n d so L e v i b e c o m e s priest (32:3). J a c o b gives the tithe to h i m , a n d he acts as priest in the p r e s e n c e of his father ( 3 2 : 8 - 9 ) . A l l this h a p p e n s d u r i n g the seventh m o n t h , the t i m e of the Feast of T a b e r n a c l e s , at B e t h e l . J a ­ cob has it in m i n d to b u i l d a p e r m a n e n t s a n c t u a r y in B e t h e l , b u t is told b y G o d in a d r e a m n o t to do it. A s readers, w e k n o w w h y : it is not o n e o f the four places o n earth that b e l o n g to the L o r d , a c c o r d i n g to J u b 4:26. W h i l e J a c o b k e e p s the Feast of T a b e r n a c l e s j u s t as A b r a h a m d i d , there is a n e w o b s e r v a n c e a t t r i b u t e d to h i m as well. A n d it t o o o c c u r s in the sev­ e n t h m o n t h . O n the tenth o f this m o n t h , J a c o b ' s s o n s falsely tell h i m o f the death o f J o s e p h , w h e n t h e y h a d really s o l d h i m into slavery. T h e guilt t h e y i n c u r r e d b y c a u s i n g their father s u c h g r i e f w o u l d b e r e m o v e d b y an act o f sacrificial a t o n e m e n t , b e i n g r e m e m b e r e d b y their d e s c e n d a n t s in a n a n n u a l D a y of A t o n e m e n t . In the w o r d s of the a n g e l : " T h i s d a y h a s b e e n o r d a i n e d so that they m a y b e s a d d e n e d o n it for their sins, all their t r a n s g r e s s i o n s , a n d all their e r r o r s ; so that they m a y p u r i f y t h e m s e l v e s o n this d a y o n c e a y e a r " ( J u b 3 4 : 1 9 ; cf. also 5 : 1 7 - 1 8 ) . Still, J o s e p h w a s not dead, a n d a j o y f u l r e u n i o n w i t h his father eventually results. G e n 46:30 reports the w o r d s of J a c o b u p o n their m e e t i n g as follows, " N o w I can die, h a v i n g seen for m y s e l f that y o u are still alive." B u t Jubilees e x ­ p a n d s this greatly: "Israel said to J o s e p h , ' N o w let m e die after I h a v e seen y o u . N o w m a y the L o r d , the G o d o f Israel, the G o d of A b r a h a m , a n d the G o d of Isaac — w h o has not w i t h h e l d his k i n d n e s s a n d his m e r c y from his s e r v a n t J a ­ cob — be blessed. . . . M a y the L o r d m y G o d be blessed forever a n d ever a n d m a y his n a m e be b l e s s e d . ' . . . H e blessed the creator of all w h o h a d p r e s e r v e d h i m a n d p r e s e r v e d his twelve sons for h i m " ( J u b 45:3-5). A s w i t h A b r a h a m , the p o r t r a i t of J a c o b in Jubilees is richer t h a n w h a t w e find in G e n e s i s w i t h r e g a r d to his w o r s h i p of G o d t h r o u g h speech (cf. also 29:4; 3 1 : 3 1 ; 3 2 : 7 ) .

1 9

19. It is interesting in Jub 29:1-4 that while overall the text shortens the account found in Genesis, the statement about Jacob's blessing God is added.

379

Erik

Larson

Summary of Conclusions In G e n e s i s , sacrifice is m e n t i o n e d twelve t i m e s ( G e n 4:4-5; 8 : 2 0 - 2 1 ; 12:7, 8; l :

: 2

13:4, 18; 2 2 : 1 3 ; 26:25; 3 5 4 ; 3 3 ° ; 3 5 : 1 - 7 ; 4 6 : 1 ) . In Jubilees this is a l m o s t d o u ­ 2 2

:

:

b l e d to t w e n t y - t h r e e t i m e s ( J u b 4:2; 6 : 1 - 4 , H> > 7 3~5> 3°> 13 4> 9> 1 6 ; 1 4 : 9 - 1 9 ; 2

15:2; 1 6 : 2 0 - 2 3 ; 1 8 : 1 2 ; i : 7 - i 9 ; 2 2 : 3 - 5 ; 24:23; 3 0 : 1 6 ; 3 2 : 4 - 6 ; 32:27; 34:18; 44:1; 49:22; 5 0 : 1 0 ) . T h e references t e n d to e m p h a s i z e the place, p r o c e d u r e , a n d p e o p l e that m a k e sacrificial w o r s h i p p r o p e r a n d a c c e p t a b l e . T h e a u t h o r of Jubilees c o u l d not get a r o u n d the fact that in G e n e s i s there is n o o n e p l a c e w h e r e sacrifice w a s offered. A s w e s a w a b o v e , therefore, J u b i l e e s f o l l o w s the G e n e s i s a c c o u n t in h a v i n g A b r a h a m offering sacrifice in S h e c h e m , B e t h e l , a n d H e b r o n . In fact, r a t h e r s u r p r i s i n g l y , Jubilees adds a n e w site to the list b y r e f e r r i n g to an altar that A b r a h a m b u i l t in B e e r s h e b a that is n o t m e n t i o n e d in G e n e s i s ( J u b 1 6 : 2 0 ) . In spite o f this, h o w e v e r , the a u t h o r m a n a g e s to i n d i c a t e that the t r u e intent of G o d is to l i m i t the places that are a c c e p t a b l e to G o d for ritual w o r s h i p . We see this early o n w i t h the s t a t e m e n t in J u b 4:26 that there are f o u r places that b e l o n g to the L o r d : the G a r d e n o f E d e n , the m o u n t a i n o f the east, M o u n t S i n a i , a n d M o u n t Z i o n .

2 0

A s p e c i a l p r o m i n e n c e is g i v e n to M o u n t Z i o n , as o n e m i g h t e x p e c t . A c ­ c o r d i n g to 4:26, it w a s to h a v e a s p e c i a l role in the r e n e w a l of the earth since f r o m there "the e a r t h w i l l b e sanctified f r o m all its sins a n d f r o m its u n c l e a n ness into the h i s t o r y of eternity." J u b 8:19 refers to Z i o n as the " m i d d l e o f the earth."

21

A n d a c c o r d i n g to J u b 8:13, A b r a h a m offers u p I s a a c on M o u n t Z i o n .

T h e n , finally, in J u b 32 J a c o b desires to b u i l d a p e r m a n e n t

s a n c t u a r y in

B e t h e l , b u t G o d f o r b i d s it. After a l l o w i n g J a c o b to read the h e a v e n l y tablets in w h i c h future events are i n s c r i b e d , G o d tells h i m , " D o n o t b u i l d u p this p l a c e , a n d do n o t m a k e it an eternal t e m p l e . D o n o t live here b e c a u s e this is n o t the p l a c e " ( 3 2 : 2 2 ) . T h e i m p l i c a t i o n is clear: the future lies w i t h M o u n t Zion. A p p r o a c h i n g G o d in the p r o p e r w a y is also v e r y i m p o r t a n t to the a u ­ t h o r of J u b i l e e s . O f c o u r s e , this u s u a l l y m e a n s f o l l o w i n g the

prescriptions

that w o u l d later be laid d o w n in the T o r a h . B o o k s w e r e w r i t t e n w i t h the p r e Mosaic Torah regulations. T h e y were authored by Enoch and Noah (Jub 2 1 : 1 0 ) . N o a h p a s s e d his b o o k s o n to his son S h e m , a n d f r o m h i m t h e y w e r e p a s s e d to A b r a h a m ( 1 0 : 1 4 ; 1 2 : 2 7 ) . On o n e o c c a s i o n J a c o b w a s a l l o w e d to r e a d

20. Later o n in Jub 8:19 only three sites are identified as places holy to the Lord.

21. Cf. J. Scott, Geography

in Early Judaism

and Christianity:

SNTSMS 113 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2 0 0 2 ) , 34.

380

The Book

of

Jubilees,

Worship

in Jubilees

and

Enoch

in the h e a v e n l y tablets a b o u t c e l e b r a t i n g the Feast o f T a b e r n a c l e s an a d d i ­ t i o n a l d a y ( 3 2 : 2 8 ) . I n f o r m a t i o n w a s also p a s s e d o n b y w o r d of m o u t h . A b r a ­ h a m gives detailed i n s t r u c t i o n to I s a a c before he dies a b o u t h o w to w o r s h i p God

(21:5-20). T h i s leads us to c o n s i d e r the p e o p l e w h o are fit to offer u p w o r s h i p . In

J u b i l e e s a shift takes place w i t h the g i v i n g of the c o v e n a n t to A b r a h a m . U p u n t i l that t i m e , the sacrifice o f A b e l is a c c e p t a b l e a n d E n o s h can call u p o n the n a m e of the L o r d . B u t the l a c k of e n t h u s i a s m that the a u t h o r has for these figures is clear w h e n seen in c o m p a r i s o n w i t h his d e s c r i p t i o n s o f the worship of A d a m , E n o c h , and especially N o a h . W i t h the a p p e a r a n c e o f A b r a h a m , a s p e c i a l effort is m a d e to s e p a r a t e a n d d i s t i n g u i s h the r e l i g i o u s p r a c t i c e of A b r a h a m , Isaac, a n d J a c o b f r o m that of all others. A s m e n t i o n e d , w h e n A b r a h a m gives his farewell address to Isaac, it is full o f i n s t r u c t i o n a b o u t sacrificial r i t u a l . B u t it is n o t e w o r t h y that w h e n he s i m i l a r l y a d d r e s s e s for the last t i m e I s h m a e l a n d K e t u r a h ' s s o n s , he gives t h e m c o m m a n d s a b o u t a v o i d i n g i m m o r a l i t y a n d i d o l a t r y , b u t n o t h i n g a b o u t sacrifice ( 2 1 : 1 - 1 0 ) . T h e y d o n ' t n e e d to k n o w . W h e n I s h m a e l a n d I s a a c celebrate the Feast of T a b e r n a c l e s w i t h their father, J u b i l e e s is v e r y careful to say that I s a a c offered the sacrifice a n d p r e p a r e d the m e a l . T h e s t o r y of the r a p e o f D i n a h is used as an o p p o r t u n i t y for the a n g e l of the p r e s e n c e to b r e a k i n a n d w a r n a g a i n s t i n t e r m a r r i a g e , w h i c h w i l l defile the s a n c t u a r y a n d i n v a l i d a t e its sacrifices. W i t h this d e t e r m i n e d w r i t i n g o u t o f the G e n t i l e s b e g i n n i n g in the t i m e of A b r a h a m , it w o u l d b e o f greatest interest to k n o w w h a t the a u t h o r of J u b i ­ lees m a d e of the e n i g m a t i c M e l c h i z e d e k . U n f o r t u n a t e l y , textual c o r r u p t i o n has r o b b e d us o f the ability to k n o w as m u c h as w e w o u l d like. I m m e d i a t e l y after a l a c u n a of u n c e r t a i n length, A b r a h a m gives M e l c h i z e d e k the tithe. B u t the t e r m s a n d c o n d i t i o n s u n d e r w h i c h A b r a h a m d o e s this are u n k n o w n . T h e fact that the p a t r i a r c h s n e v e r refer to M e l c h i z e d e k as o n e of their s o u r c e s of priestly k n o w l e d g e is telling. So far w e h a v e l i m i t e d o u r r e v i e w to sacrifice a n d related m a t t e r s . B u t w h a t a b o u t the less f o r m a l a p p r o a c h to G o d t h r o u g h prayer, p r a i s e , a n d blessing? H e r e t o o there is a significant difference b e t w e e n the stories told in G e n e s i s a n d those told in J u b i l e e s . In G e n e s i s , the b l e s s i n g of G o d o c c u r s o n l y t w o t i m e s , a n d b o t h are d o n e b y the s a m e p e r s o n — the u n n a m e d ser­ v a n t of A b r a h a m w h o finds I s a a c a b r i d e ( G e n 24:27, 4 8 ) . W h i l e all m e n t i o n of this s e r v a n t is o m i t t e d f r o m J u b i l e e s , G o d is still b l e s s e d e i g h t e e n t i m e s . : 2

O n l y n o w it is b y N o a h ( J u b 7 : 2 0 ) , A b r a h a m (13:7; 1 3 : 1 5 ; 1 6 : 2 6 - 2 7 ; ! 7 " 3 ; 2 2 : 4 6; 2 3 : 1 ) , R e b e k a h ( 2 5 : 1 1 - 1 5 ) , J a c o b (29:4; 3 1 : 3 1 ; 32:7; 4 5 : 3 - 5 ) , L e v i ( 3 2 : 1 ) , a n d the

381

Erik Larson people of Israel (2:21; 49:6; 50:9). Often this blessing is connected with praise and thanksgiving. An important question is whether, for the author of Jubilees, this noncultic worship is possible for Gentiles. In Jub 7:20 Noah includes a com­ mand to "bless the one who had created them" as he prescribes for his grandsons what is required of them. But succeeding events make it clear that they do not live up to their responsibilities. Is the right then forfeited? Espe­ cially after the covenant with Abraham when cultic worship becomes the prerogative of the descendants of Abraham alone? The one passage that might help answer this is Jub 22:6. After Abraham eats a feast prepared by Isaac, "he blessed the most high God who created the heavens and the earth, who made all the fat things of the earth, and gave them to mankind to eat, drink, and bless their Creator." This would seem to indicate that the Noachic ordinance still stands. But the rest of Jubilees is so negative about the Gentiles that one could well imagine that its author never seriously enter­ tained the idea that a Gentile would or could offer sincere praise to God (cf. Jub 2 2 : 1 6 - 2 2 ) .

Jubilees and Enoch Examination of all the passages dealing with worship in the works that make up 1 Enoch shows that blessing is by far the most common. It appears eight times in the Book of the Watchers (10:21; 22:14; 25:7; 27:3-5 [3X]; 36:4 [2x]), sixteen times in the Book of the Parables ( 3 9 : 7 , 9 [ 2 x ] , 1 0 , 1 2 [ 2 x ] , 13; 4 0 : 4 , 5 ; 47:2; 4 8 : 5 , 1 0 ; 61:7, 9; 7 1 : 1 1 , 1 2 ) , three times in the Astronomical Book (81:3 [2x], 1 0 ) , twice in the Book of Dream Visions (83:11; 84:1), and once in the Epistle of Enoch (90:40). As we have seen, blessing is also characteristic in descriptions of worship in Jubilees, suggesting an immediate connection. In Jubilees the only activity mentioned more frequently than blessing is sacri­ fice. In stark contrast to Jubilees, however, none of the Enochic works men­ tions sacrifice as a way to approach G o d .

22

It is true that the temple is re­

23

ferred to often in the Animal Apocalypse, and the temple implies sacrifice. But it is still remarkable that among all the references to worship throughout the entire corpus, no direct reference to sacrifice occurs. For me this raises

22. The sole occurrence of the word is in 1 En 19:1, which speaks about the spirits of the angels leading men astray to sacrifice to demons. 23. Cf. 1 En 8 9 : 3 6 , 4 0 , 5 0 , 5 4 . 5 6 . 6 6 - 6 7 , 7 2 - 7 3 , 7 6 (?); 9 0 : 2 8 - 2 9 , 3 3 - 3 4 , 3 6 ; 91:13 (?): 9 3 7 - 8 .

382

Worship in Jubilees and Enoch the question of the extent to which priestly issues were truly a concern to the authors or communities behind these works. I want to look briefly at one passage that further demonstrates the dif­ ference of thought between the works of Enoch and Jubilees. The passage is 1 En 10:20-22: And you [Michael], cleanse the earth from all wrong, and from all iniq­ uity, and from all sin, and from all impiety, and from all the uncleanness which is brought about on the earth; remove them from the earth. And all the sons of men shall be righteous, and all the nations shall serve and bless me, and all shall worship me. And the earth will be cleansed from all corruption, and from all sin, and from all wrath, and from all tor­ ment; and I will not again send a flood upon it for all generations for ever.

24

This passage expresses an ideal of universal worship that is elsewhere found in the Book of the Watchers, at 36:4. In the Book of the Parables it occurs at 48:5 and 57:3. A hint of it may appear in the Book of Dream Visions, at 84:1. While not connected with the idea of worship, a universal hope for the Gentiles appears in the Epistle of Enoch at 90:37-38 and 91:14. Thus, intriguingly, the idea occurs throughout the corpus.

25

Where does this viewpoint come from? The concept of universal bless­ ing is closest to sentiments found in Pss 67:3-5 and 145:5. The idea of a future for the nations after a time of judgment is perhaps most clearly expressed in Isa 2 4 - 2 7 . But the verbal parallels are not clear enough to be certain that these passages provided the inspiration. There may be a reference to Deut 28:12 in 1 En n:i,

26

though in my opinion the egalitarian nature of 10:21 rules

out reading Enoch in the light of Deut 28. In any event, the universalistic worship envisioned in the Enochic works certainly marks a great divide with the view expressed in Jubilees.

24. Translation of M. Knibb, The Ethiopic Book of Enoch (Oxford: Oxford University Press, J978), 2:91. 25. A slightly different view is expressed in 1 En 90:30 where the Gentiles signify their recognition of God by reverencing Israel. This idea has clear connections with Deut 28:12-13; Isa 60:11; 61:6; 66:12; Zech 8:20-23; and Hag 2:6-9. 26. But the "opening of the storehouses of blessing" might be read against Gen 7:11 "the windows of the heavens were opened." 383

The Book of Jubilees and Early Jewish Mysticism Martha Himmelfarb

Does the book of Jubilees belong to the history of Jewish mysticism? Jubilees contains neither a vision of the merkabah,

the chariot throne of G o d from

the b o o k of Ezekiel, nor ascent to heaven, the features central to the Jewish mysticism of antiquity as delineated by Gershom Scholem in his pioneering 1

work, Major Trends in Jewish Mysticism.

Yet Jubilees shares other significant

features with other texts of the second temple period that are often associ­ ated with early Jewish mysticism such as the B o o k of the Watchers (1 E n 1 36) and the Songs of the Sabbath Sacrifice, as well as with the hekhalot texts, the literature of the fully developed merkabah

mysticism of late antiquity.

A n d while scholarly literature on early Jewish mysticism has in general paid little attention to Jubilees, it figures prominently in Rachel Elior's recent book on early Jewish mysticism, The Three Temples: On the Emergence of Jewish Mysticism,

which I discuss below.

2

As m y discussion already suggests, scholars have tended to treat early Jewish mysticism as a textual tradition defined b y the presence of several in­ terrelated motifs and ideas, most prominent a m o n g them the vision of the merkabah and ascent to heaven noted in the previous paragraph. In this they 1. G. Scholem, Major Trends in Jewish Mysticism (New York: Schocken, 1961; 1st ed. 1941), 1-39; o n early Jewish mysticism, 5. 2. R. Elior, The Three Temples: On the Emergence of Jewish Mysticism, trans. David Louvish (Oxford and Portland, Oreg.: Littman Library o f Jewish Civilization, 2004). The Hebrew original is entitled Temple and Chariot, Priests and Angels, Sanctuary and Heavenly Sanctuaries in Early Jewish Mysticism (Jerusalem: Hebrew University Magnes Press, 2002).

384

The Book of Jubilees

and Early Jewish

Mysticism

are f o l l o w i n g S c h o l e m ' s lead. W h i l e the c o m m e n t s on the r e l i g i o u s c h a r a c t e r of merkabah

m y s t i c i s m scattered

t h r o u g h the s e c o n d c h a p t e r

of

Major

Trends are still of interest despite a d v a n c e s in the m o r e t h a n sixty-five y e a r s since he w r o t e , S c h o l e m did not s p e n d m u c h t i m e o n a theoretical d i s c u s ­ s i o n of the n a t u r e of early J e w i s h m y s t i c i s m ; the d i s c u s s i o n of the n a t u r e of m y s t i c i s m in the first chapter of Major

Trends is c o n c e r n e d p r i m a r i l y w i t h

k a b b a l a h , the classical f o r m of J e w i s h m y s t i c i s m that e m e r g e d in the M i d d l e Ages.

3

S c h o l a r s since S c h o l e m h a v e g i v e n r a t h e r little a t t e n t i o n to defining

the m y s t i c i s m o f the early J e w i s h m y s t i c a l t r a d i t i o n as a r e l i g i o u s p h e n o m e ­ 4

n o n in t e r m s that c o u l d be u s e d for c o m p a r a t i v e p u r p o s e s . A recent e x c e p ­ t i o n to this g e n e r a l i z a t i o n is P h i l i p S. A l e x a n d e r ' s Mystical

Texts, in the C o m ­

p a n i o n to the Q u m r a n S c r o l l s series, w h i c h treats the S o n g s of the S a b b a t h 5

Sacrifice a n d o t h e r texts f r o m a m o n g the D e a d Sea S c r o l l s . T w o features of A l e x a n d e r ' s d i s c u s s i o n are p a r t i c u l a r l y n o t e w o r t h y , his c l a i m that p r a x i s is c e n t r a l to the definition o f m y s t i c i s m , a n d his challenge to S c h o l e m ' s v i e w that the merkabah

t r a d i t i o n d i d n o t i n v o l v e unio mystical

T h i s is n o t the

p l a c e for an e v a l u a t i o n o f A l e x a n d e r ' s v a l u a b l e b u t p r o b l e m a t i c w o r k ; in m y v i e w , m a n y aspects of A l e x a n d e r ' s r e a d i n g s o f the texts are quite p e r s u a s i v e , b u t I a m skeptical a b o u t the c l a i m that the scrolls reflect a m y s t i c a l p r a c t i c e a n d unio

mystica.

F u r t h e r , w h i l e the benefits of a clear d e f i n i t i o n of m y s t i c i s m are e v i ­ dent for the p u r p o s e s o f c r o s s - c u l t u r a l c o m p a r i s o n o r even for e x p l o r a t i o n of the p r o b l e m of c o n t i n u i t y f r o m early J e w i s h m y s t i c i s m to k a b b a l a h , in this p a p e r I m a k e use of a m o t i f - b a s e d d e s c r i p t i o n of a t r a d i t i o n i n s t e a d . T h e q u e s t i o n o f interest for this p a p e r is n o t w h e t h e r Jubilees truly b e l o n g s to the phenomenon

of " m y s t i c i s m " — if m y s t i c i s m d e m a n d s p r a x i s , m u c h less

unio mystica,

then s u r e l y it d o e s n o t — but r a t h e r h o w Jubilees relates to a

b o d y of texts that share a constellation o f m o t i f s . T h e h i s t o r y of s c h o l a r l y d i s c u s s i o n of these texts m a k e s "early J e w i s h m y s t i c i s m " a c o n v e n i e n t w a y to refer to t h e m . W h i l e the results m a y n o t tell us m u c h a b o u t the

3. Scholem, Major

phenomenon

Trends, 1-39 (chap. 1, "General Characteristics o f Jewish Mysti­

cism"), 40-79 (chap. 2, "Merkabah Mysticism and Jewish Gnosticism"). 4. On this point, see E. R. Wolfson, "Mysticism and the Poetic-Liturgical C o m p o s i ­ tions from Q u m r a n : A Response to Bilhah Nitzan," JQR 85 (1994): 1 8 4 - 2 0 2 ; Michael D. Swartz, "The Dead Sea Scrolls and Later Jewish Magic and Mysticism," DSD 8 ( 2 0 0 1 ) : 182-90. 5. Philip S. Alexander, Mystical

Texts, C o m p a n i o n to the Q u m r a n Scrolls 7, Library of

Second Temple Studies 61 (London: T. & T. Clark, 2 0 0 6 ) . 6. Alexander, Mystical

Texts, 7 - 1 0 , 9 3 - 1 2 0 , 136-38. Scholem asserts reservations, very

briefly, about the centrality o f unio mystica in mysticism, Jewish and other; Major Trends, 5.

385

Martha Himmelfarb of mysticism, Jubilees' relationship to these texts is nonetheless of consider­ able interest, with important implications for the understanding of Jubilees. In Major Trends, Scholem delineated three stages of merkabah mysti­ cism: traditions found in the apocalyptic literature of the second temple pe­ riod; the speculation of the Tannaim, the rabbis of the first and second centu­ ries of this era; and finally the hekhalot texts, which Scholem dated to the 7

period of the amoraim, the rabbis of the third through fifth centuries. The scholarship of the last decades of the twentieth century developed and re­ fined Scholem's understanding of merkabah mysticism, but it also raised im­ 8

portant questions about his representation of each of the three stages. For the third stage, the hekhalot texts, in which Scholem saw ascent to heaven as the defining interest, recent scholarship has pointed out that the adjuration 9

of angels is also a central concern; there have also been strong arguments for 10

moving the date of the hekhalot texts forward into the Islamic period. For the second stage, the merkabah mysticism attested in early rabbinic literature, scholarship since Scholem has questioned the existence of a tradition of mys­ tical practice and has emphasized the exegetical aspect of the Tannaitic tradi­ 11

tions and even of later material in classical rabbinic sources, thus demon­ strating that the relationship of these merkabah materials to the hekhalot literature is less direct and more complex than Scholem suggested.

12

7. Scholem, Major Trends, 43. 8. To the best of my knowledge, there is no article or book chapter devoted to a criti­ cal discussion of scholarship on the hekhalot literature since Scholem. For recent listings of publications that supplement each other, see Rebecca Macy Lesses, Ritual Practices to Gain Power. Angels, Incantations, and Revelation in Early Jewish Mysticism, HTS 44 (Harrisburg, Pa.: Trinity, 1998), 3 n. 8; and James R. Davila, Descenders to the Chariot The People behind the Hekhalot Literature, JSJSup 70 (Leiden: Brill, 2001), 316-17. 9. Peter Schafer, "The Aim and Purpose of Early Jewish Mysticism," in Hekhalot-Studien, TSAJ19 (Tubingen: Mohr [Siebeck], 1988), 277-95, d The Hidden and Manifest God: Some Major Themes in Early Jewish Mysticism, trans. Aubrey Pomerance (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1992), esp. 142-46,151-57; David J. Halperin, The Faces of the Chariot: Early Jew­ ish Responses to Ezekiel's Vision, TSAJ 16 (Tubingen: Mohr [Siebeck], 1988), esp. 376-87. 10. Most recently, Ra'anan S. Boustan, "The Emergence of Pseudonymous Attribu­ tion in Heikhalot Literature: Empirical Evidence from the Jewish 'Magical' Corpora," JSQ14 a n

(2007): 18-38.

11. David J. Halperin, The Merkabah in Rabbinic Literature, AOS 6 2 (New Haven: American Oriental Society, 1980), esp. 179-85. 12. For a range of views on the nature of the relationship, all at some distance from Scholem's, see P. S. Alexander, "The Historical Setting of the Hebrew Book of Enoch," JJS 28 (1977): 156-80; Halperin, Faces of the Chariot, esp. 427-46; Schafer, "Aim and Purpose," 289-95, and Hidden and Manifest God, 157-61; Michael D. Swartz, Scholastic Magic: Ritual 386

The Book of Jubilees and Early Jewish Mysticism The first stage of merkabah mysticism, the traditions found in the apocalyptic literature of the second temple period, is the least developed stage in Scholem's discussion. Scholem touched briefly on apocalyptic litera­ ture in Major Trends and had only a little more to say in his one book on early Jewish mysticism, Jewish Gnosticism, Merkabah Mysticism, and Tal13

mudic Tradition.

The last third of the twentieth century saw dramatic

growth in scholarly interest in apocalyptic literature, and several scholars took up the challenge posed by Scholem's work, offering more detailed dis­ cussions of the themes and motifs of merkabah mysticism as they appeared in the apocalypses.

14

The last decades of the twentieth century also saw the ongoing publi­ cation of the Dead Sea Scrolls, a corpus of major significance for our under­ standing of the apocalypses and early Jewish mysticism. Scholem was clearly aware of the potential significance of the scrolls for early Jewish mysticism, and in Jewish Gnosticism he noted some parallels between the poetry of the hekhalot texts and that of the Hodayot and the "Angelic Liturgy," as the early publication of a portion of the Songs of the Sabbath Sacrifice was called. But the slow pace of publication meant that he was not in a position to offer an overall evaluation of their significance for early Jewish mysticism before his death in 1982. By the end of the twentieth century, however, the relationship of the scrolls to merkabah mysticism had become a topic of considerable 15

scholarly interest. Alexander's Mystical Texts is the first book-length study and Revelation in Early Jewish Mysticism (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1996), esp. 209-29.

13. Gershom G. Scholem, Jewish Gnosticism, Merkabah Mysticism, and Talmudic Tra­ dition (New York: Jewish Theological Seminary of America, i960). 14. See, e.g., Ithamar Gruenwald, Apocalyptic and Merkavah Mysticism, AGJU 14 (Leiden: Brill, 1980); Halperin, faces of the Chariot, 63-114; Martha Himmelfarb, "Heavenly Ascent and the Relationship of the Apocalypses and the Hekhalot Literature," HUCA 59 (1988): 73-100; Himmelfarb, "The Practice of Ascent in the Ancient Mediterranean World," in Death, Ecstasy, and Other Worldly Journeys, ed. John J. Collins and Michael Fishbane (Al­ bany: State University of New York Press, 1995), 121-37; James R. Davila, "The Hekhalot Lit­ erature and the Ancient Jewish Apocalypses," in Paradise Now: Essays on Early Jewish and Christian Mysticism, ed. April DeConick, SBLSymS 11 (Atlanta: Society of Biblical Literature, 2006), 105-25.

15. See the review article of Elisabeth Hamacher, "Die Sabbatopferlieder im Streit um Ursprung und Anfange der jildischen Mystik," JJS 27 (1996): 119-54. Since 1996, see, e.g., James R. Davila, "The Dead Sea Scrolls and Merkavah Mysticism," in The Dead Sea Scrolls in Their Historical Context, ed. Timothy H. Lim (Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 2000), 249-64; Swartz, "The Dead Sea Scrolls and Later Jewish Magic and Mysticism"; and Ra'anan Abusch, "Sevenfold Hymns in the Songs of the Sabbath Sacrifice and the Hekhalot Literature: Formal387

Martha Himmelfarb of the scrolls and merkabah mysticism, as far as I know; as I have noted, it fo­ cuses particularly on the Songs of the Sabbath Sacrifice, but it also finds evi­ dence for this mysticism in other texts among the scrolls, especially liturgical texts and the so-called Self-Glorification Hymn. Following Johann Maier, Alexander understands merkabah mysticism to have originated among Jeru­ salem priests; eventually some of their heirs brought the tradition to Qumran, where it underwent a reworking with the concerns of a sect alien­ 16

ated from the Jerusalem temple in view. With the destruction of the tem­ ple, the tradition was maintained by priests who became members of the rabbinic movement, though it stood in considerable tension with the domi­ nant ideology of the rabbis; the hekhalot literature that appears toward the end of the rabbinic period is, in Alexander's view, a somewhat rabbinized version of the merkabah tradition. Although he catalogues a body of paral­ lels between the Qumran texts and the hekhalot literature, Alexander em­ phasizes the "oblique" character of the relationship between the two forms of merkabah mysticism: the former is a "sectarian reworking of a priestly doctrine," while the latter is a reworking of that original doctrine "more in keeping with the rabbinic ethos."

17

But what is most important in Alexander's book for our purposes is the very brief consideration of Jubilees in its discussion of the larger context of the relevant scrolls in the literature of the second temple period. Alexan­ der points out that Jubilees shares with the Book of the Watchers and other works of the second temple period two important and interrelated features that appear elsewhere in the tradition of merkabah mysticism: an under­ standing of heaven as temple and of a group of human beings as the earthly 18

counterpart of the angels. I shall return to their significance for Jubilees' relationship to the early Jewish mystical tradition shortly. While Alexander's book focuses primarily on the scrolls, Rachel Elior's Three Temples, which appeared a few years before Alexander's book, under­ takes to sketch the entire early history of Jewish mysticism from the Bible through the hekhalot texts. I have offered my views on Elior's work at some ism, Hierarchy and the Limits of Human Participation," in The Dead Sea Scrolls as Back­ ground to Postbiblical Judaism and Early Christianity: Papers from an International Confer­ ence at St. Andrews in 2001, ed. lames R. Davila, STDJ 46 (Leiden and Boston: Brill, 2003), 220-47. 16. Alexander, Mystical Texts, 128-31; Johann Maier, Vom Kultus zur Gnosis, Kairos Religionswissenschaftliche Studien 1 (Salzburg: Otto Mueller, 1964). 17. Alexander, Mystical Texts, 122-38; quotations, 135. 18. Alexander, Mystical Texts, 55-56,139. 388

The Book of Jubilees length e l s e w h e r e .

19

and Early Jewish

Mysticism

H e r e I will focus o n l y o n the aspects o f her d i s c u s s i o n o f

early J e w i s h m y s t i c i s m in w h i c h Jubilees p l a y s a central r o l e . L i k e M a i e r a n d A l e x a n d e r , E l i o r finds the o r i g i n s of early J e w i s h m y s t i ­ cism in priestly circles, a n d like A l e x a n d e r , she e m p h a s i z e s the c o n t r i b u t i o n to its d e v e l o p m e n t of priests alienated f r o m the p r i e s t l y e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f the s e c o n d t e m p l e p e r i o d . In her v i e w the scrolls a n d other w o r k s of the p e r i o d , especially the a p o c a l y p s e s , are the w o r k of these alienated priests. M o r e t h a n A l e x a n d e r , E l i o r sees the hekhalot

texts as s t a n d i n g in direct c o n t i n u i t y w i t h

w h a t she calls the " h e a v e n l y c o r p u s " of these priests, t h o u g h she notes the " n e u t r a l i z a t i o n " of their c r i t i q u e of the J e r u s a l e m t e m p l e e s t a b l i s h m e n t in the hekhalot that t e m p l e .

literature, w h i c h w a s c o m p o s e d l o n g after the d e s t r u c t i o n of 2 0

Jubilees figures p r o m i n e n t l y in E l i o r ' s p i c t u r e of early J e w i s h m y s t i ­ c i s m . T h o u g h E l i o r h a s little to say a b o u t the h e a v e n l y t e m p l e in J u b i l e e s , like A l e x a n d e r , she notes the i m p o r t a n c e o f the c o r r e s p o n d e n c e o f h e a v e n a n d earth for it. B u t E l i o r also f o c u s e s c o n s i d e r a b l e attention o n an a s p e c t of that c o r r e s p o n d e n c e that does n o t figure at all in A l e x a n d e r ' s d i s c u s s i o n , cal­ endar:

2 1

A c c o r d i n g to the authors of Jubilees and the A p o c a l y p s e of Weeks, n o t o n l y does cyclic t i m e , as represented b y the calendar, flow i n an eternal sevenfold r h y t h m t h r o u g h the sabbaths of the year — but the w h o l e of history, from b e g i n n i n g to end, m a r c h e s f o r w a r d in recurrent cycles of sabbaths, years, sabbaticals, jubilees, a n d a g e s . . . . H e a v e n a n d earth have thereby been linked together since the seven days of C r e a t i o n , t h r o u g h signs, covenants, a n d oaths that constitute b o n d s b e t w e e n G o d a n d m a n , t h r o u g h the sacrifices that m a n offers G o d , in a fixed, sevenfold p r o g r e s s i o n g o v e r n e d b y the solar calendar a n d o b s e r v e d by the a n g e l s .

22

T h e p i c t u r e of that c a l e n d a r that E l i o r c o n s t r u c t s d r a w s o n the contents o f a n u m b e r of texts; the c o n f l a t i o n of s o u r c e s is c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of E l i o r ' s a p ­ p r o a c h to w h a t she takes to be a c o m m o n b o d y of m y s t i c a l t r a d i t i o n . It 19. Martha Himmelfarb, "Merkavah Mysticism since Scholem: Rachel Elior's The Three Temples!' in Wege mystischer Gotteserfahrung/Mystical Approaches to God, ed. Peter Schafer, Schriften des Historischen Kollegs Kolloquien 65 (Munich: Oldenbourg, 2 0 0 6 ) , 1 9 36. 20. Elior, Three Temples, 232-33. 21. She devotes chaps. 3 - 6 of Three Temples to the calendar, 82-152. 22. Elior, Three Temples, 135.

389

Martha

Himmelfarb

w o u l d b e difficult to d e d u c e m o s t of w h a t E l i o r c l a i m s a b o u t the m y s t i c a l c a l e n d a r f r o m the A p o c a l y p s e of W e e k s , w h i l e the idea of a s u c c e s s i o n o f ages is b y n o m e a n s o b v i o u s in J u b i l e e s . F u r t h e r , it is clearly Jubilees that p r o v i d e s the key to u n d e r s t a n d i n g the c a l e n d a r ' s s i g n i f i c a n c e . B u t the p r o b ­ l e m s in the a s s u m p t i o n that J u b i l e e s a n d the A p o c a l y p s e o f W e e k s share the s a m e u n d e r s t a n d i n g of c a l e n d a r n e e d n o t detain us h e r e . W h a t is m o s t i m ­ p o r t a n t for us is that E l i o r calls a t t e n t i o n to the c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n h e a v e n a n d earth built into c r e a t i o n t h r o u g h the i n s t i t u t i o n of the S a b b a t h w i t h its o n g o i n g i m p l i c a t i o n s that is central to J u b i l e e s : " [ J u b i l e e s ' ] a i m is to r e c o u n t the m y t h i c a l , m y s t i c a l , a n d angelic n a t u r e o f the oaths a n d the c o v e n a n t s , to d e m o n s t r a t e their cultic n a t u r e a n d the eternal v a l i d i t y of the

command­

m e n t s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e m , to i n d i c a t e their r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h the s e v e n f o l d s t r u c t u r e of the solar calendar, w h i c h links the h e a v e n s w i t h the earth, the angels m i n i s t e r i n g in h e a v e n w i t h the priests m i n i s t e r i n g o n earth, t h r o u g h the s u c c e s s i o n of w e e k s a n d s a b b a t h s , sabbaticals a n d j u b i l e e s . "

23

D e s p i t e m y r e s e r v a t i o n s a b o u t h e r h a r m o n i z i n g a p p r o a c h a n d her use of t e r m s such as " m y t h i c a l " a n d " m y s t i c a l " in the p a s s a g e j u s t q u o t e d , I agree w h o l e h e a r t e d l y w i t h E l i o r ' s u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f the c a l e n d a r of Jubilees as re­ flecting the c o r r e s p o n d e n c e b e t w e e n h e a v e n a n d earth. Yet Jubilees uses the idea o f the c o r r e s p o n d e n c e b e t w e e n h e a v e n a n d earth, h e a v e n l y t e m p l e a n d e a r t h l y t e m p l e , a n g e l i c s e r v i c e a n d h u m a n s e r v i c e , to v e r y different

ends

f r o m other w o r k s in w h i c h these c o r r e s p o n d e n c e s p l a y a role. T h e idea of h e a v e n as a t e m p l e is w i d e s p r e a d in literature of the s e c o n d t e m p l e p e r i o d , b u t it h a s its r o o t s in the B i b l e a n d the a n c i e n t N e a r East, w h e r e the t e m p l e s in w h i c h h u m a n b e i n g s w o r s h i p are u n d e r s t o o d as repli­ cas of the t r u e h o u s e of the g o d , l o c a t e d on a distant m o u n t a i n or, in the case of the G o d of Israel, in h e a v e n .

2 4

In the a p o c a l y p s e s of the s e c o n d t e m p l e p e ­

r i o d , h e a v e n is u n d e r s t o o d either as G o d ' s p a l a c e , as in the b o o k of D a n i e l , or as a t e m p l e , as in the B o o k o f the Watchers; the t w o i m a g e s are c o m p l e ­ m e n t a r y , t w o different w a y s of c h a r a c t e r i z i n g G o d ' s a b o d e . In the B o o k o f the W a t c h e r s the p i c t u r e o f h e a v e n as t e m p l e is i m p o r t a n t for the n a r r a t i v e a n d c r u c i a l to the m e s s a g e of the w o r k . In s o m e later a p o c a l y p s e s , in w h i c h h e a v e n is r e p r e s e n t e d as a t e m p l e , this fact is of little c o n s e q u e n c e for the n a r r a t i v e or the m e s s a g e of the w o r k ; it is s i m p l y taken for g r a n t e d . W h i l e Jubilees n e v e r m a k e s the idea of h e a v e n as t e m p l e explicit, it is

23. Elior, Three Temples, 135. 24. See the discussion of Torleif Elgvin, "Biblical Roots of Early Mystical Traditions on the Heavenly Temple," Hen 3 1 , no. 1 ( 2 0 0 9 ) .

390

The Book of Jubilees and Early Jewish Mysticism implicit in Jubilees' claim that the Sabbath (Jub 2:30) and the Feast of Weeks (6:18) were observed in heaven before they were observed on earth. It is pos­ sible that Jubilees also means to claim that the Feast of Booths was observed in heaven before Abraham established it on earth since it describes Abraham as the "first man on earth" to celebrate it ( i 6 : 2 i ) .

25

Jubilees explicidy requires 26

sacrifices for these festivals as they are observed on earth; this suggests that their heavenly observance would also have required use of a sanctuary, though Jubilees offers no hint of how it understands the heavenly equivalent of sacrifice, a topic on which some texts are more forthcoming.

27

The only point related to the heavenly temple on which Jubilees is ex­ plicit is the correspondence between earthly priests and angels. Thus Isaac blesses Levi, "May the Lord give you and your descendants greatness and glory, and set you and your descendants apart from all mankind to minister to him and to serve him in his sanctuary like the angels of the presence and the holy ones" (Jub 31:14). This is a correspondence with a long history. It goes back at least as far as Ezekiel, who describes angels as dressed in linen (Ezek 9 : 2 , 3 , 1 1 ; 1 0 : 2 , 6 , 7 ) , the fabric of priests' garments (Exod 28:42), a de­ scription picked up in the book of Daniel (Dan 10:5; 1 2 : 6 - 7 ) . Once heaven is understood as a temple, the comparison is perhaps inevitable. In Jubilees priests are compared not to angels in general, but to specific classes of angels, the angels of the presence and the holy ones, the two highest classes of angels (Jub 2:18). The comparison flatters priests, but it can also be used to hold priests to account when they fail to live up to the high standards appropriate to their duties, as in the Book of the Watchers. But for Jubilees the correlation between angels in heaven and priests on earth is only one aspect of a larger and more important correlation. As the heavenly observance of the Sabbath and the Feast of Weeks indicates, Jubilees understands not only priests but also the entire people of Israel to be the earthly counterpart of the angels; indeed, all Jews are the counterparts of the angels of the presence and the holy ones, the very classes of angels to which Levi's descendants are compared, since these are the angels who observe the Sabbath with God from its creation. This point is crucial. Jubilees is one of 25. All quotations from Jubilees are taken from the translation of R. H. Charles, rev. C. Rabin, in The Apocryphal Old Testament, ed. H. F. D. Sparks (Oxford: Clarendon, 1984). 26. Sabbath: "to burn frankincense and present offerings and sacrifices in the Lord's presence every day and every sabbath" (Jub 50:10); Feast of Weeks: "I have written in the book of the first l a w . . . the details of its sacrifices" (Jub 6:21). 27. See Martha Himmelfarb, Ascent to Heaven in Jewish and Christian Apocalypses (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993), 33-36. 391

Martha

Himmelfarb

m a n y texts to extend the idea of the c o r r e s p o n d e n c e b e t w e e n angels in h e a v e n a n d priests o n earth to suggest that a select g r o u p of n o n p r i e s t l y h u m a n b e i n g s are also the c o u n t e r p a r t s of the angels. B u t Jubilees stands a p a r t from other texts of the s e c o n d t e m p l e p e r i o d in a v e r y i m p o r t a n t way. In contrast to the B o o k of the Watchers, w h i c h depicts o n e e x e m p l a r y h u m a n b e i n g as the equal of the angels, or to the sectarian scrolls, w h i c h u n d e r s t a n d all m e m b e r s of the sectarian c o m m u n i t y as the earthly c o u n t e r p a r t s of the angels, Jubilees claims that it is n o t e x t r a o r d i n a r i l y r i g h t e o u s heroes of the past or m e m b e r s of a sec­ tarian elite b u t the entire Jewish p e o p l e that is like the a n g e l s .

28

E v e n m o r e s t r i k i n g is the c o n t r a s t b e t w e e n J u b i l e e s a n d the s e c t a r i a n scrolls. F o r the s e c t a r i a n s the t r u e Israel, the c h i l d r e n o f light, w e r e defined by piety. F o r J u b i l e e s , o n the o t h e r h a n d , Israel is a p e o p l e defined b y g e n e a l ­ o g y w i t h o u t r e g a r d to piety; J u b i l e e s has n o place for c o n v e r s i o n to Juda­ ism.

2 9

B o t h the g o o d a n d the w i c k e d are Israel, or, as the r a b b i s , w h o are s u r ­

p r i s i n g l y close to J u b i l e e s o n this p o i n t , w o u l d later p u t it, " E v e n if h e sins, an Israelite r e m a i n s a n Israelite" (b. Sanhedrin

44a).

3 0

T h u s Israel is a k i n g ­

d o m of priests in p a r t b e c a u s e o n e b e c o m e s an Israelite b y b i r t h r a t h e r t h a n m e r i t , j u s t as J e w i s h priests a t t a i n e d their status t h r o u g h descent f r o m A a r o n r a t h e r t h a n b y a n y c l a i m to p i e t y o r l e a r n i n g .

31

I take Jubilees' insistence on g e n e a l o g y as the w a y to define m e m b e r s h i p in the p e o p l e of Israel as a s i g n of active o p p o s i t i o n to the s e c t a r i a n i m p u l s e that e m e r g e d in the H a s m o n e a n e r a .

3 2

In his c o n t r i b u t i o n to this v o l u m e ,

A h a r o n S h e m e s h suggests that frg. 7 of 4 Q 2 6 5 p r o v i d e s further e v i d e n c e for J u b i l e e s ' T o r a h - l i k e status at Q u m r a n b e c a u s e it consists of three instances o f r e w o r k i n g o f Jubilees, i n c l u d i n g r e v i s i o n of Jubilees' S a b b a t h laws a n d the laws g o v e r n i n g relations w i t h G e n t i l e s , b o t h in light of the yahad's v i e w of it­ self as Israel a n d all other Jews as G e n t i l e s .

33

T h o u g h S h e m e s h a p p e a r s to a c -

28.1 make this point in greater detail in my book, A Kingdom of Priests: Ancestry and Merit in Ancient Judaism (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2006), 53-84. 29. Himmelfarb, A Kingdom of Priests, 72-78. 30. F o r the rabbis' view on the genealogical character o f Jewish identity, see Himmelfarb, A Kingdom of Priests, 160-85, P - W - S i 31. For the significance o f Jubilees' insistence on genealogy for defining the Jewish people as well as the priesthood, see Betsy Halpern-Amaru, The Empowerment of Women in the Book o f Jubilees (Leiden: Brill, 1999), 154-55. 32. I prefer a date for Jubilees during the last third of the second century B . C . E . (Himmelfarb, A Kingdom of Priests, 77), but this dating is not crucial for m y argument. 33. Aharon Shemesh, "4Q265 and the Authoritative Status o f Jubilees at Qumran." On authoritative status at Q u m r a n , see also Jamal-Dominique Hopkins, "The Authoritative Status of Jubilees at Qumran," Hen 31, no. 2 (2008). e s

392

The Book of Jubilees

and Early Jewish

Mysticism

34

cept sectarian p r o v e n a n c e of J u b i l e e s , the two e x a m p l e s j u s t n o t e d serve to h i g h l i g h t the distance b e t w e e n Jubilees a n d the yahad

o n precisely the p o i n t

m o s t c r u c i a l to sectarian identity, the definition of the p e o p l e of Israel. J u b i l e e s ' insistence that all J e w s are the earthly c o u n t e r p a r t s of the a n ­ gels b r i n g s into relief an i m p o r t a n t difference b e t w e e n Jubilees a n d the other texts of the early J e w i s h m y s t i c a l t r a d i t i o n in the f u n c t i o n of the h e a v e n l y t e m p l e . T h e r e is n o n e c e s s a r y t e n s i o n b e t w e e n h e a v e n l y t e m p l e a n d earthly, as can be seen in texts of the a n c i e n t N e a r E a s t or the first t e m p l e p e r i o d ; i n ­ d e e d , the h e a v e n l y t e m p l e u n d e r s t o o d as p r o t o t y p e of the e a r t h l y serves to g u a r a n t e e the status of the e a r t h l y t e m p l e . Yet the idea of a h e a v e n l y t e m p l e is n o t p r o m i n e n t in literature of the first t e m p l e . In the p e r i o d o f the s e c o n d t e m p l e , h o w e v e r , the idea b e c o m e s m o r e p r o m i n e n t a n d the h e a v e n l y t e m p l e takes o n a different r o l e . T h o s e dissatisfied w i t h the J e r u s a l e m t e m p l e s a w the h e a v e n l y t e m p l e in its p e r f e c t i o n as a r e p r o a c h to t h o s e r e s p o n s i b l e for the c o r r u p t i o n of the earthly. I do n o t b e l i e v e that the h e a v e n l y t e m p l e of the B o o k of the W a t c h e r s reflects rejection of the J e r u s a l e m t e m p l e ; i n d e e d , it is s t r i k i n g that the B o o k of the W a t c h e r s d o e s n o t p r e s e n t the h e a v e n l y p r i e s t ­ h o o d as perfect in o r d e r to r e b u k e its e a r t h l y c o u n t e r p a r t . R a t h e r , it projects the failings of s o m e J e r u s a l e m priests o n t o the a n g e l i c p r i e s t h o o d — but it is important astray.

35

to n o t e that in h e a v e n as on earth n o t all priests h a v e g o n e

T h e S o n g s o f the S a b b a t h Sacrifice, in contrast, w a s u s e d b y a c o m ­

m u n i t y that rejected the t e m p l e in J e r u s a l e m ; the recitation of its detailed d e p i c t i o n of the h e a v e n l y t e m p l e a n d its e l a b o r a t e l i t u r g y m u s t h a v e s e r v e d at least in a v e r y l i m i t e d w a y as a substitute for the rejected t e m p l e . T h e heav­ enly t e m p l e o f the hekhalot

texts s e e m s u n r e l a t e d to c r i t i c i s m of the earthly

t e m p l e , b u t since the texts w e r e w r i t t e n c e n t u r i e s after the d i s a p p e a r a n c e of the e a r t h l y t e m p l e , this is n o t s u r p r i s i n g . In contrast, J u b i l e e s , w r i t t e n at a t i m e w h e n m a n y of the p i o u s w e r e d e e p l y dissatisfied w i t h the J e r u s a l e m t e m p l e , uses the h e a v e n l y t e m p l e n e i ­ ther as a substitute for a rejected t e m p l e o n earth n o r as the ideal a g a i n s t w h i c h to m e a s u r e the e a r t h l y i n s t i t u t i o n a n d the b e h a v i o r of its priests. O n e aspect of J u b i l e e s ' insistence that m a n y of the l a w s of the T o r a h w e r e in force even b e f o r e the T o r a h itself w a s g i v e n to Israel is its p i c t u r e of the o b s e r v a n c e of the S a b b a t h a n d the Feast of W e e k s in h e a v e n b e f o r e they w e r e o b s e r v e d

34. Shemesh, "4Q265," where he considers the implications for sectarian authorship of the time that would have had to elapse for Jubilees to achieve its authoritative status. 35. Himmelfarb, A Kingdom

of Priests,

1 9 - 2 1 . N o r do 1 believe that the B o o k of the

Watchers rejects or ignores the Torah of Moses ( 3 9 - 4 1 ) .

393

Martha

Himmelfarb

on earth. Its brief allusions to the heavenly temple make explicit an aspect of the idea of the heavenly temple implicit in its function of prototype for the earthly temple that other texts of the second temple period fail to exploit: it has been there since the beginning. Jubilees' emphasis on the heavenly tem­ ple as a venue for observances that take place on earth only after the emer­ gence of the people of Israel and the giving of the Torah has a great deal in c o m m o n with the original understanding of the heavenly temple as a proto­ type of the earthly: it serves to valorize the rituals of the earthly temple rather than to criticize them.

394

PART FOUR

WHERE DOES JUBILEES BELONG?

Jubilees, the Temple, and the Aaronite Priesthood David W. Suter

Now

the author of Jubilees sought to do for Genesis what the

Chronicler had done for Samuel and Kings, and so he rewrote it in such a way as to show that the law was rigorously observed even by the Patriarchs. . . . Our author's procedure is of course in direct antagonism with the presuppositions of the Priests' Code in Gene­ sis, for according to this code "Noah may build no altar, Abraham offer no sacrifice, Jacob erect no sacred pillar. N o offering is re­ corded till Aaron and his sons are ready" (Carpenter, The Hexateuch, 1 . 1 2 4 ) . This fact seems to emphasize in the strongest man­ ner how freely our author reinterpreted his authorities for the past. R. H . C H A R L E S

1

The above epigram is the seed of m y argument in a recent article examining 2

the place of the temple in the early E n o c h tradition. Specifically, I argued 1. F r o m R. H . Charles, Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha of the Old Testament, vol. 2, Pseudepigrapha (Oxford: Clarendon, 1913), 7. The reference to Carpenter, The Hexateuch, would appear to be to J. E. Carpenter and G. Harford-Battersby, The Hexateuch according to the Revised Version (London and New York: Longmans, Green, 1900). 2. D. W. Suter, "Temples and the Temple in the Early E n o c h Tradition: Memory, Vi­ sion, and Expectation," in The Early Enoch Literature, ed. Gabriele Boccaccini and John J. Collins (Leiden: Brill, 2007), 195-218.

397

David

W.

Suter

that the p o r t r a i t of E n o c h as a priest offering i n c e n s e in a s a n c t u a r y in J u b 4:25-26 reflects the r e d a c t i o n a l interests o f the a u t h o r of J u b i l e e s a n d s h o u l d therefore be treated s e p a r a t e l y from the early m a t e r i a l in 1 E n o c h in estab­ lishing the role of t e m p l e , p r i e s t h o o d , a n d cult in that t r a d i t i o n . A s R . H . C h a r l e s suggests, Jubilees s h o w s a c o n c e r n for h a v i n g the p a t r i a r c h s sacrifice f o l l o w i n g L e v i t i c a l p r o c e d u r e , l e a d i n g the w r i t e r to e x p a n d significantly the role of the p a t r i a r c h s in b u i l d i n g altars a n d offering sacrifices. T h e a b s e n c e of s u c h an i m p u l s e in 1 E n o c h , h o w e v e r , m a k e s it a p p a r e n t that the early E n o c h t r a d i t i o n as a w h o l e is s i n g u l a r l y u n i n t e r e s t e d in the m a t t e r of priestly f u n c t i o n i n a sacrificial cultus, a l t h o u g h in o t h e r respects it reflects a priestly p e r s p e c t i v e a n d has a d e e p a n d a b i d i n g interest in the t e m p l e , i n c l u d i n g the celestial t e m p l e a n d the e s c h a t o l o g i c a l t e m p l e to b e built b y G o d at the e n d of d a y s . F o r that r e a s o n , in the p r e v i o u s article I set aside the p o r t r a i t o f E n o c h as p r i e s t in J u b 4 a n d c h o s e to deal e x c l u s i v e l y w i t h the early E n o c h t r a d i t i o n in 1 E n o c h . T h i s essay is i n t e n d e d to p i c k u p w h e r e the p r e v i o u s ar­ ticle leaves off b y e x p l o r i n g the r e l a t i o n of E n o c h to t e m p l e a n d p r i e s t h o o d f r o m the p e r s p e c t i v e o f his i n c l u s i o n in the larger enterprise of J u b i l e e s .

3

W h i l e C h a r l e s ' s q u o t a t i o n p r o v i d e s f o o d for t h o u g h t , it is n o t w i t h o u t p r o b l e m s , since it a s s u m e s that the a u t h o r of Jubilees w o u l d h a v e b e e n able to d i s t i n g u i s h the Priestly C o d e f r o m the o t h e r s t r a n d s p r e s e n t in G e n e s i s , w h i c h do i n v o l v e the p a t r i a r c h s in the offering of a sacrifice or the b u i l d i n g of an altar. W h a t b e c o m e s a p p a r e n t as the s t u d y p r o c e e d s , h o w e v e r , is that the a u t h o r o f Jubilees s y s t e m a t i c a l l y reads later priestly p r a c t i c e c h a r a c t e r i s ­ tic of the Priestly d o c u m e n t b a c k i n t o the cultic a c t i v i t y o f A b r a h a m , I s a a c , a n d J a c o b . W h i l e the Y a h w i s t a n d the E l o h i s t do represent the p a t r i a r c h s as : 2

sacrificing (see G e n 8 : 2 0 - 2 2 ; 1 2 : 7 - 8 ; 1 3 : 4 , 1 8 ; 2 2 : 9 ; 26:25; 3 3 ° ; a n d 3 5 : 1 - 7 ) , a n d w h i l e the a u t h o r of Jubilees d r a w s u p o n those a c c o u n t s in his n a r r a t i v e ( J u b 6:4; 13:4; 1 4 : 1 1 - 1 2 ; 1 5 : 2 ; 18:8; 24:23; a n d 3 1 : 3 ) , it is a p p a r e n t that his c o n t r i b u ­ t i o n to these n a r r a t i v e s p r e s u p p o s e s an u n d e r s t a n d i n g of priestly p r a c t i c e as reflected in the Priestly C o d e a n d n o t s i m p l y an a d a p t a t i o n of the Y a h w i s t i c

3. In his response to the second group o f papers at the Fourth E n o c h Seminar, G. Nickelsburg c o m m e n t e d , "I was struck by the observations of David Suter in his paper for the last session. Perhaps the first to champion the anti-temple polemics in the Book o f the Watchers, he is cautious about reading the Jubilees material about E n o c h the priest back into the Book of the Watchers." Also note that in his contribution to the present volume, "Worship in Jubilees and Enoch," from the F o u r t h E n o c h Seminar, E. Larson likewise con­ cludes that the portrait o f E n o c h as a priest does not come from 1 Enoch. Larson also notices the lack o f interest o f the early E n o c h literature in sacrifice, a feature I noted in contrast to Jubilees in "Temples and the Temple in the Early E n o c h Tradition."

398

Jubilees, the Temple, and the Aaronite Priesthood and Elohistic narratives. Although it is unlikely that the author of Jubilees is aware of the Priesdy Code per se and its presuppositions concerning sacri­ fice, Charles is correct in drawing a sharp contrast between that strand and Jubilees. What seems obvious in reading Jubilees is that the book engages in a 4

kind of selective anachronism in its treatment of the antediluvians and the patriarchs in light of the "subsequent" history of the Israelite cultus, and while it might be a mistake to conclude too quickly that the purpose of the cultic portrait of the patriarchs involves a polemic directed toward the party responsible for the Priestly Code per se, the treatment of cultic issues in Ju­ bilees is too distinctive to assume that it is simply the result of consider­ ations resulting from the narrative adaptation of Genesis. The priestly activity of Adam and Enoch, for example, suggests a pro­ gressive unfolding of cultic practice leading up to the roles of Noah, Abra­ 5

ham, Isaac, and Jacob. Adam offers incense in the morning and Enoch in the evening, corresponding to later priestly practice. Adam offers his sacri­ fice on the morning of the day on which the couple is expelled from the gar­ den (Jub 3:27), and it is difficult to determine whether the sacrifice is offered within the garden or outside of it. The sacrifices of Abel and Cain follow in Jub 4:2, but the author seems only to mention them in passing rather than as a part of his account of the development of sacrifice. Enoch institutes the evening sacrifice of incense by offering it in the sanctuary on Mount Qater, apparently the mountain of the east, one of the four sanctuaries to be sancti­ 6

fied in the new creation (Jub 4 : 2 5 - 2 6 ) . Elsewhere Jubilees cites Enoch as the source of commandments regarding ritual (see 7:39 and 21:10), giving the role of Enoch in Jubilees a decidedly priestly cast. Noah's sacrifice upon disembarking from the ark in 6:1-4 reflects fur­ ther development of cultic practice in that Jubilees pictures him following what would appear to be Levitical practice in making a sin offering, includ­ ing the use of frankincense to make a sweet savor before God. Gen 8:20-21 merely tells us that upon leaving the ark Noah builds an altar and makes a burnt offering. God smells the pleasing odor and resolves never again to de4. Here compare W. Loader, "Jubilees and Sexual Transgression," Hen 31, no. 1 (2009). 5. In "Worship in Jubilees and Enoch," Larson describes in similar terms the presenta­ tion of worship in Jubilees as a process that unfolds, reaching some conclusions about the balance of interests in Jubilees but stopping short of offering a system behind the way that the process unfolds. 6. Following the translation and notes of O. S. Wintermute, "Jubilees," in OTP, 2:35142.

399

David W. Suter stroy all creatures. Jubilees, however, adds material suggestive of passages like Exod 29:40 and Lev 2:2-5to specify the animals included in the offering and the flour, oil, frankincense, and wine that accompany it. Martha Himmelfarb notes that interest in the sweet savor created by the inclusion of incense in the offering of a sacrifice is a significant aspect of the priesdy sac­ rificial cultus and that Jubilees is systematic in mentioning the inclusion of 7

frankincense in the sacrifices of the patriarchs. The short account of Noah's planting a vineyard in Gen 9:20 becomes in Jub 7:1-6 the occasion for the ini­ tiation of the rules regarding the treatment of the firstfruits of a vineyard (compare Lev 19:23 and Jub 7:34-39). The observance also becomes the occa­ sion for a sacrifice with details of the sacrifice suggestive of Num 29:2-3,* and including frankincense and a sweet odor pleasing to God. In Jubilees the practice of building altars and offering sacrifices is most characteristic of the story of Abraham, to the extent that we might suggest that Jubilees represents an Abrahamic more so than an Enochic or Mosaic form of Judaism. At times in Jubilees' telling of the story of Abraham, all we find is a passing reference to an altar and a burnt offering. More extensive, however, is the narrative of Abraham's dream, sacrifice, and covenant in Jub 14:1-20, which, aside from mentioning the building of an altar, seems to fol­ low the Yahwist's seemingly primitive details of the sacrifice as described in Gen 15:7-11 without updating them in light of the details of sacrificial prac­ tice taken from Leviticus. This narrative is also notable in that it is a fairly extensive account of sacrifice that omits a mention of frankincense and a sweet odor pleasing to God. Jub 21:1-20 represents an extensive adaptation of a biblical narrative about Abraham involving the account of his last will and testament to Isaac. In Gen 25:5-7 the narrative is a straightforward will in which the patriarch leaves all his property to Isaac and makes gifts to other sons by other wives. In Jubilees the testament includes lengthy instruction to Isaac on peace offerings suggestive of Lev 3:7-10, with the authority for the instructions attributed to Enoch and Noah. In addition to the extensive detailing of the patriarchal sacrificial prac­ tice, Jubilees traces to the patriarchal period the institution of various festi7. M. Himmelfarb, "Earthly Sacrifice and Heavenly Incense: The Law of the Priest­ hood in Aramaic Levi and Jubilees" in Heavenly Realms and Earthly Realities in Late Antique Religions, ed. R. S. Boustan and A. Yoshiko Reed (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2 0 0 4 ) , 103-22.

8. In this paper, suggestions for the sources in the Torah used in Jubilees to amplify the narratives of the patriarchs are derived from the marginal notes supplied in Wintermute, OTP, 2:35-142.

400

Jubilees,

the Temple,

and the Aaronite

Priesthood

vals a n d o b s e r v a n c e s i n c l u d e d in the M o s a i c l e g i s l a t i o n . In a d d i t i o n to the firstfruits ( J u b 7:34-39; 1 5 : 1 - 4 ) , A b r a h a m ' s c e l e b r a t i o n o f the Feast of B o o t h s at B e e r s h e b a is m e n t i o n e d in J u b 1 6 : 2 0 - 3 1 , w i t h the i n c l u s i o n of s i g n i f i c a n t detail r e g a r d i n g the sacrifices offered. T h e Feast of W e e k s or O a t h s ( d e p e n d ­ i n g u p o n the v o c a l i z a t i o n of sb'wt) is i n t r o d u c e d as a c o v e n a n t - r e n e w a l festi­ val in 6 : 1 7 - 2 2 , w h e r e it is said to be w r i t t e n in the h e a v e n l y tablets. It is o b ­ s e r v e d in c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h the c o v e n a n t w i t h N o a h in 6 : 4 - 1 6 , s u g g e s t i n g that the m e a n i n g " o a t h s " m a y u n d e r l i e the u n d e r s t a n d i n g of the feast in Jubi­ 9

l e e s . T h e c o v e n a n t w i t h A b r a h a m in J u b 15 also s e e m s to be a s s o c i a t e d w i t h this festival, a n d it s h o u l d be n o t e d that in this case w e also h a v e the institu­ tion of the p r a c t i c e of c i r c u m c i s i o n . T h e l a w o f the tithe is i n t r o d u c e d to A b r a h a m in 1 3 : 2 5 - 2 7 . It is also o b s e r v e d b y J a c o b in 3 2 : 1 - 1 5 , w h e r e J a c o b ful­ fills the o r i g i n a l v o w that he m a d e u p o n d e p a r t i n g f r o m C a n a a n . T h i s n a r r a ­ tive c o m e s s u b s e q u e n t to the b l e s s i n g o f L e v i as p r i e s t a n d features L e v i ' s in­ vestiture a n d his s e r v i c e as J a c o b ' s priest in the a c c o u n t of the sacrifice a s s o c i a t e d w i t h the tithe. T h e i n s t i t u t i o n of the tithe in the h e a v e n l y tablets is m e n t i o n e d in 3 2 : 1 0 - 1 5 , a l o n g w i t h the n o t a t i o n that it is to b e l o n g to the priests, w h o are to eat it b e f o r e G o d y e a r after year. T h i s last detail is interest­ i n g in t h a t in its use in Jubilees it antedates the r e a s o n g i v e n for its institu­ tion in the M o s a i c l e g i s l a t i o n w h e r e it serves to p r o v i d e for the priests, w h o are g i v e n n o t e r r i t o r y in the d i v i s i o n of the l a n d of C a n a a n a m o n g the t r i b e s . H o w e v e r , it s h o u l d also b e n o t e d that G e n e s i s shares this a n a c h r o n i s m in that J a c o b ' s v o w in G e n 2 8 : 2 0 - 2 2 i n v o l v e s a tithe. Jubilees seizes u p o n the d e ­ tail to b u i l d its p r e s e n t a t i o n of the i n s t a l l a t i o n of L e v i as a p r i e s t .

10

Jubilees c o n c l u d e s w i t h the institution o f P a s s o v e r in c h a p . 49 a n d the S a b b a t h in c h a p . 5 0 , g i v i n g us t w o s i g n i f i c a n t festivals a s s o c i a t e d in o n e w a y or a n o t h e r w i t h the t e m p l e that a p p e a r n o t to be o b s e r v e d b y the p a t r i a r c h s . The

p l a c e m e n t of these last t w o festivals suggests that w e s h o u l d l o o k for

s o m e sort of a s y s t e m i n v o l v e d in the i n t r o d u c t i o n of sacrifice, festivals, a n d other o b s e r v a n c e s , b u t so far the o n l y c o n s i d e r a t i o n I can d i s c o v e r is n a r r a ­ tive a p p r o p r i a t e n e s s .

11

T h i s s e e m s to be the case, for e x a m p l e , b o t h in the

use of the F e s t i v a l of W e e k s / O a t h s in the c o n t e x t of c o v e n a n t m a k i n g a n d in

9. See the note in W i n t e r m u t e , OTP, he. ext. 10. For a study o f Levi in Jubilees, see J. C. VanderKam, "jubilees

Exegetical Creation

of Levi the Priest," RevQ 17 (1996): 359-73. 1 1 . In a paper entitled "Ritual in Jubilees" presented at the Fourth E n o c h Seminar, M. A. Daise m a d e an interesting contribution to the issue o f system in the presentation o f sacrifice in Jubilees, although his approach does not necessarily deal with the question o f progression that interests m e .

401

David

W.

Suter

the use of the tithe in the c o n t e x t o f L e v i ' s investiture as priest. T h e i n t r o ­ d u c t i o n of P a s s o v e r at the e n d of the n a r r a t i v e p r o b a b l y reflects the fact that this festival has s u c h a s t r o n g historic c o n t e x t that it w o u l d be difficult to ex­ ercise creative a n a c h r o n i s m in i n c l u d i n g it in the p r a c t i c e of the p a t r i a r c h s .

12

O n the other h a n d , the p r e s e n t a t i o n of the S a b b a t h in Jubilees is a p u z ­ zle. T h e c e l e b r a t i o n of the festival is first m e n t i o n e d in c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h the G a r d e n of E d e n , w h e r e w e are told that the S a b b a t h is a festival i n t e n d e d for Israel a l o n e , a n d w h e r e the angels of the p r e s e n c e a n d the angels o f sanctifi­ c a t i o n , the t w o h i g h e s t a n g e l i c o r d e r s , are d e p i c t e d as o b s e r v i n g the S a b b a t h in h e a v e n f r o m the b e g i n n i n g . T h e c o n n e c t i o n o f I s r a e l w i t h the t w o h i g h e s t o r d e r s of angels is s i g n i f i c a n t . T h e angelic o b s e r v a n c e of the S a b b a t h sug­ gests the m u c h m o r e elaborate S o n g s o f the S a b b a t h Sacrifice f r o m the D e a d Sea Scrolls, a n d this m a y b e the o n l y p o i n t i n Jubilees w h e r e the celestial t e m p l e c o m e s into play. T h e r e is n o i n d i c a t i o n , h o w e v e r , that A d a m a n d E v e o b s e r v e the S a b b a t h , in spite o f A d a m ' s role in i n i t i a t i n g the priestly cultus w i t h the m o r n i n g offering o f i n c e n s e , a n d there is n o i n d i c a t i o n o f the o b ­ s e r v a n c e o f the S a b b a t h b y the p a t r i a r c h s

13

— a l t h o u g h there is a p p a r e n t l y

an a t t e m p t in 2:24 to l i n k the b l e s s i n g of the S a b b a t h to the b l e s s i n g of the seed o f J a c o b .

1 4

It c o u l d be n o t e d also that A d a m a n d E v e reside in E d e n for a

S a b b a t h of y e a r s ( 3 : 1 5 - 1 6 ) . H o w e v e r , w h i l e the p a s s a g e d e a l i n g w i t h c r e a t i o n a n d the o b s e r v a n c e o f the S a b b a t h b y the angels i n c l u d e s the S a b b a t h l a w ( 2 : 1 7 - 3 3 ) , the i n t r o d u c t i o n o f the S a b b a t h to Israel c o m e s at the v e r y e n d o f the b o o k , w h e n the festival b e c o m e s the final t h i n g r e v e a l e d to M o s e s in c h a p . 50 f o l l o w i n g the i n s t i t u t i o n of P a s s o v e r in c h a p . 49. S u c h an a r r a n g e ­ m e n t is p a r t i c u l a r l y c u r i o u s g i v e n the p r o m i n e n c e o f s a b b a t h s of y e a r s in the c a l e n d r i c a l s y s t e m utilized in J u b i l e e s . T h e selective a n a c h r o n i s m of J u b i l e e s , w h i c h reads the sacrificial cultus of the t e m p l e b a c k into the p r a c t i c e of the p a t r i a r c h , d o e s n o t s e e m to i n c l u d e the o b s e r v a n c e of the S a b b a t h at the h u -

12. However, see the essay in the present volume by B. H a l p e r n - A m a r u , "The Festivals of Pesah and Massot in the Book o f Jubilees," which convincingly relates Passover in Jub 49 to the seven-day festival in Jub 1 8 : 1 7 - 1 9 resulting from the narrative of the Akedah, leaving us only with the Sabbath without patriarchal roots. 13. In her study o f the calendar at Q u m r a n , A. Jaubert argues that in Jubilees there is one day upon which the patriarchs do not travel, which must therefore be the Sabbath (The Date of the Last Supper [Staten Island, N.Y.: Alba House, 1 9 6 5 ] , 27). Her argument would give us an implicit rather than an explicit observance in Jubilees of the Sabbath by the patriarchs; however, after detailed analysis in "A Reexamination o f the Calendar in the Book of

Jubilees"

(a paper supplied to the author by A. B a u m g a r t e n ) , J. Kugel and L. Ravid conclude that the calendar used in Jubilees cannot be interpreted in that way. 14. W i n t e r m u t e , OTP, 2:37 n. z.

402

David

W.

Suter

the use of the tithe in the c o n t e x t o f L e v i ' s investiture as priest. T h e i n t r o ­ d u c t i o n of P a s s o v e r at the e n d of the n a r r a t i v e p r o b a b l y reflects the fact that this festival has s u c h a s t r o n g historic c o n t e x t that it w o u l d be difficult to ex­ ercise creative a n a c h r o n i s m in i n c l u d i n g it in the p r a c t i c e of the p a t r i a r c h s .

12

O n the other h a n d , the p r e s e n t a t i o n of the S a b b a t h in Jubilees is a p u z ­ zle. T h e c e l e b r a t i o n of the festival is first m e n t i o n e d in c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h the G a r d e n of E d e n , w h e r e w e are told that the S a b b a t h is a festival i n t e n d e d for Israel a l o n e , a n d w h e r e the angels of the p r e s e n c e a n d the angels o f sanctific a t i o n , the t w o h i g h e s t a n g e l i c o r d e r s , are d e p i c t e d as o b s e r v i n g the S a b b a t h in h e a v e n f r o m the b e g i n n i n g . T h e c o n n e c t i o n o f I s r a e l w i t h the t w o h i g h e s t o r d e r s of angels is s i g n i f i c a n t . T h e angelic o b s e r v a n c e of the S a b b a t h sug­ gests the m u c h m o r e elaborate S o n g s o f the S a b b a t h Sacrifice f r o m the D e a d Sea Scrolls, a n d this m a y b e the o n l y p o i n t i n Jubilees w h e r e the celestial t e m p l e c o m e s into play. T h e r e is n o i n d i c a t i o n , h o w e v e r , that A d a m a n d E v e o b s e r v e the S a b b a t h , in spite o f A d a m ' s role in i n i t i a t i n g the priestly cultus w i t h the m o r n i n g offering o f i n c e n s e , a n d there is n o i n d i c a t i o n o f the o b ­ s e r v a n c e o f the S a b b a t h b y the p a t r i a r c h s

13

— a l t h o u g h there is a p p a r e n t l y

an a t t e m p t in 2:24 to l i n k the b l e s s i n g of the S a b b a t h to the b l e s s i n g of the seed o f J a c o b .

1 4

It c o u l d be n o t e d also that A d a m a n d E v e reside in E d e n for a

S a b b a t h of y e a r s ( 3 : 1 5 - 1 6 ) . H o w e v e r , w h i l e the p a s s a g e d e a l i n g w i t h c r e a t i o n a n d the o b s e r v a n c e o f the S a b b a t h b y the angels i n c l u d e s the S a b b a t h l a w ( 2 : 1 7 - 3 3 ) , the i n t r o d u c t i o n o f the S a b b a t h to Israel c o m e s at the v e r y e n d o f the b o o k , w h e n the festival b e c o m e s the final t h i n g r e v e a l e d to M o s e s in c h a p . 50 f o l l o w i n g the i n s t i t u t i o n of P a s s o v e r in c h a p . 49. S u c h an a r r a n g e ­ m e n t is p a r t i c u l a r l y c u r i o u s g i v e n the p r o m i n e n c e o f s a b b a t h s of y e a r s in the c a l e n d r i c a l s y s t e m utilized in J u b i l e e s . T h e selective a n a c h r o n i s m of J u b i l e e s , w h i c h reads the sacrificial cultus of the t e m p l e b a c k into the p r a c t i c e of the p a t r i a r c h , d o e s n o t s e e m to i n c l u d e the o b s e r v a n c e of the S a b b a t h at the h u -

12. However, see the essay in the present volume by B. H a l p e r n - A m a r u , "The Festivals of Pesah and Massot in the Book o f Jubilees," which convincingly relates Passover in Jub 49 to the seven-day festival in Jub 1 8 : 1 7 - 1 9 resulting from the narrative of the Akedah, leaving us only with the Sabbath without patriarchal roots. 13. In her study o f the calendar at Q u m r a n , A. Jaubert argues that in Jubilees there is one day upon which the patriarchs do not travel, which must therefore be the Sabbath (The Date of the Last Supper [Staten Island, N.Y.: Alba House, 1 9 6 5 ] , 27). Her argument would give us an implicit rather than an explicit observance in Jubilees of the Sabbath by the patriarchs; however, after detailed analysis in "A Reexamination o f the Calendar in the Book of

Jubilees'

(a paper supplied to the author by A. B a u m g a r t e n ) , J. Kugel and L. Ravid conclude that the calendar used in Jubilees cannot be interpreted in that way. 14. W i n t e r m u t e , OTP, 2:37 n. z.

402

David W. Suter pie to be built on Mount Zion by God's hands at the end of days. The Apoca­ lypse of Weeks in 1 Enoch is similar to the Animal Apocalypse. It treats the generation of the restoration as an apostate generation, does not mention the second temple at all, and anticipates God's building the eschatological temple at the end of days. Although there is no direct reference to Jeremiah's prophecy in Jubi­ lees, the book reflects the same understanding of the second temple and the eschatological temple that appears in the Animal Apocalypse and the Apoc­ alypse of Weeks in 1 Enoch. In Jub 1, the restoration of the temple on Mount Zion is treated as an eschatological rather than a "historical" event. The pres­ ent of the writer is one of the sons of Israel going astray among the Gentiles. He anticipates the time when Israel, among the Gentiles, will repent and be restored to the land, and when God will create a clean heart within them for all eternity. Twice it is said that God will build his sanctuary on Mount Zion for all eternity. With the rebuilding of the temple, God will be king on Mount Zion for all eternity. The heavenly bodies will be renewed for peace and blessing, and God will defend his people from the Gentiles. While it is possible to read the passage as referring to the restoration of the second tem­ ple, its general tenor is eschatological, written during the time of the second temple with the implication that the restoration is yet to happen. Beyond chap. 1, Knibb finds this treatment of the second temple and the eschatological temple implied elsewhere in Jubilees. In Rebecca's blessing of Jacob in 2 5 : 1 4 - 2 2 , the matriarch prays that God will dwell with his people and that his sanctuary will be built in their midst for all ages (see 25:21b). The eschatological passage in Jub 23:8-32 asserts that the "evil generation" of v. 14 will "defile the holy of holies through the impure corruption of their contamination" (v. 2 1 ) .

1 6

The reference to defiling the Holy of Holies Knibb

takes as implicating the high priest in the corruption. He interprets the cor­ ruption as involving illegitimate marriages, implied by the allusion to sexual impurity (reflecting the Hebrew zenuth) and contamination in w . 1 4 and 21 (cf. Jub 30:15, where the author warns that marriages with foreigners will de­ file the Lord's sanctuary). Knibb relates the polemic to the one in the Book 17

of the Watchers in 1 Enoch and observes that Jubilees reflects the perspec­ tive of dissident priests opposed to the Jerusalemite priesdy establishment.

18

16. Knibb, "Temple and Cult," 410. 17. See my study of the polemic in D. W. Suter, "Fallen Angel, Fallen Priest: The Prob­ lem of Family Purity in 1 Enoch 6-16," HUCA 50 (1979): 115-35.

18. Knibb, "Temple and Cult," 409-10.

404

Jubilees, the Temple, and the Aaronite Priesthood Jubilees thus affirms the sanctity of Mount Zion, which it sees as primordially established and eschatologically predestined. However, it questions the legitimacy of its current priesthood and consequently of the current temple occupying that site. In sorting out the role of Mount Zion in the book, one must take ac­ count of the fact that Jubilees seems to recognize a multiplicity of sanctuar­ ies.

19

In the passage that pictures Enoch offering the evening incense, there

are four: Mount Sinai, Mount Zion, Eden, and the mountain of the east, which will be places where God dwells at the end of days — an eschatologi­ cal idea. Jub 8:19, on the other hand, mentions the existence of three sanctu­ aries from creation, which will become part of the territory of Shem in the division of land among the sons of Noah. They are the Garden of Eden, Mount Sinai, and Mount Zion. Eden is treated as the Holy of Holies, the dwelling place of God; Sinai as the center of the desert; and Zion as the navel of the earth. The three places face each another, and the concept may be that the three are the debt, the hekhal, and the 'ulam of one temple. Clearly Jubi­ lees reflects a certain degree of creativeness in working with the Deuterono­ mistic one-sanctuary rule. The passage in chap. 49 dealing with the Passover as a temple festival emphasizes the role of the tabernacle located at various places in the land as an anticipation of the temple on Mount Zion in Jerusa­ lem. Perhaps the intent is to reconcile the multiplicity of places mentioned in the Torah as dwelling places of God with the centrality of Zion. It is also possible that the creativity reflected here needs to be coupled with the roles of the antediluvians and the patriarchs in the evolution of priestly sacrifice as an indication that Jubilees is seeking to make a statement not about the priestly role of the laity who are contemporaries of the 20

writer but about the role of priesthood, temple, and sacrifice as fundamen­ tal to the order of creation. Here we can note George Brooke's discussion of the ten temples of the Qumran literature, which would appear to support a cosmological significance of the idea of temple in Jubilees by treating Eden in that work as "the primordial temple."

21

For Brooke, the fact that Adam

and Eve are brought into the Garden of Eden forty and eighty days after their 19. It also appears to reject one location, Bethel, as a sanctuary. See J. Schwartz, "Jubi­ lees, Bethel, and the Temple of Jacob," HUCA 56 (1985): 63-85. 20. See M. Himmelfarb, '"A Kingdom of Priests': The Democratization of the Priest­ hood in the Literature of Second Temple Judaism," Journal ofJewish Thought and Philosophy 6 (1997): 89-104.

21. G. J. Brooke, "The Ten Temples in the Dead Sea Scrolls," in Temple and Worship in Biblical Israel, ed. J. Day (London and New York: T. 8t T. Clark, 2005), 417-32 (here 419-21). 405

David

W.

Suter

c r e a t i o n s e e m s to b e n o t so m u c h an a n t i c i p a t i o n of the rules in L e v 1 2 : 2 - 5 r e g a r d i n g the p e r i o d s o f p u r i f i c a t i o n after c h i l d b i r t h to be o b s e r v e d b y a w o m a n b e f o r e e n t e r i n g the s a n c t u a r y , as it is the e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f those r u l e s . C i t i n g C . T. R . H a y w a r d , he o b s e r v e s that "this i n d i c a t e s that a s a n c t u ­ ary w a s an i n t e g r a l p a r t o f c r e a t i o n itself f r o m the outset a n d that it ' h a s a g o o d deal to do w i t h the c o n t i n u i n g stability a n d o r d e r of c r e a t i o n . ' "

22

In

a d d i t i o n to a c o s m o l o g i c a l a n d cultic i d e a l , h o w e v e r , B r o o k e suggests that the role of E d e n as a p r i m o r d i a l t e m p l e has a p o l i t i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e in the early M a c c a b e a n p e r i o d : " T h e a u t h o r of Jubilees

m a y . . . have h a d a sense o f

the p o l i t i c a l a g e n d a o f the M a c c a b e e s after the defeat o f the S e l e u c i d s . . . . T h e s a n c t i f i c a t i o n o f E d e n is a d i v i n e g u a r a n t e e of the p o l i t i c a l d i v i s i o n o f the w o r l d into three s e c t i o n s w i t h the d e s c e n d a n t s of S h e m , n o t the G r e e k s , clearly the rightful heirs o f the l a n d of Israel (Jub. 8 : i o - 2 i ) . "

2 3

James Scott

also gives a g e o p o l i t i c a l twist to the role of the s a n c t u a r i e s in J u b i l e e s in his s t u d y o f the a p p r o p r i a t i o n in J u b 8-9 o f the table of n a t i o n s i n G e n 1 0 , al­ t h o u g h he m a k e s Z i o n r a t h e r t h a n E d e n the focal p o i n t o f the f o u r s a n c t u a r ­ ies a n d suggests that J u b i l e e s anticipates that o n e d a y Z i o n , the " n a v e l of the earth" ( J u b 8 : 1 9 ) , r a t h e r t h a n G r e e c e , w i l l rule the earth (see J u b 2 2 : 1 1 - 1 4 ) .

2 4

U n l i k e the B o o k of the W a t c h e r s in 1 E n o c h , w h i c h p l a y s u p o n the a n t a g o ­ nism of Jerusalem and D a n ,

2 5

J u b i l e e s creates a h a r m o n i z a t i o n o f s a c r e d

s p a c e to p r e s e n t a v i e w o f the e a r t h that is at o n c e s a c e r d o t a l a n d p o l i t i c a l i n character. In c o n t r a s t to the o n e - s a n c t u a r y rule o f the D e u t e r o n o m i s t i c tra­ d i t i o n , w h i c h l i m i t s s a c r e d s p a c e to o n e g e o g r a p h i c a l l o c a t i o n , J u b i l e e s i m a g i n e s the earth as suffused w i t h s a n c t i t y .

26

O n e final twist in the s a c e r d o t a l p e r s p e c t i v e of Jubilees is the role o f the p r a c t i c e o f r i t u a l p u r i t y in the b o o k . G i v e n the s i g n i f i c a n c e of r i t u a l p u ­ r i t y in the s e c t a r i a n literature of the p e r i o d , its relative a b s e n c e f r o m J u b i l e e s is r e m a r k a b l e . L i o r a R a v i d has a r g u e d that the a b s e n c e of a c o n c e r n for r i t u a l p u r i t y i n the b o o k is i n d i c a t i v e of a p o l e m i c in the w o r k against the Z a d o k i t e

22. Brooke, "The Ten Temples," 419. See C. T. R. Hayward, The Jewish Temple: A NonSourcebook (London and New York: Routledge, 1996), 86. 23. Brooke, "The Ten Temples," 420. 24. J. M. Scott, Geography in Early Judaism and Christianity: The Book of Jubilees, ed. R. Bauckham, SNTSMS (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2 0 0 2 ) , 32-35. 25. See D. W. Suter, "Why Galilee? Galilean Regionalism in the Interpretation o f 1 Enoch 6 - 1 6 , " Hen 25 (2003): 167-212 (here 178-79 and 2 0 1 - 5 ) . 26. Here contrast the conclusion reached by Larson in "Worship in Jubilees and Enoch," that "the author manages to indicate that the true intent o f God is to limit the places that are acceptable to God for ritual worship." Biblical

406

Jubilees, priesthood,

2 7

the Temple,

and the Aaronite

Priesthood

w h i l e J a m e s V a n d e r K a m r e s p o n d s that J u b i l e e s is a retelling o f

G e n e s i s , so that the n a r r a t i v e antedates the r e v e l a t i o n of s u c h r u l e s to M o s e s at M o u n t S i n a i a n d the e s t a b l i s h m e n t of the t a b e r n a c l e .

28

Its a b s e n c e f r o m

the c o n c e r n s of J u b i l e e s t h u s is n o i n d i c a t i o n o f the i m p o r t a n c e of the c o n ­ cern for the m a i n t e n a n c e o f p u r i t y for the a u t h o r of the b o o k b u t r a t h e r is the c o n s e q u e n c e of the lack of a t e m p l e in that p e r i o d to w h i c h the rules of p u r i t y m i g h t refer. H o w e v e r , w h i l e it m a y be c o r r e c t to a r g u e that the a u t h o r o f J u b i l e e s has s i m p l y c h o s e n to o m i t the p u r i t y r e g u l a t i o n s of L e v i t i c u s f r o m his selec­ tive a n a c h r o n i s m , it is p r o b a b l y better n o t to tie that o m i s s i o n to the l a c k of a s a n c t u a r y in the p a t r i a r c h a l p e r i o d to w h i c h the r e g u l a t i o n s m i g h t apply. In effect, the a u t h o r ' s selective a n a c h r o n i s m h a s i n c l u d e d e l e m e n t s o f the t e m p l e — its sacrificial c u l t u s a n d its s y s t e m o f festivals — in the p a t r i a r c h a l p e r i o d , a n d it s e e m s n e c e s s a r y to ask w h y the p u r i t y r e g u l a t i o n s w o u l d n o t a p p l y b y e x t e n s i o n to the t e m p l e s e r v i c e as to the s a n c t u a r y itself. A t the s a m e t i m e , it is w o r t h n o t i n g that the c o n c e p t o f s a n c t u a r y i n J u b i l e e s is n o t spatially a n d t e m p o r a l l y defined in quite the s a m e w a y it is in the T o r a h o r the T e m p l e S c r o l l , w h e r e , p a r t i c u l a r l y in the latter case, the t e m p l e s e e m s to b e i n t e n d e d to b e isolated f r o m the w o r l d a r o u n d it. In J u b i l e e s , s a n c t u a r i e s — E d e n , S i n a i , Z i o n , a n d the m o u n t a i n of the east — are r o o t e d in the b e ­ g i n n i n g a n d the e n d . T h e y are p a r t of the o r d e r of c r e a t i o n as w e l l as the o r ­ der of the n e w c r e a t i o n at the e n d of d a y s . T h e i r p u r p o s e is the s a n c t i f i c a t i o n of the entire e a r t h . T h e r i t u a l p r a c t i c e of the p a t r i a r c h s s h o u l d be seen as a p a r t of that o r d e r in that it a d a p t s e l e m e n t s of the t e m p l e s e r v i c e to a p e r i o d in w h i c h n o t e m p l e a c t u a l l y exists. T h e i m p l i c a t i o n m a y b e that s a n c t u a r i e s do n o t r e q u i r e t e m p l e s to sanctify the earth; the s e r v i c e itself w i l l suffice. Actually, it w o u l d be a m i s t a k e to a r g u e that p u r i t y c o n c e r n s are absent f r o m Jubilees. T h e b o o k d o e s n o t for the m o s t p a r t read the rules of ritual p u ­ rity b a c k into the w o r l d o f the p a t r i a r c h s in the s a m e w a y that it d o e s the priestly sacrificial p r a c t i c e . A s w e have o b s e r v e d , h o w e v e r , it d o e s treat the G a r d e n o f E d e n as a s a n c t u a r y , u s i n g it to c o n n e c t the p u r i f i c a t i o n p e r i o d for a m o t h e r after c h i l d b i r t h to enter the s a n c t u a r y to the p e r i o d s after their cre­ ation w h e n A d a m a n d Eve are i n t r o d u c e d to the g a r d e n . It m i g h t be better to suggest that Jubilees s i m p l y is n o t o b s e s s e d w i t h ritual i m p u r i t y , or rather that the k i n d of i m p u r i t y w i t h w h i c h it is o b s e s s e d is that w h i c h c o m e s f r o m

27. L. Ravid, "Purity and Impurity in the B o o k of Jubilees,"

JSP 13 (2002): 61-86.

28. J. C. VanderKam, "Viewed from Another Angle: Purity and Impurity in the Book o f Jubilees,"

JSP 13 (2002): 2 0 9 - 1 5 .

407

David

W.

Suter

m a r r i a g e s to G e n t i l e s . T h e b o o k takes several o c c a s i o n s to w a r n against such m a r r i a g e s , a n d at o n e p o i n t m a r r i a g e to a n o n - I s r a e l i t e is d e s c r i b e d as h a v i n g the p o t e n t i a l to pollute the s a n c t u a r y ( J u b 3 0 : 1 5 - 1 6 ) . L e v i is a p p r o v e d as priest in Jubilees b e c a u s e of his zeal a n d v i o l e n c e in acting to p r e v e n t the m a r r i a g e of his sister D i n a h to the C a n a a n i t e S h e c h e m ( J u b 3 0 : 1 8 - 2 0 ) , a d e v e l o p m e n t in s h a r p contrast to G e n e s i s , w h i c h has n o such o r d i n a t i o n scene, a n d w h i c h c o n d e m n s L e v i a n d S i m e o n for their v i o l e n t act (see G e n 34:30 a n d 4 9 : 5 - 7 ) . W h i l e there are differences b e t w e e n Jubilees a n d the early E n o c h literature over interest in the sacrificial cultus of the t e m p l e and in a p p r o a c h to the c o n ­ cept of s a n c t u a r i e s , the t w o b o d i e s of literature s e e m to share a c o n c e r n w i t h i m p r o p e r m a r r i a g e s if the m y t h of the fallen angels in the B o o k of the W a t c h e r s is seen as a p o l e m i c directed t o w a r d priestly m a r r i a g e s . In this c o n t e x t w e s h o u l d n o t e that L u t z D o e r i n g ' s c o n t r i b u t i o n to the p r e s e n t v o l u m e deals in s i g n i f i c a n t detail w i t h the c o m p l e x i t y o f the issue o f p u r i t y a n d i m p u r i t y in J u b i l e e s , e m p h a s i z i n g the a s c e n d a n c y o f w h a t he t e r m s " m o r a l " p u r i t y o v e r " r i t u a l " p u r i t y in that b o o k .

2 9

H e c o n c l u d e s quite

c o r r e c t l y ( j u d g i n g b y m y c o n c l u s i o n that the p r i e s t l y p o r t r a i t o f E n o c h in J u b 4 is n o t d e r i v e d f r o m the E n o c h t r a d i t i o n ) that " T h e l i n k s w i t h E n o c h i c t r a d i t i o n are m o r e l i m i t e d in r a n g e , relating to the field of ' m o r a l ' i m p u r i t y : the a d o p t i o n o f W a t c h e r m y t h , d e a l i n g w i t h s e x u a l t r a n s g r e s s i o n , b l o o d ­ s h e d , a n d i d o l a t r y ; a n d s i m i l a r i t i e s in the e x p e c t a t i o n of an earth c l e a n s e d of i m p u r i t y ( J u b 50:5; 1 E n 1 0 : 2 0 , 2 2 ) . "

3 0

In the final a n a l y s i s , R a v i d ' s a r g u m e n t r e g a r d i n g the l a w s of p u r i t y in J u b i l e e s is n o t so easily d i s m i s s e d . W h a t she d e m o n s t r a t e s is n o t the

absence

of the laws of i m p u r i t y but the presence o f a fairly r o b u s t system of sanctifi­ c a t i o n b a s e d u p o n the l a w s w r i t t e n in the h e a v e n l y tablets. K e y to this system is the c o n c e p t o f m e t a p h y s i c a l i m p u r i t y in J u b i l e e s , w h i c h i n v o l v e s n o t j u s t the m i x t u r e of J e w a n d G e n t i l e t h r o u g h i n t e r m a r r i a g e b u t the c o n f u s i o n o f J e w i s h a n d G r e e k c i v i l i z a t i o n , a sin o f w h i c h the a u t h o r s e e m s to h o l d the Z a d o k i t e s guilty. I n s t e a d of rituals o f p u r i f i c a t i o n b y b a t h i n g , R a v i d finds in J u b i l e e s p r o c e s s e s o f s a n c t i f i c a t i o n i n v o l v e d in a p p r o a c h i n g a n d l e a v i n g an altar o r h o l y p l a c e (cf. J u b 2 1 : 1 6 ) . T h i s system a n d these l a w s h o l d s w a y as m u c h for the p a t r i a r c h s as for later g e n e r a t i o n s . T h e a b s e n c e o f certain clas­ sifications of p u r i t y laws a n d her a r g u m e n t for a c r i t i q u e in Jubilees n o t o f

29. Doering's categories are based upon J. Klawans, Impurity

and Sin in Ancient

Juda­

ism (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2 0 0 0 ) . 3 0 . Doering, "Purity and Impurity in the Book o f Jubilees." C o m p a r e Loader, "Jubi­ lees and Sexual Transgression."

408

Jubilees,

the Temple,

and the Aaronite

Priesthood

the p r i e s t h o o d per se b u t o f the Z a d o k i t e s in p a r t i c u l a r b a s e d u p o n this s y s ­ tem of s a n c t i f i c a t i o n t h u s raise a s e r i o u s p r o b l e m that d e s e r v e s further dis­ c u s s i o n . T h e critiques o f her w o r k b y V a n d e r K a m a n d D o e r i n g s h o u l d go further in r e c o g n i z i n g the c o n c e p t u a l difference in u n d e r s t a n d i n g the issue of p u r i t y a n d i m p u r i t y i m p l i e d b y her a r g u m e n t for a s y s t e m o f sanctifica­ t i o n in J u b i l e e s . T h e y also n e e d to e x p l o r e further the c o n u n d r u m p o s e d b y the selective use of a n a c h r o n i s m in J u b i l e e s , w h i c h reads the sacrificial p r a c ­ tice a n d festivals of the t e m p l e b a c k into the w o r l d o f the p a t r i a r c h s m o r e so t h a n its system o f ritual p u r i t y .

31

W i t h the extensive use o f a n a c h r o n i s m

on

the p a r t of the a u t h o r , it is n o t e n o u g h to a r g u e , as D o e r i n g d o e s , that " T o e x p e c t ritual ( i m ) p u r i t y g e n e r a l l y in ' p r e - T e m p l e ' n a r r a t i v e contexts w o u l d b e a n a c h r o n i s t i c in the p e r s p e c t i v e of Jubilees."

Conclusions T h i s s t u d y c o n f i r m s m y c o n c l u s i o n in " T e m p l e s a n d the T e m p l e in the E a r l y E n o c h T r a d i t i o n " that the role o f E n o c h in Jubilees as a priest offering i n ­ cense in a s a n c t u a r y reflects a r e d a c t i o n a l c o n c e r n o f the a u t h o r o f Jubilees a n d s h o u l d therefore b e left o u t of a c o n s i d e r a t i o n

of t e m p l e , cult, a n d

p r i e s t h o o d in the early E n o c h t r a d i t i o n . T h e study, h o w e v e r , a l l o w s m e to re­ fine to s o m e

d e g r e e m y u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f the

role of E n o c h

in

the

r e d a c t i o n a l c o n c e r n s o f J u b i l e e s . T h e sage a n d s c r i b e m a k e s m o r e t h a n a c a m e o a p p e a r a n c e in Jubilees as a priest offering i n c e n s e in the e v e n i n g . H e is also cited twice at c r u c i a l p o i n t s in the n a r r a t i v e as the a u t h o r of a b o o k that represents a k e y s o u r c e of a u t h o r i t y o n sacrificial p r a c t i c e . A l t h o u g h his role is s m a l l in t e r m s o f the lines a s s i g n e d to h i m , so to speak, it is central to the p r o c e s s o f selective a n d creative a n a c h r o n i s m that the a u t h o r of Jubilees uses to read the sacrifices a n d the festivals of the t e m p l e b a c k i n t o the n a r r a ­ tive of the p a t r i a r c h s . T h i s difference b e t w e e n the early E n o c h literature in­ c l u d e d in 1 E n o c h a n d Jubilees n e e d s to b e taken as a starting p o i n t in a n y ef­ fort to d e v e l o p an u n d e r s t a n d i n g of the p o r t r a i t of E n o c h in J u b i l e e s . In J u b i l e e s , E n o c h is p a r t of a s y s t e m of s i g n i f i c a t i o n i n v o l v i n g a r e s t a t e m e n t of the roles o f priest, t e m p l e , a n d cultus in Israel. T h a t system m u s t be u n d e r ­ s t o o d first of all o n the basis of clues f o u n d w i t h i n the text o f Jubilees itself r a t h e r t h a n o n the basis o f s y s t e m s i m p o r t e d f r o m o t h e r literature of the p e -

31. Note here Loader, "Jubilees and Sexual Transgression," who seems to recognize the limits o f anachronism.

409

David W. Suter riod. The problem is that the writer's clever use of selective anachronism makes it difficult to reconstruct that system. In Jubilees, Enoch is presented for the first time as an authority on sac­ rifice, and the book presents sanctuaries and temple service as essential to the stability of the created order. The selective anachronism of the narrative 32

portrays Israel as a nation of priests whose presence and rule in the navel of the earth, the land of Israel, are essential to universal order. At the same time, this nation of priests will be served by a Levitical priesthood of ritual specialists whose role is reflected in the blessing and investiture of Levi as priest. The ultimate vision of the book sees this order inherent in creation with the inclusion of sanctuaries of Eden, Zion, and Sinai in the created or­ der, and it anticipates the restoration of that order with the appearance of the eschatological temple on Mount Zion, built by the hand of God.

32. Himmelfarb, "A Kingdom of Priests," 89-104.

410

Jubilees and Enochic Judaism David R. Jackson

Jubilees (ca. 1 6 0 - 1 5 0 B . C . E . ) refers to and uses writings attributed to E n o c h (including B W , A B , B D , and E E )

1

as authentic and authoritative divine reve­

2

lations. T h e D a m a s c u s D o c u m e n t ( C D - A 1 6 : 1 - 6 ) , in turn, refers to and uses 3

Jubilees as a w o r k having divine authority and authenticity. T h e s e two d o c ­ uments create a direct chain of authority and declare their allegiances to these E n o c h texts, w h i c h gives us, at least in skeletal f o r m , an observable his­ torical entity to which the label of E n o c h i c Judaism has been applied. T h e data that identifies the D a m a s c u s D o c u m e n t as belonging to the Q u m r a n sectarian texts gives us in turn a p r i m a facie basis on w h i c h to attempt to "connect the dots." Immediately w e face the difficulty that in this chain of texts w e are also dealing with significant diversity within second temple Judaism. Nickles-

1. Respectively, the Book o f the Watchers; the Astronomical Book, being 1 En 7 2 - 8 2 , noting that the A r a m a i c texts (4Q208-211) represent a m o r e extensive body o f work; the B o o k o f Dreams; and the Epistle o f E n o c h . 2. J . C . V a n d e r K a m , "Enoch Traditions in Jubilees a n d O t h e r S e c o n d - C e n t u r y Sources," in S B L S P 1 (Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1978), 229-51, found that Jubilees used elements o f B W (including 1 E n 1 - 5 ) , the A B , the BD, and the E E as well as other sources. G. W. E . Nickelsburg, 1 Enoch 1: A Commentary

on the Book of 1 Enoch, Chapters 1-36; 81-108

(Minne­

apolis: Fortress, 2001), 7 2 - 7 3 , concluded that Jubilees used BW, B D (at least the Animal Apocalypse [ A A ] ) , AW (Apocalypse o f Weeks), and A B , including particularly 81:1-82:4. 3. See Shemesh's discussion o f the significance o f 4Q265 for Jubilees' canonical status at Q u m r a n . Aharon Shemesh, "4Q265 and the Authoritative Status o f Jubilees at Q u m r a n , " in this volume.

411

David

R.

Jackson

b u r g has o b s e r v e d that J u b i l e e s " m a y b e the earliest attestation o f the E n o c h 4

t r a d i t i o n s a p a r t f r o m the E n o c h i c c o r p u s itself." A s s u c h , it offers a signifi­ cant starting p o i n t f r o m w h i c h to b e g i n to investigate the d e v e l o p m e n t o f this t r a d i t i o n .

The Enochic Paradigm and Exemplars l E n 1 - 5 f u n c t i o n s as an i n t r o d u c t i o n to the B W . F r o m the o p e n i n g chapter, the a u t h o r presents a p a r e n e s i s m a k i n g the e x c l u s i v e c l a i m that o n l y those who

f o l l o w the t e a c h i n g of this b o o k , o u t o f all h u m a n i t y , w i l l b e s a v e d o n

"the d a y o f t r i b u l a t i o n " ( 1 : 1 - 2 , 8 - 9 ) .

5

T h e rest are d e e m e d to h a v e " g o n e

astray" (5:4-9) a n d t h u s to i n c u r d e s t r u c t i o n .

6

7

T h e p a r a d i g m e n u n c i a t e d in 1 E n 2 - 5 presents an e x t r e m e u n d e r s t a n d ­ i n g o f the character of G o d as essentially a n d necessarily regular, orderly, a n d consistent i n v o l v i n g absolute reliability, predictability, a n d s y m m e t r y i n all his w o r k s a n d r e q u i r e m e n t s . Scott m a k e s the o b s e r v a t i o n that this t r a d i t i o n a s s u m e s s o m e t h i n g of "a r u d i m e n t a r y ' u n i f i e d field theory,' the

ancient

e q u i v a l e n t of the quest of m o d e r n p h y s i c s to find an u n d e r l y i n g b e a u t y o f 8

m a t h e m a t i c a l s y m m e t r y a n d h a r m o n y in the o r d e r of the u n i v e r s e . " T h e w r i t e r of Jubilees m a y fairly be said to h a v e a p p l i e d this p a r a d i g m w i t h o b s e s ­ 9

sive r i g o r in an a t t e m p t to integrate it w i t h the n a r r a t i v e o f the T o r a h . In d o ­ i n g so, he m a d e a substantial c o n t r i b u t i o n to an e x p o n e n t i a l a g e n d a a d d r e s s ­ i n g other w o r k s that c a m e to constitute the T a n a k h , p r o d u c i n g T e s t a m e n t s , h a l a k i c studies (e.g., 1 1 Q T ) , p e s h e r i m , a n d other w o r k s that, like J u b i l e e s , at­ t e m p t e d to integrate this p e r s p e c t i v e w i t h n a r r a t i v e sections of the T a n a k h .

1 0

4. Nickelsburg, 1 Enoch 1, 72. 5. All citations o f 1 Enoch are taken from G. W. E. Nickelsburg and J. C. VanderKam, 1 Enoch: A New Translation Based on the Hermeneia Commentary (Minneapolis: Fortress, 2004). 2 : 1

6. Cf. also 22:9-14; 80:4-10; 82:4-8; 83:8-10; 84:4-6; 90:26-27, 30-37; 91:4, 18-19; 9 ; 93:1-2, 9 - 1 0 , 1 2 ; 94:1-5, 1 1 ; 95:2-3; 95:7-96:4; 96:8-97:6; 98:1-99:3, 1 0 , 14; 100:5, 9; 1 0 2 : 1 0 - 1 1 ; 103:14-15; 104:6, 1 0 - 1 3 ; 7 ; 108:6. 1 0

: l

7. See discussion in D. R. Jackson, Enochic Judaism: Three Defining Paradigm Exem­ plars (London: T. & T. Clark, 2004), 15-28. 8. J. M. Scott, On Earth as in Heaven: The Restoration of Sacred Time and Sacred Space in the Book of Jubilees (Leiden: Brill, 2005), 222. 9. Cf. the discussion in Karoly Dobos, "The Consolation of History," Hen 31, no. 1 (2009). 10. He was not alone in doing so (cf. Genesis Apocryphon; Aramaic Levi; Cairo

412

Jubilees

and Enochic

Judaism

O u t o f this p a r a d i g m w e o b s e r v e the d e v e l o p m e n t of a s p e c i a l v o c a b u ­ l a r y that e x p r e s s e d an absolute level of a p p r o v a l or d i s a p p r o v a l . T h e s e t e r m s (e.g., " g o i n g a s t r a y " ) , in a n o t h e r s y s t e m , m i g h t b e p a s s e d over as i n c i d e n t a l c o n v e n t i o n a l labels. W i t h i n the E n o c h i c p a r a d i g m , they e x p r e s s e d the ulti­ m a t e level of c a t e g o r i z a t i o n . In the Active s c e n a r i o o f l E n 1 - 5 , E n o c h is g i v e n a v i s i o n a n d told w h a t w i l l h a p p e n in the f u t u r e . G o d ' s created o r d e r w o u l d b e v i o l a t e d , es­ t a b l i s h i n g the n e e d for G o d to c o m e d o w n to M o u n t S i n a i a n d restore it. T h e b l a m e for this d e v i a t i o n here falls u p o n h u m a n i t y . It is s i g n i f i c a n t that the p h e n o m e n a cited h a v e r e l e v a n c e for the c a l e n d a r . E n o c h ' s t o u r s of the h e a v e n s as stated in 1 2 : 1 - 2 , 3 3 : 3 - 4 i n v o l v e d h a v i n g access to the b l u e p r i n t s of G o d ' s d e s i g n for c o s m i c o r d e r a n d r e g u l a r i t y . T h i s c o n s t i t u t e d a s i g n i f i c a n t b o d y o f E n o c h ' s t e a c h i n g s w h e n he r e t u r n e d to his f a m i l y ( 1 E n 8i:6ff.; J u b 4:21-23). N e v e r t h e l e s s , the E n o c h i c p a r a d i g m w a s n e v e r c o n s t r u c t e d o n the b a ­ sis of o b s e r v e d reality. R a t h e r , it w a s an a p r i o r i l o g i c a l c o n s t r u c t b a s e d u p o n an intensified u n d e r s t a n d i n g of G o d ' s character. A s s u c h , to b e b o t h defensi­ ble a n d useful, the E n o c h i c p a r a d i g m h a d to resolve the c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n G o d ' s character, his c o m m i t m e n t s to his c h o s e n p e o p l e , a n d the realities o f the J e w i s h e x p e r i e n c e u p to a n d i n c l u d i n g the a u t h o r ' s g e n e r a t i o n , a n d so p r e d i c t a n d i n t e r p r e t the r e s o l u t i o n o f these e x p e r i e n c e s . T h i s w a s a c c o m ­ p l i s h e d b y m e a n s o f the f o r m u l a t i o n of three p a r a d i g m e x e m p l a r s

1 1

based

o n the events d e s c r i b e d in G e n 6 : 1 - 4 , w h i c h I h a v e t e r m e d , respectively, the Shemikhazah, 'Aza'el, and cosmic exemplars. I d e n t i f y i n g G e n 6 : 1 - 4 as the p o i n t in h i s t o r y w h e r e the c r e a t e d o r d e r ( n o t j u s t h u m a n i t y ) w e n t astray, these three e x e m p l a r s s e r v e d to v i e w a n d i n t e r p r e t t h a t e v e n t ( a n d its i n i t i a l r e s o l u t i o n c l i m a x i n g in the N o a c h i c f l o o d ) f r o m t h r e e i n t e r l o c k i n g p e r s p e c t i v e s . H e r e i n lies the b e n e f i t o f see­ i n g these as p a r a d i g m e x e m p l a r s r a t h e r t h a n in t e r m s of the e t i o l o g y of evil or as t y p o l o g i e s . R e e d n o t e s the l a c k o f e t i o l o g y b e t w e e n p r e - a n d p o s t d i l u v i a n e v e n t s in J u b i l e e s b u t t e r m s it a " r e c o n c e p t u a l i z i n g " of the a n g e l i c d e s c e n t . U n d e r s t o o d w i t h i n the E n o c h i c p a r a d i g m , t h e y w o u l d be e n t i r e l y p r e d i c t a b l e replications

demonstrating

the v a l i d i t y of the

para-

Genizah Testament of Levi). See E. Eshel's discussion in this volume, "The Aramaic Levi D o c u m e n t , the Genesis A p o c r y p h o n , and Jubilees: A Study of Shared Traditions." 1 1 . Paradigm exemplars are ways o f demonstrating that the paradigm works. They serve both to establish the theory and to suggest applications in which the theory might be replicated or applied. See T h o m a s S. Kuhn, The Structure

of Scientific

Revolutions,

2 n d ed.

(Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1 9 7 0 ) , 186-91.

413

David

R.

Jackson

digm exemplars.

1 2

E t i o l o g i e s define c a u s e s b u t d o n ' t n e c e s s a r i l y p r o d u c e

s o l u t i o n s . T y p o l o g i e s p r e d i c t o u t c o m e s r e s u l t i n g in p r o c l a m a t i o n . E x e m ­ plars demonstrate h o w a paradigmatic understanding of events can p r o ­ d u c e a r e p l i c a b l e s o l u t i o n to a p r o b l e m , a n d so p r o d u c e p a r e n e s i s . A s s u c h , the E n o c h i c p a r a d i g m c r e a t e d a m e t h o d o l o g y r a t h e r t h a n j u s t a m y t h . We can illustrate this b y n o t i n g the w a y in w h i c h the p r e d i l u v i a n d e v i a ­ tion ( J u b 5:2) e n d e d , o n the other side of the f l o o d , w i t h a c o m p l e t e restora­ tion of p u r i t y a n d order ( J u b 5:12; cf. 1 E n 1 0 : 2 0 - 1 1 : 2 ) o n earth, e x t e n d i n g even to the b i o l o g i c a l p u r i f i c a t i o n of the a n i m a l s . T h i s in t u r n is p r o m i s s o r y o f a final e s c h a t o l o g i c a l p u r i f i c a t i o n that w i l l last for all g e n e r a t i o n s ( J u b 4 : 1 6 ) . I n the s a m e w a y J u b i l e e s ' r e c o u n t i n g o f p o s t d i l u v i a n h i s t o r y b r i n g s G o d ' s p e o p l e into a n o t h e r n e w E d e n w h e r e t h e y will b e c o m e a n o t h e r p l a n t a t i o n of r i g h ­ teousness as they o c c u p y the P r o m i s e d L a n d in the Jubilee o f Jubilees. E a c h n e w b e g i n n i n g , f o l l o w e d b y a n o t h e r " g o i n g astray" a n d a n o t h e r r e s c u e d r e m ­ n a n t , f o r m s a pattern that can b e u n d e r s t o o d f r o m the p e r s p e c t i v e s of these r e p l i c a t i n g e x e m p l a r s , rather t h a n m e r e l y a chain of c a u s a t i o n that c a n be traced b a c k to a m y t h . H e r e w e n o t e o n e difference b e t w e e n the D e u t e r o ­ n o m i c a n d E n o c h i c p a r a d i g m s in that the f o r m e r d i d n o t i n c l u d e the revela­ tion or r e - r e v e l a t i o n of texts b a s e d on the h e a v e n l y tablets a n d c o n n e c t e d w i t h the revelation g i v e n to E n o c h . A u t h o r s w o r k i n g w i t h this m e t h o d o l o g y c o u l d then m a p all o f Israel's h i s t o r y u p to their o w n t i m e in different w a y s that still d e m o n s t r a t e d this r e p l i c a t i o n , e.g., A p o c a l y p s e of Weeks a n d A n i m a l A p o c a l y p s e . T h e pattern of r e p l i c a t i o n c o u l d also be r e a d at different levels w i t h i n that s y s t e m , such that E n o c h ' s role as the seventh of his e p o c h of ten g e n e r a t i o n s correlated w i t h the seventh of the ten e p o c h s of w o r l d history, identifying the fictive author's c o m m u n i t y as constituting an " E n o c h " o n the m a c r o s c a l e of a l o o m i n g e s c h a t o l o g y .

13

T h e s o l u t i o n then w o u l d always be to

r e t u r n to the o r i g i n a l d i v i n e order, E n o c h b e i n g the first m a n to h a v e received the r e v e l a t i o n of this w a y of s a l v a t i o n . T h i s p a r a d i g m w o u l d fail o n l y at the p o i n t w h e r e it c o u l d n o l o n g e r credibly a c c o u n t for a g r o w i n g b o d y of c o n t r a ­ d i c t o r y data or a n o m a l o u s e x p e r i e n c e s . S u c h m a y h a v e b e e n the

point

r e a c h e d w i t h the o u t c o m e of the w a r w i t h R o m e in 74 C . E . Jubilees w o r k e d out in great detail h o w each e x e m p l a r w a s replicated after the f l o o d .

12. A. Yoshiko Reed, Fallen Angels and ception of Enochic Literature

the History of Judaism

and Christianity:

The

Re­

(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2 0 0 5 ) , 87-95.

13. Cf. Kvanvig's paper in this volume, "Enochic Judaism — a Judaism without the

Torah and the Temple?"

414

Jubilees

and Enochic

Judaism

The Shemikhazah Exemplar T h e S h e m i k h a z a h e x e m p l a r u s e d the a c c o u n t o f the sin of S h e m i k h a z a h a n d the W a t c h e r s , their h u m a n w i v e s a n d o f f s p r i n g , to a d d r e s s the issue of ethnic impurity. As H a l p e r n - A m a r u

1 4

h a s d e m o n s t r a t e d so effectively, the w r i t e r o f

J u b i l e e s " f e n c e d " the T o r a h n a r r a t i v e in o r d e r to m a k e clear that o n l y the p u r e m a y stand w i t h i n the b o u n d a r y of the elect. T h e r e is here an absolute d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n the p u r e a n d the defiled. T h e o n l y c a n d i d a t e s for salva­ tion are those w h o find t h e m s e l v e s m u c h in the s a m e s i t u a t i o n as E n o c h a n d N o a h — a c h o s e n p e o p l e ( = p u r e Israelites) l i v i n g in a v i o l e n t a n d defiled w o r l d w h e r e all b o u n d a r i e s are b e i n g v i o l a t e d a r o u n d t h e m . In the b o o k s o f E n o c h there is n o s a l v a t i o n p o s s i b l e for the w o m e n w h o i n t e r m a r r i e d w i t h the W a t c h e r s , for the W a t c h e r s , n o r for their o f f s p r i n g . H u m a n s w h o p a r t i c i ­ p a t e d in s e x u a l p r o m i s c u i t y , v i o l e n c e , eating of b l o o d , a n d other d e c e p t i o n s of the W a t c h e r s h a d n o w a y b a c k . T h i s p o i n t is stressed as E n o c h is a s k e d to p e t i t i o n o n b e h a l f of the W a t c h e r s a n d his m i s s i o n is cut off ( l E n 1 2 - 1 6 ) . H e r e the role of the p r i e s t as m e d i a t o r o f any r e s t o r a t i o n is stressed a n d l i n k e d directly to the p r o p e r f u n c t i o n of the angels (15:2; 3 0 : 1 8 ) . A s the priests are to the p e o p l e of Israel, so those w i t h i n the b o u n d a r y o f the elect m u s t be to t h o s e w i t h i n the h o r i z o n o f the a u t h o r ' s p a r e n e s i s . Jubilees identified the d e m o n s as the o f f s p r i n g of the W a t c h e r s w h o s i n n e d ( J u b 1 0 : 5 ) . N o a h a n d his f a m i l y c o m e t h r o u g h the f l o o d to face a w o r l d c l e a n s e d a n d p u r i f i e d . T h e y h a v e the o p t i o n of a n e w b e g i n n i n g ( J u b 5:12; cf. 1 E n 1 0 : 2 0 - 1 1 : 2 ) . T h e y are the e x e m p l a r of a restored E d e n , a p l a n t a ­ tion o f r i g h t e o u s n e s s ( J u b 7:34-38; 16:26; 3 6 : 1 - 1 7 ; cf. 1 E n 1 0 : 1 6 ; 84:6; 9 3 : 2 , 5 ) , as are the target a u d i e n c e of Jubilees ( J u b 1 : 1 5 ; 5 : 1 7 - 1 9 ; 15:27; cf. 1 E n 9 3 : 9 - 1 0 ) . T h o s e w h o v i o l a t e d the b o u n d a r y o f this p l a n t a t i o n r e p l i c a t e d the v i o l a t i o n that o c c u r r e d b e f o r e the flood a n d so are " u p r o o t e d " a n d place t h e m s e l v e s b e y o n d the h o r i z o n of p o s s i b l e f o r g i v e n e s s ( J u b 2:26-28; 5 : 3 - 1 1 ; 6:12; 1 0 : 3 0 ; 1 5 : 1 4 ; 15:34; 16:9; 1 6 : 1 6 , 2 5 ; 2 1 : 2 2 ; 2 2 : 2 0 ; 2 4 : 2 9 - 3 3 ; 2 6 : 9 - 1 1 ; 3 0 : 7 - 1 1 ; 3 1 : 1 7 , 2 0 ; 3 3 : 1 8 20; 3 5 : 1 4 ) . T h e o n l y p e o p l e o u t s i d e the b o u n d a r y w h o h a d the o p t i o n to re­ t u r n w e r e those Israelites w h o lived as exiles a n d w h o s e a r c h e d for the L o r d " w i t h all their m i n d s a n d w i t h all their s o u l s " ( 1 : 1 5 ; cf. 4 : 2 3 - 2 8 ) . In i n t e g r a t i n g the S h e m i k h a z a h e x e m p l a r w i t h the T o r a h n a r r a t i v e , the w r i t e r of J u b i l e e s d r e w u p o n w i d e r c o n c e p t i o n s f o u n d in the T a n a k h , a n d in so d o i n g c o n s t r u c t e d a figure to lead the d e m o n s . T h i s figure is a c o m p o s i t e .

14. B. Halpern-Amaru, The Empowerment

of Women in the Book of jubilees

(Leiden:

Brill, 1999).

415

David

R.

Jackson

H e r e s e m b l e s the satan of J o b 1 - 2 a n d Z e c h 3:1-6 in that he is the a c c u s e r a n d o p p o n e n t of G o d ' s elect. H e also c o n f o r m s to the " e v i l s p i r i t s " of 1 S a m 1 6 : 1 4 , 1 8 : 1 0 - 1 1 , 19:9 (cf. 1 K i n g s 2 2 : 2 2 - 2 3 ; (Jub

2

C h r o n 1 8 : 2 1 - 2 2 ) w h o are "sent b y G o d "

4 9 : 2 - 4 ) . L i k e the scene in D a n 1 0 : 2 0 - 1 1 : 1 , he faces off against the a n g e l i c

defenders o f G o d ' s elect ( J u b 1 7 : 1 6 - 1 8 : 1 2 ; 48:2) a n d m u s t be b o u n d a n d re­ s t r a i n e d b y the L o r d a n d his angels to protect the elect ( 4 8 : 1 5 , 1 8 ) . H i s w o r k is d e s t r u c t i o n a k i n to the v i o l e n c e a n d b l o o d s h e d of the p r e d i l u v i a n g i a n t s . But he is also, like S h e m i k h a z a h a n d ' A z a ' e l , a leader s t e p p i n g forth f r o m the n u m b e r of these h a l f - a n g e l d e m o n s a n d an e n e m y o f G o d . A s the W a t c h e r s w h o s i n n e d h a d a leader, so n o w the d e m o n s h a v e a leader — also w i t h t w o n a m e s , Belial ( 1 : 2 0 ; 15:33) a n d M a s t e m a ( 1 0 : 7 - 8 ) , w h i c h s e e m to be inter­ c h a n g e a b l e labels of a b h o r r e n c e . T h e o n g o i n g w o r k of the d e m o n s after the f l o o d is u n d e r s t o o d to be the p r i m e cause o f G e n t i l e i d o l a t r y , a s s o c i a t e d w i t h the three sins of " f o r n i ­ cation," " i m p u r i t y , " a n d " i n j u s t i c e / v i o l e n c e " ( J u b 7 : 2 0 - 2 4 , 2 7 - 2 8 ; 9 : 1 4 - 1 5 ; 2 0 : 1 - 6 ; 2 3 : 1 4 - 1 7 ; 3 3 : 1 8 - 2 0 ; 50:4-5)In N o a h ' s g e n e r a t i o n the e x e m p l a r is replicated as his sons separate from each other, w h i c h is a p r e l u d e to v i o l e n c e ( J u b 7 : 2 6 - 2 7 ) . N o a h r e m i n d s t h e m o f E n o c h ' s w a r n i n g s ( w . 3 8 - 3 9 ) . K a i n a n reads the i n s c r i p t i o n left b y the Watchers a n d p r o c e e d s to cross the b o u n d a r y of e n d o g a m y , m a r r y i n g a Japhethite (8:5). T h e b o y s then n e e d the i n t e r v e n t i o n of N o a h a n d the angels to rightly divide the earth, but the d e m o n s m o v e in (chap. 1 0 ) . C o n s e q u e n t l y w e find N o a h ' s offspring replicating the v i o l e n c e of the p r e d i l u v i a n giants ( 1 1 : 2 - 6 ) . J u b i l e e s m a d e it clear that the d e m o n s h a v e p o w e r over the G e n t i l e s b u t n o t o v e r Israel ( 1 5 : 2 8 - 3 2 ) . If an Israelite c r o s s e d the b o u n d a r y of e t h n i c purity, the Israelite c r o s s e d into the d e m o n i c d o m a i n a n d c o u l d n o t r e t u r n . For

those p i o u s , G o d - s e e k i n g Israelites w h o f o u n d t h e m s e l v e s in exile, the

h o m e l e s s p a t r i a r c h s a n d Israel's e x p e r i e n c e in E g y p t set h o p e f u l p r e c e d e n t s . T h e y r i g h t l y b e l o n g w i t h i n the b o u n d a r y . T h e y h a v e the o p t i o n to " c o m e h o m e . " If t h e y d o , t h e y p l a c e t h e m s e l v e s b e y o n d the reach of the d e m o n s , b u t that r e t u r n i n v o l v e s p l a c i n g t h e m s e l v e s w i t h i n the b o u n d a r i e s

defined

by the E n o c h i c p a r a d i g m as i n t e r p r e t e d b y J u b i l e e s . A n y Israelite w h o c h o s e to r e m a i n o u t s i d e that b o u n d a r y w o u l d b e lost. W h e n Jubilees explicitly states that ' A z a ' e l w a s sent b y G o d to teach helpful things to h u m a n s ( J u b 4 : 1 5 ) , a n d that the c r o s s i n g o f b o u n d a r i e s o c ­ c u r r e d s u b s e q u e n t l y , he m a y not (at least n o t s u b s t a n t i v e l y ) h a v e c h a n g e d the o r i g i n a l a c c o u n t in the E n o c h b o o k s he h a d to h a n d .

1 5

T h i s m a y n o t be a

15. See discussion in Reed, Fallen Angels, 35-36, noting the tension already present in

416

Jubilees and Enochic Judaism "minimizing" of the connection between the prediluvian giants and the postdiluvian demons, as Reed has suggested.

16

It was in marrying women

that the Watchers crossed the boundary of spirit and flesh and so abandoned their right to return to heaven, not their initial descent (cf. 1 En 6:6; 12:4; 14:5; 1 5 : 3 , 7 , 1 0 ; 16:2; 84:4; 86:1). So it was also for the author's target audience. Liv­ ing in a land ruled by Gentiles would not constitute "going astray." Inter­ marrying with them would. Jubilees did not set aside a concept of an origin of evil that occurred without a free choice. In the BW the women are not raped but marry — "they are co-perpetrators, not victims."

17

Jubilees took the opportunity to identify within the Torah narrative other minor exemplars that conform to the pattern, in particular the experi­ ence of Lot in Sodom (Jub 2 0 : 2 - 7 ) . Joseph demonstrates how an Israelite can survive under Gentile rule. Because of his rigorous moral purity, Joseph was not only protected and blessed by God, but no demon or satan could bring destruction to any who came under his leadership (40:9; 46:2). It is interest­ ing then that in Joseph's case Jubilees seems to have made an exception. Whereas the writer avoids noticing Moses' marriage to a Midianite or Amram's marriage to his aunt, no such attempt is made to avoid Joseph's marriage to an Egyptian (30:17). His culpability is bypassed perhaps as a union imposed by Pharaoh but perhaps also because the author may have seen in the future history of Ephraim and Manasseh reason not to omit their Gentile roots. The concern for purity focuses on the female line.

The 'Aza'el Exemplar The 'Aza'el exemplar viewed the same event from the perspective of cultural purity. 'Aza'el (1 En 10:8) was deemed responsible for revealing to humans heavenly secrets that were forbidden to them and, in so doing, empowering them to develop deviant and rebellious cultural practices. The 'Aza'el exem­ plar demonized the scholarship, philosophies, education, and therefore the 18

culture of the Gentiles. It also presented the elect righteous with a body of 1 En 9:6-10 and perhaps 86:1-2, and the juxtaposition of human and Watcher culpability in chaps. 7 and 8; and Bergsma's paper in this volume, "The Relationship between Jubilees and the Early Enochic Books (Astronomical Book and Book of the Watchers)," section III. 16. Reed, Fallen Angels, 77-78. 17. See discussion in Jackson, Enochic Judaism, 35-36. 18. See D. R. Jackson, "Demonising Gilgamesh," in Gilgamesh and the World of As­ syria, ed. J. Azize and N. Weeks, Ancient Near East Studies Supplement 21 (Louvain: Peeters, 417

David

R.

Jackson

r e v e l a t i o n d e s i g n e d to c o u n t e r these influences a n d so m a i n t a i n the d i s t i n c ­ tive lifestyle o f the elect. In the b o o k s o f E n o c h that Jubilees u s e d , p o s s e s s i o n of a n d a d h e r e n c e to the r e v e l a t i o n s g i v e n to E n o c h d e f i n e d the elect (1 E n 1 : 1 - 3 ) .

1 9

T h i s b o d y of

r e v e l a t i o n w a s first g i v e n to E n o c h ( J u b 4 : 1 7 - 1 8 8 , 2 1 , 2 3 b ; 7:38-39) a n d then p a s s e d d o w n , s u p p l e m e n t e d , a n d r e n e w e d t h r o u g h the elect line of N o a h (8:10-12,18; 10:13), Shem (10:14), A b r a h a m (11:16; 12:25-27; 21:10; 41:28), Jacob ( 1 9 : 1 4 ; 3 2 : 2 4 - 2 6 ; 3 9 : 6 ) , a n d L e v i ( 4 5 : 1 6 ) . After A m r a m t a u g h t M o s e s to w r i t e :

(47 9)> it c a m e to M o s e s on M o u n t Sinai ( 1 : 1 - 1 8 ) as an a d d i t i o n to "the first law" (2:24; 6 : 2 2 ) . A t this l o c a t i o n w e are p r e s e n t e d w i t h the reality that Israel then possessed two canons. R e a d i n g Jubilees w i t h i n the c o n t e x t of the ' A z a ' e l e x e m p l a r , w e h a v e a f r a m e w o r k for the r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n this r e v e l a t i o n a n d "the first l a w " o r T o r a h also r e v e a l e d to M o s e s .

2 0

We m i g h t best d e s c r i b e this r e l a t i o n s h i p as a

" t w o - c a n o n " s y s t e m . T h i s c o n c e p t labels a b o d y o f texts d e e m e d to b e a u ­ t h e n t i c r e v e l a t i o n s b y G o d , a n d t h u s a u t h o r i t a t i v e , w i t h o u t p r e c l u d i n g the r e c e p t i o n o f further a d d i t i o n s o v e r t i m e . It d o e s n o t t h e n justify the c l a i m that the c a n o n w a s , at this t i m e , " o p e n . "

21

P r o b a b l y at n o t i m e i n h i s t o r y has

there ever b e e n "one c a n o n " o n w h i c h all J e w s o r all C h r i s t i a n s a g r e e d . " C a n o n " has a l w a y s b e e n a m a r k e r o f d i v i s i o n s . T h a t d o e s n o t m e a n that these c a n o n s w e r e "open." N o r does it a s s u m e that a c a n o n h a d to b e defined b y a t o p - d o w n d e c r e e . R a t h e r , it r e c o g n i z e s a b o t t o m - u p p r o c e s s o f p e r s u a ­ sion rather than c o e r c i o n .

2 2

2 0 0 7 ) , 1 0 7 - 1 4 . See also Henryk Drawnel, "Some Notes on Scribal Craft and the Origins of the Enochic Literature," Hen 3 1 , no. 1 ( 2 0 0 9 ) . 19. See also 1 E n 79:1; 8 1 : 1 - 2 , 6; 8 2 : 1 - 1 0 ; 8 3 : 1 - 2 ; 9 1 : 1 ; 92:1; 94:2; 97:1-6; 98:3; 1 0 6 : 1 9 - 1 0 7 : 1 , and George W. E. Nickelsburg, "The Nature and Function o f Revelation in 1 E n o c h , Jubilees, and

Some Q u m r a n i c Documents," in Pseudepigraphic

Pseudepigrapha

Perspectives:

The Apocrypha

and

in Light of the Dead Sea Scrolls, ed. Esther Chazon and Michael Stone, STDJ

31 (Leiden: Brill, 1999), 9 2 - 1 2 0 . 20. See the concise and helpful discussion in VanderKam, The Book of Jubilees,

Guides

to Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha 9 (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 2 0 0 1 ) , 1 3 6 - 4 1 , o f Jubilees' use of n o t only the Torah but also other parts o f the Tanakh, noting in particular that Jub 30:12 refers to the Genesis narrative (Gen 3 4 ) as "the words o f the Law." 21. See James C. VanderKam, "Revealed Literature in the Second Temple Period," in From

Revelation

to Canon:

Studies

in the Hebrew

Bible

and Second

Temple Literature,

ed.

James C. VanderKam (Leiden: Brill, 2 0 0 0 ) , 1 - 3 0 . 22. Ulrich's distinction between "a collection of authoritative books of scripture" and a canon breaks down where that "collection" could be identified by its adherents — whether or not a copy of that list is extant. See Eugene Ulrich, "The Notion and Definition of Canon," in The

418

Canon

Debate,

ed. Lee Martin McDonald and James A. Sanders (Peabody, Mass.:

Jubilees

and Enochic

Judaism

W e c a n n o t b e certain as to the limits of "first c a n o n " w i t h i n any p a r t of the J e w i s h c o m m u n i t y at this t i m e . It is clear that there w e r e c a n o n s g o v e r n ­ ing the faith o f v a r i o u s c o m m u n i t i e s a n d that the T o r a h

2 3

was widely recog­

n i z e d as c a n o n i c a l in this s e n s e . T h e E n o c h i c p a r a d i g m a p p e a r s to h a v e es­ t a b l i s h e d its o w n t w o - c a n o n

s y s t e m . M o d e r n a n a l o g i e s w o u l d be

M o r m o n s a n d the S e v e n t h - D a y A d v e n t i s t s .

24

the

W h e r e a t w o - c a n o n system is

in place, it is the s e c o n d c a n o n that is seen as d o m i n a n t b y o u t s i d e r s w h i l e i n s i d e r s u s u a l l y affirm the e q u a l a u t h o r i t y of b o t h . T h e s e c o n d c a n o n d e ­ fines the g r o u p ' s elect identity a n d g o v e r n s its i n t e r p r e t a t i o n

of the f i r s t .

25

T h i s s e c o n d c a n o n ( a n d Jubilees in p a r t i c u l a r ) s e e m s to identify the first c a n o n as a w o r k that Israel i g n o r e d a n d b y w h i c h Israel w i l l be j u d g e d , g i v i n g the s e c o n d c a n o n a m o r e p r o m i n e n t role in p o i n t i n g to the w a y of sal­ v a t i o n for the elect r e m n a n t o f Israel in the last d a y s . H i m m e l f a r b n o t e s that " F o r the D a m a s c u s C o v e n a n t , the T o r a h o f M o s e s c o n t a i n s w h i l e Jubilees mandments

commandments,

c o n t a i n s the h i s t o r y of Israel's failure to fulfill those c o m ­ [CD 16:1-4]."

2 6

In Jubilees A b r a m b e c o m e s a p a r t i c u l a r m o d e l of h o w o n e b o r n into a world dominated by demonic idolatry could be saved. A b r a m goes through a process of realization, separation, seeking, and revelation. This pattern c o r r e s p o n d s closely w i t h the D a m a s c u s D o c u m e n t ' s r e c o u n t i n g o f the o r i ­ g i n s of the Y a k h a d ( C D - A 1 : 8 - 1 3 , n o t i n g " t h e y realized their i n i q u i t y . . . t h e y w e r e like those w h o g r o p e for a p a t h . . . t h e y s o u g h t h i m w i t h an u n d i v i d e d heart . . . raised u p for t h e m a T e a c h e r of R i g h t e o u s n e s s . . . . A n d he m a d e k n o w n to the last g e n e r a t i o n s w h a t he h a d d o n e for the last g e n e r a t i o n " ) . N i t z a n has i n d e p e n d e n t l y o b s e r v e d this p a t t e r n in the s e q u e n c e of events l e a d i n g u p to G o d ' s r e v e l a t i o n of Jubilees to M o s e s o n S i n a i .

2 7

Hendrickson, 2 0 0 2 ) , 21-35. Where a "collection" of such texts constituted the basis for parenesis and the subject of polemic, as did the Enochic second canon, it had to have been identifiable. 23. Cf. the use o f "in the Law" in 1 C o r 14:21 to cite Isa 2 8 : 1 1 - 1 2 , and also John 10:34, a use that renders "the Law" somewhat synonymous with the later concept of a c a n o n . 24. See, for example, the statement from the Seventh-Day Adventist C h u r c h (http:// www.adventist.org/beliefs/fundamental/index.html)

and the M o r m o n statement at http://

www.mormon.org/learn/0,8672,12 7 5 - 1 , 0 0 . html. 25. See Grant Macaskill, "Priestly Purity, Mosaic Torah, and the E m e r g e n c e of E n o c h i c Judaism," Hen 3 1 , no. 1 ( 2 0 0 9 ) . 26. Martha Himmelfarb, "Torah, Testimony, and Heavenly Tablets: The Claim to Au­ thority o f the Book o f Jubilees," in Multiform

Heritage

(Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1999), 2 3 ,

cited in James M. Scott, On Earth, 8 1 - 8 2 . See also Calum Carmichael, "The Integration of Law and Narrative in Jubilees: The Biblical Perspective," Hen 3 1 , no. 1 ( 2 0 0 9 ) . 27. See also discussion in Endres, "Eschatological Impulses in Jubilees," in this volume.

419

David

R.

Jackson

A s Jubilees d e v e l o p e d this c o n c e p t , the a u t h o r p e r c e i v e d this e x e m p l a r r e p l i c a t e d even b e f o r e the W a t c h e r s ' sin. A d a m a n d E v e v i o l a t e d the b o u n d ­ aries established b y G o d in a c c e p t i n g the deceptive a d v i c e o f the s e r p e n t in o r d e r to l e a r n a f o r b i d d e n secret ( J u b 3 : 1 9 ) . T h e result w a s s e x u a l s h a m e , fol­ l o w e d b y v i o l e n c e as the n e x t g e n e r a t i o n t u r n e d to m u r d e r , r e q u i r i n g m a n ­ d a t o r y s e p a r a t i o n a n d a n e w b e g i n n i n g w i t h S e t h . O n c e a g a i n , to c o n f o r m to the e x e m p l a r , o n l y the elect r e m n a n t c o u l d b e s a v e d . A d a m a n d E v e therefore w e r e p e r m i t t e d to cover their s h a m e , but the a n i m a l s w e r e n o t ( 3 : 3 0 ) . Jubilees also e x t e n d e d p a r a d i g m c o n s i s t e n c y ( J u b 1 3 : 2 6 ) b y h a v i n g the l a n g u a g e s of h e a v e n a n d earth b r o u g h t b a c k into r e g u l a r i t y ( 1 2 : 2 5 - 2 7 ) . T h e s e texts t r a c e d b a c k to E n o c h w e r e in H e b r e w ( 2 1 : 1 0 ; cf. 1 9 : 2 7 ) . T h i s p r e s e n t s us w i t h an o b v i o u s difficulty g i v e n that the E n o c h texts in o u r p o s s e s s i o n are in A r a m a i c , as are s e v e r a l other w o r k s p u r p o r t i n g to reflect p r e d i l u v i a n or p a ­ t r i a r c h a l n a r r a t i v e s o f this t r a d i t i o n .

28

A H e b r e w o r i g i n a l is n e v e r t h e l e s s a

l o g i c a l n e c e s s i t y if the E n o c h i c a g e n d a w a s the r e s t o r a t i o n a n d defense of a distinctive Israeli i d e n t i t y u n d e r G e n t i l e d o m i n a t i o n . It is also n o t a b l e that the v a s t b u l k of the n o n - T a n a k h texts f o u n d in the Q u m r a n l i b r a r y w e r e w r i t t e n in H e b r e w a n d w r i t t e n after J u b i l e e s . A b e g g notes that c o m m e n t s in iQH

a

1 0 : 1 9 , 1 2 : 1 6 , 1 5 : 1 0 , a n d C D 5 : 1 1 - 1 2 indicate t h a t the sect u s e d H e b r e w as a

matter of principle.

29

T h e close a s s o c i a t i o n of Jubilees w i t h A r a m a i c texts

s u c h as the G e n e s i s A p o c r y p h o n , a n d the A r a m a i c L e v i D o c u m e n t , taken w i t h its d e p e n d e n c e on w h a t w e h a v e o f the b o o k s of E n o c h , m i g h t indicate that Jubilees effected a l a n g u a g e shift in future a d a p t a t i o n s of the p a r a d i g m . W h a t e v e r the case, w e are left to w o n d e r w h y , u n l i k e Tobit, w e h a v e n o t r a n s ­ lation o f these w o r k s into H e b r e w a n d w h y they w e r e still b e i n g c o p i e d in A r a m a i c o v e r a c e n t u r y later. T h e fact that the s e c o n d c a n o n c l a i m e d to be the p r o d u c t of a n g e l i c d i c t a t i o n did not p r e v e n t later w r i t e r s (e.g., 4 Q 2 5 2 ) f r o m a d a p t i n g it or even c o r r e c t i n g i n t e r n a l i r r e g u l a r i t i e s , j u s t as the a u t h o r of Jubilees treated

"the

first law." T h i s is consistent w i t h the a p p a r e n t l a c k of c o n c e r n for a consistent t e x t u a l t r a d i t i o n a m o n g the Q u m r a n T a n a k h m a n u s c r i p t s . O v e r t i m e o n e w o u l d e x p e c t t w o d e v e l o p m e n t s to arise f r o m this p r o c e s s . Firstly, the

first

c a n o n w o u l d be d o m i n a t e d b y the s e c o n d . S e c o n d l y , w o r k s d e a l i n g m o r e di­ rectly w i t h the p a r t i c u l a r s of the target a u d i e n c e ' s d a y w o u l d d o m i n a t e those 28. See Nickelsburg, 1 Enoch 1, 1 7 7 , on the reference to Jared as a Hebrew pun in 1 E n 6:5.

29. Martin G. Abegg, Jr., "Hebrew Language," in Dictionary ground, 459-63-

420

of New

Testament

Back­

ed. Craig A. Evans and Stanley E. Porter (Downers Grove, 111.: InterVarsity, 2 0 0 0 ) ,

Jubilees

and Enochic

Judaism

establishing the m e t h o d o l o g y . W e see b o t h d e v e l o p m e n t s over the n e x t t w o centuries. T h e r e w a s p r o b a b l y an e l e m e n t of s e c r e c y i n h e r e n t in the ' A z a ' e l e x e m ­ plar that w o u l d a c c o u n t for the use of a n t i l a n g u a g e

30

and cryptic scripts

3 1

in

this t r a d i t i o n . T h e a s s o c i a t i o n of the s e c o n d c a n o n w i t h the c o n c e p t of " m y s t e r y " a n d the a p p e a r a n c e of rules o f initiation r e s t r i c t i n g access to these texts (cf. l Q S 9 : 1 5 - 1 9 ) m a y reflect an a d a p t i v e r e s p o n s e to the totalitarian d e ­ cree of S i m o n M a c c a b e u s r e q u i r i n g s u b m i s s i o n o f all J e w i s h c o m m u n i t i e s to his r u l i n g s , a n d b a n n i n g any " m e e t i n g in o u r c o u n t r y w i t h o u t his p e r m i s ­ s i o n " o n p a i n of death (1 M a c e 1 4 : 4 4 - 4 5 ) . It is the f u n c t i o n of this s e c o n d c a n o n specifically to m a i n t a i n purity, to e q u i p the elect n o t to b e d e c e i v e d b y the w i s d o m a n d t e a c h i n g s of the de­ m o n s / G e n t i l e s , a n d to l e a r n a n d o b s e r v e the c o r r e c t c a l e n d a r so as to r e a l i g n their lives w i t h the o r d e r of h e a v e n . A s s u c h , the ' A z a ' e l e x e m p l a r facilitated the s o l u t i o n s to the c o n c e r n s of the o t h e r t w o e x e m p l a r s , a n d tied these s o l u ­ t i o n s e x c l u s i v e l y to the r e v e l a t i o n s p a s s e d d o w n in this t r a d i t i o n as "testi­ mony"

3 2

or p a r e n e s i s .

The Cosmic Exemplar T h e c o s m i c e x e m p l a r v i e w e d the s a m e event f r o m the p e r s p e c t i v e of l i t u r g i ­ cal purity. T h e angels w h o w e r e t h o u g h t to g o v e r n the c o s m i c p h e n o m e n a r e l e v a n t to the c a l e n d a r w e r e u n d e r s t o o d to h a v e rebelled a n d thus t h r o w n the c o s m o s o u t of s y n c h r o n i z a t i o n w i t h the d i v i n e l y a p p o i n t e d o r d e r a n d c a l e n d a r ( w h i c h w a s perfect in s y m m e t r y ) a n d in so d o i n g b r o k e the b o n d b e t w e e n the w o r s h i p of G o d that m u s t take place o n earth a n d that w h i c h takes p l a c e in h e a v e n . T h e c o s m i c e x e m p l a r w a s l o c a t e d in h e a v e n a n d so w o u l d n o t be repli­ cated in the c o u r s e of h u m a n history. T h e elect o n e a r t h n e e d e d the E n o c h i c " s e c o n d c a n o n " r e v e l a t i o n s to l e a r n to i g n o r e the o b s e r v a b l e a n d w o r s h i p a c ­ c o r d i n g to the o r i g i n a l d e s i g n , as first r e v e a l e d to E n o c h d u r i n g his h e a v e n l y tour. In B W w e d i s c e r n a c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n the n o w - d e v i a n t c o s m o l o g i 30. See Jackson, Enochic Judaism,

19-21.

31. See discussion in Scott, On Earth,

69 n. 119.

32. VanderKam, The Book of Jubilees, 26, notes that this appears to be the author's title for his work (Jub 1:8) and that the t e r m is used to identify the content o f angelic revelation and his central exhortations to obedience to this revelation.

421

David R. Jackson cal phenomena governing the calendar and the Watchers who transgressed, firstly in the names that are given to them (1 En 6 ) , and also in the correla­ tion between their names and the specific secrets they have wrongfully re­ vealed. A similar correlation can be found with the responsibilities accred­ ited to Uriel (20:2) and Reuel, who is given the responsibility for taking "vengeance upon the world of the luminaries" (20:4). In the understanding of these texts, observable cosmic phenomena are operated by spiritual be­ ings alternately called "spirits/winds" (1 En 18:1-5) or angels (cf. Jub 2:2-3; a

i Q H 9:10-13; cf. also 1 En 69:13-24). We are then introduced to the fact that the "stars of heaven" "transgressed the command of the Lord" (21:5-6). This concept appears also in the AB. Throughout the AB we learn that the astronomical and meteorological phenomena are "led" by spiritual beings hav­ ing a hierarchical chain of command (e.g., 1 En 72:1-3; 74:2; 7 5 : 1 , 3 , 5 ; 79:6). Some of these winds/spirits are winds/spirits of punishment (76:4). In 80:1 "leading" involves "turning" the sun, moon, and stars, but "many heads of the stars will stray from the command and will change their ways and actions and will not appear at the times prescribed for them" (80:6-7). As a result, sinners will err, because "the entire law of the stars will be closed to the sinners" and so they will "take them to be gods" and then evil will multiply and punishments will follow. This reflects what we find in 1 En 18:15, where Enoch hears about "the stars and the host of heaven . . . that transgressed the command of the Lord in the beginning of their rising, for they did not come out in their appointed time." Like the cohorts of Shemikhazah and "Aza'el, these are "bound... un­ til the time of the consummation of their sins." These leaders are those who "keep watch so they enter at their times" (82:10). They are "watchers." Enoch briefs Methuselah (1 En 82:5) on the subject. The specific error of the human sinners concerns their failure to observe the four days that di­ vide the year into equal quarters (82:3-4). The problem here is the failure to conform to the symmetry of the year. The fact that observable reality doesn't line up with any known calendar at the time is not resolved by more accurate observations. We are told that as a result of this event, "in the days of the sin­ ners" (80:2) the year is shortened and so the seasons are late. The moon does not appear at the right time (80:4). This Enochic calendar is not a construct based on observation. It is a theoretical construct based on an a priori un­ derstanding of the character of God expressed in the paradigm of rigorous 33

order and regularity. Glessmer comments: "These considerations indicate

33. See James M. Scott, "The Chronologies of the Apocalypse of Weeks and the Book of Jubilees," in this volume.

422

Jubilees

and Enochic

Judaism

that if a c o m p r e h e n s i v e h e a d i n g for the c o n c e p t of c a l e n d a r at Q u m r a n is to b e c h o s e n , the o f t - u s e d t e r m ' s o l a r c a l e n d a r ' is c e r t a i n l y i n a p p r o p r i a t e a n d s h o u l d be a v o i d e d . F o r those u s i n g this t y p e of c a l e n d a r the constitutive ele­ m e n t w a s the n u m b e r of 3 6 4 d a y s , w h i c h a l l o w s the s c h e m a t i c a s s i g n m e n t of w e e k s or S a b b a t h s . "

34

B e n - D o v n o t e s , " T h i s d e v i c e is n e i t h e r solar n o r lunar,

n o r stellar n o r any other a s t r o n o m i c a l p r e d i c a t e , b u t rather it is a s c h e m a t i c 3 6 4 [day y e a r ] . "

3 5

T h e G o d of the E n o c h i c p a r a d i g m c o u l d n o t p o s s i b l y

s t a n d b e h i n d or a u t h o r i z e a c a l e n d a r as c o n f u s e d a n d i r r e g u l a r as o n e b a s e d on the o b s e r v a t i o n s o f d e v i a n t c o s m i c p h e n o m e n a . W h e r e o n e c o u l d p o i n t out a failure of the E n o c h i c c o n s t r u c t to correlate w i t h o b s e r v e d reality, the E n o c h i c r e s p o n s e w a s to d e n y the v a l i d i t y of that reality. T h e r e h a d b e e n a c o s m i c d e p a r t u r e f r o m G o d ' s order, a n d that d e p a r t u r e is c o r r e l a t e d w i t h the e v e n t s a n d the n a m e s i n v o l v e d in the a c t i o n s o f S h e m i k h a z a h , ' A z a ' e l , a n d their c o h o r t . T h i s c o r r e l a t i o n m a y b e reflected in the use o f stars as a l l e g o r i ­ cal r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s o f these d e v i a n t W a t c h e r s in A A at 1 E n 86:1-3 (cf.

a

l

s o

88:1). Drawnel

3 6

d e m o n s t r a t e s p e r s u a s i v e l y that the m a n n e r in w h i c h A B d e ­

v e l o p e d its c a l c u l a t i o n s i n v o l v i n g the p r o g r e s s i o n of the m o o n a n d the s u n w o u l d h a v e h a d p o l e m i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e in f a v o r o f the 3 6 4 - d a y c a l e n d a r as against the d e v i a n c e of the B a b y l o n i a n s c r i b a l t r a d i t i o n . T h e specifically a n t i l u n a r p o l e m i c o f Jubilees m a y therefore s i m p l y reflect the different s o c i a l c h a l l e n g e s faced b y the a u t h o r . It is n o t e w o r t h y that this c o s m i c r e b e l l i o n / d e v i a t i o n directly affected Israel's o b s e r v a t i o n of the l i t u r g i c a l year, in p a r t i c u l a r , the feasts in 1 E n 82:7.

Conclusion W i t h i n the E n o c h i c t r a d i t i o n each of the three e x e m p l a r s is c o n n e c t e d to the other t w o . O n l y the e t h n i c a l l y p u r e line of the elect c o u l d s t a n d o u t s i d e the d o m i n i o n of the d e m o n s . To t h e m w a s g i v e n b y r e v e l a t i o n the skills n e e d e d

34. Uwe Glessmer, "Calendars in the Q u m r a n Scrolls," in The Dead Fifty

Years: A Comprehensive

Assessment,

Sea Scrolls

after

ed. Peter W. Flint and James C. VanderKam

(Leiden: Brill, 1999), 2:213-78 (here 2 3 1 ) . See also section II of Bergsma's chapter in this vol­ ume. 35. Jonathan Ben-Dov, "Tradition and Innovation in the Calendar of Jubilees," in this volume. 36. Drawnel, "Some Notes o n Scribal Craft and the Origins o f the E n o c h i c Litera­ ture"; cf. Ben-Dov, "Tradition and Innovation in the Calendar o f Jubilees."

423

David

R.

Jackson

to c o u n t e r d e m o n i c p o w e r a n d to live a lifestyle of p u r i t y w i t h o u t idolatry, f o r n i c a t i o n , or self-destructive v i o l e n c e . T h i s E n o c h i c

self-understanding

c o n s t i t u t e d a h o l y p r i e s t h o o d facilitating the r e t u r n of all the d e s c e n d a n t s o f this c h o s e n line to a right s t a n d i n g b e f o r e G o d on j u d g m e n t day. To t h e m a l o n e w a s g i v e n the r e v e l a t i o n n e e d e d to live that lifestyle a n d to m a i n t a i n that d i s t i n c t i o n . It w a s g r o u n d e d in the p e r f e c t i o n of the h e a v e n l y tablets, communicated through lives

37

a p u r e line of r i g h t e o u s elect l i v i n g e x e m p l a r y

u n d e r alien a n d d e v i a n t r e g i m e s . E n o c h s a w these t h i n g s f i r s t h a n d in

the h e a v e n s . H o l y angels dictated this i n f o r m a t i o n to h i m a n d to those w h o c a m e after h i m d o w n to the t i m e o f the a c t u a l a u t h o r s . T h i s r e v e l a t i o n i n ­ c l u d e d the c o r r e c t c a l e n d a r a n d restored the ability o f the elect to s y n c h r o ­ nize the w o r s h i p o f the saints o n earth w i t h the h o l y o n e s in h e a v e n . D e p a r ­ t u r e f r o m e t h n i c , c u l t u r a l , o r l i t u r g i c a l p u r i t y , as d e f i n e d b y these e x e m p l a r s , p l a c e d o n e b e y o n d r e d e m p t i o n . T h e result w a s a p a s s i o n a t e p a r e n e s i s d i ­ rected to s e c o n d t e m p l e Jews b a s e d o n the s e l f - v a l i d a t i n g c l a i m o f the v a r i ­ o u s t r a d e n t s o f this b o d y of r e v e l a t i o n that t h e y w e r e m a r k e d o u t as the " E n o c h " o f their t i m e b e f o r e an i m p e n d i n g j u d g m e n t of g r e a t e r p r o p o r t i o n t h a n N o a h ' s day. T h e s e c l a i m s m a y h a v e b e e n d i s p u t e d b y a v a r i e t y of at­ t e m p t s to d o m e s t i c a t e the p a r a d i g m , m u c h as v a r i o u s d i s p u t e s a r o s e as to the rightful i d e n t i t y o f "the elect r e m n a n t " o r "the Israel o f G o d , " all o f w h i c h , taken together, attest to the p o w e r of the c o n s t r u c t to m a k e sense o f the e x p e r i e n c e of the J e w i s h p e o p l e in this p e r i o d . Jubilees r e p r e s e n t s a s i g n i f i c a n t a n d g r o u n d b r e a k i n g stage of d e v e l o p ­ m e n t in the early h i s t o r y of the use a n d a d a p t a t i o n of the E n o c h i c p a r a d i g m . In c o m p a n y w i t h the G e n e s i s A p o c r y p h o n a n d A r a m a i c L e v i , it m a r k s the p o i n t at w h i c h the E n o c h i c p a r a d i g m a n d e x e m p l a r s w e r e b e i n g a p p l i e d to the p o s t d i l u v i a n w o r l d . It t r a c e d a n d a n a l y z e d r e p l i c a t i o n s o f the e x e m p l a r s u p to the end of the T o r a h n a r r a t i v e a n d even b a c k to the sin o f A d a m a n d E v e . It p r o v i d e d a m o d e l for i n t e g r a t i n g the E n o c h i c system a n d r e v e l a t i o n s w i t h those w o r k s v a r i o u s l y a c c e p t e d as first c a n o n . T h e s e w e r e n o t the a r b i ­ t r a r y i m p o s i t i o n s of an alien s t r u c t u r e u p o n the T o r a h b u t a sincere a n d p e ­ 38

d a n t i c a t t e m p t to correlate the t w o texts e x e g e t i c a l l y . In so d o i n g , Jubilees s t i m u l a t e d an e x p o n e n t i a l a g e n d a that p r o d u c e d m a n y of the w o r k s f o u n d in the Q u m r a n l i b r a r y a n d m o r e . F o r s c h o l a r s t o d a y it p r o v i d e s a direct a n d

37. See Dorothy Peters, "Noah Traditions in Jubilees: Evidence for the Struggle be­ tween E n o c h i c and Mosaic Authority," Hen 3 1 , no. 1 ( 2 0 0 9 ) . 38. See Carmichael, "The Integration o f Law and Narrative in Jubilees," Hen 31, no. 1 (2009).

424

Jubilees and Enochic

Judaism

overt link between those texts. It also enables us to form some idea of an in­ ternal context within which to attempt to understand the variations, ten­ sions, and anomalies that w e find in them. This system involved an ongoing ability to self-correct. T h e goal of per­ fect internal consistency combined with the flexibility of replicating exem­ plars made the Enochic paradigm a most resilient system as a basis upon which to understand and deal with the complexities, confusions, powers, and often the horror of a wide range of Jewish experience over a period of around three centuries. It is well then to remember that behind and consequent upon the various texts that claimed this tradition were real people. A s Kvanvig ob­ served in the course of our discussions, "We see their fingerprints, but not their footprints." This paradigm constitutes those fingerprints.

425

Jubilees, Qumran, and the Essenes Eyal Regev

I. The Act of Comparison C o m p a r i s o n is one of the theoretical tools of the study of history, and par­ ticularly Religionsgeschichte.

In the current stage of Q u m r a n scholarship,

m a n y scholars are engaged in comparing different documents, and in cer­ tain cases, also comparing social phenomena, such as the Essenes, the yahad, and the D a m a s c u s Covenant. To compare two entities a certain degree of similarity is necessary, but comparison is provocative and insightful only when one is able to point to significant differences.

1

II. Similarities What, then, are the general similarities that enable us to compare Jubilees, Q u m r a n , and the Essenes? Jubilees and the Q u m r a n sects (or rather, the C o m ­ munity Rule and the Damascus D o c u m e n t ) share a belief in predestination

2

1. F. J. P. Poole, "Metaphors and Maps: Towards Comparison in the Anthropology of Religion," JAAR 54 (1986): 411-57; R. A. Segal, "In Defense o f the Comparative Method," Numen 48 (2001): 339-74; J. Z . Smith, Drudgery Divine: On the Comparison of Early Christianities and the Religion of Late Antiquity (Chicago: University o f Chicago Press; Lon­ don: School o f Oriental and African Studies, 1990). 2. The belief in predestination in the Instruction o f the Two Spirits corresponds to Jubilees' conception that the future is written on the heavenly tablets (e.g., Jub 1:29; 23:32).

426

jubilees,

Qumran,

and

the

Essenes

3

a n d the i m m o r t a l i t y o f the s o u l , the c o n c e p t o f h o l y a n d evil angels a n d spirits a n d the s t r u g g l e b e t w e e n t h e m ,

4

a 364-day calendar,

5

the a s s o c i a t i o n o f sin

w i t h m o r a l i m p u r i t y in the p u r s u i t o f a t o n e m e n t , h o l i n e s s , a n d e t e r n a l b l i s s .

6

O n e m a y also a d d S a b b a t h i n t e r d i c t i o n s c o m m o n to J u b i l e e s a n d the D a m a s ­ cus D o c u m e n t 1 0 - 1 1 ,

7

as w e l l as specific sacrificial l a w s c o m m o n to J u b i l e e s ,

the T e m p l e S c r o l l , a n d M M T .

8

T h e Q u m r a n sects are u s u a l l y i d e n t i f i e d w i t h the E s s e n e s , w h o w e r e d e s c r i b e d b y P h i l o , J o s e p h u s , a n d P l i n y the E l d e r : t h e y s h a r e t e n s i o n i n r e l a ­ t i o n to the t e m p l e , a n e m p h a s i s o n m o r a l b e h a v i o r , s e l f - r e s t r a i n t , p u r i t y , a n d p r a y e r . T h e E s s e n e s a n d the yahad

share c o m m o n property,

companionship,

g r a d u a l a d m i s s i o n , a n d a c c o r d i n g to m o s t s c h o l a r s , c e l i b a c y . T h e a v o i d a n c e o f o i l ( s i n c e it is t h o u g h t to defile) a n d r e s t r i c t i o n s o n the S a b b a t h , a n d

the

r o l e o f o v e r s e e r s o r officials, are c o m m o n to the E s s e n e s a n d the D a m a s c u s Covenant.

9

a

3. Jub 23:30-31. For Q u m r a n , see i Q H 9[Sukenik 3 ] : 2 i - 2 3 ; J. Licht, The Scroll

Thanksgiving

(in Hebrew) (Jerusalem: Bialik Institute, 1957), 83-84; E . Puech, La Croyance

Esseniens

en la Vie Future: Immortalite,

Resurrection,

Vie Eternelle?

des

(Paris: Gabalda, 1 9 9 3 ) ,

366-75. 4. Jub 1 0 : 1 1 ; 18:9; 4 8 : 2 - 3 , 1 2 - 1 9 ; lQS 3:18-26; 4 : 1 - 2 . Cf. C D 5:17-19. Similarities between angelology

in Jubilees a n d Q u m r a n , e.g., the W a r Rule, the Hodayot, were noted by

D. Dimant, "bnei shanyim — torat ha-mal*akhim beseferer ha-yovlim le'or kitvei a'dat qumran," in Tribute

to Sara:

Studies

in Jewish

Philosophy

and Kabbala,

ed. M . Idel,

D. Dimant, and S. Rosenberg (Jerusalem: Magnes, 1 9 9 4 ) , 1 1 0 - 1 8 . For these general theologi­ cal similarities, see also J. C. VanderKam, Textual

and Historical

Studies

in the Book of

Jubi­

lees, HSM 14 (Missoula: Scholars Press, 1 9 7 7 ) , 260-80. 5. For the general resemblance between the two calendars, see, e.g., J. C. VanderKam, "The Temple Scroll and the B o o k o f Jubilees" in Temple

Scroll Studies,

ed. G. J. Brooke,

JSPSup 7 (Sheffield: JSOT Press, 1989), 2 1 1 - 3 6 . This consensus was first disputed by L. Ravid, "The Book o f Jubilees and Its Calendar — a Reexamination," DSD 10 ( 2 0 0 3 ) : 371-94. Ravid has shown that many o f the liturgical characteristics o f the Q u m r a n i c calendar are unat­ tested in Jubilees, but he did n o t prove that there were actual contradictions between the two. 6. Cf. also G. Boccaccini, Beyond tween Qumran

and Enochic Judaism

the Essene Hypothesis:

The Parting

of the Ways be­

(Grand Rapids and Cambridge: E e r d m a n s , 1998), 93-98.

7. L. H. Schiffman, Law, Custom,

and Messianism

in the Dead Sea Scrolls (in Hebrew)

(Jerusalem: Zalman Shazar, 1 9 9 3 ) , 9 0 - 1 3 5 . 8. VanderKam, "The Temple Scroll and the Book o f Jubilees." Cf. the articles o f Shemesh in this volume a n d J. Hopkins, "The Authoritative Status o f Jubilees at Qumran," Hen 3 1 , no. 1 ( 2 0 0 9 ) . 9. Todd S. Beall, Josephus' Description

of the Essenes Illustrated

by the Dead Sea Scrolls,

SNTSMS 58 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988); J. M . Baumgarten, "The Dis­ qualifications o f Priests in 4 Q Fragments o f the 'Damascus Document,' a Specimen o f the

427

Eyal

Regev B u t w h a t do Jubilees a n d the E s s e n e s h a v e in c o m m o n ? F o l l o w i n g

B o c c a c c i n i ' s c o m p a r i s o n of the E s s e n e s w i t h the entire E n o c h i c literature, i n c l u d i n g J u b i l e e s , o n e m a y m e n t i o n the belief in p r e d e s t i n a t i o n a n d i m ­ m o r t a l i t y of the s o u l , as w e l l as the belief in angels a n d the s e n s i t i v i t y to the pitfalls of s e x u a l i t y .

10

N o n e t h e l e s s , it s e e m s to m e that the a s s o c i a t i o n of J u ­

bilees w i t h the E s s e n e s is i n d i r e c t a n d d e p e n d e n t o n their s t r o n g r e l a t i o n ­ s h i p w i t h the Q u m r a n sects.

III. Differences Jubilees differs f r o m b o t h the yahad

a n d the D a m a s c u s C o v e n a n t in its b a s i c

s o c i a l stance. Jubilees is a d d r e s s e d to the p e o p l e o f Israel, a t t e m p t i n g to c o n ­ v i n c e t h e m to f o l l o w the p a t h o f the eternal c o n v e n t in S i n a i . It e m p h a s i z e s the h o l i n e s s of the J e w i s h n a t i o n as a w h o l e ,

1 1

c o n t r a s t i n g the Israelites to

the i m m o r a l G e n t i l e s a n d c o n d e m n i n g contacts w i t h G e n t i l e s .

1 2

Admittedly,

Jubilees is critical of the Jews w h o t r a n s g r e s s the l a w s p e r t a i n i n g to the c a l e n ­ dar, c i r c u m c i s i o n , a n d n u d i t y , a n d p e r h a p s also the S a b b a t h .

1 3

In o n e in­

stance ( 3 0 : 1 6 ) J u b i l e e s even seeks to p r e v e n t s o m e o n e w h o s e d a u g h t e r m a r ­ r i e d a G e n t i l e f r o m e n t e r i n g the t e m p l e . O n the w h o l e , h o w e v e r , Jubilees does n o t w a n t certain Jews to s e p a r a t e t h e m s e l v e s f r o m the rest o f the n a t i o n d u e to their r e l i g i o u s o r h a l a k i c s c r u p u l o u s n e s s . In contrast, the yahad

a n d the D a m a s c u s C o v e n a n t are sects b y defini­

t i o n . T h e y are s t r o n g l y c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y the three m a j o r i d e o l o g i c a l c o m p o -

Recovery o f Pre-Rabbinic Halakha," in The Madrid

Qumran

Congress, ed. J. Trebolle Barrera

and L. Vegas Montaner, STD J 1 1 (Leiden: Brill, 1 9 9 2 ) , 2:503-13 (here 5 0 3 - 5 ) . O n e m a y also add the limitation on the discharge of excretions, mentioned by Philo and in the Temple Scroll and the War Rule (see below). 1 0 . Boccaccini, Beyond

the Essene Hypothesis,

165-96. Cf. Josephus, Jewish

War 1 . 1 7 1 -

173; Ant 2.154. 1 1 . Jub 2:19, 2 3 , 3 1 - 3 3 ; 15:27, 3 2 ; 1 6 : 1 7 - 1 8 ; 18:19; 1 9 : 1 6 - 1 9 , 2 1 - 2 4 ; 2 1 : 2 4 - 2 5 ; 2 2 : 1 2 - 2 4 ; 24:10; 25; 27:23; 3 1 : 1 4 ; 33:20. 1 2 . F o r the Gentiles' immorality and impurity, see Jub 1 : 8 - 1 1 ; 3:31; 1 1 : 1 6 ; 1 2 : 1 - 8 , 1 2 - 1 4 ; 19; 20:7-8; 21:3, 5; 22:16; 25:1; 3 0 : 1 3 - 1 5 ; 3 1 : 1 - 2 ; 35:14; 36:5; 48:5. For the call for separation from the Gentiles, see Jub 6:35; 9 : 1 4 - 1 5 ; 15:34; 22:16; 25:1; 3 0 . For Gentile impurity in Jubilees, see C. Hayes, Gentile Impurities ble to the Talmud

and Jewish Identities:

Intermarriage

and Conversion from the Bi­

(Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2 0 0 2 ) , 47, 53, 54, 55. For the prohibition

on intermarriage in Jubilees, see Hayes, 73-81. See also the article by Doering in this volume. 13. Calendar: 6:23-32; 23:19; circumcision: 15:25-26, 33-34; nudity: 3:31; 7:20; Sabbath: 2:29-30; 50:8-9; 23:19.

428

Jubilees, Qumran, and the Essenes nents of a sectarian worldview: antagonism in relation to the outside world; social separation from outsiders; and a developed sense of "difference" in 14

their self-identity and practices or rituals. The belief system of the Qum­ ran sects, especially the yahad, is based on condemning Jews outside the sect 15

and social separation from the surrounding society. Contacts such as those created by commerce are limited or inspected by the sect rules or by the 16

overseers. The rest of the Jews are doomed as long as they persist in reject­ 17

ing the sect's doctrine. Simply stated, Jubilees does not correspond to the definition of a sectarian ideology. The Qumran sectarians do not adopt Jubi­ lees' prohibition on the use of the moon in calculations, and instead follow Enoch's Astronomical Book harmonizing solar and lunar sequences with each other.

18

The social position of Jubilees is somewhat clarified in chap. 2 3 (the so-called Jubilees apocalypse), where the author juxtaposes the "elders" with the "young ones." The two parties debate "the law and the covenant" (23:16), especially the calendar. The author associates the elders with impurity, con­ tamination, detestation, and corruption and accuses them of "defiling the holy of holies with the impure corruption of their contamination" (23:21b). The author of Jubilees views his movement as the true Israel, but surpris­ ingly, unlike the Community Rule or the Damascus Covenant, he does not seem to claim that the elders will be cut off from the nation. At the age of punishment, it seems that all Jews will suffer ( 2 3 : 2 1 - 2 5 ) . No matter how sin­ ful the elders may be, the author does not regard them as doomed. He also implies that the elders will ultimately accept the teachings of the young ones (23:26-31). Thus, according to the author, the unity of the Jewish people will be preserved. The elders in Jub 23 represent the traditional and conservative elite, while the young ones are a radical party that challenges the degenerated con-

14. For the definition of sectarianism see R. Stark and W. S. Bainbridge, The Future of Religion: Secularization, Revival, and Cult Formation (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1985), 49-60. 15. £. Regev, "Abominated Temple and a Holy Community: The Formation of the Concepts of Purity and Impurity in Qumran," DSD 10, no. 2 (2003): 243-78 (here 256-75). 16. Cf. CD 13:14-17; 20:6-8; lQS 5:15-16; 8:20; 9:7-9. 17. CD 7:9-13; 8:2-3; 19:5-11; iQS 4:18-20; 9:23; Licht, The Thanksgiving Scroll, 3 2 - 3 3 .

18. U. Glessmer, "Calendars in the Qumran Scrolls," in The Dead Sea Scrolls after Fifty Years, ed. J. C. VanderKam and P. W. Flint (Leiden: Brill, 1999), 2:213-78 (here 244-55). 4Q252 1 i 8-10 also rectifies the Jub 5:27 error in claiming that the 150 days in Gen 8:3 constituted five months (Glessmer, 258-59). 429

Eyal

Regev

s e n s u s . I therefore believe that the elders c a n n o t b e identified w i t h H e l l e n i z e d J e w s of the S e l e u c i d p e r i o d .

1 9

the

T h e a u t h o r ' s p o r t r a y a l of the t w o

parties in t e r m s of age differences, n a m e l y , s e p a r a t e g e n e r a t i o n s ,

corre­

s p o n d s w i t h w h a t the s o c i o l o g i s t K a r l M a n h e i m called "the p r o b l e m o f g e n ­ erations." T h e categories of g e n e r a t i o n s m a r k t w o s o c i a l classes of s e p a r a t e " h i s t o r i c a l space," n a m e l y , distinct s o c i a l u n i t s .

20

A l l this leads m e to the c o n ­

c l u s i o n that the g e n e r a l characteristics of Jubilees a n d p a r t i c u l a r l y c h a p . 23 do n o t reflect a sect b u t r a t h e r a r e f o r m m o v e m e n t .

2 1

Jubilees represents a

g r o u p that a i m s to c h a n g e s o c i e t y r a t h e r than w i t h d r a w from it. It c h a l l e n g e s the p r e v a i l i n g elite, w i s h i n g to l e a d the p e o p l e in a different p a t h . T h i s g e n e r a l s o c i a l difference b e t w e e n J u b i l e e s a n d the Q u m r a n sects also a p p l i e s to the c o m p a r i s o n of J u b i l e e s w i t h the E s s e n e s . A p a r t f r o m s t r i c t n e s s p e r t a i n i n g to a v o i d a n c e o f w o r k o n the S a b b a t h , the E s s e n e s o ­ cial r e s t r i c t i o n s a n d t a b o o s are u n a t t e s t e d in J u b i l e e s . O n e i n t e r e s t i n g c o n ­ trast b e t w e e n the t w o is t h a t w h e r e a s m o s t E s s e n e s l i v e d in c e l i b a c y w i t h ­ out w o m e n , Jubilees presents matriarchs.

an i d e a l i z e d c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n

of b i b l i c a l

2 2

T h o s e w h o identify the " Q u m r a n c o m m u n i t y , " the " Q u m r a n sectari­ ans," o r the " D e a d Sea S c r o l l s sect" w i t h the E s s e n e s t e n d to o v e r l o o k the fact that at least t w o d i s t i n c t sects are reflected in the s c r o l l s . A l t h o u g h the

yahad

of the C o m m u n i t y R u l e a n d the D a m a s c u s C o v e n a n t o f the D a m a s c u s D o c ­ u m e n t share m u c h t e r m i n o l o g y a n d m a n y g e n e r a l ideas, t h e y differ in s o c i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n , h i e r a r c h a l o r e g a l i t a r i a n s t r u c t u r e , the s t r i n g e n c y of s o c i a l b o u n d a r i e s , a n d in other i d e o l o g i c a l a s p e c t s .

23

T h i s fact c o m p l i c a t e s the

c o m p a r i s o n of the E s s e n e p r a c t i c e s a n d w a y of life w i t h those in the scrolls, since in s e v e r a l cases o n e p o i n t o f s i m i l a r i t y b e t w e e n the E s s e n e s a n d the yahad

a c t u a l l y serves as a d i s c r e p a n c y b e t w e e n the E s s e n e s a n d the D a m a s ­

cus C o v e n a n t , or v i c e v e r s a . T h e m o s t significant e x a m p l e is c o m m u n a l 19. In contrast to scholars such as G. L. Davenport, The Eschatology of the Book of Ju­ bilees (Leiden: Brill, 1971), 41-43, following Charles. 20. K. Manheim, Essays on the Sociology of Knowledge (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1952), 276-320. 21. Cf. already K. Berger, Das Buch der Jubilaen, Jiidische Schriften aus hellenistischromanischer Zeit, II.3 (Giitersloh: Giiterloher Verlagshaus Gerd Mohn, 1981), 298. 22. B. Halpern-Amaru, The Empowerment of Women in the Book of Jubilees, JSJSup 60 (Leiden: Brill, 1999). 23. P. R. Davies, "The Judaism(s) o f the Damascus Document," in The Damascus Doc­ ument: A Centennial of Discovery, ed. J. M. Baumgarten et al., STDJ 34 (Leiden: Brill, 2 0 0 0 ) , 27-43; E. Regev, "The Yahad and the Damascus Covenant: Structure, Organization and Rela­ tionship," RevQ 21, no. 2 (2004): 233-62.

430

Jubilees, Qumran, and the Essenes ownership of property, common to the Essenes and the yahad, whereas members of the Damascus Covenant maintained private property.

24

There are two significant discrepancies between the Essenes, on the one hand, and the yahad and the Damascus Covenant, on the other hand. Essene abstinence from taking oaths is not attested in the scrolls, which specify regulations for taking oaths before judges to affirm lost property and 25

mention vows as a normative and even frequent practice. Essene rejection of slavery is inconsistent with evidence from the Damascus Covenant, since CD 11:12 prohibits "pressing" one's servant or maidservant (to work) on the Sabbath. However, there is no mention of servants in the Community Rule. Presumably, neither the yahad nor the Essenes used servants, since they both maintained common property and aimed at socioeconomic equality. Inter­ estingly, recendy discovered ostraca from kh. Qumran mention the delivery of a slave named Hisdai from Holon, and may attest to the dwellers' readi­ ness to accept slaves as property.

26

Several relatively minor differences are also notable, since they pertain to social order, rituals, and taboos, on which sects put great emphasis. Josephus's Essenes differ from both the yahad and the Damascus Covenant in their social structure and types of leadership. The Essene overseers (epimeletai) care for the needs of the entire community. They have complete 27

authority in directing the members' work. Josephus also refers to Elders, 28

who are the leaders of the Essene group. The role of the Essene Elders re­ sembles the total authority of overseers and certain priests in the Damascus 24. CD 13:15-16; 14:12-18. For the Essene communal ownership of property, see Philo, Hypothetica 10.11; Philo, Quod omnis probus liber «'t86; Josephus, Jewish Wiir2.i22; Josephus, Ant 18.20; Pliny the Elder, Natural History 5.73. For the yahad see, e.g., lQS 6:19-23; for the Damascus Covenant, see CD 13:14-16; 14:12-17. 25. CD 9:8-12; 16:1-7. For the Essenes, see Philo, Quod omnis probus liber sit 84; Josephus, Jewish War 2.135; cf- Ant 15.371. On oaths in the Damascus Document, see Schiffman, Law, Custom, 204-11,220-27. Beall, Josephus' Description, 69-70, draws upon the silence of the Community Rule in relation to oaths other than those of joining converts, for creating a false parallelism with Philo and Josephus, while resolving the evidence from the Damascus Document's different stages of development. 26. For the Essenes, see Philo, Hypothetica 11.4; Quod omnis probus liber sit 79; Josephus, Ant 18.21. For CD 11:12, see Schiffman Law, Custom, 125-26. For the ostraca, see F. M. Cross and E. Eshel, "Ostraca from Khirbet Qumran," / £ / 4 7 (1997): 17-28. The conclu­ sion that the dwellers in kh. Qumran accepted slaves as property is reasonable even if one re­ jects the reading of yahad in line 5, a reading according to which the ostraca attest to the ad­ mission of a new member and his property into the yahad. 27. Josephus, Jewish War 2 . 1 2 3 , 9 > 13428. Josephus, Jewish War 2.146. 12

431

Eyal Regev Document.

29

Nonetheless, there is only a single and quite insignificant oc­

currence of "Elders" in the Damascus Document.

30

Elders are mentioned

31

only once in the Community Rule, where they are lower in hierarchy than priests, and have no special authority within the yahad, which, unlike the Essenes, has a democratic and semi-egalitarian social structure with no gov­ erning individual leader. Josephus's assertion that the Essenes "obey their el­ 32

ders and the majority" appears to reflect a combination of CD's governing overseers and priests and the yahad's assembly of the rabbim ("many"). In two cases, what appears to be a parallel between Josephus's Essenes and the scrolls actually conceals a discrepancy. In their gradual admission of novices into the sect, the Essenes exclude novices from the "purer water for purification" (which obviously refers to ritual baths) for one year before the novices prove their temperance in a probation period. During the subsequent 33

two years, novices are excluded from partaking in the common meals. This parallels lQS 6:13-23, where converts into the yahad are excluded from "the purity of the many" in the first year, and from "the drink/liquids of the many" (which probably also means purification rituals and common meals) in the second. The Essene probation period is longer, and furthermore, their inclu­ sion in communal practices progresses in an inverse order: new Essene con­ verts are first permitted to participate in ritual baths, and only at a later stage 34

in communal meals, in contrast to the order of inclusion in the yahad.

More

generally, the Community Rule and the Damascus Document also mention a much more lenient admission process compared to the Essenes, which merely requires an oath, with no probation period.

35

29. CD 9:13-15; 13:15-16; 14:12-17.

CD 9:4. 31. lQS 6:8. Beall, Josephus' Description, 47, with bibliography, argued that this is a point of resemblance. 32. Josephus, Jewish War 2.146. 33. Josephus, Jewish War 2.137-138. Beall, Josephus' Description, 73-74, translates sumbidsis "common meals," whereas Thackeray (LCL edition, 377) translates "the meeting of the community." 34. Beall, Josephus' Description, 74-75, emphasized the general parallelism of gradual acceptance but understated the differences. 35. lQS 5:7-10; CD 15:6-10. The vow of the Essene novice is part of the lengthy admis­ sion process. J. Licht, The Rule Scroll: A Scrollfromthe Wilderness of Judaea, lQSiQSa iQSb; Text, Introduction, and Commentary (in Hebrew) (Jerusalem: Bialik Institute, 1965), 146-47, noted that the Essene novice takes an oath at the completion of the admission into the group, whereas converts to the yahad do so in the first stage of their admission process. Cf. War 2:139-142; lQS 6:14-15; Beall, Josephus' Description, 77. 30.

432

Jubilees, Qumran, and the Essenes The Essenes dig a hole with their personal shovels to bury excretions,

36

whereas the Temple Scroll and the War Rule order the building of perma­ nent latrines. There is no evidence in the scrolls of an implement similar to the shovel that every Essene receives when he enters the sect and carries with him wherever he goes.

37

As A . Baumgarten noted, the different practices

represent different perceptions of the body. Each of these differences in practices and taboos may be explained by the incomplete information of Josephus or Philo, as outsiders, by their indi­ vidual biases, their Gentile audience, or the differences between individual local communities in different places and different periods of time.

38

How­

ever, it is difficult to explain away such a series of discrepancies concerning different issues related to taboos and social structure, which are extremely sensitive and meaningful in sectarian organizations. One interesting Essene phenomenon that is at odds with the Qumran scrolls is Essene public prophecies and political involvement. Judas the Essene predicts that Antigonus the Hasmonean will be killed at Strato's 39

Tower. When Herod is young, Menahem predicts that he will be king of the Jews, and when Herod rules, Menahem predicts that he will reign for twenty or thirty more years but refuses to specify the precise length of his reign.

40

Simon interprets Archelaus's dream correctly, and predicts that his reign will soon come to an end.

41

In these instances, I suggest, the Essenes use their

competence to foresee the future in order to attain social power and perhaps also to draw the attention of potential converts. While several documents from Qumran attest to the belief that mem­ bers (and particularly the Teacher of Righteousness) are able to reveal future events through divine revelation and interpretation of the words of the 42

prophets, the Qumranic predictions are general and refer to the End of 36. Josephus, Jewish War 2.148-149. Cf. 5.145. 37. A I. Baumgarten, "The Temple Scroll, Toilet Practice, and the Essenes," Jewish History 10 (1996): 9-20. Note that the Temple Scroll and the War Rule rules are Utopian documents. One may question whether the yahad and the Damascus Covenant actually followed them. 38. A. Dupont-Sommer, The Essene Writings from Qumran, trans. G. Vermes (Cleve­ land and New York: World Publishing Company, 1962), 66-67; I- Strugnell, "Flavius Josephus and the Essenes: Antiquities XVIII.18-22," JBL 77 (1958): 106-15; G. Vermes, The Dead Sea Scrolls, Qumran in Perspective, rev. ed. (London: SCM, 1994), 115-17. 39. Josephus, Jewish War 1.78-80. 40. Josephus, Ant 15.371-379. 41. Josephus, Jewish War 2.312-313; Ant 17.345-348. 42. For the general identification of these prophecies with the pesherim, see Beall, Josephus' Description, 110-11. 433

Eyal Regev Days, whereas the Essene prophecies focus on a specific historical occasion 43

in the nearest future. Even more surprising is the fact that Menahem and Simon interact both politically and personally with Herod and Archelaus. One can hardly imagine distinguished members of the yahad, who shun all outsiders as "people of Belial," discussing their divine messages with these rulers, whom even many commoners despise. Finally, I maintain that the most significant difference between the Essenes and both the yahad and the Damascus Covenant pertains to celi­ bacy. It is a common assertion that the yahad were celibates, just like the Essenes, based on the argument of silence: women, children, and families are not mentioned in the Community Rule. This is convincing as long as one is blinded by the sweeping identification of the yahad as Essenes. In a forth­ 44

coming article in Dead Sea Discoveries 1 maintain that when the evidence is reexamined, several intriguing questions arise: Is it possible that a celibate sect would totally ignore the interdiction to marry and procreate? Is celibacy a marginal taboo to be taken for granted in a legal codex such as the Com­ munity Rule? Is it reasonable to believe that the yahad were celibate while no single document in Qumran hints at the ideas of celibacy, virginity, etc.? If the yahad are indeed celibates, their gender taboos should have taken a prominent place in the Community Rule. I suggest that one neglected document, 4 Q 5 0 2 , the so-called ritual of 45

marriage,

may demonstrate the place of women, children, marriage, and

procreation in the yahad. Joseph Baumgarten interpreted 4 Q 5 0 2 as a ritual in which married couples declare their commitment to a celibate life since 46

both male and female members participate in a certain ceremony. But 4 Q 5 0 2 opens with references to "man and his wife," "to reproduce off­ spring," "a daughter of truth," and "his wife" (frgs. 1 - 3 ) . I cannot see any rea­ son why these expressions should be taken as merely symbolic. Further­ more, 4 Q 5 0 2 alludes to reproduction, marriage, and young children: "to reproduce" (frg. 1 ) , "toddlers" (frgs. 28 and 3 1 1 ) , "the girl's father" (frg. 1 0 8 ) , "his wife in fruit of the womb" (frg. 3 0 9 ) . The text also mentions "lads and virgins, young men and young women" (frg. 1 9 ) ; "sons and daughters" (frg. 14); "young men" (frg. 9); "to sisters" (frg. 9 6 ) . They seem to be too young 43. R. Gray, Prophetic Figures in Late Second Temple Jewish Palestine: The Evidence from Josephus (New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1993), 105-7. 44. E. Regev, "Chercher les femmes: Were the Yahad Celibates?" DSD, forthcoming. 45. M. Baillet, Qumran Grotte 4.III, DJD 7 (Oxford: Clarendon, 1982), 81-105. 46. J. M. Baumgarten, "4Q502, Marriage or Golden Age Ritual," JJS 34 (1983): 125-35. Cf. 4 Q 5 0 2 . frgs. 19, 24, and 34.

434

Jubilees, Qumran, and the Essenes to be new converts. These are probably the sons and daughters of the com­ munity members. There are several indications that 4 Q 5 0 2 is related to the yahad. The adverb yahad is mentioned at least four times in this very fragmented text. Furthermore, several terms are particularly characteristic of other docu­ ments of the yahad, namely, the Community Rule, the pesherim, and the Hodayot: "holy of holies," "the law of God," "daughter of truth" (or "son/ men of truth" in other texts), and teu'dah (testimony, appointed times, stip­ ulation). While none of these points suffices to conclude that 4 Q 5 0 2 origi­ nated in the yahad, taken together I think they demonstrate that this is more than probable. This may serve as a further argument against the supposed celibacy of the yahad. Due to all these discrepancies I find it impossible to argue that the Qumran sects and the Essenes are the same or that the yahad and the Da­ mascus Covenant are groups within the larger (and ultimately, celibate) Essene movement. But as I shall argue below, it is hard to deny that there is a certain, more complex relationship between them.

IV. Social and Historical Relationship Jubilees' ideology is not sectarian but rather aims to take the lead and reform Judaism rather than withdraw from the rest of society. Its group therefore cannot be identified with the Qumran sects. Nonetheless, Jubilees has close affinities with several Qumranic texts, mainly the Temple Scroll and MMT. Jubilees shares with the Temple Scroll and M M T several sacrificial 47

laws, and laws pertaining to priestly offerings. Similar to the Temple Scroll, Jubilees orders that a he-goat (s'eir) for atonement should be sacrificed first, in contrast to the plain text of Num 2 8 - 2 9

a n

48

d rabbinic halakah. Jubilees

seems to share the Temple Scroll's celebration of the Festival of Weeks (firstfruits of wheat) on the fifteenth of the third month,

49

as well as the fes­

50

tivals of the firstfruits of new wine and oil. Both Jubilees and M M T order 47. VanderKam, "The Temple Scroll and the Book of Jubilees." 48. Jub 7:4; Temple Scroll 14:10-12; 23:11; 26:5-27:4; Y. Yadin, The Temple Scroll (Jerusa­ lem: Israel Exploration Society and the Shrine of the Book, 1977), 1:103,116-17. 49. Jub 15:1; 16:13; Temple Scroll 18:10-16 (the rabbis celebrated it on the sixth of that month). 50. Temple Scroll 19:11-14; 21:12-16. Admittedly, Jub 7:36 mentions only the offerings of the first wine and oil. Both the Temple Scroll and Jubilees interpret these offerings as per435

Eyal

Regev

that the a n i m a l tithe s h o u l d b e g i v e n to the priests, w h e r e a s a c c o r d i n g to the r a b b i s the o w n e r s are the r e c i p i e n t s .

51

J u b i l e e s , the T e m p l e S c r o l l , a n d M M T

o r d e r that the fruits o f the f o u r t h y e a r s h o u l d b e g i v e n to G o d ' s s e r v a n t s ( n a m e l y , the p r i e s t s ) , w h e r e a s the r a b b i s a r g u e d that t h e y s h o u l d b e eaten b y their o w n e r s .

5 2

B o t h Jubilees a n d the T e m p l e S c r o l l call for eating the P a s s ­

over sacrifice in the t e m p l e , w h e r e a s a c c o r d i n g to the r a b b i s it m a y b e eaten a n y w h e r e in the city o f J e r u s a l e m .

5 3

B o t h Jubilees a n d the T e m p l e S c r o l l

c o m m a n d that the s e c o n d tithe be b r o u g h t to the t e m p l e e v e r y y e a r .

5 4

F u r t h e r m o r e , J u b i l e e s ' stress o n the i m p u r i t y o f the G e n t i l e s s h o u l d b e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h specific cultic laws in M M T : the refusal to a c c e p t sacrifices f r o m G e n t i l e s , the e x c l u s i o n o f A m m o n i t e s a n d M o a b i t e s f r o m the t e m p l e , a n d p e r h a p s also the p r o h i b i t i o n s o n b r i n g i n g G e n t i l e s ' offering/tithe o f w h e a t a n d g r a i n to the t e m p l e (since t h e y are d e f i l e d ) .

55

O n e interesting p o i n t o f c o r r e s p o n d e n c e b e t w e e n Jubilees a n d

the

T e m p l e S c r o l l is related to the e s c h a t o l o g i c a l t e m p l e that w i l l replace the m o n u m e n t a l t e m p l e d e s c r i b e d in the s c r o l l . In T e m p l e S c r o l l 2 9 : 8 - 1 0 , G o d p r o m i s e s : " I shall sanctify m y [ T e ] m p l e w i t h m y g l o r y , for I shall m a k e m y g l o r y reside over it u n t i l the d a y o f c r e a t i o n , w h e n I shall create m y T e m p l e , establishing it for m y s e l f for all d a y s , a c c o r d i n g to the c o v e n a n t w h i c h I m a d e w i t h J a c o b in Bethel." T h e c o n c e p t o f the n e w ideal t e m p l e at the t i m e of the n e w c r e a t i o n is also m e n t i o n e d in J u b 4 : 2 6 , a n d the e s c h a t o l o g i c a l t e m p l e a n d the n e w c r e a t i o n are m e n t i o n e d s e p a r a t e l y in s e v e r a l p l a c e s .

5 6

T h e r e l e v a n c e of the c o v e n a n t in B e t h e l in relation to the eternal t e m p l e o f the T e m p l e S c r o l l is p u z z l i n g . Interestingly, this p o i n t is e l u c i d a t e d b y J u b 3 2 , w h e r e B e t h e l is the site of L e v i ' s i n a u g u r a t i o n to the p r i e s t h o o d b y J a c o b .

5 7

mission to eat the new crop (a view n o t followed by the rabbis; cf. also Jub 3 2 : 1 1 - 1 4 ; Temple Scroll 4 3 : 3 - 1 1 ; Yadin, The Temple Scroll, 1:92-93). However, note that Jubilees also fails to mention the harvest of the Omer, and therefore its treatment of the festivals is not system­ atic. VanderKam, "The Temple Scroll," 225, believes that the Jubilees author is aware of these firstfruits holidays. 51. Jub 32:15; M M T B 63-64; m. Zevahim

5:8. a

52. Jub 7:36; M M T B 62-63; Temple Scroll 60:3-4; 4 Q D 2 ii 6; m. Ma'aser Sifrei Numbers ba-midbar

Sheni 5:1-5;

6 (ed. Horovits 6); y. Pe'ah j:6 ( 2 o b - 2 0 c ) . Jubilees, however, adds

further restrictions concerning sacrificing o f the fruit and refraining from eating the plant in the fifth year. 53. Jub 49:16, 20; Temple Scroll 17:8-9; m. Zevahim

5:8.

54. Jub 3 2 : 1 0 - 1 1 ; Temple Scroll 4 3 : 1 - 1 7 ; Yadin, The Temple Scroll, 1:92-94. 55. M M T B 8-9, 3 9 - 4 0 , 3 - 5 , respectively. 56. Eschatological temple: Jub 1:17; new creation: Jub 1:27, 29; 5:12. 57. In his vision, Jacob is handed seven tablets (Jub 3 2 : 3 1 ) , presumably containing sac-

436

Jubilees, Qumran, and the Essenes Hence, this tradition is much clearer and more developed in Jubilees than the abridged account in the Temple Scroll, and it seems that here the Temple Scroll is dependent on Jubilees. Jubilees and the homiletic section (C) of M M T share the association of sin with impurity. In M M T the authors argue, "we have separated our­ selves from the multitude of the people [and from all their impurity]."

58

This impurity is probably moral, since the fragmentary continuation of this passage relates to moral sins: "and concerning . . . [the malice] and the treachery... and fornication [some] places were destroyed."... "no] treach­ 59

ery or deceit or evil can be found in our hand." Similar accusations are as­ cribed to the "evil generation" in Jub 23:14: (moral) impurity and contami­ nation, sexual impurity (which parallels MMT's fornication) and detestable actions (which parallel MMT's malice, treachery, and deceit). Further on, similar accusations are attributed to "the elders" in Jubilees: "they have acted wickedly... everything they do is i m p u r e . . . all their ways are contamina­ tion," "cheating through wealth... they will defile the holy of holies with the impure corruption of their contamination."

60

I am not arguing here that the MMT's Multitude of the People is iden­ tical with Jubilees' "evil generation." Rather, the fact that both are described in the same manner shows that both documents share the belief that sin de­ files and use it as a fundamental conceptualization of their own social posi­ tion in comparison to their adversaries. Jubilees and M M T col. C also share the belief that the messianic age is at hand. The authors of M M T declare: "And we are aware that part of the blessings and curses have occurred that are written in the b[ook of Mos]es. And this is the End of Days, when they will return in Israel to the L [ a w . . . ] 6I

and not turn bac[k] and the wicked will act wickedly... ." Jub 23:26-31 en­ visions that the "children" will take over after the punishment from the na­ tions, return to the right way of the laws and commands, and an age of great

rificial laws that may be identified with the Temple Scroll's reference to Jacob's covenant. Ja­ cob was commanded not to build an eternal temple in Bethel (Jub 32). This implies that, al­ though the priestly cult officially originated in Bethel, Jerusalem is holier. Note that there was a major sanctuary in Bethel during the first and early second temple period; see J. Schwartz, "Jubilees, Bethel, and the Temple of Jacob," HUCA 56 (1985): 63-85. 58. MMT C 7-8. 59. MMT C 4 - 6 , 8 - 9 . See Regev, "Abominated Temple," 249-51. 60. Jub 23:17,21 respectively. For further examples of moral impurity in Jubilees, see Doering's article in this volume. 61. MMT C 20-22.

437

Eyal Regev peace, praise, and happiness will arrive. In both cases there is hope for reli­ gious reform that will lead to salvation. Admittedly, the sense of salvation in M M T is more imminent. The "end of days" is not merely a matter of expec­ tation; it is a fact. This difference can be explained, not only in light of MMT's special rhetorical aim to persuade the addressee to act according to the authors' beliefs, but also by the assumption that several years elapsed be­ tween the composition of Jubilees and MMT. During these years the messi­ anic tension may have increased. I have pointed to halakic and ideological connections of Jubilees with the Temple Scroll and MMT, which are also not sectarian documents, at least not in the strict sociological sense of this term. If M M T and the Temple Scroll are usually regarded as preceding the formation of the yahad and the Damascus Covenant, Jubilees can certainly be placed in the same category. Moreover, there are several indications that Jubilees represents the events of the Hellenistic reform in Jerusalem and the Maccabean wars against the Seleucids, that is, before the Hasmonean period (a period that is certainly re­ 62

flected in the pesherim). 1 therefore believe that Jubilees preceded the for­ mation of the Qumran sects, and should be related to (although probably not identical with) the group behind the Temple Scroll and (slightly later) MMT. The relationship between the Essenes and the Qumran sects is difficult to reconstruct. In contrast to the Groningen Hypothesis or the Enochic Hy­ pothesis,

63

I do not think the Essenes were the parent group of the Qumran-

ites. First, the Essene practices on which the identification with Qumran is based are described by first century c . e . sources, two centuries after the emergence of the yahad and the Damascus Covenant. Second, as was shown above, the similarities between the Essenes and the Qumran sects are quite general. The only specific points of absolute similarity in the Damascus Document are prohibitions on moving vessels on the Sabbath, preparations in the course of the Sabbath, and intercourse with a pregnant woman.

64

In

the Community Rule the similarities relate to the role of the priests in the

62. VanderKam, Textual and Historical Studies, 217-38. The polemics against nudity and neglecting of circumcision, as well as the hatred against the Gentiles, seem to be the strongest signs for this date. For the pesherim, see H. Eshel, The Dead Sea Scroll and the Hasmonean State (in Hebrew) (Jerusalem: Yad ben-Zvi Press, 2004). 63. See their evaluation in Enoch and Qumran Origins, ed. G. Boccaccini (Grand Rapids and Cambridge: Eerdmans, 2005), 249-454. 64. All these are found in the Damascus Document. See Baumgarten, "Disqualifica­ tions," 504-5, for references and bibliography. 438

Jubilees,

Qumran,

and the

p r e p a r a t i o n of b r e a d a n d the priestly p r a y e r / b l e s s i n g before the m e a l . do n o t justify the c o n c l u s i o n that the yahad

Essenes 6 5

They

a n d the D a m a s c u s C o v e n a n t

w e r e p a r t o f the E s s e n e m o v e m e n t or e m e r g e d f r o m it. N e v e r t h e l e s s , it is i m ­ p o s s i b l e to d e n y that there is a certain r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n t h e m . In c o n t r a s t to the yahad

a n d the D a m a s c u s C o v e n a n t , the E s s e n e s p o s e

three m a j o r t a b o o s a n d b o u n d a r i e s o n m a r r i a g e , oaths, a n d slaves. M o r e ­ over, it s e e m s that the E s s e n e s h a v e m u c h in c o m m o n w i t h b o t h the

yahad

a n d the D a m a s c u s C o v e n a n t : the c o m m u n a l o w n e r s h i p o f p r o p e r t y , g r a d u a l a d m i s s i o n to the sect, a n d c o m m u n a l m e a l s of the yahad,

on the o n e h a n d ,

a n d the S a b b a t h p r o h i b i t i o n s a n d s o c i a l h i e r a r c h y of the D a m a s c u s C o v e ­ n a n t on the other. In their attitude t o w a r d the t e m p l e , the E s s e n e s " s e r v e God

n o t w i t h sacrifices of a n i m a l , b u t b y r e s o l v i n g to the s a n c t i t y of their

m i n d s , " w h i c h is quite s i m i l a r to the yahad's

conception of prayer and m o ­

rality as ( t e m p o r a l ) substitutes for the sacrificial r i t e s .

66

B u t the E s s e n e s also

s e n d d o n a t i o n s to the t e m p l e , as in the D a m a s c u s D o c u m e n t . s e e m s that the E s s e n e s a d o p t p r a c t i c e s f r o m b o t h the yahad

6 7

It therefore

a n d the D a m a s ­

cus C o v e n a n t . T h e E s s e n e s also h a v e a m o r e c o m p l e x , o n e m a y e v e n say dialectic, i d e ­ ology, c o m b i n i n g strict s e g r e g a t i o n w i t h a t t e m p t s to g a i n p u b l i c p o w e r t h r o u g h p r o p h e c i e s that c o n c e r n the politics o f the late H a s m o n e a n

and

Herodian dynasties. T h e strict b o u n d a r i e s , the d u a l d e p e n d e n c e o n p r a c t i c e s o f b o t h the yahad

a n d the D a m a s c u s C o v e n a n t , a n d the use o f p u b l i c p r e d i c t i o n s for p o ­

litical r e a s o n s i n d i c a t e that the E s s e n e s w e r e a m o r e c o m p l e x m o v e m e n t t h a n either o f the Q u m r a n sects. I t h i n k the m o s t p l a u s i b l e e x p l a n a t i o n for this c o m p l e x i t y is that the E s s e n e s w e r e a later d e v e l o p m e n t of the yahad the D a m a s c u s C o v e n a n t .

6 8

and

S u c h s o c i a l or r e l i g i o u s c o m p l e x i t y s e e m s to be a

result o f a p r o c e s s of e v o l u t i o n o v e r s e v e r a l g e n e r a t i o n s , a n d the a d o p t i o n o f n e w m o d e s of b e h a v i o r that are i n c o r p o r a t e d into older p r a c t i c e s .

65. Josephus, Jewish

War 2 . 1 3 1 ; lQS 6:4-5.

66. Philo, Quod omnis probus liber sit75; lQS 9:4-5; Regev, "Abominated Temple," 2697167. Josephus, Ant 18.19; C D 1 1 : 1 8 - 2 0 . 68. This conclusion holds as long as we follow Josephus and Philo and regard the Essenes as one m o r e or less unified movement, rather than a conglomerate o f different groups that differ in various practices.

439

Eyal

Regev

V. Conclusions The Jubilees movement can certainly be regarded as the bedrock of the Q u m r a n i c ideology, where ideas of angelology, dualism,

predestination,

moral impurity, atonement, and strict cultic halakah were first weaved to­ gether. But Jubilees is not a sect in any sense, but rather a reform movement. The Essenes, on the other hand, are not identical with the yahad and the D a ­ mascus Covenant, but seem to reflect later developments, especially the practice of celibacy. T h e groups represented in the scrolls and the other re­ lated movements differed in m a n y respects. These differences conceal the special characteristics and uniqueness of each sect or group. Insiders must have seen many other differences and nuances that are still hidden from us. We will keep on looking for t h e m .

69

69. For a detailed analysis of the subjects discussed here, see E. Regev, Sectarianism in Qumran: A Cross-Cultural Perspective, Religion and Society Series 45 (Berlin and New York: De Gruyter, 2007), 219-66.

440

The Book of Jubilees: A Bibliography, 1850-Present Veronika Bachmann

and Isaac W. Oliver

T h e p r e s e n t b i b l i o g r a p h y i n c l u d e s s c h o l a r l y w o r k s o n the b o o k of Jubilees f r o m its first G e r m a n t r a n s l a t i o n in 1850 b y A u g u s t D i l l m a n n u p to the p r e s ­ ent ( o n e m a y also c o n s u l t p r e v i o u s b i b l i o g r a p h i e s , i n c l u d i n g D e l l i n g 1 9 7 5 , Charlesworth 1976 and 1981, Berger 1981, Rosso Ubigli 1990, Lehnardt 1999, a n d D i T o m m a s o 2 0 0 1 — see m a i n b i b l i o g r a p h y b e l o w ) . T h e d i s c o v e r i e s of the H e b r e w f r a g m e n t s o f Jubilees at Q u m r a n r e p r e s e n t e d a m a j o r step for the u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f the B o o k o f Jubilees, a n d the f o l l o w i n g entries h a v e b e e n d i v i d e d a c c o r d i n g l y i n t o t w o m a i n s e c t i o n s : b e f o r e a n d after

Qumran.

E a c h section is further d i v i d e d into t w o parts, the first c o n t a i n i n g a list o f text e d i t i o n s a n d t r a n s l a t i o n s , the o t h e r s c h o l a r l y articles, m o n o g r a p h s

and

b o o k s d i s c u s s i n g v a r i o u s issues related to J u b i l e e s . A c o m p a n i o n , a n n o t a t e d b i b l i o g r a p h i c a l essay, w h i c h s u m m a r i z e s the c o n t e n t s of m o s t s c h o l a r l y w o r k s w r i t t e n o n J u b i l e e s , a n d h i g h l i g h t s the dif­ ferent a p p r o a c h e s a n d q u e s t i o n s r a i s e d o v e r the last 150 y e a r s of research b y scholars, has been published

in the j o u r n a l Henoch

( I . W. O l i v e r

and

V. B a c h m a n n , " T h e B o o k of J u b i l e e s : A n A n n o t a t e d B i b l i o g r a p h y f r o m the First G e r m a n T r a n s l a t i o n of 1850 to the E n o c h S e m i n a r of 2007," Hen 3 1 , n o . 1 [ 2 0 0 9 ] ) . R e a d e r s are also i n v i t e d to consult the c o n t r i b u t i o n s o n the h i s t o r y of research of Jubilees offered by V a n d e r K a m ( " T h e O r i g i n s a n d P u r p o s e s of the B o o k of Jubilees," in Studies

in the Book of Jubilees,

ed. M a t t h i a s A l b a n i ,

J o r g Frey, a n d A r m i n L a n g e , Texte u n d S t u d i e n z u m antiken J u d e n t u m 65 [ T u b i n g e n : M o h r S i e b e c k , 1 9 9 7 ] , 4 - 1 6 ; " R e c e n t S c h o l a r s h i p o n the B o o k of Jubilees," Currents

in Biblical

Research

6, n o . 3 [ 2 0 0 8 ] : 4 0 5 - 3 1 ) a n d b y S e g a l

441

Veronika Bachmann and Isaac W. Oliver (The Book of Jubilees: Rewritten Bible, Redaction, Ideology, and Theology, TSTSup 6 2 [Leiden: Brill, 2 0 0 7 ] , 1 1 - 2 1 ) .

Part 1: The Scholarly Works on Jubilees before the Discoveries of Qumran 1. Text Editions, Translations, and Commentaries Ceriani, Antonio Maria. "Parva Genesis." In Monumenta sacra et prophana 1.1, 9-54, 63-64. Milan, 1861. . "Nomina uxorum patriarcharum priorum iuxta librum Hebraeum lobelia nuncupatum." In Monumenta sacra et prophana 2.1, ix-x. Milan, 1863. Charles, Robert Henry. "The Book of Jubilees Translated from a Text Based on Two Hitherto Uncollated Ethiopic MSS." JQR 5 (1893): 703-8; 6 (1894): 184-217,71045; 7 (1895): 297-328. . The Ethiopic Version of the Hebrew Book ofJubilees. Oxford: Clarendon, 1895. . The Book of Jubilees or the Little Genesis, Translated from the Editors Ethiopic Text, and Edited with Introduction, Notes, and Indices. London: Adam and Charles Black, 1902. . "The Book of Jubilees." In Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha of the Old Testa­ ment, 2:1-82. Oxford: Clarendon, 1913. . The Book of Jubilees or the Little Genesis [with an introduction by G. H. Box, Translations of Early Documents. Series 1, Palestinian-Jewish Texts (prerabbinic) 4. London: SPCK; New York: Macmillan, 1917]. Dillmann, August. "Das Buch der Jubilaen oder die kleine Genesis, aus dem athiopischen ubersetzt." Jahrbiicher der biblischen Wissenschaft 2 (1850): 230-56; 3 (1851): 1-96. . Mashafa Kufale sive Liber Jubilaeorum, qui idem a Graecis 'H Aenrf) Ttvemc, inscribitur, aethiopice ad duorum librorum manuscriptorum fidem primum edidit. Kiel: C. G. L. van Maack; London: Williams and Norgate, 1859. Langen, Joseph. Das Judenthum in Palastina zur Zeit Christi. Ein Beitrag zur Offenbarungs- und Religions-Geschichte als Einleitung in die Theologie des Neuen Tes­ taments, 84-102. Freiburg im Breisgau: Herdersche Verlagshandlung, 1866. Littmann, Enno. "Das Buch der Jubilaen." In Die Apokryphen und Pseudepigraphen des Alten Testaments, edited by Emil Kautzsch, 2:31-119. Tubingen: Mohr, 1900; reprint, 1975. Martin, Francois. "Le Livre des Jubiles. But et proddes de l'auteur. Ses doctrines." RB 8 (1911): 321-44.502-33. Rahmani, Ignatius Ephraem. Chronicon civile et ecclesiasticum anonymi auctoris. Monte Libano: Typis Patriarchalibus Syrorum, 1904. 442

The Book of Jubilees: A Bibliography, 1850-Present Riessler, Paul. "Jubilaenbuch oder Kleine Genesis." Altjiidisches Schrifttum aufierhalb der Bibel (Augsburg: B. Filser, 1928; repr. 1966; 1988): 539-666,1304-11. ROnsch, Hermann. "Die Leptogenesis und das Ambrosianische altlateinische Frag­ ment derselben." ZWT14 (1871): 60-98. . Das Buch der Jubilaen oder Die kleine Genesis. Leipzig: Fues, 1874; reprint, Amsterdam: Rodopi, 1970. Rubin, Salomon. Sefer ha-Yovlim: ha-mekhuneh Midrash Bereshit Zutrata. Vienna: Holtsvarte, 1870. Schodde, George H. "The Book of Jubilees Translated from the Ethiopic." BSac 42 (1885): 629-45; 43 (1886): 56-72,356-71, 455-86; 44 (1887): 426-59, 6°2-n, 727-45 [= The Book of Jubilees (Oberlin, Ohio: Goodrich, 1988; reprint, Columbus, Ohio: Lazarus Ministry Press, 1999)]. Tisserant, Eugene. "Fragments syriaques du Livre des JubileV' RB 30 (1921): 55-86, 206-32. Reprinted in Recueil Cardinal Eugene Tisserant "Ab Oriente et Occidente," 2 vols. (Louvain: Centre international de dialectologie ge"ne"rale, 1955), 1:25-87.

2 . Books, Monographs, and Articles Albeck, Chanoch. Das Buch der Jubilaen und die Halacha. Berlin: Scholem, 1930. Albright, William Foxwell. From the Stone Age to Christianity, 266-69. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1940. Bacon, Benjamin Wisner. "The Calendar of Enoch and Jubilees." Hebraica 8 (1892): 124-31. Beer, Bernhard. Das Buch der Jubilaen und sein Verhaltniss zu den Midraschim. Ein Beitragzur orientalischen Sagen- und Alterthumskunde. Leipzig: Gerhard, 1856. . Noch ein Wort iiber das Buch der Jubilaen. Leipzig: Hunger, 1857. Bohn, F. "Die Bedeutung des Buches der Jubilaen. Zum 50Jahrigen Jubilaum der ersten, deutschen Ubersetzung." TSK 73 (1900): 167-84. Borchardt, Paul. "Das Erdbild der Juden nach dem Buche der Jubilaen — ein Handelsstrassenproblem." In Dr. A. Petermanns Mitteilungen aus Justus Perthes' geographischer Anstalt, edited by P. Langhans, vol. 71, pp. 244-50. Gotha: Justus Perthes, 1925. Bousset, Wilhelm. "Neueste Forschungen auf dem Gebiet der religiosen Litteratur des Spatjudentums II: Zur Litteratur der Makkabaerzeit (Fortsetzung)." TRu 3 (1900): 369-81. Box, George Herbert. "Introduction to the Book of Jubilees." In The Book of Jubilees or the Little Genesis, vii-xxxiii. London: SPCK; New York: Macmillan, 1917. Biichler, Adolphe. "Studies in the Book of Jubilees." RE/82 (1926): 253-74. . "Traces des idees et des coutumes helienistiques dans le Livre des JubileV REJ 89 (1930): 321-48. 443

Veronika Bachmann and Isaac W. Oliver Charles, Robert Henry. A Critical History of the Doctrine of Future Life in Israel, in Ju­ daism, and in Christianity; or, Hebrew, Jewish, and Christian Eschatology from Pre-Prophetic Times Till the Close of the New Testament Canon; Being the Jowett Lectures for 1898-1899, 245-49. London: Adam and Charles Black, 1899. Dillmann, August. "Das Buch der Jubilaen und sein Verhaltniss zu den Midraschim." ZDMG11 (1857): 161-63. . "BeitrSge aus dem Buch der Jubilaen zur Kritik des Pentateuch-Textes." Sitzungsberichte der Koniglich-Preussischen Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Ber­ lin 15 (1883): 323-40. Eppel, Robert. "Les tables de la loi et les tables celestes." RHPR17 (1937): 401-12. Epstein, Abraham. Beitrage zur jiidischen Althertumskunde (in Hebrew). Vienna: Lippe, 1887. . "Le livre des Jubites, Philon et le Midrash Tadshe." REJ 21 (1890): 80-97; 22 (1891): 1-25. Finkelstein, Louis. "The Book of Jubilees and the Rabbinic Halaka." HTR16 (1923): 39-61. Reprinted in Pharisaism in the Making. Selected Essays (New York: Ktav, 1972), 199-221. . "The Date of the Book of Jubilees." HTR 36 (1943): 19-24. Fox, Gresham George. "Ethical Elements in the First Book of Enoch, the Book of Ju­ bilees, and the Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs." Ph.D. diss., University of Chicago, 1914. Frankel, Zacharias. "Das Buch der Jubilaen." MGWJ 5 (1856): 311-16,380-400. Frenkel, Elias (Erno). A Jubileumok konyve, AdaUkok az dkori zsidosdg egyik kronoldgiai mfuve'hez (The book of Jubilees, additional materials to an ancient Jewish chronological writing). Bdlcslcsdoktori 6rtekezes. Budapest: Sarkany nyomda, 1930. Frey, J.-B. "Apocryphes de l'Ancien Testament. 2. Le Livre des Jubiles." DBSup 1 (1928): 371-80. Gelzer, Heinrich. Sextus Julius Africanus und die byzantinische Chronographie, 2:25162. Leipzig: Hinrich, 1898; reprint, New York: Burt Franklin, 1967. Ginzberg, Louis. "Libro dei Giubilei 16,30." Rivista Israelitica 5 (1908): 74. Hadas, Moses. "Jub. 16:30." A/SI 49 (1933): 338. Holscher, Gustav. "Die Karte des Jubilaenbuches." In Drei Erdkarten. Ein Beitragzur Erdkenntnis des hebraischen Altertums, 57-73. Heidelberg: C. Winter, 1949. Jellinek, Adolph. Ober das Buch der Jubilaen und das Noah-Buch. Leipzig: Vollrath, 1855. Klein, S. "Palastinisches im lubilaenbuch." Z D P V 5 7 (1934): 7-27. Kohler, Kaufmann. "The Pre-Talmudic Haggada I." JQR 5 (1893): 399-419. . "Jubilees, Book of." JE 7 (1904): 301-4. Kruger, M. J. "Die Chronologie im Buch der Jubilaen, auf ihre biblische Grundlage zuruckgefuhrt und berichtigt." ZDMG 12 (1858): 279-99. Kuenen, Abraham. "Der Stammbaum des masoretischen Textes des Alten Testa­ ments." In Gesammelte Abhandlungen zur biblischen Wissenschaft. Aus dem Hol444

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lifndischen iibersetzt von K. Budde, 82-124. Freiburg im Breisgau and Leipzig: Mohr, 1894. Leszynsky, Rudolf. Die Sadduzcler, 179-236. Berlin: Mayer 8c Miiller, 1912. Levi Delia Vida, Giorgio. "Una traccia del Libro die Giubilei nella letteratura araba musulmana." Or 1 (1932): 205-12. Montgomery, James Alan. "An Assyrian Illustration to the Book of Jubilees." JBL 33 (1914): 157-58. Pfeiffer, Robert Henry. "Jubilees." In History of New Testament Times, with an Intro­ duction to the Apocrypha: Part I; Judaism from 200 BCE to 200 CE, 68-70, 538. New York: Harper and Brothers, 1949. Rowley, Harold Henry. The Relevance of the Apocalyptic, 81-85. London: Lutterworth, 1944.2nd ed. (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1946), 84-90; 3rd ed. (New York: Association Press, 1964), 99-105. . "Criteria for the Dating of Jubilees." JQR 36 (1945-46): 183-87. Schurer, Emil. Geschichte des judischen Volkes im Zeitalter Jesu Christi, 3:371-84. 4th ed. Leipzig: Hinrichs'sche Buchhandlung, 1909. Singer, Wilhelm. Das Buch der JubMen oder die Leptogenesis 1: Tendenz und Ursprung zugleich ein Beitrag zur Religionsgeschichte. Stuhlweissenburg: Singer, 1898. Torrey, Charles Cutler. "Jubilees." In The Apocryphal Literature: A Brief Introduction, 126-29. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1945. Uhden, Richard. "Die Erdkreisgliederung der Hebraer nach dem Buche der Jubi­ laen." ZS 9 (1934): 210-33. Wells, L. S. A. "The Book of Jubilees: The Earliest Commentary on Genesis." IJA 28 (1912): 13-17. Zeitlin, Solomon. "The Book of Jubilees: Its Character and Its Significance." JQR 30 (1939-40): 1-32. Reprinted in Studies in the Early History of Judaism (New York: Ktav, 1974), 2:116-46. . "The Book of Jubilees." JQR 35 (1944-45): 12-16. . "Criteria for the Dating of Jubaees." JQR 36 (1945-46): 187-89. . "The Apocrypha." JQR 37 (1947): 219-48.

Part 2: The Scholarly Works on Jubilees after the Discoveries of Qumran 1. Text Editions, Translations, Commentaries, and Concordances Agourides, Savas. "K1BHAAIA" (in modern Greek). Theologia 43 (1972): 550-83; 44 (i973): 34-ii8. Artom, Elia Samuele. "Sefer ha-yovelot." In Sipure agadah 2. 6 vols, in 2. Tel Aviv: Yavneh Publishing House, 1969. Baillet, Maurice. "Livre des JubileV In DJD 3, pp. 77-79. Oxford: Clarendon, 1962. 445

Veronika Bachmann and Isaac W. Oliver . "Remarques sur le manuscrit du livre des Jubiles de la grotte 3 de Qumran." RevQ 5 (1965): 423-33. . "Livre des Jubiles." In DJD 7, pp. 1-2. Oxford: Clarendon, 1982. Bauer, Johannes B. Clavis apocryphorum supplementum. Complectens voces versionis germanicae libri Henoch Slavici, libri Jubilaeorum, Odarum Salomonis. GTS 4, pp. 9-119. Graz: Institut fiir Okumenische Theologie und Patrologie, 1980. Berger, Klaus. "Das Buch der Jubilaen." In JSHRZ 2.3 (1981), 275-575. Bonsirven, Joseph. "Le livre des Jubiles ou Petite Genese." In La Bible Apocryphe en marge de I'Ancien Testament, 78-115. Paris: A. Fayard, 1953. Caquot, Andre". "Jubiles." In La Bible, Ecrits Intertestamentaires III, 629-810. Paris: Gallimard, 1987. Corriente, Federico, and Antonio Pifiero. "Jubileos." In Los apdcrifos del Antiguo Testamento, 2:65-193. Madrid: Ediciones Cristianidad, 1983. Deichgraber, Reinhard. "Fragmente einer Jubilaen-Handschrift aus HOhle 3 von Qumran." RevQ 5 (1965): 415-22. Denis, Albert Marie. "Lesfragmentsgrecs du Livre des Jubiles." In Introduction aux pseudepigraphes grecs d'Ancient Testament, 150-62. Leiden: Brill, 1970. . "Liber Jubilaeorum." in Fragmenta Pseudepigraphorum quae supersunt Graeca, 70-102. PVTG 3. Leiden: Brill, 1970. . Concordance latine du Liber Jubilaeorum sive parva Genesis. Informatique et 6tude de textes 4. Louvain: CETEDOC, 1973. Fusella, Luigi, and Paolo Sacchi. "Giubilei." In Apocrifi ell'Antico Testamento, 1:179411. Turin, 1981. Garcia Martinez, Florentino. "Book of Jubilees." In The Dead Sea Scrolls Translated, 238-45. Leiden: Brill, 1994. . "Qumran Cave 11II: 11Q2-18,11Q20-31." In DJD 23, pp. 207-21. Oxford: Clar­ endon, 1998. Garcia Martinez, Florentino, and Eibert J. C. Tigchelaar. The Dead Sea Scrolls Study Edition. 2 vols. Leiden: Brill, 1998. See 1:22-25; 1:214-15; 1:226-27; 1:360-63; 1:45883; 2:964-65; 2:1204-7. Goldmann, M. "The Book of Jubilees" (in Hebrew). In The Apocryphal Books, edited by Abraham Kahana, 1:216-313. Tel Aviv: Masada, 1956. Kondracki, Andrzej. "Ksi^ga Jubileuszow." In Apokryfy Starego Testamentu, edited by Ryszard Rubinkiewicz, 271-351. Warsaw: Vocatio, 1999. Lipscomb, W. Lowndes. "A Tradition from the Book of Jubilees in Armenian." JJS 29 (1978): 149-63Milik, J6zef Tadeusz. "Livre des Jubiles." In DJD 1, pp. 82-84. Oxford: Clarendon, 1955. "Fragment d'une source du psautier (4QPS89) et fragments des Jubiles, du Document de Damas et d'un phylactere dans la grotte 4 de Qumran." RB 73 (1966): 104, pi. II. Noack, Bent. "Jubilaeerbogen." In GamPseud 3, pp. 175-301. Copenhagen: Gad, 1958. 446

The Book of Jubilees: A Bibliography, 1850-Present Parry, Donald W., and Emanuel Tov, eds. The Dead Sea Scrolls Reader III: Parabiblkal Texts. 6 vols. Leiden: Brill, 2004-2005. Rabin, C. "Jubilees." In The Apocryphal Old Testament, edited by Hedley F. D. Sparks, 1-139. Oxford: Clarendon, 1984. RofiS, Alexander. "Further Manuscript Fragments of Jubilees in Qumran Cave 3" (in Hebrew). Tarbiz 34 (1965): 333-36. Stokl, Jonathan. "A List of the Extant Hebrew Text of the Book of Jubilees: Their Re­ lation to the Hebrew Bible and Some Preliminary Comments." Hen 28, no. 1 (2006): 97-124. Torrey, Charles Cutler. "A Hebrew Fragment of Jubilees." JBL 71 (1952): 39-41. Tov, Emanuel, ed. The Dead Sea Scrolls Electronic Reference Library 3. New York: Brill, 2006. VanderKam, lames C. The Book of Jubilees. 2 vols. CSCO 510-511. Scriptores Aethiopici 87-88. Louvain: Peeters, 1989. . "The Jubilees Fragments from Qumran Cave 4." In The Madrid Qumran Congress 2, edited by J. Trebolla Barrera and L. Vegas Montaner, 635-48. STDJ11. Leiden, New York, and Cologne: Brill, 1992. VanderKam, James C , and J6zef Tadeusz Milik. "A Preliminary Publication of a Jubi­ lees Manuscript from Qumran Cave 4:4QJub (4Q219)." Bib 73, no. 1 (1992): 6283. . "Jubilees." In DID 13, pp. 1-140. Oxford: Clarendon, 1994. Vaux, Roland de. "La grotte des manuscrits hSbreux." RB 56 (1949): 602-5. Vermes, Geza. "Jubilees." In The Complete Dead Sea Scrolls in English, 507-10. New York: Penguin Press, 1997. Wintermute, Orval S. "Jubilees: A New Translation and Introduction." In The Old Testament Pseudepigrapha, edited by James H. Charlesworth, 2:35-142. 2 vols. New York: Doubleday, 1983,1985. Wise, Michael Owen, Martin G. Abegg, Jr., and Edward M. Cook. "The Book of Jubi­ lees." In The Dead Sea Scrolls: A New Translation, 316-35. Rev. ed. San Francisco: HarperSanFrancisco, 2005. Woude, Adam S. van der. "Fragmente des Buches lubilaen aus Qumran Hohle XI." In Tradition und Glaube. Festgabe fur K. G. Kuhn, edited by Gert Jeremias et al., 140-46. GOttingen: Vandenhoeck 8c Ruprecht, 1971.

2 . Books, Monographs, and Articles Adler, William. "Abraham and the Burning of the Temple of Idols: lubilees' Tradi­ tions in Christian Chronography." JQR 77 (1986-87): 95-U7. "The Origins of the Proto-Heresies: Fragments from a Chronicle in the First Book of Epiphanius' 'Panarion.'" JTS 41, no. 2 (1990): 472-501. Albani, Matthias. "Zur Rekonstruktion eines verdrangten Konzepts: Der 364-Tage447

Veronika Bachmann and Isaac W. Oliver Kalender in der gegenwartigen Forschung." In Studies in the Book of Jubilees, ed­ ited by Matthias Albani, JOrg Frey and Armin Lange, 79-126. TSAJ 65. Tubingen: Mohr Siebeck, 1997. Alexander, Philip S. "Retelling the Old Testament." In It Is Written: Scripture Citing Scripture; Essays in Honour of Barnabas Lindars, edited by D. A. Carson and H. G. M. Williamson, 99-121. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1988. Allen, Joel Stevens. "Notes on the Imago Mundi of the Book of Jubilees." JJS 33 (1982): 197-213. . The Despoliation of Egypt in Pre-Rabbinic, Rabbinic, and Patristic Traditions. Supplements to Vigiliae Christianae, vol. 92. Leiden: Brill, 2008. Anderson, Gary A. "The Status of the Torah before Sinai: The Retelling of the Bible in the Damascus Covenant and the Book of Jubilees." DSDi, no. 1 (1994): 1-29. Anderson, Jeff S. "Denouncement Speech in Jubilees and Other Enochic Literature." In Enoch and Qumran Origins: New Light on a Forgotten Connection, edited by Gabriele Boccaccini, 132-36. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2005. Aranda Perez, Gonzalo. "Los mil aflos en el libro de los Jubileos y Ap 20,1-10." EstBib 57 (1999): 39-60. Arbel, Daphna. "'Scribal Divination' in Jubilees and 3 Enoch" Hen 31, no. 1 (2009). Arcari, Luca. "The Myth of the Watchers and the Problem of Intermarriage in Jubi­ lees" Hen 31, no. 1 (2009). Baars, W., and Rochus Zuurmond. "The Project of a New Edition of the Ethiopic Book of lubilees." JSS 9 (1964): 67-74. Barthelemy, Dominique. "Notes en marge de publications reantes sur les manuscrits de Qumran." RB 59 (1952): 199-203. Baumgarten, Joseph M. "The Beginning of the Day in the Calendar of lubilees." JBL 77 (i958): 355-60. . "The Calendar of the Book of Jubilees and the Bible" (in Hebrew). Tarbiz 32 (1963): 317-28. . "Some Problems of the Jubilees Calendar in Current Research." VT 32 (1982): 485-89. . "4Q503 (Daily Prayers) and the Lunar Calendar." RevQ 12 (1986): 399-407. . "The Calendars of the Book of Jubilees and the Temple Scroll." V T 3 7 (1987): 71-78. . "The Laws of Orlah and First Fruits in the Light of Jubilees, the Qumran Writings, and Targum Ps. Jonathan." JJS 38 (1987): 195-202. . "Purification after Childbirth and the Sacred Garden in 4Q265 and Jubilees." In New Qumran Texts and Studies: Proceedings of the First Meeting of the Inter­ national Organization for Qumran Studies, Paris 1992, edited by George J. Brook and Florentino Garcia Martinez, 3-10. STDJ15. Leiden: Brill, 1994. Bedenbender, Andreas. "The Book of Jubilees — an Example of 'Rewritten Torah'?" Hen 31, no. 1 (2009). Begg, Christopher T. "Rereading of the 'Animal Rite' of Genesis 15 in Early Jewish Narratives." CBQ 50, no. 1 (1988): 36-46. 448

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Ben-Dov, Jonathan. "Jubilean Chronology and the 364-Day Year" (in Hebrew). In Meghillot: Studies in the Dead Sea Scrolb V-VI; A Festschriftfor Devorah Dimant, edited by Moshe Bar-Asher and Emanuel Tov, 49-59. Jerusalem: Bialik Institute and Haifa University Press, 2007. . "Qumran Calendars: A Survey of Scholarship 1980-2007." Currents in Bibli­ cal Research 7, no. 1 (2008): 124-68. Ben-Dov, Jonathan, and Wayne Horowitz. "The 364-Day Year in Mesopotamia and Qumran" (in Hebrew). In Meghillot: Studies in the Dead Sea Scrolls I, edited by Moshe Bar-Asher and Devorah Dimant, 3-26. Jerusalem: Haifa University Press and Bialik Institute, 2003. Berger, Klaus. "Jubilaenbuch." In RAC19 (1998), 31-38. Bergsma, John Sietze. The Jubilee from Leviticus to Qumran: A History of Interpreta­ tion. VTSup 115. Leiden: Brill, 2007. See especially 233-50. Berner, Christoph. Jahre, Jahrwochen, und Jubilaen: Heptadische Geschichtskonzeptionen im Antiken Judentum, 234-324,509-12. Berlin and New York: De Gruyter, 2006. . "50 Jubilees and Beyond? Some Observations on the Chronological Struc­ ture of the Book of Jubilees." Hen 31, no. 1 (2009). Bernstein, Moshe J. "Walking in the Festivals of the Gentiles: 4QpHosea" 2.15-17 and Jubilees 6.34-38." JSP 9 (1991): 21-34. Berrin, Shani L. "'Heavenly Tablets' in the Book of Jubilees." In Anafim: Proceedings of the Australian Jewish StudiesForum Held at Mandelbaum House, University of Sydney, 8-9 February 2004, edited by Suzanne Faigan, 29-47. Sydney: Mandel­ baum Publishing, 2006. Beyerle, Stefan. "Angelic Revelation in Jewish Apocalyptic Literature." In Angels: The Concept of Celestial Beings — Origins, Development, and Reception, edited by Friedrich V. Reiterer, Tobias Nicklas, and Karin Schopflin, 205-23. Deuterocanonical and Cognate Literature Yearbook. Berlin and New York: De Gruyter, 2007. Bhayro, Siam. "The Use of Jubilees in Medieval Chronicles to Supplement Enoch: The Case for the 'Shorter' Reading." Hen 31, no. 1 (2009). Boccaccini, Gabriele. Beyond the Essene Hypothesis: The Partings of the Ways between Qumran and Enochic Judaism, 86-98. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1998. , ed. Enoch and Qumran Origins: New Light on a Forgotten Connection. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2005. Bonneau, Guy, and Jean Duhaime. "AngeMogie et legitimation socio-religieuse dans le livre des JubileV' EgT 27 (1996): 335-49Borgonovo, Gianantonio. "Jubilees' Rapprochement of Enochic and Mosaic Tradi­ tions." Hen 31, no. 1 (2009). BOttrich, Christfried. "Gottespradikationen im Jubilaenbuch." In Studies in the Book of Jubilees, edited by Matthias Albani, J6rg Frey, and Armin Lange, 221-42. TSAJ 65. Tubingen: Mohr Siebeck, 1997. 449

Veronika Bachmann and Isaac W. Oliver Brin, Gershon. "Regarding the Connection between the Temple Scroll and the Book of Jubilees." JBL 112 (1993): 108-9. . "The Idea and Sources of Esau's Speech in Jubilees 37 according to 4QpapJubilees , Unit 2, Col. IV" (in Hebrew). In Studies in Bible and Exegesis, Vol. VI: Yehuda Otto Komlosh — In Memoriam, edited by Rimon Kasher and Moshe A. Zipor, 17-24. Ramat-Gan: Bar-Ilan University Press, 2002. Brock, Sebastian P. "Abraham and the Ravens: A Syriac Counterpart to Jubilees 1 1 - 1 2 and Its Implications." JSJ 9 (1978): 135-52. Brooke, George J. "Exegetical Strategies in lubilees 1-2: New Lightfrom4QIubilees ." In Studies in the Book of Jubilees, edited by Matthias Albani, Jorg Frey, and Armin Lange, 39-58. TSAJ 65. Tubingen: Mohr Siebeck, 1997. Brownlee, W. "Light on the Manual of Discipline (DSD) from the Book of Jubilees." BASOR 123 (1951): 30-32. Camponovo, Odo. Konigtum, Konigsherrschafi und Reich Gottes in den fruhjitdischen Schrifien, 230-37. OBO 58. Freiburg, Switzerland: Universitatsverlag, 1983. Capelli, Piero. "JJ problema del male: risposte ebraiche dal Secondo Tempio alia Quabbalah." RStB 19, no. 1 (2007): 135-56. Caquot, Andre\ "Les enfants aux cheveux Wanes (Remarques sur JubileJs 23,25)." RHR h

a

177 (1970): 131-32. "Deux notes sur la geographie des lubiles." In Hommage a Georges Vajda. Etudes d'histoire et de pensie juives, edited by Gerard Nation and Charles Touati, 37-42. Louvain: Peeters, 1980. . "Les Anges inferieurs et les Anges superieurs d'apres le livre des Jubiles." Bulletin de la Sociite Ernest Renan 29 (1980) = RHR 198 (1981): 114-15. . "Explication du livre des Jubiles." Annuaire du College de France 82 (1981-82): 541-50. . "Le livre des Jubiles, Melkisedeq et les dimes." JJS 33 (1982): 257-64. . "'Loi' et 'Temoignage* dans le Livre des lubiles." In Melanges linguistiques offerts a Maxime Rodinson, edited by C. Robin, 137-45. Paris: P. Geuthner, 1985. . "Elements aggadiques dans le livre des lubiles." In Littirature intertestamentaire, 57-68. Paris: Presses universitaires de France, 1985. Carmichael, Calum M. "The Story of loseph and the Book of Jubilees." In The Dead Sea Scrolls in Their Historical Context, edited by Timothy H. Lim, 143-58. Edin­ burgh: T. 8c T. Clark, 2000. . "The Integration of Law and Narrative in Jubilees: The Biblical Perspective." Hen 31, no. 1 (2009). Caubet Iturbe, Javier. "El calendario de Enoc-Jubileos y el antiguo calendario hebreo." Salmanticensis 6 (1959): 131-42. Cazelles, Henri. "Sur les origines du calendrier des Jubiles." Bib 43 (1962): 202-12. Charlesworth, lames H. "Jubilees." In The Pseudepigrapha and Modern Research, 14347. SCS 7. Missoula: Scholars Press for the Society of Biblical Literature, 1976. . "lubilees." In The Pseudepigrapha and Modern Research, with a Supplement, 450

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The Book of Jubilees: A Bibliography, 1850-Present Koskenniemi, Erkki. "Moses — a Weil-Educated Man: A Look at the Educational Idea in Early Judaism." JSP 17, no. 4 (2008): 281-96. Kiichler, Max. Schweigen, Schmuck und Schleier. Drei neutestamentliche Vorschriften zur Verdr&ngung der Frauen aufdem Hintergrund einer frauenfeindlichen Exegese des Alten Testaments im antiken Judentum, 400-438. NTOA 1. Freiburg, Switzerland: Universitatsverlag; Gottingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1986. Kugel, James. "Levi's Election to the Priesthood in Second Temple Writings." HTR 86 (1993): 1-64. . "The Jubilees Apocalypse." DSD 1 (1994): 322-37. . "How Old Is the 'Aramaic Levi Document'?" DSD14, no. 3 (2007): 291-312. . "Exegetical Notes on 4Q225 'Pseudo-Jubilees.'" DSD 13, no. 1 (2006): 73-98. Kugler, Robert A. "4Q225 2 i 1-2: A Possible Reconstruction and Explanation." JBL 126, no. 1 (2007): 172-81. Kundert, Lukas. "Isaak im Jubilaenbuch." In Die Opferung/Bindung Isaaks 1: Gen 22,119 im Alten Testament, im Friihjudentum und im Neuen Testament, 83-90. WMANT 78. Neukirchen-Vluyn: Neukirchener Verlag, 1998. Kutsch, Ernst. "Der Kalender des Jubilaenbuches und das Alte und das Neue Testa­ ment." V T 1 1 (1961): 39-47. . "Die Solstitien im Kalender des Jubilaenbuches und im athiopischen Henoch 7 2 " V T 1 2 (1962): 205-7. Kvanvig, Helge S. "Jubilees — between Enoch and Moses: A Narrative Reading." JSJ 35, no. 3 (2004): 243-61. . "Jubilees — Read as a Narrative." In Enoch and Qumran Origins: New Light on a Forgotten Connection, edited by Gabriele Boccaccini, 75-83. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2005. Lach, Jan. "The Liturgical Calendar of the Book of Jubilees in the Light of the Latest Discussions" (in Polish). Ruch Biblijny i LiturgicznyiS (1963): 98-105. Lambert, David. "Last Testaments in the Book of Jubilees." DSD 11, no. 1 (2004): 82107. . "Did Israel Believe That Redemption Awaited Its Repentance? The Case of 'Jubilees' 1." CBQ 68, no. 4 (2006): 631-50. Landau, David. "The Montanists and the Jubilees Calendar." OrChr 89 (2005): 103-12. Lange, Armin. "Divinatorische Traume und Apokalyptik im Jubilaenbuch." In Studies in the Book of Jubilees, edited by Matthias Albani, Jorg Frey, and Armin Lange, 25-38. TSAJ 65. Tubingen: Mohr Siebeck, 1997. Leach, Edmund R. "A Possible Method of Intercalation for the Calendar of the Book of Jubilees." V T 7 (1957): 392-97Lehnardt, Andreas. "Das Buch der Jubilaen (JSHRZ II / 3)." In Bibliographie zu den Jiidischen Schriften aus hettenistisch-romischer Zeit, 189-204. JSHRZ 6.2. Giitersloh: Gutersloher Verlagshaus, 1999. Lichtenberger, Hermann. "Zu Vorkommen und Bedeutung von I S ' im Jubilaen­ buch."/S/ 14 (1983): 1-10. Liebreich, Leon J. "lubilees 50.9." JQR 44, no. 2 (1953): 169. 457

Veronika Bachmann and Isaac W. Oliver Lignee, Hubert. "La place du livre des Jubiles et du Rouleau du Temple dans l'histoire du mouvement Essenien. Ces deux ouvrages ont-ils eti Merits par le Maitre de Justice?" RevQ 13 (1988): 331-45. Lipscomb, W. Lowndes. "A Tradition from the Book of Jubilees in Armenian." JJS 29 (1978): 149-63. Loader, William. Enoch, Levi, and Jubilees on Sexuality: Attitudes towards Sexuality in the Early Enoch Literature, the Aramaic Levi Document, and the Book of Jubilees. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2007. . "Jubilees and Sexual Transgression." Hen 31, no. 1 (2009). Macaskill, Grant. "Priestly Purity, Mosaic Torah, and the Emergence of Enochic Ju­ daism." Hen 31, no. 1 (2009). Machiela, Daniel A. "The Genesis Apocryphon (1Q20): A Reevaluation of Its Text, Interpretive Character, and Relationship to the Book of Jubilees." Ph.D. diss., University of Notre Dame, 2007. . "'Each to His Own Inheritance': Geography as an Evaluative Tool in the Genesis Apocryphon." DJD 15, no. 1 (2008): 50-66. Mendels, Doron. "The Twenties: The Book of Jubilees — the Territories and Peoples of the Land." In The Land as a Political Concept in Hasmonean Literature: Re­ course to History in Second Century B.C. Claims to the Holy Land, 57-88. TSAJ 15. Tubingen: Mohr, 1987. Milgrom, Jacob. "The Concept of Impurity in 'Jubilees' and the 'Temple Scroll.'" RevQ 16, no. 2 (1993): 277-84. Milik, J6zef Tadeusz. "Recherches sur la version grecque du livre des Jubiles." RB 78 (1971): 545-57. "A propos de nOjub." Bib 54 (1973): 77-78. Morgenstern, Julian. "The Calendar of the Jubilees, Its Origin and Its Character." VT 5 (1955): 34-76. Miiller, Karlheinz. "Die hebraische Sprache der Halacha als Textur der Schopfung: Beobachtungen zum Verhaltnis von Tora und Halacha im Buch der Jubilaen." In Bibel injiidischer und christlicher Tradition: Festschrift fiir Johann Maierzum 60. Geburtstag, edited by Helmut Herklien, Karlheinz Muller, and Giinter Stemberger, 157-76. BBB 88. Frankfurt am Main: Anton Hain, 1993. . "Die Halacha der Vater und das Gesetz des Mose: Beobachtungen zur Autorisierung der Halacha im Buch der Jubilaen." BN116 (2003): 56-68. Muller, Mogens. "Die Abraham-Gestalt im Jubilaenbuch: Versuch einer Interpreta­ tion." SJOT10, no. 2 (1996): 238-57. Munoz Le6n, Domingo. "Palabra y Gloria en Jubileos, Henoc Etidpico y Testamentos de los doce Patriarcias." In Excursus en la Biblia y en la literatura intertestamentaria, 165-95. Verbum gloriae 4. Madrid: Instituto "Francisco Suarez," 1983. . "Deras en el Libro de los Jubileos." In Plenitudo temporis: Misceldnea homenaje al Prof. Dr. Ramdn Trevijano Etcheverrid, edited by Jorge Juan Fernandez Sangrador and Santiago Guijarro Oporto, 67-79. Bibliotheca Salmanticensis 249. Salamanca: Publicaciones Universidad Pontifica, 2002. 458

The Book of Jubilees: A Bibliography, 1850-Present Najm, S., and Philippe Guillaume. "Jubilee Calendar Rescued from the Flood Narra­ tive." Journal of Hebrew Scriptures 5 (2004-5). Najman, Hindy. "Interpretation as Primordial Writing: Jubilees and Its Authority Conferring Strategies." / S / 3 0 , no. 4 (1999): 379-410. Nebe, Gerhard Wilhelm. "Erganzende Bemerkung zu 4Q176, Jubilaen 23,21." RevQ 14 (1989): 129-30. . " 4 Q 1 7 4 , 1 - 2 , 1 , 6f im Lichte von 'Sektenschrift' und Jub 2,2." RevQ 18, no. 4 (1998): 581-87. Newsome, James D. "lubilees." In Greeks, Romans, Jews: Currents of Culture and Belief in the New Testament World, 91-93, 244-45. Philadelphia: Trinity, 1992. Nickelsburg, George W. E. "The Book of lubilees." In Jewish Literature between the Bible and the Mishnah, 73-80,98-99. Philadelphia: Fortress, 1981. . "The Bible Rewritten and Expanded." In Jewish Writings of the Second Tem­ ple Period: Apocrypha, Pseudepigrapha, Qumran Sectarian Writings, Philo, Jose­ phus, edited by Michael E. Stone, 97-104. LJPSTT 2. Philadelphia: Fortress, 1984. . "The Nature and Function of Revelation in 1 Enoch, Jubilees, and Some Qumranic Documents." In Pseudepigraphic Perspectives: The Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha in Light of the Dead Sea Scrolls; Proceedings of the International Symposium of the Orion Center for the Study of the Dead Sea Scrolls and Associ­ ated Literature, 12-14 January, 1997, edited by Esther G. Chazon, Michael E. Stone, and Avital Pinnick, 91-119. STDI31. Leiden: Brill, 1999. . "The Book of Jubilees." In Jewish Literature between the Bible and the Mish­ nah, 69-74. Minneapolis: Fortress, 2005. Nitzan, Bilhah. "The Penitential Prayer of Moses in Jubilees 1 and Its Relation to the Penitential Tradition of the Post-Exilic Judaism." Hen 30, no. 2 (2008). Noack, Bent. "Qumran and the Book of Jubilees." SEA 22-23 (1957-58): 191-207. . "The Day of Pentecost in Jubilees, Qumran, and Acts." ASTIi (1962): 73-95Obermann, Julian. Calendaric Elements in the Dead Sea Scrolls, 285-97. Philadelphia: M. Jacobs, 1956. Oegema, Gerbern S. "Das Buch der JubMenV In JSHRZ 6.1 (2005), 78-96. . "Israel and the Nations in Jubilees." Hen 31, no. 1 (2009). Oliver, Isaac W., and Veronika Bachmann. "The Book of lubilees: An Annotated Bib­ liography from the First German Translation of 1850 to the Enoch Serninar of 2007." Hen 31, no. 1 (2009). Orlov, Andrei. "Moses' Heavenly Counterpart in the Book of lubilees and the Exa­ goge of Ezekiel the Tragedian." Bib 88, no. 2 (2007): 153-73. Park, Sejin. Pentecost and Sinai: The Festival of Weeks as a Celebration of the Sinai Event. New York: T. & T. Clark, 2008. Pascale, Ronald A. "The Demonic Cosmic Powers of Destruction in 1 Enoch 15:3-16:1 and lubilees 10:5 and the Demonizing of the Avenging Angels." Ph.D. diss., Har­ vard University, 1980. Perez Fernandez, M. "La apertura a los gentiles en el judaismo intertestamentario: 459

Veronika Bachmann and Isaac W. Oliver Estudio sobre 'el Libro de los Jubileos' y 'Jose y AsenteV tradiciones tanaiticas y Targumicas." EstBib 41 (1983): 83-106. Peters, Dorothy. "Noah Traditions in Jubilees: Evidence for the Struggle between Enochic and Mosaic Authority." Hen 31, no. 1 (2009). Pfann, Stephen. "Time and Calendar in Jubilees and Enoch." Hen 30, no. 2 (2008). Philonenko, Marc. "La sixieme demande du 'Notre Pere' et le livre des 'Jubiles.'" RHPR 78, no. 2 (1998): 27-37. Pinkerton, James Isaac. "A Comparison of the Samaritan Pentateuch with the He­ brew Text of the Pentateuch behind the Apocrypha." Ph.D. diss., Dallas Theo­ logical Seminary, 1964. Piovanelli, Pierluigi. "Les aventures des apocryphes en Ethiopie." Apoc 4 (1993): 197224. . "The Social and Political Setting of the Book of Jubilees." Hen 30, no. 2 (2008). Puech, Emile. "Une nouvelle copie du Livre des Jubiles: 4Q484 = pap4Qjubil&'." RevQ 19 (1999): 216-24. Pummer, Reinhard. "The Book of Jubilees and the Samaritans." EgTio (1979): 147-78. Ramelli, Ilaria. "La 'colpa antecedente' come ermeneutica del male in sede storicoreligiosa e nei test! biblici." RStB 19, no. 1 (2007): 11-64. Rapp, Hans A. Jakob in Bet-El: Gen 35,1-15 und die jiidische Literatur des 3. und 2. Jahrhunderts. Herders Biblische Studien 29. Freiburg: Herder, 2001. See espe­ cially 165-254, 293-96. Ravid, Liora. "The Special Terminology of the Heavenly Tablets in the Book of Jubi­ lees" (in Hebrew). Tarbiz 68 (1999): 463-71. . "The Relationship of the Sabbath Laws in Jubilees 50:6-13 to the Rest of the Book" (in Hebrew). Tarbiz 69 (2000): 161-66. . "Issues in the Book of Jubilees" (in Hebrew). Ph.D. diss., Bar Ilan University, 2001. . "Purity and Impurity in the Book of Jubilees." JSP 13, no. 1 (2002): 61-86. . "The Book of Jubilees and Its Calendar — a Reexamination." DSD 10, no. 3 (2003): 371-94Reed, Annette Yoshiko. '"Revealed Literature' in the Second Century B.C.E.: Jubilees, 1 Enoch, Qumran, and the Prehistory of the Biblical Canon." In Enoch and Qumran Origins: New Light on a Forgotten Connection, edited by Gabriele Boccaccini, 94-98. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2005. Reeth, J. M. F. van. "Le Prophete musulman en tant que Nasir Allah et ses ante­ cedents: le 'nazdraios' evangelique et le livre des Jubiles." OLP 23 (1992): 251-74. Rietz, Henry W. Morisada. "Synchronizing Worship: Jubilees as a Tradition for the Qumran Community." In Enoch and Qumran Origins: New Light on a Forgotten Connection, edited by Gabriele Boccaccini, 111-18. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2005. Rivkin, Ellis. "The Book of Jubilees: An Anti-Pharisaic Pseudepigraph." Erlsr 16 (1982): 193-98. 460

The Book of Jubilees: A Bibliography, 1850-Present Rofe, Alexander. "Further Manuscript Fragments of Jubilees in Qumran Cave 3" (in Hebrew). Tarbiz 34 (1965): 333-36. Rook, John T. "A Twenty-Eight-Day Month Tradition in the Book of Jubilees." VT31 (1981): 83-87. . "The Names of the Wives from Adam to Abraham in the Book of Jubilees." JSP 7 (1990): 105-17. Rosso Ubigli, Liliana. "Gli Apocrifi (o Pseudepigrafi) dell'Antico Testamento. Bibliografia 1979-1989." Hen 12 (1990): 259-321, especially 295-99. . "The Historical-Cultural Background of the Book of Jubilees." In Enoch and Qumran Origins: New Light on a Forgotten Connection, edited by Gabriele Boccaccini, 137-40. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2005. Rost, Leonhard. "Das Jubilaenbuch." In EATAP, 98-101. Heidelberg: Quelle 8t Meyer, 1971. Rothstein, David. "Sexual Union and Sexual Offences in Jubilees." JSJ 35, no. 4 (2004): 363-84. . "Jubilees' Formulation of Gen 2:23: A Literary Motif Viewed against the Le­ gal Matrices of the Hebrew Bible and the Ancient Near East!'ZABR11 (2005): 411. . "Same-Day Testimony and Same-Day Punishment in the Damascus Docu­ ment and Jubilees." ZABR11 (2005): 12-26. . "Why Was Shelah Not Given to Tamar? Jubilees 41:20." Hen 27, no. 1-2 (2005): 115-26. . "Laws Regulating Relations with Outsiders in lQS and Jubilees: Biblical An­ tecedents." ZABR 12 (2006): 107-30. . "'And Jacob came (in)to [KU+VK].' Spousal Relationships and the Use of a Recurring Syntagm in Genesis and Jubilees." Hen 29, no. 1 (2007): 91-103. . "Text and Context: Domestic Harmony and the Depiction of Hagar in 'Jubi­ lees.'" JSP 17 (2008): 243-64. Ruiten, Jacques T. A. G. M. van. "The Rewriting of Exodus 24:12-18 in Jubilees 1:1-4." BN 79 (1995): 25-29. . "The Garden of Eden and Jubilees 3:1-31." Bijdragen 57, no. 3 (1996): 305-17. . "The Relationship between Exod 31,12-17 and Jubilees 2,1.17-33." In Studies in the Book of Exodus: Redaction, Reception, Interpretation, edited by Marc Vervenne, 567-75. BETL126. Leuven: Leuven University Press, 1996. . "The Interpretation of Genesis 6:1-12 in Jubilees 5:1-19." In Studies in the Book of Jubilees, edited by Matthias Albani, Jorg Frey, and Armin Lange, 59-78. TSAJ 65. Tubingen: Mohr Siebeck, 1997. . "Biblical Interpretation in Jubilees 3:1-31." In Lasset uns Briicken bauen: Col­ lected Communications to the XVth Congress of the International Organization for the Study of the Old Testament, Cambridge 1995, edited by Klaus-Dietrich Schunk and Matthias Augustin, 315-19. BEATAJ 42. Frankfurt am Main: P. Lang, 1998. . "Eden and the Temple: The Rewriting of Genesis 2:4-3:24 in "The Book of 461

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Jubilees.'" In Paradise Interpreted: Representations of Biblical Paradise in Judaism and Christianity, edited by Gerard P. Luttikhuizen, 63-94. Themes in Biblical Narrative 2. Leiden: Brill, 1999. . "The Interpretation of the Flood Story in the Book of Jubilees." In Interpre­ tations of the Flood, edited by Florentino Garcia Martinez and Gerard P. Luttik­ huizen, 66-85. Themes in Biblical Narrative 1. Leiden: Brill, 1999. . "Visions of the Temple in the Book of Jubilees." In Gemeinde ohne Tempel: Zur Substituierung und Transformation des Jerusalemer Tempels und seines Kults im Alten Testament, antiken Judentum undfriihen Christentum, edited by Beate Ego, Armin Lange, et al., 215-27. WUNT 118. Tubingen: Mohr Siebeck, 1999. . Primaeval History Interpreted: The Rewriting of Genesis 1-11 in the Book of Ju­ bilees. Leiden: Brill, 2000. . "Abraham, Job and the Book of 'Jubilees': The Intertextual Relationship of Genesis 22:1-19, Job 1:1-2:13 and 'Jubilees' 17:15-18:19." In The Sacrifice of Isaac: The Aqedah (Genesis 22) and Its Interpretations, edited by Edward Noort and J. G. Tigchelaar, 58-85. Themes in Biblical Narrative 4. Leiden: Brill, 2002. . "The Govenant of Noah in 'Jubilees' 6.1-38." In The Concept of the Covenant in the Second Temple Period, edited by Stanley E. Porter and Jacqueline G. R. De Roo, 167-90. Boston: Brill, 2003. . "A Literary Dependency of 'Jubilees' on '1 Enoch'? A Reassessment of a The­ sis of J. C. VanderKam." Hen 26, no. 2 (2004): 205-9. . "Lot versus Abraham: The Interpretation of Genesis 18:1-19:38 in 'Jubilees' 16:1-9." In Sodom's Sin: Genesis 18-19 and Its Interpretation, edited by Ed Noort and Eibert Tigchelaar, 29-46. Themes in Biblical Narrative 7. Boston: Brill, 2004. . "A Literary Dependency of Jubilees on 1 Enoch." In Enoch and Qumran Ori­ gins: New Light on a Forgotten Connection, edited by Gabriele Boccaccini, 90-93. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2005. . "The Birth of Moses in Egypt according to the Book of Jubilees (Jub 47.19)." In The Wisdom of Egypt: Jewish, Early Christian, and Gnostic Essays in Hon­ our of Gerard P. Luttikhuizen, edited by Anthony Hilhorst and George H. van Kooten, 43-65. AGJU 59. Leiden: Brill, 2005. . "A Miraculous Birth of Isaac in the Book of Jubilees?" In Wonders Never Cease: The Purpose of Narrating Miracle Stories in the New Testament and Its Re­ ligious Environment, edited by Michael Labahn and B. J. Lietaert Peerbolte, 1-19. Library of New Testament Studies 288. New York: T. & T. Glark, 2006. . "Angels and Demons in the Book of'Jubilees.'" In Angels: The Concept of Ce­ lestial Beings — Origins, Development and Reception, edited by Friedrich V. Reiterer, Tobias Nicklas, and Karin Schopflin, 585-609. Deuterocanonical and Gognate Literature Yearbook. Berlin and New York: De Gruyter, 2007. . "Between Jacob's Death and Moses' Birth: The Intertextual Relationship be­ tween Genesis 5o:i5-Exodus 1:14 and Jubilees 46:1-16." In Dead Sea Scrolls and Other Early Jewish Studies in Honour of Florentino Garcia Martinez, edited by

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Anthony Hilhorst, Emile Puech, and Eibert Tigchclaar, 467-89. JSJSup 122. Leiden: Brill, 2007. Sanders, E. P. Paul and Palestinian Judaism, 362-86. Philadelphia: Fortress, 1977. Sandmel, Samuel. Philo's Place in Judaism: A Study of the Conceptions of Abraham in Jewish Literature, 38-49. Cincinnati: Hebrew Union College Press, 1956; 2nd ed. 1971. Saulnier, Stephane. "Jub 49:1-14 and the Second Passover: How (and Why) to Do Away with an Unwanted Festival." Hen 31, no. 1 (2009). Schenker, Adrian. "Isai'e 63:9, le Livre des Jubiles et l'Ange de la face: est-ce-que le 'Livre des Jubiles' peut contribuer a la solution du probleme textuel d'ls 63:9?" In Studien zu Propheten und Religionsgeschichte, 12-26. Stuttgart: Verlag Katholisches Bibelwerk, 2003. Schiffman, Lawrence H. "The Sacrificial System of the Temple Scroll and the Book of Jubilees." In SBLSP 24 (1985), 217-33. Schlund, Christine. "Kein Knochen soilgebrochen werden": Studien zu Bedeutung und Funktion des Pesachfests in Texten des friXhen Judentums und im Johannesevangelium, 98-111. WMANT 107. Neukirchen-Vluyn: Neukirchener Verlag, 2005. Schmidt, Francis. "Chronologies et periodisations chez Flavius Josephe et dans l'apocalyptique juive." In Aspetti della storiografia ebraica: atti del IV Congresso internazionale dell'AISG, S. Miniato, 7-10 novembre 1983, edited by Fausto Parente, 125-38. Rome: Carucci editore, 1987. . "Naissance d'une geographie juive." In Mo'ise geographe: Recherches sur les representations juives et chretiennes de I'espace, edited by Alain Desreumaux and Francis Schmidt, 13-30. Etudes de psychologie et de philosophic 24. Paris: J. Vrin, 1988. . "Jewish Representations of the Inhabited Earth during the Hellenistic and Roman Periods." In Greece and Rome in Eretz Israel: Collected Essays, edited by Aryeh Kasher, Uriel Rappaport, and Gideon Fuks, 119-34. Jerusalem: Yad Izhak Ben-Zvi, 1990. Schubert, Friedemann. '"El 'Aeljon' als Gottesname im Jubilaenbuch."' FJMB 8 (1994): 3-i8. . Tradition und Erneuerung: Studien zum Jubilaenbuch und seinem Trdgerkreis. Frankfurt am Main: Lang, 1998. Schultz, Joseph P. "Two Views of the Patriarchs: Noachides and Pre-Sinai Israelites." In Text and Responses: Studies Presented to N. N. Glatzer, edited by M. A. Fishbane, 41-59. Leiden: Brill, 1975. Schiirer, Emile, and Geza Vermes. "The Book of Jubilees." In The History of the Jewish People in the Age of Jesus Christ, vol. 3, no. 1, pp. 308-18. Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1986. Schwartz, Joshua. "Jubilees, Bethel and the Temple of Jacob." HUCA 56 (1985): 63-85. Schwarz, Eberhard. Abgrenzungsprozesse in Israel im 2. vorchristlichen Jahrhundert und ihre traditionsgeschichtlichen Voraussetzungen. Zugleich ein Beitrag zur Er463

Veronika Bachmann and Isaac W. Oliver forschung des JubilSenbuches. European University Studies, Series XXIII, Theol­ ogy 162. Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang, 1982. Scott, James M. "The Division of the Earth in Jubilees 8:11-9:15 and Early Christian Chronography." In Studies in the Book of Jubilees, edited by Matthias Albani, JOrg Frey, and Armin Lange, 295-323. TSAJ 65. Tubingen: Mohr Siebeck, 1997. . Geography in Early Judaism and Christianity: The Book of Jubilees. SNTSMS 113. Cambridge: Cambridge University, 2001. . On Earth as in Heaven: The Restoration cf Sacred Time and Sacred Space in the Book of Jubilees. Leiden: Brill, 2005. Segal, Michael. "Law and Narrative in Jubilees: The Story of the Entrance into the Garden of Eden Revisited" (in Hebrew). Meghillot 1 (2003): 111-25. . "The Book of Jubilees: Rewritten Bible, Redaction, Ideology and Theology" (in Hebrew). Ph.D diss., Hebrew University of Jerusalem, 2004. . "The Relationship between the Legal and Narrative Passages in Jubilees." In Reworking the Bible: Apocryphal and Related Texts at Qumran; Proceedings of a Joint Symposium by the Orion Center for the Study of the Dead Sea Scrolls and As­ sociated Literature and the Hebrew University Institute for Advanced Studies Re­ search Group on Qumran, 15-17 January, 2002, edited by Esther G. Chazon, Devorah Dimant, and Ruth A. Clemens, 203-28. STDJ 58. Boston: Brill, 2005. . "Between Bible and Rewritten Bible." In Biblical Interpretation at Qumran, edited by Matthias Henze, 10-28. Studies in the Dead Sea Scrolls and Related Literature. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2005. . The Book of Jubilees: Rewritten Bible, Redaction, Ideology, and Theology (in Hebrew). Jerusalem: Magnes, 2007. . The Book of Jubilees: Rewritten Bible, Redaction, Ideology, and Theology. JSJSup 62. Leiden: Brill, 2007. . "The Chronological Redaction of the Book of Jubilees" (in Hebrew). In Shai le-Sara Japhet: Studies in the Bible, Its Exegesis and Its Language, edited by Moshe Bar-Asher, Dalit Rom-Shiloni, Emanuel Tov, and Nili Wazana, 369-87. Jerusalem: Bialik Institute, 2007. Shatzman, Israel. "Jews and Gentiles from Judas Maccabaeus to John Hyrcanus ac­ cording to Contemporary Jewish Sources." In Studies in Josephus and the Vari­ eties of Ancient Judaism: Louis H. Feldman Jubilee Volume, edited by Shaye J. D. Cohen and Joshua J. Schwartz, 237-70. AGJU 67. Leiden: Brill, 2007. Shemesh, Aharon. "4Q265 and the Book of Jubilees" (in Hebrew). Zion 73, no. 1 (2008): 5-20. Skehan, Patrick W. "Jubilees and the Qumran Psalter." CBQ 37 (1975): 343-47Sollamo, Raija. "The Creation of Angels and Natural Phenomena Intertwined in the Book of Jubilees (4Qjub )." In Biblical Traditions in Transmission: Essays in Honour of Michael A. Knibb, edited by Charlotte Hempel and Judith M. Lieu, 273-90. JSJSup 111. Boston: Brill, 2006. Steck, Odil Hannes. "Die getoteten 'Zeugen' und die verfolgten 'Tora-Sucher' in Jub a

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1,12: Ein Beitrag zur Zeugnis-Terminologie des Jubilaenbuches." ZAW107, no. 3 (1995): 445-65; io8, no. 1 (1996): 70-86. Stokl, Jonathan. "The Book Formerly Known as Genesis: A Study of the Use of Bibli­ cal Language in the Hebrew Fragments of the 'Book of Jubilees.'" RevQ 22, no. 3 (2006): 431-49Stone, Michael Edward. "The Book(s) Attributed to Noah." DSD 13 (2006): 4-23. Stoyanov, Yuri. "Die Aufhahme von Genesis 1 in Jubilaen 2 und 4 Esra 6." JSJ 8 (1977): 154-82. . "The Treatment of the Element of Fire in Jubilees and 2 Enoch and Its After­ life in Christian Pseudepigraphy." Hen 30, no. 2 (2008). Sulzbach, Carla. "The Function of the Sacred Geography in the Book of lubilees." Journal for Semitics 14, no. 2 (2005): 283-305. Syren, Roger. "Ishmael and Esau in the Book of Jubilees and Targum PseudoJonathan." In The Aramaic Bible: Targums in Their Historical Context, edited by D. R. G. Beattie and M. J. McNamara, 310-15. Sheffield: JSOT Press, 1994. Talmon, Shemaryahu. "The Calendar Reckoning of the Sect from the Judaean Desert." In Aspects of the Dead Sea Scrolls, edited by Chaim Rabin and Yigael Yadin, 162-99. Scripta Hierosolymitana 4. Jerusalem: Hebrew University, 1958. Tedesche, Sidney. "Jubilees, Book of." In IDB 2 (1962), 1002-3. Testuz, Michel. Les idies religieuses du livre des Jubiles. Geneva: Droz, i960. Thomas, Sam. "Enoch, Elijah, and the (Eschatological) Torah." Hen 31, no. 1 (2009). Tigchelaar, Eibert J. C. "Jubilees and 1 Enoch and the Issue of Transmission of Knowledge." In Enoch and Qumran Origins: New Light on a Forgotten Connec­ tion, edited by Gabriele Boccaccini, 99-101. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2005. Tretti, Cristiana. "The Treasury of Heavenly Wisdom: Differing Modulations of the Concept From 'lEnoch' and 'lubilees' to Medieval Jewish Mysticism." Hen 31, no. 1 (2009). Tyloch, Witold. "Quelques remarques sur la provenance esslnienne du Livre des Jubiles." RevQ 13 (1988): 347-52. Ulrich, Eugene Charles. The Dead Sea Scrolls and the Origins of the Bible. Studies in the Dead Sea Scrolls and Related Literature. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1999. Vallone, G. "Norme matrimoniali e Giubilei 1^15-33." A/ON 43 (1983): 201-15. VanderKam, James C. Textual and Historical Studies in the Book of Jubilees. Missoula: Scholars Press, 1977. . "Enoch Traditions in Jubilees and Other Second-Century Sources." In SBLSP13 (1978), 229-51. . "The Origin, Character, and Early History of the 364-Day Calendar: A Reassessment of Jaubert's Hypothesis." CBQ 41 (1979): 390-411. . "The Putative Author of the Book of Jubilees." JSS 26 (1981): 209-17. . "A Twenty-Eight-Day Month Tradition in the Book of Jubilees?" VT 32 (1982): 504-6. . "The Book of Jubilees." In Outside the Old Testament, edited by Marinus de 465

Veronika Bachmann and Isaac W. Oliver Jonge, 111-44. CCWJCW 4. Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, 1985. . "Jubilees and Hebrew Texts of Genesis-Exodus." Textus 14 (1988): 71-85. . "Jubilees and the Priestly Messiah of Qumran." RevQ 13 (1988): 353-65. . "The Temple Scroll and the Book of Jubilees." In Temple Scroll Studies: Pa­ pers Presented at the International Symposium on the Temple Scroll, Manchester, December 1987, edited by G. J. Brooke, 211-36. JSPSup 7. Sheffield: JSOT Press, 1989. . "The Book of Jubilees." Missouri Review 15 (1992): 57-82. Reprinted in abridged form as "Jubilees: How It Rewrote the Bible," Bible Review 8, no. 6 (1992): 32-39,60-62. . "Biblical Interpretation in 1 Enoch and Jubilees." In The Pseudepigrapha and Early Biblical Interpretation, edited by James H. Charlesworth and Craig A. Ev­ ans. JSPSup 14 = Studies in Scripture in Early Judaism and Christianity 2. Shef­ field: JSOT Press, 1993. . "Genesis 1 in Jubilees 2." DSD 1 (1994): 300-321. . "Putting Them in Their Place: Geography as an Evaluative Tool." In Pur­ suing the Text: Studies in Honor of Ben Zion Wacholder on the Occasion of His Seventieth Birthday, edited by John C. Reeves, John Kampen, and Ben Zion Wacholder, 46-69. Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1994. . "Jubilees' Exegetical Creation of Levi the Priest." RevQ 17, no. 1-4 (1996): 35973. "The Aqedah, Jubilees, and PseudoJubilees." In The Quest for Context and Meaning: Studies in Biblical Intertextuality in Honor of James A. Sanders, edited by Craig A. Evans, Shemaryahu Talmon, and James A. Sanders, 241-61. Biblical Interpretation Series 38. Leiden: Brill, 1997. . "The Origins and Purposes of the Book of Jubilees." In Studies in the Book of Jubilees, edited by Matthias Albani, JOrg Frey, and Armin Lange, 3-24. TSAJ 65. Tubingen: Mohr Siebeck, 1997. . Calendars in the Dead Sea Scrolls: Measuring Time. Literature of the Dead Sea Scrolls. London: Routledge, 1998. . "Isaac's Blessing of Levi and His Descendants in Jubilees 31." In The Provo International Conference on the Dead Sea Scrolls, edited by Donald W. Parry and Eugene Ulrich, 497-519. Boston: Brill, 1999. . "The Angel Story in the Book of Jubilees." In Pseudepigraphic Perspectives: The Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha in Light of the Dead Sea Scrolls: Proceedings of the International Symposium of the Orion Center for the Study of the Dead Sea Scrolls and Associated Literature, 12-14 January, 1997, edited by Esther G. Chazon, Michael E. Stone, and Avital Pinnick, 151-70. STDJ 31. Leiden: Brill, 1999. "Covenant and Biblical Interpretation in Jubilees 6." In The Dead Sea Scrolls Fifty Years After Their Discovery: Proceedings of the Jerusalem Congress, July 20466

The Book of Jubilees: A Bibliography,

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25. 1997, edited by Lawrence H. Schiffman, Emanuel Tov, and lames C. VanderKam, 92-104. Jerusalem: Israel Exploration Society, 2000. . "Studies in the Chronology of the Book of Jubilees." In From Revelation to Canon: Studies in the Hebrew Bible and Second Temple Literature, 522-44. JSJSup 62. Leiden: Brill, 2000. . "Studies on the Prologue and lubilees 1." In For a Later Generation: The Transformation of Tradition in Israel, Early Judaism, and Early Christianity, ed­ ited by Randal A. Argall et al., 266-79. Harrisburg, Pa.: Trinity, 2000. . The Book of Jubilees. Guides to Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha 9. Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 2001. . "The Demons in the 'Book of Jubilees.'" In Die Damonen: Die Damonologie der israelitisch-judischen undfruhchristlichen Literatur im Kontext ihrer Umwelt, edited by Armin Lange, Hermann Lichtenberger, and K. F. Diethard Romheld, 339-64. Tubingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2003. . "Response: Jubilees and Enoch." In Enoch and Qumran Origins: New Light on a Forgotten Connection, edited by Gabriele Boccaccini, 162-70. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2005. . "The Scriptural Setting of the Book of Jubilees." DSD 13, no. 1 (2006): 61-72. . "The End of the Matter? Jubilees 50:6-13 and the Unity of the Book." In Heavenly Tablets: Interpretation, Identity, and Tradition in Ancient Judaism, ed­ ited by Lynn LiDonnici and Andrea Lieber, 267-84. JSJSup 119. Leiden: Brill, 2007. . "Recent Scholarship on the Book of Jubilees." Currents in Biblical Research 6, no. 3 (2008): 405-31. Vania Proverbio, Delio. "Gen. XV,i9-2i = Jub. XIV,i8: note miscellanee." Hen 14, no. 3 (1992): 261-72. Venter, Pieter M. "Intertextuality in the Book of Jubilees." HTS 63, no. 2 (2007): 46380. Vermes, Geza. Scripture and Tradition in Judaism: Haggadic Studies. SPB 4. Leiden: Brill, 1961; reprint, 1973,1983. Vogt, Ernest. "Antiquum calendarium sacerdotale." Bib 36 (1955): 403-8. Wacholder, Ben Zion. "How Long Did Abram Stay in Egypt?" HUCA 35 (1964): 4356. . "The Date of the Eschaton in the Book of Jubilees: A Commentary on Jub. 49:22-50:5, CD 1:1-10, and 16:2-3." HUCA 56 (1985): 87-101. . "The Relationship between nQTorah (the Temple Scroll) and the Book of Jubilees: One Single or Two Independent Compositions." In SBLSP 24 (1985), 205-16. . "Jubilees as the Super Canon: Torah-Admonition versus TorahCommandment." In Legal Texts and Legal Issues: Proceedings of the Second Meet­ ing of the International Organization for Qumran Studies, Cambridge 1995; Pub­ lished in Honour of Joseph M. Baumgarten, edited by Moshe Bernstein, Floren­ tino Garcia Martinez, and John Kampen, 195-211. STDJ 23. Leiden: Brill, 1997. 467

Veronika Bachmann and Isaac W. Oliver Weltner, Charles Longstreet "A Textual Analysis and Comparative Study of the Jo­ seph Narrative in the Ethiopic Book of Jubilees." Ph.D. diss., University of Dub­ lin, 1988. Werman, Cana. "Attitude towards Gentiles in the Book of Jubilees and Qumran Lit­ erature Compared with Early Tanaaic Halakha and Contemporary Pseudepig­ rapha" (in Hebrew). Ph.D. diss., Hebrew University of Jerusalem, 1995. . "Jubilees 30: Building a Paradigm for the Ban on Intermarriage." HTR 90, no. 1 (1997): 1-22. . "The 'Torah' and the 'Teudah' on the Tablets" (in Hebrew). Tarbiz 68, no. 4 (1999): 473-92. . "The Book of Jubilees in Hellenistic Context" (in Hebrew). Zion 66 (2001): 275-96. "Te'udah: On the Meaning of the Term." In Fifty Years of Dead Sea Scrolls Re­ search: Studies in Memory of Jacob Licht, edited by Gershon Brin and Bilhah Nitzan, 231-43. Jerusalem: Izhak Ben Zvi, 2001. . "'The m m and the m i S T l ' Engraved on the Tablets." DSD 9 (2002): 75-103. . "The Book of Jubilees and the Qumran Community" (in Hebrew). Meghillot 2 (2004): 37-55. "Jubilees in the Hellenistic Context." In Heavenly Tablets: Interpretation, Identity, and Tradition in Ancient Judaism, edited by Lynn LiDonnici and Andrea Lieber, 133-58. JSJSup 119. Leiden: Brill, 2007. Wiesenberg, Ernest. "The Jubilee of Jubilees." RevQ 3 (1961): 3-40. Wirgin, Wolf. The Book of Jubilees and the Maccabean Era of Shmittah Cycles. LUOSMS, no. 7. Leeds: Leeds University Oriental Society, 1965. Zeitlin, Solomon. "The Book of Jubilees and the Pentateuch." JQR 48 (1957-58): 21835. "The Beginning of the Day in the Calendar of Jubilees." JBL 78 (1959): 153-56. . "The Judaean Calendar during the Second Commonwealth and the Scrolls." JQR 57 (1966): 28-45. Reprinted in Studies in the Early History of Judaism 1 (New York: Ktav, 1973), 194-211. Zuurmond, Rochus. "De misdaad van Ruben volgens JubileeSn 33:1-9." Amsterdamse Cahiers 8 (1987): 108-16. . "Asshur in Jubilees 13.1?" JSP 4 (1989): 87-89.

468

Index

Abegg, Martin G., 2 8 3 , 4 2 0 Abusch, Ra'anan S., 3 6 0 , 3 8 7 Achtemeier, Paul J., 1 4 8 . 3 3 8 Adler, William, 1 4 - 1 5 , 2 8 0 Albani, Matthias, 23, 5 6 , 1 8 1 , 1 9 3 , 259, 2 6 3 , 2 7 9 - 8 0 , 2 9 2 - 9 3 . 441

Albeck, Chanoch, xvi, 2 8 , 3 2 , 1 0 0 , 1 1 2 , 208

Alexander, Philip S., 7 8 , 8 8 , 2 2 9 , 2 9 2 , 385-86,388-89

Allegro, John Marco, 5 Andersen, Francis I., 1 3 5 - 3 8 , 1 4 2 Anderson, Gary, 2 6 3 - 6 4 Aranda Perez, Gonzalo, 335 Arcari, Luca, xix, 5 0 , 3 4 2 , 3 5 0 , 3 6 0 Argall, Randal A., 9 2 , 1 7 9 Assefo, Daniel, xix Attridge, Harold, 1 0 0

Barton, John, 238 Batsch, Christophe, xix Baumgarten, Albert, xix, 4 0 2 , 4 3 3 Baumgarten, Joseph M., 4 , 3 1 - 3 2 , 1 0 6 , 2 4 7 - 4 9 . 2 5 1 , 2 6 3 , 2 6 6 , 273, 280-84,291, 4 2 7 . 4 3 0 , 4 3 4 . 438

Bautch, Kelley Coblentz, xix, 1 7 1 , 3 3 8 - 5 2 Beall, Todd S., 4 2 7 , 4 3 1 - 3 3 Beckwith, Roger T., 281 Bedenbender, Andreas, xix, 198 Beer, Bernhard, 29 Ben-Dov, Jonathan, xix, 3 9 , 2 6 6 , 2 7 6 - 9 3 , 423

Ben-Hayyim, Zeev, 147 Berger, Klaus, 1 3 2 , 1 7 9 . 1 8 4 . 1 8 9 , 2 1 6 , 4 3 0 Bergren, Theodore T., 371 Bergsma, John S., xix, 3 6 - 5 1 , 6 8 , 7 2 , 1 9 7 , 199.279.353

Berner, Christoph, xix, 56, 6 4 , 6 9 , 1 7 3 Baars, Willem, 1 9 Bachmann, Veronika, 4 4 1 - 7 0 Baillet, Maurice, 5 , 7 - 8 , 4 3 4 Bainbridge, William S., 4 2 9 Baltzer, Klaus, 3 2 9 Bar-Asher, Moshe, xv, 201 Bartelmus, Rudiger, 4 0 Barthelemy, Dominique, 5

75.177.278,285

Bernstein, Moshe J., 28, 8 8 , 1 0 3 , 1 0 7 , 1 9 5 , 221,229,231,303

Bertalotto, Pierpaolo, xv, xviii-xix Beyer, Klaus, 1 7 7 Bhayro, Siam, xix, 3 4 8 - 4 9 Black, Matthew, 3 9 , 9 9 Blenkinsopp, Joseph, 165

469

Index Boccaccini, Gabriele, xiv-xxi, 4 2 , 5 5 , 7 2 , 168,193-210, 240,285,289,347,353-54. 366,397,427-28,438

Bock, Darrell, xix Boda, Mark I., 1 6 5 - 6 6 Borgonovo, Gianantonio, xix, 4 9 , 1 8 5 Boustan, Ra'anan S., 2 6 5 , 3 8 6 , 4 0 0 Bow, Beverly A., 9 2 , 1 7 9

Bowman, John, 1 4 6 - 4 7 , 1 5 5 Box, George Herbert, 2 0 6 Boyarin, Daniel, xix, 353 Brenner, Athalya, 4 0 Brin, Gershon, 286 Brooke, George J., 6 , 6 3 , 9 4 , 1 0 0 , 1 0 2 , 106, 2 2 9 , 2 3 1 , 2 6 1 , 2 6 3 , 2 8 2 , 2 8 8 , 4 0 5 - 6 , 427

Broshi, Magan, 3 7 Camp, Claudia V., 129 Carmichael, Calum, xix, 4 1 9 , 4 2 4 Carpenter, Joseph Estlin, 3 9 7 Ceriani, Antonio Maria, 1 0 , 1 7 - 1 8 Chabot, Jean Baptiste, 1 2 Charles, Robert Henry, xvi, 9 , 1 2 , 1 7 - 1 8 , 27,44,104-5,132.196.206,216,335, 343.372,391.397-99.43»

Charlesworth, James H., xix, 1 0 0 , 1 3 4 , 258

Chavel, Charles B., 103 Chazon, Esther, xix, 4 7 , 8 8 , 1 0 3 , 1 1 3 , 2 3 8 , 247, 2 6 7 , 3 1 1 , 3 5 4 . 4 1 8

Chesnutt, Randall D., 3 4 0 , 3 4 6 , 3 5 1 Christiansen, Ellen Juhl, 1 7 8 - 7 9 , 1 8 5 - 8 6 Clements, Ruth A., 8 8 , 1 1 3 , 1 3 0 , 2 6 7 Collins, John J., xv, 5 3 - 5 6 , 6 7 , 6 9 , 1 3 0 , 171,175, 201, 2 2 9 , 2 8 5 , 2 9 3 , 3 3 0 , 3 8 7 , 397

Crislip, Andrew T., 17 Cross, Frank M., 1 0 , 1 9 9 , 4 3 1 Crown, Alan David, 146 Criisemann, Frank, 1 7 0 Daise, Michael, xix, 4 0 1 Davenport, Gene, xix, 2 3 - 2 4 , 5 6 , 3 2 4 - 2 5 . 3 3 i . 353. 4 3 0

Davies, Philip R., 1 0 2 , 4 3 0

470

Davila, James R., 386-88 Davis, Michael, xix, 193 Day, Peggy L., 118 Dean, James Elmer, 1 4 DeConick, April, 3 4 8 , 3 8 7 DeichgrSber, Reinhard, 5 Del Verme, Marcello, xix Denis, Albert-Marie, 15 Dexinger, Ferdinand, 156-57 Dillmann, August, xvi, 18, 2 0 6 Dimant, Devorah, 4 , 6 , 2 4 , 2 6 - 2 7 , 2 9 , 8 8 , 100,113,132,227,254,259,374,427

Dobos, Karoly, xix, 4 1 2 Doering, Lutz, xix, 1 1 3 , 1 8 1 , 2 6 1 - 7 5 , 2808 1 , 3 1 4 . 3 3 9 . 4 0 8 - 9 , 428

Donahue, Douglas J., 3 7 Doudna, Gregory L., 3 7 Drawnel, Lutz, xix, 3 8 - 3 9 , 2 6 5 , 2 6 8 , 4 1 8 , 423

Dupont-Sommer, Andre;, 433 Elgvin, Torleif, xix, 3 9 0 Elior, Rachel, 3 8 4 , 3 8 8 - 9 0 Ellens, J. Harold, xv, xxi Endres, John C , xix, 6 3 , 1 9 5 , 3 2 3 - 3 7 . 3 4 ° . 341.345.419

Eppel, Robert, 193 Epstein, Abraham, 9 , 2 0 7 Eshel, Esther, xix, 8 2 - 9 8 , 2 6 5 , 2 6 7 , 2 8 3 , 286,431

Eshel, Hanan, xviii-xix, 438 Evans, Craig A., 6 3 , 1 4 3 , 3 1 0 , 3 3 0 , 4 2 0 Exum, J. Cherly, 4 3 , 7 2 , 3 3 9 Fabricius, Johann, 3 Falk, Daniel, xix, 6 3 Feldman, Louis H., 88 Finkelstein, Louis, 109 Fishbane, Michael A., 6 0 - 6 2 , 6 5 , 2 0 7 , 387 Fitzmyer, Joseph A., 8 8 - 8 9 , 9 4 - 9 5

Fletcher-Louis, Crispin, xix, 134 Flint, Peter W., 4 , 3 7 . 5 3 - 5 4 . 2 3 2 , 2 5 9 , 276,285,326, 423,429

Fossum, Jarl E., 1 3 4 , 1 5 5 Fraade, Steven D., 2 2 9 , 3 7 1 - 7 2

Index Frey, J6rg, 2 3 , 5 6 , 1 8 1 , 2 5 9 , 263 Frdhlich, Ida, xix, 47,355 Gall, August F. von, 147 Garcia Martinez, Florentino, 6 , 1 0 1 , 1 9 3 , 206, 208,229, 231, 235,261,278,303, 364 Gaster, Moses, 147,156 Geiger, Abraham, 107 Gelzer, Heinrich, 14 Gianotto, Claudio, xix Gieschen, Charles, xx Gilat, Yitzhak D., 251 Gilders, William K., xx, 12,178-92 Ginsberg, Harold Louis, 60 Ginzberg, Louis, 152 Gitin, Seymour, 116,173 Glessmer, Uwe, 276-77,287,422-23,429 Goldmann, M., 179,190 Grabbe, Lester L., xx, 145-59 Gray, Rebecca, 434 Greenfield, Jonas C , 82-84,86, 92-94, 96,265,286 Grelot, Pierre, 43, 227 Grossman, Maxine, xx, 338 Gruenwald, Ithamar, 387 Gruneberg, Keith N., 216 Halperin, David J., 386-87 Halpern-Amaru, Betsy, xx, 88, in, 17882,186, 229,309-22,339-42,344-46, 35°. 353,360,376,392,402,415,430 Hamidovic, David, 99-100 Hanneken, Todd, xv, xxi, 353-54,356-57 Hanson, John S., 149 Harrington, Daniel J., 229 Harrington, Hannah K., 263,273 Hartman, Lars, 169 Hayes, Christine E., 271-72,428 Heidenheim, Moritz, 147 Hempel, Charlotte, 53,56,118, 231, 241 Henderson, Ian H., 305 Hengel, Martin, 292 Henten, Jan Willem van, 40 Henze, Matthias, xviii, xx, 52-66 Herion, Gary, 371

Himmelfarb, Martha, xx, 9,113,168, 194-96,200,205, 231-32, 261, 265,353, 356.360,362-66,368,384-94,400, 405,410, 419 Hjelm, Ingrid, 146 Hobbins, John F., 56 Hoffmann, Heinrich, 169-70,175 Holladay, Carl R., 140,149 Holladay, William L., 91 Hopkins, Jamal-Dominique, xx, 392, 427 Horowitz, Wayne, 285, 290, 293 Horst, Pieter Willem van der, 141 Horton, Fred L., 377 Ibba, Giovanni, xv, xx, 355,357 Idel, Moshe, 132, 427 Ilan, Tal, 351 Isser, Stanley J., 156 Jackson, David, xx, 168,198-99,206, 41125 Jacobson, Howard, 140 Jaffee, Martin S., 207 Janowski, Bernd, 291 Japhet, Sara, 167,310 Jassen, Alex P., 237 Jaubert, Annie, xvi, 65,178-79,277,281, 288,402 Jellinek, Adolph, xvi, 8-9,207 Jeremias, Gert, 6 Jokiranta, Jutta, xx lull, A. J. Timothy, 37 Kahana, Abraham, 179 Kampen, John, 107, 221,231,303 Katzoff, Ranon, 280 Kautzsch, Emil, 29 Kister, Menahem, 5, 2 4 , 3 2 , 8 8 , 2 4 8 , 2 5 0 , 259,268, 283 Klausner, Joseph, 324,334 Klawans, Jonathan, 261,268,273,408 Klein, Michael L., 133 Knibb, Michael A., 3 7 , 4 0 , 4 3 , 6 ° > 72, 1 3 4 , 1 3 9 , 2 3 3 . 3 2 6 . 3 3 2 , 3 3 9 , 3 8 3 . 403-4 Koch, Klaus, 62,170,175

471

Index Kollmann, Bernd, 305 Kooten, Geurt Hendrik van, 4 0 Kraft, Robert A., xx, 5 4 , 9 2 , 1 2 3 , 2 2 9 , 231-32,235

Kratz, Reinhard Gregor, 5 4 Kugel, James L., 2 8 , 3 4 - 3 5 , 5 8 , 8 5 , 8 7 , 1 7 1 ,

Metso, Susanne, 256 Milgrom, Jacob, 113, 269, 311 Milik, J 6 s e f Tadeusz, 5 - 6 , 8 , 1 5 , 3 7 - 4 0 , 43,100,104,179, 227

Millar, Fergus, 9 9 Moberly, Robert Walter L., 2 1 6

237. 254. 293. 311, 334. 4 0 2

Kugler, Robert A., 85 Kuhn, Thomas S., 4 1 3 Kvanvig, Helge S., xx, 5 0 , 1 6 3 - 7 7 , 1 9 8 , 200,202,293,350,353-54.360,365-66, 425

Lambdin, Thomas O., 3 3 5 Lange, Armin, 2 3 , 5 6 , 1 8 1 , 2 0 4 , 2 2 1 , 2 2 7 , 259. 2 6 3 , 3 0 3 , 3 5 7

Larson, Erik, xx, 3 6 8 - 8 3 , 3 9 8 - 9 9 , 4 0 6 Lemaire, Andre\ 281 Lesses, Rebecca M., 3 8 6 Leszynsky, Rudolf, 2 0 6 Levenson, Jon D., 6 2 - 6 3

Levine, Amy-Jill, 3 4 0 Levine, B. A., 1 0 4 Levine, Lee I., 78 Levison, John R., 3 4 1 Licht, Jacob, 2 5 0 , 4 2 7 , 4 2 9 , 4 3 2 Lichtenberger, Hermann, 2 2 7 , 3 5 7 LiDonnici, Lynn, 7 0 , 8 8 , 2 6 4 , 3 2 6 Lieber, Andrea, 7 0 , 8 8 , 2 6 4 , 3 2 6 Lieu, Judith M., 5 6 , 1 1 8 , 2 3 1 , 2 4 1

Lignee, Hubert, 9 9 , 2 0 9 Lim, Timothy H., 3 8 7 Lipscomb, W. Lowndes, 1 7 , 3 4 3 Loader, William, xx, 2 6 9 - 7 2 , 3 2 7 , 3 3 4 , 3 3 9 - 4 2 , 3 4 5 - 4 6 . 3 4 8 - 5 1 . 3 9 9 . 408-9

Loprieno, Antonio, 2 9 2 Luhrmann, Dieter, 1 7 Macaskill, Grant, xx, 2 0 2 , 419 Macdonald, John, 1 4 7 , 1 5 5 McNamara, Martin J., 133 Magness, Jodi, 1 1 6 , 1 7 3 Maher, Michael, 133 Maier, Johann, 2 6 6 , 3 8 8 - 8 9 Manheim, Karl, 4 3 0 Mazzinghi, Luca, x x

472

Najman, Hindy, xx, 6 3 , 1 2 2 , 1 2 5 , 1 3 2 , 1 4 3 , 1 6 7 , 1 7 1 , 1 9 4 - 9 6 , 207, 229-43,353-55. 363-65.367

Nelson, H. Lindemann, 164 Neubauer, Adolph, 1 4 7 Neugebauer, Otto, 3 9 , 4 4 Newman, Judith H., 1 7 1 , 237 Newsom, Carol A., 1 1 8 , 1 6 4 , 1 6 7 , 2 2 9 Nickelsburg, George W. E., xiv, xx, 2 9 , 5 2 , 5 5 , 60-61, 67-68, 71. 9 1 - 9 2 . 9 5 . " 6 . 121,156,167-69,171,173-74.177.200, 227,229,238,348-49.363.398,411-12, 418,420

Nitzan, Bilhah, xx, 2 8 6 , 3 8 5 , 4 1 9 Noam, Vered, 1 0 9 , 2 6 0 Noffke, Eric, x x Noort, Edward, 3 1 3 Odeberg, Hugo, 139 Oegema, Gerbern S., 305 Oliver, Isaac W., xv, xxi, 4 4 1 - 7 0 Olson, Daniel, xx Olyan, Saul M., 2 7 2 Orlov, Andrei A., xviii, xx, 1 3 1 - 4 4 Pakkala, Juha, 1 6 5 Parker, Richard A., 2 9 2 Parry, Donald W., 2 8 3 Perrot, Charles, 2 3 0 Peters, Dorothy, xx, 5 0 , 1 9 7 , 4 2 4 Petersen, Anders Klostergaard, x x Petit, Francois, 16 Pfann, Claire, xx Pfann, Stephen, xx, 2 8 3 , 2 9 3 Pietersma, Albert, 1 2 4 Pinnick, Avital, 1 0 3 Piovanelli, Pierluigi, x x Poole, Fitz John Porter, 4 2 6 Porter, Stanley E., 6 3 , 1 7 8 , 4 2 0

Index Powels, Sylvia, 1 5 4 Puech, Emile, 7 - 8 , 1 0 0 , 2 3 5 , 4 2 7

Pummer, Reinhard, 1 4 5 - 4 6

Schwarz, Eberhard, 272 Scott, James M., xx, 2 6 , 6 7 - 8 1 , 1 7 8 , 1 8 1 , 216,285,327-28,380, 406,412,419, 421-22

Qimron, Elisha, 1 0 5 , 1 0 7 , 1 1 2 , 2 6 0 , 2 7 1

Segal, Michael, x x , 2 2 - 3 5 , 7 0 . 2 2 1 - 2 3 ,

Rad, Gerhard von, 165 Rappaport, Uriel, 6 Ravid, Liora, 2 4 , 2 6 1 - 6 2 , 2 6 4 - 6 5 , 2 6 8 ,

Segal, Robert A., 4 2 6

2 2 6 - 2 7 , 2 3 0 , 278

277,279-80,282, 284,288-89,29i-93> 402,406-8, 427

Reed, Annette Yoshiko, xx, 4 7 , 4 9 , 1 6 8 , 199-200,204,221,265, 279,321,350, 353-68,400,413-14, 416-17

Reeves, John C., 9 , 2 3 1 Regev, Eyal, xx, 2 0 5 , 4 2 6 - 4 0 Richards, Kent Harold, 99 Rivkin, Ellis, 2 0 6 Roft, Alexander, 5 Ronsch, Hermann, xvi, 1 5 , 1 7 , 2 7 , 2 0 6 , 268

Rook, John, 3 4 3 - 4 4 Rosenberg, Shalom, 1 3 2 , 4 2 7 Rowland, Christopher, 134 Ruiten, Jacques van, xiv, xx, 4 1 , 4 3 , 7 1 72, 9 1 , 1 7 8 , 1 8 2 , 1 8 8 , 2 1 1 - 2 8 , 2 9 1 , 3 1 3 , 339.341-44.354.366

Sacchi, Paolo, xx, 1 9 8 - 9 9 . 2 0 4 , 2 0 8 , 285, 353

Sanders, Ed Parish, 201 Sanders, Jack T., 173 Sanders, James A., 418 Satran, David, 2 6 7 Saulnier, Stephane, xx, 2 6 6 , 3 1 4 Schafer, Peter, 3 8 6 , 3 8 9 Schaper, Joachim, 325 Schiffman, Lawrence H., xx, 9 9 - 1 1 5 . 1 7 8 , 2 0 8 , 2 4 7 , 2 5 2 , 4 2 7 . 431

Scholem, Gershom G., 3 8 4 - 8 7 , 3 8 9 Schreiber, Bertram M., 2 8 0 Schultz, Joseph P., 2 0 7 Schurer, Emil, 99 Schwartz, Daniel R., 105 Schwartz, Joshua J., 405, 437 Schwartz, Seth, 2 0 0 - 2 0 1

Shemesh, Aharon, x x , 2 4 7 - 6 0 , 2 6 3 , 2 7 1 , 392-93.411. 427

Sievers, Joseph, x x Smith, Barry D., 3 3 0 Smith, Jonathan Z., 1 3 6 , 1 3 8 - 3 9 , 4 2 6 Smith, Mark S., 2 9 1 Stark, Rodney, 4 2 9 Stegemann, Hartmut, 6 , 2 9 2 Steiner, Richard C , 95 Sterling, Gregory E., 130 Stern, Sacha, 1 5 3 , 2 8 0 Stokl Ben-Ezra, Daniel, xx Stone, Michael E., 4 7 , 8 3 - 8 4 , 8 6 , 89, 9 2 94.96,103,229,238,247,254,265, 286,354,371,418

Strugnell, John, 1 0 7 , 2 7 1 , 4 3 3 Stuckenbruck, Loren T., xviii, xxi, 4 7 , 53, 2 9 4 - 3 0 8 , 3 6 7

Sullivan, Kevin, 348 Sussmann, Y., 1 0 7 Suter, David W., xxi, 1 6 8 , 3 4 9 , 3 6 3 , 3 9 7 410

Swartz, Michael D., 3 8 5 - 8 7 Tal, Abraham, 1 4 6 - 4 7

Talmon, Shemaryahu, xxi, 2 7 6 - 7 7 , 2 8 6 , 289-90,310

Tedeshe, Sidney, 2 0 7 Testuz, Michel, xvi, 5 7 , 1 3 2 , 2 0 7 , 3 2 6

Theodor, Julius, 2 8 Thomas, Sam, xxi Tigchelaar, Eibert, 6 , 1 0 1 , 2 2 9 , 2 3 5 , 2 8 1 , 313.349.351.364

Tisserant, Eugene, 1 1 - 1 2 Tov, Emanuel, xv, 4 , 3 7 , 1 0 1 , 1 7 8 , 2 0 1 , 229,259,283

Trebolle Barrera, Julio C , 24, 53, 88, 268,283,428

Tretti, Cristiana, xxi

473

Index Werline, Rodney A., 9 2 , 1 7 9 , 3 2 7 , 3 3 4

Tuffin, Paul, 280

Werman, Cana, 1 3 0 , 2 3 1 , 2 5 9 , 2 6 1 , 2 6 5 , 270,278,281,287,346,360

Ulmer, Rivka, 1 0 2

White, Sidnie, 101

Ulrich, Eugene, 5 3 , 2 3 0 , 2 3 2 , 4 1 8

Wieder, Naphtali, 2 5 4 VanderKam, James C , xiv, xvi, xxi, 3 - 2 1 ,

Wiesenberg, Ernest, 2 2 - 2 4

6 5 , 6 7 - 6 8 , 7 0 - 7 2 , 7 5 - 7 6 , 84-85,87, 97.

Williams, Frank, 1 3 Williams, Ralph, xxi

99-101,103-6,112,114,121,125,131-32,

Williamson, Hugh G. M., 4 3 , 7 2 , 1 6 5 .

23, 2 6 , 3 6 - 4 3 . 4 5 . 4 7 . 5 0 , 5 2 - 5 3 . 5 7 . 6 3 -

134.137.147.175-76,178-79.184.189.

229,339

1 9 2 , 1 9 6 , 204, 208, 212, 215-16, 227, 230,

Wills, Lawrence M., 1 2 6 , 1 3 0 , 2 3 3

232, 241, 259, 2 6 1 - 6 2 , 264, 267, 276,

Wintermute, Orval S., 4 9 , 1 1 8 , 1 7 9 , 1 8 4 ,

278-79, 281-82, 2 8 4 , 2 8 7 , 291, 293, 296, 298,309-10, 324,326, 329-31.336,33840,342,348,354-55.357.363.365-66, 370.372-73.401. 407.409. 411-12.418, 4 2 1 , 4 2 3 , 427, 429, 435-36, 438, 441

Vaux, Roland de, 5 283,428

Vermes, Geza, xvi, 9 9 , 1 3 9 , 2 3 0 , 4 3 3

Vermeylen, Jacques, 7 2

Wacholder, Sholom, 281 Wacker, Marie-Theres, 3 4 8 Wassen, Cecilia, 2 6 3

474

Woude, Adam S. van der, 6 , 6 0 229, 2 3 1 , 2 3 3 , 2 4 1 , 3 6 3 - 6 4

Wright, David P., 3 4

Venter, Pieter M., xxi

231,281

Wolfson, Elliot R., 1 3 3 . 3 8 5

Wright, Benjamin G., xxi, 1 1 6 - 3 0 , 1 9 4 .

Vegas Montaner, Luis, 2 4 , 5 3 , 8 8 , 2 6 8 ,

Wacholder, Ben Zion, 9 9 . 1 0 2 .

189-92,216,372,399,401-2

Wise, Michael O., 1 0 5 Wold, Benjamin, xxi

1 Q

6,195.

Xeravits, Geza, 3 2 5 - 2 6

Yadin, Azzan, xxi Yadin, Yigael, 8 8 , 1 0 0 - 1 0 2 , 1 0 4 - 5 , 1 1 0 , 1 1 2 - 1 3 , 3 1 4 - 1 5 . 435-36

Zuurmond, Rochus, 1 9