Encyclopedia of New Jersey

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF NEW JERSEY

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ENCYCLOPEDIA OF

NEW

JERSEY Edited by

Maxine N. Lurie and Marc Mappen Maps by Michael Siegel

Rutgers University Press New Brunswick, New Jersey, and London

To the memory of Frances D. Pingeon

Disclaimer: Some images in the original version of this book are not available for inclusion in the eBook.

Second printing, 

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Encyclopedia of New Jersey / edited by Maxine N. Lurie and Marc Mappen ; maps by Michael Siegel. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN --- (alk. paper) . New Jersey—Encyclopedias. I. Lurie, Maxine N., – II. Mappen, Marc. F.E  . —dc British Cataloging-in-Publication information for this book is available from the British Library. C  by Rutgers, The State University Copyright 

All rights reserved No part of this book may be reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, or by any information storage and retrieval system, without written permission from the publisher. Please contact Rutgers University Press,  Joyce Kilmer Avenue, Piscataway, NJ –. The only exception to this prohibition is “fair use’’ as defined by U.S. copyright law.

Manufactured in the United States of America

Advisory Board Governor James E. McGreevey Honorary Co-Chair Governor Christine Todd Whitman Honorary Co-Chair Governor Thomas Kean Governor Brendan Byrne Congressman Rodney Frelinghuysen Senator Leonard Lance The Honorable Maureen Ogden Stanley N. Katz, Ph.D. Barbara J. Mitnick, Ph.D. Nicholas G. Rutgers IV Frances D. Pingeon (In Memoriam)

Cosponsors

The following organizations joined Rutgers University Press in providing a variety of resources, ranging from in-kind contributions to substantial financial support. New Jersey Historical Commission The Star-Ledger New Jersey Council for the Humanities Women’s Project of New Jersey, Inc. New Jersey Historical Society Special Collections and University Archives, Rutgers University Libraries Scholarly Communications Center, Rutgers Universities Libraries New Jersey Studies Academic Alliance Seton Hall University

Leadership Gifts

Bodman Foundation Clarence and Anne Dillon Dunwalke Trust Geraldine R. Dodge Foundation, Inc. Captain Joseph G. Lerner National Endowment for the Humanities New Jersey Council for the Humanities New Jersey Historical Commission Robert Wood Johnson Foundation Nicholas G. Rutgers IV State of New Jersey Legislature Tomlinson Family Foundation, Inc. Victoria Foundation, Inc.

Major Gifts Bunbury Company, Inc. Colonel William Carl Heyer Frances D. Pingeon and Rene A. Pingeon Ralph W. Voorhees

Patrons Angelo V. Baglivo Elena S. Buchanan Catherine M. Cavanaugh Descendants of Founders of New Jersey Fidelity Investments Charitable Gift Fund Forbes Foundation Peter Frelinghuysen Hon. Rodney P. Frelinghuysen Grant F. Walton Center for Remote Sensing and Spatial Analysis, Rutgers University Barbara J. and Howard S. Mitnick Glenn L. Noland Hon. Maureen Black Ogden Franklin E. and Margaret H. Parker Roxiticus Fund Anne M. Thomas

Donors Mary Anne Adams

Stephen D. Crocco

Howard Gillette

Susan E. Klepp

Samuel Alewitz G. Alex Ambrose

Carol C. Cronheim Jo Ann Cubberley

Monica R. Gisolfi Anne Glowacz

Laura E. Koller Scott M. Kozel

American Labor Museum

Richard Cummings

Michael Gochfeld

Robert F. Krygoski

William Andersen Andrew J. Anderson

Joyce S. Cummins-Anglin Augustine J. Curley

David Golden Cynthia M. Goldsmith

Elizabeth K. Lambert William La Rosa

Paul S. Anselm James Applegate

Monica Czaplinski Scott Daniels

Anne M. Gordon Grand Marnier Foundation

Gregory Lattanzi Olga S. Leafgreen

Rocio Aranda-Alvarado

Anthony P. DeCondo, Sr.

J. Frederick Grassle

Hubert Lechevalier

Patricia M. Ard Doris B. Armstrong

Richelle Delavan Kayo Denda

Howard Green Frank Greenagel

Roger Lederer Maurice DuPont Lee, Jr.

Kim Avagliano

Howard M. Dess

Deborah S. Greenhut

Tina Lesher

Patricia Beaber Bonnie Benbow

Edward Devine David DeVorkin

Constance M. Greiff James Greller

Marceil Mimi Letts Vicki Gold Levi

Dery Bennett

Ulysses Grant Dietz

Robert D. Griffin

Laura Levine

Bessemer Trust Co. John M. Bettis

George T. Di Ferdinando, Jr. Sunday Di Palma

David Griffith Lee Ellen Griffith

Yukio Lippit Roger R. Locandro

Patricia W. Blakely

Maureen Dillon

Marion Grzesiak

Alan V. Lowenstein

Mary Blanchard Beth Bloom

Karen Di Prima Kathryn Dodson

Martin L. Haines Sidney and Susan Hammer

Nancy Luberecki Maxine N. Lurie

Mark Boriek

Delight W. Dodyk

Christopher Hann

Betty McAndrews

Marnie S. Bowers William J. Boyle, Jr.

Jameson W. Doig Burton J. Doremus

Bruce Hanson Margaret L. Harrer

Thomas McCabe Bonnie J. McCay

James Broderick

John Dougherty

Dorothy Hartman

Richard P. McCormick

William R. Buck Joanna Burger

John Drew Anthony D. Duke, Jr.

Nathaniel Hartshorne John E. Hasse

Grace-Ellen McCrann David W. MacFarlane

David Burke

Patrick E. Dunican

Philip Hayden

Brian McGonigle

J.Harlan Buzby Radhames Camilo

James Eberwine Hendrik Edelman

Priscilla E. Hayes Rita Heller

Patricia M. McGuire Jeffrey N. Maclin

Marilyn Campbell

Joan Ehrenfeld

James N. J. Henwood

Linda B. McTeague

Melissa Campbell John M. Carbone

Lee Eisenberg Frank J. Esposito

Frederick M. Herrmann Evelyn M. Hershey

Alexander B. Magoun Bob Makin

Patrick C. Carr

Firth H. Fabend

Cynthia Hertlik

Anthony Marchetta

Guy C. Carter Ruth Smith Case Timothy M. Casey

John Fabiano William R. Farr Victoria A. and William S. Fay

Brian Hill Rudy Hirschmann Sheldon Hochheiser

Margherita Marchione James Kirby Martin Julie Martin

James Cassedy Phillip Dennis Cate Cam Cavanaugh

James Fisher Robert J. Fitzpatrick Joan Fleming

Anne C. Martindell Michael Mathis Michael L. May

Peter B. Childs Alexandra Christy Carolyn Clark Bruce B. Clarke Paul G. E. Clemens John Coakley David S. Cohen Kevin J. Collins Bruce Compton Andrea Luppino Cooke Pamela Cooper Linda Barone Corcoran Patrick Cote David L. Cowen Robert Craig Angela Cristini

Stephen Fleming Marie Flynn Susan G. Ford Muriel Freeman Peter H. B. Frelinghuysen, Sr. Robert Fridlington John H. Fritz Jack Fruchtman, Jr. Theresa L. Gander Joan Garb Laura Garber Russell L. Gasero Ronald W. Giaconia Ellen D. Gilbert Laverne M. Gill Lisa M. Gillard Hanson

Briavel Holcomb David and Elizabeth W. Holdsworth Steven B. Hoskins Connie O. Hughes James W. Hughes Richard Hunter Robert Hunter Joseph Jacobs Louis R. and Susan S. Jeffrey Wolfgang Jochle Joseph R. Burns and Associates, Inc. Joyce Kane Carmela A. Karnoutsos Paula Kassell Frank F. Katz Stanley N. Katz Ann H. Kessler Edward Kissling

Annmarie and David Mellwain David Messineo Peter Mickulas Edward C. Miller, Jr. Pauline S. Miller Steven Miller Elizabeth A. Milliken Barbara Mitnick in memory of Frances D. Pingeon August J. Molnar Linda Moore Alice A. Morash Mark D. Morgan Sibyl E. Moses Kevin Mulcahy George J. Mullen

Daniel and Janet O. Murnick

Clement A. Price

William D. Sharpe

Shaun C. Van Doren

Miriam Murphy Connie Myers

Norbert P. Psuty Public Service Electric & Gas Co. Amy Rashap

Kelly Shea George Latimer Shinn

Earl R. Verbeek Arlene Wacker

Ruth J. Simmons

Betty Wagner

James W. Reed

Richard C. Simon Alan Singer

Richard Waldron Jill Walsh

Catherine Noonan Jeffrey Norman

Pat Reilly Howard Reinert

Edward J. Siskin Merrill M. Skaggs

Frances Ward Harry M. Ward

P. Gerard Nowicki

Jason Rimmer Mark G. Robson

Edward T. Skipworth

George Warne

Joseph C. Small Phyllis N. Smith

Yvonne N. Warren Mark Wasserman

Robert W. Snyder

Marlie Wasserman

Leonard J. Soucy, Jr. Stacy Spies

Beverly Weaver Joseph S. Weisberg

Alan R. Stein

Mathew J. Weismantel

Gail F. Stern Stephanie Stevens

Allen B. Weisse Henry Wessells

Eric Stiles

George White, Jr.

Garry Wheeler Stone Paul G. Stridick

Willesley West Friends Audra Wolfe

Donald Sutherland

Gary K. Wolinetz

Larry Tamburri Constance A. Tate

Kimberly Wood Joanne L. Yeck

Harriet Teweles

Sally Yerkovich

Mark Thistlethwaite Michael Tischman

Ulana D. Zakalak Richard Zimmer

Carla Tobias

Susan Zimmerman

David Myers Medhat Nasr Edward M. Neafsey

Daniel F. O’Connell Elisabeth Oliu Kevin K. Olsen Brendan O’Malley Margaret O’Neil Wesley H. Ott Patrick J. Owens Lisa Pain David C. Parris John M. Payne John D. and Joanna F. Pearson Jessica Pellien Jose Fernando Pena Steven P. Perskie Mimi Peteet Nancy A. Piwowar Charles A. Poekel, Jr. Eileen L. Poiani Deborah Popper Albert Porroni

Michael Rockland Carlos Macedo Rodrigues Raffaele Roncalli Joseph C. Rowland Jane Brailove Rutkoff Anne Salvatore Joseph Salvatore Patricia Anne Salvatore Sagan T. Sanderson Angelica M. Santomauro Richard Saunders Brian Sauser Reeve Schley III Lawrence Schmidt Karen L. Schnitzspahn Robert Schopp Robert Schuyler Elaine L. Schwartz

Melissa Posten

Dale Schweitzer Joseph Seneca

Frank Tomczuk Tree-Tech Robert L. Trelsted

Mary Prendergast

Harriet Sepinwall

James F. Turk

Project Staff Editors in Chief:

Maxine N. Lurie Marc Mappen

Production Controller: Illustrations Editor:

Sharon Hazard

Assistant Editors:

Catherine Keim Peter Mickulas Jason Rimmer

Cartographer:

Michael Siegel

Sponsoring Editor:

Marlie Wasserman

Managing Editor:

Marilyn Campbell

Copyeditors:

Editorial Assistants:

Alice Calaprice Diana Drew Diane Grobman Lisa Nowak Jerry Gretchen Oberfranc Lee Parks Anne Schneider Willa Speiser Shelle Sumners

Anne Hegeman

Kristen Block Radhames Camilo Krista Gulbin Rachel Hatzipetros Larry D. Lyons II Brian McGonigle Melissa Schiavo Szymon Smakolski Jill Walsh Nikisha Young

Editorial Board Ronald Becker, Special Collections and University Archives, Rutgers University Libraries

Herbert C. Kraft, Seton Hall University Museum (In Memoriam)

Michael J. Birkner, History, Gettysburg College

Mark E. Lender, Nathan Weiss College of Graduate Studies, Kean University

Henry Bischoff, History, Ramapo College (emeritus)

Don Linky, Public Affairs Research Institute

Joanna Burger, Cell Biology and Neuroscience, Rutgers University

Maxine N. Lurie, History, Seton Hall University

Paul Clemens, History, Rutgers University

Marc Mappen, New Jersey Historical Commission

David L. Cowen, History, Rutgers University (emeritus)

Barbara J. Mitnick, Task Force on New Jersey History

John T. Cunningham, independent historian

Frances D. Pingeon, Morris County Historian (In Memoriam)

Ulysses Grant Dietz, Newark Museum

David Robinson, New Jersey State Climatologist

Mark Di Ionno, The Star-Ledger

Robert Rosenberg, Thomas A. Edison Papers

Delight Wing Dodyk, Women’s Project of New Jersey

Emily W. B. Russell, Center for Remote Sensing and Spatial Analysis, Rutgers University

Angus Kress Gillespie, American Studies, Rutgers University

Michael Siegel, Geography, Rutgers University

William Gillette, History, Rutgers University

Anita L. Talar, Seton Hall University Library

Michael Gochfeld, Environmental and Occupational Health Sciences Institute, Rutgers University

Peter O. Wacker, Geography, Rutgers University

Agnes Tracy Gottlieb, Communications, Seton Hall University

Robert F. Williams, School of Law, Rutgers University–Camden

Bonita Craft Grant, Special Collections and University Archives, Rutgers University Libraries

Robert J. Wister, Religion, Seton Hall University

H. Roger Grant, History, Clemson University Howard Green, New Jersey Historical Commission Larry A. Greene, History, Seton Hall University Constance M. Greiff, Heritage Studies

Lorraine Williams, New Jersey State Museum

Peter Wosh, New York University Archives B. Michael Zuckerman, Mid-Atlantic Center for the Arts

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Editor’s Preface The editors of this encyclopedia emphatically believe that New Jersey is a place of interest and importance that is worth studying for what it has contributed to the world. It is our hope that this volume will help New Jersey come out from the shadow cast by its metropolitan neighbors, Philadelphia and New York City, to be recognized and appreciated in its own right. We do not, however, present this work as a simply uncritical paean to New Jersey. We want this volume to inform readers of the state’s blemishes as well as its accomplishments. We offer this encyclopedia, with its two thousand and nine hundred entries by more than six hundred authors, as a step toward proving the role the state has played in the history, culture, economy, and politics of the nation. We hope that others will build on what we have begun here; that this encyclopedia will be a jumping-off point for further exploration of the Garden State, and that future generations of investigators, both amateur and professional, will be able to fill in the blanks and extend the coverage of this work. This project was the brainchild of Marc Mappen who, impressed by the Encyclopedia of New York City, decided New Jersey needed a similar work. He convinced Maxine Lurie to work on the project with him. Marlie Wasserman, the director of Rutgers University Press, was eager to publish the volume. Kenneth Jackson, the editor of the Encyclopedia of New York City, at a very early stage, kindly provided advice. John Pearson and the Rutgers Foundation helped identify possible sources of funding. To jumpstart the effort an editorial board of experts was assembled, and each person was asked to suggest one hundred possible entries in his or her field. To this were later added other entries proposed by the public, other scholars, and authors. The result is a major reference work on the state covering history, agriculture, business, government, politics, religion, weather, education, law, medicine, science, geography, transportation, art, architecture, sports, music, and literature. There are biographies of those who have been born, lived, or worked in the state. Included are the famous and infamous, wealthy

individuals and former slaves, governors and inventors. An effort has been made to reflect the diversity as well as the accomplishments of residents. And because New Jersey is a state with a strong tradition of home rule, there is an entry for every municipality (all ) and every county (all ). We have also included more than six hundred pictures from repositories in New Jersey and elsewhere and nearly one hundred and fifty maps, most created for this book by Michael Siegel at the Rutgers Cartography Lab. The work follows an A-to-Z format that mingles long interpretive entries (for example, “agriculture’’) with shorter entries (for example, “blueberries’’ and “corn’’). These range in length from two thousand words to a brief one hundred words. Most entries are followed by a bibliography, many by cross-references to other entries, maps, and illustrations. Entries are as accurate as possible as of December . We made numerous editorial decisions before proceeding. For example, we included biographies of living individuals, but restricted the number of such entries to keep them from quickly becoming outdated. Many living individuals are mentioned in larger entries, such as popular music, but not treated separately. Efforts were made to include the good and the bad, gangsters as well as Nobel Prize winners, pollution sources as well as preservation efforts. Some suggested subjects were rejected because they were of limited importance, because of insufficient information, or because an appropriate author could not be found. All entries were assigned to specific authors, and when written they were carefully read by both the editors and the copyeditors. The interpretations within each entry are, of course, those of its author. Public relations pieces were not accepted, and some entries were rejected as unsuitable. The range of subjects covered by this volume is large and varied, but no reference work devoted to a state that has been home to millions of people over hundreds of years can hope to capture every topic. If your favorite subject has been missed, we regret it, and plead ignorance, restrictions of time and space, and in some cases the inability to find an appropriate author. We invite readers who feel that there are topics that should be added, or who have identified errors in this volume, to send their suggestions and corrections to Rutgers University Press, for use in a second edition if the occasion arises. Again, we see this volume as a beginning, not as an end.

xi

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Acknowledgments Elsewhere in this work are listed the names of the donors, editorial and advisory board members, writers, and staff. We will resist the temptation of making this long volume even longer by listing all of their names once again in this acknowledgments section. We do, however, want to single out some men and women who have rendered particularly significant service during the nine years it took to complete this project. For help with fundraising we would particularly like to thank Senator Leonard Lance, Scott McVay, and Nicholas G. Rutgers IV, as well as the National Endowment for the Humanities, the Dodge Foundation, and the State of New Jersey. At Rutgers University Press the support of Marlie Wasserman, the efforts in particular of our Assistant Editors Catherine Keim, Peter Mickulas, and Jason Rimmer, as well as the work of Marilyn Campbell, Anne Hegeman, and others, have made this book possible. At Rutgers University Joseph J. Seneca and John Pearson offered valuable support. For help with maps and illustrations special thanks go to Michael Siegel and Sharon Hazard. Numerous librarians and archivists in New

Jersey and elsewhere helped find information and pictures—special thanks go to the staff at Special Collections and University Archives, Rutgers University Libraries, the New Jersey Historical Society, the Newark Museum, the Newark Public Library, The StarLedger, and the Women’s Project of New Jersey. While we are grateful to the enormous number of authors who contributed their entries, we would particularly like to thank a few of those who went out of their way to be helpful, or wrote a large number of entries—Richard Connors, Pamela Cooper, Gail Greenberg, Robert Hordon, and Sandra Moss, among others. Thanks also to several special friends of the project— Franny Pingeon, who we miss and to whom this book is dedicated, as well as Barbara Mitnick, Carol Cronheim, Mark DiIonno, and James Willse. Thanks are also owed to the institutions we both work for—Seton Hall University and the New Jersey Historical Commission—for supporting us. A final thanks to our spouses and children (and their spouses) for their patience and support: Jon, Ellen, David, Debbie, Daniel, Benjamin, Rebecca, Jason, and Hikari.

Maxine N. Lurie Marc Mappen

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Note on the Use of the Encyclopedia Several decisions were made for this book regarding the use of census figures, abbreviations, and sources. Regarding population statistics, we have used the  U.S. census. Because the  census allowed respondents to select more than one race to describe themselves, and established Hispanic/Latino as a separate category from race, the total population figures for a municipality may add up to more than  percent. A detailed enumeration of racial and ethnic groups for every New Jersey municipality is given in a long chart that follows the entry entitled “census.’’ Briefer  census data are presented at the end of the entries on each of the state’s  municipalities. In these individual municipality entries, the listing of racial groups has been simplified to present only

the largest—generally those of  percent or more. In short, the municipal entry presents a sketch of the community’s population makeup; the census table provides a more complete picture. In addition, it was decided that, since this book is all about New Jersey, it would be assumed that places named are in New Jersey unless otherwise noted. The bibliographies at the end of the entries suggest additional sources for the reader. We attempted to limit them, as far as possible, to material that is accessible to the public. That said, they have been written keeping in mind that this encyclopedia is intended both for scholars who would like to do more work, and for the general reader.

xv

Municipalities: Atlantic, Cape May, and Cumberland Counties

15

ATLANTIC COUNTY

12

19

7

22

4 5

14

55

13

53 45

54 49

56

43

26

1

25 10

48

9

52 47

20

11

16

50

6

2 8 24

23

51 46

3

21

18 17

44

34 37 42

30

CUMBERLAND COUNTY

35

32 27

33

31 28

CAPE MAY COUNTY

36

39

38

N

0

40 41

5 miles

29

Rutgers, The State University

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26

ATLANTIC Absecon City Atlantic City Brigantine City Buena Boro Buena Vista Twp Corbin City Egg Harbor City Egg Harbor Twp Egg Harbor Twp Egg Harbor Twp Estell Manor City Folsom Boro Galloway Twp Hamilton Twp Hammonton Town Linwood City Longport Boro Margate City Mullica Twp Northfield City Pleasantville City Port Republic City Somers Point City Ventnor City Weymouth Twp Weymouth Twp

27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42

CAPE MAY Avalon Boro Cape May City Cape May Point Boro Dennis Twp Lower Twp Middle Twp North Wildwood City Ocean City Sea Isle City Stone Harbor Boro Upper Twp West Cape May Boro West Wildwood Boro Wildwood City Wildwood Crest Boro Woodbine Boro

43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56

CUMBERLAND Bridgeton City Commercial Twp Deerfield Twp Downe Twp Fairfield Twp Greenwich Twp Hopewell Twp Lawrence Twp Maurice River Twp Millville City Shiloh Boro Stow Creek Twp Upper Deerfield Twp Vineland City

Municipalities: Bergen and Passaic Counties 81

85

33

36

83

47

1

42

71

58

72

43

76

55

28

35

74

40

27 69

68

51

PASSAIC COUNTY

53

71

66

20

79

BERGEN COUNTY

65

48

14

7 26

22

44

84 17 80

54

10 52 38

8

3

63

78 13

82 86 75

61 72 77

N

34

57

21

2

9

46 73

41

24

31

23

62

59

4

15

16

29 25 64 19 50 67 70 30 45 37 49 5 6 56 60 18 11 12 32

0

5

39

miles

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36

BERGEN Allendale Boro Alpine Boro Bergenfield Boro Bogota Boro Carlstadt Boro Cliffside Park Boro Closter Boro Cresskill Boro Demarest Boro Dumont Boro East Rutherford Boro Edgewater Boro Elmwood Park Boro Emerson Boro Englewood City Englewood Cliffs Boro Fair Lawn Boro Fairview Boro Fort Lee Boro Franklin Lakes Boro Garfield City Glen Rock Boro Hackensack City Harrington Park Boro Hasbrouck Heights Boro Haworth Boro Hillsdale Boro Ho-Ho-Kus Boro Leonia Boro Little Ferry Boro Lodi Boro Lyndhurst Twp Mahwah Twp Maywood Boro Midland Park Boro Montvale Boro

37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72

Moonachie Boro New Milford Boro North Arlington Boro Northvale Boro Norwood Boro Oakland Boro Old Tappan Boro Oradell Boro Palisades Park Boro Paramus Boro Park Ridge Boro Ramsey Boro Ridgefield Boro Ridgefield Park Village Ridgewood Village River Edge Boro River Vale Twp Rochelle Park Twp Rockleigh Boro Rutherford Boro Saddle Brook Twp Saddle River Boro South Hackensack Twp South Hackensack Twp South Hackensack Twp Teaneck Twp Tenafly Boro Teterboro Boro Upper Saddle River Boro Waldwick Boro Wallington Boro Washington Twp Westwood Boro Wood-Ridge Boro Woodcliff Lake Boro Wyckoff Twp

71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86

PASSAIC Bloomingdale Boro Clifton City Haledon Boro Hawthorne Boro Little Falls Twp North Haledon Boro Passaic City Paterson City Pompton Lakes Boro Prospect Park Boro Ringwood Boro Totowa Boro Wanaque Boro Wayne Twp West Milford Twp West Paterson Boro

4

BURLINGTON COUNTY

OCEAN COUNTY

3 14

68

7 2 12 30

9

10

38

8

26

55

24

69

47

43 67

34 37 16

22 19

5

52

18

6

31 27

15

25

40

23 11

17

63

54 48

29

28

51

73 62

56

46

70 66

33

45

21 13

71

64

53 39

20 35

65 32 42

41 61 50 60

74

36 1 49

57

Municipalities: Burlington and Ocean Counties

N

75 72

76

59 44

0 58

5 miles

@Rutgers, The State University

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40

BURLINGTON Bass River Twp Beverly City Bordentown City Bordentown Twp Burlington City Burlington Twp Chesterfield Twp Cinnaminson Twp Delanco Twp Delran Twp Eastampton Twp Edgewater Park Twp Evesham Twp Fieldsboro Boro Florence Twp Hainesport Twp Lumberton Twp Mansfield Twp Maple Shade Twp Medford Lakes Boro Medford Twp Moorestown Twp Mount Holly Twp Mount Laurel Twp New Hanover Twp North Hanover Twp Palmyra Boro Pemberton Boro Pemberton Twp Riverside Twp Riverton Boro Shamong Twp Southampton Twp Springfield Twp Tabernacle Twp Washington Twp Westampton Twp Willingboro Twp Woodland Twp Wrightstown Boro

41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76

OCEAN Barnegat Light Boro Barnegat Twp Bay Head Boro Beach Haven Boro Beachwood Boro Berkeley Twp Brick Twp Dover Twp Eagleswood Twp Harvey Cedars Boro Island Heights Boro Jackson Twp Lacey Twp Lakehurst Boro Lakewood Twp Lavallette Boro Little Egg Harbor Twp Long Beach Twp Long Beach Twp Long Beach Twp Long Beach Twp Manchester Twp Mantoloking Boro Ocean Gate Boro Ocean Twp Pine Beach Boro Plumsted Twp Point Pleasant Beach Boro Point Pleasant Boro Seaside Heights Boro Seaside Park Boro Ship Bottom Boro South Toms River Boro Stafford Twp Surf City Boro Tuckerton Boro

29

Municipalities: Camden, Gloucester, and Salem Counties

26

18

8 39

19 2 14 27 51

7

53 59

61

46

17 9 20 1 35 23 16 25 3 4 32 33 60 21 13

62 58

6

15

5 31

57 63

72

38 43

73

78 69

37

45

55

65

10

54

47

24

30

49 70

36

11

56 71

N

34

41

22

42

48

28 12

40

50

CAMDEN COUNTY

77 44 66

76

64 52

67

74

75

68

SALEM COUNTY 0

GLOUCESTER COUNTY

5 miles @Rutgers, The State University

CAMDEN 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39

Audubon Boro Audubon Park Boro Barrington Boro Bellmawr Boro Berlin Boro Berlin Twp Brooklawn Boro Camden City Cherry Hill Twp Chesilhurst Boro Clementon Boro Collingswood Boro Gibbsboro Boro Gloucester City Gloucester Twp Haddon Heights Boro Haddon Twp (east) Haddon Twp (north) Haddon Twp (south) Haddonfield Boro Hi-Nella Boro Laurel Springs Boro Lawnside Boro Lindenwold Boro Magnolia Boro Merchantville Boro Mount Ephraim Boro Oaklyn Boro Pennsauken Twp Pine Hill Boro Pine Valley Boro Runnemede Boro Somerdale Boro Stratford Boro Tavistock Boro Voorhees Twp Waterford Twp Winslow Twp Woodlynne Boro

SALEM

GLOUCESTER 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63

Clayton Boro Deptford Twp East Greenwich Twp Elk Twp Franklin Twp Glassboro Boro Greenwich Twp Harrison Twp Logan Twp Mantua Twp Monroe Twp National Park Boro Newfield Boro Paulsboro Boro Pitman Boro South Harrison Twp Swedesboro Boro Washington Twp Wenonah Boro West Deptford Twp Westville Boro Woodbury City Woodbury Heights Boro Woolwich Twp

64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78

Alloway Twp Carneys Point Twp Elmer Boro Elsinboro Twp Lower Alloways Creek Twp Mannington Twp Oldmans Twp Penns Grove Boro Pennsville Twp Pilesgrove Twp Pittsgrove Twp Quinton Twp Salem City Upper Pittsgrove Twp Woodstown Boro

Municipalities: Essex, Hudson, and Union Counties

7 15 4

21

ESSEX COUNTY

3 20

6

18

13 8

N

HUDSON COUNTY

16 2

30 1

22

31

10 17

UNION COUNTY

5

24

19

25

33

32 29 27

26

12

34

11 9

14

52

28 51

45

53

44

41

42

35

38

49 54

37

40

39

23

48 55

50 46

43

36 47

0

5 miles @Rutgers, The State University

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22

ESSEX Belleville Town Bloomfield Town Caldwell Boro Cedar Grove Twp East Orange City Essex Fells Boro Fairfield Boro Glen Ridge Boro Irvington Town Livingston Twp Maplewood Twp Millburn Twp Montclair Town Newark City North Caldwell Boro Nutley Town Orange City Roseland Boro South Orange Village Verona Boro West Caldwell Boro West Orange Town

23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34

HUDSON Bayonne City East Newark Boro Guttenberg Town Harrison Town Hoboken City Jersey City Kearny Town North Bergen Twp Secaucus Town Union City Weehawken Twp West New York Town

35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55

UNION Berkeley Heights Twp Clark Twp Cranford Twp Elizabeth City Fanwood Boro Garwood Boro Hillside Twp Kenilworth Boro Linden City Mountainside Boro New Providence Boro Plainfield City Rahway City Roselle Boro Roselle Park Boro Scotch Plains Twp Springfield Twp Summit City Union Twp Westfield Town Winfield Twp

Municipalities: Hunterdon, Mercer, and Somerset Counties 13

3

HUNTERDON COUNTY 19

4 24

12 14

2

42

54 46

41

40

18

60 25

59

5

6

45

15

53

48

1 22

55 57

44

10 20

43 50

21

58

11 16

49 9

51

7

8

47

52 56

23

26 17

31

SOMERSET COUNTY

36

32

35

34 33

30

39

N

28 27 37

MERCER COUNTY

38

29

0

5 miles

@Rutgers, The State University

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26

HUNTERDON Alexandria Twp Bethlehem Twp Bloomsbury Boro Califon Boro Clinton Town Clinton Twp Delaware Twp East Amwell Twp Flemington Boro Franklin Twp Frenchtown Boro Glen Gardner Boro Hampton Boro High Bridge Boro Holland Twp Kingwood Twp Lambertville City Lebanon Boro Lebanon Twp Milford Boro Raritan Twp Readington Twp Stockton Boro Tewksbury Twp Union Twp West Amwell Twp

27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39

MERCER East Windsor Twp Ewing Twp Hamilton Twp Hightstown Boro Hopewell Boro Hopewell Twp Lawrence Twp Pennington Boro Princeton Boro Princeton Twp Trenton City Washington Twp West Windsor Twp

40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60

SOMERSET Bedminster Twp Bernards Twp Bernardsville Boro Bound Brook Boro Branchburg Twp Bridgewater Twp Far Hills Boro Franklin Twp Green Brook Twp Hillsborough Twp Manville Boro Millstone Boro Montgomery Twp North Plainfield Boro Peapack Gladstone Boro Raritan Boro Rocky Hill Boro Somerville Boro South Bound Brook Boro Warren Twp Watchung Boro

3

Municipalities: Middlesex and Monmouth Counties

1 22

10

25 17

9 16

5 7 13

20 19

14

77

44

50

11 23 51 4

N

6

45

58 15

24

26

31

46

59

27

21

47

68

40

8 57

66

69

52

18

61

71 12

2

72

39

65 54 38

36

80

55 76 42

MIDDLESEX COUNTY

64

43 67

37 28

49

60

62

63

41

53

30

34 32

48 29

79 75

MONMOUTH COUNTY 0

33

73

78

74 70

35

5

56

miles Rutgers, The State University

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25

MIDDLESEX Carteret Boro Cranbury Twp Dunellen Boro East Brunswick Twp Edison Twp Helmetta Boro Highland Park Boro Jamesburg Boro Metuchen Boro Middlesex Boro Milltown Boro Monroe Twp New Brunswick City North Brunswick Twp Old Bridge Twp Perth Amboy City Piscataway Twp Plainsboro Twp Sayreville Boro South Amboy City South Brunswick Twp South Plainfield Boro South River Boro Spotswood Boro Woodbridge Twp

26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53

MONMOUTH Aberdeen Twp Aberdeen Twp Allenhurst Boro Allentown Boro Asbury Park City Atlantic Highlands Boro Avon By The Sea Boro Belmar Boro Bradley Beach Boro Brielle Boro Colts Neck Twp Deal Boro Eatontown Boro Englishtown Boro Fair Haven Boro Farmingdale Boro Freehold Boro Freehold Twp Gateway Nat’l Rec Area Hazlet Twp Highlands Boro Holmdel Twp Howell Twp Interlaken Boro Keansburg Boro Keyport Boro Little Silver Boro Loch Arbour Village

54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80

Long Branch City Manalapan Twp Manasquan Boro Marlboro Twp Matawan Boro Middletown Twp Millstone Twp Monmouth Beach Boro Neptune City Boro Neptune Twp Ocean Twp Oceanport Boro Red Bank Boro Roosevelt Boro Rumson Boro Sea Bright Boro Sea Girt Boro Shrewsbury Boro Shrewsbury Twp South Belmar Boro Spring Lake Boro Spring Lake Heights Boro Tinton Falls Boro Union Beach Boro Upper Freehold Twp Wall Twp West Long Branch Boro

Municipalities: Morris, Sussex, and Warren Counties

53 63 56 60

61

44 42

48

62

52

SUSSEX COUNTY

50

45 49 55

59 72

54 57

41

46

3

40

14

33 15

67

47

69

43

31

35 51

58

76

2

64

N

25

74 28

75

20 26

71

77

39

36

9

23

24

38

11 7

18

17 13

84

81 70 65

4

5

68

82

10

12 19

83

78

27

22

6

73

WARREN COUNTY

16

1

32 79

80

21

29

37

85 66

8

34

MORRIS COUNTY

30

0

5 miles

Rutgers, The State University

MORRIS COUNTY 1. Boonton Town 2. Boonton Twp 3. Butler Boro 4. Chatham Boro 5. Chatham Twp 6. Chester Boro 7. Chester Twp 8. Denville Twp 9. Dover Town 10. East Hanover Twp 11. Florham Park Boro 12. Hanover Twp 13. Harding Twp 14. Jefferson Twp 15. Kinnelon Boro 16. Lincoln Park Boro 17. Madison Boro 18. Mendham Boro 19 . Mendham Twp

20 . Mine Hill Twp 21 . Montville Twp 22 . Morris Plains Boro 23 . Morris Twp 24 . Morristown Town 25 . Mount Arlington Boro 26 . Mount Olive Twp 27 . Mountain Lakes Boro 28 . Netcong Boro 29 . Parsippany-troy Hills Twp 30 . Passaic Twp 31 . Pequannock Twp 32 . Randolph Twp 33. Riverdale Boro 34 . Rockaway Boro 35 . Rockaway Twp 36 . Roxbury Twp 37. Victory Gardens Boro 38 . Washington Twp 39 . Wharton Boro

SUSSEX COUNTY 40. Andover Boro 41. Andover Twp 42. Branchville Boro 43. Byram Twp 44. Frankford Twp 45. Franklin Boro 46. Fredon Twp 47. Green Twp 48. Hamburg Boro 49. Hampton Twp 50. Hardyston Twp 51. Hopatcong Boro 52. Lafayette Twp 53. Montague Twp 54. Newton Town 55. Ogdensburg Boro 56. Sandyston Twp 57. Sparta Twp 58. Stanhope Boro 59. Stillwater Twp 60. Sussex Boro 61. Vernon Twp 62. Walpack Twp 63. Wantage Twp

WARREN COUNTY 64. Allamuchy Twp 65. Alpha Boro 66. Belvidere Town 67. Blairstown Twp 68. Franklin Twp 69. Frelinghuysen Twp 70. Greenwich Twp 71. Hackettstown Town 72. Hardwick Twp 73. Harmony Twp 74. Hope Twp 75. Independence Twp 76. Knowlton Twp 77. Liberty Twp 78. Lopatcong Twp 79. Mansfield Twp 80. Oxford Twp 81. Phillipsburg Town 82. Pohatcong Twp 83. Washington Boro 84. Washington Twp 85. White Twp

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ENCYCLOPEDIA OF NEW JERSEY

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A A&P. See Great Atlantic and Pacific Tea Company. Abbett, Leon

(b. Oct. , ; d. Dec. ,

). Governor, politician, lawyer, and jurist.

Leon Abbett was one of the ablest and most intriguing men ever to serve as governor of New Jersey. Although he was both a machine boss and a spoils politician, he was also a reform-minded lawmaker of considerable importance. Abbett was born in Philadelphia, the son of Ezekiel Abbett, a hatter, and Sarah Howell. He graduated Central High School in , studied law, and became an attorney in . On the eve of the Civil War, he moved to New York, where he practiced law and entered into a partnership with William Fuller. In , Abbett married Mary Briggs of Philadelphia and set up housekeeping in Hoboken. Two years later, Abbett entered politics and won a seat in the state assembly. Relying on his traditional base of Democratic support in Hudson County, he steadily moved up both the party ranks and civic positions; he served as Speaker of the General Assembly (–) and president of the State Senate (). In  he was elected governor of his adopted state. Although his career on the face of it followed a logical progression, he had long defied the ruling elite, and, even within the Democratic party, he stood against the wind. Affectionately known as the “Great Commoner,’’ Abbett appealed primarily to the deprived urban lower classes and the marginally deprived agricultural yeomanry. He served two terms as governor: first from  to , and again from  to . By capitalizing upon labor unrest, ethnic conflict, and a generation of agrarian discontent, he demonstrated a capacity for leadership that enabled him to arouse enthusiasm among constituencies demoralized by the domination of big business and concentrated wealth. An urban populist reared in the Jacksonian spoils tradition, he voiced the sentiments of the common man beset by the intransigent forces of unrestrained capitalism and special privilege. Undoubtedly, the boldest act of Abbett’s career was his battle to tax the railroads. This audacious venture was fraught with risk. Although he won the protracted battle, he paid a heavy price. The powerful railroads used their political clout to defeat him for the U.S. Senate in . Upon his reelection as governor in , he pushed through a ballot reform law designed to reduce vote fraud.

To right the wrongs of oppressed labor was Abbett’s passion. He initiated a series of laws that improved conditions of industrial employment. He established standards of occupational health and safety, maximum hours, and wage payment in cash rather than scrip. He abolished convict labor and child labor, outlawed the use of Pinkerton detectives in strikes, and eliminated yellow-dog contracts. All were ways in which he sought to improve the workplace for both men and women. He also created a state police force for maintaining industrial peace. After his second defeat for the U.S. Senate in , Abbett was appointed a judge on the state supreme court. He died the following year. DAB. Hogarty, Richard A. Leon Abbett’s New Jersey: The Emergence of the Modern Governor. Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, . ———. “The Political Apprenticeship of Abbett,’’ New Jersey History  (): –.

Leon

Stellhorn, Paul A., and Michael J. Birkner, eds. The Governors of New Jersey, –: Biographical Essays. Trenton: New Jersey Historical Commission, .

See also governor

Richard A. Hogarty

Abbott, Charles Conrad

(b. June ,

; d. July , ). Archaeologist, naturalist,

and author. C. C. Abbott, the son of Timothy Abbott and Susan Conrad, was born in Trenton and received his B.A. from the University of Pennsylvania in  and his M.D. in . During the Civil War he served in the New Jersey National Guard. In , he married Julia Boggs Olden. Abbott and his wife lived on a farm near Trenton, which Abbott called the Three Beeches. While collecting Native American artifacts in Trenton, Abbott found stone hand axes resembling ones unearthed by contemporary archaeologists in Europe. Abbott believed that his finds represented a Paleolithic occupation of the New World coeval with that of Europe’s Old Stone Age. In  he published a book outlining his views titled The Stone Age in New Jersey. Shortly thereafter, Frederick Ward Putnam of Harvard University’s Peabody Museum hired Abbott and later Ernest Volk to continue collecting New Jersey artifacts. Although initially well received, Abbott’s theories came under scrutiny from prominent scholars of the day and were eventually disproven. He remains important as New Jersey’s first archaeologist, the individual who first noted in and around Trenton the extensive archaeological deposits subsequently designated the Abbott Farm National Historic Landmark. For much of his life Abbott supported himself by writing popular books on natural history and archaeology. He also served briefly as the University of Pennsylvania Museum’s first curator of archaeology. C. C. Abbott died in Bristol, Pennsylvania, and is buried in

Trenton’s Riverview Cemetery, near where he believed he had found the remains of Paleolithic man. Joyce, Arthur A., William Sandy, and Sharon Horan. “Dr. Charles Conrad Abbott and the Question of Human Antiquity in the New World.’’ Bulletin of the Archaeological Society of New Jersey  (): –. Kraft, Herbert C. “Dr. Charles Conrad Abbott, New Jersey’s Pioneer Archaeologist.’’ Bulletin of the Archaeological Society of New Jersey  (): –.

See also archaeology

Richard F. Veit

Abbott and Costello.

Stars of burlesque, radio, film, and television, and one of America’s greatest comedy teams. Bud Abbott (b. Oct. , ; d. Apr. , ), born William Alexander Abbott in Asbury Park, moved from New Jersey as a child. Lou Costello (b. Mar. , ; d. Mar. , ), born Lou Cristillo, grew up in Paterson and remained a favorite son long after he left. Abbott and Costello teamed up in  on the burlesque circuit, honing their act in the Costello family’s garage. A typical skit cast Abbott as a well-dressed, smooth-talking con man, and Costello, in his trademark baggy pants, skinny tie, and round hat, as his befuddled sidekick. Their rendition of an old burlesque skit, “Who’s on First?’’ became their signature routine. Their performance on the Kate Smith Hour, a nationally broadcast radio show, in the late s, made Abbott and Costello overnight stars. The routine, in which Abbott attempts to inform Costello of the odd names of baseball players—“Who’s on first, What’s on Second, I Don’t Know is on third’’—endures as a

Bronze statue of Lou Costello, Paterson.

Courtesy The Star-Ledger. 1

2

Abbott v. Burke

metaphor for situations of hopeless confusion. Time magazine named “Who’s on First?’’ the best comedy routine of the twentieth century. After moving to California around , Abbott and Costello appeared in the first of their thirty-six films, A Night in the Tropics. Their next film, Buck Privates, established “the boys’’ as a box-office smash. They also starred in their own radio show and television series. The team routinely inserted references to Paterson and New Jersey into their skits, and several Abbott and Costello movies premiered at Paterson’s Fabian Theater. Occasional feuds and personal tragedy punctuated Abbott and Costello’s long friendship. In  Costello’s baby son and namesake drowned in the family pool in Sherman Oaks, California. Heavy gamblers, Abbott and Costello were forced to pay hefty fines following audits by the Internal Revenue Service. The team broke up in . In , Paterson residents erected a statue of Lou Costello with a baseball bat resting on his shoulder, a nod to “Who’s on First?’’ Costello, Chris, and Raymond Strait. Lou’s on First. New York: St. Martin’s, . Furmanek, Bob, and Ron Palumbo. Abbott and Costello in Hollywood. New York: Perigee, .

Christopher Hann

Abbott v. Burke.

In  the New Jersey Supreme Court again faced the constitutionality of how the state funds its public school system, a question previously addressed in the  Robinson v. Cahill case. Over the course of the next sixteen years the court was asked by several poor urban school districts to declare that the Public School Education Act of  violated the “thorough and efficient’’ clause of the New Jersey constitution. In responding to this claim, the justices realized that they would be in “an area where confrontation between the branches of government [judicial and legislative] is not only a distinct possibility but has been an unfortunate reality.’’ The court noted the existence of judicial opinions from twenty-one states challenging the funding of public education on constitutional grounds. None of the other state court opinions had the unique attribute of this case: “an educational funding system specifically designed to conform to a prior court decision, having been declared constitutional by the Court but now attacked as having failed to achieve the constitutional goal.’’ Thus the court was not able to look elsewhere for an answer, but had to fashion an answer through its interpretation of the state constitution. Despite legislative action, funding and spending disparities between poor urban districts and rich suburban districts had worsened. Although the justices rejected a complete overhaul of New Jersey’s system of financing education, they concluded that the Public School Education Act failed to provide disadvantaged students with the chance to compete. Mindful of the socioeconomic

hardships faced by the urban poor and the impact these hardships have on the quality of education, the justices concluded that these socioeconomic differences increased the need for additional spending. The justices also noted that the level of education offered to students in some of the poorer urban districts was tragically inadequate. These districts suffered by comparison to the richer districts in each of the indicators set forth by the legislature to constitute a thorough and efficient education, such as teacher/student ratios and teacher experience and level of education. The remedy imposed was to amend the Public School Education Act to create “special need’’ districts, “so as to assure that poorer urban districts’ educational funding is substantially equal to that of property-rich districts.’’ Contrary to public perception, the court did not itself create “special need’’ districts, currently classified as “Abbott districts,’’ but relied upon the classification of “urban aid districts’’ by the Department of Community Affairs. The justices instructed the legislature that the means of such funding “cannot depend on the budgeting and taxing decisions of local school boards.’’ The court identified the poorer urban areas; however, the court left it to the legislature and the commissioner of education to add or delete specific school districts based upon spending calculations and formulas. The justices declared the minimum aid provision of the act unconstitutional since this formula was counterequalizing. The sole function of this aid was to enable richer districts to spend even more, “thereby increasing the disparity of educational funding between richer and poorer.’’ Despite the substantial breadth of their ruling, the justices once again declined to address the state equal-protection claim presented by the plaintiffs—that wealth-based disparity is causing educational disparity. Since  there have been six Abbott v. Burke decisions. They have imposed remedies consisting of the creation of thirty Abbott districts, several revisions in the Public School Education Act and Regulations, and the creation of an $. billion Public School Construction Fund (of which $ billion was allocated to the Abbott districts) due to the sixteen-year history of “chronic failure’’ of local districts to attain the statewide academic standards. Despite these decisions, the urban/suburban rift in the New Jersey educational community continues to grow as the state tries to resolve the discrepancies. Pollock, Stewart G. “Celebrating Fifty Years of Judicial Reform under the  New Jersey Constitution.’’ Rutgers Law Journal  (): –. Tractenberg, Paul L. “A Clear and Powerful Voice for Poor Urban Students: Chief Justice Robert Wilentz’s Role in Abbott v. Burke.’’ Rutgers Law Review  (): –.

See also education; Robinson v. Cahill; “thorough and efficient’’ clause

Peter F. Bariso, Jr.

Aberdeen.

.-square-mile township in northernmost Monmouth County. The area was settled in , largely by Scots Presbyterians. First called New Aberdeen, it was part of Middletown Township from  to , when it became Matawan Township. With Matawan Borough, Aberdeen, at the southern periphery of central New Jersey’s clay deposits, has been home to numerous pottery, tile, and brick industries. The area’s former role as Monmouth County’s major manufacturing region was in part a result of its transportation network, including the former Freehold and New York Railroad and the former New York and Long Branch Railroad (now the North Jersey Coast Line), and its location on Matawan Creek (a narrow, now-silted stream). The Cliffwood Beach section attained prominence in the s as a waterfront resort, a role lost to changing recreational patterns and beach erosion. Aberdeen’s character as a residential suburb was solidified in the early s by William J. Levitt’s construction of Strathmore, a development of nearly two thousand houses built in ten sections, which propelled population growth that decade from , to ,. In  Matawan Township voters narrowly chose to change the municipality’s name to Aberdeen to help it develop an identity separate from Matawan Borough. In  Aberdeen’s population of , was  percent white and  percent black. Median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, .

Henderson, Helen. Images of America: Around Matawan and Aberdeen. Dover, NH: Arcadia, . Tiemann, Mrs. Frank. Township of Matawan, – . N.p., n.d.

Randall Gabrielan

abolition.

Efforts to abolish slavery in New Jersey began soon after the Dutch introduced the first slaves. As early as , individual Quakers argued for slavery’s end. In  Quaker John Hepburn penned the first publication in New Jersey opposing slavery. But widespread opposition to slavery was slow in coming, even among the Friends. In  the Friends of the Shrewsbury Quarterly Meeting thought slave buying was wrong and should be prohibited. The leadership of the Philadelphia Yearly Meeting, however, argued that abolition would create “contention and uneasiness’’ among Friends, “which should be carefully avoided.’’ A more liberal Quaker leadership emerged in the s and in  recommended against slaveholding. By , Quakers selling or transferring slaves for any reason but to free them faced disownment, and in  the Philadelphia Yearly Meeting banned slavery completely among its members. The Methodists condemned slavery in  and vowed in  that they would “not cease to seek its destruction, by all wise and prudent

Absecon Lighthouse

Title page of an antislavery pamphlet by William Griffith, president of the New Jersey Society for Promoting the Abolition of Slavery, .

Courtesy Special Collections and University Archives, Rutgers University Libraries, New Brunswick. means.’’ In  the Presbyterian Synod urged the use of “prudent measures to secure the eventual final abolition of slavery in America.’’ By , the Methodists had banned slaveholding among their membership. The colonial government of New Jersey attempted to limit the slave population through import duties passed between  and . In  a petition to the legislature recommended a gradual emancipation plan similar to Pennsylvania’s Act of , and an abolition society soon formed at Burlington. Legislation was passed in  to prevent the importation of slaves, to authorize their manumission, and to protect them from abuse. In the same year, another abolition society was organized in Trenton. Gov. William Livingston urged the legislature in  to take steps toward eventual emancipation. Another society had formed in Princeton that year, and in , while a member of the legislature, John Witherspoon, president of the College of New Jersey (now Princeton University), introduced another plan for gradual abolition. The New Jersey Abolition Society was organized in  to coordinate all antislavery activity in the state. A gradual emancipation act introduced in the legislature in  failed by one vote. Nevertheless, the Abolition Society’s success with strategically engaged lawsuits and intense lobbying began to erode slavery’s weakening base of support. When a constituent branch of the society was formed in Trenton in , its members successfully carried the fight into Hunterdon and Sussex counties, where resistance to abolition was strong. Victory came in , when the

legislature passed an act for the gradual abolition of slavery. Having achieved its primary goal of an abolition law, the Abolition Society went into a rapid decline. The Burlington society’s minutes end in , and only the Trenton society continued to operate until the New Jersey Society for Promoting the Abolition of Slavery was officially declared dissolved in . A slave-trading scandal in New Brunswick in  provoked renewed antislavery efforts. Led by William Griffith, a new abolition society focused its energies on protecting fugitives and combating the illicit slave trade. By the s, it had given way to the New Jersey branch of the American Anti-Slavery Society, which strongly denounced the gradualist methods of its predecessors and demanded an immediate end to slavery. New Jersey’s first abolitionist newspaper began in Boonton in , and in the same year abolitionist lawyers unsuccessfully argued before the New Jersey Supreme Court that the preamble to the state’s new constitution abolished slavery outright. A final blow came when a new abolition law passed by the legislature in  ended slavery, though in name only. By , the abolition movement in New Jersey was all but dead. American Convention for Promoting the Abolition of Slavery and Improving the Condition of the African Race. Minutes, Constitution, Addresses, Memorials, Resolutions, Reports, Committees and Antislavery Tracts, –. Vols.  and . New York: Bergman, . Bloomfield, Joseph, comp. Cases Adjudged in the Supreme Court of New-Jersey Relative to the Manumission of Negroes and Others Holden in Bondage. Burlington: Isaac Neale, . Hodges, Graham Russell. Slavery and Freedom in the Rural North: African Americans in Monmouth County, New Jersey, –. Madison, WI: Madison House, .

Scott D. Peters

Abraham Clark House. Built in , this dwelling in Roselle Borough is a replica of the home of Abraham Clark, a signer of the Declaration of Independence. The original farmhouse was destroyed by fire at the turn of the twentieth century. The reconstruction, commissioned by the Abraham Clark Chapter of the Sons of the American Revolution and the Daughters of the American Revolution, was based on photographs and anecdotal evidence of former owners and residents. The building serves as a meeting hall and memorial for the SAR and the DAR, with one room set aside as a museum, displaying items that belonged to Clark, as well as objects of historical interest. Mary McAleer Balkun

Absecon.

Absecon was a “resort town’’ for its early American Indian visitors. Members of the Lenape tribe came here during the summers. They called it Absegami, which, according to historians, has more than one translation. One was “little sea water,’’ and another “place of the swans.’’ The Indians not only fished and prepared their catches here for winter use but also gathered seashells to be used as money. Absecon’s first non-Indian settler was Peter White, who built his home there in . By  Absecon was a busy seaport, with shipbuilding as its major industry. In  the Friendship Saltworks was established, and salt-making soon became Absecon’s biggest industry. Absecon was chartered as a town in  and incorporated as a city on March , , when it was set off from the towns of Galloway and Egg Harbor. For most of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries residents earned their livings working in Atlantic City’s resort hotels. Currently, for the most part, they work in Atlantic City’s casinos. Although Absecon has business sections along Route  and Route , the city today is mostly residential, with more than , households and a  population of ,. Eighty-three percent of its population was white and  percent was Asian. The median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Ewing, Sarah W. R., and Robert McMullin. Along Absecon Creek; a History of Early Absecon, New Jersey. Absecon: National Publishing, . Shaw, H. Leslie, ed. Municipal Reference Guide: New Jersey—Southern Edition. Shrewsbury: National Resources Directories, .

Jerome E. Klein

Absecon Lighthouse.

See also slavery

.-square-mile city in Atlantic County, two miles west of Absecon Bay and five miles west of Atlantic City. Although never a modern resort like its neighbor, Atlantic City,

3

The Absecon Lighthouse is located between Pacific and Rhode Island avenues in Atlantic City. Lieutenant George Meade (who later achieved military fame in the Civil War) played a role in the design and construction of Barnegat Lighthouse and signed the surveys and plans for Absecon. Work began on the lighthouse in , and it was first illuminated the night of January , . A first-order fixed Fresnel lens intensified the light from Funck’s style oil lamps so that the lighthouse cast a beam of white light that was visible up to twenty miles at sea. At  feet tall to the focal plane of the lens, the lighthouse is the equivalent of a sixteen-story building. Visitors climb  steps to the base of the light platform, and there are  more steps to the lightroom. The lighthouse is the only first-order lighthouse in New Jersey with its original lens still in place. Daniel Scull was the first keeper, appointed on November , , and was paid an annual salary of $. The lighthouse was decommissioned in  and turned over to the state of New Jersey. The Inlet Public/Private Association currently operates it.

4

Academy of Medicine of New Jersey

Gately, Bill. Sentinels of the Shore: A Guide to the Lighthouses and Lightships of New Jersey. Harvey Cedars: Down the Shore Publishing, . Holland, Francis Ross. America’s Lighthouses: Their Illustrated History since . Brattleboro, VT: Stephen Green Press, . Veasey, David. Guarding New Jersey’s Shore. Charleston, SC: Arcadia Publishing, .

See also lighthouses

Kim M. Ruth

Academy of Medicine of New Jersey. The Academy of Medicine of New Jersey (AMNJ), located in Lawrenceville, is the umbrella organization for New Jersey medical and medical-specialty groups that deliver health services and medical education. The AMNJ was founded in  and is a teaching branch of the Medical Society of New Jersey. Under the auspices of the Accrediting Council for Continuing Medical Education, the AMNJ designs and sponsors continuing medical education courses for physicians, dentists, and supporting health care providers. The AMNJ also assists in the establishment of medical libraries and archives and presents awards for achievement in the field of medicine. See also Medical Society of New Jersey; medicine and public health

Pamela Cooper

Adams,

Harriet

Stratemeyer

series, revealed in an interview that she was Carolyn Keene. Adams was believed to be the sole author of the books until it was revealed in , during a lawsuit involving the syndicate, that there were up to eight other people who had written under the Carolyn Keene pseudonym. Adams was still writing and running the Stratemeyer Syndicate full time when she died at age eighty-nine in . Before Adams died, the Nancy Drew books alone had sold  million copies in the United States and hundreds of millions of copies in eighteen languages around the world. Adams was a world traveler, an avid doll collector, and the owner, with her husband, of two New Jersey farms. According to her daughter, Adams believed strongly that a woman should not be dependent upon a husband and that education was the best way to prepare for life. Widely honored, Adams was named  “Mother of the Year.’’ In  Adams endowed a chair for the study of children’s literature at Wellesley College. Mainiero, Lina, ed. American Women Writers: A Critical Reference Guide from Colonial Times to the Present. Vol. . New York: Unger, . Women’s Project of New Jersey. Past and Promise: Lives of New Jersey Women. Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, .

See also literature

Kathy B. Roche

(b. Dec. , ; d. Mar. , ). Author and

businesswoman. Harriet Stratemeyer Adams, the daughter of Edward L. Stratemeyer, a born storyteller who initiated the Rover Boys series in , was graduated from Wellesley College in . In the year between graduation and her marriage to Russell Vroom Adams, Harriet edited manuscripts written by authors employed by her father’s syndicated book firm. In  Adams and her sister inherited the Stratemeyer Syndicate, which had published several hundred juvenile books in several series, including the Rover Boys, Tom Swift, the Bobbsey Twins, the Hardy Boys, and Nancy Drew series. Adams hired a nurse to care for her four children and began to edit her father’s remaining manuscripts. The syndicate’s series were created using a very successful, simple formula. First, the name of the book was chosen, and a general theme developed. Then Adams or one of her three partners created each plot and a detailed outline, insisting on clean, wholesome stories, full of suspense, humor, and action. These outlines were given to freelance writers (who agreed to relinquish all royalty and authorship rights for a flat fee) who would then flesh out and add dialogue to the novels. The first page was designed to hook the reader, the last page of each chapter to be a cliff-hanger. The text was revised and then edited and checked for accuracy and consistency with other books in the series by at least three syndicate employees. In the s Adams, who by then had written several books in the Nancy Drew and other

Addams,

Charles

(b.

Jan.

,

;

d. Sept. , ). Cartoonist. Westfield-born Charles Addams was best known for the series of Addams Family cartoons he drew for The New Yorker. Created in , the ghoulish family lived in an old Victorian house modeled on one that Addams was fascinated with as a child. The Addams Family appeared in The New Yorker dozens of times over a period of decades. In , a television sitcom based on the Addams Family was aired; the characters were also adapted into an animated series, as well as two feature films and many books. In addition to the Addams family, Addams created over thirteen hundred drawings during his career, all of them using a macabre twist to poke fun at the mundane. His dark humor took current or everyday events and commented on them in cartoons that were funny as well as foreboding. He indulged his preoccupation with the eerie and received inspiration for new drawings by spending time in a local cemetery trying to imagine what the people in the graves looked like. Another of Addams’s hobbies was collecting and racing automobiles. He died in Westfield, while sitting in his Audi . Addams, Charles. The World of Charles Addams. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, .

Sharon Hazard

Admiral Farragut Academy.

This naval prep school was located in Pine Beach from  to . The first school of its kind

in the country, the academy was named for Civil War admiral David G. Farragut, who was renowned for his  battle cry, “Damn the torpedoes! Full speed ahead!’’ At its height the school enrolled  students, but by , the number had declined significantly. Efforts to increase the student body by admitting day students, and then women, failed to preserve the New Jersey facility, and today only the campus established in St. Petersburg, Florida, in  remains.

Maxine N. Lurie

ADP.

See Automatic Data Processing.

Adult Diagnostic and Treatment Center. The Adult Diagnostic and Treatment Center (ADTC) was the first freestanding prison in the United States devoted exclusively to sex offenders. Authorized by statewide referendum in , the ADTC opened in  in Avenel, near Rahway State Prison. It is both a therapeutic prison, in which sex offenders receive psychological treatment, and a diagnostic center. During the s, rising rates of convictions for sex crimes and longer sentences generated severe overcrowding and a construction boom at the ADTC. In the s, the ADTC came under increasing attack because of crimes committed by released convicts, but it survived. Cole, Simon A. “From the Sexual Psychopath Statute to ‘Megan’s Law’: Psychiatric Knowledge in the Diagnosis, Treatment, and Adjudication of Sex Criminals in New Jersey, –.’’ Journal of the History of Medicine  (): –. Knoop, Fay Honey. Retraining Adult Sex Offenders: Methods and Models. Orwell, VT: Safer Society Press, .

See also mental hospitals

Simon A. Cole

Advisory Commission on the Status of Women. The Advisory Commission on the Status of Women is an eleven-member board under the New Jersey Department of Community Affairs’ Division on Women. The commission advises the division regarding policies and programs affecting women and coordinates county and municipal advisory commissions. Members serve threeyear terms, and are appointed by the governor with the consent of the senate. The commission was first established in  as the Governor’s Commission on the Status of Women, with Doris Hubatka, former president of the New Jersey Business and Professional Women’s Clubs, elected as the first chair. It was later subsumed under the Division on Women, Department of Community Affairs, with passage of the Division on Women Act of . New Jersey Department of Community Affairs Programs Book, –. Trenton: New Jersey Department of Community Affairs, Office of Internal Services/Grants Management, .

Joann E. Donatiello

African Americans

Advocates for New Jersey History. A not-for-profit educational organization, the Advocates for New Jersey History was incorporated in  to promote and support the work of the history community in New Jersey. In  the Advocates successfully spearheaded the effort to keep funding for history services in the state budget. The organization worked to support the efforts of the Task Force on New Jersey History and developed a plan for expansion of history services statewide. The organization sponsors the History Issues Convention each year, educates the public about history, and works to promote New Jersey’s history services to state and local government.

Dorothy W. Hartman

affirmative action.

When affirmative action programs were developed in the s and s, they were intended to remedy past discriminatory actions and patterns of inequality in employment and education. The first program, which was developed by President Richard Nixon under the Office for Contract Compliance Programs (OFCCP), aimed at reducing African American unemployment in an attempt to quell urban unrest. In the private sector, affirmative action is required only when an employer has a substantial contract with either the federal government or, in some states like New Jersey, with a state or local government. In New Jersey, the state treasurer formulates and administers these requirements. Affirmative action plans, however, have come under increasing scrutiny in the courts, and in some cases they have been struck down as violations of equal-protection or statutory antidiscrimination provisions. For example, in , the affirmative action plan adopted by the New Jersey Casino Control Commission, which established goals and laid out plans for the employment of women and minorities, was struck down by a federal district court as running afoul of equal protection. Affirmative action law in the area of public education also continues to be in flux. In its  decision in University of California v. Bakke, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled that state universities could use race as one factor in admissions decisions, but could not employ quotas. Here the Court established that affirmative action plans had to pass muster under the strict scrutiny standard, and that states had to establish that these plans furthered a compelling state interest and that this interest could not be achieved without them. Later court decisions have disagreed about whether an interest in racial and ethnic diversity is sufficiently important to be deemed compelling, as was debated in the  Supreme Court cases against the University of Michigan. Concluding the widely publicized proceedings, the Supreme Court of the United States upheld the right of universities to consider race in

admissions procedures in order to achieve a diverse student body. Some have argued that affirmative action programs will continue to come under fire, not only because of the judiciary’s ongoing hostility to all racial and ethnic classifications, but also because changes in immigration and racial and ethnic identification and increased intermarriage are blurring traditional demographic categories. See also discrimination; educational equity

Suzanne U. Samuels

AFL.

See American Federation of Labor.

African

Americans. For African Americans, New Jersey has been at various times a place of oppression and a place of sanctuary. Although the state did not fully abolish slavery until after the Civil War, free blacks had established their own communities in the early s, and runaway slaves found a highway to freedom through New Jersey’s Underground Railroad routes. The duality of the black experience in New Jersey continued into the twentieth century as well. New Jersey, like other northern states, provided opportunity to the descendants of southern slaves looking for more economic security, wider participation in politics, and greater personal freedom than possible in the legally segregated South. African Americans progressed in this more liberal atmosphere, but not without a struggle. New Jersey’s efforts to ensure racial equality were tentative and gradual. Among the northern colonies, New Jersey and New York had the largest populations of slaves. As early as , the Dutch West India Company began importing Africans into its New Netherland colony, where they worked on fortifications and other projects. After the British forced the Dutch to surrender the colony in  and renamed it New York, many Dutch farmers began to migrate with their slaves into the New Jersey counties of Bergen, Middlesex, and northern Monmouth. New Jersey’s first constitution (), “The Concessions and Agreements of the Lords Proprietors,’’ encouraged the importation of African slaves by providing a land grant totaling  acres for every slave imported. In succeeding years, the grant was reduced to  and then  acres. During the first half of the eighteenth century, thousands of blacks were brought into New Jersey and New York from Barbados and Jamaica. The black population increased from , out of a total New Jersey population of , in  to , out of , by . In the eighteenth century, New Jersey’s African workforce was employed in a variety of occupations commensurate with the colony’s diverse economy. Black males toiled in agricultural work, but in winter months were often hired out for nonfarming jobs. Black

5

women often provided domestic labor. In addition to farm and domestic tasks, black labor supported such enterprises as salt works and tanneries. Slave laborers could be found at the ironworks of Charles Read in Burlington County and at the Andover ironworks in Sussex County. Copper ore mined by slaves on the lands of the Schuyler family in Bergen County proved a lucrative enterprise. Even the Lambertville ferry in Hunterdon County used black labor. Some blacks became skilled artisans and entrepreneurs after obtaining their freedom. In West Jersey, where members of the Quaker religion encouraged manumission, a free black population began to emerge. In Burlington County, for example, two former slaves operated successful businesses: Cyrus Bustill opened a bakery and Caesar Murray ran a shoemaking shop. Although slaves in New Jersey may have worked in more varied occupations and perhaps had a greater chance for manumission than their southern counterparts, the reality is that most blacks in the colony endured an oppressive bondage maintained by regulation and violence. As in the other colonies, slaves in New Jersey resorted to various forms of resistance, from the destruction of farm tools and animals, to flight, to conspiracies to rebel. In , fearful of the spread of rebellion after the slave insurrection in New York City in , New Jersey authorities tightened the laws regulating slavery in their colony and enacted duties on slave importations to limit the size of the black population. Earlier laws in  and  had limited blacks trading with others and black access to guns. A rash of fires in New York City in  led to a belief that blacks were attempting to burn down the city; when several barns in Hackensack were destroyed by fire, a hysterical reaction culminated in the conviction and burning alive of three black New Jerseyans. The fortunes of Africans in New Jersey gradually improved in the eighteenth century. Quakers like John Woolman and John Hepburn proselytized among their coreligionists about the incompatibility of slavery and Christianity, and the influence of the democratic rhetoric of the American Revolution concerning the inalienable rights of men convinced enough New Jersey legislators to support a law in  that provided for gradual emancipation. Passage of this law may have been influenced by black participation in the Revolutionary War. Despite the Continental Congress’s decision in  to exclude blacks, both slave and free, from the Continental Army, New Jersey’s Militia Act of  allowed the enlistment of free blacks, and the state’s Militia Act of  did not exclude free blacks or slaves. Oliver Cromwell, a slave from Burlington County, served in the New Jersey Continental Line, and a free black, James Array of Readington, joined the Continental Line and the Hunterdon County militia. Blacks

African Americans

6

African Americans: Percentage of Total Population 1790 2000 1790

0

20 Miles

1870

0.0 - 4.0 4.1 - 8.0 8.1 - 12.0 12.1 - 16.0 16.1 - 20.0

1970

1930

0.0 - 2.5 2.6 - 5.0 5.1 - 7.5 7.6 - 10.0 10.1 - 12.5

2000

0.0 - 3.0 3.1 - 6.0 6.1 - 9.0 9.1 - 12.0 12.1 - 15.0

Essex, Union, Camden, and Hudson counties accounted for 53.4 percent of New Jersey's black population in 2000. The largest increases in the state's black population during the 1990s occurred in Union, Middlesex, Essex, and Camden counties (a statewide gain of 10.1%).

Population by Race, 2000

White 73%

Black 14% Asian 6% Other 7%

0.0 - 5.0 5.1 - 10.0 10.1 - 15.0 15.1 - 20.0 30.0

0.0 - 5.0 5.1 - 10.0 10.1 - 15.0 15.1 - 20.0 41.0

Source: U.S. Census Bureau http://www.census.gov

For the first time, Americans were allowed to identify themselves as members of more than one race on their census form. The Census 2000 data by race are, therefore, not directly comparable with data from previous censuses. @Rutgers, The State University

even served with British forces, hoping that a British victory might result in their freedom. Pro-British blacks played an important role in Loyalist raids on the East Jersey coast. Ty(e), a black man with the title of colonel, frequently commanded blacks in raids in the Sandy Hook area.

In the years following the Revolution, the condition of blacks improved, but they were still viewed as a people apart. Some of the divisions and compromises at the  Constitutional Convention in Philadelphia reflected the developing abolitionist sentiment in the North, which led to the creation of the New

Jersey Society for Promoting the Abolition of Slavery in  and New Jersey’s eventual passage of a gradual abolition law in . That law, deferring to the economic interests of slaveholders, did not confer immediate emancipation. Slaves born on or after July , , would be free only after they came of age.

African Americans Three years later, the state passed a law excluding blacks and women from the franchise. Meanwhile, the Rev. Robert Finley of Basking Ridge played an important part in the formation of the American Colonization Society (ACS) in . Believing a multiracial society based on racial harmony and equality to be impossible, the members of the ACS supported the repatriation of America’s black population to Africa. The New Jersey chapter of the ACS purchased a ship, the Saluda, and , acres of land in Liberia in  to establish a New Jersey settlement. Perhaps not surprisingly, colonization never attracted a significant portion of the black population. Of the , blacks who settled in Liberia between  and , only  were from New Jersey. Blacks at an anticolonization meeting in Newark in  gave Samuel E. Cornish, pastor of the First Presbyterian Church in Newark, and Theodore S. Wright, a Presbyterian minister from New York, the task of drafting a letter explaining that large-scale resettlement of blacks would leave too few advocates for their southern brethren still in slavery. Despite the political and economic limitations that still burdened blacks, emancipation in New Jersey set the stage for the emergence of an increasingly important free black population. Freedom brought the ability to establish churches with black ministers and deacons. By , African Methodist Episcopal (AME) churches were flourishing in Princeton and Trenton, and the first African Methodist Episcopal Zion (AME Zion) congregation, the Clinton Memorial Church, was founded in Newark in . The first black abolitionist society in the state grew out of a meeting in Newark in  that formed an auxiliary of William Lloyd Garrison’s American Anti-Slavery Society. Reflecting the growth of black activism, the first statewide convention of blacks met in Trenton’s AME Zion Church in  to petition the state legislature to overturn the continued exclusion of the black population from the franchise under the revised state constitution of . In attendance was one of the state’s most distinguished blacks, Dr. John S. Rock, physician, dentist, and the first black attorney to practice before the U.S. Supreme Court. Opposition to racism and slavery was expressed beyond protest meetings. While employed as a cook in a Cape May hotel in the summer of , Harriet Tubman, an escaped slave from Maryland, worked clandestinely as a conductor on the Underground Railroad, helping slaves from Delaware and Maryland to escape across Delaware Bay to Cape May. Similarly, William Still, a New Jersey–born black abolitionist in Philadelphia, played a major role on the Underground Railroad as the head of the General Vigilance Committee, which offered financial and other aid to runaway slaves, many of whom passed through New Jersey. His  account, The Underground Railroad, vividly records this story of courage

and sacrifice. Some of the escapees who reached New Jersey along the Underground Railroad settled in the state and helped to establish a number of all-black towns, including Skunk Hollow in Bergen County, Timbuctoo in Burlington County, Lawnside in Camden County, and Gouldtown in Cumberland County. The efforts of abolitionists and conductors on the Underground Railroad contributed to the sectional tensions that ultimately culminated in the Civil War and emancipation. Blacks played a significant role in their own liberation, enthusiastically joining the Union ranks. Some , blacks can be counted among New Jersey’s , Civil War soldiers, and  of the state’s black troops died. Their sacrifice was not wholeheartedly appreciated in a state where many residents opposed Lincoln’s  Emancipation Proclamation, mistrusted the midwar admission of black soldiers into the Union army, voted against Lincoln in both  and , and resented the migration of blacks into the state. Hostility toward the improved status of blacks can be seen in New Jersey’s official reactions to postwar constitutional amendments: in  the legislature rejected the Thirteenth Amendment, which abolished slavery, and in  the Democrat-controlled legislature rescinded the previous Republican legislature’s passage of the Fourteenth Amendment, which provided citizenship to freedmen. In  the legislature even refused to ratify the Fifteenth Amendment, which extended the franchise to men of all races. Enough other states approved the amendment, however, and Thomas Mundy of Perth Amboy became the first African American in New Jersey to vote under the Fifteenth Amendment. Racial progress was also advanced with the passage in  of a state law prohibiting the exclusion of children from public schools because of race, religion, or nationality. The state supreme court upheld the law in , when the Rev. Jeremiah H. Pierce brought suit against Burlington City for its refusal to admit his students to white schools. In that same year, the state passed a civil rights act guaranteeing equal access to public accommodations under penalty of fines and damages paid to the victim. Nonetheless, public schools in South Jersey remained segregated for many more decades, and establishments continued to bar black patrons. Subscribing to the philosophy of self-sufficiency advocated by Booker T. Washington, the Rev. Walter A. Rice of the AME church founded Ironsides School, which became known as the Manual Training and Industrial School for Colored Youth at Bordentown when the state took it over in . The outbreak of World War I in  created a demand for labor that could not be filled entirely by European immigrants. Southern blacks migrated in huge numbers to northern cities, looking for work in factories. New Jersey’s black population increased from

7

, in  to , by . In their search for housing, the newly urban blacks were generally confined to former workingclass districts, like Newark’s old Third Ward. Amid this ghettoization of the black population, new black newspapers, fraternal associations, and businesses developed, such as the Apex Beauty Products Company, founded in Atlantic City by Sara Spencer Washington. The expanding black population also supported the rise of black politicians to elective office. In  Walter G. Alexander, a Republican, became the first black man elected to the New Jersey Assembly. These gains, however, were largely overshadowed by the heavy toll of the Great Depression. The rate of black unemployment by ,  percent, was almost twice as high as that for the state as a whole. By ,  percent of all New Jersey families on relief were black. Still worse, a survey by the New Jersey Conference of Social Work () revealed that  percent of employers excluded qualified black workers from better jobs and opportunities available to white workers. Under these conditions, the black vote nationally swung to the Democratic party in  for the first time, and Guy Moorhead was elected as the first black Democrat to the New Jersey Assembly. Following the nation’s declaration of war in , nearly twenty-five thousand black New Jerseyans served in the armed forces. At the same time, still more southern blacks sought jobs in the defense industries in northern states. Between  and , New Jersey’s black population increased by more than  percent, to ,. The successful national movement to pressure President Franklin D. Roosevelt to issue an executive order in  banning racial discrimination by companies with defense contracts set the precedent for postwar national and state civil rights legislation. In  New Jersey passed an act to forbid racial discrimination in employment. Two years later, a new state constitution, drafted under the liberal leadership of Gov. Alfred E. Driscoll, prohibited segregation in the public schools and state militia. The Freemen Act, written with the help of officials from the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People and introduced by Assemblywoman Grace Freemen in , banned racial discrimination in public accommodations and public places. This act and others laid the legal foundation for combating racial discrimination within the state. The gains and limitations of state and national civil rights legislation became apparent in the s, as racial progress failed to keep pace with rising expectations for employment, housing, and political influence. Racial polarization and interracial divisions along class lines exploded in the  Newark riots and Black Power Conference in Newark. Those low points were followed by steady gains, as the growing black middle class acquired better

8

African Methodist Episcopal Church

jobs, education, and status through hard work and the strengthening of civil rights legislation. In  Kenneth Gibson became the first black mayor of Newark; the Rev. S. Howard Woodson, Jr., was selected as speaker of the New Jersey Assembly in ; and Daniel Payne was elected as the state’s first black congressman in . Yet, far too many of the state’s African American families are locked in a cycle of poverty. In –, the median income of white families in New Jersey was $,, while for black families it was only $,. Blacks were more than twice as likely to be unemployed as whites in . Racial profiling by state police remained a troubling issue at the turn of the twenty-first century. Progress has been made, but even more needs to be made before equality is reality. Greene, L. A. “A History of African-Americans in New Jersey.’’ Journal of the Rutgers University Libraries  (June ): –. Price, Clement Alexander, comp. and ed. A Freedom Not Far Distant: A Documentary History of AfroAmericans in New Jersey. Newark: New Jersey Historical Society, . Wright, Giles R. Afro-Americans in New Jersey History: A Short History. Trenton: New Jersey Historical Commission, . Wright, Marion Manola Thompson. The Education of Negroes in New Jersey. New York: Bureau of Publications, Teachers College, Columbia University, .

See also abolition; civil rights; ethnicity

Larry A. Greene

African Methodist Episcopal Church. The nation’s oldest black religious denomination, the African Methodist Episcopal (AME) Church was founded in  in Philadelphia by Richard Allen (–), its first bishop. Born a slave in Philadelphia, Allen was raised in Dover, Delaware, where his family had been sold to another slave owner. By his early twenties, with the permission of his owner, he had taught himself to read and write and had become a preacher in the Methodist Society. Returning to Philadelphia after purchasing his freedom, he served as a wagon driver in the American Revolution, and continued to preach. After the war he became an itinerant preacher; South Jersey was included in his travels. He returned in  to Philadelphia, where, in , responding to the discriminatory racial practices of white Methodists, he helped form the Free African Society, and in  established the Bethel Church, the first congregation in what would become the AME Church. Because of its proximity to Philadelphia and Allen’s early preaching efforts in South Jersey, some of the earliest AME churches are found in New Jersey. For example, the Mount Pisgah congregation of Salem, generally considered New Jersey’s oldest black church (established around ), was one of five congregations present at the  founding conference of the AME Church in Philadelphia.

(Most likely, however, it was the Salem circuit as a whole, which included congregations in Springtown and Bushtown, that was represented at this initial conference.) From this early period down to the present, New Jersey has remained an AME Church stronghold; it is part of the denomination’s First Episcopal District, which has its headquarters in Philadelphia. Lincoln, C. Eric, and Lawrence H. Mamiya. The Black Church in the African American Experience. Durham, NC: Duke University Press, . Smith, Edward D. Climbing Jacob’s Ladder: The Rise of Black Churches in Eastern American Cities, – . Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press, .

See also African Americans; religion

Giles R. Wright

African Methodist Episcopal Zion Church. Organized in  by its first bishop, James Varick (–), the African Methodist Episcopal (AME) Zion Church is the nation’s second oldest and second largest black Methodist denomination. Varick, whose father was born and raised in Hackensack, established the Zion Church in  in his native New York City in protest against the segregated seating provided for black people in the Methodist Episcopal Church, the denomination that had licensed him to preach. New York City’s closeness to New Jersey enabled the AME Zion Church to spread quickly to New Jersey. One of the denomination’s oldest churches, and perhaps the oldest black congregation in Newark, is the Clinton Memorial AME Zion Church, established in . Paul Robeson, one of New Jersey’s most illustrious natives, provides another important New Jersey connection with the AME Zion Church. Robeson’s father, following his pastorate at Princeton’s Witherspoon Street Presbyterian Church, joined the AME Zion denomination and served as the pastor of two of its New Jersey congregations: Westfield’s Saint Luke’s AME Zion Church and Somerville’s Saint Thomas AME Zion Church. The life of New Jerseyan Florence Spearing Randolph illustrates the opportunities for women in the AME Zion Church. Ordained a deacon and an elder in  and , respectively, she was one of the first black women to receive such authority. One of the first black women pastors as well, she served Summit’s Wallace Chapel AME Zion Church from  to . Lincoln, C. Eric, and Lawrence H. Mamiya. The Black Church in the African American Experience. Durham, NC: Duke University Press, . Smith, Edward D. Climbing Jacob’s Ladder: The Rise of Black Churches in Eastern American Cities, – . Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press, . Walls, William J. The African Methodist Episcopal Zion Church. Charlotte, NC: A.M.E. Zion Publishing House, .

See also African Americans; religion

Giles R. Wright

Africans. In the s, following the liberation of many former European colonies, Africans started emigrating in large numbers to the United States, seeking political freedom, economic opportunity, and better education. Many of these immigrants settled in New Jersey, owing to the state’s close proximity to New York City and Philadelphia. The U.S. Bureau of the Census reported that in , , Africans lived in metropolitan areas of the state, representing . percent of all inhabitants who were born overseas or born in the United States of foreign or mixed parentage. These African immigrants originated in North Africa, the Union of South Africa (now South Africa), and other parts of the continent. By  there were , Africans residing in New Jersey, and by  the number had reached ,, a jump of over  percent. The number of African immigrants in New Jersey continues to grow. They arrive from Morocco, Egypt, Liberia, Sierra Leone, Guinea, Ghana, Ethiopia, and Ivory Coast. In addition to their native African languages, they speak English, French, Spanish, Portuguese, and Arabic. Their religious affiliations include Islam, Christianity (Catholic, Presbyterian, Methodist, Jehovah’s Witness), and Judaism (a small number from Ethiopia). Some are employed as unskilled laborers, fabricators, operators, and service workers; others are skilled medical doctors, lawyers, university professors, teachers, writers, engineers, artists, and administrators and managers. When they settle in New Jersey, most African immigrants tend to choose urban areas (Newark, Jersey City, Trenton, and Atlantic City), where they can more easily obtain employment and housing. See also ethnicity Edward Lama Wonkeryor

Afro-American Historical and Cultural Society Museum. In , Thomas Taylor, president of the Jersey City Branch of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP), initiated the idea of having an exhibit on AfroAmerican history and culture for Black History Month. Theodore Brunson, with Nora Fant and Virginia Dunnaway, formed the Historical and Cultural Committee to fulfill that mission with the assistance of the NAACP. In , the committee found permanent space for a museum as a separate nonprofit organization housed on the second floor in the Greenville Branch of the Jersey City Free Public Library. The museum has galleries for lectures, special exhibits, and a permanent collection of material culture of New Jersey’s African Americans, as well as African artifacts. The collection includes memorabilia of the Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters (the nation’s first African American labor union) and the civil rights movement, documents regarding

agriculture the slave trade and the Underground Railroad, and other items reflecting the contributions of African Americans to the state’s history. See also museums

Carmela Ascolese Karnoutsos

agriculture.

Native Americans (the Lenape) had been growing domesticated plants in New Jersey for several hundred years before the arrival of European settlers. Corn, beans, and squash were their most important crops. Corn, because of its high yields, was especially favored by the early colonists. They initially adopted Native American agricultural techniques, such as growing the corn in hills and clearing land for crops by slashing the bark of trees to kill them (rather than cutting them down), allowing sunlight to penetrate to the tilled earth. The first recorded colonial farmer was Aert Van Putten, who in  leased land at what is now Hoboken. Thus began an influx of exotic domesticated plants and animals with which New Jersey farmers have continued to experiment. Other Dutch farmers followed Van Putten, but withdrew due to hostilities with the Lenape. The Dutch returned in , and after the English conquest of New Netherland in  a great influx of farmers of various European origins arrived, along with slaves (especially in Dutch-settled areas) and free blacks. Unlike the Lenape, who were subsistence farmers and also depended on hunting, fishing, and gathering, these settlers were commercially oriented from the outset. They were expected to pay taxes and desired European imports, and thus had to produce a marketable surplus. The areas first settled reflected this commercial orientation, with their proximity to navigable waterways and the better soils. The Piedmont and Inner Coastal Plain rapidly filled up, while the poor soils of the readily accessible Outer Coastal Plain were generally avoided. Agriculture in early New Jersey was influenced by several factors. The environment was a major one—New Jersey’s long, warm summers were especially favorable to corn, for example. The cultural backgrounds of the settlers and the markets they hoped to supply were also important. Because early New Englanders settled in groups and tended to have rather small farms, they needed a crop that would return high monetary yields per unitarea cultivated. Another major factor was the cost and feasibility of transporting the produce to market. By  New Jersey was well known as one of the “Bread Colonies,’’ a term including New York, Pennsylvania, and Delaware. Wheat and flour were major exports. In New Jersey, wheat production was especially profitable in the Raritan Valley, where good soils and an amenable climate were joined by relatively inexpensive transport of crops and ˆ t of New York by way flour to the entrepo

of ports and landings on the Raritan River. At about the same time, the large farms on the good soils of the southern Inner Coastal Plain and Piedmont concentrated on the cultivation of corn, which was fed to cattle and especially to hogs. “Burlington Pork,’’ which was exported through Philadelphia, particularly to the Caribbean, had a wide reputation. For the New Englanders of northeastern New Jersey, the answer for their small farms was apple orchards. As did others, these farmers grew the full panoply of crops for their own use and local sale, but concentrated on producing dried apples for the Caribbean market and, even more importantly, on fermenting and distilling apple cider into apple brandy—the well-known “Jersey Lightning.’’ In areas more remote from the major ports of Philadelphia and New York or on poor soils, livestock roamed the woods, with ownership of the animals established by registered “ear notches.’’ For such farmers, fences were to keep livestock out rather than in. By midcentury, New Jersey was indeed, as Benjamin Franklin is supposed to have said, “a barrel tapped at both ends,’’ with produce flowing to and through the ports of Philadelphia and New York. Much of the success of these two ports came from the fruits of the labor of New Jersey farmers. The corridor between these two cities, lying on the fertile and readily accessible soils of the Piedmont and Inner Coastal Plain, was densely settled and most productive. A typical contemporary view was that expressed by a Swedish scholar, Peter Kalm, in October of : “I never saw any place in America, the towns excepted, so well populated.’’ At about the time of the Revolution, the soils in many areas in New Jersey had been depleted of their nutrients. Also, a serious Eurasian pest, the “Hessian fly,’’ had been introduced, temporarily devastating wheat production. And, of course, loss of the colonial relationship with England disrupted traditional markets, especially in the Caribbean. On the other hand, the local market was growing, slowly at first, but then rapidly as the urban centers, particularly New York and Philadelphia, blossomed. New Jersey farmers close to these markets were already specializing in perishables and produce expensive to transport (truck crops, fattened cattle), and this trend intensified. Jersey farmers increased production of corn as a fodder for livestock, which became the meat consumed by urban dwellers. Hides as a by-product flowed especially to places like Newark, expanding an already important leather industry, adding population, and again expanding the market for other agricultural products. Succeeding improvements in transportation—turnpikes, canals, and railroads—made the urban markets ever more accessible to the New Jersey hinterland. Clearance for agriculture took place on increasingly marginal land in some places.

9

By  nearly  million of the state’s total area of . million acres lay in farms. In addition to expanding acreage, in many places there had been various attempts to improve soil fertility and productivity. Along the lower Delaware River and Bay, banks (dikes) were raised to drain areas of rich alluvial soils. In southern New Jersey the application of marl, a calcareous material found widely on the Inner Coastal Plain, improved soil not only there but also on the nearby poor sandy soils of the Outer Coastal Plain. Finally, lime burning and the application of lime to the soil became widespread in the southern Highlands and Ridge and Valley sections. Improvements in transportation such as the railroad were a two-edged sword for New Jersey farmers, making the urban markets much more accessible to lower-cost producers located beyond New Jersey. New Jersey farmers responded by becoming increasingly more efficient and knowledgeable in regard to improved crops and livestock. In  the New Jersey State Agricultural Society (having originated in ) was reorganized, joining several county organizations already in existence. Increasingly, New Jersey farmers turned their attention to fresh produce for the nearby urban markets. These areas were not only growing rapidly in population during the nineteenth century, but also providing the income that allowed purchase of produce beyond the staples of the past. By , for example, Bergen and Passaic counties were described as “one large strawberry patch,’’ and two years later one gate on the Bergen Turnpike recorded , wagons headed for New York with . million baskets of strawberries. Momentum toward agricultural modernization picked up in the post–Civil War period through the interplay of factors such as new institutions for the support of agriculture, advances in raising crops and livestock, development of agricultural machines and chemicals, urbanization, and new marketing organizations. The Morrill Act of , also known as the Land-Grant Act, was landmark federal legislation that provided institutional support for the growth of agriculture. The act authorized the establishment of a land-grant college in each state to teach agriculture, conduct agricultural research, and provide extension services. The act provided financial support for these colleges in the form of grants of public lands. The second Morrill Act, , allocated annual federal funding for these institutions. Rutgers College in  became a land-grant institution through the establishment of the Rutgers Scientific School, the predecessor of Cook College. In  the state of New Jersey enacted legislation for the establishment of the New Jersey State Board of Agriculture. The legislation describes the mission of the state board to “become the center about which to collect the

10

agriculture

LAND IN AGRICULTURAL USE

N

0

10 miles

@Rutgers, The State University

results of successful farming and from which to send out digested information in regard to the great questions of farm economy, tillage, crops, stock, fertilizers, reclamation of land, training of farmers, etc.’’ Professor George H. Cook was the board’s first secretary. The board

widely disseminated annual reports that included practical solutions for farmers. The board stopped producing reports in  and henceforth determined the annual priorities of the newly created New Jersey State Department of Agriculture.

The Department of Agriculture published monthly bulletins on important topics for farmers, with each bulletin focusing on a single problem. For example, the early bulletins covered issues such as control of hog cholera, marketing, farm sources of soil fertility, tuberculosis control in dairy cows, and the Japanese beetle menace. In  the New Jersey Agricultural Experiment Station was founded to comply with the mission of the land-grant college. Professor George H. Cook was appointed as its first director. (Cook College was later named after him for his pioneering contribution to New Jersey agriculture.) Table  provides a portrait of agriculture in New Jersey in  when a total of  percent of the land was devoted to agriculture:  percent as cropland and pastures and an additional  percent attached to farms as unimproved land. The agriculture at this time can be described as mixed farming. Most farmers raised both livestock and crops. Annual income for the state as a whole from animals slaughtered or sold for slaughter was six times higher than income for orchard produce and more than twice that of the market for garden products. The high rate of industrialization and immigration had a great impact on New Jersey agriculture. New Jersey’s population of half a million in  doubled by  and doubled again by . Urban growth during this period was explosive. In  urban population in New Jersey was  percent. It increased to  percent by  and reached  percent by . The rapidly growing urban centers of the Northeast became attractive national markets. Responding to these societal changes, New Jersey agriculture became more mechanized and market oriented, with a higher degree of specialization. In  the counties of Burlington, Hunterdon, Monmouth, Gloucester, and Salem, in that order, were the top income producers of agricultural products. Specialization was also evident. For example, Sussex County became the top producer of milk and butter. Camden was the top producer of peas and beans, and Hudson was top in greenhouse–market garden products. Burlington and Ocean counties were the top producers of cranberries in the nation. Because cranberry cultivation required boggy soil and lots of fresh water, the Pinelands sections of these counties have remained major cranberry producers. Blueberries, another Pinelands crop, were domesticated from swamp huckleberries by Elizabeth White of Burlington County. New Jersey agriculture was at the forefront of adopting new machines and methods. Labor shortages in the farm sector at the turn of the twentieth century and thereafter became acute and provided the impetus for rapid mechanization. Steam engines were widely used for threshing, hulling clover, filling silos, and other tasks. Gasoline tractors and motor trucks appeared in , along

agriculture

Table 1. New Jersey Agriculture, 1870 Total value of products and betterments Orchard products Market garden products Value of animals slaughtered or sold for slaughter Number of horses Number of mules Number of cows Number of oxen Number of sheep Number of swine

$42,725,198* 3.0% 7.0% 16.3% 79,700 8,800 133,300 3,800 120,000 142,000

Percent total value of livestock Percent total value of other commodities and betterments Wheat (bushels) Corn (bushels) Oats (bushels)

2,301,000 8,745,000 4,010,000

Potatoes (bushels) Sweet potatoes (bushels) Butter (pounds) Milk (gallons) Hay (tons)

4,705,000 1,551,000 8,266,000 5,373,000 522,000

50.2% 23.5%

Percent N.J. land in farms

62%

Source: State Board of Agriculture, First Annual Report, 1874. *Equal to $3,525,181,500 in 1997 dollars.

with electric motors, bringing about the rapid mechanization that transformed agriculture. By  horses were no longer used on most farms. Another significant development that increased agricultural productivity was the invention by Carol Bosch and Walter Haber of the process to manufacture ammonia—the basis of nitrogen fertilizer. Farmers were always concerned with the fertility of the soil. Green marl, phosphate rock, guano (seabird droppings excavated from Peru)—along with barn manure—were widely used. Nitrogen fertilizer led to rapid increases in crop yields.

To assure consumers of the high quality of New Jersey products, inspection and grading practices were instituted just before World War I. Fruits, vegetables, eggs, milk, meat, poultry, and livestock were covered under this program. Grading helped in the marketing and promotion of these products. Canning of fruits and vegetables was common, but remained a small component. But during World War II, demand for New Jersey canned goods soared. Income from various agricultural activities from  to  shows far-reaching changes (Table ). Poultry, dairy, and other livestock,

11

which were the bedrock of New Jersey agriculture, have been eclipsed. Potatoes and sweet potatoes have also declined. A bright spot since  has been the substantial increase in value of Standardbred horses for racing, sport, and recreational activities. Grain and hay were a small component, but show increases since . Soybeans, a new crop, contributed to this increase. Nursery and greenhouse products have increased in importance, contributing one-third of the current agricultural income. Peaches have replaced apples as the dominant fruit. In  the top five agricultural-incomeproducing counties in descending order were Cumberland, Burlington, Salem, Monmouth, Gloucester, and Atlantic. Nursery items, vegetables, fruits, and berries are major products in all these counties. Recently farm size and number show an interesting trend. The number of farms of less than  acres and – acres have increased. The owners of these small farms are usually supported by nonfarm income. On the other extreme, the number of farms over , acres has also increased. Farms between these two categories have decreased. Today agriculture is a very small but highly valued segment of New Jersey’s economy. Income from agricultural products in  was $ million, less than one-half of one percent of the total income of the state. Suburban and exurban encroachment on agricultural land is visible everywhere. The state government has programs to protect farmland through the purchase of development rights, preservation of open spaces, and through the state master plan. New Jersey, a small state, cannot muscle its way to national markets like its competitors California and Florida. New Jersey agriculture, with specialized products, has to cater to the market for fresh fruits and vegetables

Table 2. New Jersey Agricultural Income, 1930–1996

Percent of total income Poultry and eggs

1930

1940

1950

1960

1970

1980

1990

1996

22.8

24.9

37.8

28.4

14.3

3.8

5.4

3.9

Dairy products Hogs Cattle, calves, and other livestock

23.5 2.2 3.3

29.1 1.4 3.6

20.6 1.9 4.0

22.3 1.6 4.4

19.4 2.5 4.6

15.0 1.3 4.1

8.2 0.3 2.6

5.6 0.2 1.2

Horses* All vegetables All fruits and berries

—— 18.6 9.8

—– 18.6 6.0

—– 15.7 4.8

—– 17.7 8.3

—– 23.4 9.6

4.0 20.0 13.7

13.7 15.8 8.8

13.4 23.0 13.4

Potatoes/sweet potatoes Grains and hay

7.5 2.1

6.4 1.6

4.6 1.9

3.7 4.0

3.9 5.9

4.4 13.3

2.0 8.0

1.0 7.8

Nursery and greenhouse

11.1

10.6

8.8

9.6

15.9

18.8

35.3

31.5

$107,803 $997,253

$104,764 $962,020

$292,717 $1,248,793

$295,460 $1,180,895

$242,047 $826,663

$438,449 $592,259

$648,812 $692,509

$805,506 $792,353

36.5 27,300

38.9 27,200

37.0 26,900

30.0 15,800

22.0 8,600

21.0 9,400

18.0 8,100

17.4 9,200

Total income (in thousands) Total income in 1997 (in thousands) Percent land in farms Number of farms

Sources: New Jersey Agriculture Annual Reports, Agricultural Statistics and U.S. Census of Agriculture, U.S. Dept. of Agriculture Natl. Agricultural Statistics Service. *Income from horses was included in the “Cattle, calves, and other livestock’’ category up to 1970.

12

airports

within the tristate region, New England, and eastern Canada. Through its “Jersey Fresh’’media campaign in these regions, the state government is making a concerted effort to promote its locally grown fruits and vegetables, such as asparagus, bell peppers, spinach, lettuce, cucumbers, tomatoes, snap beans, cabbage, squash, eggplant, cranberries, blueberries, peaches, and corn. Cunningham, John T. Garden State: The Story of Agriculture in New Jersey. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . ———. New Jersey’s Rich Harvest: A Brief History of Agriculture in New Jersey Published in Commemoration of the th Anniversary of the New Jersey Agricultural Society. Trenton: New Jersey Agricultural Society, . Schmidt, Hubert G. Agriculture in New Jersey: A Three-Hundred-Year History. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . ———. Rural Hunterdon: An Agricultural History. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . Wacker, Peter O., and Paul G. E. Clemens. Land Use in Early New Jersey: A Historical Geography. Newark: New Jersey Historical Society, .

Peter O. Wacker and Harbans Singh

airports.

New Jersey’s first major airport was Newark International (now known as Newark Liberty International Airport). Built by the city of Newark on sixty-eight acres of marshland, it opened for commercial service on October , . It quickly became the busiest airport in the world, the major airline and airmail terminal for the East Coast. In addition to its commercial use, the airport also housed many private planes and was a terminal point for many historic flights, such as a transcontinental speed test and round-theworld trips. In , a disagreement between the city of Newark and several of the airlines, combined with the opening of La Guardia Field in New York, led to most of the airlines’ moving to the newer airport. This left only one airline at Newark, which ceased operations the following year. At the same time, World War II had started in Europe, and the LendLease Act of  allowed for the transfer of weapons, aircraft, and other equipment to nations whose defense was considered vital to the United States. Newark Airport’s close proximity to the Port of Newark attracted the attention of War Department planners, who viewed Newark as a potential key staging site for shipments of cargo to overseas ports. It was not long before Lend-Lease aircraft were flown to Newark, where they were prepared for shipment, and placed on ships at the port. Following the U.S. entry into World War II, Newark was closed to civilian aircraft and became a major facility for receiving, assembling, recording, and delivering Army Air Forces cargo to the ports of New York. By the end of the war, thousands of aircraft and vehicles and tons of other cargo had passed through Newark on the way to front lines all over the world.

Aerial view of Cape May County Airport, Wildwood, .

Courtesy National Archives and Records Administration.

The war also brought new construction of several large airports in New Jersey as part of the buildup in national defense. On the eve of the war, the Civil Aeronautical Authority began to construct hundreds of new airports throughout the country. They were built as civilian airports, but designed to be quickly converted for military use, should they be needed. The first of these to be completed was Millville Airport in Cumberland County, earning it the title “The Nation’s First Defense Airport.’’ New airports were also constructed at Pomona, Atlantic County (Atlantic City), and Rio Grande, Cape May County (Wildwood). All three of these massive airports were subsequently taken over by the military and used as flight training bases. Additional airports were built near General Motors’ Eastern Aircraft Division aircraft plants at Linden and West Trenton for flight testing new Wildcat and Avenger aircraft made for the U.S. Navy. Following the war, Newark, Millville, and Wildwood were returned to civilian control. Atlantic City remained a U.S. Navy base until , though it began operating commercial flights in . Today, thousands of passengers and tons of cargo pass through commercial airports at Newark, Atlantic City, and Trenton. Fortyseven primary and secondary general aviation airports provide facilities for industrial, corporate, and sport aviation. The Division of Aeronautics, Department of Transportation, is responsible for the licensing and development of airports and their associated safety programs. It publishes annual aeronautical charts, maps, and related

data, and a New Jersey Airport Directory that lists fifty-three airports located in New Jersey open for use by the public. Sixteen of these airports are publicly owned, while thirtyfive are privately owned and operated, and two (McGuire Air Force Base and Lakehurst Naval Air Engineering Center) are government facilities. When heliports, balloon ports, and skydive and free-fall facilities are added to the fifty-three airports, the number of “Licensed Aeronautical Facilities’’ in New Jersey is . Included are eighty-four privately owned airfields and strips in New Jersey, which are not open to the public. Forty of those eighty-four are designated “restricted use’’airports, meaning that their use by their owners is conditional upon state and other dictates. And forty-four (thirty-nine for airplanes and five for seaplanes) of the eighty-four are designated “special use’’ airports, meaning that only specific aircraft and pilots may use them. There are , aircraft in New Jersey registered with the FAA, and , New Jersey residents currently hold FAA certificates. (All figures are as of .) Atlantic Overseas Air Service. The History of Newark AAF. Newark, . (Microfilm reel A, USAF Historical Research Agency, Maxwell AFB, AL.) General Motors Corporation, Eastern Aircraft Division. A History of Eastern Aircraft Division. Linden: Eastern Aircraft Division, . New Jersey Facilities List. Trenton: New Jersey Department of Transportation, Division of Aeronautics, . Stoddard, Michael, ed. New Jersey Airport Directory. Trenton: Department of Transportation, Division of Aeronautics, .

airports

13

U.S. Air Force Historical Division. The Army Air Forces in World War II. Vol. . Chicago: University of Chicago Press, .

See also transportation

AIRPORTS Michael Stowe

GREENWOOD LAKE

SUSSEX

and Vincent M. Altamuro

NEWTON

Airports in New Jersey AeroflexAndover Airport

Andover

Alexandria Field

Pittstown (Franklin Twp.–Hunterdon) Belmar Atlantic City

Allaire Airport Atlantic City International Airport Bader Field Blairstown Airport Buck’s Airport Camden County Airport

HACKETTSTOWN

Atlantic City Blairstown Bridgeton Berlin

Cross Keys (Monroe Twp.–Gloucester) West Creek

Airport Essex County

(Eagleswood Twp.) Caldwell

LINDEN SOLBERG-HUNTERDON

SKY MANOR CENTRAL JERSEY REGIONAL

PRINCETON

Wildwood

MARLBORO TWIN PINE

OLD BRIDGE

TRENTON MERCER COUNTY

ALLAIRE

TRENTONROBBINSVILLE RED WING S. JERSEY REGIONAL

LAKEWOOD

MCGUIRE AFB

LAKEHURST NAEC

PEMBERTON Lumberton West Milford Hackettstown

RED LION

FLYING W OLDMANS

CROSS KEYS

R. J. MILLER AIRPARK

CAMDEN COUNTY

EAGLES NEST

Hammonton

SOUTHERN CROSS

Lakehurst NAEC Lakewood

Lakehurst Lakewood

BUCKS

Airport LiCaizi Airport Lincoln Park

Bridgeton Lincoln Park

LICAIZI

Airport Linden Airport Little Ferry

Linden Little Ferry

Seaplane Base McGuire Air

Wrightstown

Municipal Airport

LITTLE FERRY SPB

SOMERSET

Vineland

Millville Municipal Airport Morristown

MORRISTOWN MUNICIPAL

ALEXANDRIA FIELD

Airport Kroelinger Airport

Force Base Marlboro Airport Robert J. Miller Airpark

ESSEX COUNTY

NEWARK LIBERTY INTERNATIONAL

Cross Keys Airport Eagle’s Nest

Hammonton Municipal

TETERBORO

TRINCA

Hillsborough

Airport Hackettstown Airport

LINCOLN PARK

BLAIRSTOWN

Cape May County Airport Central Jersey Regional Airport

Airport Flying W Airport Greenwood Lake

AEROFLEX-ANDOVER

HAMMONTON MUNICIPAL

PINEY HOLLOW

Matawan Toms River

RUDY'S

VINELAND-DOWNSTOWN KROELINGER

ATLANTIC CITY INTERNATIONAL BADER FIELD

MILLVILLE MUNICIPAL

CAPE MAY COUNTY

OCEAN CITY MUNICIPAL N

WOODBINE MUNICIPAL

0

10 miles

Millville @Rutgers, The State University

Morristown

14

airships

Newark Liberty International Airport

Newark

Newton Airport Ocean City Municipal Airport

Newton Ocean City

Old Bridge Airport Oldmans Airport

Old Bridge

Pemberton Airport Piney Hollow Airstrip

Pemberton

Princeton Airport Red Lion Airport Red Wing Airport

Pedricktown (Oldmans Twp.)

Hammonton Princeton Vincentown (Southampton Twp.) Jobstown (Springfield Twp.)

Rudy’s Airport Sky Manor Airport

Vineland Pittstown (Franklin Twp.–Hunterdon)

SolbergHunterdon

Readington

Airport Somerset Airport Southern Cross Airport South Jersey Regional Airport Sussex Airport

Bedminster Franklinville (Franklin Twp.–Gloucester) Mount Holly

Sussex

Teterboro Airport Trenton–Mercer

Teterboro Trenton

County Airport Trenton-

Robbinsville

Robbinsville Airport Trinca Airport

(Washington Twp.–Mercer) Andover

Twin Pine Airport Vineland-

Pennington Vineland

Downstown Airport Woodbine Municipal Airport

airships.

Woodbine

New Jersey has been closely tied to the history of rigid airships and blimps in the United States for forty years. In May  the navy purchased , acres in the village of Lakehurst for use as a dirigible field. The air station and its principal airship hangar were completed in . After World War I the navy envisioned rigid airships for use as longrange scouts. Nonrigid airships (blimps) were to be used for antisubmarine work. The performance of nonrigid blimps in World War I had been impressive, with , hours in the air covering over , miles of patrol duty. Lakehurst commenced operations with rigid airships with the arrival of USS Shenandoah (ZR-) in , the first rigid airship to

use nonflammable helium, and later with the arrival of USS Los Angeles (ZR-) in . The USS Los Angeles was built by the German Zeppelin company and was delivered as part of war compensation by Germany. Lakehurst was the principal landing point for transAtlantic dirigibles, and it was the starting and ending point of the first around-the-world flight of a rigid airship, the Graf Zeppelin, in . Crashes of dirigibles, usually brought on by adverse weather conditions, brought into question the viability of airships for military and commercial purposes. Three navy dirigibles crashed, all with loss of life: the USS Shenandoah in , the USS Akron in , and the USS Macon in . More spectacular was the fiery crash of the German dirigible Hindenburg at Lakehurst on May , . This crash was caught on film and there were news reporters on scene to capture the horror. Although the Hindenburg was designed to use nonflammable helium, the American monopoly on this gas and its unwillingness to release it for export resulted in the Hindenburg using flammable hydrogen instead. With the advent of World War II and the threat of German submarines to the American East Coast, the use of blimps and dirigibles by the navy was increased. Lakehurst became home to many of the new squadrons. In all,  K-Class dirigibles were built for the navy during World War II. After the war, Lakehurst continued as the center of naval lighter-thanair activity. In the s dirigibles were used to extend radar coverage to provide early air defense warning. At the beginning of the s, the navy had twenty-seven nonrigid airships in service, the majority of which were based at Lakehurst. By  the completion of the radar early warning system and the advent of long-range antisubmarine fixed-wing aircraft ended the practical usefulness of the navy airships. All of the squadrons were disbanded. In  the Naval Air Test Facility was established at Lakehurst. Later, in , Lakehurst changed designations and became the Naval Air Engineering Center. It currently develops and tests all aircraft launch and recovery equipment, including catapults, arresting gear, jet blast deflectors, and visual landing aids. It also develops important aviation support equipment used for aircraft handling, servicing, and propulsion/avionics.

of musicians would gather to pick and sing on their back porch every Saturday night until , when George Albert died. The “Sounds of the Jersey Pines’’ was then moved to the Waretown Auction building and the local elementary school until Albert Music Hall was dedicated and officially opened on January , . Concerts are held Saturday nights.

Andrew J. Anderson

Aldrin, Edwin E. “Buzz’’

(b. Jan. ,

). Astronaut, second man on the Moon.

Born and raised in Montclair, Buzz Aldrin attended the U.S. Military Academy at West Point upon graduation from Montclair High School. After graduating third in his class at West Point, he served as a combat pilot in Korea for the U.S. Air Force. During that time, he shot down two MIG  aircraft and flew sixty-six combat missions in F-s. Later, he earned a doctoral degree in aeronautics from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. NASA selected Aldrin as an astronaut in . On November , , he and command pilot James Lovell were launched into space in the Gemini  spacecraft on a four-day flight that brought the Gemini program to a successful close. In July , he served as lunar module pilot for Apollo , the first manned lunar landing mission. Aldrin followed Neil Armstrong onto the lunar surface on July , . He retired from NASA in July  and has since written books and spoken about the need to continue exploring space. He is married to the former Lois Driggs Cannon of Phoenix. Their combined family includes six grown children and one grandson.

Robinson, Douglas H. Giants in the Sky: A History of the Rigid Airship. Seattle: University of Washington Press, .

Rocco G. Tomazic

Albert Music Hall. Located in Waretown, the Albert Music Hall is run by the Pinelands Cultural Society with the goal of preserving and stimulating interest in the Pine Barrens musical heritage. It was named after two brothers, Joe and George Albert, who lived in a cabin known as the Home Place near the Forked River Mountains. A handful

Apollo  lunar module pilot Buzz Aldrin walks on the Moon, July , .

Courtesy National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA).

Alexander, William (Lord Stirling) and social and moral science. Alexander Street in Princeton is named for him. DAB. Mackay, John A. “Archibald Alexander (–): Founding Father.’’ In Sons and Prophets—Leaders in Protestantism from Princeton Theological Seminary, edited by Hugh T. Kerr. Princeton: Princeton University Press, . Selden, William K. Princeton Theological Seminary: A Narrative History, –. Princeton: Princeton University Press, .

Henry Innes MacAdam

Alexander, Cosmo

(b. ; d. Aug. ,

). Portrait painter. Because of debt, Cosmo

Archibald Alexander.

Courtesy Library of Princeton Theological Seminary.

Aldrin, Edwin E., and John Barnes. The Return. New York: Forge, . Cole, Michael. Apollo : First Moon Landing. Springfield: Enslow Publishers, . Vogt, Gregory L. Apollo Moonwalks: The Amazing Lunar Missions. Berkley Heights: Enslow Publishers, .

Alexander borrowed money from his brother, Charles, for his passage from his native Scotland to the colonies. He painted portraits of his countrymen, first in Philadelphia and New York. In  New Jersey’s royal governor William Franklin invited Alexander to the governor’s mansion in Burlington. There he earned ninety guineas doing commission work. The next year Alexander went to Newport, Rhode Island, where fourteen-yearold Gilbert Stuart watched him paint Portrait of Dr. William Hunter. Stuart accompanied Alexander back to Edinburgh in  to further his studies with the master, but Alexander died the next year. Gerdts, William H. Painting and Sculpture in New Jersey. Princeton: D. Van Nostrand, . Opitz, Glenn B., ed. Mantle Fielding’s Dictionary of American Painters, Sculptors, and Engravers. Poughkeepsie, NY: Apollo, .

Kitta MacPherson Lorraine Ash

Alexander, Archibald

(b. Apr. , ;

Alexander, James (b. May , ; d. Apr.

Presbyterian pastor, educator, and author. Founding professor Princeton Theological Seminary. Archibald Alexander was born to William and Ann Reid Alexander, near Lexington, Virginia. Licensed and ordained a Christian minister by the Presbytery of Hanover, Virginia, Alexander served as a rural pastor and itinerant frontier missionary in Ohio and Virginia. In  he accepted the presidency of Hampden-Sydney College in Virginia, where he served for ten years. He married Janetta Waddell in . Alexander was then called to become pastor of the Third Presbyterian (Pine Street) Church in Philadelphia in , the same year he was elected moderator of the General Assembly of the Presbyterian Church U.S.A. Over the next five years he helped draft a constitution for a new Presbyterian theological seminary in Princeton. Elected its first professor, he was formally installed on August , . He remained at that post until his death. Alexander oversaw the gradual enlargement of the seminary’s student body, which grew to two hundred by midcentury; the faculty, which added six professors; and the seminary’s facilities, including both academic buildings and a chapel. During his tenure he published eight books and dozens of articles, reviews, and sermons on biblical history, theology, biography,

, ). Lawyer, public official, reformer. Born in Muthil, Perthshire, Scotland, and trained as an engineer, Alexander emigrated in  and quickly obtained successive appointments as surveyor general of East Jersey, West Jersey, and New York. These positions facilitated his acquisition of vast tracts of land; Alexandria Township in Hunterdon County is named for him. He was practicing law by , when he served as attorney general of New Jersey and in the provincial councils of New Jersey and New York. Despite these royal appointments, Alexander’s bitter rivalry with Gov. William Cosby led to his sponsorship of John Peter Zenger’s opposition newspaper, the New-York Weekly Journal, and Alexander’s disbarment and loss of government positions, restored only upon Cosby’s death. With his interest in legal reform, Alexander assumed the role of defender of popular rights. He married the wealthy merchant Mary Sprat Provoost in ; Continental Army general William Alexander was one of their seven children.

d. Oct. , ).

15

Alexander, Walter G. (b. ; d. Feb. , ). African American physician and politi-

cian. Born in Lynchburg, Virginia, Walter Alexander graduated from the Boston College of Physicians and Surgeons in  and set up a medical practice in Orange, New Jersey, the following year. Because the Medical Society of New Jersey did not admit African American physicians, he organized the North Jersey Medical Society, an organization for black health professionals, in . Committed to the professional advancement of black physicians, Alexander served as president of the National Medical Association in  and received its Distinguished Service Award in . In , he was elected to the New Jersey General Assembly, becoming Speaker in . In , he was appointed to the state board of health, and served as vice president of the board in . See also North Jersey Medical Society

Sandra Moss

Alexander, Stirling) (b.

William

(Lord

Dec. , ; d. Jan., ).

Landowner, merchant, politician, and Revolutionary War general. William Alexander was the son of James Alexander, a Scottish immigrant lawyer, surveyor, and member of the Councils of New York and New Jersey, and Mary Sprat Provoost, a merchant. His  marriage to Sarah Livingston reinforced his connections to the political elite of both colonies and made future governor William Livingston his brother-in-law. William Alexander first assisted his mother in her business enterprises and then, with several partners, served as an army contractor during the French and Indian War. His efforts to supply the Niagara Campaign in – led to later accusations of

ANB. MacCracken, Henry Noble. Prologue to Independence: The Trials of James Alexander, American, –. New York: James H. Heineman, . Valentine, Alan Chester. Lord Stirling. New York: Oxford University Press, .

Mariam Touba

Bass Otis, William Alexander, Lord Stirling, possibly after the Joseph Napoleon Gimbrede engraving, c. . Oil on canvas,  ×  in.

Courtesy Independence National Historical Park, Philadelphia.

Alexandria

16

profiteering. He succeeded his father as a member of the East Jersey Board of Proprietors and the Councils of New York and New Jersey. In  he began to build a large country house in Basking Ridge on a -acre estate inherited from his parents. During this period he also spent five years in England where he not only represented the East Jersey proprietors’ interests and tried to collect payment on the army contracts, but also worked to obtain recognition of his claim to a lapsed Scottish earldom. Although rejected by the House of Lords, friends in America accepted his use of the title “Lord Stirling’’ when he returned to the colonies. Before the Revolution both his involvement in the nascent iron mining industry in North Jersey and his lavish lifestyle helped to deplete his financial resources. In  he even resorted, without success, to selling lands via a lottery. From the onset of the American Revolution, Stirling was a strong patriot. He served on the New Jersey Council of Safety and in the New Jersey militia as a colonel. With other New Jersey troops he was transferred to the Continental Army, where he served throughout the war as one of George Washington’s generals. He participated in the defense of Long Island, and fought at Trenton, Germantown, Brandywine, Monmouth, and Springfield. At one point captured by the enemy, he was later exchanged for a British officer. He was the president of the court martial of Gen. Charles Lee and served on the board that tried Maj. John Andre. Although described as “flamboyant’’ and an “overweight, rheumatic, vain, pompous, gluttonous inebriate,’’ he was loyal, brave, and a popular soldier, although not a great general. In the end he served Washington and the American cause better than his own interests. On his death Congress noted his “early and meritorious exertions’’ “in the common cause’’ and his “bravery, perseverance, and military talents.’’ He died in Albany, New York, from gout and the rigors of wartime service. Bankrupt at the time of his death, his property was sold to pay off his debts.

purchased ten thousand acres of land in what became Alexandria Township. On March , , the township was formed by royal charter out of what had been the western portion of Bethlehem Township. Incorporation took place on February , . Alexandria is still an agricultural township made up of farms and single-family residences, and rolling hills and fields surround the villages of Everittstown, Pittstown, Little York, and Mount Pleasant. Each of these villages grew up around a mill or a church, with general stores being later amenities. According to the  census, the population of , people was  percent white. The median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Snell, James P. History of Hunterdon and Somerset Counties, New Jersey. Philadelphia: Everts and Peck, . Snyder, John P. The Story of New Jersey’s Civil Boundaries, –. Trenton: Bureau of Geology and Topography, .

presents professional and community-based theater, dance, music, and film there. See also theater

John W. Drew

Allaire, James P.

(b. July , ; d. May

, ). Industrialist, marine engineer, steam

engine manufacturer. Allaire was born in Annapolis Royal, Nova Scotia, the son of Peter Alexander Allaire and Frances Wilmot. A brass founder and steam engine manufacturer, he was early associated with Robert Fulton. By , Allaire operated the largest marine engine building shop in the country, and shortly thereafter he purchased a bog iron furnace in Monmouth County to supply needed raw materials. His business expanded considerably between  and  until his New Jersey property holdings alone included nearly fifty tracts of land covering almost eight thousand acres. He died at his home at Howell Works, Monmouth County.

Scott D. Peters

Stephanie B. Stevens

Algonquin Arts Theatre.

Built in Manasquan in  as a movie theater in the Arcadia chain, the theater was named Algonquin as a result of a contest among local residents. In , the Algonquin became part of the Walter Reade chain, which closed it in . In , it was bought by Frances and John Drew of Manasquan, who restored and converted it to a performing arts theater with an enlarged stage, fly-tower orchestra pit, and dressing rooms. Renamed the Algonquin Arts Theatre and opened in May , the Algonquin Arts nonprofit corporation

Allaire Village. Monmouth Furnace, an ironworks originally developed about  by Burlington County attorney William Griffith, was acquired by steamship engine manufacturer James P. Allaire in . He renamed the property the Howell Works and developed it into a self-contained industrial community that produced iron products, such as the pipes for the first waterworks in New York City. It flourished until . In  newspaper editor Arthur Brisbane purchased the village and , acres. He leased the village to the Boy Scouts in , and in  Brisbane’s widow donated , acres and the village to the state of New Jersey “to be used as an Historical

ANB. Nelson, Paul David. William Alexander, Lord Stirling. University, AL: University of Alabama Press, . Valentine, Alan. Lord Stirling. New York: Oxford University Press, .

See also American Revolution

Maxine N. Lurie

Alexandria. .-square-mile township in northwestern Hunterdon County. Alexandria is bounded on the west by the Delaware River, on the east by Franklin Township, on the south by Kingwood Township, and on the north by the Musconetcong River and Bethlehem and Union townships. The township was named for James Alexander, proprietor of West Jersey and father of Revolutionary War hero William (Lord Stirling) Alexander. In  James Alexander

Gateway to the deserted Village of Allaire. A portrait of James P. Allaire is located in the upper right-hand corner.

From Greetings from New Jersey: A Postcard Tour of the Garden State by Helen-Chantal Pike. Courtesy Helen-Chantal Pike.

Allentown Center and Forest Park Reservation . . . and for no other purpose.’’ The property is now Allaire State Park. See also historic sites

Women’s Project of New Jersey. Past and Promise: Lives of New Jersey Women. Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, .

See also New Jersey Education Association

Blair T. Birmelin and Cynthia Robinson Scott D. Peters

Allamuchy. .-square-mile township in Warren County. Allamuchy, whose name derives from the Lenape Indian Allamuchahokkingen or Allamucha, broke away from Independence Township in . Among its significant villages are Allamuchy, Quaker Settlement, Warrenville or Wiretown, Alphano, and Saxton Falls. The first white settlers were Quakers who arrived prior to  on land that was eventually deeded to them by Richard Penn, grandson of William Penn. Quaker Settlement was the birthplace of Benjamin Lundy, a founder of the abolitionist movement. The community played an important part as a station on the Underground Railroad that directed slaves to freedom. Allamuchy is the ancestral home of the Rutherford-Stuyvesant family who traced their beginnings to the first governor of New Amsterdam and a signer of the Declaration of Independence. The early economy was based on employment from the large Rutherford-Stuyvesant farms. Today the affluent communities of homes and townhouses rely on income from outside the county. Saxton Falls was the Warren County entry port to the old Morris Canal, which ran thirty-three miles to the Delaware River. According to the  census of the ruralto-residential community, the population of , was  percent white. Median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Armstrong, William Clinton. The Lundy Family and Their Descendents. New Brunswick: J. Heidingsfeld, . Cummins, George Wyckoff. History of Warren County, New Jersey. New York: Lewis Historical Publishing, . King, Betty Jo. “The Progression of the Allamuchy Land from the Indians to the Rutherfurds and Stuyvesants.’’ Oakleaves: Warren County Historical and Genealogical Society Newsletter (winter ): –.

Gladys Harry Eggler

Allen, Elizabeth Almira ; d. May , ).

(b. Feb. ,

Teacher, teacher advocate, first woman president of the New Jersey Teachers’ Association. Elizabeth Almira Allen was born in Joliet, Illinois, to James and Sarah J. Allen (Smith). She worked for forty-eight years in the Hoboken schools as a teacher, as the principal of the elementary and the high school, and finally as the supervisor of teacher education at Hoboken Normal and Training School. Allen’s campaign for teachers’ rights resulted in the first statewide teachers’ retirement fund in America. In  she became the first woman president of the New Jersey Teachers’ Association (NJTA), later the New Jersey Education Association.

Allen, William F.

(b. Oct. , ; d.

Dec. , ).

Implementer of standard railroad time schedules. Born in Bordentown, the son of Joseph Warner and Sarah (Norcross) Allen, William F. Allen was educated at the Bordentown Model School and the Protestant Episcopal Academy of Philadelphia. On April , , he married Caroline Yorke, with whom he had four sons. As editor of the Official Guide of the Railways and Steam Navigation Lines, the publication that contained passenger train schedules for all railroads in the country, Allen knew the confusion caused by each railroad’s choosing a time system of its own convenience. By the s, railroads increasingly required a system of standard timekeeping for safe, dependable service. A strong proponent of such a system, Allen became the secretary of the General Time Convention, later the American Railway Association, an organization of railroaders seeking to solve the dilemma of timekeeping. He presented a report to the convention, which concluded that the four-zone system proposed earlier by Professor C. F. Dowd of Saratoga and Professor Cleveland Abbe and F. B. Elliott, who worked for the American Meteorological Society, was the best solution. Allen persuaded  railroads to adopt its implementation. Despite some resistance, the plan went into effect on November , , and proved its value. A plaque in Union Station in Washington, D.C., recognizes Allen for his work. Bartky, Ian R. “The Invention of Railroad Time.’’ Railroad History  (): –. DAB.

See also railroads

Robert E. Mohowski

Allendale.

.-square-mile borough in Bergen County. The name of the borough is derived from that of Joseph Warner Allen, who surveyed the area in  for the Paterson and Ramapo Railroad. Originally part of Orvil Township, Allendale was incorporated in . In the eighteenth century Allendale was the site of a large wampum factory, and the town had a colorful history during the Revolutionary War. The British imprisoned one of its most famous residents, John Fell, who later became a state delegate to the Continental Congress. Allendale was primarily a farming area, and it developed a reputation for the cultivation of strawberries. The advance of the railroad into Bergen County in the late nineteenth century opened up Allendale to development as a summer resort for people from New York City. Today, the Celery Farm, a nature preserve, is a popular destination for birdwatchers and

17

hikers. The main industries, in order of importance, are professional services, retail, and manufacturing. According to the  census, the population was ,. Of this,  percent was white. The median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . History Committee of Allendale, New Jersey Tercentenary Committee. A History of Allendale, – . Paramus: Highway Printing, . Horner, Edith R., ed. The New Jersey Municipal Data Book. Palo Alto, CA: Information Publications, . Municipal Reference Guide: New Jersey—Northern Edition. Neptune: National Resource Directories, . Wardell, Patricia Webb. Allendale, Background of a Borough. Allendale: Allendale Historical Society, .

Marta Mestrovic Deyrup

Allenhurst. .-square-mile borough on the Atlantic Ocean in Monmouth County. Bordered on the west by the Hogswamp Creek branch of Deal Lake, Allenhurst was designated on early maps as being a part of Deal Beach, Ocean Township. In  the Allen family, who had operated an inn and farm on this site since , and G. W. Spier sold their property to Edwin P. Benjamin. The Coast Land Development Company is credited with laying out streets for residential homes, large hotels, and guesthouses for the explicit purpose of developing the tract as a seashore resort. In  the New York and Long Branch Railroad established a station. The beachfront was developed in  with a wooden pavilion and horse-carriage transportation from the hotels and train station. The Atlantic Coast Electric Railroad trolley barn and powerhouse, both on Main Street, existed from  to . In  Allenhurst seceded from Ocean Township, forming a new borough. The community is predominantly singlefamily residential, with a small business district along Main Street. In , the population of  was  percent white. The median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Edelson, Marjorie, and Kay Zimmerer. An Historic Perspective of the Township of Ocean. Ocean Township: Township of Ocean Historical Society, . Eid, Joseph. Trolleys in the Coast Cities. Brick Town: J. Eid, . Sylvester, Marie A. Around Deal Lake. Dover, NH: Arcadia, .

Marie A. Sylvester

Allentown. .-square-mile borough in westernmost Monmouth County. Settlement of the small community, located on early major roads, dates at least from the first quarter of the eighteenth century, when Nathan Allen built a mill (c. ) on Doctors Creek. Rebuilt over the years, the mill structure remains the most visible landmark in town. Known earlier as Allens Town, the town is near the

18

Alliance

meeting point of three counties. It developed as a trading community for the surrounding farm area and attained borough status in  after breaking from Upper Freehold Township. On the route of British forces removing from Philadelphia to New York in , Allentown saw skirmishing prior to the Battle of Monmouth and throughout the Revolution. Allentown is the location of an important Georgian building, the  John Imlay House at  South Main Street, and the town was home to a number of notable figures. Foremost was William A. Newell, a physician who served as governor of New Jersey from  until  and three terms in Congress; he is also considered the founder of the U.S. Life-Saving Service. Allentown, which preserves a stock of buildings from most historic periods, has listings in the National Register of Historic Places. Although major retail trade and travel routes now pass outside Allentown’s borders, its intact Main Street has adapted to reuse, while its charm attracts visitors; the resulting congestion challenges the town in the twenty-first century. Allentown’s  population of , was  percent white. The median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Gabrielan, Randall. Allentown and Upper Freehold Township. Charleston, SC: Arcadia, . Storms, F. Dean. History of Allentown, New Jersey. Allentown: Allentown Messenger, .

Randall Gabrielan

Alliance.

See Pittsgrove.

Alling, David ).

(b. Sept. , ; d. Feb. ,

Chairmaker. Of Welsh descent, the

Alling family was in Newark by . David Alling was the son of Isaac Alling, a chairmaker, and Mary Clisbie. Alling expanded his business, located in Newark from  until , beyond that of traditional colonial artisans such as his father to an operation based on a system of specialized tasks. He bought parts from jobbers and employed perhaps ten assemblers and decorators. His retail trade consisted of ready-made and custom work for residential and commercial customers, and he developed large wholesale markets in Newark and southern New Jersey. Skemer, Don C. “David Alling’s Chair Manufactory: Craft Industrialization in Newark, New Jersey, –.’’ Winterthur Portfolio : (spring ): –. White, Margaret E. Early Furniture Made in New Jersey, –. Newark: Newark Museum, .

produced Wistarburg glass; the factory closed in . During the nineteenth century, the distinctive Ware chairs were built in this community. Settlements in the township that have retained their names are Cohansey, Friesburg, Penton, and Aldine. Alloway is the home of Ranch Hope for boys. The township is rural in character. In , the population of , was  percent white, and the median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Allen, Mae. “The Township of Alloway.’’ Salem County Historical Society Newsletter  (June ): –. Alloway Remembers. d ed. Pitman: Alloway Township Bicentennial of the Constitution Committee, .

Patricia W. Blakely

See also furniture making

Suzanne Corlette Crilley

Alloway.

-square-mile township in Salem County. First settled by Quakers, Alloway was originally part of the Monmouth Precinct, so named by John Fenwick in honor of the duke of Monmouth; it was set off from that tract of land in . The community was known as Thompson’s Bridge until  when it was renamed Alloways Town. The John Dickinson house, built in , is the most elaborate patterned-brick house in Salem County. The first industry was farming, an occupation that continues today. Other early industries included two shipyards, a gristmill, a bark mill, sawmills, and a canning factory. Of special note is the Wistar Glass Works, established in . It was the first successful glass factory in the country and

Alpha.

.-square-mile borough in Warren County. Originally a village in central Pohatcong, Alpha was separated from that township and incorporated in . It shares its earliest history with Pohatcong and Greenwich. Clearly different from other communities in the county, Alpha was a boomtown in the heart of farmland. Its industrial history started as early as , when A. B. Bonneville noticed an outcropping of limestone, referred to as cement rock, essential for making high-grade portland cement. Alpha had the potential for a successful operation: quarries, mills, and an influx of immigrant labor from Eastern Europe. The success of the industry caught the attention of Thomas Edison, who built a similar portland cement complex in nearby Franklin Township. Alpha was both the brand name and the location. Vulcanite was the second cement plant to operate within the area. Cement rock deposits were eventually depleted, and cement production ceased by , to be resumed briefly during World War I. Alpha is now largely residential. The  census showed a population of , that was  percent white. Median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, .

Historical Sites of Warren County. Belvidere: Warren County Board of Chosen Freeholders, . Warne, George K., ed. A Look at Warren County. Belvidere: Warren County Cultural and Heritage Commission, .

Gladys Harry Eggler

Alpine.

Johann Jenny (attributed), The House and Shop of David Alling, c. –. Oil on canvas,  / ×  in.

Courtesy Newark Museum. Purchase 1939 Thomas Raymond Bequest Fund, 39.265. Photo: Witt, 1966.

.-square-mile borough in Bergen County. Located along the Hudson River atop the Palisades, Alpine is one of the wealthiest communities in the nation. It was originally part of Hackensack Township (–) and later part of Harrington Township (–); Alpine Borough was incorporated in . In  the eastern portion of Cresskill was ceded to Alpine. The borough was known as Upper Closter until the s, and the origin of Alpine’s name

American Federation of Labor is uncertain, deriving from either Closter’s Alpine Lodge of Free and Accepted Masons or the Swiss Alps. Alpine was originally a farming community, but the blasting of traprock from the Palisades cliffs was its major industry until . The fishing industry flourished into the middle of the twentieth century. Today it is overwhelmingly residential and has few businesses and no industry. Opulent estates in luxury subdivisions predominate, while more modest middle-class homes survive in the Old Alpine neighborhood. With few municipal programs, the borough’s property taxes are among the lowest in the state. More than half of the borough’s land remains undeveloped as part of the Palisades Interstate Park Commission system, Alpine Boy Scout Camp, and borough parks. In , the population of , was  percent white and  percent Asian. The  median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Bradley, Stanley W. Crossroads of History: The Story of Alpine, N.J. Alpine: Alpine Bicentennial Committee, . Garbe-Morillo, Patricia. Closter Charleston, SC: Arcadia, .

and

Alpine.

Susan Chore

amber.

Amber is the hardened residue of ancient tree sap. Much valued from antiquity to the present as a gemstone, amber is made into a variety of decorative objects. In ancient times, well-established trade routes for amber originated from the Baltic countries (where amber was plentiful along the coast) that went to virtually every corner of Europe. Early in the nineteenth century, the first reports of amber from North America came from discoveries in New Jersey along Crosswicks Creek near Trenton, at Camden, and near Woodbury. Most of the amber found in New Jersey is from sedimentary deposits of the Late Cretaceous age, the last part of the age of dinosaurs. The strip of Cretaceous rocks producing amber stretches from Raritan Bay in the northeast diagonally southwest across the state to the Delaware River. Amber is especially abundant in the Magothy Formation, a sequence of clays and sands laid down in coastal rivers and floodplains about ninetyfive million years ago. In  this deposit produced the oldest known fossil ants (engulfed by the flowing resin of ancient sap-producing trees and preserved when the resin turned to solid amber), a species named Specomyrma freyi by the Harvard entomologist E. O. Wilson. Since then amber from this formation has been extensively collected at Sayreville in Middlesex County, where it has produced representatives of thirty families of arthropods, including the oldest known true ants, bees, wasps, cockroaches, flies, midges, lacewings, leafhoppers, mites, spiders, and pseudoscorpions. True rarities from this site are the oldest known feathers of birds from North America. The Sayreville amber deposit is one of the most

significant concentrations of Cretaceous fossil insects in the world. Gallagher, William B. When Dinosaurs Roamed New Jersey. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

See also minerals

William B. Gallagher

American Aluminum Company. American Aluminum was founded in  by Henry Brucker, a Newark native. Brucker had previously served as superintendent of the New Jersey Aluminum Company, and won a medal at the Louisiana Purchase Exposition in . In , Brucker set up his own shop with his brother Oscar on Oliver Street in Newark, expanding to a larger factory on Jelliff Avenue in . The firm produced a wide range of household and industrial products. In  the American Aluminum Company moved to a new factory in Mountainside, where it remains today.

Ulysses Grant Dietz

American Boychoir School.

The only nonsectarian choir boarding school in the United States, the American Boychoir School is built on the conviction that musical performance is a means of building character and motivating academic achievement. Founded in , the school moved to New Jersey in  and occupies the former Lambert estate in Princeton. Each year, eighty boys in grades five through eight come together from across the country to attend the school. While completing a comprehensive academic program—and winning admission to prestigious secondary schools—they sing  concerts annually, performing regularly with the world’s finest orchestras and in festivals overseas.

Donald B. Edwards

American Can Company.

Founded in New Jersey in  by Edward and Oliver W. Norton and nurtured by area food manufacturers, the American Can Company grew prosperously throughout the first half of the twentieth century. During the s, the company sought to diversify through a wideranging series of acquisitions and ventures into paper, chemicals, commercial printing, and glass bottle manufacturing. Beneficial developments in can technology, such as the pop-top and ring-tab opener, counterbalanced AmCan’s less successful ventures such as chemicals, commercial printing, and glass bottle-making. Inevitably, the company’s inexperience would force them to divest these ventures. Subsequent acquisitions involving aluminum recycling and resource recovery, as well as smaller concerns such as records and mail-order retail products, again produced varied results. In , AmCan designed a computerized system to rank investment risks in seventy countries. The sale of the company’s forest products operations during

19

the early s financed the acquisition of four insurance companies, most notably American General Capital Corporation and Associated Madison. Chairman Gerald Tsai severed AmCan’s ties to its can-making business in  by selling the packaging operations to Triangle Industries. He restructured the company into a financial services conglomerate, renamed Primerica, with headquarters in Greenwich, Connecticut. Successive alliances and mergers with Travelers Corporation and Citibank led to the creation of Citigroup. Derdak, Thomas, ed. International Directory of Company Histories. Vol. . Chicago: St. James Press, . Gordon, John Steele. The Business of America. New York: Walker, . Robinson, Richard, comp. United States Business History, –: A Chronology. New York: Greenwood Press, .

Deborah S. Greenhut

American Chemical Society.

The American Chemical Society (ACS), founded in , is now the world’s largest scientific society, with over , members in . Reflecting the high concentration of chemical and pharmaceutical operations in New Jersey (both commercial and academic), there are nine local sections (or chapters) of the ACS in the state. The North Jersey Section has the distinction of having the largest membership (more than ,) of any of the  local sections in the United States. Some representative functions of the New Jersey ACS sections include sponsoring awards to individual chemists for distinguished accomplishments in the field (most notably the Baekeland Award), supporting educational programs that advance the study of chemistry, and providing forums for the presentation and discussion of current research topics. Nationally, the society is a major publisher of chemistry books, serials, and journals. See also chemical industry

Howard M. Dess

American Federation of Labor. At an  Pittsburgh conference, delegates from a variety of workers’ organizations formed the Federation of Organized Trades and Labor Unions in the United States and Canada; it reorganized in  as the American Federation of Labor (AFL). From the start it stood in stark contrast to its predecessor, the Knights of Labor, which had attempted to organize all workers, skilled and unskilled. By , however, the Knights organization was devastated by losses of crucial strikes and the Haymarket riot. Into the fray stepped the AFL, which sought to create a craft-based organization that would capitalize on the power of skilled workers. This approach of “pure and simple’’unionism was to characterize the AFL’s approach for decades to come. Samuel Gompers served as president of the AFL from  until his death in . In

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Greene, Julie. Pure and Simple Politics: The American Federation of Labor and Political Activism, –. New York: Cambridge University Press, .

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Gowaskie, Joseph. Workers in New Jersey History. Trenton: New Jersey Historical Commission, .

name means “the people’’ or “common folk,’’ once occupied all of present-day New Jersey, eastern Pennsylvania, northern Delaware, southeastern New York State (including western Long Island and Staten Island), and parts of western Connecticut. This area was called “Lenapehoking,’’ meaning “the land of the Lenape.’’ The bands who lived north of the Raritan River and Delaware Water Gap spoke a Munsee dialect of the Delaware language and developed a culture somewhat different from that of the Unami speakers who lived to the south. Those who spoke a northern Unami dialect, sometimes identified as Unalachtigo, lived in and around Easton, Pennsylvania, and in adjacent parts of New Jersey. Increasingly after , the English called the Lenape “Delaware Indians’’ because many were then living along the river and bay named after Lord De La Warr. In the archaeological record, the Lenape become recognizable after c.  c.e. Before

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Gompers, Samuel. Seventy Years of Life and Labor: An Autobiography. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, .

then, Lenapehoking was occupied by cultures identified only by generic names assigned by archaeologists: Paleo-Indians, Archaic Indians, Early, Middle, and Late Woodland Indians. Some of these may have been ancestors of the Lenape. Paleo-Indians (c. – b.c.e.) entered New Jersey following the retreat of the Wisconsin glacier. The park tundra environment of that time supported mastodon, mammoth, sloth, caribou, and walrus, among other cold-adapted animals. How often early hunters killed mastodon is unknown, but their exquisitely crafted fluted spearpoints were efficient weapons. Knives, choppers, scrapers, and drills were made with equal care, using only the best stones. Throughout the Archaic period (c. –  b.c.e.), forests yielded nuts and berries that helped to sustain human beings and provided mast foods for deer, bear, turkeys, and other forest-edge animals. Trees could also be made into dugout canoes and shelters, and

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that time, this former cigarmaker determined a new course for the American labor movement. Whereas the Knights had included unskilled workers, women, African Americans, and immigrants in their ranks, Gompers’s AFL excluded those workers on the pretext that they could be used by employers to undermine skilled trade workers. Under his leadership, the AFL championed an exclusionary form of unionism that was far more restrictive and conservative than other efforts to realize industrial unionism. Despite a major defeat in the  Homestead strike, the AFL not only weathered the depression of the s but grew to encompass some , members by —a membership it more than tripled by . In New Jersey, the AFL successfully organized scores of skilled workers in the metal, printing, and building trades. These workers pressed for better work conditions, increased pay, and decreased work hours for themselves, though the majority of New Jersey’s unskilled laborers did not share in these gains. Indeed, the AFL’s failure to represent most industrial workers helped to pave the way for other more inclusive unions. Thus, although the AFL-affiliated United Textile Workers included a few of Paterson’s silk workers, it was the militant Industrial Workers of the World (IWW) that most prominently supported the laborers in their famous  strike. The AFL continued to expand, but by the beginning of the twentieth century the industrial world itself was changing significantly: skilled workers increasingly found themselves displaced and faced crushing defeats in actions including the  strike against U.S. Steel. To widen its sphere of influence, the AFL increasingly turned to collective bargaining, no-strike contracts, and the use of union labels to designate union-produced goods. Although the AFL did not represent most of New Jersey’s workers ( percent of whom were not unionized), it did represent , of the state’s , unionized workers before World War II. Under the leadership of Gompers’s successors, William Green and George Meany, the AFL eventually emerged as the largest union in the United States and boasted some  million members when it merged in  with the advocate of industrial unionism, the Congress of Industrial Organizations (CIO).

Hudson

20

GREAT SICONESE

0

20 miles

Unami Dialects Munsee Dialects Possibly not Munsee speakers modern state boundaries © Rutgers, The State University of NJ

See

American Indians they provided firewood for warmth and cooking. Stone axes, adzes, and gouges, first made in Archaic times, were essential for felling trees. Women also used these tools to chop firewood, crack bones in order to extract marrow, and perform other domestic chores. Spearpoints, essential to the hunt, were made in many shapes and sizes. Fastened to long shafts, they were thrown with a catapultlike atlatl, or spear-thrower. Mounted into short handles, such points served equally well as knives. Traps and snares were also set to capture game, and fish were caught in nets and weirs. Slain animals provided meat, skin for clothing and containers, sinew and gut for sewing and binding, bones and antlers for tools, and hooves from which to make glue and rattles. Almost nothing was wasted. Women and children contributed significantly by gathering plants, fruits, seeds, roots, tubers, berries, nuts, birds’ eggs, shellfish, crustaceans, turtles, frogs, and other edible or useful things. Seeds and nuts were ground into flour using milling stones and handheld mortars and pestles. Foods were eaten raw or roasted, as ceramic cooking pots were unknown to Archaic people. However, cooking may have been accomplished by placing water, meat, fish, and plant ingredients in skin or bark containers and immersing fire-heated stones into the liquid—a process called “stoneboiling.’’Toward the end of the Archaic period, about  b.c.e., people began carving stone bowls out of soapstone and talc. These could be placed on or over a fire without cracking. Clay pots also appeared about this time. Houses were probably ephemeral, because Archaic people moved frequently, depending on available food and resources. In mountainous places, rock shelters and caves were occupied during hunting and gathering forays. On coastal plains, huts were probably made from saplings covered with mats or skins. Early and Middle Woodland cultures (c.  b.c.e.– c.e.) were remarkable for their sometimes elaborate burials, often accompanied by copper artifacts from Lake Superior, shells from the Gulf Coast, fine stones from faraway places like Labrador and the Dakotas, and other exotic objects. With such burials, archaeologists have found the first evidence of woven cloth and tobacco pipes. During Middle Woodland times (c.  c.e.) the bow and arrow replaced the spear as the preferred hunting weapon. Lenape Indians are usually identified with the Late Woodland period (c. – c.e.). Dependable and storable garden vegetables were added to foods obtained by hunting, fishing, and gathering. Garden crops included corn, beans, squash, and possibly sunflower and tobacco. The need to tend gardens required the construction of more permanent and substantial houses and storage facilities. After crops were harvested and stored, hunting and nut-gathering forays were undertaken. Edible American chestnuts abounded and,

together with certain acorns and other nuts, provided easily procurable foods that helped to sustain the bands throughout the winter. Deer and bear were hunted more intensively in cold weather, when they had grown fat and their pelts were thick and warm. Elderly and infirm persons were always provided for, as sharing was an essential part of Lenape life. Lenape people lived seemingly tranquil lives in small, unfortified communities; there is no archaeological evidence of warfare until after European colonists arrived. Houses were constructed from saplings stuck into the earth at opposite sides and bent together at the top to form a dome-shaped trellis tied with bast fibers. Beginning at the bottom and overlapping one another, rectangular slabs of tree bark were tied to the frame to provide a secure, watertight cover. Openings in the roof vented smoke. A single doorway provided entrance. Raised platforms along the inside walls of the house were covered with skins or furs and provided seating during the day and sleeping places at night. Firewood and stored foods were probably kept under the bunks, and bundles of tobacco and herbs were suspended from roof poles. Storage pits lined with bark and mold-resistant grass were located at the ends of large houses for easy access to dried meats and plant foods in bad weather. Similar storage pits, suitably covered against rain or snow, were located outside the dwellings. Round-ended longhouses might measure sixty feet in length and twenty feet in width; wigwams were usually smaller and more circular. Historic accounts indicate that twenty-five or more people might occupy a single longhouse. Lenape lived in small bands near streams, lakes, and seashores. Each band operated independently, there being no centralized political authority and no chiefs before the coming of Europeans. Clan identities included the wolf, turtle, and turkey. Every person belonged to one such descent group, which served to regulate marriage, among other things. For example, a woman was expected to marry a man from a lineage other than her own; their children kept the mother’s lineage. Should anything happen to the parents, members of the mother’s lineage would care for the children. Marriage was simple, oftentimes nothing more than an agreement to live together. Initially, the couple resided in the woman’s house, which was likely shared by her mother, sisters, and their respective husbands and children. Gender division characterized labor within the society. Women cared for the children and performed domestic chores, tanned hides, made clothing, fashioned pottery vessels, tended gardens, gathered firewood, and, accompanied by children, foraged for edible plants, nuts, shellfish, and other foods. Men hunted, fished, and did heavy physical work. They cut down and burned sections of the forest to provide clearings, tilled the garden soils, made dugout canoes, cut saplings

21

and bark for house construction, chipped stone tools and weapons, and made wooden bowls and ladles. Surviving skeletal remains indicate that Lenape people were healthy, although increasing consumption of garden foods, high in sugar and starch, resulted in more tooth decay and abscesses. Herbal teas and poultices were used for internal disorders and topical applications. Every woman knew the properties of common medications, but herbalists with special skills were highly regarded. To be effective, herbal remedies, whether made from plants, roots, leaves, or bark, had to be gathered in a ritually prescribed manner. When found, the spirit of the herbal plant was prayed to and informed of the condition to be alleviated. Death often came at an early age. Infant mortality was particularly high. Burials usually occurred on the day following death. Shallow graves accommodated bodies placed in a flexed position, with knees drawn up and arms folded. The elaborate offerings found in Early and Middle Woodland graves were seldom included, although the Lenape held a “Feast of the Dead’’ on the day of burial and on subsequent anniversaries. A very spiritual people, the Lenape believed in a single, all-powerful, creative force who “creates us by his thoughts.’’ Prayers and supplications had to be recited twelve times before reaching the twelfth heaven, where `ng, the supreme deity, resided. Kish¨elemuko Having created the universe and all good `ng delegated the maintethings, Kish¨elemuko nance of the system to lesser spirit beings. Among these were thunder beings, sun, moon, stars, and corn mother. M¨esingw, “the Keeper

Carved wooden mask with sheet-metal eyes and tressed with horsehair, possibly representing ¨singw, the Keeper of the Game, who protected Me forest animals, nineteenth century.

Courtesy Woodruff Museum of Indian Artifacts, Bridgeton Free Public Library. Photo: R. Alan Mounier.

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American Indians

WISCONSIN

LENAPE MIGRATION ROUTES

1783-Present

00 18

-1

82

1

1830-186 8

KANSAS

the “Delaware Tribe of Western Oklahoma.’’ The “Stockbridge Munsee’’ live near Green Bay, Wisconsin, and still other Lenape reside in Moraviantown and Munsee Town, Ontario, among the Six Nations in Canada, and elsewhere. Small numbers of Delaware remained in New Jersey, where they intermarried with other Native Americans and people of European and African American descent. Many have lost their identity, though others are members of groups claiming longestablished histories in the state. There is also a growing number of individuals of questionable descent who for one reason or another desire to be identified as Lenape or Delaware. The Oklahoma and Canadian Delawares do not recognize these persons.

ONT.

1 8 2 1-1 8 3 0

1789 1868-Present OKLAHOMA 1875-Present N

5 81 7- 1 0 8 1

0 TEXAS

1854

100 miles

© Rutgers, The State University of NJ

of the Game,’’ was of special importance, for he safeguarded the animals, but also permitted their occasional deaths to assuage human hunger and to provide the skins and sinews needed for clothing and other uses. The counterpart to the beneficent creator who provided wholesome and useful things was Mahtantu, who put thorns on berry bushes, created poisonous snakes, spread useless plants, and caused other undesirable things. Mahtantu was not a devil in the Christian sense, for he did not consign men’s souls to everlasting damnation. In fact, the Lenape had no conception of hell. Rather, evildoers would be barred from participation in the pain-free afterlife that good people would enjoy in a provident and pleasant place. Relationships to spirit beings were individual and personal; there were few prescribed prayers or rituals. Certain occasions— for example, the Corn Dance, or fall harvest ceremony—required the participation of all members of the community, as did the later Big House ceremony. An essential rite, especially for boys, was the Vision Quest, wherein an aspiring youth was led into the woods or mountains without food. Alone and afraid, he prayed that some spirit—a bird, animal, or insect—would pity him and agree to serve as his guardian. Those who failed in this endeavor often considered themselves unworthy and bereft of spiritual protection. A girl, favored with a vision when sick and delirious, was considered to be especially blessed and was often encouraged to become a herbalist. The seemingly uncomplicated and satisfying life of the Lenape changed with the arrival of European traders, who offered iron axes, knives, brass pots, glass beads, and other useful and desirable things in exchange for pelts. Beaver, otter, and other fur-bearing animals were hunted relentlessly—not for food or clothing, but solely to satisfy the Europeans’

insatiable demands and to acquire trade items. When overhunting reduced the number of furs, traders stopped providing rum and trade goods, leaving the Indians frustrated and angry. Alcohol and drugs were unknown before European contact, and the introduction of rum and beer wreaked havoc among native people unaccustomed to intoxicants. Unwittingly, Europeans also introduced epidemic diseases. Native people had never been exposed to such deadly pathogens and had no immunity to them. According to some estimates, epidemic diseases annihilated up to  percent of the native populations, often destroying entire villages. Under intense pressure to sell their lands, weakened and dispirited, the Indians saw no way to survive and maintain their traditional culture amid the growing population of unsympathetic and self-serving European immigrants. To preserve themselves and their culture, the Indians moved westward, only to become embroiled in the French and Indian War, Pontiac’s Rebellion, the Revolutionary War, and other struggles that further diminished their numbers. The  treaties of Crosswicks and Easton offered small compensations to the Indians in return for quitclaims to all their remaining lands in New Jersey. At that time, too, the Brotherton Reservation was established in Burlington County for the benefit of Christianized Lenape living south of the Raritan River. This, the first and only Indian reservation in New Jersey, was dissolved in , and the last native population moved into New York State and eventually to Wisconsin and Kansas. At the beginning of the twenty-first century, the Lenape, often called “Delaware Indians,’’ are among the most fragmented of all Indian peoples. The majority live in northeastern Oklahoma, where they are identified as the “Delaware Tribe of Indians,’’ and in western Oklahoma, where they are known as

Kraft, Herbert C. The Lenape: Archaeology, History, and Ethnography. Newark: New Jersey Historical Society, . ———. The Lenape-Delaware Indian Heritage: , B.C. to A.D. . Union: Lenape Books, . Weslager, C. A. The Delaware Indians: A History. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

Herbert C. Kraft

American Labor Museum/Botto House National Landmark. This museum and education center in Haledon presents public exhibits, classes, lectures, artistic performances, and outreach programs in the fields of labor and immigrant studies. It is a nonprofit membership institution that was founded in  by a consortium of community, business, and labor leaders. The American Labor Museum is one of a growing number of museums throughout the world that are dedicated to celebrating the history and contribution of working people. The Botto House, home of the museum, is a twelve-room, three-family Victorian house built in  by Pietro (–) and Maria (–) Botto, immigrants from Biella, Italy. A trolley-car suburb, Haledon was home to working families employed in neighboring Paterson, which was known as “Silk City.’’ Pietro Botto was a skilled weaver, and Maria was a silk inspector who worked at home on a “picking frame.’’ During the  Paterson Silk Strike, the house became a haven for free speech and assembly for over twenty thousand strikers who were forbidden to meet in Paterson. This strike was one of several historic events that led to labor legislation and improvements in working conditions. Golin, Steve. The Fragile Bridge: Paterson Silk Strike, . Philadelphia: Temple University Press, .

See also labor; museums

Angelica M. Santomauro

American Littoral Society.

Based in Sandy Hook, the American Littoral Society (ALS) is a national, nonprofit environmental watchdog group with more than six thousand members. It was founded in  by fishermen and divers worried about development and water quality; since then the ALS has played

American Revolution a role in the enactment of key legislation affecting littoral areas (such as the Wetlands Act, the Coastal Facility Review Act, and the Waterfront Development Act). The ALS supports free public access to beaches, the removal of structures such as jetties, groins, and bulkheads, and the buyout of beachfront and other property subjected to frequent flooding and storm damage. The society has consistently objected to tax-funded beach replenishment. Two society projects concentrate on New Jersey watersheds: the Baykeeper is an advocate for the Hudson-Raritan Estuary at the mouth of New York Harbor, and the Delaware Riverkeeper keeps an eye on that river’s lands and waters.

Mark McGarrity

American Pottery Manufacturing Company. Located in Jersey City, the American Pottery Manufacturing Company was the first U.S. pottery manufacturer to introduce English factory methods using molds and a division of labor. In , Scottish brothers David and James Henderson, operating as D. and J. Henderson, employed English master potters William and James Taylor to make brown-glazed stoneware vessels in a factory previously built and occupied by the Jersey Porcelain and Earthenware Company on the block bounded by Essex, Sussex, and Warren streets. In , the name was changed to the American Pottery Manufacturing Company (also known as the American Pottery Company), and David Henderson took control of the operation. By this time, the company had introduced the extensive use of press molds, first utilizing molds acquired from England and, later, employing master moldmakers like Englishman Daniel Greatbach.

Products included brown-glazed stonewares, yellow earthenware, and refined white earthenware. Much of the white earthenware was transfer printed, a process in which elaborate decoration is transferred from engraved copper plates to the pottery surface. The company is known for its use of the Canova pattern copied from English originals. It decorated hexagonal pitchers for the presidential campaign of William Henry Harrison in  with transfer prints of Harrison and his log cabin symbol. Whitewares were embellished with blue color sponged onto the surface. Plates and teapots marked by the American Pottery Company are known by this decoration. Many wares, however, may have survived without marks and may be identified as English products today. The company is known primarily for its hound-handled pitchers with low-relief hunt scenes on the sides. Many of these were covered with a Rockingham glaze, which is distinguished by a dark brown spotted appearance. Developed in England, this type of glaze was introduced to American manufacture about  and persisted through the nineteenth century. In , David Henderson was killed in an accident in the Adirondack Mountains. The surviving corporate owners of the company, including William Rhodes, Oliver Strong, and Thomas McGerron, continued to make similar wares and probably also used the same company name. By , however, the pottery was owned by John Owen Rouse and Nathaniel Turner, and was called the Jersey City Pottery Company. They continued to make Rockingham household wares, such as pitchers and teapots, including their own version of the socalled Rebekah-at-the-Well pattern. The pottery also produced a line of white granite tableware, although few marked examples have survived and the full range of this line is not known today. During the s, it made a line of cream-colored earthenware in ornamental shapes, called ivory whiteware, which was sold undecorated, for embellishment by independent china decorators across the United States. Turner died in . Rouse sold the property in . The buildings were demolished shortly thereafter. During David Henderson’s tenure, the pottery was at the forefront of the American ceramics market. From  to , the company’s wares competed favorably with English imported stoneware and earthenware. After the Civil War, however, the pottery’s products were uninspired. Stradling, Diana, and Ellen Paul Denker. Jersey City: Shaping America’s Pottery Industry, –. Jersey City: Jersey City Museum, .

See also ceramic art; ceramics industry

Ellen Paul Denker Earthenware pitcher with cream background and black transfer prints made by the American Pottery Manufacturing Company for William Henry Harrison’s presidential campaign, .

Collection of the New Jersey State Museum, Trenton. Museum Purchase, CH1986.11.

American Repertory Ballet/ Princeton Ballet School. The American Repertory Ballet (ARB) is New Jersey’s largest dance company. The Princeton Ballet

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Society maintains both the ARB and its affiliate, the Princeton Ballet School. ´e Estey, a former actress-dancer for Audre Fox Studio and a renowned ballet teacher, founded the Princeton Ballet School in . More than twelve hundred students now study at its studios in Princeton, Cranbury, and New Brunswick, making it one of the largest dance schools in the nation. The school offers a wide-ranging curriculum, conservatory atmosphere, and apprenticeship program in order to provide the training that will help guide its students to careers as professional dancers. In , the success of the Princeton Ballet School led Estey to establish the Princeton Regional Ballet Company, which, in , became the professional Princeton Ballet Company. Its growing national reputation inspired the name change, in , to the American Repertory Ballet. The company’s home theaters are the New Brunswick State Theatre and McCarter Theatre in Princeton. The ARB is also a principal affiliate of the New Jersey Performing Arts Center. Since , the New Jersey State Council on the Arts has designated the company a Major Arts Institution and, in addition, awarded the ARB a citation of excellence for –. See also dance

Beth S. Bloom

American Revolution.

The worst crisis to strike the state of New Jersey was also its first crisis—the Revolutionary War of –. New Jersey was a corridor between the northern and southern colonies and between the two key cities of New York and Philadelphia. Many of the crucial military actions of the Revolution took place in New Jersey, and the small and sparsely populated state suffered a disproportionate share of the war’s battles, invasions, and civil strife. Through the years of war, George Washington spent more time in New Jersey than in any other state, including three winter encampments (Morristown in  and – and Raritan in –). For New Jerseyans, the home front and the battlefront were often the same. Prior to its major role in the Revolution, New Jersey played a relatively minor part in the decade of protest that preceded the outbreak of war. With a population of about ,, the colony had no large cities to match Boston, New York, and Philadelphia, with their urban mobs, and no large merchant class that bridled at limits imposed by Britain on commerce with Europe and the West Indies. Unlike many other colonies, New Jersey made no claims to western territories and so did not suffer from British limitations on settlement beyond the Allegheny Mountains. The colony had no newspaper to rally public opinion, and it produced no leaders with the influence of Patrick Henry of Virginia or Samuel Adams of Massachusetts. In , at the beginning of the

AMERICAN REVOLUTION IN NEW JERSEY OVERVIEW OF BATTLES MAJOR BATTLES K

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A. Trenton 1 December 26, 1776 B. Trenton 2 (Assunpink) January 2, 1777

N

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C. Princeton January 3, 1777 D. Monmouth June 28, 1778 MINOR BATTLES E. Chestnut Neck October 5–7, 1778

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NUMBER OF SKIRMISHES

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1

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F. Paulus Hook August 19, 1779 G. Fort Lee November 20, 1776

5 - 10 20 - 30

H. Red Bank (Fort Mercer) October 22, 1777 I. Gloucester November 25 & 27, 1777

I H

J. Connecticut Farms June 7, 1780 K. Baylor Massacre September 28, 1778 M

E

N

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L. Osborne Island October 15, 1778 M. Quinton's Bridge March18, 1778 N. Hancock's Bridge March 21, 1778 O. Springfield June 23, 1780

0

20 miles Rutgers, The State University

American Revolution protest movement, New Jersey’s legislature initially turned down a request to send delegates to an intercolonial conference called to protest the Stamp Act. Although the colony was not in the forefront of the protest, a majority of New Jerseyans came to share with other colonists the sentiment that restrictive legislation passed by Parliament posed a threat to liberty. One issue that agitated the colony was Britain’s limitation on the issuance of paper currency, a move that disadvantaged New Jersey’s debtor farmers. The colony sent delegates to the Continental Congress in Philadelphia, and residents engaged in protest activities such as hanging unpopular officials in effigy, boycotting British imports, holding anti-British meetings, and forming Sons of Liberty groups. Inspired by events in Boston, a mob in Greenwich destroyed a cargo of British tea. As in other colonies, rebel New Jerseyans set up an extralegal government of local committees, and they formed a colonywide Provincial Congress to which towns sent representatives. By , this ad hoc structure had taken charge of the affairs of the colony in place of the increasingly isolated royal governor, William Franklin, and his officials. But unlike more militant colonies in the South and New England, New Jerseyans still hung back from calling for a complete break with Great Britain. Even as late as January , nine months after armed conflict began at Lexington and Concord, most New Jerseyans did not favor independence. The turning point for New Jersey came in June , when the Provincial Congress arrested Governor Franklin and removed him from office. In July the rebels adopted a constitution that declared New Jersey’s independence and replaced the old colonial government. This hastily written document continued to refer to New Jersey as a colony, rather than a state, and contained a final clause that provided for its own nullification in the case of reconciliation between England and its colonies. But for all the hesitancy, the crucial step had been taken: New Jersey was independent. The constitution provided for a governor to be elected annually by the legislature. As the first occupant of that office, the legislature chose William Livingston, a retired lawyer and fervent revolutionary. Livingston proved to be an excellent war leader and was reelected each succeeding year. The newly formed state government faced serious problems. First was the presence of a large Tory faction, perhaps one-third of the population, which remained loyal to the Crown and regarded the rebels as traitors. Another block of New Jerseyans, the Quakers, though not overt supporters of the British, followed their pacifist religious principles and declared themselves neutral in the war. A second problem was to provide regiments of regular troops for the Continental

Army and to raise an effective state militia. This manpower problem was never satisfactorily solved, and throughout the war New Jersey struggled to recruit and maintain soldiers. The Jersey militia had a poor reputation in the eyes of General Washington. The third and most pressing threat facing Livingston and the new government came from the British Army, which had captured New York City in August  and threatened to invade New Jersey. The invasion came on the morning of November , , when a force of six thousand men under the command of Maj. Gen. Charles Cornwallis crossed the Hudson from Manhattan and climbed the Palisades. Gen. William Howe’s army captured Fort Lee, the main rebel stronghold on the west bank of the Hudson River, and then relentlessly advanced south through the length of New Jersey in pursuit of George Washington and the Continental Army. The retreat across New Jersey from late November through late December  marked the lowest point of the American Revolution. Washington’s shrinking, poorly clad, and poorly equipped force, virtually abandoned by the New Jersey militia, could not stop the British juggernaut. Washington was forced to flee across the Delaware to Pennsylvania, leaving the enemy in possession of the major towns of New Jersey. Governor Livingston and the state legislature went into hiding. Under British occupation, many former rebels signed loyalty oaths to the Crown. But then came a master stroke. On Christmas night , Washington and approximately twenty-four hundred soldiers crossed the Delaware River and the next morning routed the Hessian garrison at Trenton, killing the commander and capturing almost one thousand prisoners. The Battle of Trenton was a momentous victory that helped to keep the American cause alive. A week later, Washington defeated the British at Princeton, enabling him to reestablish the presence of the Continental Army in New Jersey. The victories at Trenton and Princeton forced the British to close ranks in a few heavily garrisoned towns, and they withdrew almost entirely from New Jersey in . Civil authority was restored. Although the remaining years of the Revolution were difficult in New Jersey, the situation never reached the depths of defeat and disunity that marked the perilous days of late . In the late summer of  Howe tried another strategy. He occupied Philadelphia, driving out the Continental Congress. But the Americans blocked the Delaware River south of Philadelphia through fortifications on islands in the river and at Fort Mercer on the Jersey side. A fierce British and Hessian attack on Fort Mercer was repulsed in October. The Delaware eventually did fall to Howe, but his occupation of Philadelphia failed to extinguish the rebellion.

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In June  Henry Clinton, Howe’s successor in command of the Crown forces, evacuated Philadelphia, marching across New Jersey toward New York City with some ten thousand British and Hessian soldiers. Presented with an opportunity to strike a blow at the enemy, Washington set out in pursuit, this time assisted by the New Jersey militia, which harassed the British line of march. Washington finally caught up with the British Army at Monmouth Courthouse on June , . The Battle of Monmouth was inconclusive, but the American force showed that it could stand head-to-head against the British. One final large-scale invasion of New Jersey occurred in June , when a force of five thousand British and Hessian soldiers under Gen. Wilhelm von Knyphausen landed near Elizabethtown. American resistance forced Knyphausen to turn back, but not before his soldiers set fire to the towns of Connecticut Farms and Springfield. New Jerseyans suffered much from these military campaigns, invasions, and encampments. Soldiers from both armies requisitioned property and routinely stole livestock to fill their bellies and fences to fuel their fires. The British and their allies committed the most serious depredations, and episodes of pillaging were common. Even after regular troops left the area as the major focus of the war shifted from the mid-Atlantic to the southern colonies, New Jerseyans lived in fear of Tory raids. New York City remained in British hands until the end of the war, giving the Tories a safe base from which to launch assaults. Virtually no county in New Jersey was untouched by civil strife, but the bloodiest were Bergen and Monmouth counties, where vigilante bands of Tories and rebels committed atrocities against each other. The rebels had the government on their side and used the law to banish or execute Loyalists and confiscate their estates. There was more to the Revolution than war. The state’s first newspaper, the NewJersey Gazette, was established in December , and its pages became a forum where residents could express their views about maintaining revolutionary virtue, about the need for vigilance against the enemy, and about the ramifications of independence for religion and education. One remarkable exchange in the paper in – addressed the question of whether slavery was compatible with the ideals of the Revolution—a debate that one historian has described as “the most extensive conducted in any state prior to the s.’’ During the war, New Jerseyans were also concerned about the organization of a national government. The state legislature approved the Articles of Confederation in November , but expressed serious reservations about the potential for large states to dominate the smaller ones. New Jersey’s representatives would grapple with this vexing

AMERICAN REVOLUTION: MAJOR BRITISH INVASION ROUTES, 1776 1780

1776 1777 British Victory British Forces American Forces

3

1777

2 Battle at Ft. Washington Sept. 1776

British Victory British Forces American Forces

Battle at Ft. Lee Nov. 1776

Morristown NYC

Princeton

General Washington's retreat Nov. Dec. 1776

Trenton N

Perth New Amboy Brunswick

1 Battle of Long Island Aug. 27,1776

5 General Cornwallis pursues the retreating Continental Army.

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1778

American Victory British Forces American Forces

New York City 4

2 The Continental Army marched from its winter encampment in Valley Forge to engage the British.

The battle was inconclusive. After dark, the British withdrew and continued on toward New York City.

River

Philadelphia

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3 The largest land artillery battle of the Revolution, Battle of Monmouth June 28, 1778.

1 In June, British evacuated from Philadelphia and withdrew toward New York City.

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British Navy landed troops to march on 2 Philadelphia in the spring of 1777.

1780

1 The winter of 1780 was the coldest of the century. General Washington faced mutiny from troops who had not been paid for months.

4 1,000 Continental troops met the British force, Battle of Springfied June 23, 1780. 3 British burn the village of Connecticut Farms, June 7, 1780. NYC

Morristown

Princeton

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5 Fort Mercer and Fort Mifflin beseiged fall 1777

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Trenton 6 Americans counterattack at Trenton and Princeton Dec. 26, 1776 January 3, 1777.

Philadelphia Campaign 4 summer 1777

Philadelphia

Princeton

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1 Continental Army encampment winter 1777

General Washington marched south to defend Philadelphia in the spring of 1777.

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Morristown

5 Retreating British troops burn Elizabethtown, June 23, 1780 The failed attacks on Morristown were the last major Brititsh military actions in New Jersey. 2 American Victory British Victory

General Knyphausen led 5,000 British troops to attack Continental troops in early June.

British Forces American Forces 0

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0 Source: National Park Service http://www.nps.gov/crossroads

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© Rutgers, The State University

amphibians issue a decade later in the debate over the federal Constitution. When the war finally ended in , New Jersey was left devastated and impoverished. The currency was hopelessly inflated; farms, churches, and homes had been burned to the ground; and families and communities had been torn apart by bitterness between Loyalists and rebels. But for all the difficulty, the war had been won, and New Jersey could chart its own future as a state within the new American nation. Historians have long debated the nature of the American Revolution. Was it a conservative movement to preserve the rights Americans already enjoyed? Was it a class war between haves and have-nots? Did it unleash a new revolutionary ideology? Looked at from the perspective of little New Jersey, the war’s origins were deeply conservative. There was no intent to turn the world upside down; no conscious change occurred in the relationship between rich and poor, masters and slaves, or men and women. One of New Jersey’s military leaders, William Alexander, proudly claimed to be the heir to a British noble title and was deferentially referred to as “Lord Stirling.’’ No New Jerseyans objected to having this aspiring aristocrat in their midst. But in the debates in the Gazette and in private letters and public legislation one can see a radical view of the political and social order emerging. At the end of the war, Governor Livingston spoke to the General Assembly and, through that legislative body, to the people of New Jersey: “Let us now shew ourselves worthy of the inestimable Blessings of Freedom by an inflexible Attachment to publick Faith and national Honour. Let us establish our Character as a Sovereign State on the only durable Basis of impartial and universal Justice.’’ The revolutionary implication was that, from the eminent Lord Stirling to the humblest resident, New Jerseyans were equal in the eyes of the state. It is a concept that continues to challenge the people of the state in the third century since the Revolution. Gerlach, Larry R., ed. New Jersey in the American Revolution, –: A Documentary History. Trenton: New Jersey Historical Commission, . Lundin, Leonard. Cockpit of the Revolution: The War for Independence in New Jersey. Princeton: Princeton University Press, .

Marc Mappen

American Standard Corporation. The American Standard Corporation was formed in  with the merger of two major heating and plumbing supply manufacturers, American Radiator of Buffalo, New York, and Standard Sanitary Manufacturing Corporation of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, becoming American Radiator and Standard Sanitary Corporation. In , company president Theodore Ahern purchased the Thomas Maddock’s Sons sanitary pottery in Hamilton Township, giving it a state-of-the-art pottery on the East Coast.

Adding products ranging from toilet seats to air conditioners to truck braking systems, American Standard, as it was formally known from  on, became the world’s largest plumbing products producer. In , it purchased the Trane Corporation, manufacturers of air conditioners and furnaces, with a plant in Hamilton Township. The corporation moved its international headquarters from New York City to Piscataway in a cost-cutting move in . After upgrading its New Jersey pottery in the late s and early s, American Standard cut its staff by half in , asserting that the plant was old and inefficient. Although workers protested that the seventy-sixyear-old facility remained profitable and that renovations were under way that would further modernize it, American Standard closed the plant in December , shifting remaining production to Tiffin, Ohio; Mexico; and Costa Rica. Under CEO and president Frederick M. Poses, American Standard had revenues of $. billion, profits of $ million, and about sixty thousand employees in twenty-seven countries in . It ranked  on the  Fortune  list of corporations. Maddock, Archibald M. The Polished Earth: A History of the Pottery Plumbing Fixtures Industry in the United States. Trenton: Privately published, . Stern, Marc Jeffrey. The Pottery Industry of Trenton: A Skilled Trade in Transition, –. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

27

educational works used in schools for former slaves established in the South by northern philanthropists. By the mid–twentieth century, after a period of book publishing, the society returned to tract distribution. Leaving its longtime home in New York City in the s, it moved to Garland, Texas, where it is still active. American Tract Society Documents, –. New York: Arno Press, .

See also Presbyterians

Margaret M. Sumner

American Type Founders Company. Incorporated in New Jersey in , the American Type Founders (ATF) was created by the merger of twenty-three leading American type foundries, including the oldest, begun in . The company eventually bought the four remaining important foundries and became the leading supplier of printing type in the United States. ATF gradually consolidated casting and manufacturing operations in Jersey City and opened an important typographic library there. A second factory, opened in  in Elizabeth, later supplanted the Jersey City factory. In , during the Depression, ATF declared bankruptcy, from which it slowly reemerged as a smaller operation. Changes in printing technology relentlessly drove it into a second, and final, bankruptcy on May , .

See also sanitary ware industry

Stephen O. Saxe

Marc J. Stern

Ammann, American Telephone and Telegraph. See AT&T Corporation. American Tract Society.

When tract societies from New England, New York, and New Jersey agreed to combine their efforts, the American Tract Society was founded on May , . From its headquarters in New York City, the society published and distributed thousands of religious pamphlets—or tracts— designed, as the Rev. William Blackwood stated in an  speech at Princeton Theological Seminary, to spread the gospel, which “alone is intended to achieve the subjugation of the world to Christ.’’ Influenced by the religious revivalism and reform efforts of the early nineteenth century, the society’s directors, mostly Congregationalist and Presbyterian ministers, encouraged cooperative efforts among the growing number of Protestant sects. Tract writers promoted social purity movements like temperance and urged believers to support missionary work, both spiritually and financially. New Jersey educator Theodore Frelinghuysen, active in the Presbyterian Church and the temperance movement, served as president of the American Tract Society from  to , before becoming president of Rutgers College in . After the Civil War, the society provided many

Othmar

Hermann

(b. Mar. , ; d. Sept. , ).

Engineer and designer. Born in Feuerthalen, near Schaffhausen, Switzerland, Othmar Ammann was the son of Emmanuel Christian Ammann and Emilie Rose Labhardt. Ammann received a degree in engineering from the Federal Polytechnic Institute, Zurich, in , and immigrated to the United States in . He served as bridge engineer with the Port of New York Authority from  to , becoming chief engineer in  and director of engineers in . He designed the innovative George Washington Bridge (), the Bayonne Bridge (), and the Lincoln Tunnel (), all of which connected New Jersey to New York. In  he returned to private practice and later designed the Delaware Memorial Bridge (), which connected New Jersey to Delaware. Petroski, Henry. Engineers of Dreams: Great Bridge Builders and the Spanning of America. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, . Rastorfer, Darl. Six Bridges: The Legacy of Othmar H. Ammann. New Haven: Yale University Press, .

See also bridges; George Washington Bridge

P. Gerard Nowicki

amphibians.

Amphibians were the first vertebrates to be adapted for life on land. Jointed, bony limbs for walking on land and lungs capable of breathing gaseous oxygen,

28

Amtrak

Amtrak.

Spadefoot toad.

Courtesy New Jersey Department of Environmental Protection, Division of Fish and Wildlife. along with a mucus-covered skin to minimize water loss, allowed amphibians to make the transition from water to land. Amphibians normally spend only a portion of their life cycle on land, however, and return to the water to breed. The typical amphibian life cycle comprises an aquatic larval stage followed by a terrestrial adult stage. There are, however, exceptions to this standard life cycle. For example, the red-spotted newt, which is found throughout New Jersey, has aquatic larvae and adults, but it also has a fully terrestrial juvenile (or red eft) stage. New Jersey is home to thirty-two different species of amphibians. Salamanders account for sixteen of these species and include the endangered blue-spotted salamander and eastern tiger salamander, as well as the threatened long-tailed salamander and eastern mud salamander. One common species of salamander is the redback, which is found in moist forests throughout New Jersey. Other species such as the mountain dusky, Jefferson, and northern red salamander are found only in northern counties of the state. Frogs and toads are the most commonly observed group of amphibians. The familiar sounds of male frogs and toads calling during the breeding season increases our awareness of these amphibians in the state. Some species, like the ubiquitous spring peeper, may call as early as March following the first spring rains of the year. An icon of the Pinelands, the Pine Barrens treefrog is a state endangered species that prefers to breed in fishless ponds and temporary wetlands. Like salamanders, the porous skin and semiaquatic life cycle of frogs and toads make them very sensitive to water pollution. Habitat loss and the degradation of water quality are the two major threats to amphibian populations in New Jersey. Beans, Bruce E., and Larry Niles, eds. Endangered and Threatened Wildlife of New Jersey. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . Conant, Roger, and Joseph T. Collins. A Field Guide to Reptiles and Amphibians: Eastern/Central North America. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, .

David Golden

Railroads had been losing passenger, express, and mail service to airlines, trucks, cars, and buses since the Depression, and by the late s the quality and reliability of much of the remaining service had significantly declined. Railroads saw no incentive to acquire new equipment or facilities. Blending “America,’’ “travel,’’ and “track,’’ Amtrak, a semipublic corporation, was created by the federal government in  to operate most of the nation’s remaining intercity passenger trains. Under its national scope, Amtrak brought coordinated scheduling, reservations, ticketing, and uniform service standards. Despite gloomy predictions at its inception, the company has expanded services, purchased new equipment, speeded up schedules on several routes, and offers premium express shipment service on its trains. The recently inaugurated Acela trains have reduced the Boston-to-Washington time to six and a half hours. Amtrak serves five hundred stations in forty-five states and provides contract commuter service for eight state and regional authorities. Much of its service operates over routes belonging to freight railroads but it owns the Boston-Washington corridor, and the New Jersey section of this route handles the highest volume of trains. Amtrak owns , cars and  locomotives, and employs , individuals. More than . million customers are served yearly. Bradley, Rodger. Amtrak: The U.S. National Railroad Passenger Corporation. Poole, Dorset, UK: Blandford Press, . Edmonson, Harold A., ed. Journey to Amtrak. Milwaukee: Kalmbach Books, .

See also railroads; transportation

Robert E. Mohowski

ancient Oriental churches.

Almost all ancient Oriental churches have congregations in New Jersey. Generally, they are considered Eastern churches, in distinction to the Roman or Western Church, which itself fragmented into many distinct Protestant denominations. Some of these Eastern churches are in communion with Rome; others are not and are considered Eastern Orthodox, although they derive from many traditions: Byzantine, Antiochian, Coptic, Armenian, and Syriac. The Oriental churches vary little in belief but greatly in ritual and administration. Generally, they do not accept the primacy of the Roman pontiff or Latin-rite patriarch, preferring the orthodoxy of the early church, which accepted diversity, local governance, and the authority of the patriarchs of Antioch and Constantinople. Some had their origins in Nestorianism and others in the schism of , which split the Eastern and Western churches. In the eighteenth century and thereafter, several Oriental groups reentered communion with Rome (for example, the Melkites and Ukrainians) and are thus known to westerners as “Uniates.’’

The largest of these Oriental traditions is the Byzantine or Eastern Orthodox Church. After Rome, it is also the most “universal.’’ Unlike the groups listed above, which are Arab to one degree or another, the Byzantine tradition also includes Greeks, Russians, Ukrainians, and other Slavic groups. All have communities throughout New Jersey. Among Eastern communities in general, the Greek Orthodox Church in New Jersey is most widely known and widespread, and it also serves as the embodiment of that ethnic community, as seen in the numerous Greek festivals held at churches throughout the state. Owing to their diversity, however, no single organization represents all the Eastern churches in New Jersey. Rather, the various ethnic Orthodox bodies belong to a larger national organization that is slowly melding them into a singular American Byzantine Orthodox Church. Oriental churches were first established in New Jersey at the turn of the twentieth century. At that time, most congregants were either Byzantine-rite Catholics from Syria, known as Melkites, or Syrian Orthodox Christians from the cities of Syria and Lebanon. Both the Byzantine Catholics and the Orthodox Syrians are now known as Antiochian Orthodox. Along with these Arab immigrants came Armenian-rite Catholics from Aleppo, Syria. All have thriving congregations in the suburbs of Paterson, where they have built beautiful modern churches and community centers. Orthodox congregations from Armenia were first established at the same time, mostly in Bergen and Passaic counties. More recently, the venerable Coptic Church thrives in Jersey City, brought there by Egyptian immigrants. The Syriac-rite Christians of Turkey have also arrived in the state from Syria, Lebanon, and Iraq. They consider themselves Syriac Orthodox and use Aramaic (the language Christ spoke) in their liturgy, which is often interspersed with Arabic and Turkish as well. Also using Aramaic in the liturgy are the Maronites of Lebanon. This new community has settled in New Brunswick and is in the process of establishing a permanent parish there. Bailey, Betty Jane, and J. Martin Bailey.Who Are the Christians in the Middle East? Grand Rapids, MI, and Cambridge, UK: William B. Eerdmans Publishing, . Cunningham, Barbara, ed. The New Jersey Ethnic Experience. Union City: William H. Wise, .

See also Eastern Orthodox Church; religion

Philip M. Kayal

Ancora Psychiatric Hospital.

Ancora Psychiatric Hospital (Camden County) opened in  to provide psychiatric services to adults and children in southern New Jersey and to relieve crowding at other state psychiatric hospitals. Approximately two thousand patients were housed in nine modern buildings. Ancora’s inpatient population has decreased to just over six hundred patients

Annin Flag Company as coordinated programs moved some inpatients to geriatric facilities and communitycare settings. Current programs include a forensic psychiatry facility and drug and alcohol rehabilitation for patients with coexisting mental illness. An innovative “Campus Brief Visit’’ program allows patients approaching discharge and their families to reexperience family living during brief stays in a cottage on the hospital grounds. See also mental hospitals

Sandra Moss

Anderson, John (b. ; d. Mar. , ). Politician. Following an unsuccessful attempt to establish a Scottish colony on the Isthmus of Panama, John Anderson sailed for New York in  but abandoned his unseaworthy ship in New Jersey. He settled there and soon began serving as provincial court judge. John Anderson married Anna Reid on December , , and fathered nine children. Apart from a suspension between  and , Anderson was a member of the New Jersey Council from  until . As senior councilor, Anderson became acting governor after the death of William Cosby on March , . He served for only eighteen days before dying on March .

was split off from Newton Township in ; the village of Andover was set off from the township as a borough in . The Andover Mine, a pre-Revolutionary iron mine located north of Andover Village, was one of the most important colonial iron mines in the state, and was active until the late nineteenth century. The town as a whole was greatly assisted by the arrival of the Sussex Mine Railroad in , built by Peter Cooper and Abraham Hewitt, and its extension as the Sussex Railroad in , which provided the first rail access to the interior of Sussex County. Iron mining and limestone quarrying remained important through the late nineteenth century, and agriculture was and to a degree remains an important part of the township, although much residential construction has occurred in recent decades. The  population was ,,  percent of which was white. The  median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Borough of Andover, Sussex County—New Jersey. . Reprint. Andover: Historical Society of Andover Township, . Snell, James P., ed. The History of Sussex and Warren Counties, New Jersey. Philadelphia: Everts and Peck, .

Ronald J. Dupont, Jr. Hornor, William S. This Old Monmouth of Ours. Freehold: Moreau Brothers, . Raimo, John W. Biographical Directory of American Colonial and Revolutionary Governors, –. Westport, CT: Meckler Books, .

John W. Raimo

Andover Borough. .-square-mile borough in Sussex County. Formerly the primary village of Andover Township, Andover Borough was incorporated in . The village grew from the Andover Ironworks, an important colonial operation that ceased operation in . The ironworks included a furnace erected in , as well as a gristmill and an ironmaster’s dwelling. A number of these stone buildings survive. The furnace building, later converted to a community playhouse, was adaptively reused as a supermarket. The arrival of the Sussex Railroad in  brought new prosperity to the village and secured its role as the shipping and mercantile center for the surrounding area, which was largely agricultural. Though colonial in origin, the village today reflects its railroad-era heritage. The  population count was , of whom  percent was white. The median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Borough of Andover, Sussex County—New Jersey. . Reprint. Andover: Historical Society of Andover Township, .

Ronald J. Dupont, Jr.

Andover Township.

.-square-mile municipality in Sussex County. The township

Andrews, Solomon

(b. Feb. , ; d.

Oct. , ). Inventor, politician, and physi-

cian. Solomon Andrews served as Collector of the Port of Perth Amboy in –, was the mayor of his town for three terms, and spearheaded the construction of Perth Amboy’s first sewer system. As a doctor, having received his M.D. from Rutgers College in , Andrews recognized the importance of modern sewage systems in preventing the outbreak of cholera and yellow fever. In  Andrews converted a former army barracks in Perth Amboy into the Inventor’s Institute. Andrews developed many products, including a sewing machine, barrel maker, fumigator, velocipede, gas lamp, and kitchen stove. In addition, he invented a burglarproof lock for safe and vault doors. Andrews built a flying machine, the Aereon, which had its maiden flight over Perth Amboy on June , . Later, Andrews met President Abraham Lincoln to discuss its use during the Civil War, but with the conflict coming to an end, nothing further transpired. After the war, Andrews organized the Aerial Navigation Company, hoping to manufacture commercial airships for flights between New York and Philadelphia. Unfortunately, the postwar economic panic wiped out his company and defeated his flight plans. Kingsley, Mary. “The Flying Jerseyman: Dr. Solomon Andrews of Perth Amboy.’’ Proceedings of the New Jersey Historical Society  (): –.

See also airships

E. Richard McKinstry

Andros, Edmund

29

(b. Dec. , ;

d. Feb. , ). Military officer and politician.

Born on the Isle of Guernsey, the son of Amias and Elizabeth (Stone) Andros, and a member of a prominent family that supported the Royalist cause during the English Civil Wars, the young Andros was well positioned to advance his career following the restoration of Charles II in . A military officer whose early responsibilities included service in Barbados, he found an important patron in James, the duke of York and brother of the king, who looked to Andros to help administer extensive North American holdings recently taken from the Dutch. In July  Andros received a commission as governor of New York, and in , following the death of Sir George Carteret, he seized an opportunity to extend his rule to East Jersey. Andros’s tactless handling of the situation led to his recall to England in January , but he returned in December , this time to supervise Charles II’s ambitious attempt at consolidating under the Dominion of New England all of the Crown’s northern colonies. Andros’s efforts at a sweeping overhaul of government in America and greater adherence to English practice ended with the overthrow of James II and the accession of William of Orange to the throne. Before his tenure as governor ended, however, Andros received a commission dated April , , which incorporated East and West Jersey into the Dominion of New England. He governed in that capacity from August  until his arrest and eventual return to England in spring . Andros’s strong skills as an administrator continued to be admired in England, and he later served as governor of Virginia from September  to December  and lieutenant governor of Guernsey from  to . Andros then retired to London, where he died. Lustig, Mary Lou. The Imperial Executive in America: Sir Edmund Andros, –. Madison: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, . Raimo, John W. Biographical Directory of American Colonial and Revolutionary Governors, –. Westport, CT: Meckler Books, . Stellhorn, Paul A., and Michael J. Birkner, eds. The Governors of New Jersey, –: Biographical Essays. Trenton: New Jersey Historical Commission, .

See also governor

John W. Raimo

Annin Flag Company. The world’s largest flag company has its corporate offices and distribution facilities in Roseland. There are two manufacturing plants in the state, at Verona and Orange, and others in Pennsylvania, California, and Virginia. Although Annin manufactures more than twenty thousand different flags and flag accessories, its principal product since its incorporation in  has been the American flag. Between then and July , , the number of stars has increased sixteen times, from twenty-nine to fifty. Annin-made flags have

30

Antheil, George

flown at every presidential inauguration since that of Zachary Taylor in . The company made the flag that Neil Armstrong and Edwin “Buzz’’ Aldrin placed on the Moon during their historic landing on July , , and the ones flown on Robert E. Peary’s expeditions to the North Pole, Richard E. Byrd’s flights over the North and South poles, and the National Geographic Society’s expedition to the top of Mount Everest. Annin is also the official flag manufacturer for the United Nations.

Maureen Dillon

Antheil, George

[Georg] (Carl Johann)

(b. July , ; d. Feb. , ). Composer, con-

cert pianist, lonely hearts columnist, and inventor of a torpedo. Born in Trenton, Antheil studied violin and piano as a child and began composing as a teenager. He trained as an aviator for World War I, but his first trip to Europe was as a concert pianist after the war. The early twentieth century was a time of experimentation, a time of turning against traditions in the arts. Antheil’s concerts were considered avant-garde in Germany, where rioting audiences became commonplace. The riots were fueled by Antheil’s playing of ultramodern works, including his own “barbarous’’ piano sonatas. For protection, he carried a pistol under his tuxedo. Antheil’s reputation pre´a ˆtre des Champs Elyse ´es ceded him to the The in Paris, where on October , , his performance again precipitated a riot, which made him notorious with the Parisian critics and a champion to modernists. Antheil composed solo piano works, symphonies, film music, ballets, and operas. His music was influenced by jazz, cubism, technology, and later, neoclassicism. Early works, like his Sonata Sauvage, Airplane Sonata, and Mechanisms are machinelike in their rhythmic and percussive qualities. Ballet m´ecanique (– ), originally scored for sixteen player pianos and percussion, is his best-known work. Antheil’s music is rarely performed today, but his compositional experimentation and notoriety as a performer are important to early twentieth-century musical aesthetics. His music reflects the effect technology and war had on the arts. Antheil, George. Bad Boy of Music. Garden City, NY: Doubleday, Doran, . Pound, Ezra. Antheil and the Treatise on Harmony with Supplementary Notes. . Reprint. New York: Da Capo Press, . Whitesitt, Linda. The Life and Music of George Antheil, –. Ann Arbor, MI: UMI Research Press, .

Nan Childress Orchard

Anuszkiewicz, Richard ).

(b. May ,

Painter. Born in Erie, Pennsylvania, Richard Anuszkiewicz studied at the Cleveland Institute of Art and began seriously painting in the s as a student of the influential Bauhaus artist Josef Albers at Yale University. Anuszkiewicz dislikes the designation “Op art’’ coined in  to describe many new

paintings. “Scientific art’’ would be a more apt term. Early in his career, he stated that he was interested in exploring how the mind, based on definite psychological laws, organizes what the eye sees. Recoiling from Abstract Expressionism’s abandon, his smoothly surfaced paintings combine repetition and organized procedures to create symmetrical patterns of geometric lines or blocks of color. Because no one part is dominant, his works can be understood as metaphors for the ideal of human equality. His works can also be considered to be two-dimensional equivalents to Buckminster Fuller’s tensigrity, a modern architectural principle of balanced forces. After marrying Elizabeth (Sally) Feeney in , Anuszkiewicz moved to Englewood. He taught at Cooper Union, Dartmouth, Cornell, and Kent State. Besides many one-man and group shows, in , the Brooklyn Museum organized a mid-career retrospective. An outdoor mural near Journal Square in Jersey City marks his contribution to New Jersey’s public art. Anuszkiewicz, Richard. Anuszkiewicz/Karl Lunde. New York: Harry N. Abrams, . Color Function Painting: The Art of Josef Albers, Julian Stanczak, and Richard Anuszkiewicz. WinstonSalem, NC: Wake Forest University Fine Arts Gallery, .

See also art

Jeanne Kolva

Apex Beauty Products Company. Apex Beauty Products Company was founded by Sara Spencer Washington, an African American entrepreneur and philanthropist, who served as president of the company from  until her death in . Apex Hair Company of Atlantic City, originally a one-room beauty shop located at Indiana and Arctic avenues, was the first of Washington’s numerous Apex enterprises. At her laboratory she developed a patented hair curl-removal system called Glossatina, which included hair sheen, pomade, and hot-comb pressing oils that soothed the scalp. Perfumes, lipstick, and facial creams were also created in the laboratory. The company manufactured over seventy-five beauty products for black women in its Atlantic City plant. The finished products were delivered to company agents using a fleet of Apex Hair Company trucks and cars. The company employed more than  men and women as chemists, lab technicians, office workers, teachers, sales representatives, and chauffeurs. By , Apex Enterprises grossed over a million dollars a year and included beauty schools, Apex Farm, Apex Rest, and Apex News, a national beauty magazine for Apex beauticians and agents. The magazine was first issued in  and was published regularly after . The Apex Schools of Scientific Beauty Culture, graduating more than , people a year, were located in eleven American cities, plus Johannesburg, South Africa, and the Caribbean Islands. Apex Farm and Apex

Rest were purchased in the s. Apex Farm was a -acre tract of land in Egg Harbor, New Jersey. Apex Rest was a fifteen-room facility in Atlantic City used primarily by company employees but open to the public. Recreational facilities included a hall routinely converted from dance floor to basketball court and a nine-hole golf course carved out of the woods of Pomona in the late s. The golf club is now the Pomona Golf Course. An influential business executive and pioneer in promotional techniques, Washington established a public relations department that worked with black organizations throughout the country to explain the importance of buying from blacks and supporting their businesses. In  Washington was awarded a medallion at the New York World’s Fair as one of the outstanding businesswomen of New York State. She received a citation for meritorious service during World War II and was the recipient of numerous awards from schools, organizations, and businesses nationwide. Washington’s only child, her adopted daughter Joan Cross Washington Hayes, assumed the presidency of Apex upon Washington’s death in . The business was absorbed by a Baltimore firm in the s. The last line of Apex products seen in the marketplace was produced in Memphis. Although Apex Beauty Products Company is no longer in existence, the product name is still being used. See also Washington, Sara Spencer

Ethel M. Washington

Appalachian Mountains. The remains of an ancient mountain belt in the eastern United States that resulted from the collision of lithospheric plates at the close of the Paleozoic era about  million years ago. The Appalachian system extends from northern Georgia and Alabama northeast to New England and the Canadian Maritimes. In north-central New Jersey, the Appalachians are represented by three northeast-southwest trending physiographic provinces, or landform regions (the Ridge and Valley, the Highlands, and the Piedmont) that together cover  percent of the state. Kittatinny Mountain, a prominent ridge of the Appalachians, extends thirty-five miles from the New York border to the Delaware Water Gap. The highest elevation in New Jersey (High Point at , feet) is located on Kittatinny Mountain. Wolfe, Peter E. The Geology and Landscapes of New Jersey. New York: Crane Russak, .

See also geography; geology; physiography

Robert M. Hordon

Appalachian Trail.

The Appalachian Trail is a footpath extending more than , miles from Springer Mountain, Georgia, to Mount Katahdin, Maine. A stretch of . miles passes through Warren, Sussex, and Passaic counties in northwestern New Jersey.

aquifers

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The idea for the Appalachian Trail originated in  at an informal gathering at Hudson Guild Farm in Sussex County, near Lake Hopatcong. The meeting resulted in an essay by forester and planner Benton MacKaye advocating a linear Appalachian Mountain park as a tool for regional planning. The portion of the Appalachian Trail through New York and New Jersey was the first to be completed, c. , through the efforts of Raymond H. Torrey and the New York–New Jersey Trail Conference. From the south, the Appalachian Trail enters New Jersey via the Delaware Water Gap, ascending Mount Tammany and Kittatinny Ridge, which it follows for  miles. In Worthington State Forest and the Delaware Water Gap National Recreation Area, the trail passes Sunfish Pond, Raccoon Ridge, and Catfish Fire Tower before entering Stokes State Forest and ascending Culver’s Gap. From there it passes Culver Fire Tower and approaches Sunrise Mountain, where a large pavilion was constructed by the Civilian Conservation Corps in –. Entering High Point State Park, it passes near High Point Monument before leaving Kittatinny Ridge to go through the Kittatinny Valley. Traversing woods, fields, and swamps, it crosses the Wallkill River before ascending Pochuck Mountain and passing through the Vernon Valley, where a -foot suspension bridge and ,-foot boardwalk were constructed across the Pochuck River floodplain in the late s. Ascending foot Wawayanda Mountain, the Appalachian Trail enters the Highlands, passing through Wawayanda State Park and entering New York State on Bearfort Mountain. The Appalachian Trail was constructed and is primarily maintained by volunteers

from local hiking organizations. Seven shelters for backpackers have been constructed along the New Jersey section of the Appalachian Trail, spaced an average of ten miles apart; there is also one campground. Since the s, state and federal authorities have acquired land to buffer the Appalachian Trail from adjacent development, particularly in the Vernon and Wallkill valleys. The portion of trail between Wawayanda Mountain and Kittatinny Ridge was completely relocated away from highways onto a protected corridor by the late s, and numerous bridges and sections of boardwalk were constructed. Several thousand backpackers hiking some or all of the Appalachian Trail pass through New Jersey annually. Chazin, Daniel D., field ed. Appalachian Trail Guide to New York–New Jersey. Harpers Ferry, WV: Appalachian Trail Conference, . Scherer, Glenn, and Don Hopey. Exploring the Appalachian Trail—Hikes in the Mid-Atlantic States. Mechanicsburg, PA: Stackpole Books, .

Ronald J. Dupont, Jr.

Appel Farm Arts and Music Center. Founded in  and located on a -acre farm, Appel Farm Arts and Music Center is a nonprofit regional arts center located in Upper Pittsgrove Township. The center’s programs include a residential summer arts camp for children ages nine through seventeen, a nationally renowned folk festival held on the first Saturday in June, a professional concert series, community and school arts outreach, and a conference center. Appel Farm serves over fifty thousand people annually.

Mark E. Packer

plejack is also known as apple brandy, apple whiskey, cider spirits, or “Jersey Lightning.’’ Applejack has mainly been produced by distilling hard cider. Because of the adaptability of the imported trees and the ease of manufacturing cider, which ferments naturally, apples were the primary source of alcohol in early America. It was safer to drink than water, and was therefore consumed in great quantities. In New Jersey, known for the quality of its apples, applejack was already being produced by the late seventeenth century, and in the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries “Newark cider’’ was exported to much of the country. Stills that rendered the mildly alcoholic cider into more potent and portable applejack were widespread in the state as early as the mid-eighteenth century. Most large farms distilled small quantities for household consumption, but by the early nineteenth century commercial distillers were using huge cider stills with capacities of over a thousand gallons; in  there were  distilleries in the state. New Jersey never had a monopoly on applejack production but, as the name “Jersey Lightning’’ suggests, it was closely identified with the liquor. During Prohibition, bootleg Jersey applejack was popular, in part because it was thought to be safer to drink than other forms of moonshine. Legitimate distillers rebounded somewhat after the  repeal, but rising apple prices and changes in American drinking habits proved fatal to almost all of them. The sole survivor, Laird and Company of Scobeyville, is the oldest operating distillery in the United States; although its apples are no longer grown in New Jersey, the company continues to produce and market applejack, in addition to bottling and importing less traditional spirits. Weiss, Harry B. The History of Applejack or Apple Brandy in New Jersey from Colonial Times to the Present. Trenton: New Jersey Agricultural Society, .

See also agriculture

David Lurie

Apollo Muses.

Apollo Muses supports and presents arts programs in central New Jersey. The organization was founded in  by Eric Gustafson of Peapack-Gladstone to help young professional artists find opportunities to perform their music, dance, theater, and poetry, as well as to show their paintings and sculpture. The organization also arranges for distinguished veteran artists to share their experiences. The organization has supported programs in New Jersey schools, libraries, and museums, as well as at Carnegie Hall, New York University, and the Library for the Performing Arts at Lincoln Center in New York.

Michael Redmond

aquifers.

Aquifers are water-bearing geological formations that can store and transmit substantial amounts of groundwater to

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wells and springs. The formations can be either unconsolidated (e.g., Kirkwood-Cohansey Formation in the Coastal Plain of southern New Jersey) or consolidated (e.g., Stockton Formation in central New Jersey). The most productive aquifers in the state are the sandy formations in the Coastal Plain (e.g., PotomacRaritan-Magothy) and the sand and gravel deposits in buried glacial valleys in northern New Jersey (e.g., Ramapo River Valley in Bergen County). The least productive aquifers are the diabase and argillite formations in central New Jersey (e.g., Sourland Mountains) that are poorly fractured, with very limited capability to transmit water. Fetter, C. W. Applied Hydrogeology. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall, .

See also water

Robert M. Hordon

arbitration.

In the last decade, there has been a huge increase in the number and type of disputes submitted to arbitration. The benefits of arbitration are well known: this process is less costly, less time-consuming, and probably more equitable than is adjudication. Under the New Jersey Arbitration Act, individuals must submit to court-annexed or mandatory arbitration if they are filing a civil claim alleging personal injury, and if the amount of monetary damages sought is less than either $, for a claim arising from an automobile accident or $, for injuries arising from other claims. New Jersey is one of only six states that mandate arbitration, and there are a number of facets that are unique to the state’s arbitration procedure, such as the requirement that the parties exempt themselves from arbitration if they seek medical expenses in excess of $, or if the case involves novel or complex features. Under state law, parties have a right to appeal their arbitration awards in court, and there is little penalty for those who have not participated in the arbitration process in good faith. An award arising from court-annexed arbitration can be vacated only if there is evidence that the arbitrators have engaged in fraud, corruption, or other wrongdoing. In addition to mandatory arbitration, parties can agree to submit to arbitration as part of a contract. For a court to uphold a voluntary arbitration agreement, there must be clear and unambiguous evidence of the parties’ intent to arbitrate. The contract must state that arbitration will proceed in accordance with all federal and state statutory and common law, and that all remedies and rights established under these laws will be recognized. At present, some state agencies, including the New Jersey Division on Civil Rights, are seeking to expand the use of mediation, which has less formal procedures and may provide greater opportunities for participation by the disputants. Davant, Charles, IV. “Tripping on the Threshold: Federal Courts’ Failure to Observe Controlling

State Law under the Federal Arbitration Act.’’Duke Law Journal  (): .

See also law

Suzanne U. Samuels

archaeology.

New Jersey’s first archaeological excavations occurred during the midnineteenth century and were carried out by avocational archaeologists coming from a natural science tradition. With few exceptions, these early archaeologists studied the state’s aboriginal past. Charles Conrad Abbott (–), generally regarded as the state’s first archaeologist, conducted pioneering excavations on his family’s property, Three Beeches, near Trenton. Abbott’s interest focused on New Jersey’s Native American inhabitants. In his excavations, he discovered ancient stone tools, which he termed “paleoliths.’’ These artifacts, found in gravel deposits along the Delaware River, appeared similar to stone tools found in Pleistocene deposits in Europe. Citing these similarities, Abbott argued vociferously that human occupation of the New World dated back some forty thousand years. Abbott’s theories generated considerable interest in New Jersey’s prehistory. Under the sponsorship of the Peabody Museum of Harvard University (–, –) and the World’s Columbian Exposition in Chicago ´ ge ´, Ernest Volk, (–), Abbott’s prote excavated sites in and around Trenton, searching for traces of early human presence. Although Volk discovered extensive archaeological evidence for prehistoric occupation of the Delaware Valley, his work failed to support Abbott’s claims about the earliest arrival of humans in the New World. Ultimately, Abbott’s theories were disproved. Nonetheless, he was an important figure in the development of North American archaeology. The Abbott Farm, his family homestead, was designated a National Historic Landmark in . It is one of two archaeological sites in New Jersey to be accorded this honor, and it remains one of the most important sites in the mid-Atlantic region. In the late nineteenth century, researchers from the Smithsonian Institution carried out other pioneering excavations in New Jersey. Charles Rau investigated Native American shell heaps near Keyport, while Frank Hamilton Cushing examined the Tuckerton Shell Mound. In  the New Jersey Geological Survey, working in cooperation with the Department of Anthropology at the American Museum of Natural History, began the state’s first formal archaeological survey. Archaeologists Alanson Skinner, Leslie Spier, and Max Schrabisch directed the fieldwork. A preliminary report of the survey, published in , listed roughly one thousand sites: camps, burial grounds, rock shelters, and shell heaps. Schrabisch and Spier continued the survey in , with Schrabisch focusing on Sussex County, where he

located numerous rock shelters. Spier investigated sites in and around Plainfield in Union County, as well as portions of Gloucester and Salem counties. In  and  Schrabisch carried out further fieldwork in Warren and Hunterdon counties. The results of this survey were published in three reports by the New Jersey Geological Survey. Later, working on his own, Schrabisch investigated Native American sites in the northern portion of the state and adjacent sections of Pennsylvania and New York. Although much of this early work was undertaken without a clear understanding of how long Native Americans had inhabited New Jersey and focused more on artifacts than context, these studies remain valuable sources of information about New Jersey’s prehistoric past. During the s, Dorothy Cross (Jensen), a professor of anthropology at Hunter College, supervised the New Jersey Indian Site Survey, a project of the Works Progress Administration (WPA) designed to employ out-of-work laborers. Between  and , Cross identified numerous sites, and she later reported her findings in two lavish volumes published with the assistance of the New Jersey State Museum and the Archaeological Society of New Jersey. The first volume () provides an overview of New Jersey prehistory and detailed descriptions of thirty-nine sites investigated by the survey. The second volume () focuses on Cross’s excavations at the Abbott Farm. Until the s, historic sites in New Jersey received less archaeological attention than prehistoric ones. (Notable exceptions were Charles Conrad Abbott’s investigation of a seventeenth-century Dutch site in Burlington County in the s and Max Schrabisch’s testing at a Revolutionary War site at Pluckemin in  and .) Crews of Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) workers under the direction of National Park Service archaeologists carried out extensive formal excavations at Morristown National Historical Park, identifying the remains of soldiers’ huts, earthworks, and other structures associated with the Revolutionary War. In the second half of the twentieth century Herbert Kraft of Seton Hall University, following in the footsteps of Abbott and Cross, studied numerous Native American sites in the upper Delaware Valley. Excavations probed Harry’s Farm, the Pahaquarra Site, and the Minisink Site (also a National Historical Landmark). The latter, located along the Delaware River in Sussex County, New Jersey, and Pike County, Pennsylvania, has yielded a wealth of information on New Jersey’s Native Americans in the late prehistoric and early historic periods. Kraft’s excavations at these sites set a new standard for archaeology in New Jersey. His book The Lenape: Archaeology, History, and Ethnography () remains the definitive summary of New Jersey’s prehistory. Since the s the amount of archaeological research in the state, at both historic

architecture and prehistoric sites, has grown considerably. Much of this work was spurred by federal legislation enacted in the s and s. As a result, extensive excavations were carried out in Paterson, New Brunswick (including nearby Raritan Landing), Trenton, and along the Morris Canal and the Delaware and Raritan Canal. Highway construction in the area around Trenton also led to a massive reinvestigation of the Abbott Farm site. Institutions holding major archaeological collections from New Jersey include the New Jersey State Museum, the Seton Hall University Museum, the University of Pennsylvania Museum, the Peabody Museum at Harvard University, and the Smithsonian Institution. The State Museum maintains a database of registered sites in the state, and the Historic Preservation Office in the Department of Environmental Protection serves as a repository for archaeological reports. The Archaeological Society of New Jersey, the only statewide organization dedicated to studying New Jersey’s archaeological heritage, was founded in . Active today, it continues to publish its annual Bulletin. During the twentieth century, archaeology in New Jersey developed from a dilettante’s passion to a scientific endeavor often mandated by federal and state regulations. Ongoing archaeological studies are reshaping our understanding of New Jersey’s Native American heritage and historic development. Cross, Dorothy. The Archaeology of New Jersey. Vol. . Trenton: Archaeological Society of New Jersey, New Jersey State Museum, . Mounier, R. Alan. Looking beneath the Surface: The Story of Archaeology in New Jersey. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . Veit, Richard. Digging New Jersey’s Past: Historical Archaeology in the Garden State. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

Richard F. Veit

architecture. Because of the diverse nature of its settlement, New Jersey’s seventeenth- and eighteenth-century architecture is complex and varied, with forms and materials related to location and ethnicity. Initially settled by Dutch, Swedes, and Finns, New Jersey after  passed into the hands of English proprietors, many of whom were Quakers. They offered religious freedom, which attracted English and Scots-Irish immigrants of several religious persuasions from various parts of Great Britain. During the latter part of the eighteenth century, Germans settled in the northwestern part of the state. These groups brought differing vernacular traditions, which they adapted to the New World. Their buildings vary in materials and plan. Early descriptions of New Jersey houses mention several building materials, including brick, stone, and vertical planking, undoubtedly over a wooden frame. Log construction also was used from the late seventeenth through the mid-eighteenth century, although

33

The Ford Mansion in Morristown was Gen. George Washington’s headquarters from December  through June .

Courtesy National Park Service, Morristown National Historical Park. few examples survive. It was a handy and inexpensive building material, adopted by almost all groups, although probably brought to this country by settlers from northern Europe. In southwestern New Jersey the log-building techniques are thought to have been introduced by the Finns and Swedes. The best known of the surviving examples is the one-room Nothnagel Cabin in Gibbstown, Gloucester County, which accords with a seventeenth-century description of a Swedish cabin as having a corner fireplace. Germans coming into the northern Delaware Valley from Pennsylvania are believed to have introduced log construction to the northwestern counties. Often, as in the two-story Seigle Homestead in Warren County, the logs have been masked by clapboarding. Congregationalists moved down from New England into the Newark area, bringing a medieval tradition of heavy timber framing. In this type of construction, posts and beams with diagonal braces form one or more “boxes,’’ which then are sheathed in clapboard. This method spread through the northeastern part of the state. Again, few examples survive in pristine condition. One is the house built circa  on the William Robinson Plantation in Clark. Another is a section of Rockingham, a house along the Millstone River near Kingston. Several buildings in Cape May County, which again was settled by New Englanders, also are framed in this manner. Brick came into use quite early in the southwest, where William Penn urged the early Quaker settlers to use this fireproof material. What he might not have anticipated is that they would develop a distinctive, highly decorative form of brick patterning. This features a bond known as Flemish checker, combining black or blue-gray glazed headers (the

short end of the brick) with red stretchers. Gable ends are ornamented with dates and the builder’s initials and sometimes with elaborate patterns of diamonds, zigzags, or flowers. The Dutch entered New Jersey in two streams. One, from the Hudson River Valley, came from a masonry tradition, generally expressed in stone, as in numerous houses in Bergen County. The other group emigrated from Long Island, where frame was prevalent. In contrast to the English braced frame, Dutch construction employed a series of bents, with each beam resting directly on posts. Building vernacular structures with traditional plans, construction methods, and materials continued well into the nineteenth century. But contemporaneous with these were a series of high styles. The earliest of these styles, the Georgian or Anglo-Palladian, depended on symmetry, balance, and rational geometry. The most common house form became twoand-a-half-stories high and one or two rooms deep, with a center stair hall flanked by rooms of equal size to either side. Smaller houses might utilize two-thirds of this plan, that is, a side hall, usually with two rooms to one side. The brick Trent House, circa , in Trenton is a remarkable example of early Georgian design. Another house museum in the Georgian style is the mid-eighteenth-century Dey Mansion in Wayne, which mingles Dutch and English influences. One of the finest Anglo-Palladian houses executed in wood is the Ford Mansion (–) in Morristown, now part of the National Historical Park. Its handsome Palladian doorway and the matching window on the second floor are derived from an English pattern book. With this more formal style, the influences of New York and Philadelphia overrode that

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of traditional cultural differences. The Trent House, for example, is clearly related to James Logan’s Stenton in Germantown, on the outskirts of Philadelphia. The College of New Jersey in Princeton turned to a Philadelphia builder-architect, Robert Smith, for its main building, Nassau Hall, and its president’s house (–). In contrast, in Perth Amboy the provincial council chose a New York builder-architect, John Edward Pryor, for the Proprietary House. Most builders, however, remain anonymous, like the designer of the Ford Mansion, although he clearly had access to English pattern books by Batty Langley. But, in fact, most of New Jersey’s Anglo-Palladian buildings are simplified versions of high-style prototypes. Like the Conover House in Freehold or the Burrowes House in Matawan, they merely feature Anglo-Palladian massing and center- or side-hall plans with rather plain decorative details such as paneling and classically derived decorative motifs. Regional preferences for materials persisted—wood in East Jersey and masonry in West Jersey. In the post-Revolutionary, or Federal, period, basic design principles of symmetry and axial organization continued, but walls often appeared as a thin membrane, openings became larger, and detailing more delicate. Decoration remained based on motifs from classical antiquity. Now, however, it was influenced by the more delicate forms unearthed in late eighteenth-century excavations at Herculaneum and Pompeii. The Morris County Courthouse (), for example, is basically an Anglo-Palladian building, but with attenuated pilasters and blind arches over the windows. Again, few New Jersey design sources can be identified and dependence on adjacent metropolitan centers remained strong. Several buildings are direct echoes of Philadelphia prototypes. The transitional Georgian/Federal Burlington County Courthouse () in Mount Holly is a copy of Congress Hall in Philadelphia; Merino Hill () in Wrightsville, Monmouth County, is based on the Bingham House, also in Philadelphia; the Presbyterian Church (– ) in Bridgeton, Cumberland County, echoes Saint Peter’s in the same city. Other designs were based on pattern books. A number of widely scattered buildings derive from designs published by the New England builder-architect Asher Benjamin. Examples include the Edward Sharp House () in Camden City, the Castner Parsonage (– ) in Asbury, Warren County, and Fenwick Manor () in New Lisbon, Burlington County. Although classical motifs, such as pediments and columns, had formed the decorative vocabulary of both Georgian and Federal architecture, they had not been derived from antique models. In the early years of the new United States, however, Rome was looked at as a font of republicanism and Greece as the birthplace of democracy.

The A.W. Demarest House, c. –, in Upper Saddle River is a significant example of Queen Anne style architecture.

Courtesy Bergen County Department of Parks, Division of Cultural and Historic Affairs. Photo: Jim DelGiudice. Because of this, their architecture was viewed as something to be emulated. Full-blown Greek Revival never was as prominent in New Jersey as in New York State, Vermont, and Ohio. Nevertheless, some important examples survive, although others have been demolished. Mercer and Middlesex counties erected ambitious Greek Revival courthouse complexes in  and . The former was by Princeton builder-architect Charles Steadman, the latter by New Brunswick native Minard Lafever, a cousin of the New York architect of the same name. Although these failed to survive growth in central New Jersey, two more rural templefront courthouses did better, the Hunterdon County Courthouse in Flemington (; perhaps most famous as the site of the Lindbergh kidnapping trial) and the Sussex County Courthouse in Newton (). A few houses with colossal colonnaded porticoes were built, such as Mead Hall (), now the main building of Drew University in Madison, Morris County, and Drumthwacket (–) in Princeton, now the governor’s mansion. Most dwellings expressed the style more modestly. The Nassau Street Presbyterian Church () in Princeton is

an early example of a temple-form in antis facade, designed by Thomas U. Walter, and became a prototype for several churches built in the s. Flemington, in Hunterdon County, has a particularly rich group of impressive Greek Revival buildings designed by a local builder-architect, Mahlon Fisher. Among them are Fisher’s own house (–) and the Reading-Large House (), the latter with the extravagant detailing typical of later phases of the style. Again, however, as in earlier periods, the vast majority of buildings are vernacular, distinguished as Greek Revival only by such features as attic windows or small porticoes with classical columns. To look at ancient Rome and classical Greece for inspiration was a romantic notion. So although the Greek Revival continued the classical tradition of Anglo-Palladianism, it also was the first of the romantic revivals that dominated in the pre–Civil War period. The country’s first major Italianate villa, Riverside (–; demolished), was built in Burlington City. Three later examples by its architect, John Notman, survive in Princeton. The Italianate became a popular style for buildings of all types. Many houses were based on pattern books; once

architecture again location in relation to New York and Philadelphia to some extent determines their source. Thus Freehold, in Monmouth County, has several Italianate houses derived from the influential publications of A. J. Downing, a landscape architect based in Newburgh, New York, while houses drawn from a Philadelphia pattern book by John Riddell are largely confined to Burlington City. By this time, however, widespread dissemination of publications began to break down regional differences; examples from Philadelphian Samuel Sloan’s books are scattered throughout the state. Not all Italianate buildings are freestanding. Jersey City and Hoboken have streets of wellpreserved brownstones, emulating the row houses of New York City. The treatment of their doorways, windows, and heavy cornices derives from the Italian palazzo. The early Gothic Revival is also well represented in domestic and church architecture. Important examples include the Nicholls Cottage, the boyhood home of Charles Follen McKim of McKim, Mead, and White, and the gatehouse in Llewellyn Park in West Orange. These were designed by A. J. Davis, who, in collaboration with developer Llewellyn S. Haskell, also laid out this early planned, romantic suburb (). In Ho-Ho-Kus, Bergen County, New York architect William Ranlett transformed an early Dutch stone house, known as The Hermitage, into a fanciful Gothic cottage (c. ). Victorians were concerned with suitability. Gothic, because of its association with English and French medieval religion, was considered particularly appropriate for churches. The ecclesiological movement, which called for a return to medieval rites and medieval architecture, produced a spate of important Episcopal churches at midcentury. New Jersey has examples by New Yorkers Richard Upjohn and Frank Wills and Philadelphian John Notman. One of the less common of the romantic styles, because of its associations with death and entombment, was the Egyptian Revival. Philadelphia architect John Haviland designed two public buildings in the style. One, Trenton State Penitentiary (), was the first major Egyptian Revival building in the United States, and had worldwide influence as a model for prisons. The other was the Essex County Courthouse (; demolished). In the decades from the end of the Civil War to the end of World War II, the population of New Jersey almost trebled, and construction of buildings expanded accordingly. A popular post–Civil War style was the French Second Empire, distinguished by the mansard roof. Although this had relatively little impact on major projects, builders erected many dwellings, again often based on pattern books, in all parts of the state. The form of the Gothic Revival known as Carpenter’s Gothic enjoyed special popularity at the Shore. Significant concentrations of houses with elaborate jigsaw trim survive in Ocean Grove and Cape May.

More formal masonry High Victorian Gothic appeared in such buildings as William A. Potter’s Chancellor Green Library () at Princeton University. The Jersey Shore was also a fertile ground for the Stick and Shingle styles. Although few examples in the former style remain, the Dr. Emlen Physick House () in Cape May, attributed to Frank Furness, is now a museum. What is generally considered Charles McKim’s first Shingle style house, the Moses Taylor House (), is in Elberon. The last three decades of the nineteenth century and the first three of the twentieth century introduced a plethora of new styles—Queen Anne, Beaux Arts Classical, Renaissance Revival, Romanesque Revival, and Colonial Revival. New Jersey clients often continued to turn to New York and Philadelphia architects. From the former city these included McKim, Mead, and White; `re and Hastings; J. Cleveland Cady; John Carre Russell Pope; Delano and Aldrich; Albro and Lindeberg; Cass Gilbert; Bruce Price; and William Lawrence Bottomley. Among the Philadelphians were Cope and Stewardson, Mellor Meigs and Howe, Wilson Eyre, G. W. and W. D. Hewitt, William L. Price, and Day and Klauder. Boston firms that worked in the state included Cram and Ferguson and Peabody and Stearns. At the same time, the architectural profession was becoming established locally. Henry Hudson Holly maintained an office in New York, but many of the designs he published were for New Jersey clients. In the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, local practitioners flourished, among them Guilbert and Battelle, William E. William, Sr., and W. Halsey Wood in Newark; Arnold Moses of Camden, who designed New Jersey’s senate chamber; William A. Poland in Trenton; and Joy Wheeler Dow, who worked in Millburn and other northern suburbs. In the early twentieth century, the influence of the Arts and Crafts movement began to be felt. Commuting suburbs burgeoned in this period with bungalows, four-squares, and other house types, frequently based on the publications of Gustav Stickley. Stickley himself developed his country estate, Craftsman Farms (–) in Parsippany–Troy Hills. Through the twentieth century, New Jersey’s rapidly developing suburbs provided streets lined with Georgian Revival, Dutch Colonial, Tudor, and Mediterranean designs. In the years following World War II, traditional house forms and styles often gave way to split-level and ranch houses. New Jersey was slow to accept modernism. Nevertheless, the Depression years of the s witnessed construction of some notable Art Deco buildings. The headquarters of Jersey Bell in Newark, completed just before the stock market crash in , was the most prominent of a number of buildings erected in that style by the company. Newark also gained two important transportation terminals in : Penn Station, a late work by the

35

firm of McKim, Mead, and White, and the original terminal at Newark Airport. A monumental, multibuilding Art Deco complex, the Jersey City Medical Center, was under construction through most of the s. William Lescaze designed an International Style office building for the Kimble Glass Factory in Vineland, while Antonin Raymond was the architect for a small Art Moderne office building in Trenton. The period following World War II saw the gradual emergence of modernism and postmodernism, although much building in New Jersey remains conservative. Examples include four Usonian houses by Frank Lloyd Wright, Bell Laboratories at Holmdel () by Eero Saarinen and Kevin Roche, Louis Kahn’s bathhouses and master plan for the Jewish Community Center (–) in Trenton, and several buildings by Robert Venturi at Princeton University. One of the best-known architects practicing in New Jersey is Michael Graves, who designed, among other buildings, the environmental pavilion at Liberty State Park in Jersey City and the Ploeck House in Warren Township. Other nationally known New Jersey firms are the Robert Hillier Group and the Grad Partnership. New Jersey’s early settlers produced a rich variety of vernacular buildings derived from the traditions of several European countries, and thus exhibiting the greatest architectural diversity to be found in the original thirteen colonies. By the eighteenth century, affluent citizens chose high-style architecture. Although prevailing forms were widely disseminated, the historic East Jersey/West Jersey split continued to be expressed, with the former influenced by New York and the latter by Philadelphia. These preferences continued well into the twentieth century, with many patrons choosing architects from the two metropolises. By the end of the nineteenth century, New Jersey was less dependent on out-of-state practitioners, but followed national trends rather than exhibiting identifiable regional characteristics. Despite the state’s high population density, a surprising number of examples of the architecture of all periods have survived. Some, especially those with strong historical associations, are preserved by the Historic Sites section of the state’s Division of Parks and Forestry. Others are in the hands of local historical societies and other private groups. Still others, far outnumbering those held publicly or by organizations, remain in the hands of private owners. Cities such as Burlington and Salem display rich collections of eighteenth- and early nineteenth-century architecture. Other early buildings can be found in still-rural areas, particularly in the southern and northwestern sections of the state. Victorian architecture is well represented along the Shore in towns such as Cape May, Ocean Grove, and Spring Lake. Other fine examples from the second half of the nineteenth

36

archives

century can be found in suburbs developed at that time, such as Maplewood, Montclair, and Millburn–Short Hills. Cities such as Newark exhibit a range of building types dating from the eighteenth century to the present. So do smaller towns, such as Princeton, where both town and gown display a panorama of American architecture, with the university having retained major architects to fulfill its needs from the mid-eighteenth century onward. Bassett, William B. Historic American Buildings Survey of New Jersey. Newark: New Jersey Historical Society, . Guter, Robert P., and Janet W. Foster. Building by the Book: Pattern Book Architecture in New Jersey. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . Hand, Susanne C. New Jersey Architecture. Trenton: New Jersey Historical Commission, . Whiffen, Marcus, and Frederick Koeper. American Architecture, –. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, .

See also barns; country houses; courthouses; industrial architecture; log cabin; patterned brickwork; prefabricated housing; religious architecture; theater architecture

Constance M. Greiff

Directory of County Historical Societies in New Jersey, . Freehold: Monmouth County Historical Association, . Murrin, Mary P. New Jersey Historical Manuscripts: A Guide to Collections in the State. Trenton: New Jersey Historical Commission, .

George W. Cooke

Argall, Samuel

(b. c. ; d. Mar. ).

Sea captain, explorer, and agent of the Virginia Company. Sir Samuel Argall was born to English landowner Richard Argall and Mary Scott of Kent. He fought for England on land and sea before serving the Virginia Company as a sea captain beginning in , and set records for the speed of his Atlantic crossings. He explored the New Jersey seacoast in  while seeking supplies for Virginia, and again in  on his way to attack the French in Maine. He served as the deputy governor of the Virginia Company from May , , to April , . He had neither wife nor children and died fighting the Spanish at sea near Cadiz in January . McCormick, Richard P. New Jersey from Colony to State, –. Newark: New Jersey Historical Society, .

Joseph P. Byrne

archives. New Jersey has thousands of collections of records from the past, which provide valuable information to historians, scholars, genealogists, and other researchers. Most of these collections are preserved in special repositories known as archives. An archive is a special library established by an institution to collect and preserve its own records and history. The state of New Jersey maintains an archive in Trenton to collect and preserve all official state records—vital records of births, deaths, estates, and much more—dating from the earliest colonial days to the present. County and municipal governments have established archives to collect and store their own records. Several hundred county and local historical societies also preserve and collect materials; the New Jersey Historical Society and many local historical societies maintain New Jersey archives of great value. Many large archives contain much more than the official records of their own institutions. Princeton University, Rutgers University, and others hold vast collections of materials relating to New Jersey history, as well as special collections of rare materials. These include medieval manuscripts and ancient records from all over the world, written in many languages, on clay tablets, parchment, vellum, and palm leaves. Some public libraries, such as the Newark Public Library, maintain large archives of rare materials. Large corporations often have archives of their business records, correspondence, and official acts, and religious-affiliated institutions such as Seton Hall University and Drew University have established central archives to preserve the records of their particular denominations.

Armbruster, William

(b. Mar. ,

; d. Feb. , ). Photographer. William

Armbruster was born in Brooklyn, New York. When he was sixteen his father, Charles, moved the family to Jersey City where he owned and operated Greenville Schuetzen

Park. This large and socially prominent club— which hosted shooting matches, equestrian events, and civic functions—also served as a home for the Greenville Camera Club, and Armbruster was its most accomplished member, documenting life in the park in a straightforward manner, photographing visitors, neighbors, and family. He also composed atmospheric carbon and platinum prints of landscapes and portraits that are typical of pictorial photography at the turn of the twentieth century. Late in life Armbruster kept a summer home in the utopian community of Free Acres (Berkeley Heights), where he also found many subjects to photograph. See also photography

Thomas Strider

Armenians. Fleeing the social and political turmoil of their ancestral homeland in the Caucasus and Eastern Anatolia, the earliest Armenian immigrants started settling in New Jersey in the s. For the most part, they found factory jobs in Paterson, Camden, and West Hoboken. Immigration was accelerated by the  genocide of Armenians in Turkey. Since , a new wave of Armenians has arrived from the Middle East and the former Soviet Union. The  U.S. Census recorded , people of Armenian descent living in New Jersey. The ratio of immigrant generation to American-born is roughly /. As early as , three Armenian congregations conducted services in rented halls in New Jersey. Holy Cross Armenian Church,

William Armbruster, The Smithy, n.d. Orange-toned carbon print,  ×  / in.

Collection of the Jersey City Museum. Photo: Erik Landsberg.

art built in Union City in , serves the oldest congregation to remain in its original location. The Armenian Presbyterian Church was relocated to Paramus in . Other Apostolic/Orthodox churches are found in Elberon, Livingston, Ridgefield, Fair Lawn, and Tenafly. In the s, the Sacred Heart Catholic Armenian Church was established in Little Falls. The twenty-five-year-old Hovnanian Armenian School in New Milford serves approximately  full-time students, from prekindergarten to eighth grade. Between the s and s, Asbury Park was a favorite summer rendezvous spot for Armenians from all along the East Coast. The Lincoln, Fenimore, Hye, and Van hotels were operated by Armenians, and Armenian music and dancing were featured every weekend. Bakalian, Anny. Armenian-Americans: From Being to Feeling Armenian. New Brunswick: Transaction Publishers, . Waldstreicher, David. The Armenian Americans. New York: Chelsea House, .

See also ethnicity

Anny Bakalian

art.

Notwithstanding the state’s significant position between New York and Philadelphia, historically two of America’s most prominent centers of artistic activity, the contributions of New Jersey’s artists have suffered from a lack of attention by the critics and the media. Yet it is clear that several of the nation’s most important artists have lived and worked in the Garden State. Although New Jersey artists did not lead but essentially followed the subject matter and styles developed outside the state, some distinguished New Jersey practitioners nevertheless can be identified. As early as the eighteenth century, when portraiture served a purpose aside from being an accepted art form, prominent portrait painters established their homes and studios in New Jersey, and others visited and worked in the state. The wax portraiture of Bordentown’s Patience Lovell Wright (–); the paintings and sculpture of her son Joseph (– ); and the portraits of John Watson (– ) of Perth Amboy, for example, have remained impressive and lasting works of art. In , just before the conclusion of the American Revolution, Joseph Wright is known to have created a life mask of George Washington at his headquarters at Rocky Hill, and also portrayed him in both painting and sculpture. Gilbert Stuart (–), America’s most important early portrait painter, worked for a short period in Bordentown, and the portrait and history painter Charles Willson Peale (–), who also took part in the Battle of Trenton, painted in New Jersey. In the nineteenth century, even as new art forms developed, portraiture remained an important feature of the work of several New Jersey artists, including Henry Inman (–), who maintained a studio

in Mount Holly beginning in , and Lilly Martin Spencer (–), who settled in Newark in . New Jersey artists also played a major role in the development of nineteenth-century landscape, marine, and seascape painting. Picturesque areas including the Jersey Meadows, the New Jersey Shore, and the Falls at Passaic attracted several artists. Indeed, the development of the Hudson River school, the nation’s most important group of nineteenthcentury landscape painters, was largely due to the talent and efforts of Asher B. Durand (–), who became a resident of Jefferson Village (now Maplewood) in . And in , George Inness (–), generally acknowledged as one of America’s preeminent painters of subjective and idealized landscapes, and Worthington Whittridge (–), a major Hudson River school painter, were residents of Montclair and Summit respectively. Women artists were also represented in nineteenth-century landscape painting circles, most notably Julia Hart Beers Kempson (–), who lived and worked in Metuchen. In the area of marine painting, Winslow Homer (–) visited the New Jersey Shore in , where he painted one of his most famous works, Long Branch, New Jersey. And the Atlantic City paintings of William Trost Richards (–), the marine paintings of James Buttersworth (–), and the steamship portraits of Antonio Jacobsen (–) attest to the popularity of subject matter related to New Jersey’s proximity to the ocean. During the middle of the nineteenth century, after New Jersey artists had the opportunity to participate in the activities of the Art-Unions in New York and Philadelphia, the popularity of those organizations led to the  establishment in Newark of the New Jersey Art-Union. Paintings were selected for annual prize drawings, including works by landscape painters William Mason Brown (–) and Jasper Francis Cropsey (– ). Other selected paintings generally featured still life, genre, and history, and since prints made after them were distributed to all Art-Union members, those subjects had a positive influence on the development of taste for American themes. But the life of that organization was short; following the demise of the New York Art-Union due to a perceived violation of state lottery laws, its Newark counterpart was disbanded in . During the nineteenth century, still life, animal, genre, and history painting also flourished in New Jersey. The fruit paintings of Hoboken’s Paul Lacroix (fl. –); the animal portraits of Susan Waters (–) of Bordentown; the flower paintings of Paul de Longpre (–), who lived for a time in Short Hills; and the best-known resident stilllife painter, John Frederick Peto (–) of Island Heights, attest to a great interest

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in these subjects. Genre and history painters, such as Karl Witkowski (–), William Tylee Ranney (–), Lilly Martin Spencer, Robert Walter Weir (–), and the important Civil War artist, Julian Scott (– ), also lived and worked in the state. Religious painting in nineteenth-century New Jersey was represented in the work of Rembrandt Lockwood (–after ) and William Page (–). Just after the turn of the twentieth century, New Jersey art schools and organizations began to flourish, particularly in Newark. And before World War I, both the Newark and the Montclair museums opened to the public, due to the efforts of patrons and collectors such as William T. Evans and Louis Bamberger. Some New Jersey artists began to take leading roles in the development of newer art historical movements. Born in Woodstown, Everett Shinn (–) was a prominent member of the Ashcan school, led by the artist Robert Henri (–), a style emphasizing contemporary urban realism. In , Shinn was responsible for the Trenton City Hall murals. George Bellows (–), who painted in a similar style, also depicted polo scenes that he observed in  on a visit to Lakewood. Guy `ne Du Bois (–), a former student of Pe Henri’s who became a writer as well as a realist painter, lived in Nutley. With the coming of the Great Depression, the New Deal spawned the Federal Art Project of the Works Progress Administration (WPA) to help unemployed artists create easel paintings as well as mural projects for public buildings. One of the most important examples produced in New Jersey was the Newark Airport Aviation murals by the Armenianborn Arshile Gorky (–); unfortunately these works disappeared during World War II and are known today only through photographs. Other commissioned WPA paintings include those of the renowned social realist, Ben Shahn (–), who lived and worked in the Jersey Homesteads (renamed Roosevelt after the president’s death in ) where, in , he completed the extant monumental mural in a local elementary school depicting the history of the Jewish flight from oppression and search for better working conditions in the New World. Adolf Konrad (b. ) also worked under the auspices of the WPA; and for the rest of the twentieth century, this “painter laureate of Newark’’ has continued to paint in a highly subjective form of realism. Before World War II, New Jersey’s artists remained more interested in realism than in newer art movements, including impressionism, precisionism, and cubism; this tendency was evident in the inventory of the major prewar Newark gallery, Rabin and Kreuger. Naturally, there were exceptions, for example, Van Dearing Perrine (–), an impressionist, who concentrated on scenes of the Palisades, and Stuart Davis (–), who developed an American form of cubism. But

38

Arthur Kill

realism dominated the work of many artists including George Overbury “Pop’’ Hart (– ), Walt Kuhn (–), and one of the most significant of all New Jersey artists, John Marin (–), who developed his own form of expressionism mixed with realism in several scenes related to his hometown of Weehawkin. After World War II, as the center of the art world essentially shifted from Paris to New York, New Jersey artists certainly became aware of the newest trends, but for many years, realism continued to be favored over abstract expressionism and other modern art movements. Ben Shahn lived until , continuing his social realist work, and his Roosevelt neighbor, Jacob Landau (–), continued to portray controversial scenes of catastrophies and injustice. Gregario Prestopino (–), also a resident of Roosevelt, carried on his relationship with the Ashcan school paintings until quite late into the twentieth century. At the same time, in the work of the most important husband-and-wife artistic team in the history of New Jersey, Elsie Driggs (–) and Lee Gatch (–), Driggs developed a style heavily influenced by the modernism of the precisionists, creators of an American form of cubism, while Gatch’s work evolved over time into a form of abstract expressionism. Other contemporary New Jersey artists have either absorbed the newest art movements or paralleled their development. For example, Harry Devlin (–), of Mountainside, a writer and architectural historian as well as an artist, produced highly successful architectural compositions exhibiting the strong influence of contemporary photorealism; George Brecht (b. ), formerly of New Brunswick, is considered the father of conceptional and interactive art; Richard Anuszkiewicz (b. ), of Englewood, after moving away from the abandon of abstract expressionism, has created his own form of “scientific art’’ containing blocks of colors, organization, and symmetry; and Lucas Samaras (b. ), formerly of West New York, has created a radical means of expression by evoking various states of mind through the art of assemblage. Gerdts, William, Jr. Painting and Sculpture in New Jersey. Princeton: D. Van Nostrand, .

See also assemblage art; performance art; photography; sculpture

Barbara J. Mitnick

Arthur Kill.

Arthur Kill is a fifteen-milelong tidal strait that separates Staten Island from northern New Jersey. The kill connects with the Kill van Kull and Newark Bay to the north and with Raritan Bay in the south. The Arthur Kill receives tidal water from both the north and the south, resulting in a long flushing time of about two weeks. It is part of the New York–New Jersey harbor estuary, a series of connecting tidal waterways that receives freshwater drainage from a

Washed-up debris on the shore of Prall’s Island in the Arthur Kill.

Photo: Kathleen W. Perlett. Courtesy The Star-Ledger.

,-square-mile area. Its banks are heavily populated and highly industrialized, and it is a major shipping lane. The Arthur Kill was heavily impacted in the s by low oxygen levels due to the dumping of raw sewage, and still has relatively high levels of heavy metals such as mercury, zinc, cadmium, and lead. In January , , gallons of number  fuel oil leaked into the kill from an underwater pipe at the Exxon Bayway refinery. This created a major hazard for invertebrate and fish communities, killing  percent of the salt marsh vegetation and many fish and fiddler crabs, and impacting the herons, egrets, raccoons, and other animals that fed on fish and invertebrates. Some species, such as snowy egrets, suffered lowered reproductive success for several years following the spill. The Arthur Kill supports a variety of ecosystems, including tidal mudflats, tidal creeks, and salt marshes that grade into uplands supporting shrubs and trees. Much of the kill shoreline is lined with bulkheads and riprap, but about  percent of the shoreline is natural mudflats and marshes. The Arthur Kill supports a rich community of fiddler crabs, ribbed mussels, snails, and a diversity of other invertebrates, and a diverse fish community of resident and seasonal migrant species. The salt marshes, composed of cordgrass and salt hay, provide primary productivity, nutrient cycling, and habitat, as well as supporting nesting marsh hawks, ducks, blackbirds, and rails. The marshes and the mudflats provide prime foraging areas for herons, egrets, and ibises that nest on Prall’s Island and Isle of Meadows. These islands have traditionally housed some of the largest heronries anywhere in New York and New Jersey. Gulls and double-crested cormorants also nest on these islands and

abandoned piers. Many hawks overwinter in the Arthur Kill. The Arthur Kill is also important for local residents who fish, crab, boat, and engage in other recreation on the water and in adjacent parks and uplands. Burger, Joanna, ed. Before and After an Oil Spill: The Arthur Kill. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . Kennish, M. J. Ecology of Estuaries. Vol. , Biological Aspects. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, .

Joanna Burger

ArtPRIDE New Jersey.

Incorporated in , ArtPRIDE New Jersey is a nonprofit organization that promotes and supports arts groups throughout the state. ArtPRIDE’s over two hundred members helped increase state arts funding from $ million in fiscal year  to a present appropriation of $ million in fiscal year . In , ArtPRIDE successfully advocated for passage of the New Jersey Cultural Trust Act, which will, as stated in the act, “help build endowments, create institutional stability, and fund capital projects.’’ The organization hosts the annual ArtPRIDE Congress and keeps the arts on the public policy agenda by providing information and research to federal, state, and local elected officials.

Ann Marie Miller

Asbury Park.

.-square-mile city in Monmouth County. New York City brush manufacturer James Bradley purchased five hundred acres from Ocean Township in  and named the community for the first bishop of the Methodist Church in America. He incorporated the town, bordered by Deal Lake to the north and Wesley Lake to the south, in  and guided its development as a resort for physical and mental rejuvenation

Asbury Park Press

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In , the population of , was  percent white,  percent black, and  percent Hispanic. The median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Ellis, Franklin. History of Monmouth County, New Jersey. Philadelphia: R. T. Peck, .

Susan Hamburger

Asbury Park Press.

Asbury Park postcard.

From Greeting from New Jersey: A Postcard Tour of the Garden State by Helen-Chantal Pike. Courtesy Helen-Chantal Pike. until his death in . Bradley fulfilled his primary intent—to design a white, middleclass resort with gardens, parks, and lakes— with the goal of having the entire beachfront and boardwalk owned by the city rather than private citizens. The city’s specialized districts included hotels, business, amusement, and the cottage community—an early experiment in urban planning. A temperance resort more like Ocean Grove than the gamblers’ haven of Long Branch, the town also catered to the more worldly pursuits of billiards, bowling, and dancing. Railroad service began in , bringing thousands of people to the summer resort each day. Starting in , the town supported several daily, weekly, monthly, and summer-only newspapers with particular and distinct foci—temperance, religion, African Americans, labor, and society. Asbury Park operated the first trolleys in the state in  and constructed the first comprehensive citywide sewer system on the New Jersey coast in . Until  Asbury Park was a popular family resort, with promenades, piers, water pageants, band concerts, children’s carnivals, and baby parades. Hundreds of hotels, motels, cottages, and guesthouses supported the burgeoning tourist trade. Day-trippers and group excursionists arrived by train from Philadelphia and New York. Visitors and residents could spend the day lounging on the beach, then dress up to view exclusiveengagement films at one of the five palatial movie theaters, and cap off the evening with a stroll on the boardwalk. Children enjoyed pony rides on the beach and swan-shaped paddleboat rides on Wesley Lake. The Cookman Avenue business district attracted shoppers from towns throughout the county. In the mids a fire from a dropped cigarette destroyed the boardwalk and most of the rides and

concessions; owners rebuilt everything in time for the following season. Asbury Park earned honorable mention as an All-American City in  and . By the late nineteenth century, a distinct and growing African American and workingclass district had developed across the railroad tracks in West Park, where residents were confined to segregated housing amid the laundries and auto repair shops. They were welcome as hotel staff but were excluded from the resort’s amusement district and beach. West Park grew as a shadow resort, fostering recreational activities deemed morally unsuitable for the middle-class vacationers. A July  riot damaged and destroyed much of the downtown business district and injured almost two hundred civilians and police. Longtime residents believe the riot sparked the mass exodus of businesses and homeowners. Hotels not boarded up or demolished were converted to apartments for senior citizens and the mentally ill, who had been discharged from Marlboro State Hospital to community outpatient care. The once-vibrant boardwalk, anchored by Convention Hall and the Paramount Theatre on the north and by the Casino and Palace Amusements on the south, awaits either destruction by the next hurricane or redevelopment of the beachfront with state or private funds. Gone are the rides and arcades; only a few scattered, boarded-up buildings remain. While the north end valiantly hangs on with the restored Paramount Theatre and Berkeley-Carteret Hotel, the south end of the boardwalk has fallen into disrepair. Today Asbury Park is seeking to recover. One hopeful sign is that Palace Amusements—the former home of the Aurora Ferris wheel—has been placed on the National Register of Historic Places.

The second-largest newspaper in the state, the Asbury Park Press circulates primarily in Monmouth and Ocean counties. It was founded as a weekly newspaper on July , , by Dr. Hugh S. Kinmonth, above his pharmacy on Cookman Avenue in Asbury Park. That first edition of the Shore Press, as it was called, sold  copies. Kinmonth sold the paper sixteen years later to his nephew, J. Lyle Kinmonth. The younger Kinmonth transformed the paper into a daily and renamed it the Daily Press. He also introduced a Sunday newspaper, a popular innovation in the late nineteenth century. Kinmonth relocated the newspaper operation to a new building on Mattison Avenue in , but four years later the building was destroyed by fire. He replaced the structure with a five-story building and continued to expand his news operation. When Kinmonth died in , ownership of the newspaper passed to its senior executives, Wayne D. McMurray and Ernest W. Lass. McMurray was at the helm for twenty-nine years and Lass for thirtyfive. When McMurray died in , he willed his ownership in the newspaper to Jules L. Plangere, Jr., then secretary and general manager. In  Plangere became publisher. When Lass died in , his son, E. Donald Lass, became president and editor. The newspaper left Asbury Park in  and relocated to new headquarters in Neptune, although it retained the Shore resort’s name on its masthead. In  Plangere passed the publisher’s job to Lass and became chairman of the board. In  the privately owned New Jersey Press, the holding company for the Asbury Park Press, expanded its influence with the purchase of the Home News and the News Tribune, two Middlesex County newspapers. Those papers were combined to form the Home News and Tribune (later shortened simply to the Home News Tribune), which began publishing on October , . In  Plangere and Lass sold the newspapers to Gannett, the publisher of USA Today and one of the largest newspaper chains in the United States. In the year  the Asbury Park Press had a daily circulation of ,, according to the Audit Bureau of Circulations, and a Sunday circulation of ,, surpassed only by the Star Ledger. The publisher is Robert Collins and the editor-in-chief is Raymond Ollwerther. Hixson, Richard F. The Press in Revolutionary New Jersey. Trenton: New Jersey Historical Commission, .

Ashbridge, Elizabeth

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Lewin, William. A Story of New Jersey Journalism. Newark: N.p., .

See also newspapers

Agnes Tracy Gottlieb

Ashbridge, Elizabeth (b. ; d. May , ). Preacher and writer. Born in Cheshire, England, Elizabeth Ashbridge was the only child of Thomas and Mary Sampson. She eloped at fourteen with a stocking weaver who died three months later. Estranged from her parents, she stayed for a time with relatives in Ireland, one of whom was a Quaker. In  she decided to immigrate to New York. Forced into indenture by the ship’s captain, for three years she served a cruel master, paying off the last year of her contract in . In  she married a schoolteacher named Sullivan, and the two lived in New Jersey, where most of her later autobiographical narrative takes place. Her husband opposed her  conversion to Quakerism, and in an attempt to isolate her from the Quaker community, Sullivan instigated a number of moves in the ensuing years, to Freehold in East Jersey, Bordentown, and Mount Holly. In  Sullivan died, and six years later Elizabeth married Aaron Ashbridge, a Quaker from Chester County, Pennsylvania, and was soon an influential preacher in Quaker circles. In  she was granted permission to travel back to Europe to pursue her ministry. She fell ill and died in Ireland. Ashbridge is best known for her autobiography, Some Account of the Fore Part of the Life of Elizabeth Ashbridge. . . Written by Her Own Hand Many Years Ago, which details her spiritual and temporal struggles. ANB. Davidson, Cathy N., and Linda Wagner-Martin. The Oxford Companion to Women’s Writing in the United States. New York: Oxford University Press, . Shea, Daniel. “Some Account of the Fore Part of the Life of Elizabeth Ashbridge.’’ In Journeys in New Worlds: Early American Women’s Narratives, edited by William L. Andrews. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, .

Mary McAleer Balkun

Ashby, George

(b. Jan. , ; d. Apr. ,

Farmer and soldier. In August , Burlington-born George Ashby, an African American living in Crosswicks, enlisted as a private in the Forty-fifth United States Colored Infantry. He served in Virginia and Texas until mustered out in November  as first sergeant of the Forty-fifth Colored Infantry’s Company H. In January  a reporter interviewed the old veteran, who predicted an Allied victory in World War II and stated that if he could, he “would enlist all over again.’’ When Sgt. George Ashby died in Allentown in , he was the last surviving New Jersey Civil War veteran. See also Civil War

).

Joseph G. Bilby

Ashby, William ).

(b. Oct. , ; d. May ,

Social worker. William Ashby, New

William Ashby, the first black social worker in the state.

Courtesy New Jersey Historical Society, Newark. Jersey’s first African American social worker, was born in Virginia to freeborn blacks who owned their own property, and later moved to Roselle, New Jersey. He earned a degree in social work from Yale University in . Returning to Newark, he worked to improve black life in New Jersey in an era when racial discrimination in employment and housing was rampant. A superb teacher of history who devoted much of his life to the pursuit of social justice and an end to racial discrimination, Ashby authored Tales without Hate, a notable collection of stories detailing black life in New Jersey. Ashby, William. Tales without Hate. Newark: Newark Preservation Landmarks Committee, . Hevesi, Dennis. “William Ashby, Longtime Worker for Civil Rights, Is Dead at .’’ New York Times, May , .

Sunday Di Palma

Asian Indians.

Americans of Asian Indian origin are a growing ethnic group in New Jersey. Although, beginning in the s, many immigrants arrived in New Jersey directly from India and from Kenya, Trinidad, and England, a large percentage of the present population was born in New Jersey. The earliest recorded emigration from India to the United States began in the nineteenth century, when workers sought construction jobs on the transcontinental railroad and agricultural jobs in California. Indians were granted citizenship, but then had it revoked in  by the U.S. Supreme Court. The ruling in United States v Bhagat Singh Thind ( US ) stated: “It may be true that the blond Scandinavians and the brown Hindu have a common ancestor in the dim reaches of antiquity, but the average man knows perfectly well that there are unmistakable and profound differences between them today. . . . [The law] does not employ the word ‘Caucasian’ but the

words ‘white’ person. . . . [The intention of the Founding Fathers was to] confer the privilege of citizenship upon the class of persons [called ‘white’].’’ Between  and , when immigration laws were reformed, few Indians were allowed to enter the United States. According to the  U.S. Census, , Asian Indians live in New Jersey, accounting for more than  percent of the state’s total population and making them one of the largest ethnic minorities. New Jersey’s Asian Indian community constitutes nearly  percent of the nation’s total of . million Asian Indian residents. Asian Indians reside in all of New Jersey’s communities. Middlesex County, with some , Asian Indian residents, has one of the largest concentrations, amounting to . percent of the county’s total population. Other counties with significant Asian Indian populations include Hudson (, residents), Bergen (,), Morris (,), and Somerset (,). Nearly nine out of ten Asian Indian children belong to two-parent families. Fewer than  percent of Asian Indians under the age of sixty-five receive public assistance. Given that  percent of Asian Indians have a college degree and that  percent of the women are employed, Asian Indian families enjoy one of the highest median family household incomes. Nearly  percent of Asian Indians practice Hinduism, a religion with origins dating to  b.c.e. Among the other religious affiliations of Asian Indians are Islam, Christianity, Sikhism, Buddhism, and Judaism. Language, food, and culture play an important unifying role for Asian Indians. Alongside English, which most Asian Indians can read, write, and speak, various regional languages of India, like Hindi and Gujarati, are commonly used in Asian Indian households. Asian Indian food is as varied in taste, ingredients, and preparation as the different regions of India. Many Asian Indians, as practicing Hindus, are vegetarians for religious (and health) reasons. One of the oldest secular organizations for Asian Indians is the Association of Indians in America, which was founded in  in New Jersey to provide a forum for those united by the common bond of Indian heritage and American commitment. Another organization, founded in , is the IndoAmerican Cultural Society, which holds the annual Navratri festival in Edison, New Jersey. Kalita, S. Mitra. Suburban Sahibs: Three Immigrant Families and Their Passage from India to America. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

See also ethnicity

D. C. Agrawal

assemblage art.

Assemblage art is a form of three-dimensional collage in which found objects—everything from old iron chains to movie posters and Cracker Jack

astronomy and astrophysics prizes—are combined to make sculpture. By the early s, assemblage art in one form or another had become the dominant style among contemporary artists living and working in New Jersey. As the name implies, assemblage has its roots in French art history, particularly in the collage experiments of Pablo Picasso and Georges Braque nearly one hundred years ago. But the most important influence in America was Joseph Cornell (–), a recluse who lived his entire life with his mother and crippled brother in Ozone Park, Queens, New York, where he made tiny, ornate boxes filled with found objects. Dozens of New Jersey artists of the past two decades owe their original creative impulse to his work. Similarly, in the s, a group of African American artists in Newark began using assemblage to express their own cultural concerns. Ranging through the abandoned buildings and refuse-strewn lots that dotted the core of the city following its rapid decline in the late s, this group—among them Yolande Skeete, Ujima Kuumba Majied, and Bisa Washington—started assembling African-tinged sculptures out of the remains of a prewar culture that was hardly African at all. The most successful was Willie Cole, a Newark native who enjoyed a one-man show at the Museum of Modern Art in , showing scorch marks made on paper with old steam irons found in the streets. Cole dedicated his work to his mother, who worked as a domestic in Newark homes. Assemblage now has a multigenerational cast. Sculptor Mel Edwards, whose forged iron chains (made from industrial debris) recall slavery, has kept a studio in Plainfield for more than twenty years; Chakaia Booker, who is from Newark, showed a mural of diced and twisted automobile tires at the Whitney Biennial for the first time in . Hughes, Robert. American Visions: The Epic History of Art in America. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, . Marter, Joan, ed. Off Limits: Rutgers University and the Avant-Garde, –. New Brunswick and Newark: Rutgers University Press and the Newark Museum, .

See also art

Assemblies of God boasted  churches in New Jersey, with a membership exceeding ,. The Assemblies of God Current Facts. Springfield, MO: Gospel Publishing House, . Blumhofer, Edith L. Restoring the Faith: The Assemblies of God, Pentecostalism, and American Culture. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, .

See also religion

Peter J. Wosh

Assumption College for Sisters. Founded in  by the Sisters of Christian Charity, this accredited, two-year independent Catholic college in Mendham is unusual in that its mission is the education of women in religious orders at the collegiate level. The origin of this mission can be found in several historical legacies. When Pauline Von Mallinckrodt founded the Sisters of Christian Charity in Paderborn, Germany, in , she expressed her belief that sisters must be educated “spiritually, academically, and culturally’’ in order to fulfill the goals of their missions. Von Mallinckrodt soon began a normal school for sisters within her convent. Many American congregations maintained similar schools and training programs to prepare sisters for the demands of teaching in parochial schools. Another factor in the founding of the college may be the Sister Formation movement of the s and s, which sought to raise the educational and professional standards of Catholic sisters in a process of renewing the vocation of the religious life. Assumption College for Sisters awards the degrees of associate of arts and associate of religious arts and also a certificate in theological studies. In  the student body of thirty-one included women of many religious orders from around the world. Laypeople are permitted to attend theology and philosophy classes. Beane, Marjorie Noterman. From Freedom to Framework: A History of the Sister Formation Conference. Lanham, MD: University Press of America, . Wedmore, Delphine. The Woman Who Couldn’t Be Stopped. N.p.: Sisters of Christian Charity, .

See also religious communities of women; Roman Catholic Church

Elizabeth A. Milliken Dan Bischoff

astronomy Assemblies of God.

A Pentecostal denomination established in , the Assemblies of God emphasizes believers’ access to such spiritual gifts as speaking in tongues and healing. Pentecostal churches began appearing throughout New Jersey early in the twentieth century, concentrating especially in such rural counties as Cumberland. By , the Assemblies had experienced sufficient growth within the state to create a separate New Jersey district for administrative purposes. Youth programs, overseas missions, and success in reaching Hispanic groups transformed the Assemblies into America’s fastest-growing denomination during the s. By , the

and

astrophysics.

Astronomy in New Jersey has had a remarkable past. Since their founding in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, Princeton and Rutgers Universities have led the way in astronomy instruction and research within the state. Early instructional efforts probably dealt only peripherally with astronomy, focusing instead on celestial mechanics and navigation. At Rutgers, astrophysics emerged as an area of active research during the Great Depression. The most significant achievement during this period was the work of Robert Atkinson, who served at Rutgers between  and . Atkinson laid much of the groundwork for our current understanding

41

of energy generation in stellar interiors. His pioneering work on thermonuclear fusion in stellar interiors paved the way for Hans Bethe’s Nobel Prize in physics in . Bethe, in his Nobel lecture, singled out the pioneering work of Atkinson and emphasized its influence on his own research. This question of energy generation in stellar interiors dominated much of the research by the worldwide astronomical community during the middle of the twentieth century. A number of key contributions to this then-burgeoning field were made at Princeton by Martin Schwarzschild during the s and s. His work explained the existence and properties of giant stars and revealed unexpected phenomena that occur during a stellar lifetime. In collaboration with fellow Princeton astrophysicist Lyman Spitzer, he pioneered the design of a fusion reactor that mimicked the astrophysical processes at work in the interior of the Sun. Spitzer, meanwhile, developed and championed the idea of putting a telescope in space, far above the blurring effects of the Earth’s atmosphere. His vision ultimately led to the Hubble Space Telescope. Following Edwin Hubble’s discovery of the expanding universe in , debate raged in the astronomical community over whether or not the universe was formed in a “big bang,’’ with most astronomers preferring an alternative “steady state’’ universe. In  a team of Princeton astronomers, led by Robert H. Dicke and P.J.E. Peebles, published a landmark paper in which they pointed out that if the universe did indeed form as a result of a big bang, then it should now be permeated by microwave radiation left over from this catastrophic event. In a companion paper, Arno Penzias and Robert W. Wilson, working at Bell Labs in Holmdel, reported their detection in  of this relic radiation using a microwave antenna at Crawford Hill. Their discovery was proof that the universe was born at a definite moment (about  billion years ago), and provided overwhelming evidence in support of the Big Bang Theory. They were awarded the Nobel Prize in physics in . New Jersey’s contributions to astronomy have also extended into the domain of instrumentation and technology. In  George Smith and Willard Boyle, also working at Bell Labs, created the first chargecoupled device, or CCD. This device—an electronic memory that can be charged by light—has probably revolutionized astronomical research more than any other single device, with the exception of the telescope itself. The future of astronomy in the state looks bright. The Sloan Digital Sky Survey, a monumental effort to map one quarter of the entire sky in exquisite detail using a dedicated .-meter telescope at Apache Point Observatory in New Mexico, is based at Princeton. The survey is well under way, and is already producing a steady stream of impressive discoveries. Meanwhile, the astronomy group at

42

AT&T Corporation

Rutgers has undergone rapid growth since the mid-s, an expansion that culminated with Rutgers’s participation in the design and construction of the Southern African Large Telescope. This enormous telescope, boasting a primary mirror with a diameter of  meters, is currently under construction at Sutherland, South Africa, and is scheduled to begin scientific operations in . When completed, it will be the largest optical telescope in the Southern Hemisphere.

Patrick Cote

AT&T Corporation.

American Telephone and Telegraph originated as the longdistance subsidiary of the American Bell Telephone Company. Alexander Graham Bell had formed the Bell Telephone Company in , a year after inventing the telephone. The firm had become American Bell in  and had acquired Western Electric in . In  it established AT&T and opened its first longdistance line, which connected Philadelphia and New York. Theodore J. Vail, AT&T’s first president, left the company after disagreements with its Boston-based shareholders in . In  AT&T became the parent company of the Bell System. With the assistance of financier J. P. Morgan, Vail returned as head in . After moving the company’s headquarters from Boston to New York, Vail worked to turn its declining fortunes around. The firm opened its first transcontinental line in , and by the time of America’s entry into World War I, it was on its way to becoming a model business operation. After a period of nationalization during the war, when the firm was placed under the control of the post office, it was returned to the private sector and enjoyed decades of unprecedented growth. Assisting this growth were technological advances from Bell Labs, the firm’s development group, which had facilities in Murray Hill and later Holmdel. Western Electric maintained a large manufacturing facility in Kearny from the s until the mids, and AT&T itself opened office facilities in Bedminster and Basking Ridge in the s. A  lawsuit by MCI led to the breakup of the Bell System by the Department of Justice in . At that time the firm’s assets totaled $ billion, more than those of Exxon, Mobil, and General Motors combined. Despite increased competition, the firm remains a major provider of long-distance telephone service.

Brooks, John. Telephone: The First Hundred Years. New York: Harper and Row, . Garnet, Robert W. The Telephone Enterprise: The Evolution of the Bell System’s Horizontal Structure. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, . Stone, Alan. Public Service Liberalism: Telecommunications and Transitions in Public Policy. Princeton: Princeton University Press, .

See also Bell Labs; Lucent Technologies

Edward L. Lach, Jr.

Atlantic Cape Community College. Located on  acres in Mays Landing, Atlantic Cape Community College (ACCC) serves Atlantic and Cape May counties, with branch campuses in Atlantic City and Rio Grande. ACCC was founded in  as the second community college established under the New Jersey County College Act. A number of local groups recommended its establishment. In particular, the Citizens Centennial Committee on Adult Education for Atlantic City made a strong push for the establishment of a community college in the area. Two years after the New Jersey County College Act was passed, ACCC opened its doors—with approval from the county freeholders—using facilities rented from Atlantic City High School. In February , the college moved to its present location in Mays Landing. Enrollment in fall  was nearly six thousand students. ACCC offers thirty-seven associate degree programs and twenty-eight noncredit professional certificates and administers casino career, culinary arts, and distance education programs. See also higher education

Kelly A. Shea

Atlantic City. .-square-mile city in Atlantic County. Absecon Island, on which Atlantic City was later founded, was known to the Lenape as Absegami, or “little sea water.’’ In  the island was purchased by Thomas Budd, a Quaker farmer. Jeremiah Leeds, who arrived in  to build a cabin on the desolate island of sand dunes, mosquitoes, and black snakes, was reportedly the first European to live on it. By  there were still only seven houses on Absecon. Dr. Jonathan Pitney, a resident of Absecon village, formed a business relationship with Richard Osborne, a civil engineer from Philadelphia, and Samuel Richards, a manufacturer of glass in Weymouth, to develop the area by building a sixty-mile railroad from Camden. While Osborne mapped the route of the proposed railway, Pitney and Richards described to investors a vision of a “delectable’’ spot of summer cottages, healthful air, and restorative surf. In June , thousands of Camden and Atlantic Railroad shares were sold, mainly to businessmen with factories or landholdings in the Absecon vicinity. Osborne is said to have come up with the name “Atlantic City,’’ and with the idea of calling the streets after oceans and states—names that would later be immortalized in the popular board game Monopoly. Train service began in , and accommodations for tourists soon sprang up, including the huge United States Hotel and the still larger Surf House. By  Atlantic City had a permanent population of about seven hundred, and as many as four thousand tourists could be housed and fed at one time in

hotels and rooming houses. Publicity began in earnest. Dr. Lewis Reed, the town’s first resident physician, wrote: “Pneumonia and bronchitis are of infrequent origin here.’’ The air was said to be rich in ozone, which, boosters claimed, could cure consumption, rheumatism, laryngitis, digestive disorders, and insanity. The laborers who hammered the tracks and built the first hotels were, for the most part, African Americans, drawn from the South by the promise of work. The first black man to settle in Atlantic City was Billy Bright, who lived on Rhode Island Avenue. Others followed quickly. From  to , , African Americans made permanent homes in Atlantic City; by , they made up  percent of the town’s population. Thirty years later, blacks composed one-quarter of the population. Atlantic City boomed in the decades after the arrival of the railroad. In  a wooden esplanade was built over the beach—the world’s first Boardwalk. Periodically improved and expanded, the Boardwalk became the resort’s main artery. On one side were hotels, eateries, and souvenir shops. Amusement piers jutted out from the walk’s other side. Appelgate’s Pier, the first successful amusement pier, was built in  by James Appelgate and later purchased by showman Captain John Lake Young and his business partner, Stewart McShea. By  they turned the pier into Young’s Ocean Pier, which boasted a ballroom, rides, and games, and the daily net haul, which yanked strange creatures from the sea. Young presented Sarah Bernhardt, and the pier was known as the “Home of the Cakewalk.’’ Young’s Million Dollar Pier opened in  and became an immediate success. Harry Houdini appeared (and disappeared) there, Bull Moose presidential candidate Teddy Roosevelt gave a speech there in , and the pier was the site of movies, conventions, and exhibits of every description. The most celebrated of the piers, Steel Pier, opened in , and was billed as the “Showplace of the Nation’’ and gained fame, by the mid-twentieth century, as a place where visitors could see a high-diving horse and Frank Sinatra in one afternoon. The grand hotels overlooked the piers. The most famous dated from  and earlier: the Dennis, the Traymore, the MarlboroughBlenheim, the Shelburne, the Brighton, the Chalfonte-Haddon Hall, and the Chelsea. Newer hotels included the Ritz-Carlton, the President, the Ambassador, and the Claridge. Each in its heyday buzzed with excitement and featured ballroom dancing, dining, and lavish furnishings. In the era between the world wars, the city was given to spectacular events and stunts: weddings under the sea, marathon dance contests, women riding high-diving horses, men buried alive, elephants bathing in the ocean. In , businessmen looking to extend the

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Atlantic City skyline, c. .

Photo copyright Al Gold.

postsummer season and scratch out another week of profits hit upon the idea of the Atlantic City Fall Frolic, which grew to include a Bathing Revue, Rolling Chair Parade, Night Spectacle, and an Inter-City Beauty competition. The latter evolved into the Miss America Pageant. The city boasted the world’s largest electrical sign, the largest tube of toothpaste, the largest typewriter, and the first building to be built without roof pillars or posts. The Atlantic City Auditorium, formerly Convention Hall and now known as Boardwalk Hall, opened on May , , and houses the world’s largest pipe organ. The resort became a show business center. John Philip Sousa roused Boardwalk listeners, Abbott and Costello performed on the Steel Pier, Dean Martin and Jerry Lewis first teamed up at the  Club, and Sammy Davis sang at the Club Harlem. New York City shows, including all the early Ziegfeld Follies, premiered in Atlantic City. The authorities tolerated illegal gambling, which flourished in back rooms. After World War II, however, the city’s fortunes began to fade. More and more tourists flew to Florida and other destinations. By  the Atlantic City tourist was likely to be poor or elderly, or both. In the s the city’s poverty rate was New Jersey’s highest. The population had declined, while crime rates had increased. Legal gambling was seen as a way to revitalize the city. A referendum calling for legalization

of casino gambling was placed on the state ballot in . It was defeated. In  a similar referendum passed. On Saturday, May , , when the first casino opened, the Atlantic City Press ran a banner headline: “Queen of Resorts Reigns Again.’’ While the casinos initially failed to prove a quick fix, the influx of funds from the Casino Redevelopment Association has provided sectional revitalization and has created new neighborhoods in what were once blighted areas. The city’s success has caused other states around the nation to consider casino gambling as a tool for urban renewal. In  the city saw the start of $ billion in planned casino and commercial development. In , the city’s total population of , was  percent black,  percent white,  percent Asian, and  percent Hispanic (Hispanics may be of any race). The median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Funnell, Charles E. By the Beautiful Sea: The Rise and High Times of That Great American Resort, Atlantic City. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . Kent, Bill, Robert E. Ruffolo, Jr., and Lauralee Dobbins. Atlantic City, America’s Playground. Encinitis, CA: Heritage Media, . Levi, Vicki Gold, and Lee Eisenberg. Atlantic City:  Years of Ocean Madness. Berkeley: Ten Speed Press, .

See also illustration, color section

Lee Eisenberg and Vicki Gold Levi

Atlantic City and Shore Railroad. Opened in , the Atlantic City and Shore Railroad (AC & S) operated a high-speed trolley line between Atlantic City, Somers Point, and Ocean City, and leased the railroadowned Atlantic Avenue trolley line, which extended the length of Absecon Island from the inlet to Longport. The company did well financially in the early years, but later the Depression and competition from automobiles, buses, and jitneys adversely affected it. In , the leases ended; the railroad sold its property to the new Atlantic City Transportation Company, as did the AC & S, which was dissolved. Trolley service to Ocean City ended in  and on Atlantic Avenue in . New Jersey Transit took over the successor bus lines in . Gladulich, Richard. By Rail to the Boardwalk. Glendale, CA: Trans-Angelo Books, .

See also railroads; transportation

James N. J. Henwood

Atlantic City Bacharach Giants. The Atlantic City Bacharach Giants baseball team was a founding member of the second major Negro League, the Eastern Colored League, which was established in . This outstanding team represented their league in the  and  Negro League World Series. In , during the “Great Migration’’ of blacks from the South to the North, the club was brought intact to Atlantic City

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from Jacksonville, Florida, by two local black businessmen/politicians, Tom Jackson and Henry Tucker. The team derived its name from the leading Atlantic City politician of the day, Mayor Harry Bacharach, who sponsored it in its first years in the city. Among the great players to wear the Bacharach uniform were John Henry “Pop’’ Lloyd, a legendary shortstop and a member of the National Baseball Hall of Fame; Richard “King’’ Lundy, also a shortstop and a manager; the hard-throwing righthanded pitcher Arthur “Rats’’ Henderson; and longtime first baseman Napoleon “Chance’’ Cummings. See also baseball

Lawrence D. Hogan

Atlantic City Electric Company. See Atlantic Energy.

Atlantic City Medical Center. This -bed facility has two divisions: one, in the heart of Atlantic City, has been in existence for more than a century; the other, the Mainland Division, opened in , and is located in Galloway Township on the campus of the Richard Stockton College of New Jersey. The Medical Center is one of six units of AtlantiCare, which has been ranked among the nation’s top integrated health-care systems. Atlantic City Medical Center was Atlantic City’s first hospital and, in the year , had the region’s only Level II trauma center, its only neonatal intensive care unit, and its most comprehensive cancer and heart centers. The Medical Center’s Heart Institute offers the region’s first and only cardiac surgery program. It is a teaching hospital affiliated with the Jefferson Health System, which includes the Jefferson University Hospital in Philadelphia and the DuPont Hospital for children in Wilmington. Cowen, David L. Medicine and Health in New Jersey: A History. Princeton: D. Van Nostrand, .

See also hospitals and hospital systems

Bruce R. Cowen

Atlantic City Press. See Press of Atlantic City.

Atlantic City Surf.

Established in , the Atlantic City Surf won the Atlantic League Championship in the league’s inaugural season. The Surf is not affiliated with any Major League Baseball organization. They play in the Sandcastle, a ,-seat stadium co-funded by the City of Atlantic City, which contains an arcade, merchandise store, and a ,square-foot picnic area. From May through September, the Surf play  games. Frank Boulton is the principal owner of the team and Mitch Williams, a former Major League pitcher, is the manager. See also baseball

Brian McGonigle

Atlantic Coastal Plain.

The Atlantic Coastal Plain is the largest of New Jersey’s physiographic provinces, covering some threefifths of the land area of the state. It is to be found to the southeast of a line from New Brunswick to Trenton and southward along the Delaware River to the Atlantic Ocean. This Coastal Plain can be divided into three subdivisions: an inner lowland progressing from Raritan Bay southward and bordering the Delaware River, a central upland lying roughly at fifty feet above sea level, and an outer lowland comprising the area facing the Atlantic Ocean from Raritan Bay to Delaware Bay. The inner lowland possesses some of the best soils in the state, while very sandy and droughty soils often compose the rest of the Coastal Plain, which is covered by a mixture of oaks and pines, with white cedars found in bog locations. Much of this area is covered by the Pinelands National Reserve. Most of the outer lowland, from Sandy Hook to Cape May, consists of barrier islands backed by lagoons. It is much valued, especially in the summer, for recreational activities.

Wolfe, Peter. The Geology and Landscapes of New Jersey. New York: Crane Russak, .

See also geography; physiography

Peter O. Wacker

Atlantic

County. .-square-mile county in southeastern New Jersey, with twenty-three incorporated municipalities. Mays Landing is the county seat. Hamilton Township is the largest municipality in geographic area and Atlantic City is the municipality with the largest population (,) according to the  census. The original inhabitants were the Lenape Indians, and Absegami was the Indian name for the area. Henry Hudson surveyed the coast in . In  Cornelius Jacobsen Mey, another early Dutch explorer, gave the name Eyerhaven (Egg Harbor) to the area because waterfowl were so plentiful that the meadows were filled with their eggs. Most of the early settlement took place along the coast and waterways. Somers Point was one of those early settlements. In  John Somers of Great Egg Harbor was granted a license to “keep a ferry over Great Egg Harbour for men, hors, and Kattle.’’ Many of the early settlers were Quakers. In , Daniel Leeds made surveys of Egg Harbor. Prior to the s, the inhabitants of Great Egg Harbor were overseen by Cape May County. By an act of the state legislature dated January , , Gloucester County was granted jurisdiction over the area that now encompasses Atlantic County. As the population of the eastern portion of Gloucester County expanded, men of influence deemed it important to form their own government. Appointees to governmental positions often found it difficult to get to meetings across the state in Woodbury, the county seat. Riding on

horseback or in carriages along rutted trails to reach the scheduled meetings, they were often delinquent and fined for not appearing. Deeds, wills, and legal documents needed to be filed, and the trip to Woodbury was often difficult and time-consuming due to weather and road conditions. Atlantic County was created from the eastern portion of Gloucester County in . Public meetings were held in Haddonfield and Woodbury approving the measure, and the legislature passed an act setting off the townships of Egg Harbor, Galloway, Hamilton, and Weymouth to form the new county. Many of the inhabitants were employed in the maritime industry and related businesses. Along the Mullica and Great Egg Harbor rivers and adjoining creeks, shipbuilders (Vansant, Gaskill, Risley, Clark, Pennington, Wheaton, Frambes, English, and others) kept the maritime business afloat. The soil of Atlantic County provided agricultural opportunities, and farming became a major part of people’s lives. Iron forges and glass factories were early industries in the county. To improve transportation for both materials and people, Jonathan Pitney and Enoch Doughty proposed to build the first railroad to connect the Philadelphia market to Atlantic County. They suggested that the railroad would open up markets for the glass industry, help convert forested lands to fruit and truck farms, and establish South Jersey as an attractive bathing resort for Philadelphians. Although many proponents of the maritime industry opposed a rival mode of

ATLANTIC COUNTY

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Atlantic Highlands Borough transportation, the Camden and Atlantic Railroad was established at a meeting of the directors held in Philadelphia, June , . Thus began the new Atlantic County business of tourism. The Leeds family opened the first hotel on Absecon Beach. The hotel was mainly a place where hunters and sportsmen could stay while they enjoyed a few days of gunning at the Shore. In  there were only seven houses on Absecon Island, and one of them was the home of Jeremiah Leeds, the first permanent settler on the island. Upon his death in , his widow Millicent Leeds added rooms to the house and started taking in boarders. After the first train arrived on July , , the tourist industry played a major part in the economy of Atlantic County. The wealthy and famous, including actors, musicians, and politicians, vacationed and played in Atlantic City. Grand homes and summer cottages were built. Support industries grew on the mainland, and Atlantic County flourished along with Atlantic City. A year-round economy was never established in Atlantic City, and as the summer season ended so did the residents’ employment. New tourist destinations, neglect of properties, and a rising crime rate, along with unemployment, should have forewarned of serious problems for the city. By the s the tourist industry had declined along with the overall economy of the area. On November , , voters passed a referendum legalizing casino gambling, and on Memorial Day , Resorts International opened its doors to the gambling public. What followed was a partial revitalization of Atlantic City and tremendous growth in Atlantic County as both business and residential areas expanded. Atlantic County is crossed by the Garden State Parkway and the Atlantic City Expressway; the former connects Atlantic County with the New York City metropolitan area and the latter connects it with the Philadelphia metropolitan area. Other major highways are Routes  (Black Horse Pike),  (White Horse Pike), , , , , , , , and . The Amtrak rail system carries passengers from Philadelphia to Atlantic City, passing through the communities of Absecon, Egg Harbor City, Hammonton, Atco, and Lindenwold. Atlantic City International Airport is located in Egg Harbor Township, and Bader Field and Hammonton Municipal Airport service private plane and helicopter traffic. Atlantic County’s principal industries are casino hotels, aviation testing/engineering, agriculture, yacht building, plastics, pharmaceutical research, and tourism. There are many opportunities for recreation, from relaxing on the beaches to surf and deep-sea fishing; enjoying the extensive park systems including wildlife refuges and passive and active parks; and visiting historical sites such as Absecon Lighthouse, the Somers Mansion, Renault Winery, Weymouth Furnace, Dr. Smith’s Sanitorium, Lucy the Elephant, Pleasant Mills,

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Risley Homestead, the county buildings at Mays Landing, and the Jonathan Pitney House. Federal, state, county, and municipal parks occupy , acres. There are fourteen miles of beach and more than five miles of boardwalk. Six hospitals and numerous nursing and rehabilitation centers serve the county’s medical needs. According to the  federal census the population of Atlantic County was ,:  percent white,  percent black,  percent Asian, and  percent Hispanic (Hispanics may be any race). The median household income in  was $,.

erosional landform known as a cuesta, which develops on the resistant rock strata generally associated with a coastal plain. The Highlands form the highest part of the Atlantic coastline south of Cadillac Mountain in Maine, reaching an elevation of  feet at Crawford’s Hill south of Keyport, which is the highest altitude in the New Jersey Coastal Plain. The cuesta, or ridge, forms the divide between the streams that drain into the Atlantic to the east and those that drain into the Raritan and Delaware rivers to the north and west. The northern part of the Highlands overlooks Sandy Hook.

Atlantic County Historical Society. Early History of Atlantic County, New Jersey. Baltimore: Gateway Press, .

Strahler, Alan H., and Arthur N. Strahler. Physical Geography. New York: Wiley, .

Hall, John F. The Daily Union History of Atlantic City and County. Atlantic City: Daily Union Printing Company, .

June G. Sheridan

Atlantic Energy.

Atlantic Energy is a holding company created in  as the parent company of Atlantic City Electric Company (ACE) and several newly created unregulated subsidiaries. The Electric Light Company of Atlantic City, established in , merged with three other electric utilities in  to form ACE, which provides electricity to approximately five hundred thousand customers in the southern part of New Jersey. Atlantic Electric’s other subsidiaries are ATE Investment, Atlantic Energy Technology, Atlantic Generation, and Atlantic Southern Properties. In , Atlantic Energy merged with Delmarva Power and Light Company to form Connectiv. See also energy industry

Stephen Marshall

Atlantic Highlands. The Atlantic Highlands in Monmouth County are a type of

Robert M. Hordon

Atlantic Highlands Borough.

.square-mile borough in Monmouth County. This shorefront community was first settled in  by Thomas Henry Leonard. In  the Rev. Robert Emery developed a Methodist camp meeting there, which lasted until , when it ran out of money. On March ,  Atlantic Highlands was organized as a borough. Atlantic Highlands is located along the northern New Jersey shore with easy access to Sandy Hook Bay, Raritan Bay, Flynn’s Knoll, Romer Shoal, and the Shrewsbury and Navesink rivers. Its major industry is fishing. Atlantic Highlands is home to one of New Jersey’s largest fleets of party and charter fishing boats. The Atlantic Highlands Municipal Marina provides full marina services and a launch ramp. Mount Mitchell, the highest point on the eastern seaboard, rises approximately  feet above sea level and overlooks the Raritan River and Sandy Hook Bay, with good views of the Verrazano Narrows Bridge and New York Harbor.

Postcard view of Atlantic Highlands.

Courtesy Special Collections and University Archives, Rutgers University Libraries, New Brunswick.

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Atlantic Terra Cotta Company

Today, Atlantic Highlands is primarily a residential waterfront community with many Victorian-style homes. The total population in  was , and  percent white. The median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, .

part of Haddon Township, had experienced sufficient population growth to incorporate as the Borough of Audubon. Mrs. Samuel Nicholson Rhodes is said to have suggested its name to honor John James Audubon. The  census count was ,, and  percent of the population was white. The median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, .

Bell, Marianna Leonard. I Remember. Atlantic Highlands: Atlantic Highlands Historical Society, . Gabrielan, Randall. Atlantic Highlands. Dover, NH: Arcadia, .

Gail Greenberg

Leonard, Thomas Henry. From Indian Trail to Electric Rail. Atlantic Highlands: Atlantic Highlands Journal, .

Audubon Park.

Barbara Pepe

Atlantic Terra Cotta Company. As the largest architectural terra cotta manufacturer in the world, the Atlantic Terra Cotta Company contributed nearly  percent of the visible structural materials of Manhattan’s famous terra cotta skyline in the early s. The firm was formed in  when the old Atlantic Terra Cotta Company of Tottenville, Staten Island, joined Perth Amboy Terra Cotta and Excelsior Terra Cotta. The three became plants , , and , respectively, of the new company, with Perth Amboy as the headquarters. Two additional firms were later acquired. Atlantic Terra Cotta’s most notable achievement was the terra-cotta-clad Woolworth Building in New York City (), which was sheathed and trimmed in custom ornamental detail. The company closed in . See also ceramics industry; terra cotta

Diane Jones Sliney

Audubon, John James (b. Apr. , ; d. Jan. , ).

Naturalist and watercolorist, best known for The Birds of America. Born Jean Jacques Fougere Audubon in Haiti, the artist fled to America in  to escape conscription during the Napoleonic Wars and anglicized his name. He was naturalized in . His early years in America were spent at his father’s estate near Philadelphia, Mill Grove, observing and drawing birds. Here he met and married his wife, Lucy Bakewell. Later, Audubon eked out a living as a portraitist, art teacher, and taxidermist, making trips down the Ohio and Mississippi Rivers to study natural habitats. In  Audubon’s drawings were published in England, securing his reputation as an artist and naturalist. In  Audubon, commissioned to draw a grouse for use on a New Jersey banknote, met Edward Harris, a Moorestown ornithologist who became a lifelong friend. In the spring of , while living in Camden, Audubon observed a nest of Warbling Vireo and other migratory warblers. Visiting Great Egg Harbor for three weeks, he delighted in the variety of bird and marine life. He returned to Camden that fall and again in June of , when he completed drawings of New Jersey specimens including the Mottled Owl, the Connecticut Warbler, the Blackpoll Warbler, the

John James Audubon, Self-Portrait, . Pencil on paper,  / ×  / in.

Courtesy University of Liverpool, Art Gallery and Collections, FA2334. Rathbone Family Collection.

Wood-Peewee, the Great Crested Flycatcher, the Golden-crowned Thrush, the Yellowbreasted Chat, the Seaside Finch, and the Baywinged Bunting. Audubon was elected a fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in . From  until his death Audubon lived on his estate, Minnie’s Land, now Audubon Terrace, New York City. Audubon, John James. The Life of John James Audubon. New York: G. P. Putnam, . DAB. Ford, Alice, ed. Audubon by Himself. Garden City, NY: Natural History Press, .

See also art; birds

Gail Greenberg

Audubon.

.-square-mile borough in Camden County. Audubon was once part of the lands belonging to Francis Collins of Newton Township, whose land survey dates to . The first industry in the borough was John Breach’s gristmill, on Newton Creek. The Bettle family operated a large dairy farm in the late nineteenth century, shipping six hundred quarts of milk daily to Pennsylvania Hospital. In  the farm became part of Abbotts Dairies, which owned the property until , when apartment houses were built on the tract. Audubon lies in the center of several important travel routes: Nicholson Road, to the north, extends to Gloucester City, formerly a major Delaware River port; Kings Highway, to the south, runs east and west through Camden County; the Black Horse Pike, to the west, and the White Horse Pike, to the east, were major roads to Atlantic City. By , although nearly half of the community remained farmland, the many settlements of the area, then

.-square-mile borough, one of the smallest municipalities in Camden County. Audubon Park, originally part of Audubon Borough, was incorporated in . An early planned development located near Camden City, it was designed by architects Oscar Stonorov and Joseph Norman Hettel about  and sponsored by Camden Local #, the Industrial Union of Marine and Shipbuilding Workers of America. It began as a pioneer defense housing project, on the Camden Plan, a program financed by the Federal Works Agency. Residents neither rented nor owned their homes but bought stock in the nonprofit mutual company that owned the project. The arrangement continues to the present day. Residents pay property taxes to the borough, build equity in their homes, and are shareholders in the Audubon Park Mutual Housing Corporation. When they move, they receive a share of their equity but can sell only to a blood relative, or ownership reverts to the corporation, which sells it to the next person on the waiting list. “The Park’’ contains  prefabricated units, which were built in twenty-six days. A community center and athletic fields complete the municipality; students attend the Audubon School District. There is no industrial or business section. The population in  was , and  percent white. The median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, .

“History of Audubon Park.’’ N.d. Camden County Pamphlets File. Camden County Library, Voorhees. “Unique Situation Fosters Close Ties in Audubon Park.’’ Courier Post, Dec. , . “U.S. Speeds Village of New Homes for Defense Workers.’’ Courier Post, Dec. , .

Gail Greenberg

Augusta.

See Frankford.

Automatic Data Processing.

Automatic Payrolls was formed in Paterson in  by Henry Taub and two partners, whom he bought out during their first year of business. Offering what was then the unique service of weekly payroll preparation, the firm picked up data from clients and delivered finished payroll checks to them. In , Henry Taub, with his brother Joe, who had joined the firm soon after it began, hired Frank Lautenberg to become Automatic Payroll’s first full-time salesman. The firm renamed itself Automatic

Aviation Hall of Fame and Museum of New Jersey Data Processing (ADP) in  and became a publicly held corporation three years later. In  Frank Lautenberg replaced Henry Taub as CEO, and in  he left the firm to become a U.S. senator from New Jersey. Today ADP provides a wide variety of data processing services, including payroll processing and tax filing, securities transaction processing for brokerage firms, and inventory processing for auto and truck dealers. During the s, the company processed the payroll check of one of every ten workers in the United States. With its world headquarters in Roseland, ADP is one of the top twenty-five employers in New Jersey.

Elaine L. Schwartz

auto racing. The sport of auto racing has had deep roots in New Jersey from its earliest days, attracting national-level competitors in a variety of racing disciplines at several facilities. Indianapolis  pioneer Ira Vail won the first auto race at the Flemington Fairgrounds in . A high-banked, one-and-a-half-mile speedway was constructed entirely of wood at Amatol, just outside Hammonton, in  but closed the following year. In the s and s several major race teams were based in Paterson. Indianapolis-level drivers competed regularly at the one-mile dirt (later paved) oval at the state fairgrounds in Trenton during the s and s. In the late s the fairgrounds track was expanded to a one-anda-half-mile superspeedway, drawing Indy and NASCAR (National Association for Stock Car Auto Racing) events, but it closed around . Championship Auto Racing Teams Indy racing took place on a temporary course at the Meadowlands sports complex for five years until the mid-s. Drag strips sprang up at Great Meadows and Atco, followed by Raceway Park in Old Bridge Township, which has hosted a major annual National Hot Rod Association meet since the early s. Short, oval dirt tracks still host well-attended weekly events, mainly for stock cars, at Bridgeport, East Windsor, and New Egypt. Flemington hosted weekly stock car racing on dirt until the track was paved in . The historic fairgrounds have been dormant since  and is a development target. Another paved oval, Wall Township Speedway, is still a significant draw. Bids since the late s to build major NASCAR superspeedways at the Meadowlands and the former Atlantic City Race Course have failed to materialize thus far. Jim Donnelly

auto theft.

For many years, the rate of auto theft in New Jersey’s urban areas consistently ranked among the worst in the nation. This ranking reflects some of the realities of auto theft. Jersey City and Newark serve as entry ports for many of the vehicles

that are imported into the United States. The primary economic reason for stealing a car is not for the car itself but for the resale value of the parts. While some of these parts are exported overseas, many are resold domestically in a thriving black market involving unscrupulous auto repair shops and consumers seeking cheaper deals on auto repairs. The  New Jersey Uniform Crime Report indicates that  percent of motor vehicle thefts cleared by arrest were committed by persons under twenty-five, the overwhelming majority of them being male. Of the  juveniles arrested for auto theft in ,  percent lived in the counties containing the six major urban areas: Camden City (Camden), Elizabeth (Union), Jersey City (Hudson), Newark (Essex), Paterson (Passaic), and Trenton (Mercer). Prior to the s auto theft was considered a low-priority offense because it was viewed as a relatively harmless, nonviolent, economic crime. This perception began to change when carjacking introduced an element of violence and fear. Also, stolen cars are often used to commit another offense or as a means of escape. Stolen vehicles are involved in police chases and contribute to motor vehicle collisions that result in death and injury. In addition, as cars became more expensive, the economic consequences increased. The cost of automobile insurance has become one of the most contentious issues in New Jersey. People have begun to see the impact of this crime in their increasing auto insurance premiums. U.S. Department of Justice, Federal Bureau of Investigation. Crime in the United States , Uniform Crime Reports. Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, .

See also insurance industry

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by the Reading line across a bridge at Ninetysixth Street. Today, as in the past, tourism is Avalon’s primary industry. The  population of , was  percent white. The median household income was $,, according to the  census. For complete census figures, see chart, . Dorwart, Jeffery M. Cape May County, New Jersey: The Making of an American Resort Community. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

Barbara St. Clair

Avenel. See Adult Diagnostic and Treatment Center. Aventis

Pharmaceuticals.

See

Hoechst.

Aviation Hall of Fame and Museum of New Jersey. Founded in , the Aviation Hall of Fame and Museum (AHOF) preserves New Jersey’s two-centuriesold aeronautical history and honors the men and women who created that special heritage. The AHOF was the first state aviation hall of fame in America. It is the repository of biographical histories and photographs of the Garden State’s pilots, astronauts, inventors, engineers, mechanics, writers, artists, executives, and corporations. The bronze plaques of  New Jersey aviation pioneers hang in the AHOF, housed in a modern museum at Teterboro Airport. The museum’s galleries are dedicated to airports, the military, space flight, airmail, lighter-than-air craft, aerobatic pilots, women aviators, and early fliers. There is also a library. See also museums

H. V. Pat Reilly

Patrick E. Dunican

Avalon.

.-square-mile borough in Cape May County located on part of Seven Mile Island. When Aaron Leaming purchased Seven Mile Island in  for $, the land had little value. Named Leaming’s Beach, it was used for pasturing cattle, hunting game, and landing whales. In  the Seven Mile Beach Company bought the land, built a hotel, and sold huge tracts to other developers. Two years later, hoping to ensure growth, the company gave the West Jersey Railroad a right-of-way the length of the island, a decisive factor in the island’s development. During summer weekends trains brought four to five thousand people to enjoy the beach, picnic, and perhaps purchase a lot. Avalon separated from Middle Township and incorporated in . A lifesaving station was established in  and a boardwalk was constructed in the early s; in  the first school was built. In  Gov. Woodrow Wilson opened bridges on Stone Harbor Boulevard to link the island with the mainland. In  service from Cape May Courthouse was provided

Bernice “Bee’’ Falk Haydu, wearing open-cockpit aircraft gear, during WASP training, .

Courtesy Aviation Hall of Fame and Museum, Teterboro.

48

aviation industry

aviation industry.

The New Jersey aircraft industry began as part of the industrial buildup in support of World War I. There were failed attempts as early as , but the war economy produced the environment for the aviation industry to emerge. The state’s first successful aircraft plant was the Aeromarine Plane and Motor Corporation at Keyport, which made hydroplane trainers and a flying boat for the navy. Another plant, the Standard Aero Company, began production of military aircraft in  in Plainfield and later in Linden. Both companies failed to survive the cut in government orders and public sale of war surplus aircraft and engines following the  armistice. Anthony H. G. Fokker, famed for his World War I German aircraft, founded the Fokker Aircraft Corporation in  at Teterboro. Fokker designed and built aircraft for emerging airlines and other businesses for the remainder of the s, but the company collapsed during the Great Depression. Wright-Martin Aircraft Corporation, later known as Wright Aeronautical Company, was formed in  and began building engines for the military in New Brunswick. Wright survived the fate of other failed companies by acquiring the rights to a successful air-cooled engine and improving upon it. Wright became a major supplier of civilian and military aircraft engines and later merged with the Curtiss Aeroplane and Motor Corporation to become the Curtiss-Wright Corporation. In World War II, Curtiss-Wright produced engines for a great variety of military aircraft, including the B-, B-, A-, TBM, and SBC. The Curtiss-Wright Propeller Division at Caldwell produced one-fifth of all of the propellers made in the United States during the war. The General Motors Corporation also played a big part in the New Jersey aircraft industry. Following the attack on Pearl Harbor, the U.S. government ordered the curtailment of all civilian automobile production to conserve materials for the war. This left the modern General Motors plants in Linden and West Trenton idle with no equipment or facilities that could be easily converted to war production. Company representatives visited the Navy Department in an attempt to secure a contract for aircraft components. They were granted contracts for fighter planes and torpedo bombers and formed the Eastern Aircraft Division of the General Motors Corporation. The Linden plant produced Wildcat fighters and West Trenton, Tarrytown, New York, and Baltimore, Maryland, worked together to build Avenger dive bombers, with final assembly in West Trenton. Another plant, in Bloomfield, made the hydraulic lines, cables, wires, and electrical components for both aircraft. Before production could begin, the Linden and West Trenton plants had to be stripped of tons of automobile-assembly equipment. The buildings were modified, and aircraftassembly equipment and fixtures were

constructed and installed. Airfields and hangars also had to be constructed adjacent to the plants in order to test the new aircraft. After a slow start production got under way, and Eastern Aircraft Division produced a total of , aircraft, which went to every theater of the war, and some remained in service until the s. The conclusion of the war brought an end to the need for additional combat aircraft. Military agencies quickly canceled contracts for thousands of aircraft and aircraft engines. The Eastern Aircraft plants, no longer needed for Avenger and Wildcat production, soon resumed production of General Motors automobiles. Cunningham, John T. Made in New Jersey: The Industrial Story of a State. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . General Motors Corporation. Eastern Aircraft Division. A History of Eastern Aircraft Division. Linden: Eastern Aircraft Division, . White, Graham. Allied Aircraft Piston Engines of World War II: History and Development of Frontline Aircraft Piston Engines Produced by Great Britain and the United States during World War II. Washington: Society of Automotive Engineers, .

Michael Stowe

aviation research. New Jersey has been a center for aviation research for the military and the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) from the s to the present. Some of the earliest aviation research and development in the state was conducted at Lakehurst, where the navy acquired , acres of land once used by the army. The new facility was used to develop America’s dirigible program. A huge hanger was constructed and the navy’s first dirigible, the USS Shenandoah, was assembled within. For the next decade, Lakehurst pioneered the development of the navy’s dirigibles. A number of blimps also operated from the station. At the same time, the first parachute school opened at Lakehurst. The school not only provided training in operation and use of parachutes, but also testing and development. The USS Shenandoah was followed by the USS Los Angeles and later the USS Akron and USS Macon. The Akron and Macon were designed to carry, launch, and recover fighter aircraft. In April , the Akron was lost during a thunderstorm off Barnegat Light; the Macon was lost in , when the ship fell into the Pacific Ocean off the California coast. These two tragic events brought an end to the navy’s attempt to develop dirigibles. The blimps and lighterthan-air research remained at Lakehurst until . Today, the Naval Air Systems Command at Lakehurst provides expertise, testing, and research in areas most often associated with aircraft carriers. Areas of expertise include catapults, jet blast deflectors, arresting gear, visual landing aids, handling equipment, servicing equipment, and propulsion/avionics support equipment. In  the U.S. Navy Development Squadron  (VX-) moved to Lakehurst and

began testing, research, and training with Sikorsky and Bell helicopters. It moved to Naval Air Station Atlantic City in , where the squadron began research and training with fighter aircraft. For nearly ten years, VX- tested aircraft, systems, and munitions at Atlantic City. It continued its work at Quonset Point, Rhode Island, upon the decommissioning of NAS Atlantic City in . In the same year, the National Aviation Facilities Experiment Center (NAFEC) was established as a research and development center for the FAA in Atlantic City, selected because of its wide range of weather conditions and location close to both the Northeast corridor and the open space over the ocean. NAFEC used the former navy facilities until , when it constructed a new $-million facility and moved to another part of Atlantic City Airport. At that time it became the Federal Aviation Technical Center, but was renamed the FAA William J. Hughes Technical Center in . The center is the national scientific test base for FAA research, development, and acquisition programs. The facility tests and evaluates air traffic control, communications, navigation, aircraft, and airport security. It also develops new equipment and software and recommends modifications to existing procedures and systems. Armstrong, William J., and Clarke Van Vleet. United States Naval Aviation –. Washington, DC: Naval Historical Center, Department of the Navy, . History of the FAA William J. Hughes Technical Center. Egg Harbor Township: FAA William J. Hughes Technical Center, . Shettle, Mel L., Jr. United States Naval Air Stations of World War Two. Vol. , Eastern States. Roswell, GA: Schaertel Publishing, .

Michael T. Stowe

Avon-by-the-Sea.

.-square-mile borough located between the Shark River and Sylvan Lake in Monmouth County. Avon-bythe-Sea was originally named Key East in , when Edward Batchelor purchased three hundred acres in Neptune Township for a seaside development scheme. The community’s street plan was based on a strict grid pattern, with six eighty-foot-wide tree-lined avenues running east to west. Key East was patterned after the religious community of Ocean Grove, with a Christian Philosophy Summer School run by the American Institute, a Baptist Seaside Assembly, and a summer home for crippled orphans managed by the Episcopal Church. In  Key East seceded from Neptune Township to become an independent borough named Avonby-the-Sea. The building of grand hotels and open-porch homes in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries attests to Avon-bythe-Sea’s appeal as a summer beach resort. The U.S. Coast Guard Shark River Boat Station is located in the borough on the Shark River.

Aylsworth, Jonas Walter The borough has a mix of , housing units, with  (or . percent) of them available for seasonal use. In , the population of , was  percent white. The median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Gensch, Dolores M. Avon-by-the-Sea. Charleston, SC: Arcadia, .

Wayne T. Bell, Jr.

Aylsworth, Jonas Walter d. ).

(b. ;

Chemist and manufacturer. Jonas Aylsworth, born in Attica, Indiana, attended Purdue University for one year before joining Thomas Edison’s laboratory staff as a chemist in . He left Edison’s direct employ in  but continued to work under contract on a number of Edison’s inventions. Aylsworth’s most important contributions came in the development of the Edison phonograph

49

record technology. In the late s he developed the standard wax record, around  devised, with Walter Miller, a process for manufacturing molded records, and around  created Condensite, the first interpenetrating polymer network (IPN) material, which was used in Edison disc records and many other molded plastic products.

Paul Israel

B Babe Ruth Baseball. This premier amateur baseball program for thirteen- to fifteenyear-olds was founded in Yardville in . It began in February  as a local organization called the Little-Bigger League (recognizing that the Little League, founded in Williamsport, Pennsylvania, in , graduated its players at age twelve). The first games were played in Yardville and Trenton on May , . Later that summer, the organization established a nationwide Little-Bigger League with its leaders as the first national board. The league’s first nationwide championship, or “world series,’’ was held in Trenton in August . Before the start of the  season, the organization changed its name to Babe Ruth Baseball, Inc., to honor George Herman “Babe’’ Ruth, America’s greatest baseball player, who had died in . Babe Ruth Baseball has grown steadily and now operates throughout North America and Europe. It had more than a million players worldwide in . A twelve-and-younger division, now known as the Cal Ripken Division in honor of the former Baltimore Orioles shortstop, was added in . Trenton teams won the Babe Ruth World Series in  and , and a Ewing team did so in . See also baseball

Robert W. Craig

Baby M case.

As the first major trial to address surrogate motherhood and reproductive-technology questions, the Baby M case was the focus of national media attention in  and . At issue was custody of so-called Baby M (Melissa Stern), the biological child of William Stern, a biochemist, and Mary Beth Whitehead, a housewife married to a sanitation worker. Baby M was conceived through artificial insemination using Stern’s sperm and Whitehead’s egg after they signed a contract stipulating that Whitehead would terminate her parental rights and turn the child over to Stern and his wife, Elizabeth, a pediatrician. Whitehead was to be paid $, upon surrendering the infant. Soon after the birth, Whitehead decided that she could not give up the child, whom she had named Sara. Drama ensued as first Whitehead, then the Sterns, then Whitehead had custody of the child. Whitehead then fled with the baby to Florida for four months, while the Sterns took legal action to enforce the surrogacy contract and were awarded temporary custody. Whitehead was given limited visitation rights. A trial followed, and a lower-court judge ruled in the Sterns’ favor, terminating

50

Mrs. Whitehead’s parental rights and granting custody to Stern. Mrs. Stern was allowed to adopt the baby and become her legal mother. Many opposed the ruling, arguing on Whitehead’s behalf that involuntary termination of parental rights was legal only in cases of abandonment or abuse. Others noted inherent socioeconomic bias, since the well-off Sterns had better resources to fight in court and were able to provide an arguably “better’’ life for the baby. Critics worried that contractual surrogacy would create a “breeder class’’ of lower-income women. On appeal the New Jersey Supreme Court ruled seven to zero to invalidate the surrogacy contract, calling it “baby-selling.’’ Whitehead’s parental rights were restored and Mrs. Stern’s adoption of the baby annulled. The court granted Mr. Stern custody to spare the baby further disruption, but allowed Whitehead expanded visitation rights. Richardson, Herbert, ed. On the Problem of Surrogate Parenthood: Analyzing the Baby M Case. Lewiston, NY: Edwin Mellen Press, . Whitehead, Mary Beth, with Loretta SchwartzNobel. A Mother’s Story: The Truth about the Baby M Case. New York: St. Martin’s Press, .

Suzanne Travers

Bacon, Henry

(b. Nov. , ; d. Feb. ,

). Architect. Henry Bacon, son of Henry

and Elizabeth Kelton Bacon, was born in Watseka, Illinois, in  and married Laura Florence Calvert in . He trained at the architectural firm of McKim, Mead, and White from  to , studied in Europe from  to , and established his own firm in . A devotee of the classical vocabulary for public architecture, Bacon was most notably the designer of the simple yet majestic Lincoln Memorial () in Washington, D.C. He also designed humbler municipal buildings in New Jersey including the Public Library (c. ) in Jersey City and the Dansforth Memorial Public Library () in Paterson. Packard, Robert T. Encyclopedia of American Architecture. New York: McGraw–Hill, . Stern, Robert A. M. Modern Classicism. New York: Rizzoli, .

See also architecture

Jeanne Kolva

Bakelite.

In  a Belgian scientist and university lecturer working in the United States, Leo Henrik Baekeland (–), succeeded in producing a synthetic shellac by combining formaldehyde, a wood alcohol used by morticians as embalming fluid, and phenol, a coal-tar distillate used as a turpentine substitute. Called “Bakelite,’’ it was the first of the thermosetting plastics—it could be molded into any shape but, after it had solidified, it could not be melted again. Once hard, it could be machined into any shape and it was waterproof and resistant to heat, cold, and acid. Baekeland was the first to put together a series of small molecules in a chain to form

a commercially useful artificial substance. On February , , at the Chemist’s Club in New York, Baekeland introduced his new product, calling it the “Material of a Thousand Uses.’’ One of its first uses was in the manufacture of billiard balls, replacing rare and expensive ivory. The material became the ideal component for the emerging electronics industry in need of new kinds of insulators. Bakelite was quickly used to form telephones, airplane propellers, electrical plugs and sockets, pot handles, toasters, cheap radios, electronic ignitions for automobiles, and, eventually, heat shields for spaceships. Baekeland’s work unleashed a flurry of chemical research into synthetic material, work that would produce celluloid, nylon, and polyvinyl chloride. This work had been bankrolled by an earlier discovery. In the s Baekeland had invented Velox, an improved photographic paper that freed photographers from having to use sunlight for developing images. With Velox, they could rely on artificial light. George Eastman, whose camera and developing services would make photography an almost everyday activity, bought full rights to Velox from Baekeland for the then astonishing sum of $ million. Soon after he had presented Bakelite to a worldwide audience, a flash fire consumed Baekeland’s home garage, torching most of his adjacent laboratory. When he learned that the Perth Amboy Chemical Works in Perth Amboy had space to rent, he relocated the General Bakelite Company to safer quarters. Bakelite also helped Heyden Chemical Works to thrive in Garfield, where workers eventually perfected a new process for making formaldehyde. Bakelite products dominated the plastics industry throughout the s. The company bought the old Swayze Farm in Bound Brook in , and in  merged full operations in the new plant, which was turning out more than  million tons of finished product annually. By  the editors of Fortune magazine had crowned Bakelite the “King of Plastics.’’ Control of Bakelite passed to Union Carbide and Carbon Corporation in . Bakelite’s use continued during World War II, including use in the design of the atomic bomb. But the company also developed a material it called Vinylite. Going beyond military uses, the material grew in less than a decade into an immense postwar enterprise dedicated to making swimming pools, beach balls, raincoats, shower curtains, and automobile upholstery. Cunningham, John T. Made in New Jersey: The Industrial Story of a State. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . Fenichell, Stephen. Plastic: The Making of a Synthetic Century. New York: HarperBusiness, . Meikle, Jeffrey L. American Plastic: A Cultural History. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

Kitta MacPherson

bald eagle

Considered the greatest U.S. hockey player of his era, Hobey Baker was born in Wissahickon, Pennsylvania. He starred at the rover position for Princeton (–), where he captained the team to two intercollegiate championships. He was also an all-American football player. After graduation, Baker played amateur hockey for the Saint Nicholas Skating Club in New York City and led the team to a Ross Cup victory over Montreal. While serving as a military pilot, Baker died in a crash at Toul, France, during a test flight one month after the end of World War I. In  Princeton dedicated the Hobey Baker Arena for ice hockey, and the Hobey Baker Memorial Award is given annually to the nation’s best college hockey player.

became president. This organization broadened into the United Textile Workers (UTW), an AFL affiliate. Baldanzi was active in the UTW’s merger with the Textile Workers’ Organizing Committee, part of the Congress of Industrial Organizations (CIO). The two organizations formed the Textile Workers’ Union of America (TWUA) of which he became executive vice president in . During World War II, Baldanzi was the chairman of the CIO Italian-American Trade Union Committee. In  a long rivalry with Emil Rieve, president of the TWUA, over administrative issues, led to the ouster of Baldanzi and several colleagues. In  he was elected president of the United Textile Workers of America and served until his death in . Baldanzi was married to Lena Parenti and resided in Hawthorne.

Davies, John. The Legend of Hobey Baker. Boston: Little, Brown, .

Troy, Leo. Organized Labor in New Jersey. Princeton: D. Van Nostrand, .

Baker, Hobart “Hobey’’ Amory Hare (b. Jan. , ; d. Dec. , ). Athlete.

See also labor movement

See also hockey

Angelica M. Santomauro

Glenn R. Modica

Baldanzi, George

bald eagle. (b. Jan. , ; d. Apr.

, ). Labor union leader. At the age of sixteen, Baldanzi began working as a coal miner alongside his father. After moving to Paterson, he became an active textile unionist and organized the Dyers’ Federation, of which he

Haliaeetus leucocephalus, a member of the Accipitridae family, is among New Jersey’s largest birds, with a wingspan between . and  feet. Adults have a brown body and wings, gaining their characteristic white head and tail at five years of age. Juveniles are chocolate brown and at three to four years old

have a mixture of brown and white feathers in the head and tail. Bald eagles are associated with open waters of bays, rivers, and lakes, where they hunt for their primary food of fish; their diet is supplemented by carrion and waterfowl. Eagles build large stick nests atop tall trees. They mate for life, with the same pair returning to the nest each year; however, they are very sensitive to human disturbance, and excessive activity will cause them to abandon a location. The population declined due to the effects of DDT, which caused eagles and other raptors to lay thin-shelled eggs that broke under incubation. The population recovered after restoration efforts; biologists in New Jersey restored the population by releasing young eaglets obtained from Canada in the s. New Jersey breeding eagles are resident year-round and numbered twenty-four pairs in , near the historic, pre-DDT population level. Bald eagles remain on New Jersey’s endangered list but are due to be removed from the federal endangered species list. Beans, Bruce E. Eagle’s Plume: Preserving the Life and Habitat of America’s Bald Eagle. New York: Scribner’s, . Walsh, Joan, Vince Elia, Rich Kane, and Thomas Halliwell. Birds of New Jersey. Bernardsville: New Jersey Audubon Society, .

See also birds

Kathleen E. Clark

40 35

Number of nests and young

30 25 20 15 10 5 0 1982

1984

1986

1988

1990

1992 Nests

1994

1996

51

1998

2000

2002

Young

The bald eagle population in New Jersey declined to just one nest due to contamination by DDT in the s. As a result of recovery efforts that included habitat protection and release of young eagles from Canada, the population has rebounded to a new high of  pairs in . Biologists continue to monitor threats such as habitat destruction and environmental contaminants.

52

Ballantine, Peter

Bamberger’s Department Store.

Ballantine Brewery, Newark, .

Courtesy New Jersey Historical Society, Newark.

Ballantine, Peter

(b. Nov. , ; d. Jan.

, ). Brewer. Born in Ayrshire, Scotland,

Peter Ballantine immigrated to Albany, New York, in  and spent ten years learning the brewery business. He married Julia Wilson in ; they had three sons. Ballantine ran a brewery in Albany for ten years before relocating to Newark. In partnership with Erastus Patterson, he rented a brewery on High Street from Gen. John R. Cumming. In  he opened a large facility, noted for its ale, on the Passaic River. By the s Peter S. Ballantine & Sons was the fourth largest brewery in the country. Baron, Stanley. Brewed in America: A History of Beer and Ale in the United States. Boston: Little, Brown, . One Hundred Years of Brewing. . Reprint. New York: Arno Press, .

See also breweries

Edward L. Lach, Jr.

Ballantine House. Built in  for beer brewer John Holme Ballantine and his wife, Jeannette Boyd Ballantine, the twenty-threeroom Ballantine House is the only restored urban mansion in New Jersey open to the public. Designed by John Edward Harney of New York City and Newburgh, New York, the house combines a Renaissance exterior with an interior featuring rich Renaissance, Colonial Revival, and Aesthetic movement woodwork, wall coverings, and furnishings. Bought by the Newark Museum in , it was restored in  and in , and presently serves as the decorative arts wing for the museum. See also Newark Museum

Ulysses Grant Dietz

Baltimore and Ohio Railroad Company. Chartered in , the Baltimore and Ohio (B & O) was the oldest common carrier in the United States. Originally operated by horsepower, it hosted a race between a steam locomotive and a horse—the locomotive lost. Locomotive technology advanced rapidly, however, with the B & O playing a major role in its development. Operating along the border areas during the Civil War, it moved troops and supplies for the Union and suffered numerous raids by Confederate forces. The B & O operated freight and passenger trains in New Jersey over the main routes of the Reading and Jersey Central between Philadelphia and Jersey City. The B & O also operated the Staten Island Rapid Transit Company, via a link extending from the Jersey Central at Cranford Junction onto the island. With six thousand miles of track, the B & O was one of the nation’s biggest systems. Coal from West Virginia and Pennsylvania was a major source of revenue, along with heavy manufactured goods from industrial cities along its route. Passenger service operated between New York, Baltimore, and Washington and to St. Louis and Chicago. The B & O was one of the first railroads to experiment with diesel locomotives and streamlined trains. It became part of CSX in .

Louis Bamberger, Louis Frank, and Felix Fuld founded Bamberger’s in Newark in . The firm’s creation was part of a late nineteenthcentury merchandising revolution that saw large, multiproduct stores like Bamberger’s, R. H. Macy’s in New York, and Marshall Field in Chicago take their place alongside traditional, smaller, specialty dry-goods shops. These stores did not simply offer more goods, but expanded enormously the range of goods sold in one place, brought in opulent and exotic goods from world markets, displayed their wares in glamorous settings, and introduced innovative marketing techniques to convince the growing middle class, especially housewives, that consuming was pleasurable. The firm helped pioneer “satisfaction-guaranteed’’ purchasing and the use of credit accounts; for employees, it offered the option of buying stock in the company. The company’s initial success led to the creation of the multistoried “Great White Store’’ in . Bamberger’s established WOR radio in  to help sell its goods, and published Charm magazine (–), which blended literary works, fashion reports, and advertisements for the store’s products. In , after Fuld’s death, Louis Bamberger sold the store to R. H. Macy, which eventually built additional stores throughout New Jersey. In , Macy’s discontinued the use of the Bamberger name. After retirement in , Louis Bamberger became a noted philanthropist, providing money for the Newark Museum and the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, among other endeavors.

Harwood, Herbert H., Jr. Royal Blue Line. Sykesville, MD: Greenberg Publishing, . Lewis, Robert G. Handbook of American Railroads. New York: Simmons-Boardman Books, .

See also railroads; transportation

Robert Mohowski

L. Bamberger and Company, Newark, .

Courtesy Pike Archives.

banking

53

O’Connor, John E., and Charles F. Cummings. “Bamberger’s Department Store, Charm Magazine, and the Culture of Consumption in New Jersey, –.’’ New Jersey History  (): –.

Paul Clemens

Bancroft, Margaret

(b. June , ;

d. Jan. , ). Educator. In her public school

teaching in Philadelphia, Bancroft took particular interest in children with academic problems. To determine whether the causes were physical or mental, she consulted a noted surgeon, Dr. W. W. Keen of Jefferson Medical College, and Dr. S. Weir Mitchell, a well-known neurologist. In  Bancroft decided to devote herself full time to these special children, and founded the Haddonfield School for the Mentally Deficient and Peculiarly Backward (later renamed the Bancroft Training School). At a time when families hid disabilities and custodial or institutionalized care was the norm, Bancroft created innovative techniques of individualization and behavior modification. She was a forerunner of current thought in teaching the developmentally disabled. Women’s Project of New Jersey. Past and Promise: Lives of New Jersey Women. Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, .

Shirley M. Montgomery

Bancroft NeuroHealth.

Margaret Bancroft founded the Bancroft Training School in Haddonfield in  as a residential school for children with cognitive learning disabilities. Bancroft was a pioneer in the field and believed that her students should be encouraged to reach their highest potential and live as full a life as possible. Today, Bancroft NeuroHealth’s mission continues to be focused on the quality of life. Programs include early intervention pediatric services, rehabilitation services, in-home and residential and vocational services, a subacute care facility, community living group homes, brain injury and trauma programs, long-term daycare treatment for brain injuries, and autism educational and research programs. In New Jersey, the organization helps brain-injured adults attend college. Bancroft NeuroHealth serves nine hundred children and adults from foreign countries as well as the United States, from newborns to seniors. Historic Lullworth Hall, its original center, is now the administrative hub. The private, nonprofit corporation also has accredited centers in California, Delaware, Louisiana, and Maine. See also Bancroft, Margaret

Gail Greenberg

banking.

The first two banks opened in New Jersey, the Newark Banking and Insurance Company and the Trenton Banking Company, were chartered by the state legislature in .

A $ bank note from the First National Bank of Eatontown, which was chartered in .

Courtesy Paul Severini.

The Trenton Banking Company was organized by Isaac Smith, a member of the Continental Congress, a colonel in the Continental Army, and a state supreme court justice. Since Gov. Joseph Bloomfield was one of the original directors, the bank enjoyed a close relationship with the state government and, indeed, lent money to the state for military purposes during the War of  and the Civil War. The first savings bank incorporated by the legislature, Newark Savings Fund Association, was founded in . The second savings bank, Provident Savings Bank, was founded in  and is the oldest bank still in existence in New Jersey today. In , the legislature passed its first banking law, which established state banks at Camden, Trenton, New Brunswick, Elizabeth, Newark, and Morristown and provided some state regulation and supervision of banks. Due to the growth in the economy and number of industries of the state, and the questionable practices of some banks, the legislature updated the state banking law by passing the General Banking Act of . Since this act was perceived to be vague, amendments were adopted in . These included the creation of a board of bank commissioners consisting of the governor, secretary of state, and attorney general. With the passage of the National Banking Act of , which created a federal banking charter, most state banks in New Jersey converted to national bank status. In  there had been forty-nine state banks. By  there were just five. Trust companies became another popular type of financial institution after legislation was passed in  to allow their formation. A Department of Banking and Insurance with a commissioner at its head was established in  to supervise financial institutions and make an annual report to the state legislature. The banking laws of the state were revised once more by the General Bank Revision Act of March , . The credit union movement that was spreading throughout the country reached New Jersey in  with the passage of an act allowing the creation of state

credit unions. An entirely new state banking code was adopted in . On December , , President Woodrow Wilson signed the Federal Reserve Act into law. In addition to stabilizing the monetary and financial system, this act created a central bank and established twelve federal reserve banks in major cities throughout the country. The federal reserve banks of Philadelphia and New York continue to share responsibility for the state of New Jersey. As the country’s banking system felt the force of the Great Depression, the New Jersey legislature passed the Altman Act in February . This law gave the state’s struggling banks time to reorganize. President Franklin Roosevelt, following the lead of several state governors including New Jersey’s A. Harry Moore, declared a national bank holiday on March , closing all banks in the country until their soundness could be determined. Of thirty-eight state banks closed by banking regulators between June  and June , eleven were later reorganized. At the close of  there were  commercial banks and trust companies in the state with almost $ billion in assets. New Jersey banks prospered, but they never equaled the growth of banks in other states because state law prohibited banks from branching outside the county of their main office. This created a system with many banks but few large ones. As a result, large New Jersey corporations had to go to New York or Philadelphia for financing. In  the state legislature divided the state into three geographic areas to allow banks to expand into neighboring counties. In  the laws were further liberalized so that banks could branch throughout the state. This change, in combination with the  amendments to the federal Bank Holding Act, led to the growth of multibank holding companies. In  ten holding companies owned sixty-two banks, which controlled  percent of the deposits in the state. Consolidation continued, and the number of independent commercial banks decreased from  in  to  in .

54

Baptists

On January , , New Jersey opened its borders to interstate banking by permitting national reciprocity. Thus out-of-state banks could acquire New Jersey banks and vice versa. Many acquisitions followed between banks in New Jersey and the Philadelphia area. In the mid-s out-of-state banks invaded the state, and the banking market rapidly consolidated. New Jersey attracted banks from elsewhere with its high per capita income, its great population density, its favorable interstate banking laws, and the number of sizable banks available for acquisition. Four Pennsylvania banks (PNC Bank Corporation, Mellon Financial Corporation, CoreStates Financial Corporation, and Sovereign Bank), First Union Corporation from North Carolina, and Fleet Financial Group from Boston all acquired banks in New Jersey during this period. In  First Union purchased the state’s largest bank, First Fidelity Bancorporation. That same year UJB (United Jersey Banks) Financial Corporation acquired Summit Bancorporation and created the largest remaining homegrown independent bank holding company, Summit Bancorp of Princeton. Today New Jersey’s highly competitive banking market is dominated by out-of-state banks. Fleet Bank purchased the native Summit Bancorp in  and became the largest bank in the state. Wachovia Bank’s merger with First Union in September  made it second. First Union had acquired First Fidelity in  and CoreStates in . At the end of , there were  commercial banks in New Jersey with assets of nearly $. billion and  savings institutions with assets of almost $ billion. As of June , there were  credit unions with more than $ billion in total assets. French, Bruce H. Banking and Insurance in New Jersey: A History. Princeton: D. Van Nostrand, .

Ann Kessler

Baptists.

The first Baptist churches in East and West Jersey were organized by settlers from New England and the British Isles. Middletown Church, the first Baptist church in New Jersey, originated with a group of settlers from Newport, Rhode Island, who had been meeting since . The Rev. Thomas Killingsworth, who had come from Norwich, England, in , assisted the group to organize as a Baptist church in  with at least eighteen constituent members. In Piscataway in , Killingsworth gathered a group of settlers from New Hampshire, Massachusetts, and Rhode Island as a Baptist congregation (now the Stelton Baptist Church). One of three original Seventh Day Baptist churches in the colonies was organized in , when some members withdrew from the Piscataway Church to constitute themselves as a congregation. Killingsworth himself settled in Salem Town, where he became the first judge of Salem County Courts. He preached widely in

South Jersey and Chester County, and in  gathered with some members of the Pennepack Baptist Church of Philadelphia to organize the Cohansey Baptist Church, which in  merged with a congregation of Welsh Baptists who had settled at Bowentown. In  Killingsworth, who had been granted a license to preach as an Anabaptist Dissenter under the Toleration Act, was tried at the Salem Court of Quarter Sessions for speaking contemptuously of the Church of England. He was accused of calling it a “carnal church,’’ but a jury found him “not guilty.’’ The three original churches (Middletown, Piscataway, and Cohansey) joined with two Pennsylvania churches in  to form the Philadelphia Baptist Association, the first such body established by Baptists in the United States. Throughout the eighteenth century New Jersey Baptist churches belonged to either the Philadelphia Association or the New-York Baptist Association (). The first Baptist association in the state was the New Jersey Baptist Association (, which became West New Jersey), followed by Central New Jersey (), Sussex (, which became North Sussex), East New Jersey (), Trenton (), Camden (), and Morris and Essex (). In  the Baptist churches organized the New Jersey Baptist State Convention for Missionary Purposes to establish new churches and strengthen feeble ones. This body, now the American Baptist Churches of New Jersey, has  member churches, while the Seventh Day Baptists have . The first Baptist church organized in New Jersey by freedmen and freedwomen was the Kaighnsville (now Kaighn Avenue) Baptist Church in Camden (). In the northern part of the state the oldest surviving African American congregation is Bethany Baptist Church in Newark (). In  black Baptists in the state organized the Afro-American Baptist Association of New Jersey, which became the General Baptist State Convention of New Jersey in  and now has seven district associations. Heavy immigration from Europe in the nineteenth century led to the organization of Baptist congregations that could provide services in the immigrants’ native languages. The first such churches in New Jersey were German Baptist, Newark (); Swedish Baptist, Dover (); Holland Baptist, Paterson (); Italian Baptist, Newark (); Finnish Baptist, Jersey City (); Slovak Baptist, Newark (); Polish Baptist, Newark (); Hungarian Baptist, Perth Amboy (); and First Ukrainian-Russian, Newark (). More recent immigrants have also organized Baptist congregations: Iglesia Bautista Central, Elizabeth (Hispanic, ); Haitian Bethel Baptist, Newark (); South Jersey Chinese Christian (); Global Mission Church, Rutherford (Korean, ); First Portuguese Speaking, Elizabeth (); Terrill Road Arabic, North Plainfield (); Vietnamese Gospel,

Jersey City (); Indo-Pak, Bergenfield (Pakistani, ); and Asian Indian Fellowship, East Brunswick (). A strong sense of national and ethnic identity, as well as theological and political differences, has led to the formation of other bodies of Baptist churches. Among those with members in New Jersey are the North American Baptist Conference, founded by German Baptists (, now with  churches in the state) and the Baptist General Conference, formed by Swedish Baptists (, now with  churches). African American churches in New Jersey belong to three national conventions: the National Baptist Convention USA, the parent convention of black Baptists (, now with  churches in the state); the National Baptist Convention of America, which divided from the other body in  (now with  churches); and the Progressive National Baptist Convention (, now with  churches). Theological controversies among American Baptists caused the formation of the General Association of Regular Baptists (, with  churches in New Jersey) and the Conservative Baptist Association of America (,  churches). The Southern Baptist Convention, organized in , began missionary activity in the New York metropolitan area in ; the Metropolitan New York Baptist Association now includes  churches in New Jersey, while another  are affiliated with the South Jersey Baptist Association. Dual alignment causes some churches to be counted more than once, but if independent congregations are also included, there were at least  Baptist churches in New Jersey in . The number of baptized believers in those congregations is estimated to be ,. See also religion

George D. Younger

Baraka,

Amiri

(b. Oct. , ).

(LeRoi

Jones)

Poet and political activist. Amiri Baraka was born Everett LeRoi Jones in Newark. His father was a postal worker and his mother a teacher. Educated in the city’s public school system, he attended and graduated from Howard University and later served in the Air Force. Baraka’s literary career began when he settled in Greenwich Village in the late fifties and became friends with contemporary poets Frank O’Hara, Allen Ginsberg, Charles Olson, and Langston Hughes. He attracted notice with his first poetry pamphlet, “Preface to a Twenty-Volume Suicide Note’’ (), but he became a literary celebrity when his play Dutchman was staged Off-Broadway in . This Obie-winning play about race relations in the United States helped make Baraka one of the “militant’’ voices of the civil rights era. His literary output—novels such as The System of Dante’s Hell (), plays such as The

Barnegat Toilet (), and his cultural study of jazz, Blues People—helped establish him as one of the most creative African American writers of his generation. The death of Malcolm X in February  had a profound effect on Baraka. He changed his name from LeRoi Jones to Imamu Amiri Baraka (shortened to Amiri Baraka in ) and he simultaneously converted to Islam and embraced Black Nationalism. He moved uptown to Harlem and established his Black Arts Repertory Theater School, which inspired the establishment of black theaters throughout the country. After returning to Newark in , he became involved as a community activist and worked to elect Kenneth Gibson as the city’s first black mayor. During this period, he became a controversial figure, given his often anti-white and anti-Semitic public pronouncements and writings. In  Baraka abandoned Black Nationalism and embraced Marxism. In a piece in the New York Times, he rejected “a narrow nationalism that says the white man is the enemy’’ and went as far as declaring it “a form of fascism.’’ Baraka was involved in the “anti-revisionist’’ Maoist movement throughout the seventies, and books of poems such as Hard Facts () and plays such as The Motion of History () reflected his changing worldview. Also during this period, he began teaching in the Africana Studies department at the State University of New York at Stony Brook, where he is currently professor emeritus. Baraka continues to be a varied, complex, and controversial literary figure. Recent years have found him working around the world with rappers, jazz musicians, and his wife, poet Amina Baraka. His fusion of avantgarde poetics, an intense musical sensibility, and a radical Africana worldview have had a profound influence on two generations of black artists and intellectuals, along with the anti-academic poetry community at large. His  appearance in Warren Beatty’s political satire Bullworth, in which he played a community activist, brought the poet national attention. He is regarded as one of the most important figures in African American literary culture. In recognition of this stature, in , Gov. James McGreevey asked Baraka to serve as the state’s poet laureate. The appointment became controversial when Baraka recited a poem at the  Dodge Poetry Festival that implied Israel had prior knowledge of the September , , terrorist attacks on the World Trade Center. Though various state legislators denounced the poem as anti-Semitic and called for Baraka’s resignation from the ceremonial post, others argued against his removal on free speech grounds. Baraka, who defended his information, refused McGreevey’s request to step down. In response, the New Jersey State Legislature abolished the position of poet laureate in July .

Baraka, Imamu Amiri. The Autobiography of LeRoi Jones/Amiri Baraka. Chicago: Lawrence Hill, . Watts, Jerry Gafio. Amiri Baraka: The Politics and Art of a Black Intellectual. New York: New York University Press, . Woodard, Komozi. A Nation within a Nation: Amiri Baraka and Black Power Politics. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, .

Joel Lewis

Barclay, Robert (b. Dec. , ; d. Oct. , ). Quaker leader and politician. In  Robert Barclay, the eldest son of David and Katherine (Gordon) Barclay of Gordonstown, Murrayshire, Scotland, converted to Quakerism, following his father’s example, and over the next decade he established himself as one of the most powerful advocates for the Society of Friends. He married Christian Molleson, by whom he had nine children, in . His religious convictions led him to join a Quaker-dominated group of proprietors that acquired the province of East Jersey from the heirs of Sir George Carteret in . Barclay was chosen as governor by the proprietors in September , an election that became official in  after the duke of York (later James II) granted a patent to the group. Although he never visited the province, Barclay sought with the other proprietors to promote greater Scottish migration. This endeavor was only partially successful, and despite retaining considerable personal popularity among the residents of East Jersey, Barclay died without having realized his vision for the province. Landsmen, Ned C. Scotland and Its First American Colony, –. Princeton: Princeton University Press, . Pomfret, John E. The Province of East New Jersey, –: The Rebellious Proprietary. Princeton: Princeton University Press, . Trueblood, D. Elton. Robert Barclay. New York: Harper and Row, .

See also Quakers

John W. Raimo

Bardeen, John

(b. May , ; d. Jan. ,

). Physicist. Born and raised in Madison,

Wisconsin, Bardeen received a Ph.D. from Princeton University in . He worked at Bell Telephone Laboratories in Murray Hill from  to , where he became the coinventor of the transistor and thus one of the most important creators of the “semiconductor revolution’’ that transformed science and technology. For this achievement he shared the Nobel Prize for physics in . Later, at the University of Illinois, he was the leader of the group that developed the first fundamental theory of superconductivity, resulting in his second Nobel Prize in physics in . Riordan, Michael, and Lillian Hoddeson. Crystal Fire: The Birth of the Information Age. New York: W. W. Norton, .

See also transistor

Peter Lindenfeld

Barkan, Alexander E.

55

(b. Aug. , ;

d. Oct. , ). Labor leader and political orga-

nizer. Alexander Barkan was born in Bayonne to Jacob and Rachel Barkan. A University of Chicago graduate, Barkan began his career in the labor movement as an organizer for the Congress of Industrial Organizations’ (CIO) Textile Workers Organizing Committee (TWOC) and its successor, the Textile Workers’ Union (TWU). Barkan married fellow TWU organizer Helen Stickno in , with whom he raised two children. After World War II military service he returned to serve as political action director for the TWU from  to . With the merger of the American Federation of Labor (AFL) and the CIO in , Barkan joined the national AFL-CIO’s Committee on Political Education (COPE), and rose to its directorship in . COPE directs labor’s electioneering efforts, and under Barkan’s leadership COPE played a major role in delivering a record victory to Lyndon Johnson and the Democratic party in . Later years presented greater difficulties as divisions within the AFL-CIO, declining union membership, and the efforts of rival political action organizations challenged labor’s influence on the Democratic party. Barkan, American labor’s political voice for a generation, retired as COPE director in . Dark, Taylor E. The Unions and the Democrats. Ithaca, NY: ILR Press, . Draper, Alan. A Rope of Sand: The AFL-CIO Committee on Political Education, –. New York: Praeger, .

See also labor movement

Clayton Sinyai

Barnegat.

.-square-mile township in Ocean County. The Dutch referred to the area as Barendegat, meaning “an inlet with breakers’’; they established the first European settlement in . Barnegat Village thrived on the basis of its proximity to Barnegat Bay and rich natural resources, including bog iron, fish and shellfish, and lumber. When Union Township was formed from parts of Dover and Stafford townships in old Monmouth County in , Barnegat was one of the two principal villages in the new township. The village continued to grow as a port community and resort destination throughout the nineteenth century. Major industries included maritime commerce, shipbuilding, and glassmaking. Parts of Union Township were annexed to form Lacey Township in , and Ocean Township was formed from parts of northeastern Union Township in . Union Township’s piece of Long Beach Island also broke away, part becoming Harvey Cedars in  and the rest Long Beach Township in . By the dawn of the twentieth century, railroads and other factors reduced Barnegat Village’s importance as a port, and its attraction to tourists waned. The village returned to

56

Barnegat Bay

its earlier economic roots. Today, many residents continue to look to fishing and marine trades for their livelihoods. In  rapidly growing Union Township became Barnegat Township. In  the population of , was  percent white. The median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Hughes, Kevin. Barnegat: Life by the Bay. Dover, NH: Arcadia, . Miller, Pauline. Ocean County in Four Centuries. Toms River: Ocean County Cultural and Heritage Commission, . New Jersey Historic Sites Inventory—Ocean County: Union Township/Barnegat Township. Toms River: Ocean County Cultural and Heritage Commission, . Out of the Past: A Pictorial History of Barnegat, New Jersey. Barnegat: Barnegat Historical Society, .

Scott D. Peters

Barnegat Bay.

The largest body of water wholly within the limits of the state of New Jersey, Barnegat Bay runs from Point Pleasant southward along the entire inner side of the Squan Peninsula and halfway down Long Beach Island to the Bay Bridge between Manahawkin and Ship Bottom, where it meets the tidal currents of Little Egg Harbor. It is twenty-seven miles long, and from one to four miles wide. The bay is fed by the Metedeconk River, Kettle Creek, Cedar Creek, Oyster Creek, Forked River, Toms River, and Gunning River. In earlier years when its only connection to the ocean was at Barnegat Inlet, its upper end was very nearly fresh water. In , however, the newly completed two-mile Point Pleasant Canal joined the bay with the Manasquan River estuary, and its currents and salinity have greatly increased since then. Barnegat Bay is a part of the Intracoastal Waterway, and is one of the most popular areas in the state for recreational boating, fishing, and crabbing. There are several sizable wildlife sanctuaries on Barnegat Bay, but much of the former open marshland along both sides is now extensively developed, with vacation and year-round homes on artificial lagoons.

the inlet’s entrance were so dangerous to shipping in foul weather that a lighthouse was built there in . It was replaced in  by the present -foot tower, which has not been lit since the s but remains in a state park as the island’s most enduring symbol. In  a vacation community called Barnegat City was established at the base of the lighthouse with two large hotels and a score of fine cottages, many of which survive in the town’s historic district. Around  many Norwegian and Swedish immigrants began to settle in the area, and they soon built up a thriving fishing industry. Barnegat City was so often confused with the village of Barnegat on the mainland that its citizens voted in  to change its name to Barnegat Light. The  population of  was  percent white. The median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, .

John Bailey Lloyd

Barnegat Lighthouse. Barnegat Lighthouse is located on the northern tip of Long Beach Island in the town of Barnegat Light. Construction of the present lighthouse began in ; it was completed in . Equipped with a first-order flashing Fresnel lens, it flashed once every ten seconds at each point of the compass. The lens was removed in  when the Barnegat Lightship took up station off Barnegat Inlet. The lens was returned to the town of Barnegat Light and is on exhibit in the Barnegat Light Historical Museum. The lighthouse is owned by the state of New Jersey and is now part of Barnegat Lighthouse State Park.

Blanchard, Peter B. The Century Plan: A Study of One Hundred Conservation Sites in the Barnegat Bay Watershed. New York and Morristown: Trust for Public Land; New Jersey Field Office, . Lloyd, John Bailey. Eighteen Miles of History on Long Beach Island. Harvey Cedars: Down the Shore Publishing; SandPaper, . ——— . Six Miles at Sea: A Pictorial History of Long Beach Island, New Jersey. Harvey Cedars: Down the Shore Publishing; SandPaper, .

John Bailey Lloyd

Barnegat Light.

.-square-mile borough on Barnegat Inlet at the north end of Long Beach Island in Ocean County. The name Barnegat is derived from an English cartographer’s misspelling of the Dutch Barendegat, “inlet with breakers,’’ given to the dangerous inlet by its discoverers in . The shoals at

Barnegat Lighthouse, built c. .

Courtesy Ocean County Cultural and Heritage Commission, Toms River.

Gately, Bill. Sentinels of the Shore: A Guide to the Lighthouses and Lightships of New Jersey. Harvey Cedars: Down the Shore Publishing, . Holland, Francis Ross. America’s Lighthouses: Their Illustrated History since . Brattleboro, VT: Stephen Green Press, . Veasey, David. Guarding New Jersey’s Shore. Charleston, SC: Arcadia Publishing, .

See also lighthouses

Kim M. Ruth

barns. Described as more important in “situation, size, convenience, and good finishing’’ to a farmer than “his dwelling,’’ barns were vitally important to New Jersey settlers from the time the Dutch first began arriving in the area. In the agricultural period that followed there were three eras with much overlap, during which time barn types changed. The first was an early economy that included bartering and trading goods and selling surpluses in the market. The second era saw diversified commercial family farming, with the sale of farm products, including livestock, to urban areas. The final stage was truck farming, which saw the raising of mostly fruits and vegetables. Throughout the earliest period the main barn types were the vernacular Dutch New World barn, the English-type barn, and the two-story Pennsylvania barn. Dutch and English barns were made of local indigenous hardwood, Pennsylvania barns of stone and brick. Dutch barns were used to store a variety of grain crops in the large hayloft. The barn itself tended to be wider than long, with a threshing floor in the middle and a bay on either side. The bays were usually at ground level where hay would be placed to house the animals. Wagon doors were situated at both gable ends of the barn, with Dutch doors on either side allowing people access to the animals. Steep and sloping, the roofs allowed rain and snow to fall off easily. The barns faced south to avoid harsh weather. The Dutch barns were located wherever Dutch culture agriculture established itself, which was primarily along the Hackensack, Millstone, Raritan, Passaic, and Hudson rivers and their tributaries. The English barn was found throughout the Jerseys. The basic English barn had three bays—two side bays, one to house livestock, the other to store grain, and a threshing floor, with the wagon doors on the long sides of the barn. The dimensions of most English barns were sixty feet in length by thirty feet in width. The center portion was used for threshing. One of the keys to the English barn in North America was the swing beam that allowed for a large storage area for fodder in the loft. The Pennsylvania barn was built in New Jersey’s southern Piedmont throughout the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. It was a two-floor banked barn that allowed wagons access to both levels. Animals were kept on the first level. The second level contained the threshing floor and storage space for grain. It also had a floor bay extending over the

Barton, Clara

Old Dutch-type barn, Blackwells Mills, .

Courtesy Special Collections and University Archives, Rutgers University Libraries, New Brunswick.

animal yard. Some Pennsylvania-style barns in the nineteenth century eliminated the floor bay and did not build into land banks, instead constructing an earthen ramp to the second floor. Around the time of the Civil War, English and Dutch barns started to hybridize and blend as newer barn technology, mass production techniques, specialized farming, and a changeover to truck and dairy farming led to the universal, modern barn with which we are familiar today. By the end of the nineteenth century barns became uniform in style, with metal sides, gable roofs, and occasionally silos; the form has continued to the present. Andersby, Eric, Alexander Greenwood, and David Franklin. Barn: The Art of a Working Building. New York: Houghton Mifflin, . Fitchens, John. The New World Dutch Barn. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, . Noble, Allen G., and Richard K. Cleek. The Old Barn Book: A Field Guide to North American Barns and Other Farm Structures. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

Robert Cohen

barrier islands. The barrier islands protecting most of New Jersey’s -mile coastline are land masses risen from sandbars and shaped over several thousand years by the action of wind, storm surges, and currents. In the natural state their seaward sides are a wall of dunes stabilized by the root systems of grasses and other vegetation. Between every barrier island and the mainland lie bays and lagoons of varying sizes edged with salt marshes and mudflats. Tides and ocean currents form evershifting new sandbars offshore and in the inlets, occasionally causing a barrier island to join the mainland and become a peninsula, like Sandy Hook or Island Beach. Lloyd, John Bailey. Eighteen Miles of History on Long Beach Island. Harvey Cedars: Down the Shore Publishing; SandPaper, .

———. Six Miles at Sea: A Pictorial History on Long Beach Island. Harvey Cedars: Down the Shore Publishing; SandPaper, . Stansfield, Charles A., Jr. A Geography of New Jersey: The City in the Garden. d ed. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

See also coast; geography

John Bailey Lloyd

Barrington.

.-square-mile borough in Camden County. Incorporated out of Centre Township on April , , Barrington is one of a number of towns of single-family homes that developed along White Horse Pike after the parallel Philadelphia and Atlantic City railways became operational in . The original station name was Dentdale. One of the developers named the new community Barrington after his hometown of Great Barrington, Massachusetts. The population more than doubled after World War II, when homes were built on the remaining farms. The Edmund Scientific Company, an internationally known supplier of optical instruments, is located here. The Barrington Band, organized in , first participated in the Philadelphia Mummers Parade in  and is still going strong. For a few years in the s Barrington had its own airport, where some returning servicemen learned to fly, supported by the GI Bill. According to the  census, the population of , was  percent white. In  the median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, .

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as a schoolteacher. In , to further her education, she enrolled in the Liberal Institute in Clinton, New York, and a year later, visiting a school friend in Hightstown, she resumed her teaching career in New Jersey. In  she moved to a school in Bordentown. Because she disliked a system in which she had to bill students at the end of each term for her salary, she began a campaign to establish a free public school supported by the town. A popular teacher, Barton’s project enjoyed townwide support, and the school board built a larger school to accommodate the growing numbers of enthusiastic students eager for free education. Barton was disappointed, however, when the town insisted on hiring a male principal and then paid him a salary much higher than her own. She was also not pleased to be called his “female assistant.’’ In  she found better-paid employment as a government clerk in Washington, D.C., but faced harassment from male colleagues. These early experiences of discrimination led Barton, a friend of Susan B. Anthony, to support the woman suffrage movement and other feminist causes. Her efforts to aid a contingent of Massachusetts soldiers quartered in the capital on the eve of the Civil War led to a personal drive to collect food and medicine for the Union Army. By  she was running supply lines to the Army of the Potomac throughout the battlefields of Virginia and Maryland. Transporting supplies and nursing the wounded, Barton often worked under fire and assisted at such bloody battles as Antietam and Fredericksburg. From  to , she gave public lectures about her experiences and became a popular speaker. On a trip to Europe for her health, she learned about the International Committee of the Red Cross, a relief organization that carried out the new Geneva Convention’s mandate

History of Barrington. Barrington: Barrington Historical Society, .

William R. Farr

Barton, Clara

(b. Dec. , ; d. Apr.

, ). Teacher, nurse, philanthropist, and

founder of American Red Cross. Clarissa Harlowe Barton was born in North Oxford, Massachusetts, the youngest child of a farming family. At age eighteen, she began a career

Matthew Brady, Clara Barton, c. . Albumen print,  / ×  / in.

Courtesy American National Red Cross and the National Archives and Records Administration.

basalt

58

for the humane treatment of wounded soldiers and prisoners. Impressed with Red Cross efforts during the Franco-Prussian War, Barton returned to America and, almost singlehandedly, convinced Congress to ratify the Geneva Convention. By  she had established an American Association of the Red Cross in Washington, D.C. As president of the Red Cross throughout the s and s, Barton personally directed relief efforts in both international and national arenas, introducing the practice of assisting natural disaster victims as well as those of war. During the Spanish-American War, the Red Cross was criticized for disorganization and financial mismanagement and Barton’s leadership was questioned. Under pressure from President Theodore Roosevelt and her own board of directors, she reluctantly resigned in . Bitterly estranged from the Red Cross, Barton spent her later years living in Glen Echo, Maryland, where she continued philanthropic work and wrote her memoirs. ANB. Barton, Clara. The Story of My Childhood. Meriden, CT: Journal Publishing Company, . Oates, Stephen. A Woman of Valor: Clara Barton and the Civil War. New York: Free Press, . Pryor, Elizabeth Brown. Clara Barton: Professional Angel. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, . Women’s Project of New Jersey. Past and Promise: Lives of New Jersey Women. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, .

See also nursing

Margaret M. Sumner

basalt.

Basalt is a very common volcanic rock composed largely of plagioclase feldspar and pyroxene. Three layers of basalt exposed as parallel ridges across northern New Jersey (the Watchung Mountains) are known as the Orange Mountain, Preakness, and Hook Mountain Formations in order of their relative age. Each of the three formations consists of multiple flows that extruded out of rifts that opened during the initial Jurassic stages of the opening of the Atlantic Ocean. The flows are part of a major continental flood basalt event that covered large portions of eastern North America and northwest Africa about  million years ago before they were separated. The individual flows in New Jersey are unusually thick (up to  feet). See also minerals

John H. Puffer

baseball. Baseball as it is played today throughout the world began on June , , at the Elysian Fields in Hoboken. That day, Alexander Cartwright’s Knickerbockers and the New York Nine crossed the Hudson River to play the first game under new rules devised by Cartwright. Persistent tales that Abner Doubleday “invented’’ the game at Cooperstown, New York, are patently false. Several forms of organized baseball had been played since colonial times: a  book

The Knickerbocker Nine Baseball Club, .

Courtesy National Baseball Hall of Fame Library, Cooperstown, NY.

published in London had a segment devoted to “Baseball.’’ Several varieties of the game were being played in the early s. The June  game in Hoboken clarified the game and codified the rules. Most of those  rules persist, such as the diamond-shaped field, the ninety-foot distance between the bases, nine-man teams with each player assigned to a definite spot on the field, formal lineups, innings of three outs each, outs made by throwing out or touching out offensive players, and the pitcher’s box placed within the diamond. The pitcher was only forty-five feet from the batter, however; that distance was increased to the present sixty feet, six inches, in . In an era when nearly all men worked as many as twelve hours a day, the Knickerbockers played every Tuesday and Thursday afternoon. They believed themselves socially superior and felt only “aristocrats’’ would ever play the game. Despite this attitude, the Knickerbockers sent out a complete description of their game rules to anyone who inquired. By Civil War time, more than  teams played baseball in New Jersey as seniors, juniors, or “muffets’’ (the forerunner of Little Leagues). By  many teams began paying players to perform before crowds of up to five thousand. Three members of the renowned Cincinnati Red Stockings, who barnstormed across the country in  (winning fifty-nine straight games), were from New Jersey. Each received eight hundred dollars for the season. The College of New Jersey (later Princeton University) emerged as New Jersey’s strongest team after three Brooklyn players enrolled in , bringing their own bats and balls to the campus. In a show of strength, the Princeton college nine defeated three strong Brooklyn teams in a four-game swing through the area that was then the heart of baseball. No other team had ever accomplished that feat. The two finest early New Jersey professionals were Mike “King’’ Kelly of Paterson and

Billy “Sliding Billy’’ Hamilton of Newark. Kelly’s prowess made him the first player to earn five thousand dollars in a season. His basestealing style prompted a song in his honor, “Slide, Kelly, Slide.’’ Hamilton, also flashy on the bases, stole  bases in his career (a mark that stood until ) and had a lifetime batting average of ., eighth highest in major league history. Two of the first African American players in high-level professional baseball were George Stovey, pitcher, and Fleetwood “Fleet’’ Walker, catcher. Both played in the s with the Newark team in the old International League. Stovey won thirty games in  and thirty-two games a year later. Walker went on to play for Toledo, a major professional team. Nearly every community in New Jersey had a team by . Most games were played on Saturday afternoons because of the long work week of most people. Companies in urban areas hired the best players to represent the firms on the field. Particularly strong were the Newark Westinghouse nine, the Doherty Silk Sox of Paterson, and the Michelin Tire Company team in Millville. New Jersey had only one major league baseball team, the Newark Peps of the shortlived Federal League. The Peps actually played in Harrison under the Newark name. Their wooden stadium, seating thirty thousand people, was built in seventeen days in . The Federal League existed for only one year, and when it died in , the Peps died as well. New Jersey baseball historians believe the finest teams ever to play in New Jersey were the Newark Bears of the s. In  Jacob Ruppert, a New York beer baron and owner of the New York Yankees, bought the team and began sending fine prospects to Newark. The  team won  games and lost only . Most of the players went on to major league stardom. The  team initially showed little promise, but it caught fire and won  games,

Basie, William “Count’’ losing only  in the regular season. Twentyeight of the thirty-three players on the roster became major leaguers. College baseball began with the College of New Jersey team in the early s, and, before the end of the nineteenth century, nearly every college or university had a team. High school baseball in New Jersey began in the late s but did not become popular until about , when the state had approximately a hundred secondary schools. Nearly every high school had a fully equipped team by . The high point for New Jersey baseball came in the s, during a time of stifling economic depression and well before Little Leagues began. Sandlot teams, self-organized and self-governed, played everywhere—often as many as a hundred games in a season for an exceptional team. Most towns were members of adult “twilight’’ leagues, with games being played between six p.m. and the onset of darkness. Working men with high skills played in highly competitive weekend semipro leagues. During World War II several young New Jersey women ventured to the Chicago area to play in the All-American Girls Professional Baseball League. The game was, in reality, fastpitch softball, but intense competition for jobs promoted hard play, which made the games exciting and often inflicted severe injuries. Title IX of the Education Amendments of  opened the way for full female participation in fast-paced softball. Trenton State College (now The College of New Jersey) was arguably the nation’s finest college fast-pitch softball team during the s and s. The same can be said at the high-school level for Whippany Park, whose softball teams had a seventy-six-game winning streak from  to . Its star, Toni Forunato, pitched  innings in three years, struck out  batters, pitched no-hitters, and won eighty games while losing only one. For most players today, baseball consists of Little League—now open to both girls and boys—possibly high school or college play, and rarely a big league tryout. Baseball is no longer the great American game, at least in comparison with the s, when it was a way of life. But the recent revival of minor league baseball in the new stadiums around the state demonstrates that interest in the game remains very much alive. DiClerico, James, and Barry Pavelec. The Jersey Game. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

See also sports

Camden Riversharks, Atlantic League, Campbell’s Field, Camden Lakewood Blue Claws, South Atlantic League, Class-A affiliate of Philadelphia Phillies, First Energy Park, Lakewood Newark Bears, Atlantic League, Bears and Eagles Stadium, Newark New Jersey Cardinals, New York–Penn League, Class-A affiliate of St. Louis Cardinals, Skylands Park, Frankfort Township New Jersey Jackals, Northern League, Yogi Berra Stadium, Little Falls Somerset Patriots, Atlantic League, Commerce Bank Ballpark, Bridgewater Trenton Thunder, Eastern League, Class-AA affiliate of New York Yankees, Mercer County Waterfront Park, Trenton

John T. Cunningham

BASF.

In , Frederick Englehorn of Mannheim, Germany, founded a company to manufacture dyes from coal tar; his company specialized in indigo. Reestablished in  as Badische Anilin und Soda Fabrik, AG, BASF became one of the three largest German chemical companies. Later, as part of a cartel under ´riel I. G. Farben, BASF manufactured war mate for the German Reich during World War II, which resulted in the destruction of  percent of its buildings by the Allies. Restructured following the war, BASF became the world’s fourth-largest chemical company. BASF’s products include mineral oil, natural gas, plastics, intermediaries for synthetic fibers, nitrogen compounds, and dyes. Although BASF’s plan to launch operations in the United States was thwarted initially by protests in the s, BASF started numerous joint ventures with U.S. companies during the s. Then in , the International Trade Zone in Mount Olive became the headquarters of North American operations for BASF AG, with over , employees. BASF also manufactures agricultural products in West Windsor; polystyrene packaging in South Brunswick; auto paints and coatings in Belvidere; plastics in Washington, Warren County; and pharmaceuticals in Whippany. The company’s community efforts include donating land in Winslow Township to the New ¨ bbe Jersey Natural Lands Trust. Klaus Peter Lo now heads BASF Corporation, which is BASF AG’s NAFTA region representative. See also chemical industry

Deborah S. Greenhut John T. Cunningham

Basie, William “Count’’ Minor League Baseball Teams in New Jersey In  New Jersey had eight professional minor league baseball teams, more than at any earlier time. Several are affiliated with major league teams. Atlantic City Surf, Atlantic League, Sandcastle Park, Atlantic City

59

(b. Aug. ,

; d. Apr. , ). Jazz musician, composer,

and bandleader. Count Basie was one of the greatest bandleaders of the swing era, along with Duke Ellington and Benny Goodman. He developed a new approach to jazz piano. Basie and company revolutionized swing rhythm and the concept of the jazz rhythm section, laid the groundwork for the bebop and

Count Basie playing with his orchestra.

Courtesy Institute of Jazz Studies, Rutgers University, Newark.

cool schools of jazz, and established an enduring big band legacy. William Basie was born in Red Bank to Harvey Lee Basie and Lilly Ann Childs Basie, both originally from Chase City, Virginia. Harvey was a groundskeeper on several local estates and played the horn; Lilly did laundry and ironing for local gentry and played the piano well enough to accompany church services. As a youth Bill Basie studied piano, first with his mother, and later with Miss Vandervere, a German woman. He had a good ear, could easily pick out tunes, and set about to master ragtime. He did odd jobs at the Palace Theater in Red Bank, and once, when the regular piano accompanist for the silent films was sick, young Basie substituted for him and did well enough at the matinee to be invited back for the evening program. He later made his debut as a pianist/bandleader at the same theater as part of a vaudeville show. Basie’s first quartet included New Jerseyans Bill Robinson on violin, Sonny Greer on drums, and a Mr. Duffin on C-melody saxophone. In the summer of , Basie and Elmer Williams went to Asbury Park, where they intended to work as musicians in the resort town, but they found only sporadic employment. The next summer, they joined Harry Richardson’s Sunny Kings of Syncopation, house band at the Hong Kong Inn in Asbury Park, but Basie lost his job in midsummer to a more experienced pianist. In the fall of , the two moved to Harlem where they joined a vaudeville act, Katie Krippen and Her Kiddies, led by Lou Henry, and toured for more than a year. From  to , Basie assimilated the Harlem stride piano styles of James P. Johnson (b. New Brunswick), Willie “the Lion’’ Smith, Luckey Roberts, and Beetle Henderson, but it was Thomas “Fats’’ Waller who befriended and mentored him. He toured with another

60

Basilone, John

vaudeville show and was stranded in Kansas City (). There he accompanied silent movies, then played with Walter Page’s Blue Devils (), and eventually joined Benny Moten’s Kansas City Orchestra (), the best of the “territorial bands.’’ After Moten died in , Basie organized the nine-piece “Barons of Rhythm’’ with Lester Young and Jo Jones. A lengthy engagement followed at the Reno Club. A  radio broadcast attracted the attention of John Hammond, leading to a recording contract with Decca. The band expanded to fifteen pieces, traveled to New York City via Chicago, and established itself as the Count Basie Orchestra. By  it was one of the preeminent big bands. Recordings such as “Doggin’ Around’’ and “Jumpin’ at the Woodside’’ () and “Taxi War Dance’’ and “Lester Leaps In’’() are considered jazz masterpieces. Southwestern jazz was hot, hard driving, and danceable, built around the rhythm section, and Basie’s was the best in jazz, featuring Basie on piano, Walter Page on bass, Freddie Green on guitar, and Jo Jones on drums. The swing was driving yet relaxed and light. The original Basie Band used “head arrangements’’ and “riffs’’ and featured great soloists, including the incomparable Lester Young. Blues was its mainstay, and the great blues singers Jimmy Rushing and Joe Williams sang and recorded with Basie, as did Billie Holiday. Basie simplified and abstracted swing. The band’s style was a KC streamlining of Fletcher Henderson’s approach. Basie’s rhythm section clarified the roles of the instruments. The piano no longer doubled the bass; its crisp, sparse punctuation left space for Page’s bass, which “walked’’ in four even beats per measure, legato, leading the rhythm section. Green’s guitar chorded in swinging quarter notes that glided horizontally, instead of pounding vertically: “They put wheels on all four beats of the bar.’’ The focus of Jones’s drumming was the light hi-hat—a supple coordination of foot and stick, not the heavy bass drum on every beat. Recordings made between  and  are considered the most genuine. After leading a combo in –, Basie returned as a big band leader in  with great success. Tours of Europe, beginning in , numerous awards, and top standings in popularity polls followed. The post- band depended less on soloists and more on writers able to capture the Basie legacy in swinging charts. Basie led the band when his health permitted until the early s, although after his  heart attack, he was not always able to perform. He died of cancer at age seventynine. Thad Jones and Frank Foster led the band following his death.

Kliment, Bud. Count Basie: Bandleader and Composer. New York: Chelsea House, .

Basie, William, and Albert Murray. Good Morning Blues: The Autobiography of Count Basie. New York: DaCapo Press, .

Sgt. John Basilone, USMC, on the cover of Collier’s magazine, June , .

Dance, Stanley. The World of Count Basie. New York: DaCapo Press, .

Williams, Martin. The Jazz Tradition. d ed. New York: Oxford University Press, .

See also jazz

Roger H. Wesby

Basilone, John

(b. Nov. , ; d. Feb.

, ). Soldier and Medal of Honor recipi-

ent. John Basilone was born in Buffalo, New York, but grew up in Raritan, New Jersey. He was one of ten children born to Salvatore and Dora Basilone. His father, a tailor, was born near Naples, Italy, and his mother was born in Raritan. In  John Basilone enlisted in the U.S. Marines and served in the Philippines until he was honorably discharged in . After spending some time in Raritan, he reenlisted in July . Because of his time in the Philippines, his friends in the service called him “Manila John.’’ On the night of October –, , Basilone was a gunnery sergeant serving on Guadalcanal in the First Battalion, Seventh Marine Regiment, First Marine Division. He was in charge of two heavy machine-gun sections that protected a small pass leading to Henderson Airfield. During a Japanese attack that knocked out one machine gun section, Basilone picked up a ninety-pound machine gun and tripod and ran two hundred yards to replace the lost gun. He then repaired and manned another machine gun, under tremendous fire, until reinforcements arrived. Later that night, his men were cut off from their supply lines and ran low on ammunition. Basilone fought his way through enemy lines to bring back enough ammunition to sustain his men until the attack was repelled. The next day thirty-eight dead Japanese soldiers were found around his gun emplacement.

For his actions at Guadalcanal, Basilone was awarded the Medal of Honor in a ceremony held in Balcombe, Australia, on May , . He was sent to the United States to head a bond drive, which raised $. million. In  thirty thousand people attended a rally held in his honor at the Doris Duke estate near Raritan. Despite the praise and publicity he received for his heroism, he refused promotion to officer rank and stateside postings, insisting, “I’m a plain soldier. I want to stay one.’’ After the bond tour, he said he was beginning to feel like a “museum piece’’ and wanted to return to the fighting in the Pacific. Before his return to combat late in , he married Marine Sgt. Lena Riggi. On February , , Basilone landed with the marine forces on the first day of the Battle of Iwo Jima. He single-handedly destroyed a Japanese blockhouse. A few minutes later, a mortar shell exploded and killed him and four other marines. Basilone was posthumously awarded the Navy Cross and the Purple Heart. He was the only enlisted marine to receive the Medal of Honor, the Navy Cross, and the Purple Heart in World War II. His body was reburied in Arlington National Cemetery. The USS Basilone, a U.S. Navy destroyer launched in , was named after him. His hometown of Raritan remembers him with a bronze statue, which shows him carrying his machine gun on Guadalcanal, and annually holds a John Basilone Day Parade. Lang, George, Raymond L. Collins, and Gerard F. White, comps. Medal of Honor Recipients – .  vols. New York: Facts on File, . Smith, S. E., comp. The United States Marine Corps in World War II. New York: Random House, . Wheeler, Richard. A Special Valor: The U. S. Marines and the Pacific War. New York: Harper and Row, .

See also World War II

David A. Norris

basketball.

Courtesy Special Collections and University Archives, Rutgers University Libraries, New Brunswick.

From pickup games in city playgrounds and suburban driveways to formal play in elementary-school-throughcollege gymnasiums to big bucks in the big time, basketball is as much a part of New Jersey as the Shore. Although the first professional basketball game was played in Trenton in , the state had a shaky beginning at the pro level. The New Jersey Nets, who started out as the New Jersey Americans in the nowdefunct American Basketball Association, lasted one year (–) in the state before heading to New York, where they were renamed the Nets. They returned to New Jersey in –, however, and have been in the state ever since. They made their first appearance in the National Basketball Association championships in , advancing to the finals before losing to the Los Angeles Lakers. Prominent individuals have made their mark on New Jersey basketball. The state’s best-known hoopster may be former United States Senator Bill Bradley, who played for

Batsto Princeton University and then the New York Knicks. Bradley is now in the Sports Hall of Fame of New Jersey. The state’s association with the pros does not end there. NBA Commissioner David Stern is a  graduate of Rutgers University. College basketball is governed by the National Collegiate Athletic Association, which holds tournaments for men and women in March of every year. The Rutgers University men’s team advanced to the NCAA Final Four in the – season, and the women’s team advanced to the NCAA Final Four in March of . Rutgers made history in  when Theresa Grentz was named the first fulltime women’s basketball coach in the country. Seton Hall University in South Orange has been a perennial men’s powerhouse in the NCAA tournament, particularly while P. J. Carlesimo was its coach. Seton Hall has made seven trips to the tournament. In  the team advanced to the championship game, where it lost to the University of Michigan in overtime. Carlesimo went on to become head coach of the Golden State Warriors and the Portland Trail Blazers. He is not Seton Hall’s winningest coach, though. John “Honey’’ Russell won  games in eighteen years (– and –). In  he guided Seton Hall to the championship at the National Invitational Tournament. At the high school level, the New Jersey State Interscholastic Athletic Association sets the tone. Since  Saint Anthony’s in Jersey City has left its mark, winning twenty-two titles. In , with twenty-one state championships, Saint Anthony’s was second in the nation, trailing a Wyoming school that had won twenty-four. Saint Anthony’s enjoyed its best years under the tutelage of Bob Hurley, who is also in the Sports Hall of Fame of New Jersey. His son, Bobby Hurley, played for Duke University, then went on to the pros (–), spending most of his career with the Sacramento Kings. The NJSIAA added the girls’ tournament in , and the perennial favorite there has been Saint John Vianney, Holmdel, which has achieved eight championships. See also sports

Dona M. Amici

Basking Ridge.

A village of Bernards township in the northwest corner of Somerset County. The first settlers were Scots-Irish and arrived about . The earliest use of the name Basking Ridge—originally written Baskinridge—was in  in the records of the only Presbyterian church at the time. According to legend, the name originated with the early settlers who noticed “the wild animals of the adjacent lowlands were accustomed to bask in the warm sun of this beautiful ridge.’’ William Alexander, Lord Stirling, who served a general in the Continental Army, built a palatial home in Basking Ridge in . There was much activity in and near the village during the American Revolution, and Maj.

Gen. Charles Lee was arrested by the British there in December . The Basking Ridge Classical School educated young men as part of the Brick Academy who then entered the College of New Jersey, as Princeton University was then known. Brick Academy graduates included U.S. senators Theodore Frelinghuysen and William L. Dayton, and Samuel L. Southard, who served as governor of New Jersey in  and . The school contributed many “more men to the bench, the bar, and the pulpit.’’ During the Civil War, uniforms and mess wagon axles were made in Basking Ridge. Development occurred with the arrival of the railroad in ; a century later, Routes  and  fostered a population increase. Today Basking Ridge is primarily a residential community. The Brick Academy. Basking Ridge: Basking Ridge Historical Society, . Historical Booklet of Bernards Township. Basking Ridge: Bicentennial reprint, Historical Booklet Committee, . Inside Bernards Township. Basking Ridge: League of Women Voters of Bernards Area, .

June O. Kennedy

Basse, Jeremiah

(b. date unknown;

west of the town. Major waterways within the township include the Bass, Wading, and Oswego rivers. The township was founded in  from a division of Little Egg Harbor Township and an acquisition of land from neighboring Washington Township. The township’s principal community is the bayside hamlet of New Gretna along Route  and the Garden State Parkway. New Gretna’s halcyon days date back to the s, when it was a prime port for fishing, oystering, and clam harvesting. Today, New Gretna is primarily known for the construction of boats, especially the luxury craft built by the Viking Yacht Company. The New Gretna House, an inn dating back to , is still standing and awaits restoration. Most of the township’s remaining area consists of the Bass River State Forest. Cranberry and blueberry growing are the other main industries in the township. In , the population of , was  percent white. The median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Woodward, E. M. History of Burlington County, New Jersey, with Biographical Sketches of Its Many Pioneers and Prominent Men. . Reprint. Burlington: Burlington County Historical Society, .

d. ).

Colonial governor. Jeremiah Basse served as proprietary governor of East and West Jersey from April  to November . Although many are critical of his short administration, he was instrumental in solving a major problem that had plagued the colony since its inception—interference from New York with the right of the Jerseys to free ports. Trade was the key to wealth, and so after an impassioned plea to the East Jersey Assembly, Basse brought a test case with his ship the Hester. The New York royal governor, Lord Bellomont, seized the Hester and its cargo, whereupon Basse charged him with theft. Bellomont was prosecuted in a criminal court in London. The court found for Basse in , and in April , with the surrender of the proprietary charters, Queen Anne granted free ports to the colony. Ricord, Frederick W., and William Nelson, eds. Documents Relating to the Colonial History of the State of New Jersey. Vol. , Journal of the Governor and Council, , –. Trenton: J. L. Murphy, . Stellhorn, Paul A., and Michael J. Birkner, eds. The Governors of New Jersey, –: Biographical Essays. Trenton: New Jersey Historical Commission, .

Claribel F. Young

Bass River. .-square-mile township in Burlington County. First settled in the seventeenth century by English immigrants, Bass River is deep within the Pine Barrens, which cover the majority of its acreage. Its primary boundaries are the Great Bay on the east, along with the Mullica River on the south; the latter forms the border between Atlantic and Burlington counties. Woodland and Washington Township lie to the north and

61

Jim Donnelly

bats. Nine species of bats can be found in New Jersey, six of them as year-round residents. The most common are the big brown and little brown bats; others include the northern long-eared bat, small-footed myotis, Eastern pipistrelle, and the endangered Indiana bat. The hoary, red, and silver-haired bats migrate south in winter. Bats in New Jersey feed exclusively on insects and roost in the darkness of structures such as attics, barns, and bridges. During winter, colonies of bats hibernate by the thousands in caves and abandoned mines. The Hibernia mine in Rockaway is considered one of the most vital bat habitats in the eastern United States; as many as thirty thousand bats have been counted there. Jon Blackwell

Batsto.

Batsto Village, located in Wharton State Forest, is the site of a former bog-iron and glassmaking industrial center. Founded in , Batsto’s ironworks provided munitions and other iron products for George Washington’s Continental Army. William Richards and his descendants owned and operated Batsto from  to . During this time, Batsto was noted for its pig iron, castiron water pipe, firebacks, and window glass. In  Joseph Wharton, a Philadelphia industrialist, purchased Batsto and invested heavily in the village’s agricultural and commercial aspects, cultivating cranberries, raising livestock, and rebuilding the sawmill. The state of New Jersey acquired Batsto along with the Wharton tract in –. Today, Batsto

62

Battleship New Jersey vated and used for shore bombardment during the Korean and Vietnam Wars. The ship played a similar role off the coast of Lebanon during –. The USS New Jersey was decommissioned in . Nine years later, the ship was moved to the Camden waterfront, and opened to the public as a floating museum. Stillwell, Paul. Battleship New Jersey: An Illustrated History. Annapolis: Naval Institute Press, .

See also museums

Donald E. Bender

Bay Head.

Exterior of the mansion at Batsto Village, located in Wharton State Forest.

Photo: Vic Yepello. Courtesy The Star-Ledger. reflects Wharton’s late nineteenth-century “gentleman’s farm.’’ Pierce, Arthur D. Iron in the Pines. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . Yates, W. Ross. Joseph Wharton: Quaker Industrial Pioneer. Bethlehem: Lehigh University Press, .

See also iron industry

Beverly A. Weaver

Battleship New Jersey.

The USS New Jersey (BB-) was one of four Iowa-class battleships constructed during World War II, the others being the Missouri, the Iowa, and the Wisconsin. With the exception of the Japanese Yamato and Musashi, these were the largest

battleships ever built. Construction of the New Jersey commenced at the Philadelphia Navy Yard during September , and the ship was commissioned in May . The New Jersey measured  feet in length and had a beam of  feet. The ,-ton ship was capable of a maximum speed of  knots. Its main battery of nine -inch guns could fire ,-pound projectiles as far as twenty-three miles. During World War II the New Jersey was active in the Pacific theater, where it served as the flagship of Admirals Raymond Spruance and William Halsey and participated in the amphibious assaults of the islands of Iwo Jima and Okinawa. The New Jersey was reacti-

.-square-mile borough in Ocean County. This land at the head of the Barnegat Bay, between the Atlantic Ocean and Metedeconk River, was originally inhabited by Lenape Indians; in the seventeenth century farmers and fishermen from New England settled there. Bay Head was initially part of Shrewsbury Township, Monmouth County, but was annexed by Ocean County when it was established in . In  a group of Princeton bankers founded the Bay Head Land Company to build homes along the dunes, and in  Bay Head was incorporated. The borough flourished in the late nineteenth century as large hotels were constructed and boatbuilding developed as an industry. Bay Head gained an international reputation for the high-quality boats its boatyards produced. When Bay Head became a stop along the New York and Long Branch train line in , summer visitors flocked to the borough for bathing and boating. With its grand homes along the beach, the borough retains its Victorian flavor and reputation as a summer resort. In , its total population of , was  percent white. The median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Miller, Pauline S. Ocean County: Four Centuries in the Making. Toms River: Ocean County Cultural and Heritage Commission, .

Christine Lutz

Bayley, James Roosevelt ; d. Oct. , ).

Battleship New Jersey.

Courtesy Battleship New Jersey Foundation.

(b. Aug. ,

Roman Catholic bishop and founder of Seton Hall University. James Roosevelt Bayley was born in Manhattan to a prominent New York physician, Guy Carleton Bayley, and Grace Roosevelt, a member of a venerable Dutch family. Raised an Episcopalian, Bayley entered Amherst College in  but stayed only two years, graduating instead from Washington (now Trinity) College, Hartford, Connecticut, in . He determined to study for the Episcopalian ministry and was ordained in October . Within a year, however, he had resigned from the ministry, convinced that Christian truth lay with the Roman Catholic Church. He was received into the Roman Catholic Church in April . Bayley’s conversion and subsequent ordination to the Catholic priesthood (in March ) alienated his family. He rose rapidly

Bayonne Naval Base

Bishop James Roosevelt Bayley.

Courtesy Seton Hall University Archives and Special Collections, West Orange. within his new communion, however, and served as a professor of rhetoric and vice president of Saint John’s College (later Fordham University); a pastor on Staten Island; secretary to Bishop Hughes of New York; and editor of the Freeman’s Journal. In  when the Diocese of Newark was created—covering the whole of New Jersey—Bayley was named its first bishop. Bayley’s bishopric came at a time of exceptional challenges and exceptional growth. He ministered during a severe recession and, of course, the Civil War. Bayley’s achievements, however, matched his challenges. In nineteen years he expanded the diocese from  to  churches, built dozens of schools, and established a seminary and college, Seton Hall, which he named in honor of his aunt, Elizabeth Ann Bayley Seton (later canonized the first U.S.-born saint). In July , Bayley was named archbishop of Baltimore and served there until his death. Dougherty, John J., ed. The Bishops of Newark, – . South Orange: Seton Hall University Press, . Yeager, Hildegarde. The Life of James Roosevelt Bayley, First Bishop of Newark and Eighth Archbishop of Baltimore, –. Washington, DC: Catholic University of America, .

See also Roman Catholic Church; Seton Hall University

Dermot Quinn

Bayonne. .-square-mile city in Hudson County. Bayonne’s earliest settlement dates back to , when the Dutch West India Company granted Jacob J. Roy, a constable (or chief gunner), a patent for land located in New York Harbor on the peninsula surrounded by Newark Bay, New York Bay, and Kill van Kull. It became known as Constable Hook, or

“gunner’s point.’’ It developed slowly during British colonial rule as a trading post called Bergen Neck, the southernmost tip of the township of Bergen in Bergen County. Residents prospered in oystering and shad fishing. During the Revolutionary War, British forces secured Bergen Neck Fort, renaming it Fort Delancey. In  the peninsula’s four villages of Salterville (Pamrapo), Centreville, Constable Hook, and Bergen Point became part of newly formed Hudson County. Mansions with docks and boathouses graced the shoreline, and tourists vacationed at the La Tourette Hotel. In  the villages united as the township of Bayonne. The name was derived from the Bayonia real estate venture “on the bays,’’ halted due to the Civil War. It appears to have no connection with Bayonne, France. Having outgrown township governance, the City of Bayonne was incorporated on March , . During the Civil War the railroad brought dramatic changes to Bayonne. The Central Railroad of New Jersey connected Bayonne northward to the Jersey City Railroad Terminal and southward to Elizabeth via a drawbridge over Newark Bay. In  the Jersey Central Railroad built the Port Johnston Coal Docks at Constable Hook. John D. Rockefeller bought the Prentice Oil Refining Company in  to establish the Standard Oil Company. Soon an extensive pipeline connected several petroleum oil refineries at Constable Hook with outof-state oil fields. Tide Water Oil Company, Texaco, Humble Oil, Gulf Refining Company, and other industries took hold of the once rural community, now called the “Peninsula of Industry.’’ Heavy immigration from southern and central Europe followed and transformed Bayonne into a working-class community of diverse ethnic and religious backgrounds. Industrialization and location made Bayonne a war-production center during World War II. The Bayonne Naval Base outfitted warships and shipped supplies to U.S. overseas bases. Companies such as Babcock and Wilcox, General Cable, ELCO Boat Works, and Maidenform participated in the war effort. The refineries supplied vital petroleum products to service war equipment. In  the Military Ocean Terminal, a significant military and cargo facility, succeeded the naval base. It closed in September , except for the Coast Guard operations. Containerport operations and service industries form the base of the city’s economy today. The community is a mix of predominantly one-family and two-family homes, with scattered small apartment buildings. The First Federated Church, the city’s oldest congregation, started in , is on the National and State Registers of Historic Places. The Bayonne Bridge, completed in , is the city’s signature structure. The Hudson-Bergen Light Rail Transit System, opened in April , connects Bayonne with other communities in Hudson and Bergen counties.

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In , the population of , was  percent white,  percent black,  percent Asian, and  percent Hispanic (Hispanics may be of any race). The median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Robinson, Walter F. Bayonne Centennial Historical Revue, –. Bayonne: Progress Printing, . Sinclair, Gladys Mellor. Bayonne Old and New: The City of Diversified Industry. New York: Maranatha Publishers, . Whitcomb, Royden Page. First History of Bayonne, N.J. Bayonne: R. P. Whitcomb, .

Carmela Ascolese Karnoutsos

Bayonne Bridge. A steel arch vehicular bridge connects Bayonne to the Port Richmond section of Staten Island, New York. The Bayonne Bridge was designed by the Swissborn engineer Othmar H. Ammann for the Port of New York Authority and was dedicated on November , . The arch spans , feet over the Kill van Kull, which connects Upper New York Bay to Newark Bay. This busy waterway is part of the main shipping channel from the Atlantic Ocean to the Hackensack and Passaic rivers and the inland ports of Newark and Elizabeth. The bridge has a midspan clearance of  feet to allow unobstructed navigation for tall oceangoing vessels. Chief engineer Ammann used a high-strength manganese alloy for the main arch ribs and rivets—the first use of this alloy in bridge construction. The bridge received the Annual Award of Merit as the “Most Beautiful Steel Bridge, Class A’’ from the American Institute of Steel Construction in . Dana, Allston. “Design and Erection: Kill van Kull Bridge.’’ Proceedings ASCE [American Society of Civil Engineers]  (): –. Moisseiff, Leon S. “Design, Material, and Erection of the Kill van Kull (Bayonne) Bridge.’’ Journal of the Franklin Institute  (): –. Petroski, Henry. Engineers of Dreams: Great Bridge Builders and the Spanning of America. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, . Rastorfer, Darl. Six Bridges: The Legacy of Othmar H. Ammann. New Haven: Yale University Press, .

See also bridges

P. Gerard Nowicki

Bayonne Naval Base.

The Bayonne Naval Base in New York Harbor developed from a joint project between the city of Bayonne and Central District, Inc., in  for a maritime terminal at Constable Hook, the east side of Bayonne’s peninsula. The result was a filled-in island, connected with the peninsula by a narrow causeway, and the dredging of a wider navigable channel in the harbor. Although the project failed financially in , it gained the attention of the U.S. Navy, which wanted to use the site to complement shipbuilding at the nearby Brooklyn Navy Yard. In early , due to mounting concerns over the war in Europe, the Third Naval District chose the terminal for its Atlantic coast location because of its railway connections,

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Bayshore Discovery Project

appropriate water depth, berthing space for warships, and potential for expansion. The navy took possession of the “made-land’’ acre site, and it was commissioned as the U.S. Naval Supply Depot on June , . During World War II, the naval base became the world’s largest dry dock and played a significant role in the nation’s global defense program. Expansion of the base involved the construction of twenty storehouses and a repair yard for damaged ships on  acres. As the northeastern distribution center for the navy, it supported the Atlantic Reserve Fleet and outfitted six to thirteen ships daily. Service personnel and war materials were transported to North Africa, England, the Caribbean, and stateside training stations. After V-E Day,  percent of its shipment of provisions went to the Pacific and the Seventh Fleet. The base became Bayonne’s largest employer, with , civilian personnel in various defense operations. Its presence also encouraged home-front activities such as a Navy Mothers Club, USO, and a successful war-bond fund drive in the city. After World War II, the Naval Supply Operational Center opened at the naval base to provide supplies for the Military Sea Transportation Service of the navy. Operations again escalated during the Korean War; it shipped supplies from other installations and worked on the reactivation of ships of the Atlantic Reserve Fleet, including the USS New Jersey, decommissioned there in . The navy upgraded the facility to a modernized Naval Supply Center in . Goldsborough Village, a nine-building complex, provided housing for military personnel. Another overhaul of the naval base included installation of an automated handling system for supplies, the Uniform Automatic Data Processing System, and Naval Supply Corps School. In  the U.S. Army took over the naval base, with a civilian staff of approximately twenty-five hundred, and renamed it the Military Ocean Terminal, Bayonne (MOTBY). It reported to the Eastern Area Military Traffic Management and Terminal Service. MOTBY’s initial mission was to ship goods to personnel at European military bases for the Department of Defense and to assume port operations after the closing of the Brooklyn Army Terminal. During the Vietnam War, it sent food and clothing to overseas American fleets, and it shipped equipment to the Middle East during Operation Desert Storm, –. The Defense Department closed MOTBY, except for the Coast Guard operation, in September , and the now -acre property reverted to the city of Bayonne for redevelopment.

The A. J. Meerwald, New Jersey’s official tall ship.

Courtesy Bayshore Discovery Project, Port Norris.

Bayshore Discovery Project.

Established in  as the Delaware Bay Schooner Project, this nonprofit organization promulgates conservation of the environment and the history and culture of New Jersey’s Bayshore region. Located on the Delaware Bay, the project uses the A. J. Meerwald, designated New Jersey’s official tall ship in , as a floating classroom to educate visitors. It sails from April to November, allowing the public to experience navigation on New Jersey’s waters. This  schooner, made of New Jersey cedar and pine, is a restored relic from the area’s once-booming oyster industry. In  the

organization was renamed the Bayshore Discovery Project.

Sharon Hazard

Bayway refinery.

Officially known as Tosco Bayway Refining Company, this complex, now owned by Phillips Petroleum Company, was built by Standard Oil in . The jungle of pipe, towers, stacks, columns, and catwalks, situated improbably on both sides of the New Jersey Turnpike in Linden, is staggering to behold. Nearly  miles of pipes snake around the ,-acre complex.

Frank, Al. “Bayonne’s Economic Hopes Stretch Out Along Terminal.’’ Star-Ledger, Apr. , . “Naval Supply Center Began as a Civic Dream to Develop East Shore; Government Took Legal Possession Just Prior to Outbreak of World War II.’’ Bayonne Times, June , .

Carmela Ascolese Karnoutsos

The Bayway Refinery.

Courtesy The Star-Ledger.

Bedle, Joseph Dorsett Bayway, one of six oil refineries in New Jersey, cranks out  million barrels—. billion gallons—of product a year. This is where the American petrochemical industry began, in the early s, with the refinery’s production of isopropyl alcohol. A staggering array of fuel and other products is made here, everything from gasoline—Bayway produces enough gasoline to supply half the state’s daily needs— to jet fuel (pumped directly to Newark, JFK, and La Guardia airports), diesel fuel, home heating oil, propane, and even chewing gum base. Cunningham, John T. This Is New Jersey. th ed. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

See also oil refineries

and German immigrants from New York City. Developers catered to prospective buyers by providing a community clubhouse, pier, bathhouse, and even a place for temporary lodging while houses were under construction. Municipal status was approved and Beachwood was incorporated in  by a handful of voters. The population, only forty in , grew sharply in the s during the housing boom in Ocean County. To better serve the increased population, the original commission form of government was scrapped for a mayor-council system. In , the population of , was  percent white and the median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, .

Peter Genovese

Beach Haven. .-square-mile borough on the southern end of Long Beach Island in Ocean County. Beach Haven was founded as a resort in  by a group of wealthy Philadelphia sportsmen who had hunted and fished the area for two decades. Among them were railroad men who sought to increase business for the new Tuckerton Railroad, which had been built on the mainland in . The sea air and the absence of plant pollen so relieved her symptoms of hay fever that the daughter of the railroad’s president, A. Pharo, suggested calling it Beach Heaven, but Pharo settled for Beach Haven. The resort grew rapidly after a railroad bridge across Manahawkin Bay was built to the island in . Beach Haven became an independent borough in . Known today as the “Queen City,’’ it is the largest community on the island, with a  estimated permanent population of , swelling to , in the summer. It has one amusement park and several motels and bar restaurants, but it is predominantly residential, with a sizable historic district of vintage Victorian cottages, a museum, a public library, a public grade school, and numerous bed-and-breakfast establishments. The  population of , was  percent white. The median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, .

John Bailey Lloyd

Beachwood.

.-square-mile borough fronting the southern bank of the Toms River in Ocean County. Beachwood’s name derives from the fact that in the nineteenth century the beach was a dumping ground for charcoal, which had been hauled over a mulepowered wooden railway from burning pits in Lakehurst. Traces of charcoal were still evident many years later on the blackened sandy feet of bathers. Beachwood’s founding was unique: lots were given away in a  subscription drive by the New York Tribune, and a cluster of tents and summer cottages soon arose. Many of the people who came and eventually became permanent residents were Irish

Horner, Louise L., ed. The New Jersey Municipal Data Book.  ed. Palo Alto, CA: Information Publications, . Miller, Pauline S. Ocean County: Four Centuries in the Making. Toms River: Ocean County Cultural and Heritage Commission, .

Edward A. Jardim

bear.

See black bear.

beaver.

Castor canadensis, often referred to as nature’s engineer, is North America’s largest rodent. Adults range in weight from thirty to over seventy pounds and can live for twenty years. Their thick fur varies from brownish black to yellowish brown. Beavers were important to Native Americans for fur and food, and are of historical significance because the quest for their pelts by trappers resulted in the exploration of much of the North American continent. Beavers are vegetarians and eat one to two pounds of bark, leaves, twigs, grasses, sedge, or roots each day. They stockpile caches of branches for food during the winter months. Beavers live in family groups or colonies, consisting of two adults and their young of the current and preceding years. Some build traditional lodges and others live in dens dug under stream banks. Beaver lodges, dams and associated ponds, fallen trees, and other signs of beaver habitation can be observed in many areas of the state, including undeveloped sections of Sussex County in northwestern New Jersey and Atlantic and lower Burlington Counties in the Pinelands region. Today, more than one thousand beavers occupy suitable habitat throughout New Jersey.

Whitacker, John O., and William J. Hamilton, Jr. Mammals of the Eastern United States. d ed. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, .

David Burke

Beck, Henry Charlton

(b. May ,

; d. Jan. , ). Author, journalist, and

folklorist. Henry Charlton Beck was born in Philadelphia, the son of Henry C. Beck, Sr. and Jennie Walsh Beck. The family moved to Haddonfield in , where Beck grew up and graduated from Haddonfield High School in

65

. While working at the Camden CourierPost in the s, he developed an interest in New Jersey legends and folklore. His first book on the subject was Forgotten Towns of Southern New Jersey, published in , and followed by several others on South Jersey and other parts of the state written during the next quartercentury. Most are still in print. Beck helped organize the New Jersey Folklore Society in . In  he was ordained a priest in the Episcopal Church. Brydon, Norman F. “Henry Charlton Beck: An Appreciation.’’ New Jersey History  (): – .

Edward Skipworth

Becton Dickinson and Company. Organized in New York City in  by salesman Maxwell Wilbur Becton and Fairleigh Stanton Dickinson, the company established a manufacturing facility for producing thermometers and hypodermic needles and syringes. It was incorporated in East Rutherford in . During World War I the firm produced all-glass syringes, a significant improvement over the metal ones of the day. It also developed the ACE (“all cotton elastic’’) brand bandage. Other innovative products included the first insulin syringe, the modern stethoscope, and disposable blood collection systems. After the founders died, the company continued to expand internationally. It broadened its product line with innovations in sterile disposable products and diagnostic medical equipment. It became a publicly held corporation in  and was first listed as a Fortune  company in . It moved into its present headquarters in Franklin Lakes in . Today, the company, known as BD, comprises three core businesses: BD Medical Systems, manufacturing syringes, surgical blades, and other medical devices; BD Clinical Laboratory Solutions, focusing on blood collection and diagnostic equipment for hospitals and laboratories; and BD Biosciences, a leader in manufacturing equipment for use in molecular and life science analysis. Caracio, Judyann R. Northern New Jersey—Gateway to the World Marketplace. Northridge, CA: Windsor Publications, .

See also pharmaceutical industry

Robert D. Griffin

Bedle, Joseph Dorsett

(b. Jan. , ;

d. Oct. , ). Governor and lawyer. Joseph

Bedle was born in Middletown Point (now Matawan), the son of Thomas Bedle, a merchant, justice of the peace, and judge of the Court of Common Pleas for Monmouth County, and Hannah Dorsett. After working two years in a general country store, the younger Bedle studied for about one and a half years in the Trenton law office of William L. Dayton, a former U.S. senator and, in , the first Republican vice presidential candidate.

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Following one winter at the law school in Ballston Spa, New York, and another in a Poughkeepsie law office, Bedle was admitted as an attorney and counselor in New York State. Additional study with Henry S. Little, who was to become a member of the Democratic “State House Ring,’’ was followed by admission to the New Jersey bar in . During the next two years Bedle practiced law in Middletown Point; he moved to Freehold in  and became a counselor in . Five years later he married Althea F. Randolph, the niece of Democratic governor Theodore F. Randolph (–). In , at the age of thirty-four, Bedle became the second youngest justice in the state supreme court’s history, and Gov. Joel Parker appointed him to the largest circuit (Hudson, Bergen, Passaic). Shortly thereafter, Bedle moved his residence to Jersey City, next to that of Leon Abbett, who later served two terms as Democratic governor (–; –). Before the end of Bedle’s term as justice (), the State House Ring planned to nominate him for governor, but Abbett persuaded Parker to run (successfully) for a second nonconsecutive term. In  Bedle was reappointed to the bench. The  Democratic convention unanimously selected Bedle as its gubernatorial nominee to oppose Republican George A. Halsey of Newark. By then, Bedle’s charges to the grand jury in Hudson’s Court of Oyer and Terminer had led to the indictment and conviction in his courtroom of the Republican ring controlling Jersey City. He was elected by the second greatest state majority until that time. Bedle’s vigorous attacks on special legislation and his plans for economy and home rule marked his inaugural address of . Ratification of the state’s constitutional amendment in November  restricted special laws. The percentage of enactments that were special laws fell from  percent during Parker’s term to only  percent during Bedle’s administration. The total enactments declined from , laws under Parker to  under Bedle. Not until  would fewer statutes be enacted during a single session () than during Bedle’s last year in office (). Attention to the railroads was notable in Bedle’s administration. In January  he complained that “the revenue received by the State from Railroad Companies is not near as large as it should be.’’ But during the great  railroad strike he called up all companies of the state’s National Guard to protect the trains and the new crews of two railroads. After his term ended, Bedle served as legal counsel for the Delaware, Lackawanna, and Western Railroad and became a director of many large corporations. He declined judgeships (three times) and presidential nominations as minister to Russia and Austria. During the last year of his life he served on the state’s constitutional commission of .

Applegate, John Stilwell. Early Courts and Lawyers of Monmouth County. [New York]: L. Middleditch, . Stellhorn, Paul A., and Michael J. Birkner, eds. The Governors of New Jersey, –: Biographical Essays. Trenton: New Jersey Historical Commission, .

See also governor

Harris I. Effross

Bedminster.

.-square-mile township in Somerset County. Formed in  by royal charter from the Northern Precinct and incorporated on February , , Bedminster was settled by Dutch, German, and ScotsIrish in about  and named after a village in England. It remained exclusively agricultural until the s, when the railroad reached Peapack, bringing a flood of wealthy Manhattanites who built their palatial homes amid the beauty of the Somerset Hills. Pottersville, named after Searing Potter, owner of the mills to which the place owed its existence, Lamington, Burnt Mill, Greater Cross Roads, Lesser Cross Roads (now Bedminster), and Pluckemin are the township’s villages. Pluckemin, probably named after a town in Scotland, was the site of the Continental Army’s artillery park during the winter of –. British captain William Leslie, son of a Scottish earl, wounded at the  Battle of Princeton, is buried in the Presbyterian Church’s graveyard. Nearby is The Hills, a prodigious development of nearly four thousand townhouses and condominiums at the foot of the Watchung Mountains. Rolling hills, large estates, horse farms (the U.S. Equestrian Center is here), and substantial single-family dwellings mark the township. The  population of , was  percent white. In , the median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Havens, Jessie Lynes. Somerset County: Three Centuries of Progress. Chatsworth, CA: Windsor Publications, . Schleicher, William A., and Amanda R. Schleicher. Bedminster. Charleston, SC: Arcadia, . Snyder, John P. The Story of New Jersey’s Civil Boundaries, –. Trenton: Bureau of Geology and Topography, .

Alan A. Siegel

Beemerville. bees.

See Wantage.

Bees, flying insects of the superfamily Apoidae, which includes wasps, feed on nectar and pollen from flowers, and live in solitary nests or in societies that share the same nest. Hundreds of bee species are found in New Jersey, the most notable being the large hairy bee known as the bumblebee. The honeybee, the official state insect, is an introduced species brought by early settlers in the seventeenth century to produce honey. Honeybees are also the most important pollinators of plants. In  there were one thousand beekeepers who kept ten thousand bee colonies in New Jersey. The value of

crops pollinated by bees exceeds $ million. Honeybees are subject to infection by various disease pathogens such as bacteria, viruses, and fungi. Other parasites and predators will also attack honeybees; in recent years, two parasitic mites, the tracheal mite and the Varroa mite, have killed a large number of bee colonies across North America, including many in New Jersey. Graham, Joe M., ed. The Hive and Honey Bee. Rev. ed. Hamilton, IL: Dadant and Sons, .

Medhat Nasr

Beirne, Joseph A.

(b. Feb. , ;

d. Sept. , ). Telephone worker and labor

leader. Joseph Beirne was born in Jersey City to Michael and Annie Beirne. He became a utility worker at Western Electric Company in Jersey City before finishing high school, and in  he married Anne Mary Abahaze with whom he raised three children. In time Beirne climbed to the leadership of the National Federation of Telephone Workers, a coalition of independent unions in the telephone industry. After the weak organization was defeated in a  strike against AT&T that brought federal intervention, Beirne was prominent in the federation’s reorganization as the Communications Workers of America (CWA), which affiliated with the Congress of Industrial Organizations (CIO) in . Beirne was elected the first president of the CWA, an office he occupied for twentyseven years. The leader of the rapidly growing CWA maintained a high public profile. He was active in the liberal wing of the Democratic party and wrote books envisioning labor’s place in an automated environment that protected workers’ interests. At the same time, he led his union in two more dramatic strikes against AT&T, in  and , which led to improved wage packages for workers. In June  Beirne retired, having welded America’s telephone workers into one of the nation’s strongest labor unions. Barbash, Jack. Unions and Telephones: The Story of the Communications Workers of America. New York: Harper, . Beirne, Joseph A. Challenge to Labor: New Roles for American Trade Unions. Englewood Cliffs: PrenticeHall, . Brooks, Thomas R. Communications Workers of America: The Story of A Union. New York: Mason/ Charter, .

See also labor movement

Clayton Sinyai

Belarusians.

Belarusians first immigrated in large numbers to New Jersey in the nineteenth century and settled in cities such as Jersey City, Hoboken, and Passaic and farming communities such as Vineland. Although there is no accurate information— most Belarusians were entered into census rolls as “Russian’’—it is estimated that more than , New Jerseyans are of Belarusian descent.

Belleville Life in New Jersey for the early Belarusian immigrants centered around their church and social clubs, such as the Russian National Society of Mutual Aid. A second wave of Belarusians, many of them professionals, took up residence in New Jersey after World War II. The Belarusian-Community Center, located in South Fork, serves the Belarusian population, as do churches affiliated with the Belarusian Autocephalous Orthodox Church.

ANB.

Cunningham, Barbara, ed. The New Jersey Ethnic Experience. Union City: William H. Wise, .

Belcher Mosaic Glass Company.

See also ethnicity

Marta Mestrovic Deyrup

Belcher, Jonathan

(b. Jan. , ;

d. Aug. , ). Colonial governor. Born into

a wealthy and politically important family in Cambridge, Massachusetts, Jonathan Belcher graduated from Harvard in  and married Mary Partridge (d. ), the daughter of New Hampshire’s lieutenant governor, in . He traveled back and forth to London for thirty years and in  was appointed governor of New Hampshire and Massachusetts. Belcher, unable to handle the liberty-loving colonists, retired in . While in England he became friendly with a group of Quakers, who, in , supported his appointment to succeed Lewis Morris as governor of New Jersey. In September  he arrived in Burlington, where he soon married Mrs. Louise Teale, a London widow. A Puritan New Englander, Belcher thought New Jersey lacked religion and culture. A friend of Jonathan Edwards and George Whitefield, he supported the Great Awakening and the creation of a college in New Jersey. Wrangling between local Quakers and Anglicans put the latter project in suspension until “New Light’’ Presbyterians, unhappy with the religious orientation of the “Old Light’’ Yale College, held a lottery to raise funds. Belcher offered his own collection of  books and some portraits to start the library, and the College of New Jersey (now Princeton) was formed. The new school wanted to name its building after Belcher, but he declined and suggested instead that it be named after the royal house of Nassau. As governor, Belcher confronted riots in Newark and the Elizabeth area over land tenure questions that interfered with the court system. The incidents did not sit well with the board of trade. In addition, from  to  the colonial legislature balked at appropriating funds. By  the French and Indian War loomed, and New Jersey was asked to assist in blocking French fortification of Lake Erie. There was later talk of buttressing the Delaware River with a series of forts. Belcher was caught between the East Jersey proprietors and local landowners, the council and assembly. In the end he was unable to satisfy the contending factions. War brought additional disagreements, and his health declined until his death of palsy in .

Batinski, Michael. Jonathan Belcher, Colonial Governor. Lexington: University of Kentucky Press, . DAB. Stellhorn, Paul A., and Michael J. Birkner, eds. The Governors of New Jersey, –: Biographical Essays. Trenton: New Jersey Historical Commission, .

See also governor

John David Healy

Charles Belcher had begun making ornamental window glass in Newark by . On August , , Henry F. Belcher (whether a son or a brother is not known) received a patent on a new technique to make stained-glass windows, which he called “metallo mosaics.’’ The mosaic process involved sandwiching pieces of colored glass between two layers of asbestos and then pouring a molten lead alloy into the sandwich. The result was a distinctive kind of window consisting of thousands of small, triangular pieces of glass. The business, which had been located in Newark, disappeared after . See also glassmaking

Ulysses Grant Dietz

Belcher-Ogden

Mansion. This eighteenth-century house in Elizabeth is named for two New Jersey governors who lived there. The  smaller kitchen section was the home of John Ogden, one of Elizabethtown’s original settlers. Jonathan Belcher (–), royal governor of the colony from  to , moved into the house in  and lived there until his death. He enlarged it with a two-and-a-half-story, five-bay section built of brick laid in Flemish checker bond and decorated in high Georgian style. Although frustrated by provincial politics, Belcher was

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instrumental in the establishment of the College of New Jersey, later known as Princeton University. The house was occupied in  by Gov. Aaron Ogden, a Federalist party leader and a litigant in the landmark  Supreme Court case Gibbons v. Ogden, which asserted the power of the federal government over the states in regulating commerce. In  the Elizabethtown Historical Foundation purchased the mansion, which it operates as a museum. See also historic sites

Marlene Craig

Bell Atlantic. Belle Mead.

See Verizon.

See Montgomery.

Belleville.

.-square-mile township in Essex County. Originally the Second River section of Newark, Belleville was settled by the Dutch in the mid-seventeenth century and was the scene of a Revolutionary War skirmish in . It was part of Bloomfield from  to . The first steam engine in America was built in Belleville for John Stevens in . The Soho Copper Rolling Mill was an important early industry, as was the quarrying of brownstone. One of the first Chinese communities on the East Coast was established there to work in the Passaic Steam Laundry. Theodore Weld ´ sisters also lived in Belleville and the Grimke for a time, making it an abolitionist headquarters. Since , the section of Branch Brook Park bordering the Second River has been famous for its cherry blossoms, and a cherry blossom festival is held annually. Industries currently operating in Belleville include water purification systems, pharmaceuticals, and adhesives and polyurethanes. A cancer research facility recently opened. In  the population of , was  percent white,  percent Asian,  percent

Bennets Mills, Belleville.

Courtesy New Jersey Historical Society, Newark.

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Bellewood Park

black, and  percent Hispanic (Hispanics may be of any race). The median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, .

Augustine J. Curley

Bellewood Park.

Owned by the Lehigh Valley Railroad, Bellewood Park was an amusement park that operated from  to  near the village of Pattenburg. It was built to promote passenger travel on a primarily coalhauling rail line that ran from Jersey City to Allentown, Pennsylvania. The beautiful rolling hills of Hunterdon County provided an ideal setting for numerous park attractions like the steam-driven roller coaster, beer garden, and dining and dancing pavilions. Diverse groups and individuals from as far as New York enjoyed the facilities. Some locals, unhappy with the drinking and dancing, increasingly pressured officials to curtail park activities. This pressure, coupled with changing socioeconomic conditions, contributed to the park’s closing in .

Mary Anne Adams

Bell Labs. Bell Telephone Laboratories has long been regarded as one of the preeminent industrial research laboratories in the world. American Telephone and Telegraph (AT&T) formed Bell Labs in  from what had been the Engineering Department of the Western Electric Company, an AT&T subsidiary. Although it was based in New York until the early s, Bell Labs had several facilities in New Jersey almost from the first, including radio research stations in Whippany and Holmdel. From Whippany came the first experimental television broadcast in the United States (). In Holmdel, scientist Karl Jansky invented a new discipline, radio astronomy (). Bell Labs opened its first large New Jersey facility in November , when  scientists, engineers, and support personnel moved into a new research campus in the Murray Hill section of New Providence. Most of the work done there over the next few years was war-related, but immediately after , Murray Hill became the center of Bell Labs’ work in solidstate physics and electronics. The most prominent of many achievements was the invention of the transistor in December  by Walter Brattain, John Bardeen, and William Shockley. Most of the development work that turned the transistor from a laboratory curiosity to the fundamental device of modern technology took place in Murray Hill, as did symposia in  and  in which Bell Labs shared the invention with other interested companies. Other ideas that came from research at Murray Hill included the laser, communications satellites, and solar cells. AT&T enlarged Murray Hill several times. By  the campus housed , employees, and was both the headquarters of Bell Labs and the largest industrial research center in the United States. Besides the fundamental

research that brought it fame, Murray Hill housed development efforts—from customer dialing of long-distance calls to improved transmission techniques to touch-tone service—that kept the U.S. telephone system the best in the world. Bell Labs undertook a wide range of government research projects throughout the cold war, including communications systems for early-warning antimissile systems and the development of advanced radar and missile tracking systems. Much of this work took place at expanded facilities in Whippany. Some work begun for the military, such as the development of computer modems in , later had wide civilian use. In , Bell Labs opened a new major facility in Holmdel. By the s Holmdel housed over six thousand employees largely dedicated to research on telephone switching systems. Dennis Ritchie and Ken Thompson invented the Unix computer operating system, the underlying language of the Internet, at Holmdel. With the breakup of the Bell System monopoly in , Bell Labs became officially AT&T Bell Laboratories and gradually focused its efforts on providing the technological innovations needed to keep AT&T at the forefront of the now competitive telecommunications equipment and long-distance industries. And with the spin-off of AT&T’s manufacturing businesses such as Lucent Technologies in , Bell Labs itself split into a new AT&T Labs, based in Middletown and Florham Park, and the research and development arm of Lucent, which retained the Bell Labs name. Bernstein, Jeremy. Three Degrees above Zero: Bell Labs in the Information Age. New York: Scribner’s, . Fagan, M. D., et al., ed. A History of Engineering and Science in the Bell System.  vols. Murray Hill: AT&T Laboratories, –. Mabon, Prescott C. Mission Communications: The Story of Bell Laboratories. Murray Hill: Bell Laboratories, .

See also AT&T Corporation; Lucent Technologies; transistor

Sheldon Hochheiser

Bellmawr.

.-square-mile borough in Camden County. Incorporated in , Bellmawr was once part of Union Township and then Centre Township. The borough was originally part of a large estate that John Hugg established in the latter part of the seventeenth century near the intersection of Big and Little Timber creeks. “Guinea Town,’’ a black settlement, grew up here about , around the homes belonging to former slaves of the Hugg family, but it was largely abandoned after the Civil War. The name of Bellmawr, known as Heddings in the post–Civil War period, is associated with the Bell family, which owned a large portion of the Hugg estate and was famous for breeding Percherons, fine draught horses. In , Bellmawr Park, a village of five hundred units within the borough, was built by the federal government and based on the Camden

Plan, a program financed by the Federal Works Agency for union members working for the defense industry. Residents neither rented nor owned their homes but bought stock in the nonprofit mutual company that owned the project. Bellmawr is today in the heart of a major road network and houses a large industrial park within its borders. Privately owned Bellmawr Lake, opened in , is still a popular attraction. In  the total population of the predominantly residential community was ,. Ninety-three percent of the population was white. The median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Hodges, Delores. “History and Government of Bellmawr.’’ N.d. Camden County Pamphlet File. Camden County Library, Voorhees. Leap, William W. The History of Runnemede, New Jersey, –. Runnemede: Borough of Runnemede, . Prowell, George R. The History of Camden County, New Jersey. Philadelphia: L. J. Richards, .

Gail Greenberg

Bellows, George Wesley

(b. Aug. ,

; d. Jan. , ).

Painter. George Bellows was born in Columbus, Ohio, to George and Anna Smith Bellows. He attended Ohio State University where he fostered his interest in art by illustrating the university yearbook. In  Bellows left OSU to study at the New York School of Art. On September , , he married Emma Louise Story of Montclair, New Jersey. The couple had two daughters. Bellows was associated with the Ashcan school. His paintings depict modern urban scenes in the American realist style. He made several study trips to New Jersey, which resulted in large-scale paintings, including three works depicting polo matches in Lakewood. Doezema, Marianne. George Bellows and Urban America. New Haven: Yale University Press, . Gerdts, William H. Painting and Sculpture in New Jersey. Princeton: D. Van Nostrand, . Quick, Michael, et al. Paintings of George Bellows. Fort Worth, TX: Amon Carter Museum; New York: Harry N. Abrams, .

See also art

Ashley L. Atkins

Bell Telephone. Belmar.

See AT&T Corporation.

Borough in Monmouth County, consisting of . square miles of land and . square miles of water. Originally visited by Lenape Indians and first settled by Europeans around , Belmar lies between the Atlantic Ocean and the Shark River. In its early days the area was occupied mainly by farmers and fishermen. In  a group of businessmen from New York and Philadelphia, who felt that Ocean Grove was getting too crowded, organized the Ocean Beach Association and incorporated on March , . The new resort, called Ocean Beach, was divided into desirable building lots

Benedictines

George Wesley Bellows, Polo at Lakewood, . Oil on canvas,  / ×  / in.

Courtesy Columbus Museum of Art, Ohio. Columbus Art Association Purchase.

that quickly sold for summer cottages and hotels. In , after a bitter debate, the name was officially changed to Belmar. There were several additions of land, most notably in , , and . Previously part of Wall Township, Belmar first incorporated with independent borough in  and reincorporated in . During the twentieth century, Belmar gradually developed as a year-round residential community but continues to lure thousands of summer visitors. The many attractions include beaches, a boardwalk, Silver Lake, and the Belmar Marina. In , the population of , was  percent white. The median household income

in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Schnitzspahn, Karen L. Belmar. Charleston, SC: Arcadia, . ———, and Sandra G. Epstein. Belmar. Vol. . Charleston, SC: Arcadia, .

Karen L. Schnitzspahn

Belvidere. .-square-mile town and seat of Warren County government. Located where Pequest Creek meets the Delaware River, Belvidere was the site of Fort Reading, part of a line of defensive fortifications used during the French and Indian War. Maj. Robert Hoops, who supplied the Continental Army during the American Revolution, later planned a

69

village north of the Pequest. The property to the south, named Belvidere for the beautiful view, was first owned by Robert Morris, a signer of the Declaration of Independence, and then Garret Wall, a state senator. Wall deeded parcels for public use, including a square that became a park. Belvidere was separated from Oxford Township and incorporated in . Early in the nineteenth century the town’s location made it a center for transportation and manufacturing as the Pequest provided waterpower for sawmills and gristmills; in the twentieth century the Pequest became the source of electric power for other uses. By the middle of the nineteenth century, the Delaware River and several railroads connected Belvidere to markets in Trenton and Philadelphia. Lumber and flour mills were later replaced by woodworking and welding companies. As automobiles displaced trains, the town became largely residential. Today it is known for the Victorian architecture that has given it a place on the State and National Registers of Historic Places. The  population of , was  percent white. The median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Hicks, Roger. Life in Belvidere: A History of Belvidere, New Jersey, and the Belvidere Ambulance Corps. Belvidere: N.p., . Richards, Jay C. Penn, Patriots, and the Pequest. Belvidere: Great Northern Commercial Services, . Snell, James. History of Sussex and Warren Counties, New Jersey. Philadelphia: Everts and Peck, .

Benedictines

Bemmels, Cyrus W.

(b. ; d. ).

Inventor. Working for Permacel Tape, once a division of Johnson & Johnson, Cyrus Bemmels secured twelve patents relating to tape-making processes. His greatest achievement was discovering how to make maximumstrength tape by embedding parallel strands of filament in the tape’s adhesive, resulting in a product five to ten times stronger than conventional tape without being thicker or less flexible. Bemmels’s tape found ready acceptance in the packing industry. Bemmels’s reinforced strapping tapes at one time generated more revenue for Johnson & Johnson than any other product except the Band-Aid.

E. Richard McKinstry

Benedictines.

Flowerbed at Silver Lake, Belmar, .

Courtesy Karen L. Schnitzspahn.

A Roman Catholic religious order composed of independent monasteries of men or women, the Benedictines follow the Rule for Monks written by Benedict of Nursia, Italy (c. –c. ). Benedictines in New Jersey trace their history to Saint Mary’s Priory, founded in Newark in , when Bishop James Roosevelt Bayley asked Archabbot Boniface Wimmer of Saint Vincent Archabbey in Latrobe, Pennsylvania, to take

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Benezet, Anthony

over the care of Saint Mary’s Parish. In  the community opened Saint Benedict’s College (now Saint Benedict’s Prep). The community was granted abbatial status in . In  it purchased the Luther Kountz estate (Delbarton) in Morristown and established a priory there. A boarding school for boys was opened on the site in . In  the title “Saint Mary’s Abbey’’ was transferred to the house in Morristown, and the community in Newark resumed the title “Saint Mary’s Priory.’’ In , the Newark community was given abbatial status and took the name “Newark Abbey.’’ A monastery for women was established on Shipman Street, near Saint Mary’s Priory, in . Sisters continued to reside in Newark until . A second monastery of women, founded in Elizabeth in , sponsored a secondary school for women, Benedictine Academy. The Ottilien branch of the Benedictines opened Little Flower Monastery (now Saint Paul’s Abbey) in Newton in , and the Sylvestrine branch opened Holy Face Monastery in Clifton in . Campbell, Stephanie. Chosen for Peace: The History of the Benedictine Sisters of Elizabeth, New Jersey. Paterson: Saint Anthony Guild Press, . McPadden, Malachy, ed. The Benedictines in Newark, –. Newark: Newark Abbey, .

See also Roman Catholic Church

Augustine J. Curley

Benezet, Anthony

(b. Jan. , ; d.

May , ). Quaker educator and reformer.

Benezet was born in San Quentin, in Picardy, France. His Huegenot parents, Jean Etienne Benezet and Judith de la Mejenelle, fled persecution after the revocation of the Edict of Nantes and eventually settled in Philadelphia. Benezet joined the Society of Friends and spent most of his career teaching at the English Friends Public School, now known as William Penn’s Charter School. In  he married Joyce Marriott of Burlington, New Jersey. Much of his life was spent propagating Quakerism and working to free slaves. One of his more famous antislavery works, A Caution and Warning to Great Britain and Her Colonies on the Calamitous State of the Enslaved Negroes (), was written in Burlington during a brief hiatus from teaching. He became an important figure in a transatlantic antislavery movement and corresponded regularly with its leaders, including Wilbur Wilberforce, John Woolman, and Benjamin Rush. Brookes, George S. Friend Anthony Benezet. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, . Vaux, Roberts. Memoirs of the Life of Anthony Benezet. Philadelphia: James P. Parke, .

See also abolition; Quakers

John Fea

Benjamin Franklin Bridge.

Crossing the Delaware River between Camden and

Philadelphia, the Benjamin Franklin Bridge was engineered by Ralph Modjeski (engineer of the Tacony-Palmyra Bridge) and designed by the Philadelphia architect Paul Philippe Cret. With its ,-foot main span, the longest suspension bridge in the world when completed in  after four years of construction, it was originally named the Delaware River Bridge and charged a twenty-five-cent toll. Among its distinguishing features are its ornate anchorages (including the seals of Philadelphia, Camden, Pennsylvania, and New Jersey) and deep stiffening trusses above the main roadway deck. Modjeski chose lighter and cheaper steel, as opposed to concrete, for the two -foot towers. Petroski, Henry. Engineers of Dreams: Great Bridge Builders and the Spanning of America. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, . Plowden, David. Bridges: The Spans of North America. New York: Viking Press, . Steinman, David B., and Sara Ruth Watson. Bridges and Their Builders. New York: Putnam, .

See also bridges

Steven M. Richman

Morris “Moe’’ Berg at the Centennial of Baseball game in Cooperstown, New York, .

Courtesy Estate of Morris Berg.

Berg, Morris “Moe’’

(b. Mar. , ;

d. May , ). Major league baseball player,

lawyer, and OSS agent. Born in New York City, Moe Berg was the son of Ukrainian immigrants Bernard and Rose Tasker Berg. In  the family moved to Newark, where Bernard bought and operated a drugstore. Moe graduated from Barringer High School in Newark in , Princeton University in , and Columbia University Law School in . His baseball career began in  with the Brooklyn Dodgers and included stints with the Chicago White Sox, the Cleveland Indians, the Washington Senators, and, finally, the Boston Red Sox. Berg played his final game in . Berg joined the Office of Strategic Services (OSS) in . His foreign language skills and legal knowledge led to his recruitment for undercover work. His first assignment, in , was in Yugoslavia working behind Nazi lines. Later in the war he joined Project Larson, which required a second undercover operation in Europe to determine the progress of German scientists’attempts to build an atomic weapon. After the war he returned to a civilian career as a lawyer, but worked occasionally for the CIA, the OSS’s successor organization, in the s. Moe Berg never married and spent the final years of his life at his sister Ethel’s home in Newark. Andryszewski, Tricia. The Amazing Life of Moe Berg: Catcher, Scholar, Spy. Brookfield, CT: Millbrook Press, . Dawidoff, Nicholas. The Catcher Was a Spy: The Mysterious Life of Moe Berg. New York: Pantheon, . Kaufman, Louis. Moe Berg: Athlete, Scholar, Spy. Boston: Little, Brown, .

Edward T. Skipworth

Bergel case. In the spring of  a young German instructor named Lienhard Bergel claimed he was fired from his position at the New Jersey College for Women (later Douglass College) for opposing the pro-Nazi views of his department chairman, Friedrich Hauptmann. Bergel’s account of the events, which portrayed Hauptmann as a surrogate for Adolf Hitler, generated enormous press coverage. In response, Rutgers University President Robert A. Clothier appointed a committee of five trustees to look into the controversy. After one of the longest investigations in academic history—involving twenty-one sessions,  witnesses, and more than a million words of testimony—the trustees issued a final report that debunked Bergel’s charge of political bias and upheld his dismissal. The matter quickly faded from public view. The case resurfaced dramatically in , owing largely to the efforts of Alan Silver, a Rutgers alumnus who had been one of Bergel’s key student supporters fifty years before. Silver insisted it was time to “exonerate’’Bergel and “right a terrible wrong.’’ With remarkable persistence—and the editorial backing of the Home News, the region’s largest newspaper—he persuaded President Edward Bloustein to appoint a panel of Rutgers historians to review the Bergel case and publish its findings. No one was more surprised by this turnabout than Bergel himself, then eighty years old and living in retirement. “I’m an old man. I don’t need vindication,’’ he said. “It is Rutgers that needs vindication. They have dirty linen to air.’’ The panel interviewed the surviving participants, including Bergel, Silver, and retired members of the Rutgers faculty. It studied documents from the Federal Bureau of

Bergen County Investigation, U.S. Army Intelligence, and the Federal German Republic. The panel concluded that Hauptmann had disseminated pro-Nazi propaganda to his students, that he despised Bergel’s anti-Hitler views, and that his political bias played a role in the decision to terminate Bergel’s employment in . It added, however, that other factors, including budget cuts, declining enrollments, and Bergel’s status as the department’s junior member also worked against his retention. The panel then noted the unsavory behavior of Rutgers officials in the years following the trustees’ report of . They refused to write recommendations for Bergel, who desperately needed a job. They also concealed the fact that Hauptmann fled to Germany in , leaving behind a string of unpaid bills. Records show that Hauptmann joined the Nazi party a year later and worked as a minor functionary in Slovakia during World War II. Jailed and interrogated, but never prosecuted by the Allies, he died in Austria in . Bergel went on to a long teaching career at Queens College in New York City. He was struck and killed by an automobile in . Some of his supporters were disappointed that the panel’s report did not lead to a formal apology by Rutgers University. Others viewed the report as a judicious ending to an emotional and complicated case. Oshinsky, David M., Richard P. McCormick, and Daniel Horn. The Case of the Nazi Professor. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . ———. Report on the Bergel-Hauptmann Case. New Brunswick: Rutgers University, .

See also Rutgers, the State University

Bergen Community College.

This accredited, public two-year college, located in Paramus, offers associate degrees in arts, science, and applied science as well as oneyear certificate programs and general education courses. It was established by the Bergen County Board of Chosen Freeholders as the county’s first public two-year college on October , . Classes began in temporary buildings on the -acre site of the Orchard Hills Country Club in September . Construction of permanent facilities totaling , square feet began in  and was completed in . Student enrollment in  was ,. A second phase of construction added classrooms, a library, a theater arts laboratory, and a student center, and was finished in the fall of . See also higher education

Robert D. Griffin

Bergen

County. .-square-mile county located in the northeast corner of the state. Bergen County is bounded on the north by New York State, on the east by the Hudson River, on the south by Hudson County, and on the west by Essex and Passaic counties. It was originally part of the New Netherland colony. At the time of European contact, the area was inhabited by numerous small family groups of Lenape Indians, notably the Manatthans (Manhattans), Achkinkeshacky (Hackensacks), and Tappaan (Tappan). After failed attempts to settle at Achter Col (Bogota), Pavonia (lower Jersey

David M. Oshinsky

Bergen. New Jersey’s first municipality, now

BERGEN COUNTY

part of Jersey City, was established by the Dutch in . The village of Bergen was laid out in a square with eight-hundred-foot palisades, tall fences of pointed wooden stakes. The land inside the palisades was drawn up around two intersecting main streets (present-day Bergen Avenue and Academy Street), creating four quarters. Eight plots were then drawn out in each of the quarters. The village’s palisade lines are still visible on contemporary maps of Jersey City by locating Bergen Square and following the configuration created by Tuers Avenue, Newkirk Street, Van Reypen Street, and Vroom Street. New Jersey’s first church and first school were organized at Bergen in . The first local government, a Court of Inferior Justice, was established in . In  Jersey City consolidated a number of towns, including Bergen, to form its present-day boundaries.

Hackensack

Fiske, John. The Dutch and Quaker Colonies in America. Vol. . New York: Houghton Mifflin, . Federal Writers’ Project of the Works Progress Administration. New Jersey: A Guide to Its Present and Past. New York: Viking, .

William J. La Rosa

0

15 miles

county seat

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City), and Vriessendael (Edgewater), Europeans made their first permanent settlement the village of Bergen (Jersey City) in , now in Hudson County. The first permanent settlement in present-day Bergen County was at New Barbado[e]s Neck (Lyndhurst) in . Other major settlements were at New Milford () and at the Indian villages of Acquackanonk (Passaic) (about ) and Hackensack (before ). Bergen County was established as one of four counties in New Jersey in , bounded by the Hudson and Hackensack rivers from the New York province line to Newark Bay. It was enlarged in  to include territories west to the Pequonnock and Passaic rivers, at which time Hackensack was made the county seat. European immigrants, predominantly Dutch with some English, French Huguenot, German, Scandinavian, and Polish families, practiced Dutch customs, worshiped in the Dutch Reformed Church, and spoke a unique Jersey Dutch dialect. They developed a distinctive style of Jersey Dutch architecture with south-facing homes constructed of well-dressed red sandstone, often with gambrel roofs and sweeping porch overhangs. Contested land titles and religious controversy dominated the period leading to the Revolutionary War. On the morning of November , , British forces under the command of Lord Cornwallis invaded New Jersey, landing at the base of the Palisades along the western shore of the Hudson River at Lower Closter Landing (Alpine) and marched on colonial forces at Fort Lee. Gen. George Washington led a retreat across the Hackensack River at New Bridge (Teaneck/River Edge/New Milford) and on to Newark the following day. Referred to as the Neutral Ground because of the divided loyalties of local inhabitants and the backand-forth control by both British and American forces, the county saw significant military action throughout the war. Major historic sites exist at New Bridge Landing (River Edge), the Hermitage (Ho-Ho-Kus), and Fort Lee, as well as at the Baylor Massacre site (River Vale). In the years following the Revolutionary War, the conservative Jersey Dutch citizenry largely returned to the prewar lifestyle. The county’s population grew slowly from , in , when the figure included , slaves (nearly  percent of the county’s total population) and  free blacks, to , in . The county seat, Hackensack, had , inhabitants and  dwellings in . Farm produce was transported to New York City via the Hackensack River, as well as by country roads and turnpikes. Railroads, introduced in , gradually replaced river transportation, especially after . In  Passaic County was formed from parts of Bergen and Essex counties, and in  Hudson County was likewise split off from Bergen County, causing a loss of nearly

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Bergen County Historical Society

, inhabitants within a three-year period. The large increases in immigration that occurred elsewhere in the region during much of the nineteenth century did not occur in Bergen County. As the Civil War approached, voters favored conservative issues and candidates and were sometimes viewed as proslavery, though many men served in the Union Army. Until the middle s, the county was divided into large townships well suited for governing its predominantly rural population. As railroads brought new industries and people into the county, the population began to soar. The newer communities grew resentful of having to support expensive schools, roads, and other needs of outlying regions in the large townships. In early  the legislature passed an act making it easier to establish new boroughs, and twenty-six new municipalities were formed the first year. The splitting up of townships continued until , when the number of municipalities reached seventy— fifty-six boroughs, three cities, two villages, and nine townships. With urban development came improved public services. Electric street lighting was introduced in Hackensack in ; water mains and a public water supply in Hackensack in ; telephones in ; electricity for homes in Englewood in ; hospitals in ; and electric trolleys in . Added services resulted in further population growth— from , to , between  and . New industries sprang up, including motion picture studios at Fort Lee and surrounding communities along the Palisades. Kuhnert’s Aerodrome in Teterboro promoted interest in aviation and associated businesses; innovations in water filtration and pumping, especially after the construction of reservoirs at Woodcliff Lake and Oradell in  and , respectively, spurred new growth and dramatic physical changes to the landscape. Camp Merritt was built on  acres of Bergenfield, Tenafly, Cresskill, and Dumont. It served from  until  as a debarkation and receiving post for more than one million U.S. military forces during and after World War I. Troops marched through local towns and down the Palisades to ferries waiting along the Hudson River that transported them to larger troopships in the harbor, or they traveled by train to the ferry terminal at Hoboken. Following the war, barracks and other buildings were dismantled and much of the building material was sold for reuse in residential housing throughout the area. The completion of the George Washington Bridge in  encouraged the growing use of automobiles for commuting to work and shopping. Growth in the county halted briefly during the Depression but sprang anew during the s as jobs and income increased from wartime industries such as Curtis Wright in Wood-Ridge and Bendix in Teterboro. Return-

ing veterans caused an even greater explosion of development, and by  Bergen County’s population was second only to Essex County’s in the state. Beginning in the mid-s, major shopping malls and commercial centers have contributed to the local economy as well as to congestion and sprawl. County government is operated by a county executive and a seven-member board of chosen freeholders responsible to the local population. In , Bergen was the largest and most densely populated county in the state. The population of , was  percent white,  percent black,  percent Asian, and  percent Hispanic (Hispanics may be any race). Median household income in  was $,. Fogarty, Catharine M., John E. O’Connor, and Charles F. Cummings. Bergen County: A Pictorial History. Norfolk, VA: Donning, . Snyder, John P. The Story of New Jersey’s Civil Boundaries, –. Trenton: Bureau of Geology and Topography, . Works Progress Administration. Bergen County Panorama. Hackensack: Bergen County Board of Chosen Freeholders, .

Robert D. Griffin

Bergen County Historical Society. Bergen County’s historical society was established on March , , in Hackensack for the purpose of collecting and preserving documents and data that relate to the county. One of its principal early activities was sponsoring and erecting monuments at significant historical sites, including the locations of the Revolutionary War Fort Lee and the World War I Camp Merritt in Cresskill. This tradition continues with the distinctive blue-andsilver cast-aluminum signs that grace more than  sites throughout the county. The society also sponsors a winter lecture series, colonial Christmas concerts, and a library and rare manuscript collection (at Felician College in Lodi). Its priceless collection of colonial Dutch artifacts is exhibited at its headquarters, the state-owned Zabriskie-Steuben House, at New Bridge Landing (now River Edge). See also historical societies; New Bridge

remains predominantly residential. The commercial hub, along Washington Avenue, has long been one of the most vibrant in Bergen County. Since  the ethnic diversification has accelerated and Bergenfield has become a fully integrated community. The  census showed a total population of ,, of which approximately  percent was white,  percent Asian,  percent black, and  percent Hispanic (Hispanics may be of any race). In , the median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Birkner, Michael J. A Country Place No More: The Transformation of Bergenfield, New Jersey, – . Rutherford: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, . Leiby, Adrian C. The Huguenot Settlement of Schraalenburgh: A History of Bergenfield, New Jersey. Bergenfield: Bergenfield Public Library, .

Michael J. Birkner

Berkeley, Lord John

(b. ; d. ).

Lord Proprietor of New Jersey. Lord John Berkeley, baron of Straton, served as a commander during the English Civil War and, while in exile, became a confidant of young James, duke of York (later King James II). Upon the Restoration in , Berkeley was given a commission in the naval office, where he served with the duke, Carteret, and William Penn. Early in  he headed a royal commission whose objective was to recover England’s colonial dominance in North America from the Dutch. In June of , the duke of York drafted an “indenture of bargain and sale,’’ granting the lands between the Hudson and Delaware rivers to Lord John Berkeley and Sir George Carteret. Lord John Berkeley hoped to profit from the duke’s gift by encouraging colonial settlement; to

Robert D. Griffin

Bergenfield.

.-square-mile borough in Bergen County. First settled by the Dutch and French Huguenots in the seventeenth century, Bergenfield remained a quiet farming village until the arrival of the railroad after the Civil War. As the village of Schraalenburgh, it originally encompassed present-day Dumont and Bergenfield. Bergenfield was incorporated as a borough in . Its proximity to New York City made steady growth and urbanization inevitable, with population surges during World War I, as nearby Camp Merritt sought skilled tradespeople to build and maintain its facilities, and after World War II. The community

Lord John Berkeley.

Courtesy Special Collections and University Archives, Rutgers University Libraries, New Brunswick.

Berlin Township further this goal he and Carteret permitted a large degree of religious tolerance for potential settlers. However, a number of time-consuming political and legal squabbles foiled Berkeley’s success in the province, and in  he liquidated his share of the New Jersey proprietorship by selling what would later become West Jersey to Quaker John Fenwick (in trust for Edward Byllynge) for one thousand pounds. Pomfret, John E. Colonial New Jersey: A History. New York: Charles Scribners’s Sons, . ———. The New Jersey Proprietors and Their Lands, –. Princeton: D. Van Nostrand, .

Kristen Block

hundred national and international students study at three Berkeley campuses in New Jersey (West Paterson/Little Falls, Paramus, and Woodbridge) and two in New York State (White Plains and Manhattan). Most students commute. Subject matter focuses on skills that are required in the business world. Berkeley students also prepare for their future careers through internships, and there is a placement program for graduates. Students can select from among ten majors, including traditional business competencies as well as fashion marketing, interior design, paralegal studies, and international business. See also higher education

Maureen Dillon

Berkeley.

.-square-mile township along Barnegat Bay in Ocean County. When Berkeley separated from Dover Township in , the township was named for Britain’s original East Jersey landowner, Lord John Berkeley. Originally, the chief pursuits of its citizens were fishing and farming. Today many people live in the township’s several adult communities. The main section of the township is Bayville, originally known as Potters Creek. Because of the abundance of trees, this area had sizable lumber operations, which supplied wood for homes and ships; the most famous was the Double Trouble Saw Mill. Early in the twentieth century, the seven-story Pinewald Hotel and golf course attracted many visitors, including the prizefighter Jack Dempsey, flamboyant New York mayor Jimmy Walker, and, reputedly, gangster Al Capone. A landmark sight in the Bayville meadows at Holly Park is the cluster of antennas that once represented a high-power radio transmission system. It was installed in the s to facilitate long-distance communication with overseas points and ships at sea. The system was deactivated in the s when space-based satellite operations were introduced. Suburban development spurred population growth in the s, from , to ,. The  population of , was  percent white. The median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, .

Horner, Louise L., ed. The New Jersey Municipal Data Book.  ed. Palo Alto, CA: Information Publications, . Miller, Pauline S. Ocean County: Four Centuries in the Making. Toms River: Ocean County Cultural and Heritage Commission, .

Edward A. Jardim

Berkeley College.

Established by Alyea Brick in East Orange in  to offer business education to women, Berkeley College has evolved and expanded in the intervening seventy-plus years. It is now a multicampus coeducational institution offering associate and bachelor’s degrees as well as professional certification. Approximately forty-five

Berkeley Heights.

.-square-mile township in Union County. Berkeley Heights, along the Passaic River in the Watchung Mountains, is possibly named for the English proprietor Lord John Berkeley. The highest point in Union County,  feet above sea level, is located here. The earliest inhabitants were the Lenape Indians. After the English founded Elizabethtown in , many towns, including New Providence Township (originally Turkey), branched out in the area. The township’s western section was Berkeley Heights, a rural community slowly settled by English, German, French, and later Italian immigrants. In , New Providence Borough was formed and separated from the township. In  New Providence Township was officially renamed the township of Berkeley Heights. In  the Bell Telephone System established a research center, Bell Laboratories, now Lucent Technologies, in the Murray Hill section. In  three Bell Labs scientists invented the transistor, which revolutionized the telecommunications world. During the s the Connell Company began developing a multitenanted office complex along Valley Road. Part of this property was previously occupied by Runnells Hospital, the county tuberculosis sanitarium. A new Runnells Specialized Hospital opened nearby in . After World War II the community experienced a building boom of single-family homes. By  the population of , was  percent white. The median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Desmond, Helen E., ed. From the Passaiack to the Wach Unks: A History of the Township of Berkeley Heights, New Jersey. Berkeley Heights: Historical Society of Berkeley Heights, . Troeger, Virginia B. Berkeley Heights. Dover, NH: Arcadia, .

Virginia Bergen Troeger

Berlin Borough.

.-square-mile borough in central Camden County. Berlin shares antecedents with Berlin Township, known for

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more than one hundred years as Long-AComing, probably from the Indian lonaconing, “where many paths or waters meet.’’ The Great Egg Harbor River, one of the important early transportation routes, runs through the borough. Farming, lumbering, and charcoal burning were major occupations. During the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries and until the advent of the Atlantic City Expressway, the White Horse Pike, the borough’s main street, served as the major route between Atlantic City, Camden, and Philadelphia. The arrival of the Camden and Atlantic Railroad in  provided the area with its greatest population growth. In  arguments over appropriations for schools, street lighting, and road improvements ignited a separation movement from Berlin Township, led by Dr. Frank O. Stem, later the borough’s first mayor. The Berlin Canning Company, –; the Berlin Ink and Color Works, –; the Onlibest Hosiery Mill, established in ; and Baccelleri Brothers, manufacturers of fruit presses, established in , were early industries. Today the borough is home to dozens of small businesses, including sheet metal and machine shop works, printing and computer services, asphalt and concrete companies, and distributors of a variety of materials, such as industrial equipment, waste paper, and janitorial supplies, all with less than one million dollars in annual revenue. The residential community was about  percent white. The  population was ,. Median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Chalmers, Kathryn. Down the Long-A-Coming. Moorestown: News Chronicle, . Lane, Wheaton J. From Indian Trail to Iron Horse. Princeton: Princeton University Press, .

Gail Greenberg

Berlin

Township. .-square-mile township in central Camden County. Originally known as Long-A-Coming, probably from the Indian lonaconing, “where many paths or waters meet,’’ Berlin Township is situated on the major route from Absecon to Philadelphia and became an important stage stop. Farming, lumbering, and charcoal burning provided good livings. Taverns, inns, and a sugar mill contributed sources of employment. Berlin’s growth began after the Camden and Atlantic Railroad arrived in . A station was erected, and a real estate company sold lots at auction. In , the post office named the town Magnolia, but a new postmaster renamed it Berlin that same year. The reason for the choice of name is unknown. Berlin was the county seat during the early years of Camden County’s existence and was incorporated as a separate entity from Waterford Township in . Berlin Borough

Bernard, Francis

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broke off from it in , following a political dispute over funding. The township remains largely rural, although there is an extensive strip of commercial and retail development along its Route  corridor. The population in  was ,, approximately  percent white and  percent black. The median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Chalmers, Kathryn. Down the Long-A-Coming. Moorestown: News Chronicle, . Lane, Wheaton J. From Indian Trail to Iron Horse. Princeton: Princeton University Press, .

Gail Greenberg

Bernard, Francis

(b. July , ; d. June

, ).

Colonial governor. The son of the Rev. Francis Bernard and Margery (Winslow) Bernard of Brightwell, Oxfordshire, England, Francis Bernard received a master’s degree from Christ Church in  and married Amelia Offley in . He was appointed governor of New Jersey in  and spent much of his energy trying to provide for his numerous children (at least twelve). Bernard arrived in the colony in the midst of the French and Indian War, at a point when an Indian raid had killed approximately two dozen colonists. He stepped up security and attended a peace conference at Easton, Pennsylvania, with Indian and British representatives. Bernard was the royal governor who took relations with the Indians most seriously. He was transferred to Massachusetts in , where he became caught up in the Stamp Act crisis and other disputes. Increasingly unpopular, he returned to England in . ANB. DAB. Stellhorn, Paul A., and Michael J. Birkner, eds. The Governors of New Jersey,  to : Biographical Essays. Trenton: New Jersey Historical Commission, .

See also governor

John David Healy

Bernards Township.

.-square-mile township in Somerset County. Settled circa  by the Scots-Irish, the township’s focus is Basking Ridge, so named when flocks of wild turkeys were observed sunning themselves. The Presbyterian Church at the head of Finley Avenue, the main shopping district, dates from about  but was rebuilt in . Under the six-hundred-year-old oak are buried thirty-five veterans of the Revolutionary War. Nearby is the Brick Academy, now a museum, built in  to house a school that prepared young men for Princeton. New Jersey governor Samuel Southard, U.S. senators William L. Dayton and Theodore Frelinghuysen, and Commodore Robert F. Stockton studied there. William Alexander, Lord Stirling of Revolutionary War fame, lived on

a splendid estate a mile from town (traces of which can be seen in Lord Stirling Park, Somerset County’s Environmental Center). Formed by royal charter as Bernardston Township in , the township was incorporated on February , . Predominantly single-family residential, with considerable office development (including the former world headquarters of AT&T, now Lucent Technology) within the last two decades, Bernards includes Stone House, Mine Brook, Lyons (location of the thirteenhundred-bed Veterans Affairs Medical Center), and Liberty Corner, settled . In , the population of , was  percent white and  percent Asian. The  median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Havens, Jessie Lynes. Somerset County: Three Centuries of Progress. Chatsworth, CA: Windsor Publications, . Snyder, John P. The Story of New Jersey’s Civil Boundaries, –. Trenton: Bureau of Geology and Topography, . Van Horn, J. H. Historic Somerset. New Brunswick: Somerset County Historical Society, .

Alan A. Siegel

Bernardsville.

.-square-mile borough in Somerset County. First settled circa , the borough was known as Vealtown until , when it was renamed for Sir Francis Bernard, who had been the state’s royal governor from  to . A burst of activity in the s saw the construction of impressive stone commercial buildings—Van Dorn’s Mill in , now the centerpiece of the Franklin Corners Historic District in Bernards Township; Bunn’s Mill in , now the borough hall; and the Old Stone Hotel in , now a restaurant near Olcutt Square. When the railroad reached Bernardsville from Summit in , the quiet countryside was again transformed, this time by well-heeled Manhattanites who found it a perfect spot for their country estates. “Millionaires’ Mountain’’ was a world of palatial residences that by  was reputed to be the second-wealthiest enclave in the nation. In the village itself lived a substantial foreignborn population that provided the chambermaids, gardeners, horse trainers, and kennel masters for the rich. The borough, which broke from Bernards Township on April , , remains primarily residential today, with handsome estates, substantial homes, two country clubs, and a thriving business district clustered around Route . The population in  of , was  percent white. The  median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Havens, Jessie Lynes. Somerset County: Three Centuries of Progress. Chatsworth, CA: Windsor Publications, . Snyder, John P. The Story of New Jersey’s Civil Boundaries, –. Trenton: Bureau of Geology and Topography, .

Van Horn, J. H. Historic Somerset. New Brunswick: Somerset County Historical Society, .

Alan A. Siegel

Berra, Lawrence Peter “Yogi’’ (b. May , ). Baseball player. A longtime Montclair resident, Yogi Berra was one of baseball’s greatest catchers as a member of the New York Yankees from the late s to the early s. His accomplishments are legendary: during his eighteen-year tenure with the Yankees, he was a fifteen-time All-Star, a fourteen-time pennant winner, a three-time American League Most Valuable Player selection, and a record-setting ten-time World Series champion. Berra went on to serve as manager of both the New York Mets and the Yankees, and he was the first man in more than forty years to win pennants in different leagues (Yankees in , Mets in ). Berra was elected to the National Baseball Hall of Fame in , the same year the Yankees retired his number  jersey, and he is a member of Major League Baseball’s All-Century Team. He currently serves on the Hall of Fame Veterans Committee and has collaborated on several books. Berra has become celebrated for ´ ja ` vu all over wacky aphorisms, such as “It’s de again’’ and “Ninety percent of the game is half mental.’’ In  Berra received an honorary doctorate from Montclair State University, and two years later the school named a baseball stadium after him. The campus now houses the Yogi Berra Museum and Learning Center, open since December . See also baseball

Lisa M. Gillard Hanson

Bertholf, Guiliam

(b. ; d. c. ).

Reformed Dutch minister. Born in Sluis in the Dutch province of Zeeland, Guiliam Bertholf immigrated to New Jersey in , where he settled in Acquackanonk (Passaic), joined the Reformed Dutch Church at Bergen (Jersey City), and took up the trade of cooper or barrelmaker. In  he became voorleser (lay reader) and schoolmaster in Hackensack, performing the duties of voorleser also in Bergen, Acquackanonk, and elsewhere. His spiritual gifts were so remarkable that he was encouraged to return to the Netherlands for ordination. In  he was ordained by the Classis of Walcheren in Middelburg, Zeeland, and was subsequently assigned to Hackensack and Acquackanonk. Known to history as the “itinerating apostle of New Jersey,’’ he organized at least nine churches in New York and New Jersey and served in the pulpit of several of them over the course of his thirty-year ministry. Bertholf was a Pietist whose main influence was the Dutch preacher Jacobus Koelman. A pivotal figure in the religious history of New York and New Jersey, he bridged the theologies and religious culture of Reformation Europe

bicycling and the Great Awakening in America. In politics, he sided, as did many Pietists, with the Leislerians in Leisler’s Rebellion (–). ANB. Corwin, E. T., ed. Ecclesiastical Records of the State of New York. Vol. .  vols. Albany: J. B. Lyon, – .

See also Dutch Reformed Church

Firth Haring Fabend

Bertrand Island.

Bertrand Island was a beloved amusement park on Lake Hopatcong in Mount Arlington. In , Newark schoolteacher Louis Kraus gambled that people would take the long trip to Lake Hopatcong, way off in northwestern New Jersey, for a summer vacation or a day at the beach. He bought a small triangle-shaped island named for former owner Charles Bertrand and began assembling a complex that would include a hotel, dance hall, beach, concessions, and amusements. Soon trolley service was available from as far away as Elizabeth, and Kraus’s family resort was booming. A waterside roller coaster, built in , cemented Bertrand Island’s reputation as one of the great state amusement parks, and even though it never had more than two dozen rides, the park thrived on mostly local business for the next half century. Kraus sold Bertrand Island to Lorenzo D’Agostino in  and his family ran it until , when competition from megaparks and soaring land values forced Ray D’Agostino to shut it down. It left at least two lasting memories: Woody Allen used it for scenes in his  film, The Purple Rose of Cairo, and in  New Jersey’s only Miss America, Bette Cooper, started out as Miss Bertrand Island.

David Hinckley

Bessemer Trust.

An asset management firm, Bessemer Trust was founded in  by Henry Phipps, an associate of Andrew Carnegie, to handle the proceeds of Phipps’s $ million share of the sale of Carnegie Steel. Phipps named the trust for the steelmaking process that created his wealth. Bessemer Trust for years handled the money of the Phippses and related families and first began taking nonfamily clients in . An overhaul of the company in the s resulted in impressive growth. The company requires a minimum investment of $ million. Bessemer Trust is a subsidiary of the Bessemer Group, which is headquartered in Woodbridge.

David A. Norris

Beth Israel Hospital. See Newark Beth Israel Medical Center.

Bethlehem.

.-square-mile township in northwestern Hunterdon County. Bethlehem may have been surveyed as early as . The first European pioneers were Dutch,

followed by Germans. Initially, the township covered one-third of Hunterdon County, an area that included Kingwood, Alexandria, Holland, Franklin, and Union townships and the boroughs of Bloomsbury, Milford, and Frenchtown, as well as portions of Clinton and Hampton Township. The Musconetcong River forms the township’s northern border and the river valley makes an exceptionally beautiful setting for farms. As early as the mid-s iron was mined in the forested hills of southern Bethlehem, which also furnished wood for nearby iron furnaces. This Musconetcong Mountain area became known as Jugtown Mountain because of its concentration of distilleries that produced the applejack known as Jersey Lightning. The nearly mile-long railroad tunnel constructed under Musconetcong Mountain in the s was a significant engineering success. Near the end of the twentieth century, construction of Interstate Route  made Bethlehem an attractive location for commuters. When a large housing development threatened the beauty of the Musconetcong Valley in the late s, Bethlehem residents responded forcefully and innovatively. They successfully blocked the project, laying the groundwork for farmland and open space preservation. In ,  percent of the population of , was white. The median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Herdan, Andrew C. Union Township Rural Recollections. Flemington: Bradford Press, .

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Beverly.

.-square-mile city in Burlington County. Located along the Delaware River about three miles south of Burlington City, Beverly was originally known as Dunk’s Ferry. George Washington is believed to have planned several Continental Army engagements there during . The earliest settlers were members of the Van Sciver, Perkins, Wilmerton, and Adams families. Originally part of larger Beverly Township, Beverly was incorporated as a borough in  and as a city in . Numerous elegant homes were erected along Warren and Cooper streets, most of which still stand today. The early economy was largely mercantile, augmented in the s by a major rope works and a hosiery manufacturer. The city has remained largely residential throughout its more recent history. During the s, traditional rope, wire, and textile concerns left the city, leaving it economically distressed. Large homes, many dating back to the s, make up the bulk of the housing stock. In , the population of , was  percent white and  percent black. The median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Greco, Frank. A People’s Parish: Saint Joseph’s, Beverly, New Jersey: Its First One Hundred Years. Bryn Mawr, PA: Saint Joseph’s Church, . Woodward, E. M. History of Burlington County, New Jersey, with Biographical Sketches of Its Many Pioneers and Prominent Men. . Reprint. Burlington: Burlington County Historical Society, .

Riddle, Charles H. Colonial and Revolutionary Bethlehem Township. Flemington: Bradford Press, .

Jim Donnelly

Snell, James P. History of Hunterdon and Somerset Counties, New Jersey. Philadelphia: Everts and Peck, .

bicycling. Before , bicycling in New Jersey was a hazardous, acrobatic sport that featured a cycle with a five-foot-high front wheel and a foot-high rear wheel. The vehicle was difficult to mount, precarious to operate, and dangerous for inexperienced riders. Featured at the Centennial Exposition in Philadelphia in , the cycle gained limited popularity among daring young men in “wheelmen’s’’ clubs, particularly in Essex County. By  the high-wheeler had extended into rural areas. The Hezekiah B. Smith Machine Company of Mount Holly edged the high-wheeler closer to general ridership in  when it began making a modified version that enabled its rider to sit over rear-wheel pedals, with a front wheel about half the size of the propelling wheel. The two-wheeled “safety’’ bicycle revolutionized cycling. Introduced in , it featured two wheels each about thirty inches in diameter and was operated by pedals linked by chain to the rear wheel. Pneumatic tires replaced the solid rubber tires of old cycles, and a drop frame made the cycle feasible for long-skirted women. In appearance and basic operation the vehicle was in essence the same bicycle that is popular today. In addition to creating a broad-based sport, the bicycle became the primary means of transportation

Wacker, Peter O. The Musconetcong Valley of New Jersey. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

Mary Anne Adams

Beth

Medrash Govoha. Beth Medrash Govoha, a religious college, was founded during World War II in Lakewood by rabbinical scholar Aaron Kotler (–). Kotler, a leader of the Orthodox branch of Judaism, modeled the school after the yeshivas (academies for the study of the Torah) of Europe. The students concentrated solely on the study of the Talmud and other religious writings. Accredited by the Association of Advanced Rabbinical and Talmudic Schools, the college is today one of the best-known yeshivas in the world. Beth Medrash Govoha is popularly known as the “Lakewood Yeshiva’’ and has branches in other cities. Axel-Lute, Paul. Lakewood-in-the-Pines: A History of Lakewood, New Jersey. South Orange: By the author, .

See also higher education; Jews

David A. Norris

Bevans.

See Sandyston.

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bird counts

bird counts.

Since  the National Audubon Society has counted the number and species of birds during the Christmas season. This Christmas Bird Count (CBC) was started by Englewood ornithologist Frank M. Chapman as an alternative to the Christmas “Side Hunt,’’ when hunters would compete to see who could shoot the most birds. During the st CBC () there were twenty-seven -square-mile CBC circles in New Jersey. The National Audubon Society collaborates with BirdSource and with the Great Backyard Bird Count project at the Cornell University Ornithology Laboratory. The nonaffiliated New Jersey Audubon Society also sponsors bird counts and publishes the results in its journal, Records of New Jersey Birds.

Boyle, William J., Jr. A Guide to Bird Finding in New Jersey. d ed. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

Rutgers University Bicycle Club, c. .

Courtesy Special Collections and University Archives, Rutgers University Libraries, New Brunswick.

Graham, Frank. The Audubon Ark: A History of the National Audubon Society. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, .

Robert Egan until the advent of the automobile. America went bicycle mad. By  more than three hundred manufacturers were making safety bicycles and more than a million Americans owned them. The roads and lanes of  scarcely permitted horses to gallop, much less bicycle riders to speed. Ruts caught the wheels and rocks imperiled every rider. Cyclists fell victim to mud and sand alike and they let their legislators know it. Spurred by cyclist rage, New Jersey lawmakers appropriated seventyfive thousand dollars in  to start rebuilding the state’s roads—the first acknowledgment that the state was responsible for at least connecting roads. The Cape May Bicycle Road Improvement Association spent thousands of dollars of its own money in the s building bicycle paths beside the wretched roads. These extended first from Cape May to Goshen on the northwestern edge of town, then were quickly pushed through to Millville via Tuckerton. Because of traffic created by speeding visitors, Cape May imposed an eight-mile-per-hour speed limit. Young women cyclists, exulting in the freedom given them by bicycles, shed heavy corsets and wore shorter skirts. Shocked Cape May matrons formed the Anti-Bicycle Club to warn out-of-town girls that Cape May would not permit such immodesty. The female bike riders struck back in letters to the editor. They scoffed at the old-fashioned “antis’’ who affected “wasp waists, high necks, and trailing skirts.’’ A Cape May physician sided with the cyclers by declaring in a letter that “corsets fill more graves than whiskey.’’ Young men inevitably raced with one another, earning the nickname “scorchers.’’ They raced initially in sanctioned events at county fairs, then competed in long over-theroad contests. New Jersey’s main race, and in cycling’s early years the nation’s premier

cycling event, was the annual IrvingtonMillburn race on Memorial Day. The course measured twenty-five miles. This annual contest ended in . New Jersey’s longest-running cycling event is the Somerville tour, so called because laws forbade cycle racing on town streets but permitted “tours’’ of a town. Somerville’s, begun in  (but suspended during World War II), is run every year over a fifty-mile course. It is the oldest continuously run bicycle race in the country. Inevitably, many racers became professionals, thanks to competitions at such places as the wooden track velodromes in Newark (opened in ) and Nutley (opened in the early s). Both of the velodromes faded as World War II approached. The feats of New Jersey’s great bicycling professionals are highlighted in the United States Bicycling Hall of Fame, opened in Somerville in . Among New Jersey’s featured cyclists is Frank Kramer of Newark. He won his first national sprint championship in , was world sprint champion in , and holds eighteen United States championships. Kramer is believed by many to have been the greatest bicycle racer in history. Newspaper accounts reveal that in the s cyclists were among the most revered, and best paid, professional athletes in the world. Today New Jersey has over a dozen bicycle clubs that organize group rides and lobby for bike paths, which a number of towns have built. Detwiler, Kurt B. Coasting Along: A Bicycling Guide to the New Jersey Shore, Pine Barrens, and Delaware Bay Region. McLean, VA: EPM Publications, . New Jersey Bicycle Advisory Council. New Jersey Bicycle Advisory Council Report on Bicycling in New Jersey: Findings and Recommendations. Trenton: New Jersey Department of Transportation, .

John T. Cunningham

birds.

New Jersey avifauna includes about  species of birds that nest in the state and roughly  more species that occur here only as migrants each year. When the tally of bird life includes other species that are rarities or accidentals, the New Jersey total approaches , truly an impressive richness. From north to south the physiographic provinces provide an overview of nesting species. The Kittatinny Mountains have such northern birds as the dark-eyed junco, magnolia warbler, and common raven. The Kittatinny Valley, with its wet meadows, provides breeding territory for American coot, common snipe, and sora rail. The elevations of the Highlands sustain populations of winter wren, northern goshawk, and yellow-bellied sapsucker. Southward, the Piedmont is particularly noted for such grassland birds as the bobolink, Savannah sparrow, and ring-necked pheasant (a very important game species). On the Coastal Plain, a myriad of shore species include the laughing gull, snowy egret, and willet. The Pinelands have relatively few nesting species, such as the pine warbler and common nighthawk. Most of the common breeding birds of New Jersey are widely distributed: American robin, gray catbird, mourning dove, and northern cardinal, for example. True city dwellers include the starling, pigeon, and house sparrow. For many New Jersey observers, migration seasons are the highlights of the year, and the state has many spectacular concentration spots. At the Cape May peninsula, the fall migration of hawks, eagles, and falcons can total some fifty thousand birds of prey. There are also outstanding hawk flights along the state’s inland “mountains’’ (e.g., Montclair Hawk Watch on the first ridge of the Watchung Mountains and Sunrise Mountain Hawk Lookout on the Kittatinny ridge). Seabird migrations concentrate along our near shore zone,

birth control with hundreds of thousands of ocean birds passing. Counts are highest in autumn, and prime observation spots include Island Beach State Park and the shore at Avalon. The many ocean migrants include various sea ducks, cormorants, and loons. Songbird migrations are enjoyed throughout the state, spring and fall. Some of the best locations for landbird concentrations are suburban and urban forested parks and other wooded preserves (e.g., the Princeton Institute Woods). During early May, the migration waves of brightly colored warbler species are especially exciting. Waterfowl movements are most significant in the fall, with many game species among the ducks, swans, and mergansers. These birds are attracted to numerous marshes, lakes, and swamps throughout the state. Ornithological conservation concerns for New Jersey include rare and endangered species, grassland and wetland birds that are suffering habitat loss, and migrant species that are showing long-term population declines. The last group includes numerous deep-forested species (e.g., wood thrush), some of our wintering waterfowl, and many migrant sandpipers. New Jersey is fortunate in having many organizations involved in bird conservation and recreational uses, from birdwatching to hunting. An important umbrella group is the New Jersey Audubon Society and its affiliates. Contacts for fieldtrips can be found in most newspapers’ weekend sections, year-round. There are also many special birding festivals during migration periods, particularly in coastal counties. Boyle, William J., Jr. A Guide to Bird Finding in New Jersey. d ed. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . Leck, Charles F. The Status and Distribution of New Jersey’s Birds. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . Walsh, Joan, Vince Elia, Rich Kane, and Thomas Halliwell. Birds of New Jersey. Bernardsville: New Jersey Audubon Society, .

See also birds, colonial; shorebirds

Charles F. Leck

birds, colonial.

Colonial birds are birds that nest in breeding colonies of a few to several hundred pairs. Breeding colonies may be composed of one species or of many species. Colonial waterbirds include herons, egrets, ibises, gulls, terns, and skimmers, which normally nest along the coasts on barrier beaches, on salt-marsh islands, or in trees. Great blue herons (Ardea herodias) nest in trees near marshes and lakes throughout the state. In addition, some smaller species, such as boat-tailed grackles (Cassidix major) and red-winged blackbirds (Ageliaus phoeniceus), nest in marshes in emergent vegetation or shrubs. New Jersey has some of the most diverse and healthy populations of colonial birds nesting along the Atlantic coast, and it is the center of the breeding distribution of laughing gull (Larus atricilla). Birds nesting in

colonies derive advantages because they can have early warning of predators and group defense whereby members of the colony mob and attack predators. Usually, colonial birds nest in places, such as on islands and in trees, that are inaccessible to mammalian predators that approach on the ground. In addition to being threatened by predators, colonial birds nesting on the ground are vulnerable to flooding from heavy rains, tides, and storms. Those that nest on sandy beaches and salt-marsh islands are vulnerable to disturbance from people walking, jogging, and boating too close to their colonies. Partly for that reason, the number of colonial birds of several species has dwindled, and several are now threatened or endangered in New Jersey. Burger, Joanna. A Naturalist Along the Jersey Shore. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

See also birds

Joanna Burger

Birds Eye.

Clarence Birdseye, the father of frozen food, created the Birds Eye brand and trademark out of two words, because a name cannot become a trademark. Birdseye demonstrated his interest in food preparation as a student at Montclair High School, when he enrolled in a cooking course. He developed a fast-freezing process after living in Labrador and observing the results of quickly freezing a freshly caught fish. At the time, frozen food did not taste very good, but Birdseye discovered that a fish frozen immediately after it was caught in the icy Arctic retained its flavor when defrosted months later. Hoping to perfect a fast-freezing process for commercial food preparation, Birdseye returned to New Jersey and used the corner of an icehouse owned by a friend in which to experiment. He continued his work at the Clothel Refrigerating Company of Bayonne, where he observed the impact of quick-freezing on a variety of foods. In , with a group of investors, Birdseye formed Birdseye Seafoods in New York. After filing for bankruptcy in , the firm became General Seafoods and moved to Gloucester, Massachusetts, the next year. Through its Birds Eye brand, General Foods (the holding company that owned General Seafoods) became a leader in the frozenfoods industry. As early as , General Foods was lending plate freezers to such firms as Seabrook Farms, in Upper Deerfield, to enable them to freeze their produce. However, it took until World War II for Birds Eye to overcome consumer resistance to frozen foods and attract a national following. In , Birds Eye became part of Philip Morris. In , after Kraft was acquired by the conglomerate, Birds Eye became part of Philip Morris’s Kraft General Foods subsidiary. In , Birds Eye was sold to Dean Foods Company. Birds Eye’s current owner is Agrilink Foods, a subsidiary of Pro-Fac Cooperative, which purchased Birds Eye in .

77

Shephard, Sue. Pickled, Potted and Canned. New York: Simon and Schuster, .

See also Seabrook Farms

Elaine L. Schwartz

bird-watching. New Jersey’s small size and varied habitat make it one of the best states for bird-watching (or birding, as enthusiasts call it) in the eastern United States. Over three hundred species of birds are spotted in the state annually. New Jersey is fortunate in having a large percentage of its land preserved in private, county, state, and federal parks, forests, and wildlife refuges— all excellent bird-watching venues. Coastal Cape May State Park and nearby Higbee Beach Wildlife Management Area, Forsythe National Wildlife Refuge near Atlantic City, and the Sandy Hook Unit of Gateway National Recreation Area are the most popular spots. Inland locations such as High Point State Park, Garret Mountain Reservation (Passaic County), Great Swamp National Wildlife Refuge (Morris County), Lebanon State Forest, Parvin State Park (Salem County), and many others also offer good birding. Bird-watching in New Jersey originated with the scientific studies of pioneering ornithologists John James Audubon and Alexander Wilson, who were active in the state in the early nineteenth century. As a hobby, however, bird-watching began in earnest with the fieldwork of Witmer Stone and the Philadelphia-based Delaware Valley Ornithological Club. Together they discovered the wonders of Cape May and southern New Jersey in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Since the s, Charles Urner of Elizabeth and his friends (in what is now the Urner Club) explored the northern marshes and highlands of the state. Today, these clubs have been joined by the twenty-thousandmember New Jersey Audubon Society and numerous local organizations to provide and promote birding opportunities statewide. Boyle, William J., Jr. A Guide to Bird Finding in New Jersey. d ed. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . Stone, Witmer. Bird Studies at Old Cape May. . Reprint. New York: Stackpole Books, . Walsh, Joan, Vince Elia, Rich Kane, and Thomas Halliwell. Birds of New Jersey. Bernardsville: New Jersey Audubon Society, .

William J. Boyle, Jr.

birth control.

Since ancient times, women have attempted to control reproduction with various contraceptive elixirs and barriers. The diaphragm was developed during the nineteenth century, but many women lacked access to and education about using this device. The  Comstock Laws relegated contraceptive literature to the category of obscenity, so distributing birth control information could be considered unlawful. Margaret Sanger, a visiting nurse who served the poor

78

Bitter, Karl Theodore Francis

in New York City, defied the laws and started publishing information on contraception in . The American Birth Control League was founded in  in New York City, where Sanger opened the Birth Control Clinical Research Bureau, the first permanent birth control clinic in the United States, in . During the s, birth control organizations were created throughout the United States. In the Greater Camden area, a group of physicians’ wives arranged health services for women. A  study demonstrated that over  percent of the clients at a birth control clinic in Newark had already used some type of birth control. The Maternal Health League sponsored a birth control clinic that opened in Camden in . The Birth Control Federation of America was formed in ; the name was changed to Planned Parenthood Federation of America, in . Today there are five Planned Parenthood agencies in New Jersey, which operate thirty-three health centers that serve , women, men, and teenagers annually, with education and a wide range of birth control services. In  Gregory Goodwin Pincus developed the first oral contraceptive, using estrogen and progestin in a series of tablets that prevented ovulation. The birth control pill was approved by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) on May , , and within two years was used by . million American women. In , the Supreme Court ruling on Roe v. Wade ended state laws that made abortion a crime, giving women the option of ending a pregnancy safely. New Jersey’s pharmaceutical companies played an important role in family planning. During the s, Johnson & Johnson, in New Brunswick, developed the nation’s first contraceptive jelly. Ortho Pharmaceutical, in Raritan, brought out its first birth control pill in  and continued to improve the product, introducing effective pills with lower levels of hormones, pills that more closely match the natural hormonal rhythm, and a progestinonly pill for women unable to tolerate estrogen. In , Ortho-McNeil initiated the Ortho Annual Birth Control Study, tracking women’s attitudes toward contraceptives, as well as usage and effectiveness. In May , Ortho-McNeil commemorated the fortieth anniversary of the birth control pill by donating an original Ortho Dialpak Tablet Dispenser and advertising literature to the Smithsonian Institution National Museum of American History, which accepted the items for its Science, Medicine, and Society collection. Berlex Laboratories, in Wayne, another producer of contraceptives, established the Berlex Foundation in  to encourage education and research in reproductive medicine. Organon, in West Orange, is researching new types of contraceptives, including new compounds for birth control pills and more convenient methods of delivering contraceptive medications.

Diczfalusy, Egon. The Contraceptive Revolution: An Era of Scientific and Social Development. New York: Parthenon, . Dreifus, Claudia, ed. Seizing Our Bodies: The Politics of Women’s Health. New York: Vintage Books, . Gordon, Linda. Woman’s Body, Woman’s Right: A Social History of Birth Control in America. New York: Grossman, .

Pamela Cooper

Bitter, Karl Theodore Francis

(b.

Dec. , ; d. Apr. , ). Sculptor. Born in Vienna, Karl Bitter studied at the School of Applied Arts from  to , and beginning in  at the Imperial Academy of Fine Arts. He immigrated to New York City in . After establishing a studio on East Thirteenth Street, Bitter began his career in public sculpture on projects for major architects, including Richard Morris Hunt and George B. Post. Within a short time, his work began to adorn the residences of the Vanderbilts, Astors, and Rockefellers. He designed the bronze gates of Trinity Church in lower Manhattan (–), the ornament for Hunt’s Administration Building at the  World’s Columbian Exhibition in Chicago, and the sculptural decoration for Post’s Wisconsin State Capitol (–). He also created important full-length sculpture; a major example is the famous Pomona, the centerpiece of the fountain in front of New York’s Plaza Hotel (). His most significant New Jersey commission is Faded Flowers, a relief on the Prehn Mausoleum at Cedar Lawn Cemetery in Paterson (–). In  Bitter built a house and studio in Weehawken, where, in , he brought his bride, Marie Schevill. In  the Bitters and

their children moved back to New York, but retained the Weehawken studio. In  Bitter became chief of the Sculpture Department at the Panama-Pacific Exposition, the same year that he was tragically killed by an automobile as he crossed a Manhattan street. Bzdak, Meredith Arms. Public Sculpture in New Jersey: Monuments to Collective Identity. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . Dennis, James M. Karl Bitter: Architectural Sculptor, –. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, .

See also art

Barbara J. Mitnick

Bivalve.

See Commercial Township.

Bivalve Research Station. In  Dr. Julius Nelson, the first biologist of the New Jersey Agricultural Experiment Station, founded the New Jersey Oyster Investigations Laboratory. Research stations were established in Monmouth Beach, Barnegat, Tuckerton, Green Creek, and Bivalve. The laboratory is now part of the Institute of Marine and Coastal Sciences at Rutgers, with a main laboratory at Bivalve (now the Haskin Shellfish Research Laboratory) on the Maurice River in Cumberland County, and a research hatchery (Cape Shore Facility) on the Delaware Bayshore in Cape May County. The laboratory’s principal mission is to conduct practical and basic research in support of shellfisheries. See also oysters Susan E. Ford

black bear. The American black bear (Ursus americanus) inhabits the forested regions of northern New Jersey. Never extirpated,

Black bears reside in the northern forests of the state.

Courtesy The Star-Ledger

Blackwell, Antoinette Brown black bear numbers have been increasing and their range expanding since the s. Today, it is estimated that around , black bears live in the state. Prime habitat consists of mixed hardwood forests, dense swamps, and forested wetlands. Bears are highly adaptable, living in and among human developments. Home-range sizes can range up to sixty square miles for males and ten square miles for females. Bears can live more than twenty years. Although classified as carnivores, black bears are omnivorous, eating plant and animal matter. Bears are opportunistic feeders dependent on a seasonally abundant food supply. Approximately  percent of their diet consists of plant material, including skunk cabbage, grasses, forbs, tubers and bulbs, soft mast (blueberries, huckleberries, raspberries, blackberries, wild cherries) and hard mast (acorns, beechnuts, hickory nuts). Animal matter includes bees and other insects (adults, larvae, and eggs), small mammals, white-tailed deer fawns, and road-killed deer and other carrion. Their diet is supplemented with scavenged human-derived food. Adult females average  pounds; adult males average  pounds. Breeding season runs from late May until August, peaking in June and July. Both sexes are promiscuous. The fertilized egg implants on the uterus in November or December. Cubs are born in January, weigh about eight ounces, are blind, and are covered with thin hair. Average litter size is three, ranging from one to six. Cubs travel with the female until she breeds again, sixteen to eighteen months later. Black bears den for the winter, becoming dormant to avoid periods of food shortages and severe weather. Bears do not eat, drink, urinate, or defecate while denning. Den sites include rock cavities, brush piles, open nests, and hollow trees. Chapman, J. A. and G. A. Feldhamer, eds. Wild Mammals of North America: Biology, Management, and Economics. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, .

Patrick C. Carr

Black People’s Unity Movement. The most potent manifestation of black power in Camden, the Black People’s Unity Movement (BPUM) combined a program of militancy and self-help with the ability to affect policy. Founded in  by Charles “Poppy’’ Sharp after he was inspired by the appearance in the city of activist H. Rap Brown, BPUM quickly moved beyond passive civil rights tactics to confrontation. In addressing discrimination in public housing, displacement by urban renewal, and harassment from the police, BPUM disrupted meetings, marched in the streets, and occupied buildings to dramatize its agenda. Although the organization gained the support of a number of white clergy, the city’s government fought it bitterly, even attempting to discredit Sharp by planting heroin in his office. (Subsequent police

testimony prompted dismissal of the charges.) BPUM’s tone changed in the early s, as its emphasis shifted to economic development and as some of its members, including Sharp, were appointed to city positions. One leader, Melvin Primas, became the city’s first African American mayor in . By the s, much of BPUM’s energy had dissipated. Most of its business enterprises, with the exception of day care centers, had shut down, and its influence had waned. Although still in existence at the time of Poppy Sharp’s death in , the organization was but a shell of its former self. See also African Americans

Howard Gillette, Jr.

Black Tom. At : a.m. on July , , a tremendous explosion destroyed a depot known as Black Tom that jutted out from Jersey City into the Hudson River. The explosion smashed windows on both sides of the Hudson, and shrapnel from the blast pierced the Statue of Liberty. Although the loss of life was minimal, property damage was estimated at $ million, including the total destruction of the Black Tom depot. It was not surprising that Black Tom could explode, since it was a place where ammunition and armaments were removed from freight trains and loaded onto ships. The munitions were shipped by companies in the neutral United States to the Allied armies who were fighting against the Germans on the Western Front. There was much speculation about what touched off the explosion (a careless fire set by a workman was one theory), but the real cause was no accident; it was deliberate sabotage. Count Johann-Heinrich von Bernstorff, the German ambassador to the United States, had been funded by the German government to set up a network of saboteurs to destroy the war supplies that the Allied powers were able to purchase. Germany was prevented from buying them by the British Navy’s blockade of the continent. Saboteurs in the pay of von Bernstorff probably sneaked onto Black Tom at night and set fires that ignited the ammunition. Black Tom was only one of the targets. Less than six months later, another explosion occurred at a factory in Bergen County that manufactured artillery shells for the Russian army. Other cases of sabotage occurred on ships, docks, and trains. The United States subsequently entered World War I on the side of the Allies. After the war, the owners of Black Tom and other properties brought their claims for damage before a joint German-American commission. It was not until  that the commission determined that Germany was indeed responsible for the sabotage. By that time, another war had begun in Europe. Mappen, Marc. Jerseyana: The Underside of New Jersey History. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . Witcover, Jules. Sabotage at Black Tom: Imperial Germany’s Secret War against America, –.

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Chapel Hill, NC: Algonquin Books of Chapel Hill, .

See also World War I

Marc Mappen

Blackwell, Antoinette Brown

(b.

May , ; d. Nov. , ). Minister, reformer,

writer, and lecturer. Born to farming parents in Upstate New York, Antoinette Brown experienced a religious conversion at the unusually young age of nine. In  she received her degree from Oberlin College’s Ladies Literary Course, but was denied subsequent graduation with male theological students. However, Oberlin granted her an honorary A.M. in  and an honorary Doctor of Divinity degree in . Despite family objections, Blackwell lectured on behalf of women’s rights, antislavery, and temperance and served as guest preacher in New England, New York, Pennsylvania, and Ohio. She attended women’s rights and temperance conventions. Although an accredited delegate to the  World’s Temperance Convention, she was shouted down on two successive days by delegates opposed to public speaking by women. On September , , Blackwell was ordained for the service of the Congregational Church in Butler, New York, the first woman known to be formally ordained in the United States. Already controversial, Blackwell stirred strong criticism by such actions as conducting a funeral for an illegitimate infant and refusing to frighten a dying boy into conversion, issues of great importance among members of her Calvinist congregation. In  she resigned her pastorate to work on behalf of immigrants, the poor, the disabled, and the imprisoned in New York City. Her essays about these experiences appeared in the New York Tribune.

Antoinette Brown Blackwell.

Courtesy Special Collections and University Archives, Rutgers University Libraries, New Brunswick.

80

Blackwood

She married Samuel C. Blackwell, who was in the hardware business and also invested in real estate, in . Each of the children born to the couple received the double name Brown Blackwell, most unusual in a nineteenth-century family. After the birth of their third daughter, the couple moved to Millburn, New Jersey, and then in , to Somerville. Blackwell combined homemaking with three hours daily of research and writing about religion, philosophy, and science. In  Blackwell and her close friend, Lucy Stone, petitioned the New Jersey legislature to have the words “white male’’ stricken from voting qualifications in the state constitution. Also in , Blackwell helped to found the New Jersey Woman Suffrage Association and served as vice president from  to . In , she helped to found the American Woman Suffrage Association, was elected vice president from New Jersey, and wrote for the association’s journal. That same year Blackwell published Studies in General Science, and in this work as well as in The Physical Basis of Immortality (), she tried to reconcile the beliefs of science and religion. She published further metaphysical reflections in The Philosophy of Individuality or the One and the Many (). In Sexes Throughout Nature (), Blackwell challenged both Darwin and Herbert Spencer, arguing that women and men contributed equally to the evolutionary process. She also wrote a novel, The Island Neighbors (), and a book of poetry, Sea Drift or Tribute to the Ocean (). Blackwell was elected a member of the American Association for the Advancement of Science in . As vice president of the Association for the Advancement of Women, she worked with the astronomer Maria Mitchell to encourage women to study science. Blackwell was president of the New Jersey Woman Suffrage Association from  to . She also served as the first vice president of the New Jersey State Federation of Women’s Clubs. After her husband died in , Blackwell moved to Elizabeth, where she helped to found All Souls Unitarian Church, and, as pastor emeritus, she preached there until ; she was recognized as one who opened the ministry up as a vocation for women in this country. She published two more books, The Making of the Universe () and The Social Side of Mind and Action (). She continued preaching and writing into her nineties, and lived to see the passage of the woman’s suffrage amendment and to vote in the presidential election of . Cazden, Elizabeth. Antoinette Brown Blackwell: A Biography. Old Westbury, NY: Feminist Press, . Merrill, Marlene Deahl, and Carol Lasser, eds. Friends and Sisters: Letters between Lucy Stone and Antoinette Brown Blackwell, –. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, . Women’s Project of New Jersey. Past and Promise: Lives of New Jersey Women. Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, .

Barbara Hilkert Andolsen

John Blair.

Courtesy Special Collections and University Archives, Rutgers University Libraries, New Brunswick.

Blackwood.

See Gloucester Township.

Blair, John Insley (b. Aug. , ; d. Dec. , ). Railroad magnate and philanthropist.

John Blair was born near Belvidere in Sussex County, the son of James and Rachel Insley Blair. At the age of eleven, he went to work in a country store and by  was a partner in a store in Gravel Hill. Blair began to invest in ironworks, mills, and other industries before buying a railroad to serve his Lackawanna Iron and Coal Company. His railroad became the Delaware, Lackawanna, and Western Railroad in . Blair increasingly invested in railroads in the Midwest and the West, including the Union Pacific. The community of Gravel Hill, where Blair lived, was named Blairstown in his honor when it incorporated in . In  he set up the Blair Presbyterian Academy there. Over the years, he donated money to construct churches and public buildings in Blairstown, as well as Blair Hall at Princeton University. He was said to have contributed generously to more than one hundred churches established in the eighty towns he laid out along his railroads. Besides Blairstown, New Jersey, towns in Iowa, Nebraska, Nevada, and Wisconsin were likewise named for Blair. Blair served as a delegate to several Republican conventions and ran unsuccessfully for governor of New Jersey in . DAB.

David A. Norris

Blairstown. .-square-mile township in Warren County. Blairstown, located along the eastern slope of Kittatinny Mountain and in

the Paulinskill Valley, was set off from Knowlton Township in . The region was settled by Europeans in the early eighteenth century, with farming and milling its primary occupations. The village of Blairstown is located on the Paulinskill River. The Paulinskill powered a number of mills, and the village included stores, a tavern, and a hotel. Originally Smith’s Mills, it became Blairstown in , as did the township six years later. Both were named in honor of John I. Blair, the industrious local merchant whose business interests expanded into milling, iron mines, and the iron and coal business. Blair’s empire ultimately included massive railroad holdings, including the Delaware, Lackawanna, and Western Railroad, making him a wealthy magnate. Blair founded Blair Academy, still a notable preparatory school, in . In the late nineteenth century lakes in the region attracted summer vacationers, fall and winter hunters, and fishermen. Today the community is largely residential, although farms remain. In , the population of , was  percent white. The median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Bertholf, Kenneth Jr. Blairstown. Charleston, SC: Arcadia, . Gleason, June Benore. Historical Paulinskill Valley, New Jersey: Blairstown’s Neighbors. Blairstown: Blairstown Press, . Snell, James P. History of Sussex and Warren Counties, N.J. Philadelphia: Everts and Peck, .

Ronald J. Dupont, Jr.

Blakelock, Ralph Albert ; d. Aug. , ).

(b. Oct. ,

Painter. Ralph Albert Blakelock was born to Caroline Olinarg Carry and Dr. Ralph B. Blakelock, a homeopathic physician, in New York City, where he attended the public schools. In  he enrolled at the Free Academy of the City of New York, but withdrew after only three years. On February , , he married Cora Rebecca Bailey, with whom he had nine children. For much of their lives, the family lived in various towns outside of Newark. A sense of mysticism characterizes Blakelock’s work, especially his moonlit images painted mostly in the s, which emphasize mood rather than the specifics of the landscape he depicts. In these landscapes, the details become obscured by the heavy application of paint, and the moon provides a sense of pulsating light, creating a supernatural world. Native Americans, whom he encountered during his various trips to the West, often inhabit this mystical world. Feeling a personal sympathy toward them, seeing them as a vanishing race, he often depicted them as if they were receding into the background. Beginning in the early s, Blakelock spent time in and out of asylums and eventually was diagnosed with schizophrenia. He died in the Adirondacks in .

Bloomfield College Davidson, Abraham A. Ralph Albert Blakelock. University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, .

See also art

Ashley L. Atkins

Blank and Company. See Henry Blank and Company.

Blauvelt House and Art Museum. An outstanding example of late nineteenthcentury domestic architecture, the imposing Shingle style Atwood-Blauvelt mansion () and its carriage house were built for Kimball C. Atwood, a New York businessman; Freed W. Wentworth was the architect. The house, on a slope west of Kinderkamack Road in Oradell, has exceptional views over the Hackensack to the Palisades beyond. Purchased in  by Mr. and Mrs. Elmer Blauvelt and christened Bluefield (the English translation of the Dutch family name), it was bequeathed by Hiram Bellis Demarest Blauvelt to the Blauvelt Demarest Foundation. The foundation carried out a sensitive renovation of the carriage house, which is now the Hiram Blauvelt Art Museum, a leading center for wildlife art. See also museums

product. Polident denture cleanser and its offshoots, such as Smokers’ Polident, are among Block’s major sellers. The company produces a number of denture adhesives—including Poli-Grip and Super Poli-Grip—as well as the many varieties of Sensodyne toothpaste. Block Drug incorporated in  and went public in . In  Block acquired some of the assets of Mynol, which supplied dentists with guttapercha, a latex substance used in dental procedures. Block is now a leader in selling such professional items as dental instruments, X-ray film mounts, and sterilization systems directly to dentists. The acquisition of Flushco brought Block into the toilet cleanser industry, where it achieved a substantial portion of the market with the  Flushes family of products, including  Flushes Blue and  Flushes Powder Foam. Block is also known for therapeutic shampoos such as Tegrin and Kwell as well as a range of dermatological products. In  Block Drug was a $ million company. GlaxoSmithKline acquired Block in January . Barr, Stephen. New Jersey: Setting the Pace for the Twenty-first Century. Encino, CA: Cherbo Publishing, .

See also pharmaceutical industry

Pamela Cooper

David C. Major and John S. Major

Blauwenburg. Blish, James

See Montgomery. (b. May , ; d. July ,

). Science fiction writer and critic. Born

in East Orange, Blish graduated from Rutgers University and studied zoology at Columbia University. While still a student, he published work in pulp magazines and developed a distinctively literary style. Blish was among the first to employ ideas from biology in science fiction and to apply principles of literary criticism to the field. Several of his works, such as A Case of Conscience (), “Surface Tension’’ (), and the Cities in Flight tetralogy, have achieved classic status. Author of more than thirty books, Blish gained popular renown only after he wrote novelizations of the Star Trek television episodes. He died in Harpsden, England. Blish, James. The Best of James Blish. Ed. Robert A. W. Lowndes. New York, Ballantine, . Ketterer, David. Imprisoned in a Tesseract: The Life and Work of James Blish. Kent, OH: Kent State University Press, .

See also literature

Henry Wessells

Block Drug Company.

Started by Alexander Block as a small drugstore in Jersey City in , this company became a drug wholesaler in  and a drug manufacturer by . In the s the company made a number of acquisitions, including Pycopay toothbrushes and Romilar cough syrup, and developed a dental powder, the first Polident

Bloomfield, Joseph

(b. Oct. , ;

d. Oct. , ). Governor, politician, military

officer, and lawyer. Born in Woodbridge to Sarah Ogden and Moses Bloomfield, Joseph Bloomfield was educated at the Rev. Enoch Green’s classical school in Deerfield and later studied law with Cortland T. Skinner, colonial attorney general in Perth Amboy. Just as he started practice as an attorney in Bridgeton in  the Revolution broke out, and in February  he obtained a commission as a captain in the New Jersey militia. He was stationed in New York’s Mohawk Valley and Fort Ticonderoga and saw action at Brandywine and Monmouth. Bloomfield was promoted to major and then judge advocate of the Army of the North. Illness forced his resignation in , and in December of that year he married Mary McIlvane. In  he was elected attorney general of New Jersey, reelected in , and resigned in . In  he commanded a brigade to suppress the Whiskey Rebellion. Initially a Federalist, he became a Republican in the late s out of opposition to the foreign and domestic policies of President John Adams. Elected governor in , he cemented Republican domination of New Jersey politics during the first decade of the nineteenth century. Bloomfield pushed for the passage of legislation in  for the gradual abolition of slavery. Except during the deadlocked  legislature, Bloomfield was reelected as governor until June , when he resigned to become a brigadier general in the War of .

81

After the war, he ran for Congress in  and won a second term in  before retiring in March . While in Congress he led a campaign for benefits for Revolutionary War veterans. His first wife died in , and he married Isabella Macomb in . Three years later Bloomfield died in Burlington from injuries sustained in a carriage accident. ANB. Prince, Carl E. New Jersey’s Jeffersonian Republicans: the Genesis of an Early Party Machine, – . Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina, . Stellhorn, Paul A., and Michael J. Birkner, eds. The Governors of New Jersey, –: Biographical Essays. Trenton: New Jersey Historical Commission, .

See also governor

Harvey Strum

Bloomfield.

.-square-mile township in Essex County. European immigrants first settled the area in  as Wardesson, one of the three wards of Newark. The waterpower provided by the Second River, Third River, and Toney’s Brook attracted settlers who built sawmills, gristmills, and later paper mills and tanneries. In addition, large deposits of sandstone led to quarry operations that provided building material for New York City brownstones as early as . The Revolutionary War affected the area mostly through foraging raids by British and Hessian troops. After the war the town was renamed for Revolutionary War general Joseph Bloomfield. A major textile industry expansion centered on the production of cottons and fine woolens followed incorporation in . Current industrial operations produce aluminum aerosol cans, collapsible tubes, flags, and pet supplies. In addition to the historic green, used as a parade and military training ground since  and designated a National Historic Landmark in , there are extensive outdoor recreation areas, including  acres of municipal parks,  acres of county parks, and three private golf courses. In , the population of , was  percent white,  percent Asian,  percent black, and  percent Hispanic (Hispanics may be of any race). The median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Diamond, Rachel F. One Hundred Fifty Years around the Green: A Brief History of Bloomfield, New Jersey, –. Bloomfield: Bloomfield’s th Anniversary Committee, . Free Public Library of Bloomfield. Bloomfield, New Jersey. Bloomfield: Independent Press, .

James A. Kaser

Bloomfield College.

Throughout its history, Bloomfield College has focused, and refocused, its mission on students who were not from the American mainstream. The college began in Bloomfield in  as the German Theological School. Its mission

Bloomingdale

Taylor, Harry T. Bloomfield College: The First Century, –. Bloomfield: Bloomfield College, .

See also higher education

Steve Golin

Bloomingdale. .-square-mile borough on the north side of the Pequannock River in central Passaic County. Bloomingdale was set off from Pompton Township as a separate borough in . Bloomingdale Furnace, built here circa , relied on waterpower from the Pequannock. It was followed by Ryerson’s Forge, as well as a gristmill and a sawmill, which operated into the nineteenth century. In the winter of , Continental troops quartered here protested their conditions in the Pompton Mutiny. In the nineteenth century the village continued to rely on industry, with paper, wood, and rubber mills operating through the early twentieth century. The New Jersey Midland Railroad arrived in . There are a number of lake communities and older village centers in the southern portion of the borough, while the northern portion includes Norvin Green State Forest. In , the population of , was  percent white. The median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Salvini, Emil R. Historic Bloomingdale. Lyndhurst: Colorama Historical Publications, .

Ronald J. Dupont, Jr.

Bloomsbury. .-square-mile borough in Hunterdon County. Bloomsbury was once part of Bethlehem Township; it became a separate political entity on March , . The

borough is surrounded on three sides by Bethlehem Township. The fourth and longest side lies along the Musconetcong River, which separates Hunterdon County from Warren County. Passing through the borough is the road once known as the New Jersey Turnpike, which was the main road from New Brunswick, New Jersey, to Easton, Pennsylvania. The borough name was derived from the prominent early settlers, the Bloom family. High schoolers attend school in Phillipsburg, Warren County, because it is considerably closer than the nearest high school in Hunterdon County. According to the  census, this residential community had a population of , of which  percent was white. The median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Snyder, John P. The Story of New Jersey’s Civil Boundaries, –. Trenton: Bureau of Geology and Topography, .

Stephanie B. Stevens

Bloor, Ella Reeve “Mother’’

(b.

July , ; d. Aug. , ).

Political radical, labor organizer, and public speaker. Ella Bloor was raised in Bridgeton, where her father was a pharmacist. When she was nineteen, she married Lucien Ware and moved to Haddonfield, and later lived with her family in Woodstown and Woodbury. At first active locally in the woman’s suffrage and temperance movements, Bloor went on to become a labor organizer, a contributor to socialist newspapers, and a Socialist candidate for lieutenant governor of New York. Following the Russian Revolution, she was a founding member of the American Communist Party. During the s and s, Bloor acted as a Communist Party spokesperson, an advocate for labor and civil rights, and an outspoken opponent of fascism. Her autobiography, We Are Many, was published in . She was married three times and had eight children. Bloor, Ella Reeve. We Are Many. New York: International Publishers, .

See also labor movement

Alan Singer

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CULTIVATED BLUBERRY PRODUCTION 150

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1998 1999 2000 2001

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was to train German immigrants for the Presbyterian ministry. Two of the initial four faculty taught in German, the others in English. When the number of German students declined, the college accepted other immigrants, especially Hungarians, and in  became the Bloomfield Theological Seminary. When the seminary itself began to decline, the institution redefined itself as Bloomfield College and Seminary in , then Bloomfield College in . Lacking a large endowment, the college periodically suffered financial crises. In , claiming financial exigency, President Merle Allshouse abolished tenure. The faculty formed a union, which took the college to court and won. Forced to reestablish tenure, Allshouse declared Chapter  bankruptcy. The college overcame the crisis of the s as it had overcome crises in the s, s, and s. Today the college is a four-year, private institution, enrolling approximately two thousand students, with a nonwhite majority and representing more than fifty nationalities. Under President John Noonan, Bloomfield College rediscovered its urban mission, winning national recognition in the s for its embrace of diversity.

millions of pounds

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in Whitesbog, Burlington County, who domesticated the wild blueberry. Elizabeth White, after whose father the town of Whitesbog was named, recognized the potentially widespread commercial value of the fruit. In  a botanist named Frederick V. Coville joined forces with White. Together they selected plants from the wild and made thousands of crosses between the plants they had in their collection. Many of the highbush blueberry varieties that we have today are either their selections or are direct descendants from their crosses. The New Jersey highbush blueberry industry is thriving; eight thousand acres of cultivated blueberries are evenly divided between Atlantic and Burlington counties. New Jersey growers produce  million pounds of blueberries annually, worth in excess of $ million. Current blueberry research is based at Chatsworth at the Phillip E. Marucci Center for Blueberry/Cranberry Research and Extension. United States Department of Agriculture and Rutgers University researchers continue plant breeding and selection for insect and disease control, fertility, and the beneficial medicinal components of blueberries. Eck, Paul. Blueberry Science. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

See also agriculture

Gary C. Pavlis

blueberries.

Commercial blueberries belong to the Vaccinium genus. Of major economic importance are three species: the highbush blueberry, V. corymbosum L; the lowbush blueberry, V. angustifolium Aiton; and the rabbiteye blueberry, V. ashei Reade. Most of the worldwide blueberry production comes from the highbush blueberry, although lowbush and rabbiteye types are important in the northeastern and southwestern regions of North America. The highbush blueberry was “invented’’ here in New Jersey. Though native Indians used the prolific fruit as a dye, enjoyed it in stew, combined it with venison in a dish they called pemmican, and dried it, it was a woman

blue crab.

Callinectes sapidus is a member of the family Portunidae, distinguished by having the ends of its fifth pair of legs modified into paddles; its scientific name means “beautiful swimmer.’’ Blue crabs have an olive or bluish green back, which tapers to a thick spine on the left and right sides, bright blue on the bottom and inside “elbow’’ of their claws, and mature females have red claw tips. They can grow to nine inches from spine to spine and are found in bays and estuaries from Uruguay to Cape Cod, but move into ocean and fresh water. All brackish water systems in New Jersey host populations, but the population size varies from year to year.

boats

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Males produce a chemical to attract females for mating; females carry eggs on their abdomens that appear as a yellow-orange mass called sponge. Females move toward the ocean to release tiny larvae that spend approximately thirty days swimming in the surface waters before settling down to the bottom as a “first crab.’’ Blue crabs must shed their shells (molt) in order to grow. During the time it takes for the new shell to harden (thirty-six to forty-eight hours), they are commercially prized as soft-shelled crabs. New Jersey has a commercial and a large recreational fishery for hard- and soft-shelled crabs. Gosner, Kenneth L. A Field Guide to the Atlantic Seashore. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, . MacKenzie, Clyde L. The Fisheries of Raritan Bay. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . Warner, William W. Beautiful Swimmers. Boston: Little, Brown, .

Angela Cristini

Blue Cross and Blue Shield of New Jersey. See Horizon Blue Cross and

Strollers on the Boardwalk in Atlantic City, .

Courtesy Vicki Gold Levi.

Blue Shield of New Jersey.

bluefish.

Pomatomus saltatrix is a migratory species of fish found in oceanic and Atlantic coastal waters from Nova Scotia to Argentina, and in the Gulf of Mexico from Florida to Texas. Bluefish are aggressive and have a voracious appetite, making them a popular game fish. Schools of young bluefish or “snappers’’ enter tidal bays and estuaries, following schools of smaller fish, where they feed as long as food is present and will even regurgitate if full to continue feeding. Bluefish are greenish blue and have a sturdy, compressed body, a large head, and prominent canine teeth. Mature by two years of age, they have been known to bite bathers. They are one of the most common fish in the waters off New Jersey from May until early November. See also fishes; fishing

Sue Bennett Canale

boardwalks. The world’s first permanent boardwalk, a structure of plank boards built on posts raised over the beach, is credited to Atlantic City in . Other places claim antecedents, typically portable wood planks laid directly on the sand. The idea of the boardwalk has been attributed to a desire to reduce the amount of sand tracked into railroad cars and hotels. Although conservative interests in Atlantic City opposed the boardwalk plan, its creation was the spark that turned the place into the nation’s premier coastal resort. The first boardwalk was a modest affair, only eight feet wide. The fifth boardwalk erected in – by the Phoenix Bridge Company stood twelve feet above the sand and was sixty feet wide near the big hotels. In time, it stretched for nearly ten miles from Absecon Inlet to Longport. Also known by other names, including

promenade and esplanade, the Atlantic City structure was officially designated Boardwalk with a capital “B’’ by municipal ordinance in . Erected in other Shore communities, boardwalks developed individual characters that often became the focal point of the town. William Nelson in his  The New Jersey Coast in Three Centuries described the Atlantic City Boardwalk as “the one great resort,’’ while Asbury Park’s was “the grand plaza for the entire populace, residential and visiting.’’ Boardwalks early assumed a raffish atmosphere, a quality inferred from the name of Cape May’s “Flirtation Walk.’’ Boardwalks permitted mingling of the sexes with an openness rare in nineteenth-century America. The presence or absence of business helped shape a boardwalk’s character. Some towns, such as Spring Lake, Sea Girt, and Avon, banned amusements. The best-remembered boardwalks, some of which have endured into the twenty-first century, are the fun places, which include Asbury Park, Point Pleasant Beach, Seaside Heights, and Wildwood. There, boardwalks, often with piers extending from them, became home to rides, games of chance and so-called skill, side shows, souvenir shops, popular entertainment of the moment, and food stands. One staple, saltwater taffy, became big business when marketed as a gift and take-home souvenir. Boardwalks are vulnerable to the elements and require regular off-season maintenance through replacement of planks, accomplished at times with nonwood materials, including plastic, or the rebuilding of sections with macadamized pavement. Storms have caused regular destruction, notably in  and , while fire claimed boardwalks in Ocean City in  and Seaside Heights in . The social and lifestyle costs of a boardwalk’s

presence resulted in some towns not rebuilding following destruction. Other towns have shortened their length, as in Long Branch, where the city’s character changed from resort to residential and the boardwalk from amusement to exercise. A broken network of boardwalks exists from Raritan Bay to Cape May. Some pieces are mere short strips of planking by the shore, while others are now primarily physical fitness trails. However, amusements, supported substantially by day-tripping crowds, continue their century-long tradition at stalwart resorts such as Point Pleasant Beach, Seaside Heights, and Wildwood. The boardwalk as a state of mind exists in Keansburg, where streetlevel pavement lined with traditional amusements is still known as “the boardwalk’’ long after storms obliterated the elevated plank walkway. Cunningham, John. The New Jersey Shore. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . Roberts, Russell, and Rich Youmans. Down the Jersey Shore. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

See also Jersey Shore; Steel Pier

Randall Gabrielan

boats. Relatively small, usually open, watercraft, boats were adapted to local conditions and requirements for work. The earliest New Jersey boat type recorded is the Lenape canoe. Referred to as a dugout, the craft was made from the hollowed-out trunk of a tree and used by the Lenapes for fishing and transportation. One surviving dugout discovered near the Hackensack River measured sixteen feet by three feet; it was made from a single piece of white oak. During the seventeenth century, Dutch explorers sighted these long wooden crafts along the waterways of New Jersey.

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By the s, log rafts were used to move goods down the Delaware River. The oarsmen, positioned fore and aft, navigated these rafts through the rapids near Trenton to the end of their journey, where the raft would be broken up and the crew would walk home. Transportation of goods down the Delaware River was vital to the success of the colony; more practical boats eventually replaced these log rafts. The Durham boat was widely used to haul freight and had the advantage of moving both up and down the waterway. Robert Durham of the Durham Iron Works in Pennsylvania designed this flat-bottomed boat. Between fortyfive and sixty feet in length, the Durham boat could haul fifteen tons of iron downriver to Philadelphia. Although mostly used for commerce, Durham boats carried General George Washington and his army across the Delaware to attack Trenton in . The Durham boat was pointed at both ends, with a forward cabin for shelter. A large rudder was used to steer the craft, and it could be fastened to either end. Oars and small square sails were used to navigate downriver and through rapids. For moving upriver, crews planted long poles, called setting poles, into the riverbed to push the boat ahead. The Durham boat was used for commerce and river transportation for a hundred years, from approximately  until . With the construction of canals in the s, river routes and the Durham boat were no longer necessary for freight transport in New Jersey. On Delaware Bay, Dutch settlers in the seventeenth century used an open workboat, known as the shallop, for whaling. The shallop was pointed at both ends and had a shallow draft, which allowed maneuverability inshore. Large rudder and tiller handles were used to steer this workboat on the bay. The shallop varied in length from eighteen to twenty-four feet and was generally made from pine, readily available in the area. The shallop was also used in the early days of oystering on Delaware Bay. The Delaware sloop was used in the colonial period for local commerce and coastal trading. The larger sloops were as much as forty-five feet in length, with a single mast. During the s, sloops were built on the upper reaches of the Maurice River. They were originally equipped with tongs and rakes, later with a dredge, for harvesting the oysters of Delaware Bay—a boat equipped with a dredge could scrape large quantities of oysters off the bottom. With the success of the dredge, the old Delaware Bay sloops were dismantled and refitted with fore and aft rigs to create schooners. The schooner had been used during the colonial period for coastal trading. The oyster boom of the late nineteenth century and the use of the dredge established the schooner as an integral part of the Delaware Bay economy. The schooner required a smaller crew yet was able to move as large a harvest as other rigs,

making this craft an excellent workboat. A schooner had a wide, stable, working platform and could easily maneuver in shallow waters; this suited it perfectly to Delaware Bay and oystering. Later schooners, often called shallop rigs, were built to handle a larger dredge and had two masts of nearly the same height. Many later schooners were built from local white oak, but the tall masts were shipped from the western United States or constructed of steel. By the s, schooners were equipped with diesel engines. With the elimination of the need for sails, the nature of dredge boats on Delaware Bay changed forever. The oyster boats on Raritan Bay were similar to those found to the north in New York Bay. The Raritan oyster skiff had full and round sides, with a V-shaped stern. Generally the skiff had a mast with two small sails fore and aft. The frames were constructed of white oak and the planks of white cedar or pine. This vessel harvested oysters in the waters between Sandy Hook and Perth Amboy during the oyster boom of the middle to late nineteenth century. The garvey, a versatile boat used in many waterways of New Jersey, was typically constructed with a white oak frame and white cedar planks. This flat-bottomed boat could be equipped with sails or oars. Rowing garveys were used in narrow streams, bays, and creeks for transportation of farm produce and for freight, fishing, and tong oystering. Sailing garveys were used in marshland and narrow creeks for hunting and fishing. The garvey’s shallow draft and flat bottom allowed it to pass through low waters and be pulled over mudflats. The length of garvey boats varied greatly in relation to their purposes: hunting skiffs were as short as twelve feet, while river garveys were as long as thirty-five feet. The Barnegat Bay sneakbox could also maneuver through the marshlands of eastern New Jersey. This lightweight, closed-deck, flatbottomed boat was recognized as an excellent hunting skiff. Originally called the “devil’s coffin,’’ the name was changed by duck hunters to reflect its ability to sneak up on resting ducks. Built from local white cedar, the sneakbox is typically twelve feet long, with a spoon-shaped bow. With only a small open cockpit, the boat could easily be camouflaged by covering the deck with meadow grass. The deck could be equipped with removable racks for storing decoys. Weighing between  and  pounds, the sneakbox could navigate in as little as four inches of water. In the winter, oak strips could be fastened to the bottom to enable ice fishing. The larger variation of the sneakbox, called the melon seed, was used for sailing on the wider, choppy waters of New Jersey bays. The quick, rough waters of the Delaware River called for a hunting skiff modeled to meet these demands. The Delaware ducker, a double-ended hunting skiff, was used for duck hunting along the river. Made from white

cedar, this half-decked boat was about sixteen feet long and could carry two hunters. The boat was rowed upriver, then sculled back down. Like the sneakbox, the half deck of the ducker could be covered with local grasses for camouflage. Along the Shrewsbury River, a specialized skiff was developed for harvesting the blue crabs from the bottom of the river, in nearby inlets, bays, and creeks. The flat-bottomed Shrewsbury crab skiff was about fifteen feet in length, with white oak frames and white cedar planks equipped with wet wells for crabs. Choppy seas, fog, and few inlets mark the northern coastal waters of New Jersey near Sandy Hook. Under these conditions, the Sea Bright skiff was safely landed and launched through the surf. Constructed from local white cedar, this boat ranged in length from eighteen to thirty-six feet and had a U-shaped transom. In the s, the Life-Saving Service began using a longer version of the vessel to tend to the many shipwrecks from the increasing New York Harbor traffic off the New Jersey coast. In the s, pound fishing became common along the shores from Long Branch to Sandy Hook, where the beach skiff was modified to accommodate the large nets used in pound fishers. The pound boat was typically twenty to twenty-four feet in length. When equipped with engines, boat length could reach up to thirty feet; a skiff of this size could handle twelve to fifteen tons of fish, depending on weather conditions. Horses were used to haul these heavy boats up the inclined shore. During Prohibition, bootleggers recognized the speed and carrying capacity of the Sea Bright skiff. Skiffs known as rumrunners could safely and quickly reach New York Harbor from the New Jersey coast. In policing efforts, the Coast Guard also utilized the beach skiff to chase down bootleggers. The demand for larger, faster boats sometimes brought both the Coast Guard and the bootleggers to the same local builders. Versions of the Sea Bright skiff are still widely used along the Jersey Shore for recreational fishing and as speedboats. New Jersey lifeguard stations still keep the beach skiffs in use as rescue boats. Chapelle, Howard I. American Small Sailing Craft. New York: W. W. Norton, . Cohen, David Steven. The Folklore and Folklife of New Jersey. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . Guthorn, Peter J. The Sea Bright Skiff and Other Jersey Shore Boats. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . Rolfs, Donald H. Under Sail: The Dredgeboats of Delaware Bay. Millville: Wheaton Historical Association, .

Lora Bottinelli

bobcat.

Also known as the red lynx (Lynx rufus), the bobcat is an elusive eleven-to-sixtysix-pound cat with a reddish brown coat that is barred and has black spots; its underside

Bogota is white. Its coloring is suitable for its rocky and dense vegetation habitat. The ears and tail are short (“bobbed’’), the latter with a black tip. The bobcat feeds on rodents and ground birds. Its geographic range is southern Canada to southern Mexico. In New Jersey, it was once broadly distributed and common, but its number is now greatly reduced. In  it was declared to be endangered. Recently, bobcats have been observed in various counties, and a radio telemetry program was established by the Division of Fish, Game and Wildlife to monitor them. Bean, Bruce E., and Larry Niles, eds. Endangered and Threatened Wildlife of New Jersey. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

Frank F. Katz

Boehm

Porcelain Studio. The Boehm Porcelain Studio in Trenton designs and makes porcelain sculpture and collectibles, examples of which are found throughout the world in museums and official residences of leaders in government, religion, the arts, and industry. These porcelain pieces are available as open stock, limited edition, or special commissions. Among the most famous commissioned sculptures is the life-size Mute Swans group called Birds of Peace, presented to Chairman Mao Tse-tung of China by U.S. president Richard Nixon in  (a duplicate is in the Smithsonian Institution). Edward Marshall Boehm (–) was a naturalist by vocation, who later became interested in making porcelain sculptures. In , he established a small studio in the basement of his Trenton home. Flowers, birds, and animals arranged in elaborate, yet delicate porcelain sculptures are the hallmark of Boehm’s work. His first sculptures, Percheron Horse and Hereford Bull, were acquired by the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York.

Boehm’s Sea to Shining Sea porcelain eagle.

Courtesy Boehm Porcelain, Trenton.

Aggressive marketing by Helen Boehm, his wife, and early recognition led to rapid expansion of the studio into larger quarters. The acquisitions by the Metropolitan Museum in  were important to the company’s initial success. European patronage was also key to Boehm’s public recognition. In , President and Mrs. Dwight Eisenhower presented the sculpture Prince Philip on His Polo Pony to Queen Elizabeth II and Prince Philip. By , Boehm porcelain sculptures had been added to the collections of a dozen museums, including the Metropolitan Museum of Art (New ´e York), Buckingham Palace (London), Elyse Palace (Paris), and the Vatican (Rome). Today, more than one hundred museums, botanical gardens, and institutions around the world display single works or large collections of Boehm porcelain sculpture. Mrs. Boehm’s  gift to the citizens of Russia, the American Bald Eagle, was placed on exhibit in the Hermitage in Leningrad (now St. Petersburg). Although Edward Boehm died in , the company continues under Mrs. Boehm’s direction. Staff artists create new designs, and the company thrives by drawing on the craft skills of ceramic artisans who have remained in Trenton, which was a leading city for ceramic production in the early twentieth century. Many of the highly skilled artisans at Boehm are descendants of Trenton’s early potters. A second studio was established in Malvern, England, in , but this operation has recently closed. In , a wing of the Vatican Museum was named in memory of Edward Boehm. See also ceramic art

Ellen Paul Denker

bog iron.

Bog iron is the sedimentary deposit formed by the precipitation of dissolved iron from groundwater, especially where the porosity of sedimentary layers change. This process of iron precipitation is often mediated by the presence of bacteria. The biogeochemical process usually involves the deposition by chemical reaction of limonite or a related iron hydroxide, hardening the material into which the iron is precipitated into a rusty indurated crust. The result is a dark orange to yellowish brown sandstone that may crop out as an erosionally resistant layer in softer sediments. Bog iron was extensively mined in the Pinelands region of southern New Jersey starting in the eighteenth century. Here it was found around the edges of cedar swamps and bogs, where the iron-charged, dark brown cedar water of the Pinelands streams and rivers percolated through the bog muds and into the surrounding sands, creating a rusty encrustation. The bog iron was mined in hand-dug pits and heated in furnaces fueled by charcoal obtained by partially burning wood from the surrounding forest. Seashells were used as a source of lime for smelting the ore.

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Major centers of bog-iron smelting were at Batsto, Allaire, Martha, and other locations in the Pine Barrens. Villages and towns grew up around these operations. Some thirty of these settlements operated in the Pinelands area. A typical bog-iron smelting village contained a lime kiln, a sawmill, a charcoal production building, stamping mill, store, and housing for workers. The active period of bogiron mining was from the early s until about . Armaments for the Revolutionary War were manufactured out of smelted bog iron, but the usual products were common household items such as cooking pots, tools, and utensils. By the middle of the nineteenth century, the more concentrated iron ores of Pennsylvania and the upper Midwest put the New Jersey bog-iron industry out of business. Bog iron is not a particularly rich ore and is difficult to process, especially in large quantities, since the ore itself is of limited occurrence. The Pennsylvania iron-making industry enjoyed the advantages of larger, richer ores in close proximity to anthracite coal resources and abundant limestone deposits; these advantages made the Pennsylvania industry much more profitable. Many of the old iron furnaces switched over to making glass, but in time these operations also ceased, and today most of the old bog-iron towns are crumbling ruins in the pine forest. The exceptions are the preserved villages at Batsto and Allaire, which today attract numerous visitors. Although not of commercial quality, bogiron deposits can be found elsewhere in the state. These deposits are usually thin, localized, crusty layers at the contacts between unconsolidated sedimentary formations. Bog iron is also found precipitated as nodules, concretions, tubes, and irregular masses in a number of sedimentary environments. Sometimes these limonitic masses preserve fossils inside them, or else they form around some other seed, such as a plant root or clay ball. McPhee, John. The Pine Barrens. New York: Ballantine Books, . Pierce, Arthur D. Iron in the Pines. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

See also iron industry

William B. Gallagher

Bogota.

.-square-mile borough in Bergen County. Bogota, bordered on the west by the Hackensack River, was originally a fur-trading post. Its first permanent European settlers, the Bogert and Banta families, were Dutch farmers. Development was first spurred by the two railroads and a trolley line that established stations in Bogota in the late s. The population grew from fewer than two hundred people in  to nearly four thousand by . Originally part of Hackensack Township (–), and later of Ridgefield Township (c. –), Bogota was incorporated as a borough in . Earlier names include Achter Col Colony, from the Dutch name for

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Boheme Opera

the Hackensack River, and Winckelman, after early settler Joannes Winckelman. The area began to be known as Bogota, after the Bogert family, in the s. Paper mills and paperboard manufacturing companies, located along the Hackensack River, dominated early industry. The last paper mill closed in . Bogota is now primarily residential. The  population of , was  percent white,  percent Asian,  percent black, and  percent Hispanic (Hispanics may be of any race). The  median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . McMahon, Reginald. “The Achter Col Colony on the Hackensack.’’ New Jersey History  (winter ): –.

Susan Chore

Boheme Opera.

Founded in Trenton in  by Sandra and Joseph Pucciatti, this small opera company offers mainstream Italian and French repertoire with a homegrown feeling. It grew from a cultural cabaret group started by the Pucciattis and dubbed the “Boheme Club’’ after a favorite opera by Giacomo Puccini; eventually, the club’s shows grew to full-scale operas presented in high school auditoriums. Since , Boheme Opera’s most regular venue is the Trenton War Memorial, where it presents two mainstage productions each season. See also opera

Willa Conrad

Boiardo, Ruggiero d. Oct. , ).

(b. Dec. , ;

Organized crime boss. A gangland figure who rose to prominence during the Prohibition era, Ruggiero (“Richie the Boot’’) Boiardo outlived his contemporaries and emerged as a patriarch of organized crime in northern New Jersey. Born in Italy, Boiardo immigrated to Chicago at the turn of the century and settled in Newark around . During the s he gained control of a gambling and bootlegging syndicate in Newark’s First Ward while simultaneously establishing a reputation as a public benefactor and a figure who wielded considerable political influence. In  he waged a brief, bloody feud with rival gang leader Abner (“Longey’’) Zwillman. He survived an assassination attempt but was imprisoned for two years on weapons charges. He avoided further controversy until  when mob informant Joe Valachi identified him as a “captain’’ in the Genovese crime family. His son and alleged lieutenant, Anthony (“Tony Boy’’) Boiardo, was indicted in  with Newark mayor Hugh Addonizio on charges of bribery and corruption. A year later, the elder Boiardo was imprisoned for violating state gambling laws. In  he faced charges of murder and conspiracy in the “Great Mob Trial,’’ which for the first time sought to prove the existence of a criminal organization called La Cosa Nostra. Wiretapped

conversations portrayed Boiardo as a powerful mob boss, but failing health enabled him to escape trial. He died in  at the age of ninety-three. Immerso, Michael. Newark’s Little Italy: The Vanished First Ward. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . Nash, Jay Robert. World Encyclopedia of Organized Crime. New York: Paragon House, . Rudolph, Robert C. The Boys from New Jersey: How the Mob Beat the Feds. New York: William Morrow, .

Michael Immerso

Bonaparte, Charlotte

(b. Oct. , ;

d. Mar. , ).

Artist. Charlotte Bonaparte, known as the countess de Survilliers, was the younger daughter of Joseph Bonaparte and his wife, Julie Clary. Charlotte was born at Mortefontaine, France. After the French defeat at Waterloo in , Charlotte, her older sister ´na¨ıde, and her mother moved to Brussels, Ze where Charlotte received drawing instructions from the exiled French painter Jacques-Louis David. Bonaparte remained in Europe until late , when she joined her father at his estate in Bordentown, New Jersey. She remained in Bordentown until July , when she returned to Europe to marry her first cousin, Napoleon Louis, eldest surviving son of Louis Bonaparte, former king of Holland. While living in New Jersey, Bonaparte produced numerous portraits and landscapes in pastel, watercolor, and oil. Examples of her work are at the Philadelphia Athenaeum and the Historical Society of Pennsylvania. Her most important aesthetic achievement was a series of twelve landscape drawings, including several New Jersey scenes, lithographed by Michael

Jacques-Louis David, The Sisters Z´ena¨ıde and Charlotte Bonaparte, . Oil on canvas,  ×  / in.

Courtesy J. Paul Getty Museum, Los Angeles.Photo copyright J. Paul Getty Museum.

Adolphe Mailliard (attributed), Joseph Bonaparte, c. . Graphite on wove paper,  ×  in. framed.

Courtesy Athenaeum of Philadelphia. Gift of Emily G. Hopkinson, 1973.

Stapleaux and published in France as Vues pittoresques de l’Am´erique (). Bonaparte died in Sarzana, Italy. Cowdrey, Mary B. “Charlotte Bonaparte, Draftsman.’’ Proceedings of the New Jersey Historical Society  (): –. Falk, Peter Hastings, ed. Annual Exhibition Record of the Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts, – . Madison, CT: Sound View Press, .

See also art

Kenneth John Myers

Bonaparte, Joseph (b. Jan. , ; d. July , ). King of Naples and Spain and political exile. The elder brother of Napoleon Bonaparte, Joseph Bonaparte was the most prominent of the Napoleonic exiles who settled in the United States after the French defeat at Waterloo in . Born in Corsica and trained as a lawyer, with his brother he rose to power, serving as king of both Naples (– ) and Spain (–). When Bonaparte immigrated to the United States in August , he adopted the title count de Survilliers. In early  he moved to Bordentown, New Jersey, where he maintained a large estate overlooking the Delaware River. Known as Point Breeze, Bonaparte’s home was readily accessible from both New York and Philadelphia, and he quickly assumed an active role in the cultural life of the nation. Like a civic-minded English country gentleman, he opened Point Breeze to thousands of visitors and lent paintings and sculptures from his extensive collection of European art to numerous exhibitions. In public and private, he represented himself as having reluctantly accepted political responsibilities when they were thrust upon him but preferring the life of philosophical retirement he had found in rural America. Except for two extended trips to Europe in the s, Bonaparte lived in Bordentown until his final return to Europe in November .

book publishing Benisovich, Michel. “Sales of French Collections of Paintings in the United States during the First Half of the Nineteenth Century.’’ Art Quarterly  (): –. Connelly, Owen. The Gentle Bonaparte: A Biography of Joseph, Napoleon’s Elder Brother. New York: Macmillan, . Woodward, E. M. Bonaparte’s Park, and the Murats. Trenton: MacCrellish and Quigley, .

Kenneth John Myers

Bonfield, George Robert

(b. Feb. ,

; d. July , ).

Marine artist. George Bonfield was the son of Robert and Lydia Bonfield of Portsmouth, England. As a child he demonstrated an interest in art by sketching ships in the local harbor. In  the family immigrated to Philadelphia, where the father worked as a stone cutter. The son studied and exhibited at the Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Arts, and caught the attention of local artists. Bonfield also spent time copying European works at Point Breeze, the New Jersey estate of the exiled Joseph Bonaparte. The painter divided his time between Philadelphia and New Jersey, living in Burlington, Bordentown, and Beverly, the site of his Delaware River scenes. At the time of his death in  Bonfield had fallen out of prominence, but his works experienced renewed recognition in the mid-twentieth century.

Falk, Peter Hastings, ed. Who Was Who in American Art, –:  Years of Artists in America. Madison, CT: Sound View Press, . George Robert Bonfield: Philadelphia Marine Painter, –. Philadelphia: Philadelphia Maritime Museum, .

See also art

Jon Bon Jovi, Asbury Park, .

Photo: John C. Cavanaugh.

well-received album Crush and subsequent tour. Jon Bon Jovi has also released solo albums (in , Blaze of Glory and in , Destination Anywhere) and acted in such movies as U-, Moonlight and Valentino, and The Leading Man. Dome, Malcolm, and Mick Wall. Bon Jovi: In Their Own Words. New York: Omnibus Press, . Jeffries, Neil. Bon Jovi. London: Macmillan, . Wall, Mick. All Night Long . . . the True Story of Bon Jovi. New York: Omnibus Press, .

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York markets. In New Brunswick, Abraham Blauvelt (–) and later Terhune and Letson were active until about . In Morristown Jacob Mann and in Trenton Daniel Fenton operated during the same period. The typical publishing production at that time consisted of reprints of English popular literature and schoolbooks, almanacs, and religious texts. When American publishing became a national rather than a regional venture—by the s with New York as its capital—New Jersey publishers no longer played an important role. In , the first of several New York publishers to move to New Jersey was Fleming H. Revell, a large and successful evangelical and trade publishing house founded in . The company initially settled in Westwood and later moved to Old Tappan. After several ownership changes, the company is now based in Grand Rapids, Michigan. In , the textbook and business publisher Prentice-Hall made the move from New York to Englewood Cliffs. Now a unit of Pearson International, the company still maintains an important New Jersey presence as does its parent company and several divisions. Other migrant companies included legal publishers Matthew Bender (Newark), business reference publishers Dun and Bradstreet (Murray Hill), Hammond World Atlas Corporation (Union), reference publishers R. R. Bowker and Marquis Who’s Who (both in New Providence), and the major Judaica publisher KTAV (Hoboken). The IEEE Press of the Society of Electrical and Electronics Engineers

See also pop music

Patrice M. Kane Jay Lustig

Bon Jovi, Jon

(b. Mar. , ). Singer, songwriter, guitarist, and actor. Jon Bon Jovi was born John Bongiovi, Jr. in Sayreville to Carol and John Bongiovi, Sr. He was educated in local public schools and married Dorothea Hurley on April , . Inspired by Shore-based acts like Bruce Springsteen and the E Street Band and Southside Johnny and the Asbury Jukes, Jon Bon Jovi played in local bands like Atlantic City Expressway, the Wild Ones, and the Rest before forming the group Bon Jovi in  with guitarist Ritchie Sambora, keyboardist David Bryan, drummer Tico Torres, and bassist Alec John Such. With its hook-filled songs, teenidol looks, and lively crowd-pleasing concerts, the band was at the forefront of the popmetal movement of the s. Its most successful album was ’s Slippery When Wet, which yielded hits like “You Give Love a Bad Name,’’ “Livin’ on a Prayer,’’ and “Wanted Dead or Alive.’’ A follow-up album, affectionately named New Jersey, was also hugely successful, led by singles “Bad Medicine,’’ “Lay Your Hands on Me,’’ and “I’ll Be There for You.’’ Although its popularity declined in the s, the band came back strong in  with the

book publishing. New Jersey is home to some  book publishers. They range widely in size and subject specialization. Although many of them are recent migrants from New York, New Jersey also counts some major original players, particularly in the scholarly and scientific fields. In its early history, book publishing in New Jersey followed the development pattern of the other mid-Atlantic states. Book publishers were either printers or booksellers by origin. The first printing presses operated under government contract to print laws and other official publications, as well as money. William Bradford, who was also the first official printer in Pennsylvania and New York, operated from Perth Amboy as early as . Among his successors was the very successful printer and publisher Benjamin Franklin. James Parker produced and sold books from  until  in Woodbridge and Burlington. After the Revolution, several important publishers emerged. Isaac Collins of Trenton published one of the first quarto Bibles in . Shepard Kollock operated in Chatham, New Brunswick, and Elizabeth, where John Woods also plied the New Jersey and the New

The first book printed in New Jersey published the Acts Adopted by the General Assembly of the Colony of New Jersey, Perth Amboy, .

Photo: Steve Andrascik. Courtesy The Star-Ledger

88

Boone, Thomas

in Piscataway and Engineering Information in Hoboken are other fairly recent transplants. In response to a sharply increased centralization of the New York publishing industry, many small new trade publishers sprang up around the country. A good New Jersey example in is New Horizon in Far Hills (). The tremendous growth of academic libraries between the s and the s spawned a new international publishing line of reprints of standard and classic texts in many scholarly fields. In New Jersey, major players were Augustus Kelley (in Clifton), specializing in economic history, Rothman (in Hackensack) in law, and Patterson Smith (in Montclair) in criminology. But scholarly and scientific publishing are the New Jersey publishing community’s original and enduring specialties. Princeton University Press was founded in  as a printing service for the university. With considerable material support from New York publisher and alumnus Charles Scribner, the press developed a substantial list of scholarly publications, including the papers of Thomas Jefferson, Woodrow Wilson, and Albert Einstein. Also on its list is the prestigious Bollingen Series, which includes the Collected Works of C. G. Jung. Rutgers University Press was founded in New Brunswick in . It had an eclectic list in the early years under the directorship of Earl Schenck Miers and former New York trade publisher William Sloane. The latter added a publishing program on New Jersey, which is still one of the press’s specialties. During the past twenty-five years, the press has built a strong list of scholarly books in the humanities and social sciences. As a by-product of the many scholarly activities at Rutgers, two other presses came to life. Scarecrow Press in neighboring Metuchen was founded in  and specializes in bibliographical and library-related texts. It recently merged with the University Presses of America and moved to Lanham, Maryland. Sociologist Irving Louis Horowitz came to Rutgers from Washington University in . He began editing the journal Transaction, and founded Transaction Publishers—now in Piscataway– which has a strong list of scholarly books and periodicals in the social sciences. Fairleigh Dickinson University Press was established in  in Madison. Also specializing in the social sciences are the commercial publishers Lawrence Erlbaum Associates in Mahwah and Information Today in Medford.

Hendrik Edelman

Boone, Thomas

(b. c. ; d. Sept. ,

). Colonial governor. Son of Charles and

Elizabeth (Garth) Boone, Thomas Boone was born at Lee Place in Kent. His father was a member of Parliament, and the son graduated from first Eton and later Trinity College. In  he was appointed governor of New Jersey. During his short term in office he persuaded

the assembly to send  soldiers to fight with Gen. Jeffrey Amherst in the Seven Years’ War. Boone owned land in South Carolina and was appointed governor of that colony in , but he returned to England in , where he spent the rest of his life. Stellhorn, Paul A., and Michael J. Birkner, eds. The Governors of New Jersey, –: Biographical Essays. Trenton: New Jersey Historical Commission, .

See also governor

John David Healy

Boonton. .-square-mile town in Morris County. The Rockaway River bisects this former iron town, which was carved out of Hanover and Pequannock townships in . Incorporated in , it was named after Thomas Boone, the royal governor of New Jersey in –. It is the second settlement called Boonton. Old Boonton, one and one-half miles downstream, was settled in , but the Morris Canal, the transportation corridor of the nineteenth century, bypassed the settlement, which declined and is now under the Jersey City Reservoir. Water running through a four-hundred-foot drop in the river between Rockaway and Montville powered early nail, nut, and other mills that manufactured objects made of iron. Original settlers were British ironworkers, mainly from Staffordshire, who were brought to Boonton to work in the many forges fueled by charcoal brought on the Morris Canal. The oldest part of town rises above the river and is called the Hill. It is known for beautiful nineteenth-century homes, and the most important architectural landmark is the Richard Upjohn Saint John’s Episcopal Church, built in . Only twenty miles from Newark and thirty from New York, Boonton was nonetheless somewhat isolated until the highway construction of the s brought an interstate highway exit virtually to its Main Street. In , the population of , was  percent white and  percent Asian. The median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Lyons, Isaac S. Historical Discourse on Boonton. . Centennial reprint edition. Boonton: Boonton Historical Society, .

Jane R. Primerano

Boonton Township.

-square-mile township in Morris County. Formerly part of Pequannock Township, Boonton was incorporated as a separate township in , one year after the Town of Boonton. One of the smallest Morris County municipalities, it is located in the Rockaway River Valley. The landscape is rolling and generally bucolic. There is little arable land, and in the nineteenth century agriculture was largely limited to livestock grazing. Iron mining, forges, and milling were historically important to Boonton’s economy. The Morris Canal passed through the town,

aiding its industries and farms. Among the notable villages in the municipality is Powerville. In the twentieth century, aviation electronics became an important industry. In , the population of , was  percent white,  percent Hispanic (Hispanics may be of any race), and  percent black. The median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . History of Morris County, New Jersey. . Reprint. Morristown: Morris County Historical Society, . Honeyman, A. Van Doren, ed. Northwestern New Jersey, A History. New York: Lewis Historical Publishing, .

Ronald J. Dupont, Jr.

Bordentown.

.-square-mile city in Burlington County. It is located at the confluence of the Delaware River and Crosswicks Creek; the latter divides Burlington and Mercer counties. Bordentown was first settled in  as Farnsworth Landing, and the site was purchased in  by Freehold farmer Joseph Borden. It was incorporated as a borough in  and as a city in . A Revolutionary War engagement in  saw two Continental frigates burned in Crosswicks Creek as British attackers approached and briefly shelled the city. The city later became a hub for north-south stagecoach travel. The Clara Barton School, established by the Civil War nurse and American Red Cross founder, was the first successful tax-supported school in New Jersey. Famous residents included Declaration of Independence signer Francis Hopkinson, Napoleon Bonaparte’s brother Joseph, and Persian Gulf War hero H. Norman Schwarzkopf, Jr., who attended Bordentown Military Institute, which closed in . The city is known for its numerous Colonial, Georgian, and Greek revival structures, which it has, since the s, undertaken to restore and preserve. Larger commercial businesses are located along U.S. Routes  and . Throughout its history, Bordentown has been primarily residential, with a downtown commercial district. In , the city’s population of , was  percent white and  percent black. The  median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Woodward, E. M. History of Burlington County, New Jersey, with Biographical Sketches of Its Many Pioneers and Prominent Men. . Reprint. Burlington: Burlington County Historical Society, .

Jim Donnelly

Bordentown Township.

.-squaremile township in Burlington County. Bordentown was incorporated as a township in , when it was divided from neighboring Chesterfield, and it now partially surrounds both the city of Bordentown and Fieldsboro. Originally settled by farmers, Bordentown Township remained largely agrarian well into

Boudinot, Elias the twentieth century. Dairy farms were supported by operations that grew field crops, including field corn and soybeans. The farmto-market road bisecting the community was eventually designated as U.S. . Farmland predominated into the s, with commercial and light industrial development along Routes  and . Residential neighborhoods grew between Bordentown City and the White Horse section of Hamilton Township in Mercer County. The Alfred C. Wagner Correctional Facility is located within the township. Commercial development and new residential construction accelerated rapidly with completion of a New Jersey Turnpike interchange in the s. In the late s, Interstate  was extended north through the county to the then-terminus at U.S. . Heavy truck traffic between the turnpike and the interstate led to the creation of a transportation hub with fueling, service, and warehouse facilities. The s saw a new acceleration of housing construction on former farm sites that led to a  ballot question approving a farm- and open-space preservation program. The  population of , was  percent white and  percent black. The median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Woodward, E. M. History of Burlington County, New Jersey, with Biographical Sketches of Its Many Pioneers and Prominent Men. . Reprint. Burlington: Burlington County Historical Society, .

Jim Donnelly

borders.

See boundaries

Borg, John

(b. May , ; d. May , ).

Businessman, public servant, and newspaper publisher. Raised in Union Hill in a large and struggling family, John Borg sought employment on Wall Street as a teenager and quickly earned a reputation as a savvy trader, especially of mining stocks. By his twenties Borg had earned a substantial fortune. He married Hazel Gowan, a minister’s daughter, in . In  Borg and his family moved into a mansion in Hackensack. A year later, as a civic gesture, Borg invested $, in a flagging paper in his hometown, the Bergen Evening Record. Through the s Borg gradually grew more involved in the paper’s operations and divested his interests on Wall Street. By  he was the Evening Record’s sole owner. Aggressive civic journalism, expansive sports reporting, and promotions helped fuel the growth of the Evening Record through the Depression and war years. By the time Borg handed over the publisher’s role to his son Donald in , the Evening Record had emerged as a powerful force in both Bergen County and statewide politics. Borg took satisfaction in his paper’s reputation as a crusader for good government and his close connections with state political leaders, and relished his service for three

89

(nonconsecutive) terms on the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey. Sherlock, Patricia. On and Off The Record. Hackensack: Bergen Record Corporation, .

See also Record, The

Michael J. Birkner

Borglum, Gutzon (b. Mar. , ; d. Mar. , ). Sculptor. Gutzon Borglum was born John Gutzon de la Mothe Borglum in Idaho. He claimed to have grown up on the prairies sculpting animals in the mud for the amusement of his fellow cowboys. Cowboy artist or not, Borglum first earned real notice for his statues of Abraham Lincoln—one is in the rotunda of the Capitol in Washington, D.C., and another sits on a stone slab outside the Essex County Courthouse in downtown Newark. Borglum was, in fact, one of the most prolific of Lincoln sculptors, prized for his very emotional portrayals. The Essex County Lincoln, who sits on a bench and invites the visitor to do the same, is an excellent example. Borglum ramped up to the monumental sculptures that absorbed the last fifth of his life by making increasingly massive works in his New York studio. His largest bronze work by far is the Wars of America in Military Park in downtown Newark, still the largest single public statue in the state of New Jersey. Wars includes two life-size horses and forty-two fullsize human figures in a nearly fifty-foot-long composition; it is one of the largest bronzes ever cast in the United States. In the early s, Borglum conceived the massive relief of Confederate military heroes for the face of Stone Mountain, Georgia, just outside of Atlanta, but he abandoned the project. In  he began work on Mount Rushmore but he died before it was entirely realized. His son, Lincoln, brought it to a rough completion after his death. Gutzon’s younger brother, Solon, sculpted the two buffaloes and two grizzly bears in Jersey City’s Leonard J. Gordon Park. Sited in  without pedestals on the park’s grassy lawns, they are still sitting there today under a thick shell of institutional paint. They have been childhood favorites for generations. Bzdak, Meredith Arms. Public Sculpture in New Jersey: Monuments to Collective Identity. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . Price, Willadene. Gutzon Borglum: Artist and Patriot. Chicago: Rand McNally, .

See also sculpture

Dan Bischoff

Botto House National Landmark. See American Labor Museum/Botto House National Landmark.

Boudinot, Elias

(b. May , ; d. Oct.

, ). Congressman, politician, military of-

ficer, and philanthropist. Elias Boudinot was born in Philadelphia, the son of Elias Boudinot III, silversmith and postmaster, and Catherine Williams. He attended the Academy of

Thomas Sully, Elias Boudinot, .

Courtesy Special Collections and University Archives, Rutgers University Libraries, New Brunswick.

Pennsylvania, studied law, and became a practicing attorney in . As a lawyer involved in mercantilist and real estate ventures, he acquired great wealth. In  Boudinot married Hannah Stockton. On the eve of the Revolutionary War Boudinot served on the New Jersey Committee of Correspondence and as chairman of the Committee of Safety. He sat in the New Jersey Provincial Congress in . Briefly in  he was aide-de-camp to William Livingston, who commanded the New Jersey militia. On January , , he was named a colonel and the commissary of prisoners; and during his year’s service, he negotiated prisoner exchanges and worked to improve conditions of American prisoners. From  to  and  to , Boudinot was a delegate to the Continental Congress and president of the Congress from  to . In  he served as interim secretary for foreign affairs. Boudinot served three terms in the House of Representatives, from  to , where he supported Alexander Hamilton’s fiscal program. In  Boudinot became the director of the U.S. Mint. Retiring from public service in , Boudinot devoted himself to biblical studies. He published four books with religious themes, including one in which he claimed American Indians were descended from Jews of the Diaspora. Boudinot was a trustee of the College of New Jersey (–) and founded and endowed the American Bible Society (), serving as its first president. Boudinot donated considerable sums to charity. He founded and endowed the Indian School at Cornwall, Connecticut. A future Cherokee Indian chief who attended the Indian School changed his own

Boudinot, Rachel Bradford

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name to that of Elias Boudinot. Having resided at Elizabethtown and Basking Ridge, Boudinot died at his last house in Burlington. Respected as an able statesman, Boudinot had two foremost traits, acquisitiveness and piety.

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Boudinot, Elias. The Life, Public Services, Addresses, and Letters of Elias Boudinot. Edited by J. J. Boudinot.  vols. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, .

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Boyd, George A. Elias Boudinot: Patriot and Statesman, –. Princeton: Princeton University Press, .

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Schwarz, Philip J. The Jarring Interests: New York’s Boundary Markers, –. Albany: State University of New York Press, .

DAB.

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See also American Revolution

Harry M. Ward

Women’s Project of New Jersey. Past and Promise: Lives of New Jersey Women. Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, .

Constance Killian Escher and Claire Meyer

boundaries. New Jersey, like many of the American colonies, experienced discord and a number of longstanding controversies concerning the exact location of its boundaries. Confusion over a border often benefited one colony over another, and this was certainly true of the conflict between New York and New Jersey. From the granting of the charter for New Jersey in , the leaders of New York were conscious of the loss of very valuable territory. Unfortunately for New Jersey, the charter had been granted based on an inaccurate map created by the Dutch cartographer Nicholas Visscher in . The charter established the northern border of New Jersey at the northernmost branch of the Delaware River, at  degrees  minutes north latitude, even though no branch of the Delaware existed there. Politically powerful New York tried to benefit until a royal commission established the border farther south, at its modern location, in , although it was not until  that the first comprehensive and accurate survey was completed. The lack of a confirmed northern border also affected the positioning of the border between East Jersey and West Jersey, causing more controversy and confusion within the colony.

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Philanthropist. The daughter of the patrician Bradfords of Philadelphia, Rachel married Elisha Boudinot of Newark and raised his six children from a previous marriage. She was her extended family’s nurse, tending members through yellow fever. Seeing the need for care in the larger community, Boudinot founded a private welfare agency, the Female Society for the Relief of Poor and Distressed Persons in the Village of Newark, which numbered , members by . Renamed the Newark Female Charitable Society, it celebrated its centennial in  and continues to serve as the Newark Day Center for Older People, at the corner of Hill and Halsey streets.

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d. June , ).

Matthew J. Weismantel

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Boudinot, Rachel Bradford (b. ;

PENNSYLVANIA

connected to the New Jersey shoreline, and New Jersey argued that this land was now under its jurisdiction. A Supreme Court review in the s established that the original charter clearly showed that New Jersey had no title to any portion of the bed or bay of the Delaware River, including any islands. Thus these former islands were judged to be under the jurisdiction of the state of Delaware, and continue to create several interesting anomalies on New Jersey state maps.

WEST JERSEY

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@Rutgers, The State University

Settlement continued in the disputed areas during this time of controversy and resulted in violence as property owners attempted to clarify conflicting claims. Contributing greatly to this tension was New York’s aggressive granting of lands in the disputed area in the hope of establishing a de facto border. The northern border was not the only area in which New York and New Jersey came into conflict. The New Jersey charter had also transferred lands west of Long Island and Manhattan Island “bounded on the east part by the main sea, and part by the Hudson’s river.’’ New York expected control over the entire Hudson River, but New Jersey argued, as a coequal colony and later as a state, that the middle of the river should represent the border. An  agreement drew the border down the middle of the river, with New York controlling all islands and New Jersey having control of all underwater rights. This issue would resurface with the controversy over Ellis Island. The case was decided in  by the U.S. Supreme Court in New Jersey’s favor, ruling that only the . acres of the original Ellis Island falls under New York’s jurisdiction, while the remainder of approximately  acres of landfill belongs to New Jersey. A similar border conflict between the states of New Jersey and Delaware also concerned jurisdiction over river islands close to New Jersey’s shore. With changing tides and water levels, some of these islands had become

Bound Brook. .-square-mile borough in Somerset County. The land on which Bound Brook now stands was purchased from the Lenape tribe for £ worth of goods in . At the time of the American Revolution, when troops under Gen. George Washington camped in the municipality, Bound Brook was home to only thirty-five families. The construction of five railroad lines in the nineteenth century allowed Bound Brook industries to prosper, and the population swelled to , by . Incorporated as a borough in , Bound Brook is now a predominantly residential community with a central shopping district located near the train station and brook. In September , fourteen-foot floodwaters, spawned by Hurricane Floyd, damaged  businesses and more than  homes, causing $ million worth of damage. Called “a cataclysmic event’’ by New Jersey’s governor Christie Whitman, the flood left hundreds displaced and two people dead before its waters receded. In  the town’s , residents were  percent white,  percent other, and  percent Hispanic (Hispanics may be of any race). The  median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Stratford, Dorothy, and Margaret McKay. Bound Brook. Charleston, SC: Arcadia, .

Nicholas Turse

Bourke-White, Margaret

(b. June ,

; d. Aug. , ). Photojournalist. Named

one of the ten most prominent women in the United States in , Margaret Bourke-White spent her childhood in Bound Brook, where she graduated from high school. Her photographs of industry, people, and history in the making around the world filled the pages of Fortune and Life magazines from the s to the s, when Parkinson’s disease forced her retirement. Her photographic work in New Jersey included a series on Frank “Boss’’ Hague, Jersey City’s mayor, which appeared in Life on February , . Bourke-White also produced ten books, three coauthored by her second husband, Erskine Caldwell. Her most influential book, You Have Seen Their Faces (), is about southern tenant farmers.

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Gerdts, William H. Painting and Sculpture in New Jersey. Princeton: D. Van Nostrand, . Opitz, Glenn B., ed. Mantle Fielding’s Dictionary of American Painters, Sculptors, and Engravers. Poughkeepsie, NY: Apollo, .

See also art

Lorraine Ash

boxing.

Margaret Bourke-White (attributed), Margaret Bourke-White atop the Chrysler Building, New York, . Gelatin silver print.

Courtesy Estate of Margaret Bourke-White. Margaret-BourkeWhite Papers, Syracuse University Library, Special Collections Research Center.

Callahan, Sean, ed. The Photographs of Margaret Bourke-White. Greenwich, CT: New York Graphic Society, . Goldberg, Vicki. Margaret Bourke-White: A Biography. New York: Harper and Row, . Silverman, Jonathan. For the World to See: The Life of Margaret Bourke-White. New York: Viking, .

See also photography

Gary D. Saretzky

Boutelle, DeWitt Clinton , ; d. Nov. , ).

(b. Apr.

Painter. DeWitt Clinton Boutelle, named for the father of the Erie Canal, was born in Troy, New York, and painted portraits and landscapes in New York City as early as the s. He had no formal art education, but came under the influence of Asher Brown Durand and Thomas Cole. During his career he painted along the Hudson River, in the Catskills, in New Jersey, and on the Susquehanna River, depicting

the press of European civilization against the wilderness, usually represented by a Native American. The Indian Hunter of , typical of his work, shows a native atop a hill surveying an Anglo-Saxon settlement in a valley. In  and  Boutelle lived in Basking Ridge, where he sketched natural landscapes, including Winter on the Passaic, which were later exhibited. He spent the second half of his life in Bethlehem, Pennsylvania, and was elected an associate of the National Academy of Design in  and a member of the Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts in . Boutelle is best known for finishing one painted set in Cole’s series The Voyage of Life. Boime, Albert. The Magisterial Gaze: Manifest Destiny and American Landscape Painting, c. –. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press, .

Fighting sports in colonial New Jersey were largely imported by British soldiers and sailors. One of the earliest accounts of a match in America dates from , when two seamen in Perth Amboy boxed outside a tavern, one of them suffering fatal injuries. As street life and a working class developed in New York City in the early s, bare-knuckle boxing became a spectator sport, often featuring the favored fighters of rival ethnic groups and neighborhood gangs. Boxers would cross the Hudson River to hold their matches in still-rural New Jersey, where they could avoid the authorities. The first prizefight on record in New Jersey was fought near Belleville in  between “The American Phenomenon,’’ Jim Sanford, and Ned Hammond, an Englishman; a sheriff’s posse broke it up. A bout in Weehawken in  ended in a melee, prompting the New Jersey legislature to ban “the degrading practice of prize fighting’’ a month later. It was the nation’s first antiboxing legislation. Despite the official prohibition, boxing continued surreptitiously. The adoption of the Marquis of Queensbury rules in the late s (padded gloves, three-minute rounds, a tensecond count before a knockout was declared) led to a less gory, more respectable fight game. Legal “sparring exhibitions’’ gained a wide audience, and boxers learned their craft in local gymnasiums. In , Thomas A. Edison’s laboratory in West Orange was the site of the first sporting event recorded on film, an exhibition bout won by heavyweight champion “Gentleman Jim’’ Corbett. Prizefighting was legalized in  and placed under the supervision of a state athletic board. In  heavyweight champion Jack Dempsey knocked out French challenger Georges Carpentier in Jersey City. Promoted by the legendary Tex Rickard, the fight was the first heavyweight bout to be broadcast on radio and the first to earn a million-dollar gate. Jersey City, Paterson, Trenton, Atlantic City, and Newark (the site of middleweight title bouts in  and ) were important cities for arena matches. Champions emerged from New Jersey’s ethnic neighborhoods: Irish Americans Freddie Cochrane and James Braddock (heavyweight champion from  to ), Italian Americans Tony Zale and “Two-Ton’’ Tony Galento, and African Americans Ike Williams and Jersey Joe Walcott (heavyweight champion from  to  and later state athletic commissioner). More recent New Jersey–born boxers have included Chuck “the Bayonne Bleeder’’ Wepner, “Marvelous’’ Marvin Hagler, and Bobby Czyz.

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Boxwood Hall a member of the New Jersey delegation to the Constitutional Convention and later Speaker of the House and a U.S. senator, lived in the house from  to . In  Boxwood Hall was deeded to the state. It was designated a National Historic Landmark and a New Jersey State Historic Site in . The New Jersey Division of Parks and Forestry maintains and operates the property. Boyd, George Adams. Elias Boudinot: Patriot and Statesman, –. Princeton: Princeton University Press, . Thayer, Theodore. As We Were: The Story of Old Elizabethtown. Elizabeth: New Jersey Historical Society, .

See also historic sites

Evelyn Stryker Lewis

Boyden, Seth , ).

DeWitt Clinton Boutelle, Waterfall, th century. Oil on canvas,  / ×  / in.

Courtesy Newark Museum. Purchase 1967 The Edward F. Assmus Fund. Photo: Armen, 1975.

Television and urban decay were blamed for declining attendance at matches during the s. However, the arrival of gambling casinos in Atlantic City in  lured multimillion-dollar prizefights back to New Jersey. Heavyweight champions Mike Tyson, Evander Holyfield, and Lennox Lewis have all defended their titles at Atlantic City, and through the s only Las Vegas was the site of more professional boxing bouts. Revelations of mob influence, as well as suspected rigging of boxers’ rankings, have periodically bruised the sport’s reputation. In , the State Commission of Investigation urged that boxing be banned because of the scandals and the medical danger. Its recommendation was turned down, but the state established a new Athletic Control Board and instituted fitness rules for boxers that are recognized as the strictest in the nation. New Jersey State Commission of Investigation. Organized Crime in Boxing: Final Boxing Report of the State

of New Jersey Commission of Investigation. Trenton: the Commission, .

See also sports

Jon Blackwell

Boxwood Hall.

Built c.  by Elizabethtown mayor Samuel Woodruff, Boxwood Hall is associated with numerous persons and events of the Revolutionary War and early Republic. Just before the Revolution, Alexander Hamilton boarded at Boxwood Hall while attending school in Elizabethtown. From  to  it was the home of American statesman Elias Boudinot, who delivered a eulogy for James Caldwell, slain pastor of the First Presbyterian Church, from its steps in . In – Boudinot served as president of the Continental Congress when it ratified the treaty of peace with England. On April , , Boxwood Hall hosted George Washington as he departed New Jersey for his presidential inauguration in New York City. Jonathan Dayton,

(b. Nov. , ; d. Mar.

Inventor. Boyden was a native of Foxborough, Massachusetts. His father, also called Seth, a farmer and the proprietor of a forge and machine shop, invented a leathersplitting machine and received many awards for contributing to advances in agriculture. Tradition has it that Boyden’s maternal grandfather, Uriah Atherton, had cast the first cannon in America. Boyden’s younger brother, Uriah, was an inventor as well and eventually worked as an engineer for the Amoskeag Manufacturing Company, developing the firm’s hydraulic works in Manchester, New Hampshire. Boyden had little formal education. Even so, in his youth he became an adept mechanic and was held in high regard as a repairer of timepieces and guns. By the time Boyden was twenty-one, he had designed machines for making nails and cutting files. In  Boyden left Foxborough for Newark, taking a leather-splitting machine with him and providing sheepskins and leather to bookbinders in the city. In the following years he drew on his mechanical and creative background to take advantage of opportunities created by increasing industrialization in Newark. After studying how Europeans made ornamental leather, Boyden, in , established the first factory in the United States for making patent leather. His first year’s sales amounted to $,; five years later they had more than doubled to $,. He then focused on the manufacture of malleable cast iron. In  the Franklin Institute gave him an award for its production, and three years later he secured the first patent for the material. He then sold his patent leather factory and turned his attention to the commercial production of malleable iron. Boyden continued his multifaceted career as a manufacturer and businessman by making locomotives, though he built only three. He then turned his attention to stationary steam engines and perfected a method whereby steam was used more efficiently. In  Boyden produced “Russia’’ sheet-iron. Later in life, he invented a hat-forming machine, and in  he published an article on

Braddock, James J. new fabric (a forerunner of spandex), and sold his patents and mill in  to the Jantzen swimwear company. By the s Boyer was devoting much of his time to recording and preserving Camden history. He wrote more than a dozen pamphlets, monographs, and books, including the five-volume Annals of Camden (–) and Early Forges and Furnaces of New Jersey (). Boyer served as longtime president of the Camden County Historical Society and with his wife, Anna DeRousse Boyer, donated much of the society’s rare books and collections. He died in Moorestown. Boyer, Charles S. The Span of a Century: A Chronological History of the City of Camden. Camden: Centennial Anniversary Committee, .

Jon Blackwell

Boy Scouts of America.

Seth Boyden.

Courtesy Newark Public Library.

atmospheric electricity. In addition, Boyden developed oroide, an alloy comprised of copper, zinc, and tin used in imitation gold jewelry. Curiously enough, this endeavor followed an unsuccessful venture to the California gold fields that had recently been discovered by New Jersey native James W. Marshall. In other very different areas, Boyden was instrumental in developing the well-known Hilton strawberry, made the first daguerreotype in the United States, and helped Samuel F. B. Morse perfect the telegraph. Seth Boyden died in Irvington, New Jersey. His eulogist, the Rev. A. A. Thayer, observed that Boyden’s discoveries had lightened the labors of nearly every family in the country and that people everywhere felt the touch of his genius even though they may not have known him. Echoing those who held Boyden in high esteem, Thomas A. Edison once remarked that Boyden was one of America’s greatest inventors. In  Boyden’s friends erected a monument in his remembrance in Newark’s Washington Park, and thirty-five years later his admirers added a new bronze tablet to the site. Boyden, Seth. “Seth Boyden’s Days in California, –, Extracts from His Diary.’’ Proceedings of the New Jersey Historical Society, n.s.  (): –, –; n.s.  (): –. DAB. Shaw, William H. History of Essex and Hudson Counties, New Jersey. Philadelphia: Everts and Peck, .

See also leather industry

E. Richard McKinstry

Boyer, Charles Shimer (b. May , ; d. Nov. , ).

Industrialist and historian. Born in Bethlehem, Pennsylvania, and a graduate of the University of Pennsylvania, Charles Boyer worked in the family-owned B. F. Boyer Worsted Mill in Camden, New Jersey, before becoming company president. He combined elastic thread with woolen cloth to invent a

In the late nineteenth century, as England and the United States became more urban and industrial, concerns arose in both countries about youth gangs in the cities and “lost masculinity’’— the increase in desk jobs for men and the expansion of possible roles for women that the new economic order was bringing about. In England Lord Robert Baden-Powell, a Boer War hero concerned about the preparation of young men for the military, started the British Boy Scouts. In the United States, Canadian Ernest Thompson Seton began a group emphasizing the “woodcraft’’ skills of the American Indians, and Daniel Carter Beard started a group called the Sons of Daniel Boone. These movements coalesced in , when Boy Scout groups were created in the United States. Several of these were in New Jersey. By  the Boy Scouts of America (BSA) had a charter from Congress and the organization was spreading rapidly. Camping was a part of the Scout movement from the beginning. In  an experimental camp was created at Dudley Island in Sussex County, and by  a permanent site, Camp Glen Gray, had been established at Lake Vreeland. Campgrounds created in the state’s northern mountains during the following years have mostly disappeared as the state’s population has expanded. The national headquarters of the BSA, originally located in New York City, was moved to New Brunswick in . In  it moved to Irving, Texas, reflecting the shift of the organization’s center to the South and West. In the s the organization faced a number of suits by atheists, gays, and girls, who were all excluded from membership. The BSA insisted that as a private group it had the right to control its own membership. The New Jersey Supreme Court rejected this view, but the United States Supreme Court upheld it on appeal in BSA v. Dale (). In response some school districts in the state have refused to permit the Scouts to use their facilities. The number of Scouts, from Cubs to Eagles, has varied over time. In  there were seven Boy Scout councils in the state: Burlington

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County, Northern New Jersey, Patriot’s Path, Southern New Jersey, Jersey Shore, Monmouth, and Central New Jersey. The total membership in New Jersey was ,.

Maxine N. Lurie

Boy Scouts of America v. Dale. This controversial decision from the U.S. Supreme Court involved the efforts of a Rutgers graduate, James Dale, to gain reinstatement to the Boy Scouts after that organization expelled him from his position as an assistant scoutmaster because of Dale’s admitted homosexual orientation. Dale had gained a unanimous vote in his favor from the New Jersey Supreme Court in . That court ruled that Dale’s exclusion solely because of sexual orientation violated the New Jersey Law against Discrimination (LAD). By a vote of five to four the high court reversed. Chief Justice William Rehnquist held that as a private voluntary organization, the Boy Scouts possessed a First Amendment right of “expressive association’’ that protected it from being forced to “accept a member it does not desire.’’ The dissent emphasized that Dale was expelled for sexual orientation, not sexual conduct, and New Jersey law forbids discrimination based upon sexual orientation. Moreover, the minority argued, the majority erred by simply accepting the Boy Scouts’ contention without any further inquiry or analysis by the court. Such conduct, wrote Justice John Stevens in dissent, “is even more astonishing in the First Amendment area.’’ Flynn, Taylor. “Don’t Ask Us to Explain Ourselves, Don’t Tell Us What to Do: The Boy Scouts’ Exclusion of Gay Members and the Necessity of Independent Judicial Review.’’ Stanford Law and Policy Review  (winter ): –.

See also lesbians, gays, and bisexuals

Jonathan Lurie

Brackett, Cyrus Fogg

(b. Jun. , ;

d. Jan. , ). Physicist and physician. Born

on a farm in Parsonfield, Maine, Cyrus Brackett graduated from Bowdoin College () and the Bowdoin Medical School (). In  Brackett assumed the new chair in physics at Princeton University, named in Joseph Henry’s honor. While at Princeton, he founded the University’s electrical engineering department. Through his work, he formed close associations with Thomas A. Edison and Alexander Graham Bell. He is credited with installing the first telephone line in Princeton, and his lecture room was the first classroom in America with electric lighting. Condit, Kenneth H. Cyrus Fogg Brackett (–) of Princeton: Pioneer in Electrical Engineering Education. New York: Newcomen Society in North America, . Leitch, Alexander. A Princeton Companion. Princeton: Princeton University Press, .

Kristine J. Marconi

Braddock, James J. d. Nov. , ).

(b. Dec. , ;

Heavyweight boxer. James Braddock grew up in North Bergen and was

94

Bradford, Cornelia Foster

amateur light heavyweight champion of New Jersey before turning professional at age twenty-one. After a series of defeats and injuries, Braddock gave up prizefighting in  to work as a longshoreman on the Hudson River docks. He came back the next year, however, and three surprise victories in a row made him a contender. His fifteen-round defeat of Max Baer on June , , gave him the heavyweight title and is ranked among the greatest upsets in boxing; Damon Runyon nicknamed him “Cinderella Man.’’ Braddock lost his crown to Joe Louis in . He died in North Bergen in . See also boxing

Jon Blackwell

Bradford, Cornelia Foster

(b. Dec.

, ; d. Jan. , ). Social worker and re-

former. The daughter of Benjamin and Mary Amory Bradford, whose New York State residences were stopping places for slaves escaping via the Underground Railroad, Cornelia Bradford was raised to believe that people were their brothers’ and sisters’ keepers. As a young woman, she was deeply affected by the plight of iron miners near Chester, New Jersey, where her father was pastor of the Congregational Church. Later she taught and lectured on history, literature, and travel while attending European universities and visiting England’s new settlement houses. When she returned to the United States, Bradford became an associate of Jane Addams at HullHouse in Chicago. Arriving in Jersey City in December , Bradford established New Jersey’s first settlement house on Grand Street in Jersey City; Whittier House was named after the Quaker poet John Greenleaf Whittier.

Whittier House rapidly became a success, particularly among immigrants, who would outnumber the native-born in Jersey City before . Bradford’s brother Amory, a noted Congregational minister in Montclair, provided financial assistance and later summer outings for children. Whittier House opened the first playground in Jersey City, sponsored classes, and started clubs, including the first women’s club in Jersey City, and established the first free kindergarten. Bradford’s legal aid society, the “poor man’s lawyer,’’ was based on English models. Bradford helped lead New Jersey to major reforms. Her  exploration of conditions in glass factories in southern New Jersey led to the formation of the Child Protective League, an attempt to pass a child labor bill, and the establishment of a watchdog child labor agency. Whittier House residents played key roles in the passing of a state tenement housing code. Bradford’s New Jersey Association of Neighborhood Workers, created in March , served as a clearinghouse for legislative lobbyists for the ten-hour workday for women, a juvenile court system, and woman suffrage. Whittier House Settlement, directed by Cornelia Bradford, sponsored many reforming groups, including the Hudson County Tuberculosis Association, the Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children, the North American Civic League, and the New Jersey State Bureau of Immigration. In  Bradford served on Jersey City’s Board of Education. Bradford was honored at celebrations marking Whittier House’s twentieth and twenty-fifth anniversaries, and in  was awarded an honorary M.A. by the New Jersey College for Women, now Douglass College. James, Edward T., ed. Notable American Women, –: A Biographical Dictionary. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, . Women’s Project of New Jersey. Past and Promise: Lives of New Jersey Women. Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, .

See also Whittier House

Ella Handen

Bradley, Joseph , ).

Cornelia Foster Bradford.

Courtesy Special Collections and University Archives, Rutgers University Libraries, New Brunswick.

(b. Mar. , ; d. Jan.

Attorney and U.S. Supreme Court justice. Born near Albany, New York, the eldest of twelve children, Joseph Bradley spent his early years as part of a typical, large, rural farm family, filled with “plowing . . . clearing land and burning wood . . . and peddling charcoal.’’ He abandoned his plans to become a grocer when a former teacher arranged for him to attend Rutgers College, from which he graduated in . Described as “a desperately serious young man,’’ Bradley decided to study law, largely with himself as the instructor. Rigorous in his preparation, he studied admiralty and Roman law, as well as the origins and contents of British common law. He passed the bar in , and for the next thirty years centered his life and legal career in Newark.

Joseph Bradley.

Courtesy Special Collections and University Archives, Rutgers University Libraries, New Brunswick.

He married Mary Hornblower, the daughter of the New Jersey Supreme Court’s chief justice, worked as an actuary and legislative correspondent, and slowly built up a successful law practice by specializing in patent, corporate, and commercial law. As was true of Abraham Lincoln and many other members of the newly formed Republican party, Bradley saw no inconsistency in supporting the demise of slavery and the survival of the federal Union, while at the same time contemplating little change in racial attitudes toward blacks. By –, Bradley had gathered support from a broad spectrum of state politicians for nomination to the U.S. Supreme Court. Although not one of U. S. Grant’s original choices for the two seats open in , the president ultimately appointed him in February . He served for almost twenty-two years. Bradley had one of the strongest intellects on the Court. He brought added strength to his decisions through practical experience in the business world and his interests in math, natural science, and philosophy. But he was equally at home exploring the commerce clause, expounding on a fair rate of return for a railroad, or discussing the incredibly intricate issues of patent litigation, an area on which he often spoke for the Court. Bradley was an outstanding technician of the law, but in areas such as civil rights (areas that now seem more important than interstate commerce), with his own understandable but still unfortunate biases against women and blacks, on occasion he was unable to transcend the limits of his own time, something that a truly great jurist must be able to do. See, for example, his opinions in Bradwell v.

Branchville Illinois (), or his decision for the Court in the Civil Rights cases (). On the other hand, in Boyd v. United States, Bradley explored the scope of the Fourth and Fifth Amendments to the Constitution, arguing that “illegitimate and unconstitutional practices get their first footing . . . by slight deviations from legal modes of procedure.. . . It is the duty of courts to be watchful for the constitutional rights of the citizen, and against any stealthy encroachments thereon.’’ The second New Jersey resident to sit on the High Court, upon his death, Bradley was accurately described as “a man of profound and varied learning, legal acumen, and moral rectitude.’’ Whether that is sufficient to make him great depends on the perspective each generation takes on its legal past. ANB. DAB. Fairman, Charles. “The Education of a Justice: Justice Bradley and Some of His Colleagues.’’ Stanford Law Review  (): –. ———. “What Makes a Great Justice: Mr. Justice Bradley and the Supreme Court, –.’’ Boston University Law Review  (): –. Lurie, Jonathan. “Mr. Justice Bradley: A Reassessment.’’ Seton Hall Law Review  (): –.

See also law

Jonathan Lurie

Bradley Beach. .-square-mile borough located between Ocean Grove and Avon-bythe-Sea in Monmouth County. In  William Bradner and James A. Bradley purchased the seventy-four-acre Brown farm located south of Duck Pond (now Fletcher Lake). This purchase formed the nucleus of a community named in honor of Bradley, the founder of Asbury Park. Incorporated as a borough in  when it separated from Neptune Township, Bradley Beach was further enlarged in , when a special local election annexed a small eastern portion of Neptune City. As with other self-contained Shore communities, the beach is one of the major attractions for summer tourists. Bradley Beach has the reported distinction of having been, in the late s, the first resort in the nation to charge admission to fenced-in public beaches. Recent neighborhood renovations include the replacement of the wooden boardwalk with bricks, the construction of a Victorian-style band gazebo, and the restoration of an art deco water fountain. Other changes include Victorian streetlights and sidewalk bricks on Main Street and a refurbishing of the Borough Square. The borough has a mix of single-family houses, townhouses, and apartment complexes, with commercial and service buildings along State Highway . There are , housing units in the borough, with  (. percent) of them available for seasonal use. In , the population of , was  percent white and  percent Hispanic (Hispanics may be of any race). The median household income in 

was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Ayres, Shirley, and G. C. Crawford. Bradley Beach. Dover, NH: Arcadia, .

Wayne T. Bell, Jr.

Brainerd, David (b. Apr. , ; d. Oct. John Brainerd (b. Feb. ,

, ) and

; d. Mar. , ). Presbyterian clergymen

and Indian missionaries. David and John were born in Haddam, Connecticut, to Hezekiah and Dorothy Brainerd. They were orphaned in their teenage years. In  David enrolled at Yale College and was an active campus proponent of the evangelical spirit associated with the widespread revival known as the First Great Awakening. He was eventually expelled from the college for reputedly saying that a tutor had “no more grace than a chair.’’ David was eventually ordained by the Presbytery of New York and appointed as a missionary of the Society in Scotland for Propagating Christian Knowledge (SSPCK). He ministered to American Indians in several states, but his greatest achievement occurred in a community of Delaware Indians at Crossweeksung (Crosswicks), New Jersey. He led a religious revival there and baptized thirty-eight converts with whom he formed a community of Christians at Bethel, near Cranbury. David’s journal, which described his activities among the Indians, was published in  by his colleague and mentor, the Rev. Jonathan Edwards of Northampton, Massachusetts. One year later, he died of complications related to tuberculosis. John Brainerd, a  graduate of Yale, continued his brother’s ministry. He served as an SSPCK-appointed missionary to the Indians who resided on the newly formed Brotherton reservation in Burlington County. He preached regularly in Presbyterian churches throughout the state, served as a chaplain in the Seven Years’ War, and settled down as the minister of the Deerfield (New Jersey) Presbyterian Church, where he remained until his death. Brainerd, John. The Journal of the Rev. John Brainerd from January  to October . Toms River: New Jersey Courier, . Brainerd, Thomas. The Life of John Brainerd, the Brother of David Brainerd, and His Successor as Missionary to the Indians of New Jersey. New York: A.D.F. Randolph, . Edwards, Jonathan. The Life of David Brainerd. In The Works of Jonathan Edwards, ed. Norman Pettit, vol. . New Haven: Yale University Press, . Wynbeek, David. David Brainerd: Beloved Yankee. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, .

John Fea

Branchburg.

.-square-mile township in Somerset County. Bounded on three sides by the North and South branches of the Raritan River (whence its name), Branchburg was settled by the Dutch about . It remained part of Bridgewater Township until April , . Early communities in the township date

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back to the s. North Branch was laid out in ; the Dutch Reformed Church dates from . Neshanic Station, another early attempt at municipal planning, dates from the s. Across the South Branch from Neshanic in Hillsborough Township, Neshanic Station was a depot on the Central and Lehigh Valley railroads, which built passenger and freight stations there in the late nineteenth century. Half the village burned to the ground in a  fire. An unusual lenticular or parabolic truss bridge at Elm Street, built in , is one of only two in the state. Still semirural after decades of development, Branchburg is home to Raritan Valley Community College, a two-year college in North Branch. Farms stand cheek by jowl with housing developments and industrial parks astride the Raritan Valley Line of New Jersey Transit. In , the population of , was  percent white. The median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Havens, Jessie Lynes. Somerset County: Three Centuries of Progress. Chatsworth, CA: Windsor Publications, . Snyder, John P. The Story of New Jersey’s Civil Boundaries, –. Trenton: Bureau of Geology and Topography, . Somerset County. Somerville: Somerset County Board of Chosen Freeholders, . Van Horn, J. H. Historic Somerset. New Brunswick: Somerset County Historical Society, .

Alan A. Siegel

Branchville.

.-square-mile borough in western Sussex County. Branchville was set off from Frankford Township in . Located on Culver Brook, a branch of the Paulinskill, by the early nineteenth century it became an important milling center for the surrounding agricultural district. Mills processed lumber, wool, and grain. The Sussex Railroad reached the village in , which led to the construction of creameries. In , one of the first hydroelectric generating plants in the state was constructed here; the plant now serves as an antiques shop. The Garris Center, operated by the Culver Brook Restoration Foundation, is a local museum and theater. Culver’s Lake, to the west, was a notable nineteenth-century summer resort and is now a major lake community. In , the population of  was  percent white. The median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, .

Hartman, Dorothy W., ed. Branchville, New Jersey, –. Branchville: Culver Brook Restoration Foundation, . Honeyman, A. Van Doren, ed. Northwestern New Jersey, A History. New York: Lewis Historical Publishing, . Snell, James P., ed. History of Sussex and Warren Counties, New Jersey. Philadelphia: Everts and Peck, .

Ronald J. Dupont, Jr.

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Brandle, Theodore

Brandle, Theodore (b.; d. ).

Labor leader. Once the czar of construction labor in northern New Jersey, Theodore Brandle achieved his share of successes in union organizing and a great deal of unwelcome notoriety. He played a significant part in the development of downtown Jersey City, especially the Journal Square area, and in the building of the Pulaski Skyway. Brandle was a close friend and political ally of Jersey City’s mayor Frank Hague and owed much of his career to Hague’s patronage. In the end, however, Hague deserted Brandle. Brandle was an ironworker in , and because of his connections he rose quickly to become the business agent of Jersey City’s Iron Workers Local. In  he was made president of the Iron League of New Jersey (an employers and manufacturers group) and simultaneously served as president of the New Jersey State Building Trades Council (NJSBTC). His involvement on both the employee and employer sides of the construction business was tailor-made for the charges of collusion that eventually led to his downfall. In  Brandle was convicted of income tax fraud, among other charges, which led to a steady decline in his fortunes. Hague repudiated him, and the Iron Workers Union ousted him from its membership. He was also forced to resign from the NJSBTC. Although he vowed a comeback, his career was essentially finished by the mids.

Robert C. Nelson

Brattain, Walter H.

(b. Feb. , ; d.

Oct. , ). Physicist and inventor. Walter H. Brattain was born in Amoy, China, the son of Ross R. and Ottilie Houser Brattain. He received a Ph.D. in physics from the University of Minnesota in . Brattain joined Bell Labs in  and transferred to its new Murray Hill campus in . Together with John Bardeen and William Shockley, Brattain invented the transistor, the fundamental device underlying all modern solid-state electronics, in . The three men shared the Nobel Prize in Physics in . Braun, Ernest, and Stuart MacDonald. Revolution in Miniature: The History and Impact of Semiconductor Electronics. d ed. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, . Riordan, Michael, and Lillian Hoddeson. Crystal Fire: The Birth of the Information Age. New York: W. W. Norton, .

See also transistor

Sheldon Hochheiser

Brearly, David

(b. June , ; d. Aug. ,

). Lawyer, Revolutionary War officer, and

chief justice of New Jersey. David Brearly was the son of David Brearly, Sr., who farmed near Trenton, and Mary Clark. His early educational path is unknown. Upon completing legal studies, Brearly practiced in Allentown. He was appointed Monmouth County surrogate in  and .

Brearly entered active militia service as a captain on October , , and rose to the rank of colonel in less than a year. He joined the New Jersey Brigade of the Continental Army, was commissioned lieutenant colonel on November , , and fought in the battles and skirmishes of the New Jersey– Pennsylvania campaigns of –; he also served with his brigade in the Sullivan Indian expedition of . Brearly resigned from the army on August , , after the state legislature elected him chief justice of the Supreme Court of New Jersey earlier that summer. He lost an election for governor the following year. As chief justice, Brearly delivered the court’s opinion in Holmes v. Walton () that overturned New Jersey laws requiring six-man juries on grounds that such laws contradicted the state constitution, which required jury trials, and state tradition, which held that there should be twelve jurymen. The case established the important precedent of judicial review, that organic law is superior to statute law, and influenced the shaping of U.S. constitutional law. A delegate to the Constitutional Convention in , Brearly helped to sponsor the New Jersey Plan; he opposed proportionate representation. He chaired the committee on postponed matters and overall had a moderating influence on the convention. He served as a boundary commissioner and a presidential elector. He died shortly after assuming an appointment to the U.S. District Court for New Jersey.

Joseph Jacobs

Brendan T. Byrne State Forest. Originally known as Lebanon State Forest, the forest was renamed in honor of former governor Byrne in . This ,-acre state forest in Burlington County surrounds the site of the former Lebanon Glass Works. Established in , the Glass Works was once a thriving industrial complex. It was abandoned in  after the surrounding forest (used to fuel the furnace) was depleted. State acquisition of the land began in , and many of the evergreen stands that remain today were planted during the Great Depression by the Civilian Conservation Corps. Also within the forest is Whitesbog Village, a former cranberry- and blueberry-producing company town founded in the s. Once one of the biggest cranberry farms in the state, Whitesbog was the birthplace of the commercial highbush blueberry. See also state forests

Fred J. Aun

Brennan, William J., Jr.

(b. Apr. ,

; d. July , ). Attorney, justice of the

DAB. McCormick, Richard P. Experiment in Independence: New Jersey in the Critical Period, –. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . Scott, Austin. “Holmes v. Walton: The New Jersey Precedent.’’ American Historical Review  (– ): –.

Harry M. Ward

Brecht, George

rules. In –, George Maciunus appropriated many of Brecht’s ideas about art when he founded and named Fluxus—an art movement dedicated to deemphasizing art as a fine object and making it more conceptual and a function of everyday living. Brecht currently lives in Cologne, Germany. See also art

(b. ). Artist. New York City–born George Brecht is considered by many to be the father of American Conceptual art. While working as a chemist at Johnson & Johnson in New Brunswick and living in nearby Metuchen, he attended John Cage’s course in musical composition at the New School of Social Research. There, he conceived compositions to be performed by chance using automobiles (Motor Vehicle Sundown Event, ) and radios (Candle Piece for Radios, ) as instruments. These compositions were printed on cards, which Brecht mailed to friends and acquaintances with no explanation. Some recipients collected the cards, others executed the performances using personal interpretations. Also in the late s, Brecht made interactive artworks that were games: boxes with compartments filled with small, commonplace found objects that viewers could rearrange and even remove, and game cards on which the viewer made up the

New Jersey Supreme Court, and U.S. Supreme Court justice. An Irish emigrant, William J. Brennan’s father became an activist for organized labor in his adopted city of Newark, where later he was repeatedly elected to that city’s highest governing board. He encouraged his eldest son to gain a college education, and in  Brennan graduated from the Wharton School. Three years later, having had to rely on both odd jobs and a scholarship to acquire the necessary funds, he received a degree from Harvard Law School. Although his father died before Brennan completed law school, he had passed on to his son a strong sense of fairness as well as an abiding commitment to human dignity. Both traits would dominate Justice Brennan’s jurisprudence. As a young attorney, Brennan joined one of the more prominent Newark law firms, Pitney, Hardin, and Skinner. Within seven years () he had become a partner in the firm. During World War II, he served in the army and specialized in resolution of labor issues that resulted from the transformation to a wartime production economy. Upon his return to Newark, Brennan became a name partner in his law firm, just in time to join in supporting the efforts for constitutional reform that culminated in the adoption of New Jersey’s third—and still current—constitution.

breweries By , in spite of being a staunch Democrat, Brennan was appointed to a newly transformed Superior Court by Gov. Alfred Driscoll. As a judge, Brennan worked with the new chief justice of New Jersey, Alfred Vanderbilt. Indeed, he became a trusted associate of this well-known jurist, and after just one year on the bench, Brennan was elevated to the appellate division. By , again with Vanderbilt’s enthusiastic support, Brennan had joined him as a member of the state supreme court. Although Brennan occasionally disagreed with his chief, his considerable human warmth and personal charm always prevented any rupture between them. In  President Dwight D. Eisenhower indicated that he wanted to select a Democrat, preferably one on a state’s highest court, as well as a Roman Catholic to the U.S. Supreme Court. Brennan, who had already come to the attention of the Justice Department, was the candidate from the right party with the right background at the right time. Appointed by President Eisenhower in October , he finally received Senate confirmation in March . “I suspect,’’ observed New Jersey governor Robert Meyner who, like Vanderbilt, strongly supported Brennan’s appointment, that “his opinions will not be quite as middle of the road as some Republicans seem to think.’’ Brennan served on the High Court for more than thirty-four years, and his judicial output well demonstrated the accuracy of Meyner’s prediction. With remarkable consistency, he interpreted the Constitution as a charter reflecting the “sparkling vision of the human dignity of every individual.’’ Perhaps his chief and dear friend Earl Warren best described New Jersey’s greatest contribution to the U.S. Supreme Court when he noted that Brennan’s “belief in the dignity of human beings—all human beings—is unbounded. He also believes that without such dignity men cannot be free.’’ ANB. De Grazia, Edward. “Reason, Passion, and Justice Brennan: A Symposium.’’ Cardozo Law Review  (). Schwartz, Bernard. Super Chief: Earl Warren and His Supreme Court. New York: New York University Press, .

See also law

Jonathan Lurie

Bresci, Gaetano

(b. Nov. , ; d. May

, ). Silk mill worker and anarchist. Born

in Coiano, a village in Tuscany, Gaetano Bresci, at age eleven, was apprenticed to a silk textile mill in nearby Prato where rapid industrialization had transformed cottage artisans into a turbulent proletariat. Many of these workers espoused anarchism, earning the enmity of the increasingly repressive Italian state. Bresci, too, was drawn to the ideology. In  he was arrested in a sweep of anarchists and imprisoned without a trial. After his release in , he found no lasting employment and emigrated to Paterson, New Jersey,

arriving on January , . Paterson was no random choice. As the largest producer of silk textiles in the United States, it harbored many Italian immigrants, and anarchists, among its polyglot workforce. About  to  Italians were dues-paying members of several anar` per chist clubs. The largest was the Societa il Diritto all’Esistenza (Society for the Right to Existence). It published a newspaper, and its members debated, sometimes bitterly, how to achieve a society regulated only by humanity’s unfettered goodness. The moderates backed a policy of persuasion, but a violent minority believed only in the gun: Italian anarchists between  and  assassinated three European heads of state. Bresci found work at the Hamil and Booth silk mill, for $ a week, and he took a room at Bertoldi’s Hotel, on Straight Street, for eighty cents a day, full board. A week later he joined the Society for the Right to Existence. Bresci was a handsome man, always elegantly dressed. By June  he was living with Sophie Knieland (or Neil). Their daughter, Maddalena, was born in March . His seemed the ideal immigrant experience, but inwardly he nursed a mounting anger. In May  Gen. Bava Beccaris had ordered his troops in Milan to fire upon a peaceful workers’ demonstration, killing  and wounding . When the king decorated Beccaris for his action, Bresci decided on revenge. He withdrew from anarchist activities, bought a gun, and practiced firing it. He departed for Italy on May , , and by July  he was in the city of Monza, where King Umberto was to attend an athletic competition in the city stadium. That afternoon, when the king’s carriage approached the grandstand, Bresci dashed forth and shot him dead. He was sentenced to life imprisonment on August , . On May , , he was found dead in his cell, an apparent suicide. Clearly, Bresci’s activities in Paterson left little mark in New Jersey history. His bold, quixotic act was the high point of the anarchist movement in Paterson, and also its death knell. Anarchism withered away, its adherents clinging to outdated memories of exclusion in Italy, where, in fact, by  leftist parties had gained  seats in the Chamber of Deputies. In Paterson, the anarchists were isolated by language and philosophy from American workers who were embracing unionism, not a utopian transformation of society. Carey, George W. “The Vessel, the Deed, and the Idea: Anarchists in Paterson, –.’’ Manuscript, Rutgers University Library, Special Collections, .

Charles Perrone

Brewer, Prosper

(b. Jan. , ; d. ).

Politician, labor leader, detective. Prosper Brewer was the first African American ward chairman in Newark. In , in response to the exclusion of blacks from organized labor, he led a strike of black dockworkers at Port

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Newark that ended with a wage increase. Later a detective in the Essex County prosecutor’s office in Newark, Brewer served as the powerful chairman of the Republican Third Ward Club from  to . Wright, Giles R. Afro-Americans in New Jersey: A Short History. Trenton: New Jersey Historical Commission, .

See also labor movement

Ethel M. Washington

breweries.

The earliest breweries in New Jersey were established by the Dutch in the s. During the colonial era ale, porter, and stout were imported from Britain, but malt liquor was produced locally to save the cost of transatlantic transport. Colonial mansions often incorporated brewhouses within their compounds. Cider and applejack were produced as agricultural products by cider mills throughout the countryside, and Newark became a producer of both as well. The Newark brewery of John N. Cumming, established in  and taken over in  by Thomas Morton, was subsequently bought out by the Scottish malt seller Peter Ballantine, together with Erastus Paterson, in . Ballantine, who was born in Ayrshire, had moved to Newark from Albany, New York, where he had established a brewery in . The plant was relocated along the Passaic River at Front Street in , and became P. Ballantine and Son in . After Prohibition, the Ballantine brewery was sold to Badenhausen Brothers, who kept the Ballantine name and concentrated on producing light ale—one million barrels per year. The influx of German immigrants into Newark, Jersey City, and Hoboken by the middle of the nineteenth century increased the demand for beer of fine quality and variety. Several German immigrants established breweries in Newark. In addition to P. Ballantine and Son, numbering among the five largest breweries were those of Joseph Hensler, who began working for Lorenz and Jacquillard in  and founded his own brewery in ; Christian Feigenspan, who founded a brewery in  and was the originator of the trademark initials “P.O.N.,’’ or “Pride of Newark’’; Gottfried Krueger (whose brewery became the first to market beer in aluminum cans in June ); and the Keidermeyer Brewery. By , Ballantine had absorbed the Feigenspan brewery. Outside of Newark, the Peter Breidt City Brewery occupied a plant built in  on Pearl Street in Elizabeth, which produced beer, ale, and porter. In Hudson County, many breweries were located along the Palisades ridge in Jersey City Heights, overlooking Hoboken, where beer gardens were plentiful. The William Peter Brewery Company in Union City, built in , replaced the former Peter’s Palisade Brewery, by  the largest brewer of lager beer in the area. It encompassed six buildings, including the  brewhouse, a two-story refrigeration

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building, two stockhouses, a bottling department, and stables. Also part of the complex were workers’ dwellings and a plant supervisor’s house. During the years of national Prohibition (–), this and other breweries that were able to remain in business sustained themselves by making – beer (. percent alcohol) as well as other, nonalcoholic beverages. Beer was traditionally sold on draught from barrels, delivered by horse-drawn carts, and later on trucks, when it was packaged in bottles and cans. The brewing industry in New Jersey had a distinctly German cultural influence, with the proceedings of the trade association conducted in German for many years, and beer gardens flourishing, especially in the Hudson County area. New Jersey’s output of malt liquors rose steadily, as the following figures indicate: from a value of $,, in  to $,, in , $,, in , $,, in , to $,, on the eve of Prohibition. It had become the fourth-largest industry in Newark, and made New Jersey’s the seventh-largest output in the nation. By , when Anheuser-Busch opened a brewery in Newark, many of the city’s breweries had gone out of business. Three decades later there were only three major breweries in the state: Anheuser-Busch, Rheingold, and Pabst. This triumvirate, however, was shortlived. In  the Rheingold Brewery in Orange closed down, followed one year later by the Pabst Brewery in Newark. The Anheuser-Busch plant is still active today, producing ten million barrels of beer a year, including Budweiser and Bud Lite, the two most popular beers in the United States. In the s, microbreweries (breweries producing fewer than , barrels of beer annually) and brewpubs (restaurants or bars brewing beer for their patrons’ consumption) began to appear throughout the state. Today New Jersey has over a dozen brewpubs and about half a dozen microbreweries. Baron, Stanley. Brewed in America: A History of Beer and Ale in the United States. Boston: Little, Brown, . Cunningham, John T. Newark. Newark: New Jersey Historical Society, . Myers, William Starr, ed. The Story of New Jersey. New York: Lewis Historical Publishing, . Weiss, Harry B. The Early Breweries of New Jersey. Trenton: New Jersey Agricultural Society, .

Patricia F. Colrick

Brick.

.-square-mile township in Ocean County. The early history of Brick dates back to the American Indians who camped along the shores of the Manasquan and Metedeconk rivers, Barnegat Bay, and the Atlantic Ocean. Attracted by the virgin woodlands, the first European settlers arrived around  to develop the charcoal and iron industries as well as commercial centers. On February , , the New Jersey state legislature created Brick

Township from sections of Howell and Dover townships. It is named for Joseph W. Brick, owner of Bergen Iron Works. The township was then sparsely populated and made up of several small villages, with an economy based on agriculture, fishing, and commerce. In the s land developers arrived and created resort communities like Riviera Beach, Breton Woods, Shore Acres, and Normandy Beach. Today Brick Township is a bedroom community and commercial center. There are fiftythree miles of waterfront property including three ocean beaches, a river beach, several private community beaches, and twenty-six marinas supporting a resort industry. In , the population of , was  percent white. The median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Brick Township Changing Scenes. Brick: Brick Township Historical Society, . Donatiello, Eugene E., and John G. Leavey. Brick Township. Charleston, SC: Arcadia, . Miller, Pauline S. Ocean County: Four Centuries in the Making. Toms River: Ocean County Cultural and Heritage Commission, .

Eugene E. Donatiello

brickmaking. Brick was first produced in New Jersey in the late seventeenth century. Woodbridge and Burlington were two early centers for its manufacture. Although many colonial brick houses in New Jersey are said to be made from Dutch or English brick imported to the colonies, this is generally unsubstantiated. In the eighteenth century, southwestern New Jersey was home to an unusual brickbuilding tradition. Prominent local Quakers built patterned brick houses, which sported gable ends decorated with glazed brick, sometimes recording the initials of the couple who built the house or the year it was completed. New Jersey manufacturers made all major varieties of brick: common, face, enameled, glazed, firebrick, and paving. Clays suitable for the manufacture of brick are found at many locations in the state. Nineteen of twentyone counties had brickworks in . Major centers of brick production included Little Ferry, Sayreville, South River, Trenton, and Woodbridge. In the first decade of the twentieth century, there were over ninety brick manufacturers in the state. The largest producer was the Sayre and Fisher Company, established in . The Sayre and Fisher plant, located in Sayreville, ran along two miles of the Raritan River. It remained in operation until  and at its height produced  million bricks per year. Suburbanization and rising property values led to the demise of New Jersey’s brickmaking industry in the mid-twentieth century. Weiss, Harry Bischoff, and Grace M. Weiss. Early Brickmaking in New Jersey. Trenton: New Jersey Agricultural Society, .

See also ceramics industry; patterned brickwork

Richard F. Veit

bridges. New Jersey, as a peninsular state, is by necessity home to some of the most historically and technologically significant bridges in the world. All three of the basic types of bridges—beam, arch, and suspension—are represented. Beam bridges consist of a horizontal beam supported by piers at each end. To increase the support for the beam, a truss is often used, based upon a geometric framework, primarily of triangles, that strengthen the beam and add rigidity. Beam bridges generally span smaller distances and in New Jersey are often found over small creeks or rivers. The Sergeant Green Covered Bridge in Sergeantsville is a truss beam covered bridge made of wood; it is the oldest remaining covered bridge in the state. The Calhoun Street Bridge () in Trenton is one of the longer truss bridges and is the second oldest bridge across the Delaware River. Trusses use different materials (wood, iron, steel) and configurations to handle the forces of compression and tension on the bridge. Many of the Delaware River crossings are truss bridges, including the Lower Trenton Bridge—the “Trenton Makes’’ bridge—() and the Washington Crossing Bridge (). Trusses also come in different patterns; for example, a lens-type shape is found with the two-span lenticular truss in Neshanic Station (). Well-known examples of cast-iron and wrought-iron bridges in New Jersey include the West Main Street Bridge () over the South Branch Raritan River in Clinton, the Musconetcong River Bridge () in New Hampton, and the School Street Bridge () over Spruce Run in Glen Gardner. A variation of the beam and truss bridge is the cantilever bridge, in which the beam is anchored near one end with the other end suspended. The Commodore Barry Bridge () linking Bridgeport to Chester, Pennsylvania, across the lower Delaware is the third longest steel truss cantilever bridge in the world. Both the Outerbridge Crossing () and the Goethals Bridge (), connecting New Jersey to Staten Island, are also steel truss cantilever bridges. The Pulaski Skyway () between Newark and Jersey City is a combined cantilever and truss that crosses both the Passaic and Hackensack rivers. A movable bridge is one whose span can be lifted or rotated so as to allow transportation to pass beneath. An example of a movable bridge called the bascule, or seesaw drawbridge, is the Strauss bascule bridge (–), which carries Dorset Avenue in Ventnor across water. Two of New Jersey’s vertical lift railroad bridges, the Arthur Kill () near Staten Island and the Delair () in South Jersey, are among the largest, spanning over  feet. A second type of bridge, the arch bridge, traces its roots back to Roman engineering. Arch bridges are generally able to span somewhat greater distances than beam bridges. The principle behind arch bridges is a diffusion of

Bridgewater force along the arch to the pier. The Bayonne Bridge (), connecting Bayonne to Staten Island, is the second largest steel arch bridge in the world, slightly larger than its counterpart in Sydney, Australia. Stone arch bridges may vary from single to several arches. Hunterdon County claims its concentration of more than two hundred stone arch bridges is more than any other single place. The Nicholson Bridge () across the Delaware near the Water Gap is a magnificent concrete arch railroad bridge, built in – by the Delaware, Lackawanna, and Western Railroad. Other railroad arch bridges include the Amtrak Railroad Bridge () over the Delaware River at Trenton. A stone arch bridge now stands over the Millstone River at Kingston where Gen. George Washington destroyed the bridge in  following the battle of Princeton. The third major category of bridge, capable of spanning the greatest distances, is the suspension bridge. In this bridge, the roadway is supported by cables (ideally, steel) that are anchored at each end and carried over towers that support them. A variation on this is the cable-stayed bridge, in which the cables are attached directly to the tower. Although there are no cable-stayed bridges entirely in New Jersey, several of the most important suspension bridges in engineering history have one foot in the state. The Benjamin Franklin Bridge () between Camden and Philadelphia was designed by one of the preeminent engineers of the twentieth century, Ralph Modjeski, and Paul Philippe Cret, architect of Philadelphia’s Ben Franklin Parkway. At the time of its construction it was the longest suspension bridge in the world, and President Calvin Coolidge attended its dedication. Thirty years later the Walt Whitman Bridge (), another suspension bridge between Camden and Philadelphia, was completed. At the other end of the state, the George Washington Bridge () between Fort Lee and Manhattan is among the longest suspension bridges in the world. It was designed by Othmar H. Ammann, whose consulting engineering firm, Ammann and Whitney, maintained an office on West State Street in Trenton. Other notable suspension bridges in New Jersey include the Delaware Memorial Bridge (original bridge, ; parallel, ) between New Jersey and Delaware, also designed by Ammann, and the Riegelsville Bridge () along the northern Delaware River, a Roebling bridge. The Roebling engineering firm is most well known for the Brooklyn Bridge. John Roebling (–), one of America’s foremost engineers, established his wire-rope factory and residence in Trenton; his son, Washington Roebling, oversaw completion of the Brooklyn Bridge while bedridden in Trenton. In addition to their engineering and aesthetic functions, in some instances bridges become political symbols. For example, two of New Jersey’s bridges—the Burlington-Bristol

() and Tacony-Palmyra ()—gave rise to a famous court battle that resulted in judicial reaffirmation of the fiduciary obligations of public officials. Other New Jersey bridges of note include the Northampton Street Bridge () linking Phillipsburg to Easton, Pennsylvania; the Betsy Ross Bridge () between Pennsauken and Philadelphia (the first major bridge in the United States named for a woman); and the Dingman’s Ferry Bridge (), New Jersey’s northernmost bridge, across the Delaware River, and one of the nation’s few remaining private toll bridges. Bennett, David. The Creation of Bridges. London: Booksales, . Browne, Lionel. Bridges: Masterpieces of Architecture. New York: Todtri Productions, . Dupre, Judith. Bridges: A History of the World’s Most Famous and Important Spans. New York: Black Dog and Leventhal, . Petroski, Henry. Engineers of Dreams: Great Bridge Builders and the Spanning of America. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, .

Steven M. Richman

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Bridgeton and Millville Traction Company. One of America’s pioneer interurbans, the Bridgeton and Millville Traction Company (B&MTCo.) opened in the early s between the towns of its corporate name. Although an intercity operation, the firm resembled an urban trolley, with lightweight rolling stock and rail. In  the company expanded, opening a branch from Bridgeton to the small port community of Bivalve. Typical of traction roads, the thirtyseven-mile-long B&MTCo. owned and operated an amusement park—Tumbling Dam Park—designed to generate traffic, especially during summer weekends. In  the company reorganized and leased the Millville Traction Company, which linked Millville and Vineland. A year later this appendage closed, and remaining service ended in , victim of increased automobile ownership. “Electric Railways of New Jersey.’’ Street Railway Journal.  (Apr. , ): –. “New Methods Save a Small Town Railway.’’ Electric Railway Journal.  (Jan. , ): –.

See also transportation

Bridgeton.

.-square-mile city in northwestern Cumberland County. Bridgeton has been the county seat since . Variously called Cohansey Bridge or the Bridge (about ), Bridgetown (about ), and, finally, Bridgeton (about ), it was formed from Bridgeton and Cohansey townships in ; parts were annexed to Deerfield and Fairfield townships in . By the Civil War period, Bridgeton’s iron forges and glass furnaces, regular steamboat service to Philadelphia, and railroad service to Camden made it a bustling city. It was also home to three important private schools: West Jersey Academy, Ivy Hall Seminary, and the South Jersey Institute. At the end of the twentieth century, competition from western states caused industry consolidation. OwensIllinois, the last major glass manufacturer and the city’s largest employer, closed its doors in . One of the earliest newspapers in New Jersey, the Plain Dealer, appeared for a short time in  and . It was handwritten and hung up in Potter’s Tavern on Broad Street. The tavern, now one of the city’s historic landmarks, is part of an extensive historic district that includes more than twenty-two hundred homes and other buildings on the National Register of Historic Places. In , the population of , was  percent white,  percent black, and  percent Hispanic (Hispanics may be of any race). The median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Chestnut, Bill. Bridgeton: In and Around the Old Country Town. Dover, NH: Arcadia, . Cunningham, John T. This Is New Jersey. Rev. ed. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . Historic Bridgeton, –. Bridgeton: Evening News, .

Gail Greenberg

H. Roger Grant

Bridgeton News. This daily newspaper was established in Bridgeton, the seat of Cumberland County, in January . It was the inspiration of J. Ward Richardson, who oversaw the business end, J.H.C. Applegate, who handled editorial content, and printer Paul J. Davis. The three men pooled their resources, totaling fifty-one dollars, and founded the Bridgeton Evening News, the first daily newspaper in the region. By , the newspaper had forty-two hundred subscribers and boasted the largest circulation in New Jersey south of Camden. The newspaper was sold to the Schofield family, which maintained control until selling the newspaper in  to the American Publishing Company. South Jersey Newspapers, part of the MediaNews Group, bought the newspaper in . Four years later, the newspaper was bought by the Newhouse media group’s Advance Publications. The newspaper, now published in the morning Monday through Saturday, changed its name to the Bridgeton News. See also newspapers Agnes Tracy Gottlieb

Bridgeville.

See White Township.

Bridgewater.

.-square-mile township in Somerset County. Sprawling Bridgewater slopes from the Watchung Mountains south to the Raritan River and includes Martinsville, Sunset Lake, Finderne, Bradley Gardens, Green Knoll, and Hobbstown. Formed by royal charter in  from the Northern Precinct, Bridgewater was incorporated on February , . It was settled by Dutch, English, and Scots-Irish in the s and was chiefly agricultural until the early years of the

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twentieth century, when population growth in Raritan, Bound Brook, and Somerville prompted those communities to become independent. Housing developments, industrial parks (among them the eighty-acre Central Jersey Industrial Park on Route ), and research centers blossomed after World War II, culminating in the  opening of Bridgewater Commons, one of the state’s largest shopping malls. The minor-league Somerset Patriots moved into their six-thousandseat baseball stadium in . Historic sites include Chimney Rock, overlooking a large traprock quarry; the Van Veghten House in Finderne, home of Somerset County’s historical society; and the Middlebrook Encampment, above Route , where the Continental Army camped in  and in the winter of – . Near the township is the headquarters of the Courier-News, one of central New Jersey’s largest dailies. The population in  of , residents was  percent white and  percent Asian. The  median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Havens, Jessie Lynes. Somerset County: Three Centuries of Progress. Chatsworth, CA: Windsor Publications, . Know Your Township, Bridgewater. Bridgewater Township: League of Women Voters, . Snyder, John P. The Story of New Jersey’s Civil Boundaries, –. Trenton: Bureau of Geology and Topography, . Somerset County. Somerville: Somerset County Board of Chosen Freeholders, . Van Horn, J. H. Historic Somerset. New Brunswick: Somerset County Historical Society, .

Alan A. Siegel

Brielle.

.-square-mile borough in Monmouth County. Prior to becoming an independent borough in , Brielle existed under the jurisdiction of the townships of Shrewsbury, Howell, and Wall, respectively. Before adopting its final name, it was known as Landing, Union, and Union Landing. It was named Brielle after a town in Holland with similar geographic features and because area farmers used windmills to drive pumps. During the American Revolution, Brielle was the site of an important coastal saltworks. It remained a farming community until , when several Jersey City businessmen purchased the local farms with the intention of turning the community into a seaside resort. Located on the Manasquan River one mile from the ocean, Brielle never became as popular a resort as surrounding towns with ocean frontage. However, with its protected harbor on the river leading to the sea, it has become well known for its pleasure and sportfishing, and it is the northern terminus of the Atlantic Intracoastal Waterway, which extends to Florida. The community is composed mainly of single-family homes. The  population of , was  percent white. The median household income in

 was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Gardner, Judy. The History of Brielle, Union Landing Revisited. Point Pleasant Beach: Valente Publishing, . “Surprises Await You in Brielle.’’ Supplement, Wall Township Herald, June , .

Carol Fisher Megill

Brigantine.

.-square-mile city on Brigantine Island in Atlantic County next to Atlantic City. Brigantine was incorporated in  as a real estate speculation, when a hotel and one hundred houses were built. The  stock market crash put an end to plans for further development, and it was not until after World War II, and then again with the arrival of the Atlantic City casinos in the s, that they were taken up again. During the s, , condominium units and , multifamily apartments were built. With new casinos currently being constructed, the planning and building of more housing is an ongoing project. The north end of the island, a government-owned shore preserve, remains undeveloped. The Marine Mammal Stranding Center, devoted to the rescue and rehabilitation of stranded or distressed marine animals, is located in Brigantine. During the summer, Brigantine’s population nearly doubles as a result of the influx of vacationers. In , the permanent population of , was  percent white and  percent Asian. The median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Federal Writers’ Project of the Works Progress Administration for the State of New Jersey. The WPA Guide to s New Jersey. . Reprint. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . McMahon, William. South Jersey Towns. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

Jerome E. Klein

Brigham, Carl Campbell

(b. May ,

; d. Jan. , ). Carl Brigham was born

in Marlboro, Massachusetts, and earned his B.A., M.A., and Ph.D. degrees at Princeton University. An educational psychologist, Brigham helped Robert Yerkes introduce intelligence tests for officer selection during World War I. Later, as a professor of psychology at Princeton University (–), he dramatically recanted his earlier racist views on the inheritability of intelligence and devised the College Board’s Scholastic Aptitude Test (), an innovative college admission test not based on a specific school curriculum. Brigham’s work in testing methodology and interpretation have had a lasting impact on college and graduate school admissions testing. More than  million college applicants have taken the SAT, now administered for the College Board by the Educational Testing Service in Princeton. Brigham, Carl Campbell. A Study of American Intelligence. Princeton: Princeton University Press, . ———. A Study of Error. New York: College Entrance Examination Board, .

Downey, Matthew T. Carl Campbell Brigham: Scientist and Educator. Princeton: Educational Testing Service, .

Gary D. Saretzky

Bristol-Myers Squibb.

Bristol-Myers Squibb, a pharmaceutical company with facilities in Hopewell Township, Plainsboro, and Princeton, employs about eight thousand people in eleven New Jersey locations. The company is a leader in consumer products, pharmaceutical research and development, and humanitarian aid. Bristol-Myers began when William McLaren Bristol and John Ripley Myers bought a pharmaceutical firm in Clinton, New York. The company achieved success in the early s with Sal Hepatica, a laxative mineral salt, and Ipana, the first toothpaste with disinfectant properties. By the mid-s, Bristol-Myers consumer products were sold in twenty-six countries, but the pharmaceutical side of the business flourished only with the mass production of penicillin during World War II. Edward Robinson Squibb founded a pharmaceutical concern in Brooklyn in , and the company prospered during the Civil War. In  E. R. Squibb and Sons bought land to build an ether production plant in New Brunswick. The city became the home of the Squibb Institute for Medical Research in , and the site of the largest penicillinproduction facility in the world, which Squibb opened in . In  the company expanded the Squibb Institute to facilities in Princeton. A  merger created Bristol-Myers Squibb, which established the Bristol-Myers Squibb Pharmaceutical Research Institute headquarters in Princeton in . In , the company signed an agreement with the National Cancer Institute to research and develop a new drug, Taxol (paclitaxel), which became one of the most widely prescribed cancer drugs in the world. The company has also launched Videx (didanosime, also known as ddI), a medication for treating HIV infection; Pravachol (pravastatin sodium), for individuals with elevated cholesterol or chronic heart disease; and Excedrin Migraine, the first nonprescription medication for migraine headaches. In  Bristol-Myers Squibb joined other drug companies and international agencies in the UNAIDS Drug ACCESS Initiative, providing medications to assist African countries in combating AIDS. Yale University and BristolMyers Squibb own the patent for the AIDS drug Zerit, a thymidine nucleoside analog. Zerit is now available at no cost in sub-Saharan Africa.

Barr, Stephen. New Jersey: Setting the Pace for the Twenty-first Century. Encino, CA: Cherbo Publishing, . Swann, John P. Academic Scientists and the Pharmaceutical Industry: Cooperative Research in TwentiethCentury America. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, .

See also pharmaceutical industry

Pamela Cooper

Brooks, Van Wyck

Britton, Nathaniel Lord

(b. Jan. ,

; d. June , ). Botanist. Born on Staten

Island, New York, Nathaniel Britton studied geology at Columbia College’s School of Mines in the s. Employed by the New Jersey Geological Survey to draw up the first comprehensive portrait of the state’s plant life, he published A Preliminary Catalogue of the Flora of New Jersey, which was accepted as his doctoral dissertation by Columbia in . As an officer of New York’s Torrey Botanical Club, Britton led weekend excursions of botany enthusiasts to New Jersey’s Pine Barrens and the Delaware Valley. In the s, he helped establish the New York Botanical Garden in the Bronx. Named its first director in , Britton held the post until . Merrill, E. D. “Nathaniel Lord Britton.’’ National Academy of Sciences Biographical Memoirs  (): –. Mickulas, Peter. “Giving, Getting, and Growing: Philanthropy, Science, and the New York Botanical Garden, –.’’ Ph.D. diss., Rutgers University, .

Peter Mickulas

Broad Seal War. A contested election between the Whig and Democratic parties for the six New Jersey seats in the U.S. House of Representatives resulted in the Broad Seal War of . Because the election took place on October –, before New Jersey was organized into congressional districts, all the seats were chosen at large by voters from the entire state. Gov. William Pennington, a Whig, and the Privy Council had the obligation of totaling the votes received from the county clerks and issuing to the victors certificates stamped with the “broad seal’’of the state. The governor and council announced that all five incumbent Whig candidates were reelected by extremely narrow margins. Only the sixth Whig candidate, Joseph Fitz Randolph, collected significantly more votes than his Democratic opponents. Controversy broke out when it was discovered that the votes from Millville and South Amboy were not included with the returns from Cumberland and Middlesex counties, respectively. The Cumberland County clerk, a Whig, claimed that the Millville returns lacked the seal of the township clerk, another Whig; moreover, the returns appeared to have been opened and were incompletely made out. In Middlesex, the county clerk also cited several irregularities, which, he claimed, invalidated the South Amboy returns. If the Middlesex and South Amboy returns had been counted, five of the six Whig candidates would have been defeated. Nevertheless, all six Whigs received commissions of election on November ,  (for terms beginning December ), to which were affixed the official state seal signed by Governor Pennington. Thirteen months later, on December , , the U.S. House of Representatives met to organize. When the clerk reached New Jersey in the roll call, he read only the name of Joseph

Fitz Randolph and passed over the names of the other claimants. A raging two-week debate followed, during which the House remained unorganized and without a Speaker. When the debate ended, the House Democratic majority voted to leave the five contested seats vacant. (Not counting those five seats, the Democrats held a – edge.) Thus New Jersey was left without five-sixths of its legal representation in the House, marking the first time in U.S. history that a state was denied full representation. The entire matter was presented to the House Committee on Elections, which had a – Democratic majority. The committee began working on the case on January , . Meanwhile, the legislatures of numerous states passed resolutions for and against the actions of the House, many claiming that the House had no legal authority to conduct business without full representation from New Jersey. In March  the House accepted the committee’s preliminary report and resolution to seat the five Democratic claimants. The committee continued its work, however, interviewing hundreds of voters and investigating allegations of fraud. Its final report, issued on July , , resolved that the five Democrats should retain their seats. The House concurred and thus closed the door on one of the most bitterly contested elections in the nation’s history. McCormick, Richard P. The History of Voting in New Jersey: A Study of the Development of Election Machinery, –. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

See also voting

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Brooklawn.

.-square-mile borough on the Delaware River in northwest Camden County. Brooklawn is bordered by the Little Timber Creek on the north and the Big Timber Creek on the south. It was through this area that the “Irish Road’’ connected with the Salem Road, the first highway through West Jersey. Both were built in  and followed Indian trails, connecting settlements throughout the wide area. Thus, tavern keeping became an important early industry. The first license was granted to Enoch Ellison in , and in  Desire Sparks, known as Aunty High Cap for her headgear, was granted a license for the Two Tuns Tavern. In  the U.S. Shipping Board built medium-income housing here, on the Camden Plan, a program financed by the Federal Works Agency that provided for the cooperative ownership of homes for sixty-five hundred workers in the shipyards of Pusey and Jones, located near Gloucester City. The town that arose was originally called Noreg Village. In ,  “beautiful frame and stucco dwellings including stores, business properties and vacant lots’’ were auctioned off in the community, which was described as an “ideal place of residence,’’ attracting “the highest type of men and their families.’’The borough was originally formed in  from Centre Township and was reincorporated in . The  population of , was  percent white. In , the median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Dorwart, Jeffery M., and Philip Mackey. Camden County, New Jersey, –: A Narrative History. Camden: Camden County Cultural and Heritage Commission, .

Ronald Becker Gail Greenberg

Brookdale Community College.

Brooks, Van Wyck

The county college of Monmouth, this fully accredited institution was established in  and in  had an enrollment of approximately thirteen thousand students. In addition to the main -acre campus in Lincroft, the two-year college administers education centers at several extension sites. The academic division maintains partnerships with several upper-level universities in New Jersey. Associate degrees are offered in career and transfer programs in over thirty areas, and there are courses in over seventy disciplines. The Business and Community Development Division offers noncredit courses. There are twenty-five buildings on campus, including a modern library, a performing arts center, and a gymnasium.

d. May , ). Literary critic, cultural histo-

Northern Monmouth County Branch of the American Association of University Women. A Triangle of Land—A History of the Site and the Founding of Brookdale Community College. Lincroft: Brookdale Community College, .

See also higher education

Michael Fowler

(b. Feb. , ;

rian, editor, and biographer. Van Wyck Brooks, the son of Charles Edward Brooks and Sarah Bailey Ames, was born and raised in Plainfield. Due to his father’s business failure, Brooks spent his early years in the home of his wealthy maternal grandparents and attended the Plainfield public schools. (The town has since named a historical district after him.) In  Brooks entered Harvard, graduated early, and was a member of Phi Beta Kappa. His first major publication was The Wine of the Puritans (), which examines materialism and the corruption of American culture. In  Brooks married Eleanor Kenyon Stimson, an old friend from Plainfield. The marriage produced two sons. Brooks wrote several influential works in subsequent years: America’s Coming-of-Age (), The Ordeal of Mark Twain (), and The Pilgrimage of Henry James (). He also coedited Seven Arts (–), a little magazine seeking to elevate American culture. His greatest scholarly undertaking was the five-volume Makers and Finders. The first volume, The Flowering of New England

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Broome, Isaac

(), received the Pulitzer Prize in history. After Eleanor Brooks’s death in , Brooks married Gladys Rice Billings in . He continued writing until his death in Bridgewater, Connecticut.

New Jersey. He continued to work for potteries in Trenton and in Ohio, including the Trent Tile Company, Providential Tile Company, and Lenox China, producing significant work until .

Hoopes, James. Van Wyck Brooks: In Search of American Culture. Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, .

Frelinghuysen, Alice C. American Porcelain, – . New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, .

Nelson, Raymond. Van Wyck Brooks: A Writer’s Life. New York: E. P. Dutton, .

See also ceramic art; ceramics industry

Wasserstrom, William, ed. Van Wyck Brooks: The Critic and His Critics. Port Washington, NY: Kennikat Press, .

See also literature

Paul R. Cappucci

Broome, Isaac

(b. May , ; d. May

, ). Sculptor and ceramics modeler. Ed-

ucated at the Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts, Philadelphia, Isaac Broome assisted Thomas Crawford with statues for the pediment of the U.S. Capitol’s Senate wing in Washington, D.C., in . Beginning in , he modeled for Ott and Brewer of Trenton the parian porcelain statuary shown at the Centennial International Exhibition, Philadelphia, in , and in  at the Exposition Universelle, Paris, for which he was a special commissioner from the United States and

Ellen Paul Denker

Brotherton Indian Reservation. Brotherton, New Jersey’s sole Indian reservation, existed for just forty-three years. During the French and Indian War, the Lenape Indians had sided with the French, but in  they sued for peace, relinquishing land ownership claims elsewhere in the colony in exchange for a reservation on the edge of the Pine Barrens. That summer the colony paid Benjamin Springer £ sterling for three thousand acres with a farmhouse and two mills on the Mullica River at Edgepillock in Burlington County, near present-day Indian Mills. The new settlement was named Brotherton by Gov. Francis Bernard, whose administration decreed that “all Indians that . . . reside in this Province . . . must resort to that tract of land.’’ John Brainerd, a Presbyterian missionary, settled at Brotherton early in . Ten houses and a meetinghouse were constructed, and Stephen Calvin, an Indian interpreter at the peace negotiations, became the schoolmaster. (He was succeeded by his son Bartholomew, an alumnus of the College of New Jersey, now Princeton University.) There were never more than a hundred Indians at Brotherton, and the group never became self-sufficient. Their sawmill burned; they vainly petitioned the legislature for relief; their population fell as conditions worsened. The remaining Indians left the reservation in  and joined the Oneidas in New York. In , the Brotherton Indians relocated once more, this time to Wisconsin, where their descendants still live today. New Jersey sold the Brotherton tract, paying the last of the proceeds to tribal representatives (including a now aged Bartholomew Calvin) in . Kraft, Herbert C. The Lenape: Archaeology, History, and Ethnography. Newark: New Jersey Historical Society, . ———. The Lenape-Delaware Indian Heritage: , B.C. to A.D. . Union: Lenape Books, .

See also American Indians

Nick Humez

Brown, Harvey Winfield ; d. Sept. , ).

Isaac Broome, Ott and Brewer, Trenton, Baseball Vase, . Parian bisque porcelain, h.  in., w.  / in.

Courtesy New Jersey State Museum, Trenton. The Brewer Collection, CH354.22.

(b. Oct. ,

Labor leader. Born in Dow, Pennsylvania, Harvey Brown took up the trade of machinist in  and worked as such until . In  he joined the International Association of Machinists (IAM) and served as business agent for the Wilkes-Barre, Pennsylvania, local. In  he married Emma C. Abbott. By  he had become an

international organizer for the IAM and later the business agent for the Newark local. He was a delegate to the American Federation of Labor’s (AFL) convention in  and . In  he became a vice president of the IAM, and by  he was the union’s president. During the same period he was a member of the AFL’s executive council. Under his leadership the IAM transformed itself from a railroad machinists union into a union heavily vested in the aircraft and general manufacturing industries. His regime, however, was marked by a constant fight with the AFL for control of the IAM. He also participated in a disastrous struggle with the carpenters’ and operating engineers’ unions and finally completely withdrew the IAM from the AFL. In  he was forced by the National Labor Relations Board to remove a racially oriented exclusion clause from the IAM’s secret ritual. He left union administration in  and became a vice president of the Union Labor Bank and Trust Company in Indianapolis, Indiana. Fink, Gary M., ed. Biographical Dictionary of American Labor. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, .

See also labor movement

Robert C. Nelson

Brown, William Mason d. Sept. , ).

(b. ;

Painter. Born in Troy, New York, William Mason Brown began his art studies in the late s with Abel Buel Moore, Troy’s leading portrait painter. From  to , Brown’s residence was Newark. There he turned his attention to painting landscapes reflecting the tight forms and vivid colors typical of the Romantic tradition developed earlier in the century by Thomas Cole, a pioneer of the American Hudson River School. On December , , Brown’s paintings were included in a public exhibition and sale organized by the New Jersey Art-Union, a subscription organization that commissioned paintings and engravings mainly by New Jersey artists in order to award the works by lottery to its members. Indeed, the Art-Union’s purchase of five of Brown’s landscapes for prizes at that exhibition, including at least one New Jersey subject, Evening Scene in New Jersey (location unknown), indicates his popularity there. This early success was followed on June , , when Newark portrait painter George Gates Ross arranged for Brown to exhibit in Library Hall, Ross’s painting rooms, where he held a lottery drawing of a group of twelve of Brown’s landscapes and seascapes; Ross himself won one of the paintings. Despite his success in Newark, Brown moved to Brooklyn in  and lived there for the rest of his life. Within two years, he began to specialize in still-life paintings containing bountiful arrangements mainly of fruit (especially peaches), a radical departure from his previous subject matter. Symbolic of American pre–Civil War optimism, these

Buccleuch Mansion precisely drawn and photographic works, often containing drapery and bric-a-brac in addition to fruit, caught the attention of critics and dealers alike, with the result that Brown became one of the period’s most important still-life painters. He also is known to have worked for the New York lithography firm of Currier & Ives and for art dealer William Schaus; both purchased his works to provide sources for lithographs of still lifes intended for the decoration of dining rooms. After , Brown regularly exhibited at the National Academy of Design, the Brooklyn Art Association, the Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts, and other venues. He became so prominent in Brooklyn art circles that he was included within the select group of artists that established the Brooklyn Academy of Design in December . Today, both his landscapes and still lifes can be found in major museums and private collections. Gerdts, William H. Painters of the Humble Truth: Masterpieces of American Still Life, –. Columbia, MO: University of Missouri Press, . ———. Painting and Sculpture in New Jersey. Princeton: D. Van Nostrand, . Mitnick, Barbara J. Nineteenth-Century American Still Lifes from New Jersey Collections. Morristown: Morris Museum of Arts and Sciences, .

See also art

Barbara J. Mitnick

brownfields.

New Jersey was at the heart of the industrial revolution that began over a century ago at the Great Falls in

Paterson. Hundreds of thousands worked in factories, freight yards, electricity-generating facilities, and other production facilities located along the railroads, roads, rivers, and estuaries around the state. But many factories closed, leaving rusted and contaminated hulks and lands called brownfields. New Jersey has about one thousand brownfields that are abandoned or underutilized. Not only are they no longer a source of employment and economic wealth, but they also undermine the very areas they once helped build. People do not want to live near eyesores, and businesses do not want to invest in them, especially if the land is contaminated. For over fifteen years, redevelopment of brownfields in New Jersey and the rest of the United States was hindered by laws that threatened liability to potential redevelopers. In the mid-s the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency began a brownfields redevelopment program, providing small grants to three hundred cities and counties, including Trenton, Elizabeth, Camden, and Perth Amboy. The state of New Jersey changed the liability laws so that redevelopment was feasible. United States government agencies and the New Jersey Departments of Community Affairs, Environmental Protection, and Transportation have begun providing financial and administrative assistance in support of brownfields redevelopment. The extent of risk to the public is a major concern and remediation may include soil removal, placement of a concrete slab on top of the

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land, and restrictions placed on future use of the land. Many brownfield sites are located in poverty-stricken, minority neighborhoods, and so brownfields redevelopment is an important issue to be addressed as part of environmental justice policies. It is also an essential part of efforts to redirect some growth back to cities and, hence, to reduce the negative effects of sprawled development. Bartsch, Charles, and Elizabeth Collaton. Brownfields: Cleaning and Reusing Contaminated Properties. Westport, CT: Praeger, . Simons, Robert. Turning Brownfields into Greenbacks: Developing and Financing Environmentally Contaminated Urban Real Estate. Washington, DC: Urban Land Institute, .

See also hazardous wastes; pollution

Michael R. Greenberg

Browns Mills. See Pemberton Township. Brownson, Orestes Augustus

(b.

Sept. , ; d. Apr. , ). Writer. Orestes

Brownson was originally a Presbyterian; he then became, in succession, a Universalist minister, a Unitarian minister, and founder of his own religious organization, the Society for Christian Union and Progress. In  he converted to Roman Catholicism. He lived and worked in Elizabeth, New Jersey, from  to . Before his conversion to Catholicism, Brownson questioned the legitimacy of established Christianity and was influenced by the views of European socialists such as Robert Owen and the Saint-Simonians. After his conversion he rejected liberalism and argued against Protestantism, but he retained his sympathy for labor and criticized Catholic political apathy. In The American Republic (), he argued that democracy depended on moral and ethical principles. He published, from  to  in Boston, and from  to  in New York, Brownson’s Quarterly Review (its publication was suspended in  due to the death of Brownson’s two sons and resumed briefly from  to ). He also wrote The Spirit Rapper: An Autobiography (), The Convert (), and many other articles and essays in leading publications of the time. Brownson, Orestes Augustus. The Works of Orestes A. Brownson. New York: AMS Press, . Ryan, Thomas R. Orestes A. Brownson. Huntington, IN: Our Sunday Visitor, . Schlesinger, Arthur M., Jr. Orestes A. Brownson: a Pilgrim’s Progress. . Reprint. New York: Octagon, .

Elizabeth A. Milliken

Brunson Instrument Company. See Keuffel and Esser.

A -foot-wide, ,-foot-long storm water drainage ditch bisected this brownfields site in Elizabeth, making it a daunting development task in . The ditch was piped out to the bay, the site filled, and the Jersey Gardens Mall constructed in .

Courtesy OENJ Cherokee Corporation, Brownfields Project, Elizabeth.

Buccleuch Mansion. Built in , this estate residence in New Brunswick was originally known as the White House, after its first owner, Anthony White (who married Elizabeth Morris, daughter of Gov. Lewis Morris). Owned

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Buchanan, Joseph Ray

by British general William Burton when the American Revolution began, it housed British soldiers. Later, it was confiscated by the state of New Jersey. The owner in , J. W. Scott, renamed the place Buccleuch (pronounced Buck-loo) after an ancestor’s estate in Scotland. In  the building and land around it were donated by descendant Anthony Day to the city of New Brunswick for a park. The city continues to maintain the park, while the Jersey Blue Chapter of the Daughters of the American Revolution manages the house as a museum. See also historic sites

Maxine N. Lurie

Buchanan, Joseph Ray (b. Dec. , ; d. Sept. , ). Labor leader. Joseph Ray Buchanan was born in Hannibal, Missouri, and began his long association with the union movement there as a typesetter in . Buchanan’s first brush with labor organization and a major strike occurred in  when a mining action in Leadville, Colorado, led to his fleeing town closely followed by a vigilante committee. He subsequently lived in Denver and then Chicago, where he remained active in labor causes, including the Knights of Labor and the newly emerging American Federation of Labor. In  he moved to New York City and later to Montclair, New Jersey. In the s he helped establish the Populist party and twice ran unsuccessfully for Congress. From  to  he was the labor editor for the New York Evening Journal and served as a member of the Conciliation Council of the U.S. Department of Labor from  to . Throughout his career, Buchanan was noted for his eloquence and integrity. He died in Montclair in . Buchanan, Joseph Ray. The Story of a Labor Agitator. New York: Outlook Press, .

See also Knights of Labor; labor movement

Robert C. Nelson

Buddhism.

Buddhism centers on the teachings of a sixth-century b.c.e. wandering prince from north India named Siddhartha Gautama. Upon his enlightenment, he became known as the Buddha, the “Enlightened One.’’ The Buddha spoke of the Four Noble Truths, the Middle Path, and anatta (nosoul) aimed at guiding his listeners to a life free from frustration. The Buddha’s teachings, known as dharma (truth), were recorded in numerous sutras, each containing the subtleties of Buddhist philosophy. Various interpretations of these subtleties spawned a multitude of Buddhist schools, including Mahayana, Theravada, Pure Land, Tibetan, and Zen Buddhism. The Buddha is probably best known for teaching a method of meditation for calming the mind, and this method forms the core of most current Buddhist practice.

Choephel-Ling, a Buddhist Temple in Howell, .

Courtesy Monmouth County Historic Sites Inventory, Monmouth County Park System.

There are between  and  million Buddhists in the United States. Less than one percent of New Jersey’s population is Buddhist— roughly ,. Such estimates are difficult to make because there is no central Buddhist organization that tracks American Buddhists, and not all people who practice Buddhist meditation identify themselves as Buddhists. New Jersey Buddhists include Asian American immigrant communities of ethnic Buddhists such as the Japanese American families that in  founded the original Seabrook Buddhist Temple in Bridgeton, one of the oldest temples in the state. In the s and s, immigration from Korea, China, Vietnam, Tibet, and other Asian countries resulted in new Buddhist communities. In the same period, many non–Asian Americans became involved in the study of Buddhist meditation and philosophy, and they form the majority of many Buddhist groups. There has been a rapid expansion of Buddhist groups in the last decade, and there are currently more than thirty in New Jersey. Prebish, Charles S., and Kenneth K. Tanaka, eds. The Faces of Buddhism in America. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, . Seagar, Richard H. Buddhism in America. New York: Columbia University Press, .

See also religion

Steve Trout

Buell, Murray Fife (b. Oct. , ; d. July , ). Ecologist. Murray Fife Buell grew up in New England and was educated at Cornell University and the University of Minnesota. Afterward he moved to North Carolina, where he conducted research in palynology (the study

of pollins and pollination), paleoecology, and vegetation analysis. In  he moved to Rutgers University, where he spent the remainder of his professional career, and where he developed a major center of ecology. Beginning in the s, Buell pioneered ecological research in several areas, including the effects of humans on public park ecosystems, hydrobiology, prescribed forest burning, and the effects on ecosystems of industrial pollution and urbanization. During his professional career Buell served in many of the Ecological Society of America’s higher offices. In  he received the Eminent Ecologist Award. His efforts and accomplishments in ecology have had a major influence on the field; many laboratories today employ his former students. See also ecology

Edmund Stiles

Buena. .-square-mile borough in Atlantic County. Buena Borough is named not only for its good views but also in part for the Mexican town of Buena Vista, which was the site of a major battle in  during the war between Mexico and the United States. The borough was formed from Buena Vista Township in . The Buena Vista School District was established in , one year before Buena Vista Township was created. The borough’s children now attend the Buena Regional School District, which serves students from Buena Vista and Buena Borough as well as those from Estell Manor, Weymouth, and Newfield. The community is predominantly residential, although some of the land is still farmed.

Burlington County Buena’s population in  of , was  percent white,  percent black, and  percent Hispanic (Hispanics may be of any race). The borough’s median household income was $, in . For complete census figures, see chart, .

Mike Mathis

Buena Vista.

.-square-mile township located in Atlantic County, predominantly in the Pinelands. Once part of Gloucester County, Buena Vista Township was initially called Great Egg Harbor or New Weymouth. The area was part of Weymouth Township from  until , when it became part of Hamilton Township. It was renamed Buena Vista (“good view’’) in  by hotel owner George B. Cake. Buena Vista Township was established in  and included what are today Folsom and Buena Borough. These two communities were separated from Buena Vista Township in  and , respectively. The first settlers were attracted to the area because of the fertile soil, which was tilled for farming, and for the sand, which encouraged the development of sand-mining operations and glass-manufacturing plants. These industries continue to be important, and today the area is also noted for its tomatoes, corn, peppers, and other vegetables. Buena Vista is home to laborers and farmers as well as casino employees, who commute to nearby Atlantic City. Along with the glass industry, the plastics industry thrives in the township. The sprawling community is served by ten post offices. In , Buena Vista’s population of , was  percent white,  percent black, and  percent Hispanic (Hispanics may be of any race). The township’s median household income was $, in . For complete census figures, see chart, .

Mike Mathis

Bunnell, Peter C.

(b. Oct. , ).

Teacher, photography curator, and historian. Peter C. Bunnell became the first David H. McAlpin Professor of the History of Photography and Modern Art at Princeton University in , where he also has served as curator of the Photography Collection and twice as director of the Art Museum. While conducting one of the nation’s important doctoral programs in the history of photography, Bunnell has published extensively; served on the boards of the Society for Photographic Education, the Friends of Photography, and numerous other organizations; and curated major exhibitions, including “Harry Callahan’’ (Venice Biennale, ) and the Minor White retrospective (). Bunnell, Peter C. Degrees of Guidance: Essays on Twentieth-Century American Photography. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, . ———. Minor White: The Eye That Shapes. Boston: Bulfinch Press, .

———. ed. A Photographic Vision: Pictorial Photography, –. Salt Lake City: Peregrine Smith, .

See also photography

Gary D. Saretzky

Burlington City.

.-square-mile city in Burlington County on the Delaware River. Burlington City was founded in  by English Quakers seeking religious freedom; prior settlements on the site included those of the Lenape, Dutch Walloons, and northern Europeans. Just four years after its inception, Burlington became the capital of the Province of West New Jersey and the province’s official port of entry. In  the first colonial assembly convened and framed a government based on the democratic precepts set forth in a document by the West Jersey proprietors. Burlington was described in  as “the chieftest town in that countrey; and a fine Market Town.... [T]hey freight several Vessels and send them to Barbadoes and other Islands.’’ At the beginning of the eighteenth century, Burlington rivaled the other eastern port cities, but the rapidly growing port at Philadelphia, which was closer to the sea, soon eclipsed the West Jersey capital. Still, Burlington continued for a time to be a shipbuilding center and port. It was a home of the last royal governor, William Franklin, and the site of the Constitutional Convention held July , , when the independence of New Jersey was declared and a new state constitution adopted. It was also home to Elias Boudinot, president of the Continental Congress when the Treaty of Paris, which ended the Revolutionary War, was signed. John Fitch launched the first successful steamboat from Burlington in , nineteen years before Robert Fulton. Capt. James Lawrence, famous for exhorting his sailors “Don’t give up the ship’’ during the War of , and novelist James Fenimore Cooper were born in Burlington. By the close of the eighteenth century, Burlington’s regional importance had diminished, the shipbuilding industry had declined, and the Burlington County seat moved from Burlington City to Mount Holly in . In the nineteenth century there was a short-lived silkworm industry, which was replaced by an influx of shoe factories, industries such as the James H. Birch Carriage factory, and, toward the end of the century and throughout the next, the U.S. Pipe and Foundry Company. Burlington’s factories attracted immigrants from Italy, Ireland, and Poland and other eastern European countries, as well as blacks from the South. There had been Africans, many of them enslaved, in Burlington from its inception. Having emancipated their slaves by the end of the eighteenth century, Quakers in Burlington and elsewhere criticized the institution of slavery and urged members of the Society of Friends to grant slaves their freedom and to put an end to slavery.

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Despite some real estate development from World War II, red brick two- and threestory houses from the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries dominate. Plentiful labor supported a munitions factory during World War II, as well as J. Chein metal toy manufacturing, two dress factories, a stump sock factory, ribbon and trim manufacturing, and an envelope factory. Both the Burlington Coat Factory, begun as Mode Craft Coats, and Mother’s Kitchen, famous for its cheesecakes, call Burlington home. At the beginning of the twentieth century the city’s population hovered around ,, nearly doubling by the middle of the century, and declining to , by the year . Sixtyeight percent of its population was white,  percent black. The median household income was $,. For complete  census figures, see chart, . DeCou, George. Burlington: A Provincial Capital. Burlington: Library Company of Burlington, . Shea, Martha Esposito, and Mike Mathis. Burlington. Charleston, SC: Arcadia, . Woodward, E. M. History of Burlington County, New Jersey. Philadelphia: Everts and Peck, .

Rhett Pernot

Burlington County.

.-squaremile county organized in ; it has forty municipalities. In  a group of Quakers, which included William Penn, obtained title to West Jersey under the terms of the Quintipartite Deed. The liberal provisions of the Concessions and Agreements issued by the West Jersey proprietors encouraged settlement. In  the first English Quakers from Yorkshire and London arrived aboard the vessel Kent. The arrivals named their settlement New Beverly, later renamed Burlington. In  Burlington became the capital of West Jersey, and when the Crown reunited the two Jerseys in , Burlington and Perth Amboy shared the distinction as capital cities. New towns continued to be organized, and in  the assembly created Burlington County. William Penn’s enlightened views toward Indians led to relatively peaceful relations between the Quakers and the Lenape. In the s David Brainerd, a Presbyterian missionary, gathered Indians together at Crosswicks to provide education as well as to teach them trades. In , during the French and Indian War, however, the colonial assembly established an Indian reservation in the county. The Brotherton Reservation was the fifth reservation established in the colonies, not the first as some writers maintain. (There were two reservations in Pennsylvania and two in Maryland between  and .) In moving to Brotherton, the Lenape had to relinquish all claims, except hunting and fishing rights, to New Jersey lands. During the s Burlington County began to experience growing tensions between the Crown and the colonies. Burlington City generally held a pro-British position. Not only

Burlington County College

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BURLINGTON COUNTY

Mount Holly

0

15

county seat

miles

were the Quakers there opposed to war for religious reasons, but they were also leading merchants, politicians, bureaucrats, and large landowners with much to lose. As early as , Quaker residents of Mansfield Township issued a manifesto urging the maintenance of peace and good order and reaffirming of allegiance to the Crown, but also supporting a boycott of British goods. Mount Holly, now the county seat, was a center of Patriot support. During the Revolution, the county served as a crossroads for British, Hessian, and American troops. The British and Hessians from time to time occupied Burlington City, Mount Holly, Black Horse (now Columbus), Bordentown, and Crosswicks. Military activities, however, seemed limited to both sides moving troops north or south through the county. Agriculture has always been important to the Burlington County economy. Charles Newbold of Mansfield Township and Browns Mills advanced agriculture after he patented the first cast-iron plow in . Elizabeth White of Whitesbog experimented with and successfully hybridized the commercial blueberry, dispatching the first shipment in . County farmers today raise fruits such as apples, peaches, pears, cranberries, and blueberries. Vegetables grown include tomatoes, corn, peas, and beans. The poultry and dairy industries are also important to Burlington County. Industry too is an important segment of the county’s economy. During the colonial

period the bog iron industry was developed at Batsto, Andover, Taunton Furnace, Etna (Aetna), and Atsion. Medford workers engaged in iron production as well as in the making of glass, both for windows and bottles. As early as , Burlington City began pottery manufacturing, utilizing the rich clay deposits at Palmyra and Florence. Maple Shade and Crosswicks manufactured bricks. In the s Hezekiah Smith manufactured bicycles, including the noted Star model. He established a bicycle railway between Mount Holly and Smithville to enable workers to pedal to work. The James Birch Company in Burlington City manufactured rickshaws, which had a wide market in North Africa and the Far East. In  Charles George Roebling transformed the town of Roebling from its modest origins as Kinkora (so named at first) into a company town for workers at the Roebling Steel Company. Efficient means of transportation were essential to bring the products of industry and agriculture to market. During the colonial period residents relied on roads and on the Delaware River. In  John Fitch, a Bordentown resident, began regular steamboat service between Philadelphia and Burlington City, but passengers were few. Another Bordentown entrepreneur, Isaac Dripps, assembled the John Bull locomotive for a trial run in  and helped inaugurate the age of railroad building. The Delaware and Raritan Canal connected Bordentown and New Brunswick. Eventually, competition from railroads reduced the importance of the canal, but the Delaware and Raritan continued to serve the area until . Even before the county was officially organized, its leaders were concerned with public education. In  the colonial assembly set aside revenue for development from Burlington Island to be used for instruction. George W. Doane established Saint Mary’s Hall for girls in  and Burlington College for boys in  in Burlington City. In Bordentown, Clara Barton opened the first free school in New Jersey in , the same year that Mrs. William Middleton opened the first school for black children. The Manual Training and Industrial School for Colored Youth began operating in Bordentown in . Point Breeze, the estate built for Joseph Bonaparte, the exiled king of Spain, later became the home for the Divine Work Seminary. The Bordentown Military Institute for Boys opened in the s. Burlington County College in Pemberton admitted its first students in , and today it has an enrollment of more than seven thousand full- and part-time students. The county has two military installations. The federal government commissioned Camp Dix, now Fort Dix, in  as a training base for soldiers who would be sent to fight in Europe during World War I. Between the world wars, Fort Dix became a processing center for the Civilian Conservation Corps. It also

served as an air base until , when McGuire Air Force Base became a separate entity. Both bases have performed humanitarian services as well, most notably during the Hungarian refugee airlift in  and the rescue of Kosovo refugees in . Among the notable individuals who lived in Burlington County are Isaac Collins, who established the first continuously published newspaper, the New-Jersey Gazette, in New Jersey; Francis Hopkinson, one of the five New Jersey signers of the Declaration of Independence; John Woolman, the Quaker antislavery leader; Thomas Paine; James Fenimore Cooper; James Lawrence of “Don’t give up the ship’’ fame; Patience Lovell Wright, the first female American sculptor; James Still, the “Black Doctor of the Pines’’; and Alice Paul, the suffragist. In , the county’s population was ,. The residents were  percent white and  percent black. The  median household income was $,. Griscom, Lloyd E. Burlington County and the American Revolution. Mount Holly: Burlington County Cultural and Heritage Commission, . ———. The Historic County of Burlington. Mount Holly: Burlington County Cultural and Heritage Commission, . McMahon, William. South Jersey Towns: History and Legend. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

Norman V. Blantz

Burlington County College.

A twoyear community college serving Burlington County, Burlington County College was founded in  at Lenape High School in Medford. A main campus in Pemberton Township opened in ; its main building, named for founding board chairman Lewis M. Parker, was dedicated the following year. The college began offering degree programs to military personnel at Fort Dix and McGuire Air Force Base in the s and expanded during that decade to offer courses at satellite campuses. In  a partnership with the New Jersey Institute of Technology led to a high-tech second campus in Mount Laurel. By  the campus had expanded to seven buildings, including an on-line library, a teleconferencing center, and classrooms for business sciences. Combined  enrollment at the two campuses was more than ,. See also higher education

Jim Donnelly

Burlington County Historical Society. Founded in , Burlington County’s historical society manages three historic sites, a library, a museum, and an educational center, all located in the historic city of Burlington. The society’s mission is to preserve the history of Burlington County and environs, to collect relevant artifacts and buildings, and to

Burr, Aaron educate the public by means of pertinent programs, exhibitions, publications, and tours. De Cou, George. Burlington: A Provincial Capital. Philadelphia: Harris and Partridge, .

Rhett Pernot

Burlington County Times.

Calkins Newspapers, publisher of the Bucks County (Pa.) Courier Times, formerly the Levittown (Pa.) Times, founded this Willingboro Township newspaper as the Levittown (N.J.) Times in , when William J. Levitt began building Levittown on Willingboro farmland. The newspaper’s name was changed to the Burlington County Times in . Today it serves fortyfour municipalities six days a week (Sunday– Friday). In addition to local news, sports, entertainment, special features, lifestyle, and commentary, it offers a full complement of state, regional, and national news. In  the circulation was forty-two thousand. See also newspapers

Carol J. Suplee

Burlington Island.

The -acre island located in the Delaware River in Burlington County has also been called Mattinecunck and Tenneconck. Burlington Island was the site of one of the first European settlements in New Jersey. A Dutch trading post established there in  was used by Swedes in the mid-seventeenth century for the same purpose. Their tenure was brief. In  Alexander d’Hinoyossia, vice director of New Netherland, established a farm on the island. The British claimed it following their conquest of New Netherland in . Since  all revenues from the use of the island have funded education in the city of Burlington. Income came from farming and later an amusement park on the island. During the twentieth century, part of the island was dredged away during sand-mining operations. Today the island is uninhabited.

BURLINGTON ISLAND

Burlington Island

N

Bisbee, Henry. Burlington Island: The Best and Largest on the South River, –. Burlington: Heidelberg Press, .

Richard F. Veit

Burlington Township.

.-squaremile township located in Burlington County. The township forms a semicircle around the outskirts of the City of Burlington with river frontage on the Delaware along its northern and southern borders. Created by the legislature in , it originally included Burlington City within its limits. The two governmental entities were separated in , ending nearly one hundred years of dual jurisdiction. The farmlands of the township, which fed Burlington City and fueled its commerce, are giving way to community playing fields, numerous shopping centers, and new housing. Modern development is spurred by easy access to the New Jersey Turnpike and Interstate . In  the population jumped  percent from the previous decade, reaching ,;  percent was white and  percent black. The median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . DeCou, George. Burlington: A Provincial Capital. Burlington: Library Company of Burlington, . Shea, Martha Esposito, and Mike Mathis. Burlington. Charleston, SC: Arcadia, . Woodward, E. M. History of Burlington County, New Jersey. Philadelphia: Everts and Peck, .

Burnet, William

(b. Mar. ; d. Sept. ,

). Colonial governor. William Burnet was

born in the Netherlands, son of Gilbert Burnet, bishop of Salisbury and chaplain to Charles II, and Mary Scott. The family supported William and Mary during the Glorious Revolution and was politically important afterward. Burnet obtained the dual governorship of New York and New Jersey in  and spent most of his term (from  to ) trying to resolve currency and land title problems, the second a consequence of a longstanding dispute between residents and New Jersey’s Proprietors. He became the governor of Massachusetts in  and died in Boston the next year after a carriage accident. Stellhorn, Paul A., and Michael J. Birkner, eds. The Governors of New Jersey,  to : Biographical Essays. Trenton: New Jersey Historical Commission, .

John David Healy

Burns, Robert E.

(b. ; d. June ,

). Chain gang fugitive. After military ser-

10 miles @Rutgers, The State University

four months, he escaped to Chicago, where he started a new life. But seven years later he was recaptured and sent back to Georgia. For a second time he was able to slip out of his chains and escape. This time he traveled to New Jersey to be near his brother, a Unitarian minister in Palisades. It was in New Jersey that he wrote a book about his experience. Published in , the melodramatic I Am a Fugitive from a Georgia Chain Gang was a best seller, and was made into a popular movie. Burns became a celebrity, which enabled the Georgia authorities to track him down and petition New Jersey for his extradition. To consider the request, the governor of New Jersey, A. Harry Moore, held a public hearing in the state capitol on December , , that was a headline-grabbing event. By this time Burns was acclaimed for having exposed the inhuman abuses of southern prisons, and much of the testimony concerned whether conditions were as bad as he claimed. At the conclusion of the hearing, Governor Moore denied Georgia’s extradition request, and Burns no longer had to live as a fugitive. He remained in New Jersey and seemed to enjoy his status as a celebrity, which included appearances on the vaudeville stage. A reform governor of Georgia granted Burns a pardon in . Critics alleged that Burns exaggerated the severity of his life on the chain gang, but the book and the movie based on his life helped the cause of prison reform in America.

Rhett Pernot

See also governor

0

107

vice in World War I, Brooklyn-born Robert Elliott Burns became a drifter. In  he participated in the armed robbery of a grocery store in Atlanta and was sentenced to a prison chain gang. According to Burns, life on the chain gang was brutal, with backbreaking labor under the heel of sadistic guards. After

Mappen, Marc. Jerseyana: The Underside of New Jersey History. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

Marc Mappen

Burr, Aaron

(b. Feb. , ; d. Sept. ,

). Revolutionary War officer, lawyer, U.S.

senator, and vice president. Burr was born in Newark, the son of the Rev. Aaron Burr and Esther Edwards Burr and the grandson of Jonathan Edwards, the major voice in the Great Awakening in British North America. Aaron Burr, Senior, was a founder and the second president of the College of New Jersey (Princeton). By the age of two the young Aaron Burr had lost his parents and grandparents to fever and smallpox. For a time he and his sister, Sarah, were taken into the home of Dr. William Shippen in Philadelphia. They then were moved to Elizabethtown, where they were brought up by an uncle, Timothy Edwards, a merchant, and his wife, Rhoda, a member of the influential Ogden family. Burr studied at the Presbyterian Academy in Elizabethtown and was admitted to the College of New Jersey at age thirteen. At school he associated with William Paterson, Henry Lee, Brochholst Livingston, and James Madison. He graduated at age sixteen in . After studying some law, he joined the Continental Army. Burr participated in the invasion of Canada, was on the staff of Gen. Israel

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Burr, Esther Edwards

Putnam in the Hudson Highlands, and, as chief officer of Malcolm’s Regiment, he led an attack on the British outside of Hackensack; later he was active in the Battle of Monmouth. During the war he met and then in  married Theodosia Prevost at the Hermitage in Bergen County. After completing his law studies, he opened an office in Albany and then New York City. Influenced by the writings of Mary Wollstonecraft, they determined their daughter, Theodosia, would be educated as well as any man in the new country. He also took his wife’s two sons by a previous marriage into his law firm. Theodosia Prevost Burr died of cancer in . In New York, Burr became involved in politics, was elected to the New York State Assembly, was appointed state attorney general, and, in , was appointed to the U.S. Senate. He became a leader in the new DemocraticRepublican party and was a founder of the Manhattan Company, a water supply and banking firm. He also had legal and economic involvement in western lands. Although he had a personal slave, he espoused the cause of emancipation in New York. In  Burr was elected vice president. However, before his term was completed, a longstanding, increasingly acrimonious rivalry with Alexander Hamilton resulted in a duel in Weehawken during which Burr shot and killed Hamilton. This effectively ended Burr’s political career. After an ill-defined western venture and a number of years in Europe, Burr settled into a law practice in New York. He died on Staten Island at the age of eighty in  and was buried with his parents in Princeton. Kennedy, Roger G. Burr, Hamilton, and Jefferson: A Study in Character. New York: Oxford University Press, . Lomask, Milton. Aaron Burr.  vols. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, , . Rogow, Arnold. A Fatal Friendship: Alexander Hamilton and Aaron Burr. New York: Hill and Wang, .

See also Hamilton-Burr duel

Henry Bischoff

Burr, Esther Edwards ; d. Apr. , ).

(b. Feb. ,

Diarist. Esther Edwards Burr’s historical importance lies in her detailed records of the daily lives of women in pre-Revolutionary America. The daughter of Jonathan Edwards, the leader of the Great Awakening, an evangelical resurgence in the Presbyterian and Congregationalist churches, she lived with her family in the frontier settlement at Stockbridge, Massachusetts, where Edwards ministered to an Indian mission. On June , , Esther Edwards married the Rev. Aaron Burr, pastor of the Presbyterian Church in Newark. Despite the seventeen-year difference in their ages, the couple shared a spiritual commitment and expressed their affection for each other in letters. Being the wife of a prominent minister was not easy.

Their children, Sarah () and Aaron (), were often sick, and Reverend Burr traveled constantly, particularly after he was appointed president of the College of New Jersey. As a college president’s wife, Burr hosted community leaders of the region and lodged a stream of visiting clergy and students. Records of the lives of women of this time are extremely rare; nevertheless, her journal has survived. On April , , Burr wrote, “For about a Month past there has not been above  or  nights except on the Sabbath but I have had Travellers to Lodge.’’ “All the Women in Princeton to see me and my Sister; hurried a preparing for Company that is to come tomorrow to the synod’’ ( Journal, , ). Burr complained in her journal, actually a series of letters mailed to Sarah Prince in Boston beginning in late  and containing almost daily entries, that she “could not get one vacant moment for my Life’’ ( Journal, ). Burr and Prince maintained a close friendship through their letters, which contained practical advice, spiritual confessions, and news of friends and kin, as well as discussions of the role of women in culture and opinions of books such as Samuel Richardson’s Pamela and Clarissa. Esther Burr died at age twenty-six, in , shortly after her husband. Her daughter, Sarah, married Tapping Reeve, founder of America’s first law school, and her son, Aaron, became the third vice president of the United States, under Thomas Jefferson. Burr, Esther Edwards. The Journal of Esther Edwards Burr, –. Ed. Carol F. Karlsen and Laurie Crumpacker. New Haven: Yale University Press, . Women’s Project of New Jersey. Past and Promise: Lives of New Jersey Women. Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, .

Patricia J. Tracy

Burr, Theodosia Bartow Prevost (b. ; d. May , ). Wife of Aaron Burr.

Born in Shrewsbury, Theodosia Bartow was a fifth-generation American. During the Revolution, while her first husband, a British officer, fought against the rebels in the South, Theodosia took care of her family’s property, the Hermitage, and five children in heavily contested Bergen County, in part by making welcome George Washington, Aaron Burr, and other Continental officers and influential state officials. After the death of her husband, she married Aaron Burr in . They moved to New York City where she helped oversee Burr’s law office while he traveled and rose in politics. They both spoke strongly on behalf of women’s rights and gave much attention to the education of their daughter. Theodosia died of cancer in . Lomask, Milton. Aaron Burr. Vol. , The Years from Princeton to Vice President, –. New York: Farrar, Straus, and Giroux, .

Henry Bischoff

bus companies. Intercity bus lines in the strictest sense—routes with major cities at either end—currently serve very few cities and towns in New Jersey. Trailways affiliates connect New York City with Upstate New York and the Pocono Mountains, making stops at Ridgewood, Newark, and Somerville in the east and Hackettstown in the west. Greyhound serves Newark, Trenton, and Atlantic City with connections for points south and west through Philadelphia and Baltimore, and to the north and east through midtown Manhattan’s Port Authority Bus Terminal. But commuter bus lines to the Port Authority’s terminals at Forty-second Street (opened in ) and the George Washington Bridge (opened in ) have served to connect New Jersey’s smaller municipalities with New York City for much of the last century, starting with the Paterson–New York Transit Company in the early s. By  commuters from the western suburbs rode eleven interstate bus lines to Manhattan, with some buses crossing the river by ferry prior to the opening of the Holland Tunnel in . Today over , passengers pass through the two Port Authority bus terminals on a typical weekday, the majority of them commuters from New Jersey suburbs. Whether a former stagecoach line over  years old (DeCamp) or an express bus service founded by disgruntled rail commuters in the s (Lakeland), almost all of New Jersey’s commuter bus companies grew by acquiring operating rights formerly held by Public Service Railway Company, the gas and electric utility’s trolley division. In  Suburban Transit, which today carries , passengers daily along the Route  corridor, began by buying a Public Service franchise between Princeton and Dunellen, then got a major boost during World War II by shuttling army personnel between Camp Kilmer in Piscataway and Edison and the New Brunswick train station. (It added through service to Manhattan in .) New Jersey’s independent bus companies faced several challenges at the end of the century. The vigorous postwar growth of outer suburbs, initially a ridership bonanza for public transport, also led to an explosion in private automobile ownership, a trend unlikely to be stalled barring dramatic curtailments or price hikes in the gasoline supply (such as the Middle East oil embargo of the early s). Moreover, in the early s Public Service’s successor, Transit of New Jersey, became the quasi-governmental New Jersey Transit, whose service upgrades and subsidized low fairs often offer stiff competition to private carriers operating parallel service. Charter bus operations are one answer: as many as thirty of Lakeland’s weekday commuter buses double as charter coaches on weekends. Another solution has been consolidation: Suburban Transit merged with five other carriers in  to form Coach USA, which now has  affiliates serving major cities nationwide. But

Buttersworth, James Edward a third strategy is sticking to the niche market a company knows best: DeCamp continues to serve the Oranges and other Essex County towns from its base in Montclair, remaining a family-owned enterprise under the leadership of two great-great-grandchildren of its founder. DeCamp, Suzanne, et al. DeCamp Bus Lines: Celebrating  Years, –. Montclair: DeCamp Bus Lines, . Gillespie, Angus. Twin Towers. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . New Jersey Department of Transportation.The Development of Transportation in New Jersey. Trenton: New Jersey Department of Transportation, .

See also transportation

Nick Humez

Bustill, Cyrus

(b. Feb. , ; d. ).

Great-great-grandfather of Paul Robeson. Born a slave in Burlington, Cyrus Bustill was the son of an English-born lawyer and an African slave. After learning the trade of baker, Bustill purchased his freedom and later won a commendation for supplying bread to the Continental Army during the American Revolution. On April , , he married Elizabeth Morrey, daughter of an Englishman and a Lenape woman. Eight children were born to the couple. They eventually moved to Philadelphia, where Cyrus became a founding member of the abolitionist Free African Society. Brown, Lloyd L. The Young Paul Robeson: On My Journey Now. Boulder, CO: Westview Press, . Smith, Anna Bustill. “The Bustill Family.’’ Journal of Negro History , no.  (Oct. ): –.

See also abolition

Lloyd L. Brown

Butler. .-square-mile borough in Morris County. The earliest European settlers, who arrived around , were Dutch farmers and possibly some ironworkers. In the later years of the eighteenth century, the area became a haven for Hessian soldiers who wished to remain in America after the Revolution. Manufacturing began to take root in  with the establishment of a paper mill, and as the nineteenth century progressed, the area became steadily more industrial. In  Richard Butler bought an interest in a local rubber factory and several acres of surrounding farmland. There he began laying out streets that became the basis of Butler’s present arrangement. West Bloomingdale, as the area was then called, became a model company town. In  the site was renamed in honor of its founder. Twenty years later the town seceded from Pequannock Township and incorporated under the borough form of government. Currently, the township is residential in character. In  the population of , was  percent white. The borough’s household median income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Historic Highlights of Butler. Morristown: Morris County Historical Commission, .

New Jersey Municipal Data Book. Palo Alto, CA: Information Publications, .

Robert C. Nelson

butterflies. The butterfly fauna of New Jersey includes about  species,  of which can reasonably be expected to appear every year. Several species are former residents that disappeared, mainly between the s and s, due to excessive pesticide use to control mosquitoes and gypsy moths. The regal fritillary disappeared from New Jersey and most of the northeastern United States in the s for unknown reasons. The now federally endangered Mitchell’s satyr disappeared from its last known New Jersey site in the late s due, in part, to overharvesting by butterfly collectors. Meanwhile, the common ringlet colonized New Jersey in the mid-s. An additional thirty-five species are of rare or accidental occurrence in the state and are not a regular part of the fauna. The North American Butterfly Association has its origin and headquarters in New Jersey. Many community and county parks have developed butterfly gardening for aesthetic, educational, and conservation purposes. Butterflies are warm-weather, diurnal creatures with a complete four-stage life cycle (egg, larva, pupa, adult). The season for Cape May butterflies begins several weeks earlier and lasts several weeks longer than in Warren County. In New Jersey the earliest species emerging in March are the mourning cloak and spring azure. In April there are several species in the Pine Barrens, including elfins and duskywings that are univoltine, flying for a few weeks in spring and laying eggs that will not produce adults until the following year. Most of New Jersey’s butterflies are multivoltine—that is, the spring adults lay eggs to complete the life cycle and produce a summer brood. Other species such as the cabbage white and pearl crescent breed continuously, producing multiple broods until cold weather comes. A few species such as the orange and clouded sulfurs, commas, and buckeyes may be seen flying on warm sunny December days, but by the end of October, most species are represented only by their over-wintering form, which is usually the larva or chyrsalid (pupa). A few species such as commas and mourning cloaks winter as adults, seeking cracks in tree bark or buildings, where they become dormant. A number of species such as the little yellow and cloudless sulfur do not survive the winter in New Jersey. They are primarily southern species, with a tendency to move northward, and they enter New Jersey almost every year in late summer. The most famous butterfly is the monarch, a long-lived species and a conspicuous autumn migrant along the New Jersey coast. Huge numbers congregate at Cape May for fall migration; an active tagging program there

109

documents their migration route. These butterflies fly to the mountains of central Mexico, where they winter by the millions in highaltitude, coniferous forests. In spring they migrate northward to the southern United States, where they breed, producing offspring that move northward, eventually reaching New Jersey. The harvesting of the fir trees in Mexico for firewood and timber jeopardizes this species, although ecotourism to see the spectacle of thirty million sleeping monarchs offers an alternative income to the Indians of Michoacan. Gochfeld, Michael, and Joanna Burger. Butterflies of New Jersey: A Guide to Their Status, Distribution, Conservation, and Appreciation. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

Michael Gochfeld

Buttersworth, James Edward ; d. ).

(b.

Painter. James Buttersworth was born in London, England. His father and grandfather were both marine painters, and many other family members were artisans. Around , Buttersworth immigrated with his family to New York City. Two years later, he moved to West Hoboken (now Union City). Probably trained by his father, Buttersworth’s early paintings mimic the elder’s style and attention to formal details. Obsessed with details and with the effects of light, clouds, and weather, Buttersworth’s realism is steeped both in the American tradition of marine painting and in the tradition of Dutch and English painting, which he may have studied. This interest in minutia made his depictions of ships very accurate—an important attribute for his patrons. In the case of his commissioned works, Buttersworth often suppressed more romantic, atmospheric details and manipulated dimensions, making monumental ships wholly visible even in stormy weather. New York Harbor is the background that appears most frequently in Buttersworth’s works. Underscoring the magnificence of the larger ships he depicted, the artist painted them with their sails fully extended, proudly bearing their weighty forms across the water. In more complex scenes, he was careful to paint even the smallest boats with painstaking detail. As the artist’s career progressed, he paid increasing attention to the effects of light in his work, introducing the play of light over the bodies of his vessels and attempting to show the effects of atmospheric perspective. Filling his skies with gray, green, and blue, Buttersworth became most romantic when he painted shafts of light breaking through clouds. Buttersworth’s talents stayed in demand, even when the need for portraits of warships diminished toward the end of the nineteenth century. He began to paint portraits of yachts for private patrons. After his death, lithographs of Buttersworth’s works were published by Currier & Ives, adding to his legacy.

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Button, Stephen Decatur

Gerdts, William H. Painting and Sculpture in New Jersey. Princeton: D. Van Nostrand, . Grassby, Richard B. “The Marine Paintings of James Edward Buttersworth.’’ Art and Antiques (Apr. ): . Zellman, Michael David, comp. Three Hundred Years of American Art. Secaucus: Wellfleet Press, .

Stellhorn, Paul A., and Michael J. Birkner, eds. The Governors of New Jersey, –: Biographical Essays. Trenton: New Jersey Historical Commission, . West Jersey Concessions and Agreements of /: A Roundtable of Historians. Trenton: New Jersey Historical Commission, .

See also governor

See also art

Maxine N. Lurie

Roc´ıo Aranda-Alvarado

Button, Stephen Decatur

(b. June ,

; d. Jan. , ). Architect. Born in Preston,

Connecticut, Stephen Decatur Button served an apprenticeship with his uncle, a carpenter. He moved frequently, first to New York City, then to Hoboken (although nothing is known of his activities there), Florida, Georgia, and Alabama, before establishing an office in the Philadelphia area in . Button lived across the Delaware River in Camden, and his architectural commissions in that growing city were almost as extensive as in its larger neighbor: seventeen churches, two ferry houses, a bank, and thirteen public schools. The majority of his Camden buildings have been demolished. Another major locus for Button’s later work was Cape May, where he was responsible for some forty buildings, of which many survive, including Jackson’s Clubhouse (the Mainstay Inn) and a row of cottages on Stockton Place. Tatman, Sandra L., and Roger W. Moss, Jr. Biographical Dictionary of Philadelphia Architects, –. Boston: G. K. Hall, . Thomas, George E., Carl Doebley. Cape May, Queen of the Seaside Resorts: Its History and Architecture. Philadelphia: Art Alliance Press, .

See also architecture

Constance M. Greiff

Byllynge, Edward

(b. date unknown; d.

Jan. ). Quaker proprietor of West Jersey. An

early convert to Quakerism, brewer, and resident of London, Edward Byllynge purchased John, Lord Berkeley’s half share of New Jersey in . Legally bankrupt, he was represented in the purchase first by John Fenwick and then a group of Quaker trustees, who divided West Jersey into one hundred proprietary shares. Byllynge initially kept ninety shares and prepared, with help, the liberal Concessions and Agreements of West Jersey, a framework for the government of the colony. However, Byllynge quarreled with Fenwick and residents of the colony over ownership of proprietary shares and his claim to sole ownership of the government. The English government recognized his claims, but in  the colonial assembly protested. By the following year Byllynge was dead, and his heirs had sold his proprietary shares plus the right to the government to Dr. Daniel Coxe, a land speculator. Pomfret, John E. The Province of West New Jersey, –. Princeton: Princeton University Press, .

Byram. .-square-mile township in southern Sussex County. Incorporated in , Byram was previously part of Newton Township. It was named for the Byram family, settler Jephthah Byram in particular. Early European settlement arose around local iron mines, with forges erected at Stanhope, Waterloo, Roseville, and Columbia. Byram also served as a center of charcoal production in the s before the use of anthracite coal for fuel became widespread. The township’s iron mines declined over the course of the nineteenth century as open-pit mines in Michigan and Minnesota were established, and railroad lines brought this midwestern ore to the Northeast. Byram is the site of fifteen lakes. Of these, the largest, Lake Mohawk, is artificial. Another, Cranberry Lake, was a popular resort during the early s. Hopatcong and Stanhope were part of Byram at one time. Byram is also home to the historic Waterloo Village on Morris Canal. The township celebrated its bicentennial in . The  population of Byram was ,, and of these residents,  percent was white. The median household income for  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Johnson, Carl O., and Elspeth Hart. A History of Byram. Newton: New Jersey Herald, . Lee, Cindy. Waterloo and Byram Township. Dover, NH: Arcadia, .

Cynthia Hammell

Byrne, Brendan T.

(b. Apr. , ).

Lawyer, judge, and governor. Brendan T. Byrne was born in West Orange to Francis and Genevieve Byrne. He graduated from West Orange High School in  and attended Seton Hall University until , when he enlisted in the U.S. Army Air Corps to fight in World War II. During his service, Byrne was awarded the Distinguished Flying Cross. He was honorably discharged in . Upon his return, Byrne enrolled at Princeton University and graduated in  from its School of Public and International Affairs. He then went to Harvard Law School and received an L.L.B. degree in . Byrne practiced law in New Jersey until , when he was appointed assistant counsel to Gov. Robert B. Meyner. From  to , Byrne served as Meyner’s

acting executive secretary. Governor Meyner named Byrne as the Essex County prosecutor in ; Gov. Richard J. Hughes reappointed him to this position in . Byrne’s public service during the Hughes administration continued when the governor tapped Byrne to serve as president of the New Jersey Public Utility Commission, a position he held for two years. In  Gov. William T. Cahill appointed Byrne to the Superior Court. Byrne became the assignment judge for the vicinage of Morris, Sussex, and Warren Counties. Announcing that he was seeking the Democratic nomination for governor, Byrne resigned from the bench in . He defeated Charles Sandman, Jr., who had beaten the incumbent, Cahill, in the Republican primary. Byrne won the general election with the highest margin of victory, more than , votes, in New Jersey history. As governor, Byrne signed legislation creating the Department of the Public Advocate and the Department of Energy in . Both were the first such state agencies to be created in the country. New Jersey also led the nation in early campaign finance reform when Byrne signed a bill to provide state funding for gubernatorial elections. He authorized the law permitting gambling in Atlantic City in  and led the campaign to preserve the Pinelands. Byrne’s first term was also marked by controversy. Byrne was forced to order gasoline rationing during the  energy crisis. Prior to this, in  the State Supreme Court ruled in Robinson v. Cahill that funding public education through the property tax was unconstitutional. Byrne proposed instituting an income tax to meet the court’s order. The legislature, knowing that such a tax would be very unpopular, refused to act until July , when the court ordered all public schools closed until an alternative funding source was devised. Byrne immediately signed the state’s first progressive income tax law. The income tax became a central issue in the  gubernatorial election. In spite of the tax’s unpopularity, Byrne defeated State Senator Raymond H. Bateman in the general election by nearly , votes. This victory vindicated Byrne and his support of the income tax. After leaving office in , Governor Byrne was made a senior partner in the law firm Carella, Byrne, Bain, Gilfillan, Cecchi, Stewart, and Olstein. He is married to Ruthi Zinn Byrne and is the father of seven children from a previous marriage. Salmore, Barbara G., and Stephen A. Salmore. New Jersey Politics and Government: Suburban Politics Comes of Age. d ed. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, .

See also governor

Joseph R. Marbach

C Cahill, William T. d. July , ).

(b. June , ;

Governor and congressman. William Cahill was the son of William and Rose (Golden) Cahill. He received a bachelor’s degree from Saint Joseph’s (Philadelphia) College in  and an LL.B. from South Jersey (Rutgers) Law School in . He was married to Elizabeth Myrtetus in ; the couple had eight children. Cahill was elected to the General Assembly from Camden County in , serving one term. In , he was elected to the U.S. House of Representatives, where he remained for eleven years. During his Washington career, Cahill’s principal assignment was to the Judiciary Committee. His policy focus included crime prevention, consumer protection, and civil rights legislation. As a moderate Republican, Cahill usually secured the support of organized labor, politically important in Camden County. His moderate policy approach and forthright personality helped Cahill win the  gubernatorial nomination over a more conservative South Jersey congressman, Charles Sandman. In the general election, Cahill faced former Democratic governor Robert Meyner (–), who was attempting a political comeback. It was no contest: the Democratic stronghold of Hudson County was hostile to Meyner, and the GOP was riding the crest of Richard Nixon’s popularity. Cahill swept twenty counties, and helped carry his party to strong majorities in both houses of the legislature. The new governor pledged to continue along the policy lines marked out by the Democrats in the s, providing better education, law enforcement, environmental protection, transportation, and housing for New Jersey. He also promised to restore the state’s public image by rooting out government corruption. Cahill’s ambitious agenda demanded increased revenue, and a cooperative legislature raised the sales tax from  to  percent. Negative reaction from a traditionally antitax state provided a portent of Cahill’s future troubles. The governor believed that New Jersey’s administrative and tax systems required major overhaul if his programs were to be cost effective. Studies were initiated in both areas by blue-ribbon committees. Outside the field of law enforcement, an area of special Cahill interest, the management study produced disappointing results. The tax committee boldly recommended a reversal of the traditional state-local fiscal relationship, with new state property and income taxes making the state

government the major player. Support came from the courts in the  case of Robinson v. Cahill, in which the Superior Court called for a new approach to school finance. In a special summer session that year, Cahill’s tax proposals were soundly defeated in the General Assembly. This setback appeared to be countered by the Nixon landslide that autumn, and a confident governor announced his candidacy for renomination. Developments in the spring of , however, brought an end to Cahill’s political career. A wave of investigations and indictments of his political supporters and colleagues severely compromised Cahill’s image and reputation, enabling his nemesis, Charles Sandman, to defeat him in the June primary. Cahill conscientiously carried out his gubernatorial duties in the succeeding months, and in  returned to the private practice of law in Camden County. (Sandman lost the general election.) Cahill did not run for public office again. His administration is noted for its work to improve New Jersey’s environment, including establishing a Department of Environmental Protection in  and passage of the Coastal Areas Facilities Review Act (CAFRA) in . Stellhorn, Paul A., and Michael J. Birkner, eds. The Governors of New Jersey, –: Biographical Essays. Trenton: New Jersey Historical Commission, .

See also governor

Richard J. Connors

Cain, Richard Harvey

(b. Apr. , ;

d. Jan. , ). Clergyman, bishop, and U.S.

representative. Born in Greenbriar County, in what would become West Virginia, Richard Cain moved with the family to Ohio in , where he grew to maturity. Ohio River steamboat employment was followed by service as a Methodist Episcopal preacher, studies at Wilberforce University, and ordination as an African Methodist Episcopal (AME) minister in Brooklyn, New York. Following the Civil War, the AME Church assigned Cain to South Carolina. Becoming active in the Republican party, he served as a state senator and, between  and , was elected to two nonconsecutive terms in Congress. He was elected an AME bishop in , and assigned to Louisiana and Texas. In Waco, Texas, he helped found, and served as the second president of, Paul Quinn College. Later in , he resumed his duties as an AME bishop and presided over the First Episcopal District, which includes New Jersey. He remained in this position until he died, in Washington, D.C., in . Salzman, Jack, David Lionel Smith, and Cornel West, eds. Encyclopedia of African-American Culture and History. Vol. . New York: Macmillan, .

See also African Church

Methodist

Episcopal

Giles R. Wright

Caldwell, James (b. Apr. , ; d. Hannah Ogden Caldwell (b. Sept. , ; d. June , ).

Nov. , ), and

Clergyman and Revolutionary War patriot and wife. James Caldwell was born in what is now Charlotte County, Virginia, the son of John and Margaret Phillips Caldwell, Scotch-Irish Presbyterians who had immigrated to America from Ulster. James graduated from the College of New Jersey (now Princeton University) in , and was ordained as a Presbyterian minister in . He became minister of the Presbyterian Church in Elizabethtown in , and in the following year married Hannah Ogden, daughter of John and Hannah Sayre Ogden, a prominent family. The minister and his wife eventually had nine children. The Caldwells began their married life just as the storm of protest against England burst forth in the American colonies. Like most of New Jersey’s Presbyterians, James was a supporter of the American cause, and was active in rebel committees. After the war began, he served for a time in  as chaplain of the Third New Jersey Brigade on the New York frontier. In , he began service in the commissary department of the Continental Army, working to find supplies, which he often paid for out of his own pocket, for the ever needy troops. At the same time he continued to minister to his congregation. When an enemy raid on Elizabethtown burned his church to the ground, the Reverend Mr. Caldwell held services in a nearby storehouse. A traditional tale about New Jersey in the Revolution concerns Caldwell at the Battle of Springfield in . According to this story, when the American troops ran low on the paper wadding needed to fire their muskets, the Reverend Caldwell gathered up hymnbooks (known as Watts Hymnals, after the English author Isaac Watts) from a nearby church and tore out pages to give to the soldiers as wadding, shouting as he did so, “Give them Watts, boys.’’ Neither James nor Hannah survived the war. On June , , Hannah was at the parsonage at Connecticut Farms (now Union Township) while a skirmish raged nearby. A shot came through the window from the musket of a British soldier outside the house, killing Hannah. On November , , while at the Elizabethtown harbor, John was shot and killed by an American sentry. The killings of the Reverend and Mrs. Caldwell, a year and a half apart, have often been interpreted as assassinations committed by the enemy. James was convinced that his wife had been marked for death by the British command, and he published a pamphlet marshaling the evidence for that conclusion. After James’s death, it was believed that the American sentry had been bribed by the Tories to commit the deed. The sentry was subsequently tried and executed for murder. It is not implausible that the Caldwells were targets of a deliberate plot—given the 111

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prominence of the minister in the American cause—but it is equally possible that the deaths of the husband and wife were accidents of war. The British soldier who shot Hannah appears to have been a picket on the edge of the battle. He may have fired when he spied a sudden movement at the window. Regarding the sentry, there is some evidence that he thought Caldwell was in possession of contraband from a British ship that had come into the harbor under a flag of truce. There have been many tributes to the “Fighting Parson’’ and his wife. An image of the shooting of Hannah (although quite inaccurate) adorns the official seal of Union County. The borough of Caldwell, in Essex County, is named for James. A monument in memory of the husband and wife mark their graves in the cemetery of the Presbyterian church at which they both worshiped. Brydon, Norman F. Reverend James Caldwell, Patriot, –. Caldwell: Caldwell Bicentennial Committee, . DNB. Women’s Project of New Jersey. Past and Promise: Lives of New Jersey Women. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, .

See also American Revolution

Marc Mappen

Lockward, Lynn G. A Puritan Heritage: The First Presbyterian Church in Horse-Neck (Caldwell, N.J.). Caldwell: Privately published, .

Richard Cummings

Caldwell College. Caldwell College is a coeducational, four-year liberal arts institution located on a seventy-acre campus in suburban Caldwell, Essex County. The Sisters of Saint Dominic founded this Catholic women’s college in ; it was fully accredited in . In , the college became coeducational, and the first male students enrolled in . In  Caldwell College became the first in New Jersey to award the bachelor of fine arts degree. Today Caldwell College offers B.A., B.S., and B.F.A. degrees in twenty-seven majors in the arts and sciences, business, fine arts, computer science, and medical technology. The school’s expanding graduate program offers seven master’s degrees, three postmaster’s programs, and a post-baccalaureate teacher certificate program. Of the , students enrolled at the college, approximately half are pursuing degrees part-time. The growing number of corporations in the county offers students a diversity of internships and job opportunities. See also higher education Michele Gisbert

Caldwell.

.-square-mile borough in the western part of Essex County, twenty miles west of New York City, settled in the s by pioneers from Newark. The borough was named for James Caldwell, the “Fighting Parson’’ of Revolutionary War fame. It became the business and trading hub for the larger area, known as Caldwell Township from . Caldwell incorporated as a separate borough in , with Lewis Lockward as first mayor. The borough is celebrated as the birthplace () of Grover Cleveland, the only U.S. president born in New Jersey. The site is preserved as a museum by the state of New Jersey. The landmark First Presbyterian Church dates from ; its congregation first organized in . The borough is home to Caldwell College, founded in  as a Catholic institution of higher learning for women, now coeducational. The bucolic Grover Cleveland County Park, with its recreational facilities, walking paths, and pond for fishing and ice skating, is a popular haven. Today Caldwell is a mostly white residential community, with a small minority presence. Industry is minimal. It continues to maintain an active commercial district on Bloomfield Avenue, the main traffic artery. The  population of , was  percent white. Median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, .

Claire, Sr. Loretta, and N. Brydon. Caldwell, Yesterday, Today, –. Caldwell: Bicentennial Committee, . Collins, J. J. Remembering the Caldwells. Charleston, SC: Arcadia, .

Califon. .-square-mile borough in Hunterdon County. Originally the town was named California in honor of resident Jacob Neighbor, who made his fortune in the California gold rush and returned to Califon around . According to legend, California became Califon when residents painted the train station and could not fit all of the letters in “California’’ on its sign. The settlement that would be Califon grew up along the South Branch of the Raritan River about  near the second of two gristmills built by local entrepreneurs. Califon developed its own logging industry when sawmills were later built, although logging in the area died out as the industry spread south. Many of Califon’s early residents were farmers or were employed either by the nearby Taylor Iron and Steel Works, which began operating around the time of the American Revolution, or at nearby limestone quarries, which opened about . Califon was incorporated in  when it broke off from Lebanon, Tewksbury, and High Bridge townships. Today the borough, with many of its structures dating back to the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, retains the feel of a small country village. The population of Califon in  was ,;  percent of the residents were white. The median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Geist, Helen Haggerty. The Califon Story. Califon: Califon Historical Society, .

Christine A. Lutz

Camden. .-square-mile city in Camden County. The area that was to become the city was first settled by William Cooper in . When Cooper took over the operation of a ferry between what later was known as Camden and Philadelphia, the region became known as Cooper’s Ferries. A few others took up large plots of land, but the area did not begin to grow substantially until one of William Cooper’s descendents, Jacob Cooper, laid out a forty-acre town site, which he named for Charles Pratt, the earl of Camden, an English sympathizer with the movement for American independence. British occupation of Camden during the Revolution, however, retarded immediate development. The city incorporated in , as an effort to establish its independence from Newton Township. Real growth followed six years later when the Camden and Amboy Railroad, then the longest line in the country, made Camden its terminus. As a testament to its growing importance, the town became the county seat in . Although it remained very much in Philadelphia’s shadow through the Civil War era, with peace Camden attracted both the immigrant workforce and the capital to establish its own industrial base. Plants in Camden produced carriages, woolen goods, and lumber, and Richard Esterbrook’s steel pen company was established there as well. In  the modest canning business Joseph Campbell had started in  incorporated as Campbell Soup. Eight years later the New York Ship Building Company opened yards, which soon employed as many as five thousand workers. In  Eldridge Johnson, who had begun work on a “talking machine’’ two years earlier, formed the Victor Talking Machine Company, which later merged with RCA. By  Camden’s board of trade could assert that the city had finally broken free of Philadelphia’s dominance. A  report listed  industries employing , people. Camden thus emerged as a classic industrial town. Factories and railroads, most notably the Pennsylvania Railroad, preempted primary sites. Workers formed tight neighborhood clusters nearby, settling around parishes that reinforced their ethnic solidarity. African Americans, who had been a significant presence in the city since the settlement of the Fettersville section of South Camden in the s, remained largely confined to their own neighborhood, attending schools that were segregated by practice if not by law. The prosperous s appeared to signal unlimited possibilities for Camden, highlighted by the opening in  of the first suspension bridge linking the city to Philadelphia. By supplementing ferry traffic between the two cities, boosters envisioned a “Greater Camden’’ that would ultimately incorporate surrounding suburban communities. Such aspirations appeared confirmed by the opening of the city’s first luxury hotel, the Walt Whitman, in ; a twelve-story office building

Camden Churches Organized for People across the street; and the dedication of a towering new city hall in . Indeed, over the next quarter-century Camden maintained its position as the hub of South Jersey. The Great Depression dampened but did not kill Camden’s economic development, and World War II boosted production to new highs, with as many as , employed at New York Ship Building alone. Postwar developments, however, unraveled that prosperity. With peace, veterans seeking homes in which to start families found superior options in suburban locations. As growth shifted outward, institutions followed. In , Jewish leaders reconsidered an earlier decision to build a new community center in East Camden, choosing instead to locate in Delaware Township, subsequently renamed Cherry Hill. The Courier-Post followed two years later. The location there in  of the area’s first regional shopping mall signaled a dramatic shift in retail activity away from Camden. These factors, when combined with industrial layoffs, made the city a less desirable location. A number of the city’s shipyards began to close after the war, and although New York Shipbuilding received a temporary reprieve, it too closed, in . RCA-Victor shifted its operations elsewhere after the war, and Campbell reduced its presence in the city, shutting down its manufacturing operation in . The larger retail stores, Litts and Sears, both abandoned Camden locations in the early s. None of the city’s thirteen movie theaters survived into the s. The city’s population, which peaked at , in , declined to , in  and fell to , in . Camden’s population changed dramatically not just in number but in composition. Attracted by wartime opportunities, African Americans and Puerto Ricans flooded the city. Limited by strong traditions of segregation both in housing and employment, these newcomers struggled to establish themselves. By the time a full civil rights movement was in place in the mid-s, blue-collar employment had already declined precipitously. The four days of civil disorders that followed a police shooting of a Puerto Rican man in  only accelerated the flight of human and financial capital. Because so many current residents arrived too late to benefit from the peak industrial employment, the city is disproportionately poor. In  Camden’s median income was $,, well below both county and national averages. More than a third of its population was living in poverty. The threat of economic decline prompted a number of responses. In the s, the city launched an ambitious program for redevelopment, which sought to upgrade the downtown and to retain industry by expanding sites and improving highway access. But the rebuilding process both sparked further social upheaval through forced relocation of minorities and failed to keep pace with nearby investments in suburban Pennsauken and Cherry

Hill. A development corporation, named after the original Cooper’s Ferries, had some success along the waterfront, building an aquarium () and a premier entertainment facility (). But failed efforts to lure professional basketball and hockey teams from Philadelphia to the waterfront, and Campbell Soup’s decision not to build a new world headquarters there, slowed the city’s recovery. Neighborhoods, in the meantime, besieged by abandonment and high incidences of drug use, continued to deteriorate. Only the magnificent efforts of a few community development corporations managed to keep the situation from getting worse. As the city entered a new century, it was still very much in the process of trying to reinvent itself. According to the  census,  percent of Camden’s population of , was black,  percent was white, and  percent was Hispanic (Hispanics may be of any race). The median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Dorwart, Jeffery, and Philip English. Camden County, New Jersey, –: A Narrative History. Camden: Camden County Cultural and Heritage Commission, . Kirp, David L., John P. Dwyer, and Larry A. Rosenthal. Our Town: Race, Housing, and the Soul of Suburbia. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

Howard Gillette, Jr.

Camden and Amboy Railroad. One of the pioneering railroads in New Jersey and the United States was the Camden and Amboy Railroad. By the time the mighty Pennsylvania Railroad acquired this New Jersey carrier in , it owned a strategic route from the Delaware River at Camden, opposite Philadelphia, to South Amboy and Raritan Bay, an arm of New York Bay. The company also had a line from Trenton to New Brunswick, along with several branches, and it ran trains to Jersey City in conjunction with the New Jersey Railroad and Transportation Company. The Camden and Amboy also provided steamboat service between South Amboy and New York City, and ferry, lighter, and car-float service in New York Harbor. Although the idea of a railroad that would link the Delaware and Raritan Rivers appeared

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as early as , problems of technology precluded any serious efforts to turn dream into reality until the late s when the British demonstrated the feasibility of this form of intercity transport. In  backers of the railroad conducted a survey and held public meetings along the projected route. After considerable political posturing, in early  the New Jersey legislature gave proponents an attractive charter for their Camden and Amboy Rail Road and Transportation Company. Before the railroad pushed ahead, however, the Delaware and Raritan Canal Company joined forces; this relationship became known as the Joint Companies. Construction of the railroad soon began, and in late  the segment between Amboy and Bordentown opened; two years later the Bordentown-toCamden portion saw service. Significantly, the railroad’s owners demonstrated a proclivity for innovation and left an enormous legacy to the industry during its demonstration period. The president, Robert L. Stevens, is generally credited with inventing the T rail that by  became widely used. The company also introduced prototypes of modern ties, spikes, and rail connectors. Moreover, its purchase of the steam locomotive John Bull from Robert Stephenson in Great Britain became the impetus for major modifications and innovations. An important one involved introduction of pilot trucks, resulting in safer operations over spindly tracks. When in  the forty-four-mile-long canal opened, traffic was divided between the two units, with passengers using the railroad and heavy freight moving by canalboat. To protect its monopoly—a sore point with some New Jerseyans—the Camden and Amboy acquired stock control of a potential rival, the Philadelphia and Trenton Railroad. Later the Camden and Amboy took over another early state carrier, the New Jersey Rail Road and Transportation Company, which served Jersey City, Newark, and New Brunswick. And the Camden and Amboy continued to expand. By  the company had inaugurated through service between Philadelphia and Jersey City on what was to become the main line of the Pennsylvania Railroad. Further improvements continued, including the double-tracking of the core route in . Until the Camden and Amboy entered the orbit of the Pennsylvania, it made money and contributed greatly to the development of its service territory. Drury, George H. The Historical Guide to North American Railroads. Milwaukee: Kalmbach Books, . Lewis, Robert G. Handbook of American Railroads. New York: Simmons-Boardman Books, .

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H. Roger Grant

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Camden Churches Organized for People. Established in , when clergy recognized the need to organize their

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communities to deal more effectively with the effects of disinvestment, Camden Churches Organized for People (CCOP) became the city’s most active and effective citywide civic organization. Affiliated with the Pacific Institute for Community Organization, a national network of faith-based community organizations, CCOP assisted clergy and lay leaders in forming committees to identify the issues of most immediate concern to their parishioners. Through citywide assemblies, those issues were given priority and subsequently taken to public officials for action. At a time when civic action, including voting, was declining, it was not unusual for CCOP to muster as many as a thousand people for a meeting. A successful four-year campaign to compensate Camden residents for accepting a regional sewage treatment plant in their midst established CCOP’s reputation in the region. Subsequently, CCOP managed to persuade city officials to put more police on the street and to accelerate the demolition of abandoned buildings that were being used as crack houses. In , when the New Jersey Department of Community Affairs wanted citizen input regarding its plan to take political as well as fiscal control of the city, it sought and publicly accepted CCOP’s proposals for school reform, economic development, and tax reduction.

Howard Gillette, Jr.

Camden County.

.-square-mile county. Comprising thirty-seven municipalities, Camden County is the most densely populated county in southwestern New Jersey. Part of the Philadelphia metropolitan area, it is bounded on the west by the Delaware River and Gloucester County; Atlantic County is to the southeast, and Burlington County is to the northeast. It encompasses inner-city, suburban, and rural sectors with diverse levels of income. The urbanized areas of Camden and Gloucester cities and Pennsauken Township are home to approximately  percent of the county’s total population; another  percent reside in the rapidly growing townships of Cherry Hill and Voorhees. The borough of Lawnside, settled by local freed slaves and others migrating from Maryland before the Civil War, remains predominantly African American. Lured by the Concessions and Agreements—a document written in  by William Penn and other West Jersey landowners, which included assurances of religious freedom, equitable taxation, and representative government—persecuted Quakers were the first colonists in what was to become Camden County. In  they settled along the Delaware River and then spread eastward, between Newton and Cooper’s creeks, to portions of today’s Camden City, Collingswood, Haddonfield, and Haddon Township. Because they sailed from the port of Dublin, Ireland,

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they were called Irish Quakers and their plot of land, a Tenth (the third Tenth allotted) of the divided West Jersey lands, was dubbed the Third or Irish Tenth. Economic activity first centered on the Delaware River and the easily navigable portions of the rivers feeding it. Ferrying passengers and agricultural products from the countryside was an early industry and bustling Philadelphia, founded in , an important market. In , Gloucester County was formed from a union of the Third Tenth and the adjoining Fourth Tenth; the combined area swept from the Delaware River to the Atlantic Ocean. In  Camden County separated from Gloucester County and included Camden City, the county seat, Delaware, Gloucester, Newton, Union, Washington, and Waterford townships. Early settlers are memorialized in place names such as Cooper Hospital, founded by descendants of William Cooper, an original settler. Hoping to establish a town in proximity to Philadelphia, Jacob Cooper arranged streets and lots on his land in , naming it “Camdentowne,’’ for Charles Pratt, the earl of Camden, an English sympathizer with the American cause of independence. Skirmishes between British and American forces occurred often during the Revolutionary War in what would later become Camden County. Gen. “Mad’’ Anthony Wayne, Count Casimir Pulaski, and the young marquis de Lafayette were active in the Haddonfield area. The disruptions caused by patrons of rowdy taverns, beer halls, and “pleasure

gardens,’’ which served food and drink to passengers awaiting the ferries, threatened to increase with time. The need for police and a court system to maintain law and order in the city resulted in the incorporation of Camden City in . The city was merely a collection of neighborhoods until the arrival of the Camden and Amboy Railroad in  spurred population growth. After the events at Fort Sumter in , Camdenites rallied to the Union cause. The first volunteer company to apply for service in state regiments was the Zouaves, which served with the New Jersey Fourth Regiment throughout the Civil War. Commanding the Second New Jersey Brigade at Chancellorsville was Gen. William Joyce Sewell, who won the Congressional Medal of Honor for his bravery. He later had an active business and political career, serving in the state senate and the U.S. Senate. Walt Whitman visited his ailing mother in Camden City after the war, stayed on at the home of his brother George, then moved into his own dwelling at  Mickle Street, where he prepared the last, “deathbed,’’ edition of Leaves of Grass. He is buried in Harleigh Cemetery, Camden City, in a tomb of his own design. At the end of the nineteenth century, Camden City emerged as an industrial and commercial leader. Eldridge Johnson established a machine shop, which became the Victor Talking Machine Company, that later merged with RCA. Joseph Campbell and Abraham Anderson started a canning and preserving business, later known as the Campbell Soup Company. The once-famous Esterbrook Pen Company and the New York Shipbuilding Company were established in Camden City prior to World War I, as were knitting mills; lace, leather, and cigar factories; the Van Sciver Furniture Company; and numerous banks. A popular slogan at the time was “On Camden’s supplies, the world relies.’’ The Delaware River Bridge, renamed for Benjamin Franklin and dedicated by President Calvin Coolidge in , established a commuters’ route between center city Philadelphia and Camden County. Within the next fifty years, six additional bridges—the TaconyPalmyra, the Burlington-Bristol, the Delaware Memorial, the Walt Whitman, the Commodore John Barry, and the Betsy Ross— increased automobile access to the region. The High-Speed Line, a rail line opened in , is another important transportation link with Philadelphia. By the s, excellent interstate highways, a skilled labor pool, and an abundant number of industrial parks expanded the county job market. But due to an exodus of white, middle-class residents and the decline of the city’s manufacturing industries, Camden City, with an unemployment rate almost four times higher than the county average, was one of the poorest cities in the nation, dependent on state aid to balance its budget.

Campbell, Milton Gray To encourage growth, the county’s largest private-sector employers are based in Camden City: Cooper Hospital/University Medical Center, Virtua Health System, Lockheed Martin Corporation, Campbell Company, and Our Lady of Lourdes Medical Center. Additional federal, state, and county government offices located there currently make the city the second-largest employment center in South Jersey, after Cherry Hill Township. Scores of historic sites in the county have been placed on the National Register of Historic Places, including fourteen historic districts, five of which are in Camden City. A cultural renaissance along the Camden City waterfront began with the opening of the State Aquarium in ; the waterfront area now includes a children’s garden and a regional performing arts center. Nearby, on the campus of Rutgers University, are the Stedman Art Gallery and the Walt Whitman Cultural Center. In addition, the county is home to a children’s museum, two community orchestras, two local theatrical venues, and dozens of organizations devoted to the visual and performing arts. Camden County has a population of ,, according to the  census; the population is  percent white,  percent black. Median household income was $,. Corotis, A. Charles, and James M. O’Neill. Camden County Centennial, –. Camden: Camden Board of Chosen Freeholders, . Dorwart, Jeffery. Camden County, New Jersey: The Making of a Metropolitan Community, –. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . ———, and Philip English. Camden County, New Jersey, –: A Narrative History. Camden: Camden County Cultural and Heritage Commission, .

Gail Greenberg

Camden County College.

In  Camden County purchased a former seminary in Blackwood, including  surrounding acres, for the creation of a community college. Classes began on September , . Over the years, the college has experienced impressive growth in physical size, enrollment, and academic offerings. In  a branch of the college opened in Camden City, and in  a campus opened in Cherry Hill. Today, with an enrollment of approximately twelve thousand students, the school is one of the largest community colleges in New Jersey. Academic offerings have expanded over the years to include not only traditional offerings but also well-regarded programs in robotics, computer-integrated manufacturing, nursing, and laser technology.

Retrospect—A Chronicle of Camden County College, –. Blackwood: Camden County College, .

See also higher education

Brian Stokes

Camden Courier-Post. See Courier-Post.

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The Camden Riversharks, a minor league professional baseball team, compete in the Atlantic League and have no Major League affiliation. The Riversharks play at Campbell’s Field, which opened in May . The stadium, owned by Rutgers University, is also home to the Rutgers–Camden college baseball team. Situated near the Ben Franklin Bridge, the stadium seats , people and offers various amenities, including a picnic area and a ,-square-foot playground for children. The Riversharks play  regular season games from May through September. See also baseball

foiling the scheme. When the company reorganized, Campbell was made a vice president. Ten years later, he and his sons founded J. B. Campbell Manufacturing Company, renamed Mannington Mills in . When the demand for floor coverings dwindled during the Depression, Campbell kept his factory running and his workers employed by printing racing forms. During the various expansions of the plant, Campbell insisted on using Mannington workers and local residents for construction, declining outside contractors. Still privately held, Mannington is now one of the largest flooring manufacturing companies in the country.

Brian McGonigle

The History of Mannington Mills, –: Our First Eighty-five Years. Privately printed, .

Established on a temporary basis in June  to train Signal Corps soldiers for service in World War I, the “Signal Corps Camp at Little Silver’’ was located in what is now the Borough of Oceanport on  acres of the defunct Monmouth Park Race Track Association. It was designated a semi-permanent installation and renamed in honor of New Jersey inventor Alfred E. Vail on September , . By the end of , the camp had processed , enlisted men and  officers for service in Europe, including the st and th Field Service Battalions, the th Reserve Telegraph Battalion, the d, th, and th Telegraph Battalions, and the th Aero Construction Squadron. The Signal Corps Pigeon Breeding and Training Section was established at Camp Alfred Vail in November , and the Signal Corps Radio Laboratory in January . To the latter, the chief signal officer assigned the men and airplanes of the d Aero Squadron for experiments in airto-ground communications and radio direction finding. The Signal Corps School moved to Camp Alfred Vail from Fort Leavenworth, Kansas, and Fort Leonard Wood, Missouri, in September . On August , , the War Department declared Camp Alfred Vail “a permanent military post,’’ and renamed it Fort Monmouth. See also World War I

Deborah S. Greenhut

Camden Riversharks.

Camp Alfred Vail.

Richard B. Bingham

Campbell, John Boston d. Jan. , ).

(b. ;

Industrialist. John Boston Campbell was born in Dumbartonshire, Scotland, near the birthplace of linoleum. He immigrated in  to Brooklyn, New York, where he married Mary S. Lunt and fathered three children. In  he began a five-year assignment to reopen, manage, and expand the American Oil Cloth Company plant in Salem. Shortly after the plant reopened in , Alexander and Louis Bomberg, brothers who together owned  percent of the company, conspired to burn down the plant to collect the insurance money. They attempted to involve Campbell, but he notified his superiors, who alerted the authorities—thus

Campbell, Joseph (b. May , ; d. Mar. , ). Industrial canner. Joseph Campbell

was born in Bridgeton, the son of Presbyterian fruit-farmers. His marriage to Sarah Boyd Foster in  produced three daughters and a son. In , Campbell partnered with Abraham Anderson to form the Camden fruit and vegetable canning firm Anderson and Campbell. After buying out Anderson in , Campbell expanded his product line. He also added partners—a son-in-law, William S. Spackman, and an investor, Arthur Dorrance. Dorrance acquired controlling interest in the Joseph Campbell Preserve Company in , and became president in . Campbell remained devoted to the company, which became the Campbell Soup Company in . Sim, Mary B. Commercial Canning in New Jersey: History and Early Development. Trenton: New Jersey Agricultural Society, . Smith, Andrew F. Souper Tomatoes: The Story of America’s Favorite Food. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

Deborah S. Greenhut

Campbell, Milton Gray ).

(b. Dec. ,

Athlete, educator, and motivational speaker. Milt Campbell grew up in Plainfield, where he participated on the football, swimming, and track and field teams at Plainfield High School. Although he made All-American in freestyle swimming and won a football scholarship to Indiana University, Campbell’s high school athletic career was most noteworthy for his performance at the  Amateur Athletic Union (AAU) Championships/ Olympic Trials, where he finished second in the decathlon, qualifying for the Olympic team. In the  Helsinki Olympic Games decathlon, Campbell took second place. After returning to Plainfield for his senior year of high school, Campbell won the  AAU Championships decathlon with a score that was third on the all-time list. Campbell played football and ran high hurdles in college. At the  AAU Championships/Olympic Trials, he again finished second in the decathlon. At the

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Campbell, Lord Neil

 Melbourne Olympic Games, Campbell became the first African American to win the Olympic decathlon, with an Olympic record score. In , Campbell was drafted by the Cleveland Browns and later played in the Canadian Football League. In , he founded the Chad School in Newark, with a program based around African American culture. He later had a career as a motivational speaker. Milt Campbell was elected to the United States Olympic Committee Hall of Fame in . Zarnowski, Frank. The Decathlon: A Colorful History of Track and Field’s Most Challenging Event. Champaign, IL: Leisure Press, .

Pamela Cooper

Campbell,

Lord

Neil

(fl. s).

Scottish proprietor of East Jersey. In the s a significant number of Scots became involved in colonizing East Jersey both as investors in the proprietorship and as settlers. Important among them was Lord Neil Campbell, member of a prominent family that included a brother, Archibald, earl of Argylle, executed for leading a rebellion in . Under suspicion, Lord Neil was required to post bond and stay in the Edinburgh area. Instead, he requested and received permission to emigrate, taking with him fifty-four settlers, most of whom were servants. While in the colony he served as deputy governor, established an eight thousand-acre estate on the Raritan River, and tried (unsuccessfully) to settle the boundary dispute with West Jersey. He returned to Scotland in . Landsman, Ned. Scotland and Its First American Colony, –. Princeton: Princeton University Press, . Pomfret, John. The Province of East New Jersey, –: The Rebellious Proprietary. Princeton: Princeton University Press, .

Maxine N. Lurie

produce a new catalog. Winterthur began exhibiting the soup items in  in the Dorrance Gallery.

Maxine N. Lurie

Campbell Soup Company.

Joseph Campbell, who had been born in Bridgeton, and Abraham Anderson, from Mount Holly, joined as partners in a Camden tomato canning and preserving firm in . They publicized their Beefsteak Tomatoes widely, using the trademarked image of a gigantic tomato hoisted upon two men’s shoulders. In  Anderson and Campbell received a medal for their work at the Philadelphia Centennial Exposition. When difficulties arose, Campbell bought Anderson out and acquired new partners, including Arthur Dorrance of Bristol, Pennsylvania. In , Dorrance and Campbell incorporated in New Jersey under the name of the Joseph Campbell Preserve Company. Ready-to-serve tomato soup was one among the two hundred products the company manufactured. Arthur Dorrance’s son, John T. Dorrance, a chemist trained in Germany, joined Campbell’s Camden laboratory in , concentrating on the manufacture of condensed soups. Five of them—tomato, ´— chicken, oxtail, vegetable, and consomme were released in . The following year, the company adopted the now famous red-andwhite soup-can design that was later celebrated by Pop artist Andy Warhol. Condensed soups were extremely successful, and John T. Dorrance became a director and vice president of the company and finally its president. Other products were phased out, and the company changed its name to the Campbell Soup Company. During the s Campbell began marketing tomato juice, and by  it was the leading tomato juice manufacturer in America. It has consistently promoted new product development ever since.

The most important of many reasons for this rapid and consistent growth was the company’s skill at advertising and marketing its products. Its major advertising image was the Campbell Kids, created by Grace Drayton in . Campbell’s marketing strategy has continued to be successful. Since , the company has regularly published cookbooks promoting its other products. It also relied extensively on newspaper, magazine, radio, and television advertising. In  the Campbell Soup Company was inducted into the Marketing Hall of Fame. Today it is one of the leading advertisers in the United States. Campbell has also made important acquisitions. First it acquired the Franco-American Soup Company in Jersey City. After World War II it acquired V juice, a blend of eight vegetables along with several flavor enhancers. Since then Campbell has bought many other food producers, including Pepperidge Farm, Pace Foods, Prego, Swanson, and Godiva chocolates. Campbell stopped making soup in Camden in , and all other manufacturing operations at that site ceased ten years later. Its main tomato processing operations are now located in California, but the company has kept its world headquarters in Camden. Its soups are sold in almost every country, and it remains the largest tomato soup manufacturer in the world. Collins, Douglas. America’s Favorite Food: The Story of Campbell Soup Company. New York: Harry N. Abrams, .

See also canning industry

Andrew F. Smith

Camp Kilmer.

The U.S. Army camp located two miles east of New Brunswick was named for Sgt. Alfred Joyce Kilmer, a native of New Brunswick killed during World War I and a poet best known for “Trees.’’ Activated

Campbell Museum.

The Campbell Museum originated in  when John T. Dorrance, Jr., chairman, and W. B. Murphy, president, of the Campbell Soup Company started collecting soup-related decorative arts. Chartered as a nonprofit organization by the state of New Jersey, the museum opened in  in Camden, at the headquarters of the Campbell Soup Company. It included exhibit space, along with a theater for films and lectures. The museum housed an extensive and unique collection of utensils, including tureens, bowls, spoons, and ladles, that were connected to the company’s main product—soup. While most of the items were old and historic, the collection also contained contemporary examples designed by modern craftspersons. By the s declining attendance led to the decision to close the museum. In , the collection was transferred to the Winterthur Museum and Gardens in Delaware with an agreement that it would show the collection in a single gallery and

The main gate of Camp Kilmer, c. .

Courtesy Metuchen-Edison Historical Society.

Canada goose in , Camp Kilmer was the nation’s first army camp built specifically for the staging of troops. Covering more than fifteen hundred acres, the base contained more than twelve hundred buildings, including accommodations for fifty thousand troops at one time. Its general arrangement, particularly the innovative use of camouflaged buildings, was designed to confuse enemy bombardiers during an air attack. More than one thousand German and Italian prisoners of war were interned at the camp during World War II. Deactivated in , the base was reopened during the Korean War and remained operational through . It served as a reception center for thirty thousand Hungarian refugees who fled the Soviet invasion of their country in . A regional maintenance and support facility for U.S. Army Nike missile batteries was constructed at the base during . Camp Kilmer was permanently closed in . The majority of its land and infrastructure became the Kilmer Campus of Rutgers University, including Livingston College. The only remaining vestige of the base’s military past is the Joyce Kilmer Army Reserve Center, headquarters of the th Division. See also World War II

Donald E. Bender

camp meetings.

The Cumberland Revival, which swept the Southeast in the late s, marked the beginning of camp meetings in America. By the summer of  the phenomenon had emerged as a successful tool of Protestant evangelism among Presbyterians, Baptists, and Methodists, and it spread to their northeastern brethren. The growing popularity of camp meetings reached New Jersey in the mid-s. Multitudes escaped from growing industrialized cities for revivalist preaching and healthful retreat in seaside, forested, and mountain settings throughout the state. Regardless of locale, camp meeting sites had a common physical layout: a central square or park with preacher’s pulpit, firebox, and wooden benches, surrounded by canvas tents in concentric rows and separated by narrow passageways. The Great Prayer Revival of the s produced a boom in attendance and more formal camp meeting opportunities. People of all denominations nationwide, suffering from severe economic hardship brought on by the financial crash of , found comfort in noonday prayer and other spiritual pursuits. Churches turned again to camp meetings as an outreach tool. In New Jersey, the newly formed Newark Annual Conference of the Methodist Episcopal Church established a Conference Camp Meeting that attracted more than fifteen thousand people, necessitating simultaneous preaching by three ministers to address the crowd. Later, in preparation for the Centenary of American Methodism, a committee that included the Reverend Jonathan T. Crane

(father of author Stephen Crane) was chosen to locate a permanent camp meeting site. On March , , the New Jersey legislature granted a charter to the Newark Annual Conference establishing the Mount Tabor Camp Meeting, and the first camp meeting was held there from August  to September , . The charter enabled Mount Tabor to set up municipal services, even though it was located within the boundaries of a larger township. That same year a similar charter was granted to the Ocean Grove Camp Meeting Association of the United Methodist Church. As the fervent religious spirit of most camp meetings declined in the late s, many associations were transformed by the building of cottages, tabernacles, and hotels. While religious services were maintained, offerings were expanded to include recreational and social activities, as well as lectures on the arts, sciences, and humanities. After World War II, many people found affordable housing at the Mount Tabor and Ocean Grove Camp Meetings, winterizing the cottages for year-round use and enclosing open porches once covered with gingerbread trim to accommodate growing families. Other camp meetings in the state languished. In , in response to concerns about maintaining a clear separation of church and state, the state legislature invalidated the  statute that had established camp meetings as quasi municipalities. The local municipalities, Parsippany–Troy Hills and Neptune, assumed municipal services previously provided by the camp meetings in Mount Tabor and Ocean Grove. At the beginning of the twenty-first century, Mount Tabor continues as a strictly secular community. Ocean Grove, on the other hand, offers a popular schedule of religious services alongside secular programs, and its residents proudly preserve and promote their unique architectural and camp meeting heritage. Brown, Kenneth O. Holy Ground, Too: The Camp Meeting Family Tree. Rev. ed. Hazelton, PA: Holiness Archives, . Messenger, Troy W. Holy Leisure: Recreation and Religion in God’s Square Mile. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, . Norris, Mary Harriott. Camp Tabor: A Story of Camp Meeting. . Reprint, with an introduction by Robert D. Simpson and Megan D. Simpson. Raritan: Raritan Valley Press, .

Susan Akers, Emily W. B. Russell, and Beth Shaw

Camp Merritt. The -acre World War I embarkation camp that spanned the towns of Cresskill, Dumont, Tenafly, Bergenfield, Demarest, and Haworth in Bergen County was named for Maj. Gen. Wesley Merritt of the Civil and Spanish-American wars. More than ,, soldiers were quartered there between  and , principally for brief periods before assignment to, or after return from, Europe. The base was situated between

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Camp Merritt Monument, Cresskill.

Courtesy David R. Wall. two railroads and within marching distance of the Hudson River at Alpine, north of the port of Hoboken. The camp closed in . In  Gen. John J. Pershing dedicated a sixtyfive-foot granite obelisk engraved with the names of  individuals who died at the camp. Rose, Howard W. Camp Merritt: A Documentary. Harrington Park: Harrington Park Historical Society, . Westervelt, Frances A., ed. History of Bergen County, New Jersey, –. Vol. . New York: Lewis Historical Publishing Company, .

See also World War I

David R. Wall

Canada goose.

Branta canadensis is New Jersey’s most common goose, characterized by a black neck, white cheek patch, and sonorous honk. Prior to the s it was seen only as a spring and fall migrant, as none bred locally and few overwintered. Today, along with migrant geese, a large breeding Canada goose population also exists in the state. Originating from nonmigrant geese transplanted from the Midwest, New Jersey currently has the highest density of resident Canada geese in the United States, approximately one hundred thousand birds during the breeding season. Resident geese also lure migrant geese to “short-stop,’’ and winter counts now exceed two hundred thousand. Resident geese breed at an earlier age than migrants and they have high survival and reproduction rates, all of which contribute to their rapid population growth. After the first few weeks of life, the only significant predators of Canada geese are humans via sport hunting. The New Jersey harvest of Canada geese averages twenty thousand birds annually.

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cancer

Canada geese spend considerable time feeding on land in harvested crops and lawns. Although valued for aesthetic, harvest, and scientific purposes, high populations utilizing the same areas as humans results in problems of crop and lawn damage, soiling of parks, lawns, and ball fields, aircraft collisions, and disease. Control methods include noise, flags, taste repellents, herding dogs, egg addling, and flock removal. Van Wormer, J. The World of the Canada Goose. Philadelphia: Lippincott, .

See also birds

Paul M. Castelli

cancer.

During the period –, the state of New Jersey had the highest cancer mortality rates in the United States, and these high rates were not explained by the fact that New Jersey’s population was older than the populations of most states. The explanation for the existence of a so-called cancer alley has been hotly debated. Some facts were indisputable. One was that cigarette smoking rates were higher in cities than in rural areas of the United States, and New Jersey, the most urbanized state, had high rates of smoking and lung cancer. Second, many of New Jersey’s residents were born in Europe, and we know from studying cancer rates in European countries and in the United States that these populations had certain habits, especially nutritional, that predisposed them to higher rates of digestive and urinary tract cancers. Third, New Jersey was a heavily industrialized state, and many New Jersey residents worked at jobs that increased their chances of contracting cancer, such as working with asbestos in the construction of ships during World War II. We also know that workers exposed to certain dyes and other products in chemical plants had higher cancer rates. In New Jersey, the most debatable cause of cancer is general environmental contamination. Some argue that air pollution and water pollution have contributed to high cancer rates; others have disputed this assertion. Scientists by and large have not found much evidence to support a relationship between cancer and outdoor pollution. However, these debates recur in the investigation of so-called cancer clusters, for example, in Rutherford and Toms River, where residents were convinced that environmental contamination caused excess cancers. There is evidence from molecular studies that genetic composition predisposes some people to higher rates of some forms of cancer, such as breast cancer. The interaction of genetics and exposure to carcinogens in food, at work, and as a result of other personal behaviors is not well understood. At this time, we have no way of attributing certain cancers to genetic factors. Whereas most chronic causes of death have decreased in the United States during the last decade, cancer rates have stabilized and in some places they have slightly increased.

Beginning in the s, the differences in cancer rates between New Jersey and the rest of the United States clearly declined, especially among residents aged thirty-five to sixty-four, implying that the unique characteristics of New Jersey and its residents that labeled the state “cancer alley’’ have been disappearing. The majority of cancers—for example, of the lung, colon, and cervix—are believed to be preventable by proactive public health practices. Some require the development of culturally sensitive health education programs about the value of Pap smears for early detection of cervical cancer. Other efforts, such as suing tobacco companies over the cost of tobacco-related deaths, aim at reducing the supply of the agent on the market and making the culpable parties pay for some of the ills their products cause. The effectiveness of fiber, ascorbic acid, retinoids, vegetables, and other products in reducing the probability of contracting cancer is not clear and requires additional evidence before they can be said to help prevent cancer. Some forms of cancer have been decreasing (e.g., gastric) without explicit prevention programs. Many types of cancer, especially in children, can be effectively treated and some can be cured if detected early. Surgery and chemotherapy (e.g., chemical, radiological) and immunotherapy are used in concert and have increased the survival rates for some kinds of cancer patients. The U.S. National Institutes of Health estimate the annual cost of cancer diagnosis and treatment at almost $ billion. Another $ billion is attributed to lost worker productivity and premature death. The physiological cost of cancer is also extremely high. Because cancer can be such a fearsome disease for patients and their families, those who work with cancer patients must exercise the utmost care and sensitivity.

Analysis of differences and causes of cancer among populations, or epidemiology, is difficult because cancer has a long latency rate, typically twenty to forty years. Before a cancer is detected, many people have moved, died, or been subjected to other diseasepromoting and -retarding factors. Yet New Jersey has among the most diverse populations in the Untied States, with people from many nations and cultures, which makes it an important place to study the factors that contribute to cancer. In fact, concerns about high cancer rates have led to the establishment of strong environmental protection programs and to cancer monitoring and research efforts in New Jersey. American Cancer Society. Cancer Facts and Figures. Atlanta: American Cancer Society, . Greenberg, Michael. Urbanization and Cancer Mortality. New York: Oxford University Press, . Greenwald, Peter, Barnett S. Kramer, and Douglas L. Weeds, eds. Cancer Prevention and Control. New York: Marcel Dekker, . Murphy, Gerald, Walter Lawrence, and Raymond Lenhard, Jr., eds. Clinical Oncology. d ed. Atlanta: American Cancer Society, .

See also medicine and public health

Michael R. Greenberg

Cancer Institute of New Jersey. The Cancer Institute of New Jersey (CINJ), established in  and located in New Brunswick, is the state’s only National Cancer Institute–designated cancer center. It has programs in breast, gastrointestinal, genitourinary, gynecological, respiratory, and pediatric cancers, and in melanoma/sarcoma, leukemia/lymphoma, and bone marrow transplants. The  scientists at the CINJ are experts in pharmacology, carcinogenesis, chemoprevention, cytokines, growth factors, signal transduction, molecular mechanisms, gene transcription, and cancer control. Every effective standard therapy, including

Plant No.  of Cranberry Canners, Inc., New Egypt, c. .

Courtesy Ocean Spray Cranberries, Inc., Corporate Archives, Lakeville-Middleboro, MA.

Cape May NCI-approved clinical trials, is available to patients at CINJ. In addition, discoveries made in the laboratories of the CINJ are used to treat patients. Partner institutions of the Cancer Institute of New Jersey include the University of Medicine and Dentistry of New Jersey (UMDNJ), the UMDNJ–Robert Wood Johnson Medical School, the Robert Wood Johnson University Hospital, Saint Peter’s University Hospital, the Atlantic Health System, and New Brunswick Affiliated Hospitals.

Linda Barker

service by black physicians. Active in Hudson County and national Republican politics, Cannon was elected president of the National Colored Republican Conference in  and seconded the nomination of Calvin Coolidge at the  Republican National Convention. Nelson, William, ed. Nelson’s Biographical Cyclopedia of New Jersey. New York: Eastern Historical Publishing Society, . Richardson, Clement, ed. The National Cyclopedia of the Colored Race. Montgomery, AL: National Publishing Company, .

See also North Jersey Medical Society

Sandra Moss

canning industry.

During the nineteenth century, the rise of tomato production, coupled with strategic innovations in the technology of food processing, paved the way for the successful development of the canning industry in New Jersey, which continues to thrive to this day. Sometime between  and , Rowland Dutton of Burlington launched a short-lived venture in tinning herring roe, but Harrison Woodhull Crosby of Jamesburg is generally credited with being the first successful commercial canner of tomatoes in . Also in , the North American Phalanx Colony—a social experiment in community cooperation—built a canning factory in Red Bank that operated for over a century. Shortly after the factory was established, it was taken over by the Bucklin family, innovators of the pulping and filling process. That plant was purchased by Walter Rathbun, Inc., in , but closed in . Certainly among the most notable events in the industry’s history was the founding of Anderson and Campbell in  in Camden, which, in , became the Campbell Soup Company. The original Camden manufacturing plant operated until . Processed food ranks among the state’s significant exports. Many well-known companies are listed among the top one hundred firms in New Jersey, and Campbell Soup ranks among the premier research and development firms in the state.

Cape May. .-square-mile city in Cape May County. Summer visitors started coming to Cape Island before the American Revolution, and by the s the town was the nation’s most famous seaside resort. Huge, sprawling hotels were built to accommodate the influx of summer visitors. Incorporated as

the City of Cape May in , the resort gained a big boost from the West Jersey Railroad (). In  a huge fire destroyed thirty-five acres in the center of town. The residents rebuilt in the prevailing Victorian style and the resort continued to be a fashionable vacation spot. The town was host to several U.S. presidents during the s. After a long period of decline following World War II that threatened many of the resort’s historic structures, the Mid-Atlantic Center for the Arts was formed to preserve and encourage restoration of beautiful Victorian-era homes, including the Emlen Physick Estate on Washington Street. In  Cape May was named a National Historic Landmark, and today the seaside town is a year-round resort, drawing hundreds of thousands of visitors every year. Cape May is home to the U.S. Coast Guard Training Center, the only training center in the country, and the Port of Cape May is one of the largest fishing ports on the East Coast.

Sim, Mary B. Commercial Canning in New Jersey: History and Early Development. Trenton: New Jersey Agricultural Society, .

Deborah S. Greenhut

Cannon, George Epps

(b. July , ;

d. Apr. , ). Physician and politician. Born in

Carlisle, South Carolina, George Cannon graduated from Lincoln University in Pennsylvania and New York Homeopathic College (). He entered practice in Jersey City, becoming a highly successful and popular clinician with a biracial practice. Cannon was president of the North Jersey Medical Society and the Northeastern Interstate Medical Association; he was the influential chairman of the executive board of the National Medical Association for many years. During World War I, he served in the state militia and was critical of national policies limiting military medical

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The Emlen Physick Estate in Cape May, built c. , is a true Stick-style Victorian showplace.

Courtesy Chamber of Commerce of Commerce of Greater Cape May.

Cape May County

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According to the  census, the population of , is  percent white. The median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Dorwart, Jeffery M. Cape May County, New Jersey: The Making of an American Resort Community. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

See also illustration, color section

Barbara St. Clair

Cape May County.

.-square-mile county with sixteen municipalities. Cape May County is a peninsula at the southernmost tip of New Jersey, with beaches washed by the Atlantic Ocean on the east, and Delaware Bay to the west. Seventeenth-century European explorers most likely landed there in , and Dutch Capt. Cornelius Jacobsen Mey (Cape May’s namesake) explored the region between  and . Settlement came slowly, however. Treacherous surf off the oceanside barrier islands and dangerous bayside sandbars and shallows made landings difficult. Dutch, Swedish, and British traders and settlers sought better sites up the Delaware River. Possibly a small whaling colony built cabins at Town Bank on the lower bayside in the s, and several decades later British town planner and entrepreneur Dr. Daniel Coxe established an agricultural, fishing, and shipbuilding settlement nearby. By the end of the seventeenth century, Coxe’s enterprise and Quaker land speculators had brought several hundred British whaling and farming families to the Cape from New England, Long Island, and East Jersey, along with some French Huguenots and African

CAPE MAY COUNTY

Cape May Court House

0

15 miles

county seat

Americans. Most settled bayside along creeks, on Cape Island at the tip of the peninsula (later Cape May City), and up the mainland along well-worn trails made by the Lenape Indians, who either resided permanently on the Cape or visited seasonally to fish and make shell-bead money belts called wampum. Enough freeholders (office holders/landed estate owners who are not limited by social class or inheritance rights) resided on the isolated peninsula by  to establish county government, and in  the county was divided into precincts (later townships) that reflected their inhabitants’ religious affiliations. Quakers settled the Upper Precinct, Baptists the Middle Precinct, and Presbyterians the Lower Precinct. Settlement was slower than in most other New Jersey counties during the eighteenth century because the Cape was cut off from the outside world by deep tidal creeks, inhospitable landing places, and few passable dry pathways leading north into West Jersey. Despite this remoteness, wealthy Cape May gentry leaders Jacob Spicer and Aaron Leaming, Jr., played major roles in New Jersey political and economic affairs before the Revolution, and they authored the first collection of laws, The Grants, Concessions, and Original Constitutions of the Province of New Jersey. Cape May County began to attract new settlers to farm, fish, build boats, and mine cedar logs that had fallen into swamps so that they could be made into shingles for Philadelphia and South Jersey carpenters. The shipbuilding and shingle mining community along Dennis Creek, bayside, in the middle of the peninsula became so prosperous and active that residents formed Dennis Township in . Meantime, Cape Island to the south grew as a fishing village, as home for Delaware Bay pilots, and as one of America’s earliest seaside resorts. Cape May entrepreneurs advertised the area for ocean bathing and vacationing before the Revolution, and by the s a regular stagecoach line connected Cape Island inns and taverns during the summer months to Philadelphia and Gloucester County. Regular steamboat ferry service was established by the s. No railroad entered Cape May until , when the Cape May and Millville Railroad reached Cape Island. The growth of population and business after the Civil War reflected the extension of railroad service into the county. The railroad contributed directly to establishment of the Jewish agricultural and industrial community of Woodbine, and to the African American community of Whitesboro in Middle Township. However, the chain of oceanfront barrier islands, separated from the mainland by deep tidal inlets and wide mud flats, remained inaccessible to the railroad. Gradually, during the nineteenth century, urban entrepreneurs and real estate developers anxious to provide vacation escapes for the middle class from the growing industrial cities speculated in barrier island properties, developed towns, and

eventually built electric street railways, hotels, and boardwalks along the oceanfront. They connected the barrier islands to the mainland over railroad trestles and raised causeways. In  Methodist business and religious leaders built Ocean City on the county’s northernmost barrier island beach. New Jersey and Philadelphia developers built up the Wildwoods to the south, while Cumberland County town builder Charles Kline Landis, fresh from founding Vineland, established Sea Isle City. Cape May County entered the twentieth century as two distinct communities. Woodbine and the new barrier island towns attracted Italian, Russian, and other recent immigrants. The businesspeople who brought these newcomers to the Cape tended to be progressive in politics and outlook. Meantime, the older, historic mainland community continued to pursue traditional and conservative values and politics. World War I brought additional changes to the county population and greater contact with the outside world, particularly the federal government, which established naval training centers and a naval base on Cape Island. Bethlehem Steel Company, under the direction of Cape May County native and company president Eugene G. Grace, developed ammunition testing ranges bayside and in Upper Township. The wartime county saw an increase in outsiders, expansion of Shore resort towns, and wild speculation in real estate. The boom continued after the war as county business leaders encouraged expansion of barrier islands, Cape Island, and mainland towns. Outside labor, attracted by building jobs, settled permanently on a peninsula that could only support seasonal work. When the building boom ended with the Great Depression of , year-round work ended, too. County social services collapsed, the school system went bankrupt, and seashore communities deprived of revenues defaulted on taxes. Prohibition-era crime and scandal rocked the county, with a grand jury indicting the entire county Board of Chosen Freeholders for misuse of public funds. New Deal monies helped Cape May County survive the Depression. Civilian Conservation Corps camps fought mosquitoes and built forest and beach recreation centers. The Works Progress Administration and Public Works Administration developed parks, highways, bridges, and public buildings. World War II pulled the county fully out of economic crisis. Local residents found wartime shipbuilding jobs upriver in Camden, New Jersey; Wilmington, Delaware; and Chester, Pennsylvania. Local firms in Ocean City and Cape May City built small craft for the U.S. Navy. Woodbine’s struggling textile mills manufactured uniforms for the armed services. The government developed a large naval station at the Coast Guard base in Cape May City, and an aircraft carrier training field in Rio Grande (called Naval Air Station, Wildwood). The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers cut the Cape May Canal from

Cape May peninsula bayside near Town Bank to Cold Spring Harbor oceanside. Big industry came to the peninsula for the first time as the Magnesite Chemical Company built a factory in a bird sanctuary at Cape May Point. The Cape May Canal, burgeoning industry, and increased population during wartime threatened Cape May’s fragile seashore ecology. Federal, state, and county governments had to spend millions of dollars each season to replenish beaches altered by changing currents created by the canal. The pollutionplagued Magnesite plant was eventually closed by environmentalists, who also blocked the proposed construction of a nuclear-power plant bayside. Several generations of local officials worried about disappearing freshwater marine life. Cape May’s economy and very existence depended on protecting fishing, bathing, and the tourist trade that swelled the county population every summer from Memorial Day to Labor Day, and every socioeconomic development during the last quarter of the twentieth century reflected Cape May’s efforts to maintain New Jersey’s southernmost county as a seashore resort community. By the end of the century, a billion-dollar tourist industry supported  percent of the , permanent county residents, while  percent worked in nearby counties, particularly Atlantic County, using Cape May County as a bedroom community. Ninety-one percent of county residents in  was white and  percent black. Median household income in  was $,. Dorwart, Jeffery M. Cape May County, New Jersey: The Making of an American Resort Community. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . Salvini, Emil R. The Summer City by the Sea: Cape May, New Jersey, An Illustrated History. Belleville: WhealGrace Publications, . Thomas, George E., and Doebley, Carl. Cape May, Queen of the Seaside Resorts: Its History and Architecture. Philadelphia: Art Alliance Press, .

Zoological Parks and Aquariums accredits the Cape May County Zoo.

Jeffrey A. Margolis

Cape May Court House. .-squaremile town, one of the fifteen communities that make up Middle Township in Cape May County. First settled at the close of the seventeenth century, Cape May Court House gained importance as a judicial center when a jail was built in , followed by a courthouse in . It was originally known as Middletown; the name was changed to reflect the prominence of the courthouse and the fact that there was another Middletown in the state. In  Cape May Court House became the county seat and has been ever since. By the early twentieth century, several glass factories were established as the area’s leading industry. Burdette Tomlin Memorial Hospital, the only hospital in the county, is located there, as is the Cape May County Park and Zoo. The community lies along the Garden State Parkway close to Cape May County’s seaside resorts. Boyer, George F., and J. Pearson Cunningham. Cape May County Story. Egg Harbor City: Laureate Press, . Dorwart, Jeffery M. Cape May County, New Jersey: The Making of an American Resort Community. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

See also Middle Township

Jeffrey A. Margolis

Cape May diamonds. The quartz pebbles known locally as “Cape May diamonds’’ are found on beaches of Cape May County from the Delaware Bay to Cape May Point. Derived from Pleistocene Delaware River alluvial gravels, these quartz rocks and pebbles often are covered with a yellowish material called limonite. Colorless Cape May diamonds are produced when natural abrasive forces

remove the limonite. Most of these quartz pebbles are quite small, but in the nineteenth century one weighing more than three pounds was displayed in Cape May. Cape May diamonds can be cut and polished like gemstones and set in gold or silver to make jewelry. See also minerals

Andrea C. Dragon

Cape May peninsula. Eight miles wide by sixteen miles long, Cape May peninsula is the southernmost part of New Jersey, bordered by the Atlantic Ocean on the east and by Delaware Bay on the south and west. As part of the state’s Coastal Plain, it is underlain by unconsolidated sediments of relatively recent geologic age (Quaternary, Tertiary, and Cretaceous). The seaward-dipping beds consist of sand, silt, and clay. Thus, the much older (Paleozoic or Precambrian) crystalline rocks, called the “basement complex,’’ vary in depth from about four thousand feet below sea level in the northwestern part of Cape May County to about six thousand feet near the southern tip. The topography of the peninsula is relatively flat, with elevations ranging from sea level in the tidal marshes to low interior rises of ten to twenty feet. The area has been a fashionable resort for many years, based on its many beaches and relatively mild climate. However, serious saline intrusion has occurred in the aquifers of the Kirkwood and Cohansey Formations as increasing groundwater withdrawals have allowed the salt front to advance landward. Recent research by federal and state agencies has focused on water-supply development alternatives, such as artificial recharge of ground water by well injection and desalinization. Storm surges and rising sea levels have also caused coastal erosion.

Jeffery M. Dorwart

Cape May County Zoo.

Located in Cape May Court House, the eighty-five-acre zoo is part of the Cape May County Park system. It is the only free zoo in New Jersey. First opened in , the zoo hosts approximately one half million visitors each year. The Cape May County Zoo has between  and  species of animals. The most popular are the zebras and the giraffes, which are located in the African Savanna exhibit. The river otters are also a favorite attraction. The zoo, funded by the Cape May County Board of Chosen Freeholders and by private donations, has an operating budget of $ million per year. One of the very popular and unique programs offered by the zoo is the annual summer Zoo Camp. The camp is a six-week program open to young people between the ages of four and fifteen. The zoo also offers an outreach program for area school students through its educational director. The American Association of

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Searching for “Cape May diamonds.’’

Courtesy Pike Archives.

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Cape May Point

Biggs, Michael, and Tom Carroll. Cape May: Images of a Seaside Resort. Wilmington, DE: Jared Co., . Gill, Harold E. Ground-Water Resources of Cape May County, N.J.: Salt Water Invasion of Principal Aquifers. Trenton: State of New Jersey, Department of Conservation and Economic Development, Special Report , . Salvini, Emil R. The Summer City by the Sea: Cape May, New Jersey, an Illustrated History. Belleville: WhealGrace Publications, .

through a succession of owners and names until it became the Cape May Star and Wave in  and was purchased by the Hand family. It remained in that family for generations until it was sold to David Nahan in . In  the paper had a weekly circulation of more than seventy-one hundred. See also newspapers

See also coast; geography

Barbara St. Clair

Robert M. Hordon

Cape May Point. .-square-mile borough in Cape May County. Located at the southernmost tip of New Jersey, Cape May Point, the site of a lighthouse built in , became a Presbyterian retreat in . Originally established by the Sea Grove Association, which supported a ban on all liquor and amusements, Sea Grove was incorporated in  as the borough of Cape May Point. John Wanamaker summered at the Point when he was postmaster general in President Benjamin Harrison’s Cabinet, and he invited President and Mrs. Harrison to visit Cape May Point and use Congress Hall in Cape May as the Summer White House. During the War of  British sailors came ashore for fresh water until local Patriots dug a trench from Lake Lily to the ocean, contaminating the drinking water with salt water. One of the British ships that guarded the bay, the sloop Martin, was uncovered during a storm in  and its skeletal remains are part of the Point’s history. The concrete freighter S.S. Atlantus, one of four concrete ships built during World War I, ran aground at the end of Sunset Boulevard in Cape May Point and, although little remains of the ship, the wreckage continues to attract visitors. The  population of  was  percent white. The median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Dorwart, Jeffery M. Cape May County, New Jersey: The Making of an American Resort Community. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . Seibold, David J., and Charles J. Adams. Shipwrecks and Legends ’Round Cape May. Reading, PA: Exter House Books, . Stevens, Lewis Townsend. History of Cape May County, New Jersey. Cape May City: Lewis T. Stevens, .

Carey, James Barron

(b. Aug. , ;

d. Sept. , ).

Labor leader. The son of a Glassboro postmaster, James Carey pioneered industrial unionism among electrical workers. At age twenty-three, he founded a union at the Philadelphia-based Philco Company and organized independent radio and machinery locals into the United Electrical, Radio, and Machine Workers of America (UE), which he headed from  to . The victorious RCA strike in Camden in  cemented Carey’s reputation as a militant labor leader, resulting in his elevation to secretary-treasurer of the Congress of Industrial Organizations (CIO) in —a post he held until . In , the UE’s left-wing leadership ousted Carey. After the CIO expelled the UE in , Carey headed the rival International Union of Electrical Workers (IUE). He held the IUE presidency from  until , when he was removed from office after election irregularities and voting fraud were uncovered. Combative and mercurial, Carey clashed with AFL-CIO officers on jurisdictional matters, civil rights, and foreign policy. He presided over a union of , members that achieved organizational dominance in the electrical manufacturing sector, waged national strikes against the electrical giants Westinghouse (–) and General Electric (), and had a significant social, economic, and political impact in New Jersey. Cochran, Bert. Labor and Communism: The Conflict That Shaped American Unions. Princeton: Princeton University Press, . Filippelli, Ronald L., and Mark D. McColloch. Cold War in the Working Class: The Rise and Decline of the United Electrical Workers. Albany: State University of New York Press, . Zieger, Robert H. The CIO, –. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, .

See also labor movement

James P. Quigel, Jr., and Clayton Sinyai

Barbara St. Clair

Cape May Star and Wave. Cape May County’s first newspaper, the Ocean Wave, was established in Cape Island in . Within a few months, Joseph Leach bought the newspaper and renamed it the Cape May County Ocean Wave. His editorials promoted railroad construction and his speeches supported the Union before the outbreak of the Civil War. He sold the newspaper to Samuel Magonagle in . Magonagle died in  and the newspaper was purchased by Christopher Magrath and Aaron Garretson, Sr., in . It passed

Carlstadt. .-square-mile borough in Bergen County. First settled by Europeans in the seventeenth century, the community developed further in , when German political refugees from the  revolution organized the German Democratic Land Association and bought  acres in Lodi Township from the Berry family, one of the earliest families in the region. Named for Carl Klein, the association’s president, Carlstadt soon became known for its German turnvereins, singing societies, beer gardens, and village schools that taught in both English and German. In

February  Carlstadt, along with WoodRidge, Moonachie, and Wallington, became part of newly created Bergen Township, but soon after, in June , it incorporated as a borough. Most residents live on the high ridge west of Route  in a dense residential zone that merges seamlessly with East Rutherford, Wallington, and Wood-Ridge. East of Route  are industrial sites, retail outlets, the New Jersey Turnpike, and the Hackensack Meadowlands Conservation and Wildlife Area. Carlstadt retained its German character until the s and reached its peak population of , in . In , its population of , was  percent white, primarily of Italian, German, and Irish ancestry. The median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Westergaard, Barbara. New Jersey: A Guide to the State. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

Evelyn Gonzalez

Carmel.

See Deerfield.

Carmelites. The Carmelites are members of a religious order of the Roman Catholic Church founded on Mount Carmel in Palestine in the middle of the twelfth century. There are two main branches of the order— the Ancient Order of Carmel, and the Discalced Carmelites—as well as some smaller branches and men’s and women’s branches. A community of Discalced Carmelite women made a foundation in New Jersey in , but it was abandoned a year later. Another women’s community was founded in Morristown in , and in  the Morristown community made a foundation in New Brunswick. In  the New Brunswick community moved to the outskirts of Flemington, to a hill that, coincidentally, had been called Mount Carmel by the early Protestant settlers in the s. This property was sold to the Little Sisters of the Poor in , and a smaller tract was acquired on Harmony School Road, where the sisters continue their life of prayer and have a small farm. Male Carmelites of the Ancient Observance arrived in New Jersey in  to staff Saint Cecilia’s Church in Englewood. They continue to serve that parish, as well as four others in Bergen County. Individual male Carmelites are engaged in retreat work, seminary teaching, and writing. The Catholic Church in Englewood: A History of Saint Cecilia’s Parish, –. Englewood: Saint Cecilia’s Church, .

See also Roman Catholic Church

Augustine J. Curley

Carney, William Jennings ; d. Nov. , ).

(b. July ,

Labor leader. William Jennings Carney was born in Frostburg, Maryland, a mining region with Irish immigrant roots, to William and Florence (Parker)

Carteret, Sir George ´ ge ´ of John L. Lewis, the Carney. He was a prote United Mine Workers Union strongman who battled fiercely against corporate America and sought to bring as many workers as possible into one big labor grouping. Carney was a union organizer at the Goodyear Rubber plant in Akron, Ohio. He was active in labor efforts, which sometimes turned violent, in steel and auto operations in Erie, Pennsylvania, and Flint and Detroit, Michigan. After moving to New Jersey in , Carney headed the ,member Industrial Union Council, based in Newark. This was the twenty-fourth affiliate set up by Lewis’s militant new Congress of Industrial Organizations (CIO). Carney tangled with Frank Hague, the powerful mayor of Jersey City who ordered his police to suppress the CIO’s “un-American’’ activities and “deport’’ the leaders of its “Red invasion.’’ Hague believed the CIO was aiming to overthrow the American government and destroy all forms of religion. The mayor was ordered by a federal judge in Newark to cease and desist his harassment. Carney headed the union until his untimely death from a heart attack in . Troy, Leo. Organized Labor in New Jersey. Princeton: D. Van Nostrand, .

See also labor movement

Edward A. Jardin

Carneys Point.

.-square-mile township on the Delaware River in Salem County. The area that was to become Carneys Point was first settled by Swedes and the Dutch, but the English followed quickly and named it Penn’s Neck. It became Upper Penn’s Neck Township in . Farming and fishing were the first industries; working farms are still a part of the township. During World War I, the DuPont Company built Plant No. , the Smokeless Powder Works, in the township; the plant was in operation until . To accommodate the sudden influx of workers, DuPont built uniform housing; this development was called Carneys Point Village by some. In  the name of the township was changed to Carneys Point. Conectiv and PG&E Generating are located in the township, which is also home to Salem Community College. The main road of the township is still known as Shell Road, so named because it was originally paved with oyster shells. Basically rural in character, the Census  population of , was  percent white and  percent black. The median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, .

Cushing, Thomas, and Charles E. Sheppard. History of the Counties of Gloucester, Salem, and Cumberland, New Jersey. . Reprint. Bowie, MD: Heritage Books, .

Patricia W. Blakely

Carranza, Emilio

(b. Dec. , ;

d. July , ). Aviator. Youthful and daring,

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Wampler, Cloud. Dr. Willis H. Carrier: Father of Air Conditioning. Princeton: Princeton University Press, .

Charles A. Poekel, Jr.

Carter, Rubin “Hurricane’’ (b. May ,

Capt. Emilio Carranza.

Courtesy the Carranza family.

Emilio Carranza was dubbed the “Mexican Lindbergh.’’ Carranza was a twenty-three-year old captain in the Mexican air force when, on July , , at the conclusion of a goodwill tour of the United States, he took off from a Long Island airport in an attempt to reach Mexico City. If successful it would have been the second longest airplane flight, after Lindbergh’s New York–to–Paris journey. Carranza’s flight ended in tragedy; he died when his plane crashed in the New Jersey Pine Barrens. A monument was erected at the crash site, and every July a ceremony is held there by American Legion Post  in memory of this courageous aviation pioneer. Bzdak, Meredith. Public Sculpture in New Jersey: Monuments to Collective Identity. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

Marc Mappen

Carrier, Willis Haviland

(b. Nov. ,

; d. Oct. , ). Engineer, manufacturer,

and inventor. Born in Angola, New York, Willis Carrier attended Cornell University on scholarship and graduated in . In , he took out the first of eighty patents on air conditioning while working at the Buffalo Forge Company. In  he unveiled his “Rational Psychrometric Formulae’’ to the American Society of Engineers. These formulae are the basis for all calculations in the air conditioning industry. In  he founded, with several other engineers and $, capital, the Carrier Engineering Corporation. Carrier spent the s and s living in Essex Fells, New Jersey. He died in Syracuse, New York. Ingels, Margaret. Willis Haviland Carrier, Father of Air Conditioning. Garden City, NY: Country Lane Press, .

). Professional boxer and prisoner rights advocate. The son of Lloyd and Bertha Carter, Rubin “Hurricane’’ Carter was born in Dellawanna, but spent nearly all of his life in Paterson. Carter became a professional boxer in . His career in the ring involved  fights, of which he won , with  knockouts. The highlight of his boxing career was his unsuccessful attempt to win the World Middleweight Championship, losing a fifteenround decision to Joey Giardello on December , . In October of  he was arrested, with John Artis, for the shootings of four persons, three fatally, in a Paterson bar. Carter was convicted twice and sentenced to life imprisonment. In , following numerous appeals, a Federal District Court reversed Carter’s conviction, citing the prosecution’s appeals to racism and the withholding of evidence. In  Carter moved to Toronto, Canada, where he currently heads the Association in Defense of the Wrongly Accused. Chaiton, Sam, and Terry Swinton. Lazarus and the Hurricane. Toronto: Penguin Books, . Hirsch, James S. Hurricane. New York: Houghton Mifflin, . Wice, Paul B. Rubin “Hurricane’’ Carter and the American Justice System. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

Paul B. Wice

Carteret, Elizabeth

(b. ; d. ).

Proprietor. In January of , upon the death of her husband, Sir George Carteret, the proprietor of East Jersey, Lady Elizabeth Carteret became the executor of his estate in trust for their grandson George. In that capacity, Lady Elizabeth, for whom Elizabethtown was named, reappointed Philip Carteret as proprietary governor of East Jersey and ordered him to double the settlers’ quitrents and to lay claim to Staten Island. Resistance from the settlers and the New York governor led Lady Elizabeth to petition the duke of York to allow the proprietary colony to be sold. In February , East Jersey was purchased by twelve Quakers, ending the Carteret connection with the colony. Neither Lady Elizabeth nor her husband, Sir George Carteret, ever visited the colony. Cunningham, John. The East of Jersey: A History of the General Board of Proprietors of the Eastern Division of New Jersey. Newark: New Jersey Historical Society, .

Claribel F. Young

Carteret, George (b. ; d. Jan. , ). Colonial governor, lord proprietor. Sir George Carteret was first granted a charter to lands in North America in – when Charles II honored him for his staunch support of the

124

Carteret, Philip in , becoming the first proprietary governor of New Jersey under Sir George Carteret and Lord John Berkeley. He was removed by unhappy settlers in May , temporarily replaced by James Carteret (son of Sir George) and then by the Dutch when they recaptured the region. He returned to New Jersey from England in  and resumed his office, only to be challenged in  by Sir Edmund Andros, governor of New York, who questioned New Jersey’s right to a separate governor. At one point, Carteret’s dispute with Andros over the right to collect customs duties led to Carteret being arrested, dragged off, and tried in New York City. He returned to New Jersey after the matter was resolved in England, but resigned in . Johnson, Willis Fletcher. “The Story of the Carterets.’’ New Jersey History  (): –.

Sir George Carteret.

Courtesy Special Collections and University Archives, Rutgers University Libraries, New Brunswick.

Stellhorn, Paul A., and Michael J. Birkner, eds. The Governors of New Jersey, –: Biographical Essays. Trenton: New Jersey Historical Commission, .

See also governor

Maxine N. Lurie Crown during the English Civil War. However, having been banished from France by antiroyalist forces, Carteret was unable to claim this honor. At the Restoration, Carteret was made treasurer of the navy, and he and fellow commissioner Lord John Berkeley were awarded joint proprietorship of the lands between the Hudson and Delaware rivers by the duke of York in . Carteret was specially honored by the naming of the territory after the English Isle of Jersey, where he had served as governor. Sir George sent his cousin Philip Carteret to serve as New Jersey’s governor. As Sir George and Berkeley struggled in their absentee management of New Jersey, Carteret faced his own financial scandals in England. Accused of mismanaging navy funds, he was expelled from the House of Commons in . Samuel Pepys, famed English diarist and clerk of the naval office during Carteret’s tenure, described his impression of Sir George’s financial acumen in : “But Lord, how fretfully Sir G. Carteret doth discourse with Mr. Wayth about his accounts, like a man that understands them not one word. I held my tongue, and let him go on like a passionate fool.’’ Sir George died in , and in February of  his widow and trustees sold New Jersey to twelve Quakers led by William Penn. Boyd, Julian P., ed. Fundamental Laws and Constitutions of New Jersey. Princeton: D. Van Nostrand, . Pomfret, John E. Colonial New Jersey: A History. New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, . ———. The New Jersey Proprietors and Their Lands, –. Princeton: D. Van Nostrand, .

Kristen Block

Carteret,

Philip

(b. ; d. ).

Colonial governor. Philip Carteret, a relative of Sir George Carteret, settled in Elizabethtown

Carteret.

.-square-mile borough in Middlesex County on the Arthur Kill. Named for New Jersey’s first colonial governor, Philip Carteret, the area was known to the Lenape as Smokey Point. The Blazing Star Trail, the best route from New York to Philadelphia, passed through the borough. In the eighteenth century it abounded in orchards, farms, meandering streams, and a clean beach. American Indian burial grounds were near the shore in what is now known as the Chrome area, named for the Chrome Steel Works. Originally part of Woodbridge Township, Roosevelt, named for President Theodore Roosevelt, seceded in . Since the borough had always been called Carteret and had several industries identified as being in Carteret, an election was held on November , , and Roosevelt was renamed Carteret. Once the home of great industry (the Koch Erecting Company supplied girders for the skyscrapers in New York City; Liebig’s provided much of the fertilizer for the East Coast; Foster Wheeler made the boiler for the USS Nautilus), the town has become a storage area with warehouse companies. The borough is split in half by the New Jersey Turnpike and comprises West Carteret, the Hill section, Shore Crest, and Parkview. In , the population of , was  percent white,  percent Hispanic (Hispanics may be of any race), and  percent black. The median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, .

hold exhibitions. Twenty-three imprints followed, many of which have become prized by bibliophiles. Club membership ranged from a high of eighty in  to a low of fortynine in  and included prominent lawyers, authors, ministers, physicians, and educators from northern New Jersey. By  interest in the club had declined to a minimum, forcing club officials to surrender its charter of incorporation.

E. Richard McKinstry

Carter-Wallace.

A pharmaceutical firm located in Cranbury, Carter-Wallace traces its origins to the s when Dr. John Samuel Carter developed a pill to relieve his patients’ digestive problems. By  “Carter’s Little Liver Pills’’ were so popular that Carter built a four-story plant to manufacture them. The pills achieved nationwide distribution through a merger with New York businessman Brent Good, creating the Carter Medicine Company in . In  the company introduced Arrid, the first cream antiperspirant that would not stain clothes or irritate skin, developed by Princeton research chemist John H. Wallace. Sales surpassed $ million that year, and a new plant was built in New Brunswick. In  Carter Products introduced Miltown (meprobamate), a tranquilizer and muscle relaxant. In  the company name was changed to Carter-Wallace to reflect the contributions of the Wallace Laboratory division. In  Carter acquired the maker of Trojan condoms, a product that soared in profitability as a result of the AIDS epidemic. With Sea & Ski suntan lotion, Carter was a presence in another growth industry. Home pregnancy tests Answer and First Response marked a third significant consumer trend that Carter identified in the s. New Jersey–based MedPointe purchased Carter-Wallace on September , , and the consumer products divisions were sold in a separate transaction. Wallace Pharmaceuticals became MedPointe’s prescription pharmaceuticals division. Barr, Stephen. New Jersey: Setting the Pace for the Twenty-first Century. Encino, CA: Cherbo Publishing, . Cunningham, John T. Made in New Jersey: The Industrial Story of a State. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . Swann, John P. Academic Scientists and the Pharmaceutical Industry: Cooperative Research in TwentiethCentury America. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, .

See also pharmaceutical industry

Pamela Cooper

Francis T. Tomczuk

Case, Clifford Philip Carteret Book Club.

Established in Newark in  by John Cotton Dana and James E. Howell, the Carteret Book Club was founded to promote the study of book production, to publish on the book arts, and to

(b. Apr. , ;

d. Mar. , ). Attorney, congressman, foun-

dation executive, and U.S. senator. Clifford Case attended the public schools of Poughkeepsie, New York, and graduated from Rutgers College in . He received his law

Catholic Charismatic Renewal movement

Sen. Clifford Case (R–NJ) confers with Assemblyman Thomas Kean (R–Essex) during a floor session at the Republican National Convention in Kansas City, Missouri, August , .

Photo: Tom Herde. Courtesy The Star-Ledger. degree from Columbia University Law School in  and subsequently practiced law in New York City. His career as an elected official began in  when he won a seat on the Common Council of Rahway, New Jersey, the city that would be his home for the next forty years. His five years of service on the Common Council ended when he became a state assemblyman in . In , Case was elected as a Republican to the U.S. House of Representatives to serve in the Seventy-ninth Congress. He was appointed to the Judiciary Committee. He served in the House until his resignation on August , . After a brief period as president for the Fund for the Republic, he was elected to the U.S. Senate in  after defeating a much more conservative candidate in the Republican primary. His victory in the general election was aided materially by Vice President Richard Nixon, who dismissed complaints that Case was too liberal and campaigned actively for him. In the Senate, Case was assigned to the two least desirable committees—District of Columbia and Post Office and Civil Service— a reflection not only of his lack of seniority but of his liberalism. He was reelected easily in  and by , at the beginning of his second term, Case’s committee assignments improved. He took a seat on the Labor and Public Welfare Committee, a favorite of Senate liberals. At the same time, he was also assigned the Committee on Aeronautics and Space Science, a panel that provided an opening for Case to pursue an area of public policy that had long interested him: international relations. He had served briefly as a delegate to the Twenty-first General Assembly of the United Nations, and his interest in world affairs set him on a path that would lead to his

being assigned to the Committee on Foreign Relations in . By  he was the ranking minority member of that committee as well as vice chairman of the Select Intelligence Committee and a member of the Joint Committee on Atomic Energy. It was on Foreign Relations that Clifford Case came to national attention as a critic of the policies of both the Johnson and the Nixon administrations in Southeast Asia. He sponsored a number of resolutions to curtail U.S. military operations in Vietnam and Cambodia. Despite Richard Nixon’s efforts on Case’s behalf in , he opposed Nixon’s nomination at the Republican convention of  and backed instead New York governor Nelson A. Rockefeller. After Nixon’s election, Case was critical not only of Nixon’s foreign policy but also of the harshness of the rhetoric of Vice President Spiro T. Agnew. As New Jersey’s senior Republican senator, Case was able to influence the appointment of three U.S. attorneys who aggressively pursued corrupt public officials in the state. While avoiding a primary challenge from conservatives in  and defeating a weak challenge from the right in , Case was defeated in the  GOP primary by Jeffrey Bell, who went on to be beaten by Bill Bradley. After his defeat, Case practiced law and became a lecturer at the Eagleton Institute of Politics at Rutgers University. Bailey, Christopher, J. The Republican Party in the U.S. Senate, –. New York: St. Martin’s, . Barone, Michael, Grant Ujifusa, and Douglas Matthews. The Almanac of American Politics, . New York: Dutton, . Nixon, Richard M. RN: The Memoirs of Richard Nixon. New York: Grosset and Dunlap, . U.S. Congress. Senate. Biographical Directory of the United States Congress: th Congress, d session. Washington, DC: GPO, .

Ross K. Baker

Casino Reinvestment Development Authority. The Casino Reinvestment Development Authority (CRDA) was created in  to administer the provisions of the Casino Control Act that require casino licensees to pay . percent of their gross revenues as an additional tax or to reinvest . percent of their gross revenues in public bonds issued by the agency. The CRDA is located in Atlantic City, and its members are appointed by the governor. Its revenues finance projects designed primarily to redevelop blighted areas in Atlantic City and throughout the state. By , the CRDA had assisted in financing more than $. billion worth of housing, commercial, and neighborhood development projects with revenues generated by the casinos.

Steven P. Perskie

Casio.

A wholly owned U.S. subsidiary of Casio Computer Company, headquartered in Tokyo, Japan, Casio markets such consumer

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electronics products as keyboards, digital cameras, and timepieces, and business products that include cash registers for its parent company. The first firm to mass-produce electronic calculators in , Casio Computer was founded in  in Tokyo by the four Kashio brothers. In , Casio moved its U.S. executive headquarters to Dover (Morris County) from Fairfield. Today, Dover is the site of Casio’s executive offices and Casio Corporation of America, an administrative subsidiary. A warehouse and service facility is located in Little Ferry. Casio employs approximately  people in New Jersey. It also has facilities in Illinois and Oregon and retail stores in several states.

Elaine L. Schwartz

Cassville.

See Jackson.

Cathedral Basilica of the Sacred Heart. The seat of the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Newark was begun in  and completed in . Designed by Jeremiah O’Rourke of Newark and Isaac E. Ditmars in the French Gothic style, the cathedral is constructed of Vermont granite (exterior walls) and Indiana limestone (interior walls). It measures  feet long and  feet wide, with towers  feet high. The interior was designed and executed by Gonippo Raggi of Orange. Given landmark status by the New Jersey Historic Preservation Office and designated a National Historic Site, the cathedral was declared a minor basilica by Pope John Paul II during his visit in . Brady, Joseph H. “The Cathedral of the Sacred Heart.’’ Manuscript, n.d. Archives of the Archdiocese of Newark. Seton Hall University, South Orange. Flynn, Joseph M. The Catholic Church in New Jersey. Morristown: n.p., . Gubernat, Michael E. The Histories of Sacred Heart Cathedral. d ed. Newark: M. E. Gubernat, .

See also Roman Catholic Church

Robert J. Wister

Catholic Charismatic Renewal movement. A popular tendency within Roman Catholicism, the Charismatic Renewal movement emphasized such traditionally Pentecostal teachings as speaking in tongues and cultivated a decidedly evangelical worship style. Most scholars trace its American beginnings to Duquesne University in . By , New Jersey congregations in Northvale, Red Bank, Metuchen, and elsewhere embraced the movement. Charismatic renewal peaked in popularity during the late s, when services in such places as Convent Station and Rutherford attracted extraordinary crowds, and large worship events filled the New Jersey Meadowlands. Considered controversial by some traditional Catholics, the movement continues to attract a strong core of loyal adherents. See also Roman Catholic Church

Peter J. Wosh

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Catholic Community Services

Cathedral Basilica of the Sacred Heart, Newark.

Courtesy Archdiocese of Newark.

Catholic Community Services. Catholic Community Services (CCS) is a social services agency sponsored by the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Newark. It is the largest nonprofit, faith-based community development organization in New Jersey. Incorporated in , CCS serves as an umbrella organization for the Mount Carmel Guild, founded in  to meet the needs created by the Great Depression; New Jersey Boystown, founded as the Saint Francis Protectory for Boys in Denville in  and moved to its present site in Kearny in ; and Associated Catholic Charities, successor to the original Catholic Charities founded in . In , CCS served , clients at more than sixty program sites throughout the archdiocese. “Centennial Research.’’ Sacred Heart Union B:  (Spring ): –. Kern, Edward Joseph. “Catholic Child Welfare in the Diocese of Newark.’’ Ph.D. diss., Fordham University, .

See also Roman Catholic Church

Augustine J. Curley

cedar, Atlantic white.

Atlantic white cedar (southern white cedar, “juniper’’ locally in the Carolinas), Chamaecyparis thyoides, belongs to the redwood or cypress family, Cupressaceae. There are seven species of this genus, with C. thyoides along the East Coast of North America, two along the West Coast, two in Japan, and two in Taiwan. Atlantic white cedar is a slow-growing evergreen tree usually sixty to seventy feet high. It occurs in dense, pure stands or in mixture with hardwoods in swamps along rivers and streams, mainly near

the coast. In New Jersey, it is the only obligate wetland tree species. It is found mainly in the Pine Barrens, but also occurs in isolated locations in the northern part of the state. Good specimens can be seen along North Lemon Road, south of park headquarters in Lebanon State Forest, and at Cheesequake State Park, where a boardwalk traverses the cedar swamp. There is an isolated stand at High Point State Park, the farthest inland and highest elevation site in the United States where the species occurs. Nationally, Atlantic white cedar ranges from Appleton Bog, Maine, to Ocala National Forest, Florida, and westward to southern Mississippi. It is estimated that in colonial times, cedar occupied as much as , acres here, ranking our state second only to North Carolina, which had about , acres. There were extensive cedar forests in the Meadowlands; construction along the New Jersey Turnpike in  unearthed many cedar stumps, of which the largest measured over five feet across. Today New Jersey’s largest two specimens, both approximately ten feet in circumference, grow in swamps near Nixon Branch and Muskee Creek in Cumberland County. The national champion, thirteen feet around, is near Brewton, Alabama. Atlantic white cedar was prized for its decay-resistant wood, which was used for shingles, siding, boats, buckets, and channel markers. Many houses in Philadelphia and Baltimore were roofed with cedar shakes. The wood is used less extensively today because its supply is very limited. Over the last two hundred years there has been a significant

decline in the area occupied by the species. Cedar swamps are valued now because of their ecological functions: they filter and purify water, mitigate flood and drought, and provide habitat for diverse bird, reptile, and amphibian species and several rare plant species. Efforts underway today to restore cedar swamps are being led by foresters and ecologists at Rutgers University, Richard Stockton College of New Jersey, and the New Jersey Forest Service. Restoration has been most successful on sites formerly occupied by cedar, which grows best on muck soils underlain by sand or gravel. Both natural seeding and hand planting are used for restoration; natural regeneration depends on an adequate seed bank in the soil or presence of mature, cone-bearing cedars within one hundred yards upwind. Planting can be done either with seedlings, which are difficult to produce, or with stecklings (rooted cuttings), which are relatively easy. The State Forest Tree Nursery at Jackson produces ten thousand to twenty thousand of these a year, using parent material from Lebanon State Forest. In restoration efforts, great care must be taken to protect the young cedars from destruction by white-tailed deer; the most widely used devices are electric fences, which can be moved to new locations after the trees have grown above browse height.

John E. Kuser

cedar, eastern red. Juniperus virginiana, a native American tree, is common to young woodlands and fallow farmland across New Jersey, but particularly abundant in red shale soils of the Piedmont, limestone outcroppings of the Kittatinny Valley, and coastal dune forests. It has reddish bark and needlelike, blue-green, evergreen foliage. Its small, berrylike cones smell like gin (which is flavored with various Juniperus species). The wood is used for fence posts and pencils and has a characteristic “cedar’’ scent arising from antimicrobial compounds that make it decayresistant and repulsive to clothes moths. It is also used for wedding chests and as mothballs.

David W. MacFarlane

Cedar Grove. .-square-mile township in Essex County, located between the first and second chains of the Watchung Mountains. English and Dutch colonists settled in the area in the s. Thomas Jacobus purchased the entire valley from the Lenape Indians in the early s and Jacobus, along with the Van Ripers, the Personnettes, the Canfields, and the Bowdens, developed large farms. Several homes date back to the Revolutionary period. Originally part of Caldwell Township, Verona and Cedar Grove seceded in  to create Verona Township. Cedar Grove was incorporated as a separate township in . Throughout the nineteenth century and the early part of the twentieth century, Cedar Grove’s economy was primarily based on farming and dairy

cemeteries production. Due to rapid community development after World War II, Cedar Grove is mainly residential in character. Morgan’s Farm, the last in Cedar Grove, was bequeathed to the township by J. Courtenay Morgan in . The Cedar Grove Historical Society is restoring the nineteenth-century farmhouse and the township has turned the .-acre farm into a park. The Essex County Hospital Center and the police academy are among many Essex County facilities located in Cedar Grove. In  the population of , was  percent white. The median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, .

Linda J. Barth

cement industry.

The production of cement goes back nearly  years. Portland cement is a calcium silicate prepared by a controlled combination of calcium (from limestone, shells, or chalk), silicon (from shale, clay, or sand), aluminum, and iron. When subjected to high temperatures, the raw materials yield a fused product (dubbed “clinker’’), which is ground to a fine powder and to which gypsum is added. The result is portland cement, which, when further mixed with water, hardens into concrete. Initially imported from Europe, natural cement was first produced in this country in  in Copley, Pennsylvania. But that cement did not have the strength or hardness of portland cement. Thomas A. Edison started manufacturing portland cement in Stewartsville in . Using equipment from his closed-oreconcentrating plant in Ogdensburg, Edison improved the technology and fuel economy of the manufacturing process. The excellent quality of the Edison cement outsold the imported product as well as the lower-cost domestic natural cement. Edison’s Stewartsville plant subsequently became one of the country’s largest producers of cement. In  Edison also investigated the possibility of fabricating cast-concrete homes by pouring concrete mixtures into large wooden molds. Several cast-concrete homes were constructed in West Orange and Union. Edison also conducted research at his West Orange laboratories on the manufacture of lightweight cellular or foam concrete for possible application in housing and furniture manufacture. Neither of these ventures proved commercially successful. Production of portland cement reached , barrels by , but by the s, the high-quality limestone deposits in neighboring Oxford were being depleted. Underground deposits could be reached only through shaft mining, which simply could not compete economically with an open-pit quarry. The Edison Portland Cement Company was closed in  and sold in , at which time it was dismantled. Today there is no cement production in New Jersey and all of the cement used in the

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state is supplied by neighboring New York and Pennsylvania. Israel, Paul. Edison: A Life of Invention. New York: John Wiley, . Vanderbilt, Byron M. Thomas Edison, Chemist. Washington, DC: American Chemical Society, .

Herwart C. Vogt

cemeteries. More than eight hundred cemeteries are known to exist throughout New Jersey. They range from small family plots to enormous urban necropolises. Settlers established the first formal cemeteries in New Jersey during the late seventeenth century. Public or community burial grounds, family graveyards, and churchyards were all employed during the first decades of settlement. Most contained simple wooden or fieldstone gravemarkers. Today, gravemarkers from the seventeenth century can be found in only a handful of cemeteries in Elizabeth, Woodbridge, Piscataway, and Edison. New Jersey’s early cemeteries highlight the colony’s cultural diversity. In northeastern and central New Jersey, beautifully carved sandstone gravemarkers, many decorated with winged skulls and cherubs, reflect the religious beliefs of the region’s first settlers. Skilled local artisans, such as Ebenezer Price of Elizabethtown, Uzal Ward of Newark, and John Frazee of Rahway, carved many of these markers. Especially important colonial cemeteries are located in Ridgewood, Morristown, Madison, Westfield, Shrewsbury, and Middletown. Noteworthy colonial graveyards in Scotch Plains, Rahway, and New Providence contain early African American gravemarkers. In the northwestern corner of the state, a handful of eighteenth-century cemeteries have associations with German settlers. The Moravian Cemetery in Hope, Warren County, contains several dozen flat marble tablets erected for members of this German Protestant sect. The Stillwater and Yellow Frame Presbyterian cemeteries hold finely carved German-language markers. Southern New Jersey’s colonial cemeteries display little of the imagery found in the northern portion of the state. Instead, their stones reflect the influence of Quaker settlers and their neighbors, who preferred plain, unornamented white marble markers. Notable early cemeteries are located in Burlington, Salem, and Cape May Courthouse. During the mid-nineteenth century, the “rural cemetery movement’’ reshaped New Jersey’s burial places. Well-landscaped, parklike cemeteries reflecting the Victorian romanticization of death were established in or near most major cities. Noteworthy examples include Riverview Cemetery, Trenton; Harleigh Cemetery, Camden (resting place of Walt Whitman); Mount Pleasant and Fairmount cemeteries, Newark (filled with elaborate mausoleums for the city’s nineteenthcentury industrial barons); Alpine Cemetery,

Gravestone of the Rev. Samuel Kenneday, on the grounds of the Basking Ridge Presbyterian Church.

Photo: Steve Andrascik. Courtesy The Star-Ledger.

Perth Amboy; and Hillside Cemetery, Plainfield. The enormous marble and granite memorials that fill these cemeteries provided a medium for status-conscious Victorians to display a permanent record of their achievements. In the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, new immigrants once again transformed the state’s cemeteries. A small plot at Willow Grove Cemetery in New Brunswick contains several somber white marble obelisks inscribed with Japanese characters. They mark the graves of Japanese students, sent by their nation to study in the United States in the s and s. In cemeteries in Perth Amboy and Woodbridge, colorful terra-cotta gravemarkers were erected for Danish, German, ´migre ´s. Cemeteries Hungarian, and Italian e associated with Jewish immigrants who settled in the Pinelands survive at Brotmanville and Mizpah. The Ukrainian Cemetery at Saint Andrew’s Ukrainian Orthodox Church in South Bound Brook boasts a spectacular collection of funerary art, including a life-sized bronze Cossack. Similarly, Rosedale Cemetery in Linden contains the colorfully painted gravemarkers of Chinese immigrants and a unique full-size granite Mercedes-Benz. National cemeteries devoted to veterans include Finn’s Point and Arneytown. The former contains the graves of Confederate prisoners of war, who died while interned at nearby Fort Delaware. New Jersey’s cemeteries are important repositories of the state’s heritage. The gravemarkers they contain hold valuable information for genealogists, historians, art historians, and anthropologists.

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cemeteries, national

Sarapin, Janice Kohl. Old Burial Grounds of New Jersey: A Guide. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . Wasserman, Tamara E. Gravestone Designs: Rubbings and Photographs from Early New York and New Jersey. New York: Dover, .

Richard F. Veit

The Beverly National Cemetery was established in August  to inter veterans who died of battle wounds in the Civil War. Although no battles were fought in the Beverly area during the war, the city on the Delaware River had a convalescent hospital in a former rope factory, which received the wounded

cemeteries, national.

Two national cemeteries are maintained in New Jersey: the Beverly National Cemetery in Burlington County’s Edgewater Park, and Finns Point National Cemetery in Salem, Salem County. They are administered by the U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs.

CENSUS: TOTAL POPULATION, 1800 2000 1800

20 Miles

THOUSANDS 0.0 - 5.0 5.1 - 10.0 10.1 - 15.0 15.1 - 20.0 21.1 - 25.0

1950

1900

THOUSANDS 5.0 - 15.0 15.1 - 25.0 25.1 - 35.0 35.1 - 45.0 74.0

THOUSANDS 10.0 - 50.0 50.1 - 90.0 90.1 - 130.0 130.1 - 170.0 350.0 - 390.0

2000

1800 1820 1840 1860

Census Year

0

1850

1880 1900 1920 1940 1960 1980 2000 0

THOUSANDS 30.0 - 150.0 150.1 - 300.0 300.1 - 450.0 450.1 - 650.0 900.0

THOUSANDS 50.0 - 200.0 200.1 - 350.0 400.1 - 550.0 600.1 - 750.0 750.1 - 900.0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

State Population (millions)

Source: U.S. Census Bureau http://www.census.gov @Rutgers, The State University

census from overcrowded Philadelphia area hospitals. These patients were transferred on the river steamer John A. Warner, which always announced its arrival at the dock with a whistle blast. Hearing the signal, residents would assemble at the wharf with refreshments for the soldiers and wagons to transport them to the hospital a mile away. According to local tradition, limbs amputated at the hospital were taken for burial in a .-acre plot owned by Christian Weyman at the site of the present cemetery. Those who died at the hospital were also given temporary burial in the same plot, which Weyman conveyed to the United States by deed on August , , with the condition that it be used as a burial place for those who died as the result of battle. The original plot grew with the addition of . acres in ,  in , and  in . Interred in Beverly National Cemetery are the remains of , veterans of every war and branch of service, including four Medal of Honor recipients. Finns Point National Cemetery, by contrast, occupies only . acres and is the resting place of , Confederate soldiers, many captured at Gettysburg, July –, . They died as prisoners of war at Fort Delaware on Pea Patch Island in the Delaware River, . miles away. Crowded conditions on the small island, combined with a high water table, made it unsuitable as a burial place. Accordingly, the

bodies of prisoners, as well as the  Union soldiers who died guarding them, were transferred across the river for interment at Finns Point, the site of a military reservation owned by the United States since . The name derives from a Swedish colony established about , which was said to have included some of Sweden’s Finnish subjects. Finns Point, which became a national cemetery on October , , has separate monuments for soldiers of the North and the South. The Union monument bears the names of  of the  dead who could be identified. The Confederate monument bears all , names. The cemetery also contains the graves of some veterans of the Spanish-American War and World War I, along with the remains of thirteen German prisoners of World War II who died while in custody at Fort Dix. Holt, Dean W. American Military Cemeteries: A Comprehensive Illustrated Guide to the Hallowed Grounds of the United States, Including Cemeteries Overseas. Jefferson, NC: McFarland, .

See also Civil War

William M. Gordon

census. The U.S. Constitution requires that a census of the nation’s population be taken every ten years. Its population figures are the basis for proportional representation in the House of Representatives, which in turn is used to calculate the number of presidential

129

electors from each state. More recently the census has also been used to allocate federal money. Over time there have been changes in what is counted (no cars before ), and how (in  an individual could report being of more than one race). Although a census has been taken in New Jersey since , some of the records have not survived. There are no state records for , , , or  (with the exception of Cumberland County in ). The records for  are missing the population schedules (except for part of Jersey City), which were lost in a fire in . Individual names and records are closed to general researchers for seventytwo years, but aggregate information is available from recent returns. While researchers look for individuals in the older records, recent returns are of interest because they show shifting population patterns and income levels. At one time New Jersey also had a state census, but it was only taken (at ten-year intervals) from  to . In several cases returns from counties are missing or incomplete, but they do provide additional information for this brief period. Barker, Bette M., Daniel P. Jones, and Karl J. Niederer. Guide to Family History Sources in the New Jersey State Archives. Trenton: Division of Archives and Records Management, .

See also demography; ethnicity

Maxine N. Lurie

New Jersey Population and Ethnicity, U.S. Census 2000 Town

Total

White

Black

Native American

Asian

Multiracial

Aberdeen Township Absecon City Alexandria Township

17,454 7,638 4,698

78.82% 83.31% 97.02%

12.02% 6.01% 0.79%

0.14% 0.17% 0.11%

5.52% 7.46% 0.77%

1.75% 1.54% 0.87%

1.75% 1.51% 0.45%

7.02% 3.77% 1.72%

Allamuchy Township Allendale Boro Allenhurst Boro

3,877 6,699 718

95.49% 92.48% 97.35%

0.93% 0.39% 0.84%

0.05% 0.06% 0.28%

1.86% 6.09% 0.42%

0.98% 0.52% 0.97%

0.70% 0.46% 0.14%

2.68% 2.54% 2.51%

Allentown Boro Alloway Township Alpha Boro Alpine Boro

1,882 2,774 2,482 2,183

90.65% 90.70% 97.06% 77.37%

6.43%

0.58%

0.64%

6.89% 0.28% 1.51%

0.54% 0.04% 0.23%

0.43% 1.21% 19.15%

1.12% 1.05% 0.77% 1.42%

0.58% 0.40% 0.64% 0.32%

2.38% 1.89% 2.52%

Andover Boro Andover Township

658 6,033

92.71% 94.45%

2.28% 1.86%

0.76% 0.08%

2.43% 2.34%

0.61% 0.68%

1.22% 0.60%

2.58% 2.25%

16,930 40,517 4,705

24.77% 26.68% 94.37%

62.11% 44.16% 2.30%

0.32% 0.48% 0.06%

0.77% 10.46% 1.23%

5.53% 4.47% 1.02%

6.49% 13.76% 1.02%

15.58% 24.95% 3.51%

Audubon Boro Audubon Park Boro Avalon Boro Avon-by-the-Sea Boro Barnegat Light Boro

9,182 1,102 2,143 2,244 764

97.34% 98.91% 98.69% 97.15% 98.30%

0.52% 0.36% 0.14% 0.53% 0.52%

0.11% 0.09% 0.00% 0.45% 0.00%

0.90% 0.18% 0.61% 0.89% 0.52%

0.64% 0.36% 0.51% 0.36% 0.26%

0.48% 0.09% 0.05% 0.62% 0.39%

1.51% 0.64% 0.56% 2.41% 0.79%

Barnegat Township Barrington Boro Bass River Township

15,270 7,084 1,510

94.75% 91.61% 98.87%

2.21% 4.16% 0.07%

0.09% 0.24% 0.07%

1.00% 1.48% 0.13%

1.25% 1.43% 0.73%

0.70% 1.07% 0.13%

3.86% 2.84% 2.19%

Bay Head Boro Bayonne City

1,238 61,842

97.98% 78.64%

0.16% 5.52%

0.08% 0.17%

0.57% 4.19%

0.73% 4.02%

0.48% 7.46%

1.29% 17.81%

Beach Haven Boro Beachwood Boro Bedminster Township

1,278 10,375 8,302

98.83% 95.66% 90.05%

0.08% 0.97% 1.75%

0.00% 0.13% 0.11%

0.55% 1.19% 6.43%

0.47% 0.94% 0.83%

0.08% 1.11% 0.83%

4.69% 4.22% 3.84%

Belleville Township Bellmawr Boro

35,928 11,262

69.44% 92.79%

5.36% 1.18%

0.17% 0.06%

11.38% 3.07%

3.82% 1.36%

9.83% 1.54%

23.68% 3.50%

Asbury Park City Atlantic City Atlantic Highlands Boro

Other

Hispanic

1.91%

(continued)

130

census

New Jersey Population and Ethnicity, U.S. Census 2000 (continued) Town

Total

White

Black

Native American

Asian

Multiracial

Belmar Boro Belvidere Town Bergenfield Boro

6,045 2,771 26,247

91.53% 98.02% 62.90%

Berkeley Heights Township Berkeley Township Berlin Boro Berlin Township Bernards Township Bernardsville Boro

13,407 39,991 6,149 5,290 24,575 7,345

Bethlehem Township Beverly City Blairstown Township Bloomfield Township Bloomingdale Boro

3.46% 0.51% 6.90%

0.18% 0.04% 0.24%

1.03% 0.51% 20.43%

1.82% 0.69% 3.06%

1.99% 0.25% 6.47%

6.85% 2.31% 17.05%

89.65% 97.10% 94.06% 82.46% 89.20% 93.94%

1.11% 1.30% 2.18% 11.87% 1.44% 0.25%

0.08% 0.04% 0.21% 0.17% 0.05% 0.15%

7.87% 0.46% 1.76% 2.78% 7.86% 2.64%

0.68% 0.66% 1.30% 1.51% 1.05% 1.47%

0.61% 0.43% 0.49% 1.21% 0.40% 1.55%

3.68% 2.33% 2.11% 4.80% 2.63% 5.98%

3,820 2,661 5,747 47,683 7,610

97.51% 64.67% 98.17% 70.09% 95.55%

0.86% 28.75% 0.26% 11.69% 0.42%

0.10% 0.11% 0.14% 0.19% 0.12%

1.07% 0.90% 0.57% 8.45% 2.19%

0.42% 4.13% 0.57% 3.16% 1.05%

0.03% 1.43% 0.28% 6.42% 0.67%

1.62% 4.58% 1.98% 14.47% 4.36%

886 8,249 8,496 4,287 3,969

98.19% 75.72% 83.00% 93.00% 81.25%

0.34% 5.73% 3.97% 1.19% 13.08%

0.23% 0.15% 0.21% 0.05% 0.05%

0.34% 7.81% 7.78% 4.08% 1.94%

0.79% 3.83% 2.84% 1.05% 2.87%

0.11% 6.76% 2.20% 0.63% 0.81%

1.47% 21.32% 6.85% 2.15% 2.82%

Bordentown Township Bound Brook Boro Bradley Beach Boro

8,380 10,155 4,793

89.33% 82.57% 88.15%

5.02% 2.52% 3.86%

0.20% 0.31% 0.17%

3.32% 2.94% 1.48%

1.44% 2.99% 2.34%

0.68% 8.67% 4.01%

3.03% 34.87% 12.83%

Branchburg Township Branchville Boro Brick Township Bridgeton City Bridgewater Township

14,566 845 76,119 22,771 42,940

90.44% 98.46% 95.81% 38.88% 85.07%

1.95% 0.12% 0.99% 41.84% 2.17%

0.10% 0.36% 0.10% 1.19% 0.08%

6.19% 0.36% 1.20% 0.79% 10.55%

0.92% 0.59% 1.04% 3.63% 1.25%

0.39% 0.12% 0.85% 13.67% 0.89%

2.69% 1.30% 3.85% 24.49% 4.79%

Brielle Boro Brigantine City Brooklawn Boro

4,893 12,594 2,354

93.05% 83.15% 90.27%

3.52% 3.94% 4.29%

0.06% 0.18% 0.08%

0.67% 5.76% 1.06%

1.08% 2.29% 1.91%

1.61% 4.67% 2.38%

3.31% 9.41% 4.72%

Buena Boro Buena Vista Township

3,873 7,436

77.28% 77.34%

7.64% 15.69%

0.52% 0.22%

0.46% 0.24%

3.56% 2.43%

10.53% 4.07%

23.65% 9.27%

Burlington City Burlington Township Butler Boro

9,736 20,294 7,420

68.18% 67.71% 94.89%

26.62% 24.49% 0.62%

0.27% 0.16% 0.20%

1.29% 3.76% 1.86%

2.34% 2.41% 0.94%

1.29% 1.46% 1.48%

3.41% 4.01% 5.11%

8,254 7,584 1,055

95.77% 91.22% 98.67%

0.97% 2.27% 0.00%

0.06% 0.11% 0.00%

1.47% 4.13% 0.76%

1.09% 1.08% 0.57%

0.64% 1.20% 0.00%

2.94% 4.64% 0.47%

Camden City Cape May City Cape May Point Boro Carlstadt Boro Carneys Point Township Carteret Boro Cedar Grove Township

79,904 4,034 241 5,917 7,684 20,709 12,300

16.84% 91.32% 95.02% 88.90% 78.53% 68.76% 90.05%

53.35% 5.26% 2.07% 1.37% 16.27% 9.54% 2.99%

0.54% 0.20% 0.00% 0.08% 0.27% 0.24% 0.05%

2.52% 0.45% 0.41% 6.20% 0.95% 8.35% 5.45%

3.92% 1.51% 2.49% 1.32% 1.89% 3.86% 1.00%

22.83% 1.26% 0.00% 2.13% 2.10% 9.26% 0.46%

38.82% 3.79% 1.66% 7.99% 3.98% 23.37% 3.20%

Chatham Boro Chatham Township

8,460 10,086

95.79% 93.71%

0.14% 0.45%

0.06% 0.06%

2.83% 4.82%

0.69% 0.81%

0.50% 0.15%

2.64% 1.95%

Cherry Hill Township Chesilhurst Boro Chester Boro

69,965 1,520 1,635

84.67% 37.37% 94.68%

4.46% 55.99% 0.80%

0.10% 0.20% 0.00%

8.90% 0.33% 1.71%

1.16% 3.22% 0.80%

0.70% 2.89% 2.02%

2.54% 4.08% 6.85%

Chester Township Chesterfield Township Cinnaminson Township Clark Township

7,282 5,955 14,595 14,597

95.12% 49.71% 91.36% 95.61%

1.15% 37.36% 5.08% 0.30%

0.01% 0.67% 0.16% 0.01%

2.44% 0.72% 1.88% 2.75%

1.00% 3.09% 1.01% 0.69%

0.26% 8.45% 0.49% 0.63%

2.58% 12.34% 1.53% 3.67%

Clayton Boro Clementon Boro Cliffside Park Boro Clifton City

7,139 4,986 23,007 78,672

79.23% 82.23% 77.85% 76.22%

16.05% 11.57% 1.83% 2.89%

0.42% 0.22% 0.25% 0.24%

0.69% 1.10% 12.07% 6.47%

2.66% 2.53% 3.02% 4.57%

0.95% 2.35% 4.97% 9.60%

3.28% 4.13% 18.16% 19.84%

Clinton Town Clinton Township Closter Boro Collingswood Boro Colts Neck Township

2,632 12,957 8,383 14,326 12,331

92.06% 87.71% 75.32% 86.47% 85.51%

1.33% 6.96% 0.93% 6.67% 7.89%

0.46% 0.20% 0.10% 0.34% 0.23%

3.72% 2.42% 21.56% 2.78% 3.63%

1.06% 1.12% 1.29% 1.33% 1.29%

1.37% 1.59% 0.81% 2.42% 1.45%

4.10% 3.91% 4.09% 5.67% 4.22%

Bloomsbury Boro Bogota Boro Boonton Town Boonton Township Bordentown City

Byram Township Caldwell Boro Califon Boro

Other

Hispanic

(continued)

census

131

New Jersey Population and Ethnicity, U.S. Census 2000 (continued) Town

White

Black

Native American

Asian

Multiracial

5,259 468 3,227

82.98% 94.02% 88.78%

13.42% 2.78% 2.26%

0.42% 0.85% 0.00%

0.25% 1.28% 7.41%

1.92% 0.43% 1.33%

1.01% 0.64% 0.22%

3.86% 2.99% 1.70%

Cranford Township Cresskill Boro Deal Boro Deerfield Township Delanco Township Delaware Township

22,578 7,746 1,070 2,927 3,237 4,478

93.70% 78.05% 94.39% 78.20% 95.89% 97.70%

2.58% 0.92% 1.21% 13.05% 1.92% 0.40%

0.04% 0.04% 0.09% 1.54% 0.25% 0.04%

2.17% 18.64% 0.28% 1.02% 0.40% 1.05%

0.84% 1.70% 1.31% 3.14% 1.14% 0.56%

0.67% 0.65% 2.71% 3.04% 0.40% 0.25%

3.89% 3.99% 5.05% 5.94% 1.95% 1.14%

Delran Township Demarest Township Dennis Township Denville Township Deptford Township

15,536 4,845 6,492 15,824 26,763

82.87% 77.28% 97.43% 92.64% 83.44%

9.42% 0.50% 0.96% 1.14% 12.38%

0.17% 0.02% 0.09% 0.08% 0.21%

2.96% 20.27% 0.45% 4.67% 1.57%

2.94% 1.47% 0.46% 1.03% 1.41%

1.63% 0.47% 0.62% 0.44% 0.99%

3.25% 3.45% 1.51% 2.64% 2.86%

Dover Town, Morris Dover Township, Ocean Downe Township Dumont Boro Dunellen Boro

18,188 89,706 1,631 17,503 6,823

69.45% 93.57% 91.05% 83.77% 84.07%

6.83% 1.75% 4.84% 1.49% 3.66%

0.34% 0.13% 1.47% 0.10% 0.25%

2.50% 2.48% 0.18% 10.96% 3.58%

4.89% 1.12% 1.47% 1.74% 2.07%

15.99% 0.95% 0.98% 1.94% 6.38%

57.94% 4.54% 3.37% 8.36% 14.80%

1,441 6,202 4,455

98.96% 78.25% 96.97%

0.07% 11.77% 0.72%

0.28% 0.23% 0.13%

0.21% 5.42% 0.94%

0.49% 2.90% 0.76%

0.00% 1.44% 0.47%

1.11% 4.72% 1.53%

East Brunswick Township East Greenwich Township East Hanover Township East Newark Boro East Orange City

46,756 5,430 11,393 2,377 69,824

77.56% 94.68% 87.08% 67.02% 3.84%

2.83% 3.26% 0.58% 1.68% 89.46%

0.09% 0.13% 0.03% 0.50% 0.25%

16.28% 0.64% 11.14% 2.57% 0.51%

2.12% 1.05% 0.94% 7.24% 3.80%

1.12% 0.24% 0.24% 20.99% 2.14%

4.19% 1.40% 2.74% 47.54% 4.70%

East Rutherford Boro East Windsor Township Eatontown Boro

8,716 24,919 14,008

79.68% 74.42% 73.29%

3.72% 8.90% 11.61%

0.11% 0.20% 0.34%

10.74% 9.68% 9.35%

2.54% 2.20% 3.10%

3.21% 4.61% 2.31%

10.65% 14.28% 6.62%

7,677 7,864

67.12% 68.07%

3.52% 21.40%

0.21% 0.17%

23.16% 3.27%

3.05% 3.89%

2.94% 3.20%

10.45% 6.60%

97,687 4,545 30,726

59.49% 66.80% 79.42%

6.89% 14.19% 10.37%

0.14% 0.37% 0.21%

29.31% 1.34% 5.10%

2.15% 3.81% 2.07%

2.02% 13.49% 2.82%

6.37% 24.55% 6.76%

120,568 3,514 1,384

55.78% 82.07% 97.25%

19.98% 14.26% 0.65%

0.48% 0.57% 0.00%

2.39% 0.43% 0.51%

5.86% 1.31% 0.87%

15.51% 1.37% 0.72%

49.46% 2.93% 1.52%

Elmwood Park Boro Elsinboro Township Emerson Boro Englewood City Englewood Cliffs Boro Englishtown Boro Essex Fells Township

18,925 1,092 7,197 26,203 5,322 1,764 2,162

82.53% 95.05% 89.62% 42.49% 66.84% 88.38% 96.95%

2.16% 3.57% 0.85% 38.98% 1.37% 4.14% 0.46%

0.11% 0.18% 0.06% 0.27% 0.04% 0.11% 0.19%

7.81% 0.00% 7.89% 5.26% 29.69% 4.48% 1.02%

2.94% 0.92% 0.71% 4.50% 1.35% 1.25% 1.25%

4.44% 0.27% 0.88% 8.50% 0.71% 1.64% 0.14%

13.39% 0.64% 4.61% 21.76% 4.89% 6.24% 1.20%

Estell Manor City Evesham Township

1,585 42,275

94.20% 91.26%

3.60% 3.11%

0.44% 0.07%

0.32% 4.09%

1.32% 0.99%

0.13% 0.48%

0.95% 1.96%

Ewing Township Fairfield Township, Cumberland Fairfield Township, Essex

35,707 6,283 7,063

69.02% 41.41% 95.63%

24.82% 47.43% 0.52%

0.15% 5.08% 0.10%

2.33% 0.59% 2.82%

1.84% 3.10% 0.54%

1.83% 2.39% 0.40%

4.44% 8.87% 3.45%

Fair Haven Boro Fair Lawn Boro Fairview Boro Fanwood Boro

5,937 31,637 13,255 7,174

93.87% 91.54% 72.46% 88.30%

4.09% 0.74% 1.71% 5.14%

0.03% 0.04% 0.38% 0.10%

0.98% 4.93% 5.00% 4.42%

0.81% 1.38% 7.53% 1.24%

0.22% 1.37% 12.92% 0.79%

1.33% 5.51% 37.05% 3.74%

859 1,587 522 4,200

96.04% 93.64% 81.61% 87.71%

0.81% 1.13% 15.90% 3.19%

0.12% 0.00% 0.19% 0.31%

2.10% 2.33% 0.00% 3.29%

0.93% 0.82% 1.92% 2.36%

0.00% 2.08% 0.38% 3.14%

3.61% 3.84% 2.49% 10.98%

10,746 8,857 1,972 35,461 5,420

85.52% 94.00% 91.73% 62.75% 98.15%

9.74% 0.99% 4.41% 1.73% 0.39%

0.18% 0.01% 0.15% 0.07% 0.06%

2.36% 3.93% 1.01% 31.49% 0.39%

1.54% 0.68% 1.12% 2.26% 0.52%

0.65% 0.38% 1.57% 1.69% 0.50%

2.35% 2.15% 3.45% 7.87% 1.77%

Commercial Township Corbin City Cranbury Township

Eagleswood Township Eastampton Township East Amwell Township

Edgewater Boro Edgewater Park Township Edison Township Egg Harbor City Egg Harbor Township Elizabeth City Elk Township Elmer Boro

Far Hills Boro Farmingdale Boro Fieldsboro Boro Flemington Boro Florence Township Florham Park Boro Folsom Boro Fort Lee Boro Frankford Township

Total

Other

Hispanic

(continued)

132

census

New Jersey Population and Ethnicity, U.S. Census 2000 (continued) Town

Total

White

Black

Native American

Asian

Multiracial

Franklin Boro Franklin Lakes Boro Franklin Township, Gloucester

5,160 10,422 15,466

95.10% 91.35% 90.22%

Franklin Township, Hunterdon Franklin Township, Somerset Franklin Township, Warren Fredon Township Freehold Boro Freehold Township

2,990 50,903 2,768 2,860 10,976 31,537

Frelinghuysen Township Frenchtown Boro Galloway Township Garfield City Garwood Boro

Other

Hispanic

0.62% 0.92% 6.66%

0.35% 0.11% 0.31%

1.47% 6.34% 0.42%

1.24% 0.86% 1.14%

1.22% 0.41% 1.25%

4.42% 2.74% 3.51%

97.53% 55.11% 97.04% 97.17% 71.02% 87.09%

0.40% 25.98% 0.83% 0.52% 15.83% 5.12%

0.23% 0.18% 0.07% 0.24% 0.55% 0.14%

0.77% 12.78% 0.87% 0.84% 2.47% 5.16%

0.74% 2.39% 1.08% 0.66% 3.49% 1.30%

0.33% 3.56% 0.11% 0.56% 6.64% 1.19%

2.24% 8.11% 1.99% 2.17% 28.07% 5.19%

2,083 1,488 31,209 29,786 4,153

97.79% 95.97% 77.16% 82.11% 95.91%

0.34% 0.40% 9.80% 2.98% 0.36%

0.05% 0.20% 0.24% 0.33% 0.00%

0.58% 1.21% 8.05% 2.69% 1.32%

0.77% 0.87% 2.16% 3.79% 0.87%

0.48% 1.34% 2.59% 8.10% 1.54%

2.64% 2.62% 6.16% 20.11% 4.98%

Gibbsboro Boro Glassboro Boro Glen Gardner Boro Glen Ridge Township Glen Rock Boro

2,435 19,068 1,902 7,271 11,546

94.00% 74.53% 95.69% 89.18% 90.07%

2.79% 19.47% 0.89% 4.98% 1.81%

0.41% 0.17% 0.11% 0.15% 0.16%

1.07% 2.40% 1.58% 3.34% 6.50%

0.99% 1.95% 1.16% 1.36% 0.86%

0.74% 1.48% 0.58% 0.99% 0.61%

2.38% 3.82% 3.42% 3.45% 2.72%

Gloucester City Gloucester Township Green Brook Township

11,484 64,350 5,654

97.14% 83.11% 88.43%

0.69% 11.55% 1.68%

0.18% 0.16% 0.07%

0.71% 2.65% 8.03%

0.64% 1.42% 1.08%

0.64% 1.11% 0.71%

1.88% 1.49% 4.09%

Green Township Greenwich Township, Cumberland Greenwich Township, Gloucester Greenwich Township, Warren Guttenberg Town

3,220 4,879 847 4,365 10,807

96.49% 94.55% 89.96% 93.26% 64.98%

0.93% 3.32% 5.08% 2.47% 3.81%

0.03% 0.10% 2.60% 0.27% 0.38%

0.96% 0.70% 0.24% 2.29% 7.31%

1.30% 1.07% 2.01% 1.12% 7.10%

0.28% 0.27% 0.12% 0.57% 16.42%

3.20% 1.54% 1.53% 3.80% 54.33%

Hackensack City Hackettstown Town Haddonfield Boro

42,677 10,403 11,659

52.61% 90.25% 96.47%

24.65% 2.18% 1.27%

0.45% 0.12% 0.13%

7.51% 2.97% 1.15%

5.08% 2.47% 0.67%

9.71% 2.00% 0.32%

25.92% 8.01% 1.46%

Haddon Heights Boro Haddon Township

7,547 14,651

97.97% 95.42%

0.40% 1.18%

0.11% 0.05%

0.69% 2.05%

0.57% 0.74%

0.27% 0.56%

1.05% 1.54%

Hainesport Township Haledon Boro Hamburg Boro

4,126 8,252 3,105

94.09% 73.59% 93.14%

2.67% 7.09% 0.74%

0.10% 0.17% 0.29%

1.70% 4.59% 2.29%

0.95% 4.46% 1.87%

0.51% 10.09% 1.67%

2.13% 22.60% 4.22%

Hamilton Township, Atlantic Hamilton Township, Mercer Hammonton Town

20,499 87,109 12,604

71.45% 85.15% 87.85%

19.26% 8.16% 1.74%

0.29% 0.14% 0.14%

3.34% 2.60% 1.17%

2.33% 1.76% 1.27%

3.33% 2.19% 7.83%

7.91% 5.13% 14.88%

Hampton Boro Hampton Township Hanover Township Harding Township Hardwick Township Hardyston Township Harmony Township

1,546 4,943 12,898 3,180 1,464 6,171 2,729

91.01% 97.29% 88.79% 97.20% 97.06% 95.56% 97.91%

4.98% 0.97% 1.09% 0.41% 0.61% 0.84% 0.70%

0.39% 0.02% 0.05% 0.00% 0.07% 0.16% 0.07%

0.97% 0.69% 8.71% 1.10% 0.41% 1.57% 0.40%

1.88% 0.73% 0.77% 1.07% 0.96% 1.38% 0.73%

0.78% 0.30% 0.59% 0.22% 0.89% 0.49% 0.18%

2.85% 1.90% 3.50% 1.79% 2.32% 3.22% 1.28%

Harrington Park Boro Harrison Town

4,740 14,424

83.52% 66.10%

0.68% 0.98%

0.04% 0.40%

14.66% 11.92%

0.46% 4.65%

0.63% 15.96%

2.57% 36.97%

Harrison Township Harvey Ceders Boro Hasbrouck Heights Boro

8,788 359 11,662

95.16% 96.94% 87.87%

2.96% 0.56% 1.71%

0.13% 0.28% 0.04%

0.73% 0.28% 6.66%

0.61% 0.00% 1.53%

0.41% 1.95% 2.19%

1.78% 3.62% 8.27%

Haworth Boro Hawthorne Boro Hazlet Township Helmetta Boro

3,390 18,218 21,378 1,825

87.94% 93.75% 93.17% 93.15%

1.21% 0.75% 1.10% 2.41%

0.00% 0.14% 0.06% 0.22%

9.20% 1.90% 3.40% 2.47%

0.91% 1.88% 1.15% 0.88%

0.74% 1.58% 1.13% 0.88%

2.71% 7.43% 5.87% 5.32%

High Bridge Boro Highland Park Boro Highlands Boro Hightstown Boro

3,776 13,999 5,097 5,216

96.24% 72.06% 95.10% 76.53%

0.79% 7.94% 1.59% 8.51%

0.34% 0.11% 0.33% 0.36%

1.46% 13.72% 1.00% 2.36%

0.72% 2.59% 1.39% 2.59%

0.45% 3.59% 0.59% 9.64%

2.12% 8.18% 4.06% 20.05%

Hillsborough Township Hillsdale Boro Hillside Township Hi-Nella Boro Hoboken City

36,634 10,087 21,747 1,029 38,577

85.96% 92.41% 40.03% 71.04% 80.82%

3.76% 0.85% 46.54% 19.24% 4.26%

0.09% 0.07% 0.23% 0.00% 0.16%

7.38% 5.12% 3.53% 3.11% 4.36%

1.53% 0.69% 4.41% 2.24% 2.78%

1.28% 0.86% 5.26% 4.37% 7.63%

4.75% 4.25% 14.50% 6.90% 20.18% (continued)

census

133

New Jersey Population and Ethnicity, U.S. Census 2000 (continued) Town

Total

White

Black

Native American

Asian

Multiracial

Ho-Ho-Kus Boro Holland Township Holmdel Township

4,060 5,124 15,781

92.66% 98.09% 80.20%

Hopatcong Boro Hope Township Hopewell Boro Hopewell Township, Cumberland Hopewell Township, Mercer Howell Township

15,888 1,891 2,035 4,434 16,105 48,903

Independence Township Interlaken Boro Irvington Township Island Heights Boro Jackson Township

0.59% 0.43% 0.65%

0.10% 0.04% 0.03%

5.42% 0.43% 17.45%

0.86% 0.62% 1.15%

0.37% 0.39% 0.52%

1.97% 1.70% 2.45%

93.10% 98.25% 95.43% 87.10% 88.30% 89.99%

1.95% 0.42% 1.08% 6.90% 5.83% 3.56%

0.11% 0.00% 0.49% 2.32% 0.12% 0.12%

1.80% 0.42% 0.98% 0.59% 3.99% 3.59%

1.61% 0.85% 0.79% 1.65% 1.09% 1.45%

1.42% 0.05% 1.23% 1.44% 0.66% 1.29%

5.99% 1.48% 2.31% 3.59% 2.45% 5.34%

5,603 900 60,695 1,751 42,816

94.98% 98.67% 8.97% 97.77% 91.26%

1.16% 0.00% 81.66% 0.11% 3.90%

0.05% 0.00% 0.24% 0.46% 0.13%

1.73% 0.33% 1.20% 0.63% 2.07%

1.29% 1.00% 4.24% 0.97% 1.67%

0.79% 0.00% 3.68% 0.06% 0.97%

3.77% 1.11% 8.38% 1.37% 5.78%

6,025 19,717 240,055 10,732 40,513

82.82% 96.14% 34.01% 93.31% 75.75%

8.83% 0.83% 28.32% 2.13% 3.97%

0.20% 0.16% 0.45% 0.10% 0.37%

2.22% 1.12% 16.27% 1.30% 5.57%

2.12% 1.14% 5.84% 1.42% 4.31%

3.80% 0.62% 15.11% 1.74% 10.04%

10.06% 3.41% 28.31% 7.95% 27.34%

Kenilworth Boro Keyport Boro Kingwood Township

7,675 7,568 3,782

91.30% 85.19% 97.62%

2.40% 7.02% 0.61%

0.25% 0.12% 0.08%

2.88% 2.26% 0.77%

1.38% 2.46% 0.74%

1.80% 2.96% 0.19%

8.64% 11.09% 1.85%

Kinnelon Boro Knowlton Township Lacey Township Lafayette Township Lakehurst Boro

9,365 2,977 25,346 2,300 2,522

95.60% 97.45% 97.85% 97.04% 84.22%

0.58% 0.40% 0.36% 1.04% 7.85%

0.04% 0.07% 0.15% 0.09% 0.63%

2.94% 0.64% 0.56% 0.78% 2.42%

0.61% 0.97% 0.68% 0.70% 2.14%

0.23% 0.47% 0.41% 0.35% 2.74%

2.33% 1.85% 2.15% 2.35% 7.97%

Lakewood Township Lambertville City Laurel Springs Boro

60,352 3,868 1,970

78.77% 94.65% 94.37%

12.05% 1.94% 2.74%

0.17% 0.34% 0.25%

1.42% 1.11% 0.96%

2.98% 1.06% 0.96%

4.61% 0.90% 0.71%

14.80% 3.10% 1.62%

2,665 2,692

98.12% 1.75%

0.26% 93.61%

0.11% 1.00%

0.15% 0.59%

0.71% 2.56%

0.64% 0.48%

1.61% 2.38%

29,159 2,721 1,065

79.22% 81.88% 95.40%

9.28% 10.40% 0.66%

0.08% 1.07% 0.19%

8.01% 0.44% 3.10%

1.60% 2.79% 0.28%

1.79% 3.42% 0.38%

4.61% 7.02% 2.07%

5,816 8,914 2,765

96.97% 65.74% 97.40%

0.81% 2.27% 0.36%

0.10% 0.09% 0.11%

0.95% 26.07% 0.58%

0.79% 2.64% 1.01%

0.38% 3.20% 0.54%

1.72% 12.73% 2.68%

Lincoln Park Boro Linden City Lindenwold Boro Linwood City Little Egg Harbor Township Little Falls Township Little Ferry Boro

10,930 39,394 17,414 7,172 15,945 10,855 10,800

90.07% 66.08% 61.42% 95.20% 96.22% 92.13% 68.76%

1.75% 22.80% 28.22% 1.06% 0.79% 0.65% 4.71%

0.12% 0.14% 0.48% 0.11% 0.26% 0.06% 0.15%

5.30% 2.39% 3.58% 2.41% 0.61% 4.22% 17.16%

1.46% 3.71% 3.06% 0.99% 1.15% 1.60% 3.47%

1.30% 4.88% 3.24% 0.22% 0.98% 1.33% 5.75%

5.69% 14.40% 7.56% 1.81% 3.26% 5.33% 15.19%

Little Silver Boro Livingston Township

6,170 27,391

97.15% 82.64%

0.31% 1.20%

0.16% 0.05%

1.52% 14.55%

0.66% 0.87%

0.19% 0.69%

1.31% 2.54%

Loch Arbour Village Lodi Boro Logan Township

280 23,971 6,032

95.00% 78.16% 82.00%

2.14% 3.55% 13.51%

0.00% 0.17% 0.13%

0.71% 8.89% 1.79%

1.79% 2.97% 1.36%

0.36% 6.25% 1.21%

0.71% 17.98% 2.74%

Long Beach Township Long Branch City Long Hill Township Longport Boro

3,329 31,340 8,777 1,054

98.53% 68.03% 92.75% 98.58%

0.24% 18.66% 0.39% 0.09%

0.03% 0.36% 0.17% 0.00%

0.36% 1.68% 4.82% 1.14%

0.51% 4.19% 1.31% 0.19%

0.33% 7.08% 0.56% 0.00%

2.10% 20.67% 3.45% 0.47%

Lopatcong Township Lower Alloways Creek Township Lower Township Lumberton Township

5,765 1,851 22,945 10,461

96.27% 96.38% 96.26% 78.31%

1.13% 2.16% 1.39% 13.75%

0.07% 0.11% 0.23% 0.23%

1.63% 0.65% 0.55% 3.40%

0.42% 0.54% 0.92% 2.41%

0.49% 0.16% 0.65% 1.90%

1.99% 0.49% 1.88% 5.15%

Lyndhurst Township Madison Boro Magnolia Boro Mahwah Township Manalapan Township

19,383 16,530 4,409 24,062 33,423

89.94% 89.69% 77.00% 87.93% 91.81%

0.61% 3.00% 17.80% 2.16% 1.99%

0.05% 0.13% 0.23% 0.70% 0.03%

5.40% 4.00% 0.95% 6.34% 4.54%

1.95% 1.63% 2.47% 1.38% 1.10%

2.05% 1.55% 1.54% 1.50% 0.53%

9.00% 5.97% 3.86% 4.27% 3.54%

Jamesburg Boro Jefferson Township Jersey City Keansburg Boro Kearny Town

Lavallete Boro Lawnside Boro Lawrence Township, Cumberland Lawrence Township, Mercer Lebanon Boro Lebanon Township Leonia Boro Liberty Township

Other

Hispanic

(continued)

134

census

New Jersey Population and Ethnicity, U.S. Census 2000 (continued) Town

Total

White

Black

Native American

Asian

Multiracial

Manasquan Boro Manchester Township Mannington Township

6,310 38,928 1,559

97.89% 94.34% 75.63%

0.41% 3.06% 20.91%

0.11% 0.12% 0.51%

0.44% 0.89% 0.38%

0.67% 0.91% 0.83%

0.48% 0.69% 1.73%

4.48% 2.63% 3.34%

Mansfield Township, Burlington Mansfield Township, Warren Mantoloking Boro Mantua Township Manville Boro Maple Shade Township

5,090 6,653 423 14,217 10,343 19,079

95.42% 90.91% 97.64% 95.81% 95.99% 83.17%

1.91% 4.51% 1.65% 2.07% 0.45% 7.21%

0.18% 0.24% 0.00% 0.20% 0.07% 0.16%

1.53% 1.22% 0.47% 0.86% 1.34% 6.14%

0.75% 1.53% 0.00% 0.78% 1.01% 1.62%

0.22% 1.59% 0.24% 0.28% 1.14% 1.69%

1.83% 4.37% 0.71% 1.26% 5.40% 4.46%

Maplewood Township Margate City Marlboro Township Matawan Boro Maurice River Township

23,868 8,193 36,398 8,910 6,928

58.78% 95.73% 83.76% 82.35% 58.63%

32.63% 0.87% 2.07% 6.53% 32.98%

0.13% 0.02% 0.05% 0.02% 0.78%

2.89% 1.64% 12.68% 8.01% 0.29%

4.01% 0.83% 0.97% 1.85% 2.89%

1.56% 0.92% 0.47% 1.23% 4.43%

5.23% 2.71% 2.89% 6.45% 9.15%

Maywood Boro Medford Township Medford Lakes Boro Mendham Boro Mendham Township

9,523 22,253 4,173 5,097 5,400

84.57% 96.74% 98.32% 97.14% 95.91%

2.79% 0.76% 0.43% 0.45% 0.93%

0.07% 0.12% 0.12% 0.02% 0.09%

7.17% 1.51% 0.48% 1.47% 2.02%

2.08% 0.59% 0.55% 0.65% 0.70%

3.31% 0.28% 0.10% 0.27% 0.35%

11.71% 1.13% 0.98% 2.45% 1.52%

Merchantville Boro Metuchen Boro Middlesex Boro

3,801 12,840 13,717

85.90% 84.38% 87.26%

7.42% 5.30% 3.36%

0.29% 0.10% 0.13%

2.10% 7.23% 4.18%

1.45% 1.86% 1.86%

2.84% 1.12% 3.21%

5.47% 3.96% 9.00%

Middletown Township Middle Township Midland Park Boro Milford Boro Millburn Township

66,327 16,405 6,947 1,195 19,765

94.71% 85.21% 95.81% 97.57% 88.91%

1.21% 10.86% 0.43% 0.17% 1.10%

0.07% 0.23% 0.06% 0.17% 0.05%

2.61% 1.46% 2.23% 0.75% 8.43%

0.86% 1.58% 0.71% 1.26% 1.08%

0.53% 0.66% 0.76% 0.08% 0.43%

3.41% 2.12% 3.69% 2.01% 2.04%

Millstone Boro Millstone Township Milltown Boro

410 8,970 7,000

97.56% 91.83% 93.86%

0.98% 3.05% 0.76%

0.00% 0.10% 0.16%

0.98% 3.47% 3.07%

0.49% 0.94% 1.00%

0.00% 0.61% 1.16%

3.17% 3.51% 3.73%

Millville City Mine Hill Township

26,847 3,679

76.13% 90.41%

14.99% 3.42%

0.52% 0.11%

0.83% 2.58%

2.37% 1.69%

5.16% 1.79%

11.17% 8.67%

Monmouth Beach Boro Monroe Township, Gloucester Monroe Township, Middlesex

3,595 28,967 27,999

97.66% 84.83% 93.31%

0.53% 11.15% 2.93%

0.00% 0.25% 0.06%

0.86% 1.26% 2.43%

0.61% 1.52% 0.60%

0.33% 0.99% 0.68%

1.89% 2.71% 2.38%

Montague Township Montclair Township Montgomery Township

3,412 38,977 17,481

95.25% 59.77% 84.55%

1.79% 32.06% 2.07%

0.18% 0.19% 0.09%

0.67% 3.19% 11.52%

1.03% 3.03% 1.32%

1.08% 1.77% 0.46%

3.28% 5.12% 2.21%

Montvale Boro Montville Township Moonachie Boro Moorestown Township Morris Plains Boro Morristown Town Morris Township

7,034 20,839 2,754 19,017 5,236 18,544 21,796

92.79% 84.95% 85.66% 89.19% 92.91% 67.15% 88.63%

0.44% 0.93% 0.94% 5.69% 1.34% 16.95% 5.46%

0.09% 0.04% 0.11% 0.16% 0.06% 0.22% 0.15%

5.36% 12.59% 6.64% 3.27% 4.41% 3.84% 3.91%

0.70% 1.14% 3.70% 1.26% 0.88% 3.36% 0.95%

0.63% 0.36% 2.94% 0.43% 0.40% 8.48% 0.91%

3.09% 2.55% 12.67% 1.75% 2.69% 27.15% 3.81%

4,256 6,602

93.05% 95.09%

0.38% 0.94%

0.00% 0.09%

5.24% 2.86%

0.82% 0.74%

0.52% 0.27%

1.69% 3.01%

Mount Arlington Boro Mount Ephraim Boro Mount Holly Township

4,663 4,495 10,728

91.42% 97.51% 68.68%

1.82% 0.40% 21.57%

0.19% 0.07% 0.42%

3.86% 0.65% 1.44%

1.44% 0.73% 3.12%

1.27% 0.65% 4.77%

4.55% 1.98% 8.78%

Mount Laurel Township Mount Olive Township Mullica Township National Park Boro

40,221 24,193 5,912 3,205

87.10% 86.69% 80.58% 98.35%

6.92% 3.79% 6.28% 0.09%

0.09% 0.17% 0.27% 0.25%

3.83% 6.01% 0.95% 0.28%

1.41% 1.81% 3.32% 0.50%

0.64% 1.53% 8.61% 0.53%

2.24% 5.97% 16.49% 1.44%

5,218 27,690 2,580 273,546

83.38% 55.92% 94.30% 26.52%

9.52% 38.16% 1.20% 53.46%

0.23% 0.17% 0.04% 0.37%

2.72% 1.22% 1.67% 1.24%

2.03% 2.56% 1.36% 4.36%

2.11% 1.98% 1.43% 14.05%

5.31% 5.55% 7.13% 29.47%

48,573 1,616 9,744 16,400 11,907

48.79% 95.11% 64.13% 78.59% 89.77