Tajik

Languages of the World/Materials

442

Tajik

Shinji ldo

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Contents Introduction.................................................................................................................. 1 0.1. Standard Tajik ............................................................................................................................. 1 0.2. Language contact......................................................................................................................... 1 0.3. Speakers....................................................................................................................................... 2 0.4. ' Tajik' .......................................................................................................................................... 3 0.5. Orthographical changes ............................................................................................................... 4 0.6. Pre-Soviet Tajik in written records .............................................................................................. 6 0.7. Transliteration............................................ .................................................................................. 7 0.8. Notes on the text .......................................................................................................................... 9

0.9. Acknowledgements ..................................................................................................................... 9

l. Phonetics and Phonology ....................................................................................... 11 1.1. Vowels ....................................................................................................................................... 11 1.2. Consonants . .............. ......................... ... .................. .... ...................... ...... .. ........................ ......... 13 1.3. Phonemes in speech ................................................................................................................... 14 1.4. SyUable sttucture ....................................................................................................................... 14

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1.5. Word stress ................................................................................................................................ 14 1.5.1. Stress-repeUent morphemes ................................................................................................ 14 1.5.2. Stress-attracting morphemes ............................................................................................... 15 1.5.3. Otherissues......................................................................................................................... 16

2. Morphology ..................................... ...................................................................... 17 2.1. Nominal morphology................................................................................................................. 17 2.1.1. Nouns .................................................................................................................................. 17

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2.1.1.1. Number ........................................................................................................................ 17 2.1 .1.2. Gender.......................................................................................................................... 21 2.1.1.3. Definiteness.................................................................................................................. 22 2.1.1.4. Case.............................................................................................................................. 25 2.1.1.5. Possession .................................................................................................................... 26 2.1.2. Pronouns ............................................................................................................................. 27 2.1.2.1. Personal pronouns ............................................ ............................................................ 28 2.1.2.2. Honorific expressions .................................................................................................. 29 2.1.2.3. Demonstratives ............................................................................................................ 30 2.1.2.4. Reflexives .................................................................................................................... 31

2.1.2.5. Interrogative pronouns and question words ................................................................. 32 2.1.2.6. Other pronouns............................................................................................................. 33 2.1.3. Numerals ............................................................................................................................. 34 2.1.3.1. Cardinal numbers ......................................................................................................... 34 2.1.3.2. Fractions....................................................................................................................... 35 2.1.3.3. Ordinal numbers........................................................................................................... 36 2.1.3.4. Classifiers..................................................................................................................... 37 2.1.3.5. Arithmetic vocabularly ................................................................................................ 37 2.1.4. Adjectives ........................................................................................................................... 38 2.1.4.1. General remarla ........................................................................................................... 38 2.1.4.2. Comparison .................................................................................................................. 39 2.1.4.3. Intensification and disintensification ........................................................................... 40 2.1.4.4. Adverbs ........................................................................................................................ 41 2.2. Verbal moipho1ogy .................................................................................................................... 42 2.2.1. Past and present sterns ........................................................................................................ 42 2.2.2. Person and number ............................................................................................................. 45 2.2.3. Non-finite forms ................................................................................................................. 46 2.2.4. Copularverbs ...................................................................................................................... 49 2.2.5. Aspects ................................................................................................................................ 52 2.2.6. Modality.............................................................................................................................. 52 2.2.7. Verb Paradigms .................................................................................................................. 53 2.2. 7.1. Simple past form .......................................................................................................... 53 2.2.7.2. Past imperfective form ................................................................................................. 54 2.2.7.3. Past perfect form .......................................................................................................... 54 2.2.7.4. Past progressive form ................................................................................................... 55 2.2.7.5. Present progressive form .............................................................................................. 56 2.2.7.6. Present imperfective form ............................................................................................ 57 2.2.7.7. Futureform .................................................................................................................. 58 2.2.8. Principal mood categories................................................................................................... 58 2.2.8.1. Inferential ..................................................................................................................... 58 2.2.8.1.1. Inferential past form .............................................................................................. 59 2.2.8.1.2. Inferential past imperfective form ......................................................................... 60 2.2.8.1.3. Inferential past perfect form .................................................................................. 60 2.2.8.1.4. Inferential past progressive form........................................................................... 61 2.2.8.2. Imperative and optative................................................................................................ 61 2.2.8.3. Conditional................................................................................................................... 62 2.2.8.4. Speculative ................................................................................................................... 63

2.2.8.5. Intentional .................................................................................................................... 65 2.2.9. Participles as predicates ...................................................................................................... 65 2.2.10. Causative voice ................................................................................................................. 67 2.2.11. Passive voice ..................................................................................................................... 67 2.2.12. Negation............................................................................................................................ 68 2.2.13. Auxiliary verbs ................................................................................................................. 69 2.2.13.1. Modals........................................................................................................................ 69 2.2.13.2. Other auxiliaries ............................................................................... " ........................ 70 2.3. Adpositions................................................................................................................................ 71 2.4. Word formation ......................................................................................................................... 72 2.4.1. Noun formation ................................................................................................................... 73 2.4.2. Verb formation.................................................................................................................... 74 2.4.2.1. Prefixes ........................................................................................................................ 74 2.4.2.2. SuffiXeS ........................................................................................................................ 76 2.4.2.3. Transitivization ............................................................................................................ 76 2.4.2.4. Compounding............................................................................................................... 76 2.4.3. Adjective formation ............................................................................................................ 77 2.4.4. Adverb formation ................................................................................................................ 78

3. Syntax ................................................................................................................... 79 3.1. Copular and verbal sentences .................................................................................................... 79 3.2. Coordination .............................................................................................................................. 80 3.2.1. AND ..................................................................................................................................... 80 3.2.2. OR........................................................................................................................................ 80 3.2.3. BUT...................................................................................................................................... 81 3.2.4. Other conjunctions .............................................................................................................. 81 3.3. Subordination ............................................................................................................................ 81 3.3.1 . Relative clauses .................................................................................................................. 81 3.3.2. Participial modifiers ............................................................................................................ 82 3.3.3. Adverbial clauses ................................................................................................................ 85 3.3.4. Converb construction .......................................................................................................... 85

4. Sample texts .......................................................................................................... 87

::~: ::;~:i:l::~:~;;·;:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : :~ 4.3. Exceipt from a news report (2003) ............................................................................................ 88

5. Appendices ............................................................................................................ 89 5.1. Abbreviations .......:.................................................................................................................... 89

Introduction

5.2. Transliteration............................................................................................................................ 89

References .................................................................................................................. 91 Index .......................................................................................................................... 99

0.1. Staodard Tajik Tajik is a South-West Iranian language that is genetically closely related to such major languages as Persian and Dari. In the beginning of the twentieth century, Tajik was considered by a number of writers and researchers to be a variety of Persian (Halimov 1974: 30-31, Oafforov 1979: 33). The popularity of this conception ofTajik as a (less prestigious) variety of Persian was such that, during the period in which Tajik intellectuals were trying to establish Tajik as a language separate from Persian, Sadriddin Ayni, who was a prominent intellectual and educator, had to make a statement that Tajik was not a bastardized dialect ofPersian. 1 The issue of whether Tajik and Persian are to be considered two dialects of a single language or two discrete languages2 has political sides to it (see Perry 1996) with which I am not concerned in this book. The language that this book describes is modem literary Tajik which is referred to in the Soviet linguistic literature of Tajik typically as 386oHH a,na6HH X03HpaH 3 TO'I;HK, although I often mention features of the colloquial language. 0.2. l.aoguage contact Tajik has been influenced lexically, morphologically, and syntactically by Uzbek, with the speakers of which Tajik speakers have been in intense contact for centuries.4 According to Tajik historian Gafurov (1952: 99-110 cited in Tursunov et al. 1995: 37-38), the close relationship between Uzbeks and Tajiks dates back to the sixth century. Arabic influence is also highly conspicuous in Tajik, as it is in Persian.s Tajik has also been under strong Russian

2

In his article ..,S....b J . 6a'I8-IS)

6a'l&-r08

child-pi 'children'

child-pi 'children'

Singular

tapacp

Broken pl.

..rpocp

Tajikpl.

~IS>

'side, direction' 'sides; environment' side-pi 'sides'

The plural suffix -11110, which originates in northern dialects, is used with proper nouns and kinship terms. It is used with the name of a person to refer to the family or a group of people of which the person is a member.

Words in the Arabic broken plural may be considered singular and be redundantly pluralized with the Arabic sound feminine plural suffix -OT or/and with the Tajik suffix -IS>. This practice is particularly frequent in the colloquial register.

xa6ap '(piece of) news, information'

Cacpap-BBO Safar-pl 'the family of Safar' or 'the group (e.g. staff) to which Safar belongs'

Broken pl.

ax6op

Double pl.

ax6op-OT(-IS>)

'news, information' 'news, information'

~ll,ltOB-BBO

Ahmadov-pl 'the Ahmadovs' In the colloquial language, persons.

-11110

is also used to present individuals as members of a set of

It should be noted that many nouns in the Arabic plural have acquired the status of singular nouns with collective meaning, which often justifies apparently redundant pluralization of nouns in the Arabic plural. T8IIDCHJI

Oibc,Jo,

0JIHM

WBX-IS>

secret-pi 'secrets'

person-pi 'individuals, persons; people'

'individual, person'

T8IIDCHJI-OT

Double pl.

TaiiDCHJI-~IS>

'organization' 'organizations'

Arabic broken plural marking coexists with Tajik native plural marking in some words. Singular

Arabic pl.

This is the case also with a small number of Tajik nouns to which Arabic pluralization is applied. Arabic -OT (which has the variations -~ and -1101' in Tajik) is suffixed not only to Arabic loan words, but also to a limited number ofTajik words.

'people; individuals, persons'

37

There appears to be a trend towards more frequent use of Arabic broken plurals such as YJIYII (plural of HJDof 'science'), E)'IY6 (plural of JCHT06 'book'), 111)'11110 (plural of moHp 'poet') in the Tajik writing of today, particularly in the literary register (Ahmedova: p.c.).

20 Tajik JJ.ex/JJ.ex;J. 'village' JJ.eX:-ot 'countryside'

Morphology 21 ca638 'verdure, green grass' ca63a-110r 'vegetables'

There are a few instances where Arabic broken plural marking is applied to Tajik words, e.g. ~ 'expert, master' and ~ These are found in poetic or archaic style and are considered to be outside the norm of modern literary Tajik - 8CODIUII is not registered as an entry even in comprehensive Tajik dictionaries (e.g. Rahimi and Uspenskaya 1954). The use of the Arabic (masculine accusative/genitive) plural suffix -1111 is also obsolete and is confined to a few archaic or poetic words. MYcoci>HJrRB

M}'IIJIJJHM·RB

visitor-pi 'visitors'

teacher-pi 'teachers'

The use of the Arabic dual marker -dB is confined to the register of poetry/belles-lettres and is replaced by -x,o in other registers. Tap~

side-dual 'two sides/parties'

ntpaq,..x,o side-pi 'sides'

J(,8BC-da

1(,8110-X,O

bracket-dual 'pair of brackets'

bracket-pi 'brackets'

II~ JJ.acJ!rap-](.0-R five notebook-pl-iz 'five thick notebooks'

Feminine

five notebook 'five notebooks'

thick

moRp 'male poet' moRpa 'female poet'

TaJia6a 'school-boy' romr6a 'school-girl'

Some native Taji.k (proper) nouns have adopted the Arabic feminine suffix -a.

(Ahmedova 2004)

Numerals precede nouns in their 'singular' forms to specify the numerical values of nouns. (The numerical singularity of the referent of a noun can be denoted by the co-occurrence of the noun witho: 'one' or the indefinite suffix -e, (see §2.1.1.3).) ~.llacllntp

rac

2.1.1.2. Geuder Tajik does not have grammatical gender, but the natural gender distinction in Arabic is retained in some loan words denoting professions/occupations.

Masculine

J.ll$ap notebook '(a) notebook(s)'

0:

However, one may encounter exceptional cases where this is not the case, e.g. cc 6apoJJ.apoa (three brother-pi) 'three brothers' (Att.Ha). There are also a small number of words, such as ~ (lit 'seven brothers') 'Ursa Major', in which old pluralization is fossilized. Numerically qualified nouns can also be pluralized if they take a modifier in the izafet construction (Ahmedova 2004).

Masculine

The 'singular' form of the Tajik noun, much like that of the Turkish noun (Lewis 1967: 26), denotes I) a category or 2) an individual member of that category and is neutral in terms of number. Hence the plural interpretation 'apples' of cc6 '(an) apple(s)' in the example below. TaHX,o JJ.e:U.OR-B.llap 6o30p cc6 we-cllypYn·8RJ.I. market apple imp-sold-3pl only peasant-pi in 'Only peasants were selling apples in the market'

rarro6 one book 'alone book'

rarro6 book '(a) book(s)'

Feminine

'J'·po Bait to I s/he book-iz self-obj 's/he showed her/his book to me'

a

oa-a wau

acr

cop.3sg from that-iz I '(it) belongs to me' /'(it) is mine'

was-lsg

rycpy-au.zt I'J'·B MaH HH·po self-iz I this-obj 'I did it myselr

Kllp.zt-aw

did-1sg

32 Tajik ~·am

Morphology 33

we--o--u

self-3sg imp-com~3sg 's/he (herself7himself) comes', 's/he comes alone (with nobody else)'

Kd can also be pluralized, but its pluralized form ab,o is not a question word but an adverb which means 'very long time ago'.~. which is exemplified below, consists of"'IIIIIA and the suffix -yw (§ 2.1.3.4).50

In the writings of Sadriddin Ayni, the reflexive pronoun often co-occurs with the plural suffix -xp, to which the third person plural pronominal clitic is suffixed: xy,._x,o.moa 'themselves'. The occurrence of pluralized ~ with a pronominal clitic is widely observed in the north-western dialects, particularly in Bukbara and Samarqand (Ma"sumi 1959: 191). A comprehensive grammar (Rustamov and 6afforov 1985: 163) lists X)?t xcm, and umn.a as reflexives, but the last two of these have limited currency and are used mainly in literature, and particularly in poetry.

:um-po

6a

.ll8CT·H

.lzyiiiM8H

self--obj to hand·iz enemy 'he yielded himself to the enemies'

DJYMO .!lap CHH

6~-6yrys

'whole, all, entire'

'big' 'clean' 'correct'

> Dllllll-KMOH ' very big' > 10111Ja-TOJa 'very clean'

>

~-,~~ypycr

'very correct'

An adjective is disintensified by suffixation of "'1'06, the present stem of the verb "l'06Iwur 'to shine; to gleam', or the diminutive suffix -'ilL "'1'06 is used with adjectives expressing colours

and human qualities while

-'Ill

is used exclusively with colour terms. "'1'06 and in which case...,. precedes "'1'06.

-'Ill

may be

u..~ in conjunction with each other,

JlymaH6e DOOB-'l'lpBB maxp-H To'lHICHCTOH acT Dushanbe big-spr city-iz Tajikistan cop.Jsg 'Dushanbe is the largest city ofTajikstan' The nominal use of superlative adjectives is common due to the wide currency of the 'adjective-spr-iz noun(-pl)' construction.

'very blue'

Full reduplication of adjectives is also possible, e.g. DJIOH-DOOB 'very big', .JUIPOG-.-po9 'very long; very tall'. A somewhat less standard method of (partial) reduplication involves the use of .ss

MO

important-spr duty-iz we 'the most important duty of ours'

a6-Ka6y.z~

If the coda of the syllable is a dental plosive, w is used instead of /m>.

TOJa

duty-iz important-spr-iz we 'the most important duty of ours'

>

'blue'

Me-J~Hx.-IIHJl

imp-give-Jpl

'very yellow' 'very black'

'yellow' 'black'

3ax.J1P 'yellow (complexion)'

>

3apA

> 3ap.IX'ill

'yellow'

3ax.&p'lll

> 3ap.aro6 > 3apAVI'06

'yellowish' 'yellowish' 'yellowish' 'yellowish'

2.1.4.4. Advabs There are many lexical items, particularly adjectives, that are used adverbially, but adverbs that are used exclusively as adverbs are small in number. They include adverbs derived by the suffix -(I)IB such as TUIIIIIIIIII 'approximately' (from the noun TaXMBB 'conjecture'), certain reduplicated words such as ~lQICTll 'slowly' (from the adjective/adverb CD;BCTa 'slow; slowly'), and adverbs proper, i.e. underived adverbs, such as~ 'yet, still', u:aya 'now', and x.auema 'always'. See §2.4.4 for more details on adverb formation. S4

ss

In the writing ofMupmaKap cited in Rustamov and Gafforov (1985: 139), this intensified adjective appears as au-a6)?l, reflecting the regressive devoicing of lb/ by the initiallk/ of~Intensification of adjectives by partial reduplication is widely used also in Turkic languages. Compare, for example, Uzbek qizil' red' > qip-qizi/'very red' and to'g'ri' cnrrect' > to'pps-to'g'ri ' very correct' with these Tajik examples.

42 Tajik

Morphology 43

Past stem

......,Aep owa.ttau intentionally late come.inf 'to be late on purpose' --liJYMYP.A8H one by one count.inf 'to count one by one' ~ '1;8.1106 Ra-N&.ll8•8CT yet answer neg-come.ptpl-be.3sg 'the answer has not come yet'

Adjectives (except those with -'J'IIPIIII) can be used as adverbs. Bail: BD ONa,ll s/he new came.3sg 's/he has just come'

XOR,A8R XYJl.A8H ryctmm pactmm

p.

'to read' 'to eat, to drink' 'to say' 'to go'

xo~­

xyp.--

ry~

Present stems are derived from infuritive forms not as regularly as past stems are, because unlike past stems, whose final sounds wand m share an etymology,S6 present stems reflect complex verbal morphology that existed (and was subsequently obscured by phonetic/phonological assimilation) in the history of the Iranian languages. However, a certain degree of regularity that has resulted from this complex morphology is identifiable in a number of present verb stems, as can be seen in the chart below (based on R.astorgueva and Kerimova 1964: 8). For example, both IDJIIIOC- HpRCT,llCX,-, ma.HRX.K)'Dio4_>apwory(l)mY(I)-

KJ6py6paamaa-

6ot-

Both w and m originate from the old participial ending -18 (Rastorgueva and Kerimova 1964:8).

44 Tajik

Morphology 45 'to measure' 'to tie' 'to revolve'

~-

Present stem

68BJIII'l!M-

Group2

Tajik verbs can be classified into two groups according to the manner in which the present and past stems differ from each other. I base the following classification of Tajik verbs on Rustamov and Gafforov (1985: 173-174). Let us begin with looking at the first group ofTajik verbs. This group consists of verbs whose past stems are present stems with additional sounds, i.e., the past stems of verbs in the first group are differentiated from their present counterparts by the presence of some additional sounds. Several examples where such additional sounds are bold-faced are shown below.

Group 1

NYPABH A8BR.Il8H

6o4>Tau HCTOABH

'to die' 'to run' 'to weave' 'to stand'

Present stem MYPAa&-

Past stem NYPA· .QilBJIA-

6ocP-

6oqrr-

HCT•

KC'J'OA·

COXTaH ryqmm pa4rraH .!1H.I(8H

'to read' 'to eat/drink' 'to reach' 'to bloom' 'to kill' K)'DlT8B IDHKOIPT8K 'to split' 'to fall' acln'oABH 'to put' BHX.OABH cilapBCTOA8H 'to send' 'to know' AOHHCTaH HKI"8pHCT8H 'to look/glance' XOR.Il8H xypABH paCHA8H IDYJCYcln"8H

Present stem XOB· pacmyxycp-

Past stem XOBA· xypApaCJIIAmyxyctrr-

KyDJ-

K)'llll'-

xyP-

IDHKOIP-

IDHKoclrr-

actn-

~-

BHX.-, ae~cil&pHCT• AOB·

HBX.O.Acllapu~-

HHI'8p-

AOHIICTHKI"8piiCT-

Unlike verbs in the fll'St group, verbs in the second group have past stems that are not present stems to which certain sounds are attached. Below are some examples of verbs in the second group.

C03-

IJ(A)paa6HR-

Past stem COXT· ryctrrpacln'.ztH.I(-

Rustamov and Gafforov summarize the types of discrepancy that are observed between past and present stems of verbs in the second group - the discrepancy derives from 1) alternation of the consonants ' and x, 2) consonant alteTnatioo, 3) vowel alternation, 4) combination of vowel and consonant alternations, and 5) historically distinct stems used for a single verb. Examples representing these different types of discrepancy are shown below (taken from Rustamov and Gafforov 1985: 173-174). Present stem Type 1

COXTaH nyxT8H

AYxTaH As can be seen in the table below, the additional sounds can be divided into several types, based on the sounds that they comprise. A few of the additional sounds, namely -A and -&Jt are suffixes that are productive in Modern Tajik in deriving past stems from foreign nouns, Uzbek verb stems, etc. (see §2.4.2.2).

'to build' 'to say' 'to go' 'to see'

Type2

68CT8B ry38lllT8B

AODJT8H

Pacln'BH Type3 Type4

TypeS

XOCTaH 6ypASH B8MYA8B 6y1l8H KapABH ryqmm myABH AOABH AR.Il8H 0Wli,A8H

'to build' 'to cook' ' to sew' ' to tie' 'to pass' 'to have' 'to go' 'to want' 'to carry' 'to seem' 'to be/exist' ' to do' 'to say' 'to become' 'to give' 'to see' 'to come'

C03-

n83$-

Past stem COXT· nyXT-

68R.Il-

pYxT· 6aCT-

ry38p-

ry38IIJT·

AOppaa-

AOIDTpacln'XOCT· 6ypA-

xo~-

6apRaMo(it)6om1coc (literary Taji.k. Jllltta acro...-cr) in the Samarqand dialect, pa4>ca (literary Tajik Jllltta acro-) in the Baysun dialect, and pact>coamcr (literary Tajik petra ~) in the 58 Filmandar and Kosataro! dialects (Rastorgueva 1964:88-90, 95-97, E!niyozov 1979:28, 30). Participles are used extensively in expressing aspect, which will be explained in the remaining part of this section.59 The perfective gerund (e.g. up.-) and the progressive gerund in -a~ (e.g. 1a1p.111a IIC'l'O,A'a) are formally identical with, but syntactically distinct from, the literary past participle (e.g. ...,_) and the progressive participle in -&IIC'l'O,A'a (e.g. ...,_ IICI'O,IIa), respectively. See §3.3.2 and §3.3.4.

The future participle consists of the infinitive and -a, i.e. the past stem to which -a1 is suffixed.

Past stem Future participle

xyp.Aaa 'to eat/drink' XyP.AXyPAUII

,AapoM&Jl8H 'to enter' .AapoMa,n.AapoMII,ItaB8

Finally, the progressive participle is a sequence of the perfective gerundive form of the main verb and the past participle of the auxiliary verb 11C10,JUU1 'to stand', e.g. Jall)ka IICl'Ok& 1

2.2.4. CopuJar wrbs The inflected forms of the copula (68R.llam xa6apll) 1er are usually suffixed to the complement.

llllpka JICI'O,It-G1I.

Infinitive Past stem Progressive participle

Kap.Aaa Kap.A-

'to do'

XOH.A&H XOH.A•

'to read'

Kap,Aa~ /

XOH.A& IIC'l'O,A'a I

KapAa~

XOH.A& IIC'IOf8l1t

This form, which is essentially two juxtaposed non-finite forms, is considered in this book to be a single participle. This is partly because IICI'O.¥B. unlike many other auxiliary verl>s (§2.2. 13.2), has been grammaticalized and has become a bound morpheme in a large number of dialects, including the dialects on which standard Tajik is based. Hero~ as an auxiliary

sa A yo1111g Bukharan informant educated in U:zbek was oot aware of the existence of the verb 8CTO,II8II in XOII,IIIIl ~ (§2.2.7.5) aod DpJUl ~ which in Bulc.harao Tajik have the forms of xoJW[D'I'ac and u(p)A&IIITIU'H, respectively. Asked what verb could be in them, be answered 11111111r111 'to sit', which seems to be used in place of the auxiliuy IICIO,IUIII in a number of dialects including Bukharan Tajik:. ~9 The system of aspects and moods ofTajik presented in this book is based on my analysis, which is not in full compliance with that of existing grammars.

50 Tajik

lsg 2sg 3sg lpl 2pl 3pl

Morphology 51

...

-(I)IM

-cr,IICT

~

~

-(1}1-..

' lam'

'you are' 'she/he/it is' 'weare' 'you are' 'they are'

Below are examples of the copula with various complements (noun phrases, an adjective phrase, and a prepositional phrase).

y

cty,llelll'-UI student-cop.lsg 'I am a student'

Xypc8H.Il li:x ccp,3sg slbe joyful 'slhe is joyful'

cty.lleRT-8 you student-cop.2sg 'you are a student'

011)(0

M8H I

ty

.llap CHB~ class-cop.Jpl they in 'they are in the classroom•

The copula in the third person singular is ICI', which is written ~arately ftam the ~~g word (complement). Acr usually occurs in the form of-crafter~>. , or tp, 6'.g.l1yJt(;f. wr (liyxopo + aCT), IDICl' (Kii + aCT), and ycr (Y + aCT), though this is not an absolute rule. The occurrence of ICI' and -cr is not obligatory in colloquial Tajik (§3.1), as can be seen in such cases ~ HB ICB'l'06 (IICT) 'this is a book' and the use of ac instead of BCCT (see below). The copula ts attached to personal pronouns in the same way that it is attached to other (predicate) complements.60 lsg

M8R81

2sg 3sg 1pl 2pl 3pl

tyl

Bali ICI', ycr

MOCM myMQCA

OHX,OIB,l{ or OHX,O~

'(smt/smo) is me' '(smt/smo) is you' '(smt/smo) is her/him' '(smt/smo) are us' '(smt/smo) are you' '(smt/smo) are them'

ty-11, M8H HCTO,Ila-aCT py 6a py-H KH Arap HB stand.ptpl-be.3sg you-cop.2sg I this that face-to-face-iz If (A3Ca.vapxarm6aGyxopo2003) ty-A. XJIM nac HH then this also you-cop.2sg 'If this (person) standing before me is you, this (person in the portrait) is also you.' (A painter replying to a model suspecting the portrayed person to be not her.)

There are two different verbs for ' to be', namely ~ 'to be/exist', which does not have an infinitive form and is used only in the present tense, and~ 'to be/exist'. The inflection of ~ and its negative form are shown in the table below. In northern dialects, ~ may also be used for the second person plural. The verb also has a cliticized form, namely (-)leT. In this book, I distinguish the cliticized verb used as an auxiliary with non-finite forms of verbs (e.g. §2.2.7.5, 2.2.8. 1) from the copula ICI'. Accordingly, I gloss (-)leT as ' be' and ICI' as 'cop'. The inflection of(-)acr, which is mostly identical with that of the copula, is shown in the fourth column of the table.

lsg 2sg 3sg 1pl 2pl 3pl

This usc of the copula may be easily understood by 8lllllogy with equivalent constructions in Uzbelt and 1\u'kish: Uzbek mt:IJJilan 'is me/1', sensan 'is you', Turkish seosin ' is you', biziz 'are us/we', etc.

~ ~ ~

~

~

cty,lleHT M8H student I 'I am a student'

'I am/exist' 'you are/exist' 'she/he/it is/exists' 'we are/exist' 'you are/exist' ' they are/exist'

Cliticized form -(I)au

Negative form

(-)leT, -cr

BCICT

~

aecreu

~

IICCl'CA

-{1-

~

-·

&ecTIIII

accrii

li:,IC'l'IIM

be.I sg

nymalb.loH &ecTIIII neg.be.lsg remorseful 'I am not remorseful' ,llap Mara:JRH Me88 ~ fruit be.3sg store in 'there is fruit in the store'

(Rastorgueva 1992:61)

Attention must be paid to the cliticized verb (-)lcr occurring after a non-finite form of a verb because its form varies after a vowel, e.g. pa4n'aR1liCI' or pacPtaHHCT (pa4rramt + (-)aCT), COXT88CT (COXTa +(·)aCT), XOH,Il8HifliB,Q or XOH,Il8H~ (XOH,IlaRft + -(li)8H.Il), and XOH,IliiiiHDI or XOH.Iliii!HDI (xolf.ll8Jdl + -(li)aM). ~. which, unlike ~. has both a past stem, ~. and a present stem, 6om-, is the other verb meaning 'to be'. Cty.lleHT 6y;1tG.t was-1sg student 'I was a student'

M8H

ety,lleHT aa-6y~-IM neg-was-lsg student 'I was not a student'

M8H 60

li:,IC'l'IIM

52 Tajik

Morphology 53

U8,llap-8M M)'81VIHN MOoOOm~

22.7. Verb Pwadigms The verb paradigms presented here reflect the situation in literary Tajik. They do not represent colloquial (northern) Tajik verb paradigms, Soviet studies on which are summarized in Soper (1996: Section 2.2.3). The verb used in verb paradigms in this section is, unless noted otherwise, J::IIIWIII 'to do •.

imp-be·3sg father-lsg teacher 'my father is a teacher' U8Jl8p-8M M)'8JIJIHW ~

father-lsg teacher neg-imp-be-3sg 'my father is not a teacher' The archaic~ may be used in poetry in place (imp-be-3sg).

of~

(be-3sg)

and~

2.2.5. Alpects Tajik has aspectual oppositions between PERFECT (which is called 'anterior' in some works) PERFECITVI!, IMPERFECITVI! (which has HABITUAL as one of its subdivisions) and PROGRESSIVE. Some of these aspects are morphologically more readily identifiable than others. For example, the imperfective aspect is marked by the prefix ~. while the progressive aspect is indicated by the auxiliary verb BC1'0AUI 'to stand'. The working definitions of these aspects, which are presented below, are adopted with few modifications from Bybee et al. (1994). The PERFECT aspect expresses a situation that "occurs prior to a reference time and is relevant to the situation in the reference time" (Bybee et al. 1994: 54). The PERFECITVI! aspect is used for "narrating sequences of discrete events in which the situation is reported for its own sake, independent of its relevance to other situations" (Hopper 1982 cited in Bybee et al. 1994: 54). (Note that the perfective aspect is distinct from the perfect aspect.) The IMPERFECITVI! signals a situation that may be viewed "as in progress at a particular reference point, either in the past or present, or one viewed as characteristic of a period of time that includes the reference time, that is, a habitual situation" (Bybee et al. 1994: 125-126). The HABITUAL aspect, which is a subtype of the imperfective aspect, is used to express a situation "characteristic of an extended period of time, so extended in fact that the situation referred to is viewed not as an incidental property of the moment, but precisely, as a characteristic feature of the whole period" (Comrie 1976: 27-28). The PROGRESSIVE is used when an action is viewed to be "as ongoing at reference time" (Bybee et al. 1994: 126). 2.2.6. Modllity Traditionally, four main mood categories are identified in Tajik grammars: the indicative mood (cHFaR XJl6apR), the imperative mood (cHFaR aMpR), the 'condition and wishing' mood (cHFaR mapnuo xolCJIIIDWl.!lll), and the 'probability' mood (cHFaR 3x;I1Dion1l), the last of which indicates a statement based on indirect evidence, i.e. inferential and reported/second-hand information. The present grammar distinguishes six principal mood categories, namely INDICATIVE, INFERENTIAL, IMPERATIVE, CONDmONAL, SPECULATIVE, and IN11!NTJONAL (see also §2.2.13). These mood categories and their expressions will be explained in §2.2.8.

2.2.7.1. Siqlle put furm The simple past (38MOHH I')'38IUTlUI a83,1lHX/o.ll.zdl) form, which is used to refer to a completed action in the past, consists of the past stem and a subject-verb agreement suffix.

lsg 2sg 3sg lpl 2pl 3pl

up...up-

DM up,IIICM up.J!M I DIMC'I'OII ~

MO 6a maxp pear.q~ we to city reached-lpl 'we reached the city'

In the colloquia1 language, in certain contexts, the simple past form can also express an action which the speaker thinks is very likely to take place in the (near) future. Such an action is usually one that the first person subject (i.e. 'I' or 'we') intends to perform in the immediate future. For example, the following sentence may be used when the speaker intends to walk off from where s/he is in no time. This sentence could be translated as something like 'well/now I'm going' or 'I'm otr.

petHM MaR went-lsg I 'I'm ofr I 'I'm going' The colloquial example below may be used when the speaker thinks that the company he is in is about to walk out of a certain place, e.g. a house, someone's company, a shop, etc. ~-MA?

went-1pl-q 'are we {going, ready/about to go}?' I 'shall we go?'

54 Tajik

Morphology 55

2.2.7.2. Put impcrfcdive form The past imperfective form expresses a situation in the past that is aspectually imperfective.61 The Tajik name for the past imperfective is 38MOHH ry38IDT3H lUIXOnil. The past imperfective form of a verb is the past stem to which an agreement suffix and the imperfective aspect marker wo- are affixed. I4CAJWM

lsg 2sg 3sg 1pi 2pl 3pl

~

lloleiiJIIIJ' M"'IIIWM

DpAil6m

ap.-6y.Jpl ...,.~ , DpAil~

...,... ~

The form is primarily a perfect aspect marker (see §2.2.5). As can be seen in the following examples, the reference time is not confined to the past

~ l ueDMeTOB

a.w:ap..,.. XOHll MeX)IOR·X.O x,&CT•IlRJl, KliA:x,o long time ago be-3pl house guest-pi (XaJcmt KapHM c.i. RG:218) ~ ())IIWl come.ptpl were-3pl 'there are guests in this house - they have come a long time ago' )lap in

An example from the Soviet era, which is in fact a very good exemplification of the imperfective aspect, is shown below. In this example, workers' working for twelve to fourteen hours daily is seen as characteristic of the pre-revolutionary period.

nem front

ap.-6)'»111 ap.- 6y.Jdt

1sg 2sg 3sg 1pl 2pl 3pl

83

from

PeaomoiUIJI-H OKTJ16pt. Koprap-oR revolution-iz October worker-pi

.zzy&Ol)tax,-'IOp.llax. COaT

)[Gp

MCHIIpJ.t-IIB.A

PYle

KR rytJ", ran-x,o-e-po x,&MOR .ztap 'U\800 x,aM that samelveryword-pl-the-obj said.3sg that answer slhe also in (NR:573) 6y)t .ztap na6-H .ztapt.e rytra lip-iz river say.ptpl was.3sg in 'In the answer he also said the same words that he had said on the bank of the river'

twelve-fourteen hour work imp-did-3pl 'prior to the October Revolution, workers {would , used to} work for twelve to fourteen hours daily'

6a BaH 110-~ arap MliH ~-po slhe-obj imp-saw-1sg to s/he I if 'ifI saw him/her, I would tell him/her'

110-rytHM imp-said-1 sg

In old texts, and very rarely in modem poetry, the suffix -B (unaccented) is used instead of MOo for the first person singular and third person singular and plural, e.g. IJYilCI'J'Ud 'I would ask', ~ 's/he would ask', and ~....- ' they would ask' (Arzumanov and Sanginov 1988: 191).

this

~

daily (AS: 190)

The past imperfective form is also used in both the antecedents/protases and consequents/apodoses of conditional sentences.

HH

In colloquial Tajik, the past participle with -artl replaces the literary past participle in the past perfect form, thus: ~ 6y.l{ (lit. Tajik ,q~pii,Aa 6y.IV 'it had tom', 6lcra 111f.1'11116y)l (lit Tajik 6lcra m:y;JUl6y.z() 'It had been tied/locked', etc.62 This 'past participle+ 6y.ztBB' form is also used in conditional sentences. 2.2.7.4. Put progJcaiYC form The past progressive form consists of the progressive participle ending with -a, the past stem of 6y;IIIIB ' to be/exist' (i.e. ~). and an agreement suffix. This form expresses an action which is ongoing at a reference time in the past and ttatlslates typically into the past progressive in English. The past progressive is caUed 1}'3MJ1'11H .eypR ~Wtop (wyaJilul) in Tajik. The verbs ~ 'to stand'. BBIDICI'1Ill 'to sit'. and .-mrna ' to have' cro not appear as the main verb in this form.

2.2.7.3. Put pcdect form The past perfect form consists of the literary past participial form of the main verb, the past stem of 6y.- (i.e. 6y)l-), and an agreement suffix. The past perfect is identified as a tense category in Tajik grammars and is given the name 38MOHH ry38IDT3H .eyp 'distant past tense'. 61

Accordingly, the past imperfective form also attracts 'past' and 'past progressive' interpretations in English, e.g., flupMap.A-e cuop-H apo6a-u $BJ71Yr Me-pa-XOIHM

(NR:570)

imp-read-lsg

Depending on the context in which it is used, the present imperfective form can also be used to express an action in the future. M8H

6a

JCHT06XOHa

Y>pU-4M

(NR:571)

imp-go- Isg to library I 'I shall go to the library (e.g. tomorrow)' Note that the verb Jlll)llriiB 'to have' does not occur in the present imperfective form, i.e., it does not take the prefix MC>-. 63 However, compound verbs that have~ as one of their

63

For example, 'I have a good wife' would be 11111 , . . . _ xy6 .,.,_ (I wife-iz good have-lsg) without t4e prefutatioo ofwo- to the verb.

58 Tajik

Morphology 59

components, such as IIIIUPB ,liiOIIr'l'llll 'to conceal', as well as the verb ~ 'to keep/detain/stop', can occur in the present imperfective form. IIIIU,OII

uc-~

secret/hidden imp-have-3pl 'they conceal' 2.2.7.7. Pulure form The future form, which is characteristic of the literary registers, consists of the finite form of the verb xocraa 'to want' (§2.2.13.1) and the inftnitive form of the main verb from which -aa is removed.bt As its uti.lization of the modal verb XOCl'lll suggests, this form could be thought of as expressing the mood of desire that implies the future tense (see also Palmer 2001: 104-106, Bybee et al. 1994:254-257).

lsg 2sg 3sg lpl 2pl 3pl

~~

~DpA

XOIMDM XO~KJIM xo~~

XOJ:,III,A ~

6a TypKHll xox.....,. pa(rr to Turkey want-Jsg go.binf 'I will go to Turkey' 2.2.8. PriDcipM mood c:ategorica The expression of Tajik modality is connected with the expttession of tennt; and a..~.ect. Accordingly, both this section and §2.2.7, in which there are various ootes on bl~lity, should be consulted for a comprehensive account for modality in 'fajit. 1~ verb 1lW,ed :itl. the verb paradigms in this section is, unless noted otherwise, np.lt8K 't't) do •. All&the exampfeJJ b~ the last one in §2.2.8.2-5 are taken from Arzumanov and San~ ( 1988: 181-182). The indicative mood is negatively defined here as lacking any of the marlcers of modality that the other mood categories call for. 2.2.8.1. Infereotial A modal opposition that pervades the verbal system of Tajik is the opposition between the indicative mood and the mood of indirect evidence, which I call here the inferential mood. The indirect evidence that the speaker possesses may be inferential, reported, or second-band information. The inferential mood is expressed in Tajik typicalJy with the literary past participle and the cliticized verb (-)lcr 'to be', e.g. ~. ~. Dp.llll ~. and DMil ~ ~· The inferential signals that the speaker's proposition is based on inference drawn from a certain situation or on hearsay (reported/second-band information). In 64

This 'brief infinitive' form is called Mac.Aapn uyxT&cap in Tajik.

other words, this mood signals that the speaker bas indirect evidence that supports hislber proposition. 2.2.8.1.1. Infereotialputform The inferential past form consists of the literary past participial form of the main verb and the ctiticized verb (-)lcr 'to be'. What I call the inferential past here is :JaMOHH fY38IDT8R II8JCJlll in Tajik, which roughly translates into English as 'transferable (or narrative) past tense'. 1sg 2sg 3sg I pi 2pl 3pl

...... ...,... ...,

ap~

ap~

~ l ap~

~-

The inferential past form is used to encode the inferential mood. The inferential past form is used when the speaker narrates a reported event or a past event the information about which slbe has indirectly gained. (NR:576) OHX.O 6a paJtOH·X,O·H AHfllP ~ Me·IJ·.!IIIA, KH imp-say-3pl that they to district-pl-iz other go.ptpl-be.3pl 'they say that they have left for other regions • . Asimova, B. S. 1982. .Jbuxoaoe CTpOIITMI>CTBO a TMm/KCTaHC (1920-1940 rr.). ,lzymaH6e: ,ll;oHHm. Atkin, Muriel. 1992. Religious, national, and other identities in Central Asia. IN Gross, Jo-Ann ed. 1992. Muslims in Central Asia: Expressions ofidentity aod change. Durham; London: Duke University Press. 46-72. Axmedbnov, A. 1970. Pom.li3LIICOBWX KOHTai(TOB a CTaHOBIIeHHH HeKoropwx rpynn if>pa3eonOrH'ICCICHX C.ztHHHU (K 00pa30BaHHIO 6HHapHNX if>pa3ConOI1f3MOB BT8,IVICHICCKOM H YJ6ekCkOM li3WUX). IN 1970. Vl Bct:eol03HIII Ha}"ll/111 KOH¢epelliQll 00 lllf7J7liiAHlJM npo6nt:M8M Tlp811CKoiltjJHRanol7fH. T6HIIHcH: T6HII. roc. yu-T. 12-13. Ayni, Sadriddin. 1928. .;...u' c.r'JIJ .:.'. '-""t.J...,.....J(rahaari dollii], 4-5. Ayni, Sadriddin. £838./IH&. A3 C8MapJr;llll)l68 h'yxopo[a novellete). 2003-12-28 04:50AM. Barakaeva, G. B. ed. 1968. JJynmJ M)'XTIIcapero'(H.Kii-BHriDfCD. ,lzymaH6e: YHH&epeHTel1f ,ll;BBIIaTHH To'n!XHCTOH 6a HOMH B. H. JleHHH. Bartol'd, V. V. 1964. Capr. Co'IHHcHHI, 2, 2. Moskva. 527-529. Berdyeva, T. I. 1970a. CnoliCHo-HMei!HYe rnaronw c apa6cKoii ocaoaoii a T8,IVICHICCKOM li3NJ:e. IN 1970. flporpaMMB B8 Te:JHCJ(OH KOHtjJept:HI(IW{ HI1MliH MJ'81111HMOHH rjJaxy.rn.Te171 tjJHRODOrHIH TO'lHK aa /Jlapl( 6aJurm.;(a 6a 100-c0Jl8171Hpji3H TBBillliiY/UI B. H. JJcHHII. ,lzymaH6e: YAT 6a HOMH B. H. JleHHH. 55. Berdyeva, T. I. 1970b. PeryllllpHO 3aHMCTByeMWii nm apa6ciCHX enos a neJCCHKe ~cxoro li3Witll. IN 1970. llpoJPBMMB B8 Te3HCJ(OH KOH¢epelli(IW{ HI1M1IH M}'BIIIJHMOHH tjJaxy.rn.Te171 tjJHJTOROI7WI TO'UfK aa /Jlapl( 68.JUJ11(1Ja 6a 100-cOJ1817fHpjl3a T8BBJIJ1)'/UI B. H. JJciDIH. ,lzymaH6e: YAT 6a BOMB B. H. JleHHH. 70-74. Bobomurodov, ~ I Mnminov, A. eds. 1983. JJynmJ M)'XTBcapH KB/IID(BC03HJI 386oHH 41l86HH rorua: ,lzymaH6e: Maopsif>. Bobomurodov, Sakar. 1978. Ca,noHOKH "j''B8 MBB/CCH OH)l8p CHCTCMBH BOKJI/IH3MH 3800HH 11,1(86HH TO'UfK. ,lzymBH6e: YJ{T 6a HOMH B. H. JleHHH.

92 Tajik Borovkov, A K. 1952. T8,Q)ICHJCc.:o-}'36excJCoe ~y.I3W'nle H110npoc o ll3aJIMOBJIH.IJIIIH Ta.II*HJ:Ckoro H}'36ea:CJ[OJ'O JDWJCoa. YIX )'e: YHHBepCilrC1ll .l{aBJiaTHH To'QII:Hcrou 6a BOWB B. H. JleHHB. E!niyozov, M. 1979. /(H811eXTOJJ017«H TO'UIX (K.BcMIIJOIIOM): .ReKCHDHmeux.oa ro'lHKi/. ,lzymau1)e: YHHBepCilrC1ll .l{UJJllTHB To'I)OOicroa 6a BOMB B. H. JleHHB. Fajzov, M. 1983. K aoupocy o KOIIH'IeCTBeHHOii Xapai(TepHCTIIXe macllloiX a C08peMeHHON T1WICIDCCJCON liiiTep&TypHON JI3WJCe. Bonpoc.u131JX03H8HHI, 5. 59-69. F~jzov, Maxram. 1985. T4/PVIXCKOe JlHTt!p8Typaoe opo.113HomeHHe. ,!zym&H6e: ,Z{oiiHIIl. Fltrat, [A]. 1930. Qoidaboji ZIJIIOoi /()fit.· Ssrfvs rubv. Istolinobod; To~d: N~ri ~ik. Gafurov, B. G. 1952. Hcropu Ttl/lmD:CKOroH8po)(8. Mocoa. Gao,Etqiang.l985. .il!it.£i.f~-t. 4l;;j; !Ult!:~;f1. Grenoble, Lenore A. 2003. Language policy in the Soviet Union. Dordrecht; Boston; London: KJuwer Academic Publishers. Grigor'ev, V. V. 1861.0 aexoropwx co6hiTJW( 8 5yxape, KoD.H,D.e HKamrape. 3smtcXH Map:n.r 1D8Mcs Jiyxspe. .Ka3am.. Gulruxsor, S. 1981. Hxnoc. Oafforov, R. 1979. PeBOHJOI(HIII o~:r~6p1> B8 HHKHIDcxPH 385oHH 8,1.(s6HH TO'Uilf. .l{ym&H6e: H~B. Oatrorov, R. 1980. Hlfx>A&H xa6ap 6o miWIX.oH ca~ ~ ASP meaax.oa 3&6oBH TO'Ofld{. IN Murvatov,J. ed. 1980. 3s6oli111HHOCHH ro'U{X. ,Z{ym&H6e: H~a. 203-216. HaJimov, S. 1974. C4apJQliUIH AibdJ B8 fin.3e M8CMI18)(0H HHKHIDcxPH 3SOOHH 8,1.(86HH TO'(HL ,Z{ym&H6e: H~H. Hojiev, S. 1966. 5a1.3e xycacurx.ou uopcllononm 386oHH W6HH TO'WJC Alp a6rHAoa acpa XX (Aap acoca IX )' PCC TO'OOCIICTOH. 75-76. Muruvvatov, J. 1970. )toap 6a wyHOCH6anl 386oHII TO'UOOI aa y,6eldl ()tap arocK waTepH8Jlll meaax,oa TO'OIXOHH BHJIOJ1111.Aa.o;ir\oa). IN Oafforov, R. / JOraev, 0. eds. 1970. MBCT.~UIU.0/1 IUeBIII11/IHOCHH TO'lHX." '{HJVlH / • .ltymBH6e: )toiiHlll. 258·274. Muxtarov, D. M. 1958. Cnoaoo6pa30BBH11e 1 )'36eJCCXOM li3WJCe acjlcjiHXCBNH Tll,llliiOil(Cl:oro li3WXB. Tpy/lH Ys/Jexcxoro rocy.Jlllj)C771eHHOTO YHHBepCHTeTB HM. A . HaaoH (Hoau cepu), 77. 27-44. Muxtorov, J./ Qosimov, V. 1961. KeJIHJIIIOOt.OH 386oJOI Yl5eldl aa 3JCBHB8JICHTX.OH ono Jl8p 3800JOI 1'0'11001. IN 1961. lia'h3e MJ1C1,1JJJIV{OH 340oH .. 14/(aOHiTH TO'lHJ(. CaNapJC,BHJI: YI!HllepC1ITe11l )taananol CalaapJC,BHJ16a HOWH A. HaaoA. 103-117. Narziqulov, A. 1968. H~oa cjlpaleono11111 3800HH ro'IIOOI-y,6eldl. IN 1968. MllTt!liH&IIJ(OH KOB~BIIIUH XXIV HliiLHH x,ai/8TII ~poH . . MJ711111HMOHH YHHJJepcHTt:TH ,l(BSR8TIIH CaMaplf;4JIJlOa HOMH Ammrep Haaoi1 83 p}'H H'fJJOH xop)(OH H!Ddl-n;u;HJCOTi/ .JIBp COIIH 1966. CaMapJC,BHJI: YHIIBepcHreTH ,ltaanaTHH C8MapJC,BHJ1 6a HOWH Anllwep HaaoA. 48-49. Nemenova, R. L. 1955. Kpanadi oqepx rpBMNBTHlCH Tll,llliiOil(cxoro li3WXB. IN Kalontarov, Ya. I. cd. 1955. Jl)'TBTH M)'XTIJCIIpB ro'(IIXil-pycA. Mocxaa: Hamps CTII)taantmiH Jlynrrx.oa Xop~ aa MHJinA. 52S-616.

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