Rhetoric of Characterization of God, Jesus, and Jesus' Disciples in the Gospel of Mark (Library Of New Testament Studies)

JOURNAL FOR THE STUDY OF THE NEW TESTAMENT SUPPLEMENT SERIES 290 Editor Mark Goodacre Editorial Board John M. G. Bar...

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JOURNAL FOR THE STUDY OF THE NEW TESTAMENT SUPPLEMENT SERIES

290

Editor Mark Goodacre

Editorial Board John M. G. Barclay, Craig Blomberg, Elizabeth A. Castelli, Kathleen E. Corley, R. Alan Culpepper, James D. G. Dunn, Craig A. Evans, Stephen Fowl, Ropbert Fowler, Simon J. Gathercole, Michael Labahn, Robert Wall, Robert L. Webb, Catrin H. Williams

The Rhetoric of the Characterization of God, Jesus, and Jesus' Disciples in the Gospel of Mark

Paul L. Danove

t&t dark N E W

Y O R K

•

L O N D O N

Copyright © 2005 by Paul Danove All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the written permission of the publisher, T & T Clark International. T & T Clark International, Madison Square Park, 15 East 26th Street, New York, NY 10010 T & T Clark International, The Tower Building, 11 York Road, London SE1 7NX T & T Clark International is a Continuum imprint. Cover design: Corey Kent Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Danove, Paul L. The rhetoric of the characterization of God, Jesus, and Jesus' disciples in the Gospel of Mark / Paul L. Danove. p. cm. — (Journal for the study of the New Testament. Supplement series ; 290) Includes bibliographical references and index. EISBN 9780567028105 1. Bible N.T. Mark—Criticism, interpretation, etc. I. Title. II. Series. BS2585.52D365 2005 226.3'066—dc22 2004027592

05 06 07 08 09 10 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

To my friend and mentor, Rev. John Boyle, S.J, who taught me how to read the New Testament

Contents Preface Abbreviations

ix xi

Chapter 1 THE METHOD OF ANALYSIS

1

1. Situating the Method 2. Repetition in Mark 3. The Semantic Rhetoric of Repetition 4. The Narrative Rhetoric of Repetition 5. The Rhetorical Organization of Cultivated Beliefs 6. The Narrative Rhetoric of Characterization 7. The Narrative Function of Characterization 8. Applications of the Studies of Characterization 9. The Presentation of the Study

1 3 6 12 21 21 24 25 27

Chapter 2 THE RHETORIC OF THE CHARACTERIZATION OF GOD

1. The Argument Roles Predicated of God 2. Preexisting Beliefs about God 3. Cultivation of Beliefs about God: Repeated References 4. Cultivation of Beliefs about God: Repeated Contexts 5. The Rhetorical Organization of Cultivated Beliefs about God 6. The Narrative Rhetoric of God's Characterization 7. The Narrative Function of God's Characterization

28

28 33 35 42 48 49 54

Chapter 3 THE RHETORIC OF THE CHARACTERIZATION OF JESUS

1. Preexisting Beliefs about Jesus 2. Cultivation of Beliefs about Jesus: Repeated References 3. Cultivation of Beliefs about Jesus: Repeated Contexts and Structures 4. The Rhetorical Organization of Cultivated Beliefs about Jesus vu

56

56 59 75 82

viii

The Rhetoric of Characterization

5. The Narrative Rhetoric of Jesus' Characterization 6. The Narrative Function of Jesus' Characterization

83 88

Chapter 4 THE RHETORIC OF THE CHARACTERIZATION OF JESUS' DISCIPLES

1. Preexisting Beliefs about the Disciples 2. Cultivation of Beliefs about the Disciples: Repeated References 3. Cultivation of Beliefs about the Disciples: Repeated Contexts and Structures 4. The Rhetorical Organization of Cultivated Beliefs about the Disciples 5. The Narrative Rhetoric of the Disciples' Characterization 6. The Narrative Function of the Disciples' Characterization: Part 1

90

90 91 104 120 120 125

Chapter 5 RECAPITULATION: THE WOMEN AT THE TOMB

1. The Characterization of the Women 2. The Rhetorical Organization of Cultivated Beliefs 3. The Narrative Rhetoric of the Women's Characterization 4. The Narrative Function of the Women's Characterization 5. The Narrative Function of Disciples' Characterization: Part 2

127

127 13 5 136 139 140

Chapter 6 APPLICATIONS, IMPLICATIONS, AND CONCLUSION

1. Application: The Rhetorical Exigency of the Narration 2. Implications for Proposals of the Historical Exigency of the Composition 3. Application: Mark's Theological Beliefs 4. Implications for Rigor and Specificity in Statements of Theological Beliefs 5. Conclusion

143

143 159 164 165 167

Appendixes A. The Organization of Cultivated Beliefs about God B. The Organization of Cultivated Beliefs about Jesus C. The Organization of Cultivated Beliefs about Jesus' Disciples

168 168 169 171

Bibliography Index of References Index of Authors

174 184 189

PREFACE

This study develops a method for analyzing the semantic and narrative rhetoric of repetition and the narrative rhetoric and function of characterization and applies this method in studies of the characterization of God, Jesus, and Jesus' disciples in the Gospel of Mark. The studies of characterization distinguish beliefs that are assumed for the audiencefrombeliefs that the narration cultivates for the audience, identifies the rhetorical relationships and organization of cultivated beliefs, and clarifies the contribution of each character's portrayal to the overall narrative development of Mark. The study then considers the contribution of the characterization of the women at the tomb to the portrayal of Jesus' disciples and other narrative developments. A concluding inquiry investigates the possible applications of the studies of characterization for determining the rhetorical exigency of the narration and for formulating statements of Mark's proposed theology. Chapter 1 introduces the method of analysis employed in the following studies. This discussion situates the proposed method within contemporary approaches to the study of Mark, introduces presuppositions, defines concepts, develops procedures for analyzing and describing the semantic rhetoric of repetition, and from these draws out the presuppositions, concepts, and procedures for analyzing and describing the narrative rhetoric of repetition. These considerations permit a representation of the rhetorical organization of beliefs about characters and an investigation of the contribution of characterization to other narrative developments within Mark. The discussion then considers the manner in which the studies of characterization may be placed in the service of articulating the rhetorical exigency and theology proposed by the narration. The chapter concludes by indicating how the following studies apply the proposed method. The studies of the characterization of God (ch. 2), Jesus (ch. 3), and Jesus' disciples (ch. 4) follow the same general format. The discussions first identify the beliefs about God, Jesus, and his disciples that the narration assumes for its audience. The studies then examine the beliefs developed about each character by the semantic and narrative rhetoric and note the relationships among and organization of these cultivated beliefs. Discussions of the narrative rhetoric and function of characterization then clarify the contributions of characterization to other narrative developments. ix

x


Chapter 5 examines the contribution of the characterization of the women at the tomb to the portrayal of Jesus' disciples. This study follows the same pattern as the previous studies of characterization but considers only those elements of the women's portrayal that clarify their relationship with the disciples. Chapter 6 develops two possible applications of the studies of characterization. The first concerns the formulation of a statement of the rhetorical exigency of the narration, that is, the situation or problem that the semantic and narrative rhetoric seems to be designed to address and rectify. The second concerns the formulation of statements of the theological beliefs about God, Jesus, and Jesus' disciples that are developed by the semantic and narrative rhetoric. Brief discussions clarify implications of both inquiries for Markan scholarship. The presentation concludes with an appendix that identifies the relationships and organization of the cultivated beliefs about God, Jesus, and Jesus' disciples; a bibliography; and an index of referenced authors. This preface would not be complete without recognizing those who have contributed to the project. I wish to thank Sr. Andrea Likovich, O.S.F., and Dr. Geoffrey Cowling for their assistance in proofing the text, Professor Stanley E. Porter for very helpful recommendations concerning the organization and presentation of its content, and the members of the Catholic Biblical Association Task Force entitled "The Gospel of Mark in the 21st Century," for their helpful comments on an earlier version of chapter 3 and for six years of very interesting conversations about the Gospel of Mark. I also wish to thank Villanova University for the 2002 Summer Research Fellowship, which permitted uninterrupted work on this manuscript. I wish to thank the following publishers for their permission to develop in this book the content of my previously published articles: The Pontifical Biblical Institute for the use of "The Characterization and Narrative Function of the Women at the Tomb (Mark 15,40-41.47; 16,1-8)," Bib 77.3 (1996): 375-97, and "The Rhetoric of Characterization of Jesus as Son of Man and Christ in Mark," Bib 84.1 (2003): 16-34; Brill Academic Publishers for the use of "The Narrative Function of Mark's Characterization of God," NovT 43.1 (2001): 12-30; and Sheffield Academic Press for the use of "The Narrative Rhetoric of Mark's Ambiguous Characterization of the Disciples," JSNT70 (1998): 21-28.

ABBREVIATIONS

AB AnBib BDF

Bib BibRes BIS BSac CBQ CGNTC CS CSL CSLI EKKNT ExpTim FES Greg HNT HTR Int IRT ISFCJ JAAR JETS JBL JR JSNT JSNTSup LB

Anchor Bible Analecta Biblica Friedrich Blass, Albert Debrunner, and Robert W. Funk, A Greek Grammar of the New Testament and Other Early Christian Literature (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1961) Biblica Biblical Research Biblical Interpretation Series Bibliotheca Sacra Catholic Biblical Quarterly Cambridge Greek New Testament Commentary Chicago Studies Current Studies in Linguistics Center for the Study of Language and Information Evangelisch-Katholischer Kommentar zum Neuen Testament Expository Times Finnish Exegetical Society (Schriften der Finnischen Exegetischen Gesellschaft) Gregorianum Handbuch zum Neuen Testament Harvard Theological Review Interpretation Issues in Religion and Theology International Studies in Formative Christianity and Judaism Journal of the American A cademy of Religion Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society Journal of Biblical Literature Journal of Religion Journalfor the Study of the New Testament Journalfor the Study of the New Testament, Supplement Series Linguistica Biblica XI

xii Neot NovT NTS PMLA SBL SBLDS SNTG SPCK SPIB SPS TDNT TDOT USQR WBC ZNW ZTK

The Rhetoric of Characterization Neotestamentica Novum Testamentum New Testament Studies Publications of the Modern Language Association of America Society of Biblical Literature SBL Dissertation Series Studies in New Testament Greek Society for the Promotion of Christian Knowledge Scripta Pontificii Instituti Biblici Sacra Pagina Series Gerhard Kittel and Gerhard Friedrich, eds., Theological Dictionary of the New Testament (trans. Geoffrey W. Bromiley; 10 vols.; Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1964-) G. Johannes Botterweck and Helmer Ringgren, eds., Theological Dictionary of the Old Testament (trans. John T. Willis; 12 vols.; Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1977-). Union Seminary Quarterly Review Word Biblical Commentary Zeitschriftfur die neutestamentliche Wissenschaft Zeitschriftfur Theologie und Kirche

Chapter 1 THE METHOD OF ANALYSIS

This chapter develops a method for analyzing and describing the semantic and narrative rhetoric of repetition and the narrative rhetoric and function of characterization in the Gospel of Mark. The presentation begins by situating the proposed method within contemporary approaches to the study of Mark. The discussion of the method introduces presuppositions, defines concepts, and develops procedures for analyzing and describing the semantic rhetoric of repetition. It then develops from these the presuppositions, concepts, and procedures for analyzing and describing the narrative rhetoric of repetition. Possible contributions of characterization to the overall narrative development of Mark also receive consideration. The discussion then clarifies the manner in which the studies of characterization may be placed in the service of articulating the rhetorical exigency and theology proposed by the narration. The presentation concludes by indicating how the following studies apply the proposed method.

1. Situating the Method Contemporary scholarship employs a variety of methods in the study of Mark, and these methods may be distinguished according to the primary focus of their inquiry.1 Methods having a primary focus on the historical development of the text inquire into the sources, forms, and redaction of traditions, the theological or ideological concerns and sociological situations of communities that transmitted traditions, and authorial intentionality. Those having a primary focus on what is in the text inquire into the ways the text structures meaning and guides interpretation and the ways the reader interprets and formulates the meaning of the text. Those having a primary focus on the contemporary use of the text inquire into the ways the text may contribute to theological reflection or the critique of contemporary practice. The method of analysis developed in this chapter places its primary focus on the text of Mark and investigates the manner in which the text guides its own 1. This discussion develops elements of the presentation on methods in Sandra M. Schneiders, The Revelatory Text: Interpreting the New Testament as Sacred Scripture (San Francisco: Harper, 1991), 110-14; and in John R. Donahue, "Windows and Mirrors: The Setting of Mark's Gospel," CBQ 57 (1995): 1-26, here 3-4.

1

2

77*2 Rhetoric of Characterization

interpretation.2 In this approach, the method is concerned not primarily with the historical author(s) and readers of Mark or the possible applications of the text by contemporary readers but with the analysis and description of the author and reader implied by the text.3 In particular, the method is concerned with analyzing and describing the ways in which the narration of Mark cultivates specific meanings for the words and constructs used in characterization, places characterization in the service of other narrative developments, and attempts to elicit particular responses from the implied reader.4 The method's study of the ways in which the narration cultivates specific meanings for words uses linguistic presuppositions, concepts, and procedures of analysis and description.5 The study of the contribution of constructs and characterization itself to the narrative development uses a system of narrative analysis developed from the same linguistic presuppositions, concepts, and procedures. The resulting method complements a primarily synchronic study of how the narration cultivates the meaning of words and constructs with a primarily diachronic study of how the unfolding of the narration establishes the possibility for interpretative responses. These considerations indicate that the method is at its foundation a rhetorical method; for it is directed to examining the ways in which the narration attempts to develop opportunities for the implied reader to entertain and ultimately incorporate linguistically and narratively developed meaning and to respond to situations and events.6 Thus, the method's concepts and procedures permit a 2. Discussions of what is implied by textually guided interpretation appear in Elizabeth Struthers Malbon, "Narrative Criticism: How Does the Story Mean?" in Mark and Method: New Approaches in Biblical Studies (ed. Janice Capel Anderson and Stephen D. Moore; Minneapolis: Fortress, 1992), 23-49; and in Gabriel Fackre, "Narrative Theology: An Overview," Int 37 (1983): 340-52. 3. The implied author and the implied reader receive introduction in Seymour Chatman, Story and Discourse: Narrative Structure in Fiction and Film (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1978), 151; and Wayne C. Booth, The Rhetoric of Fiction (2nd ed.; Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1983), 74-75; cf. Stephen D. Moore, Literary Criticism and the Gospels: The Theoretical Challenge (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1989), 180. The concept of the implied reader receives further clarification below. 4. The method's analysis and description of the ways in which the narration attempts to elicit responses have significant parallels to that of reader-response criticism: see W. Randolph Tate, Reading Mark from the Outside: Eco and her Leave Their Marks (San Francisco: International Scholars Publications, 1994). Examples of the application of reader-response methods to the study of the Gospel of Mark include Bas M. F. van Iersel, Mark: A Reader-Response Commentary (trans. W. H. Bisscheroux; JSNTSup 164; Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1998); and John Paul Heii, The Gospel ofMark as a Modelfor Action: A Reader-Response Commentary (New York: Paulist, 1992). 5. An introduction to the linguistic system that undergirds the method appears in Charles J. Fillmore and Paul Kay, Construction Grammar (Stanford: CSLI, 1999). The original proposal of the system of narrative analysis developed from this system of linguistic analysis appears in Paul Danove, The End of Mark's Story: A Methodological Study (BIS 3; Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1993). The following presentation constitutes a further development of this proposal. 6. Agusti Borrell observes that the Gospels "are works with a marked and clear purpose of influ-

The Method ofAnalysis

3

description of both linguistic or, more properly, semantic and narrative rhetoric.7 The method provides procedures for the articulation of the narration's rhetorical exigency, which is constituted by the problem[s] or deficiencies that the semantic and narrative rhetoric identify and address. Here the rhetoric's cultivation of alternative meanings for particular words and constructs and of responses to narrated events identifies the original or preexisting meanings and the implied author's presupposed responses as deficient. The resulting deficiencies taken together then identify the exigency that the semantic and narrative rhetoric seem designed to address.

2. Repetition in Mark The goal of the proposed method is to describe the manner in which the repetition of words and constructs contributes to characterization and other narrative developments. The following discussion of repeated words and constructs briefly illustrates the nature of the repetition that the subsequent development of the method attempts to address. a. The Repetition of Words and Phrases The method of analysis recognizes that repetition is able to develop specialized meanings or connotations for particular words and phrases.8 For example, the first two occurrences of way (0805) in Mark appear in a quotation of scripture (1:2-3; cf. Mai 3:1; Exod 23:20; Isa 40:3) that presents the specific point of encing their readers (or listeners) in a practical way, right down to effecting their whole way of life" (The Good News ofPeter's Denial: A Narrative and Rhetorical Reading ofMark 14:54,66-72 [trans. Sean Conlon; ISFCJ 7; Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1998], 174). Cf. Erich Auerbach, Mimesis: The Representation of Reality in Western Literature (trans. Willard R. Trask; Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1953), 15; M. H. Abrams, Doing Things with Texts: Essays in Criticism and Critical Theory (New York: W. W. Norton, 1989), 9-11; Mary Ann Tolbert, "How the Gospel of Mark Builds Character," Int 47 (1993): 347-57; and Robert M. Fowler, Let the Reader Understand: Reader Response and the Gospel ofMark (Minneapolis. Fortress, 1991), 23. 7. These concepts and procedures reflect those of the grounding system of linguistic analysis and so diverge in various ways from methods that employ historical approaches to the rhetorical analysis of narratives: see W. T. Shiner, Follow Me! Disciples in Markan Rhetoric (SBLDS 145; Atlanta. Scholars Press, 1995); and Vernon K. Robbins, Jesus the Teacher: A Socio-RhetoricalInterpretation of Mark (Philadelphia: Fortress, 1992). 8. Overviews of the various functions and contributions of repetition in narratives appear in N. R. Leroux, "Repetition, Progression, and Persuasion in Scripture," Neot 29 (1995): 1-25, here 8-10; Bas van Iersel, "Locality, Structure, and Meaning in Mark," LB 55 (1983): 45-54; Peter J. Rabinowitz, Before Reading: Narrative Conventions and the Politics ofInterpretation (Ithaca, N. Y.: Cornell University Press, 1987), 53; David Rhoads and Donald Michie, Mark as Story: An Introduction to the Narrative of a Gospel (Philadelphia: Fortress, 1982), 46-47; Meir Steinberg, The Poetics of Biblical Narrative: Ideological Literature and the Drama of Reading (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1985), 365-440; and Robert C. Tannehill, The Sword of His Mouth (Philadelphia: Fortress, 1975), 39-51.

4


information that the way is the Lord's (God's/Jesus').9 Subsequent occurrences of 686s then establish that the word (seed) is sown along the way (4:4, 15), that the way affords little security (a staff but no bread or bag, etc.), is potentially dangerous, but also is a way of authority (6:7-8), and that the potential dangers of the way may be remedied by the intervention of Jesus (8:3). The same passages also relate Jesus and God (1:2-3), Jesus and David (2:23-25; cf. 1 Sam 21:2-7), and Jesus and the twelve who undertake the task of proclaiming (icnpuaaci)) formerly ascribed to Jesus (1:14—15) and receive their authority from Jesus (6:7) on the way. The narration also asserts a positive evaluation for the way, insofar as it is of God and Jesus, and for those who are productive along it (4:8, 20). These initial occurrences establish a uniquely Markan connotation of 686s characterized by narratively specific information, relationships, evaluations, and expectations that distinguish it not only from general Koine usage but from its specialized usages developed in the Septuagint.10 The resulting connotation then becomes the basis for its further specialized developments in Mark 8:27-10:52. The narration also cultivates a specialized Markan connotation for seek (CT1T6G)).11 Its first appearance in Simon's statement to Jesus, "Everyone is seeking you" (1:37), offers no indication that the verb has any distinctive meaning beyond its typical Koine usage.12 The next seven occurrences, however, develop narratively specific information about, relationships among, negative evaluations for, and expectations about those who seek: those doing the will of God supersede Jesus' mother, brothers, and sisters who seek him (3:32-35); no sign will be given to the Pharisees/this generation who seek a sign (8:11-12); the chief priests and scribes seek how to destroy Jesus (11:18); the chief priests, scribes, and elders seek to arrest Jesus (12:12; cf. 11:27); the chief priests and scribes seek to arrest and kill Jesus (14:1); Judas seeks how he may hand over Jesus (14:11); and the chief priests and the entire Sanhedrin seek testimony against Jesus to kill him (14:55). The final occurrence in the young man's statement to the women, "You seek Jesus the Nazarene, the crucified" (16:6), places the women into a narratively developed class of characters opposed to Jesus and contributes to the women's concluding negative evaluation in 16:8.13 9. This and subsequent citations are taken from Barbara Aland et al., eds., The Greek New Testament (4th rev. ed.; Stuttgart. Biblia-Druck, 1993) and from A. Rahlfs, ed., Septuaginta (Stuttgart. Deutsche Bibelstiftung, 1935). The translations are my own. The discussions of 0869 develop the presentation in Paul Danove, "The Characterization and Narrative Function of the Women at the Tomb (Mark 15,40-41.47; 16,1-8)," Bib 77 (1996): 375-97, here 375-76. 10. Specialized connotations of "way" also may be found from book to book in the Hebrew Bible: see K. Koch, "derekh," TDOT3.2S2-92. 11. This discussion develops the presentation on £r|TeG) [always perfect passive indicative], *1:2; *7:6; *9:12, *13; •11:17; *14:21, *27), give (SiScopx, *4:11, *25; *6:2; *8:12; *13:11), prepare (€Toi|idCo), *10:40), measure (ixeTpew, *4:24), fulfill (uXripoG), *1:15; *14:49; [[*15:28]]), add (TTPOiTi|jLi, *3:28 (toTTV€i)|ia, 3:29), *4:12 (to paaiXeia and 8I8GJ|±I, 4:11); 8ef id, 12:36 (to Xeyw, 12:36), 14:62 (to vi6$9 14:61); 8wap.is, 12:24 (to dyyeXos, 12:25, and to Xeyco, 12:26a, 26b), 14:62 (to vi6s, 14:61); dvvarov, 10:27 (to paaiXeia, 10:23, 24, 25, and to euayyeXiov, 10:29); els, 12:29c, 32a (to paaiXeia, 12:34); ei/ToXrj , 7:8, 9 (to ypdcfxo, 7:6), *10:19 (to paaiXeia, 10:23, 24, 25, and to euayyeXiov, 10:29); efeaTiv, *2:24, *26 (to yivo|ica, 2:27), *6:18(toupofJTr)s, 6:15a, 15b), *10:2(toTroi€0), 10:6), *12:14(too86s, 12:14); euxaptaTô), * 14:23 (to PaaiXeia, 14:25); CÂ [aiaiyios], *9:43, *45 (to paaiXeia, 9:47), * 10:30 (to paaiXeia, 10:23, 24, 25, and to evayyeXwv,

The Rhetoric of the Characterization of God

49

10:29); KoXopoco, 13:20a, 20b (to 8eX, 13:14); Xaiipdwa, *10:30 (to pagiXeta, 10:23, 24, 25, and to eiayyeXiov, 10:29); |±ou, 15:34a, 34b (to axiCw, 15:38, and to vi6s, 15:39); OIKOS, 2:26 (to yivo|iai, 2:27), 11:17 (to ypdâ), 11:17); *13:18 (to 8et, 13:14); and TrpoaeuxTl, *11:17 (to ypd (10:38a, 38b, 39a, 39b); eXeet) (5:19) to TTOtew (5:19); GeXw (14:36) andTrapaêpw (14:36) to a^â 6 TTaTtip (14:36); ovo^-ci (11:9) to paaLXeia (11:10); 6PKL£W (5:7) and uijiiaTos (5:7) to ulos 9eoO (5:7); TraTdaaw (14:27) to paaiXeta (14:25); ovCevyu (10:9) to TTOICW (10:6); TLGTI^L (12:36) to Xeyw (12:36); and u^vew (14:26) to paatXeia (14:25). Of the remaining four nonrepeated words, dyios (1:24) is mediately related to irveuu-a dyiov (1:8); 8o^dCai (2:12) is from the same stem as 86£a (8:38); 0eXTm.a (3:35) is from the same stem as GeXw (14:36); and "take up" (d-nrnpo), 2:20) concerns God's agency in Jesus' death and is related thematically to central developments in 8:31-9:1 and 12:1-12. 36. A detailed justification for the noted narrative units appears in Paul Danove, The End of Mark's Story: A Methodological Study (BIS 3; Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1993), 132-66. These divisions are similar to those proposed in Eduard Schweizer, The Good News According to Mark (trans. Donald H. Madvig; Richmond: John Knox, 1970), 226,284,384-85.

50

The Rhetoric of

Characterization

Table 1. Distribution ofReferences Agent (75) Experiencer (4) Instrument (1) Source (13) Goal (20) Benefactive (80) Patient (24) Content (2) Total (219)

1:1-15 1:16-8:26 8:27-10:52 11:1-13:37 14:1-15:41 15:42-16:8 8 4 33 17 0 13 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 5 0 3 5 0 6 8 0 1 5 0 22 1 8 16 15 18 3 16 0 2 3 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 87 1 44 21 26 40

Table 1 indicates that 11:1-13:37 contains more references to God than any other narrative unit. However, since the proposed units differ in length, these data require further resolution to provide a uniform basis for comparison. Table 2 accomplishes this by (1) establishing the total number of words for each unit and then calculating the percentage of words for each unit in comparison to the total word count for 1:1-16:8, (2) employing the data of table 1 to calculate the percentage of references for each unit in comparison to all references in 1:1-16:8, and (3) dividing the percentage of references in each unit by the percentage of words in each unit. In this third part of table 2, a number greater than 1.00 indicates a greater than average frequency of references for a unit; and a number less than 1.00 indicates a frequency less than that of the Gospel as a whole: Table 2. Comparisons of the Frequency ofAll References 1:1-15 1:16-8:26 8:27-10:52 11:1-13:37 14:1-15:41 15:42-16:8 1,765 249 Words (11,090) 4,888 237 1,993 1,958 15.92% 17.66% 2.14% 2.25% 44.08% 17.97% % of words 1 87 44 26 21 40 Total ref. (219) % of references 9.59% 20.09% 18.26% 39.73% 11.87% 0.46% 1.02 2.25 0.75 0.21 % ref./% words 4.26 0.46

Table 2 indicates that the narrative unit containing the greatest relative frequency of references to God is 1:1-15, which, as noted above, is the primary vehicle for relating all cultivated beliefs about God. This brief passage (only 2.25% of the words of the Gospel) presents twenty-one references that establish eighteen distinct points of information about God: 1. God has the gospel (eucryyeXiov; cf. 1:14 retrospectively) which is Jesus' (1:1). 2. God has a son (ulog), Jesus (1:1). 3. God is agent of what is written (ypdô)) in the Book of Isaiah concerning God's sending of a messenger to prepare the way for Jesus [God] (1:2; cf. Mai 3:1).


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4. God has a prophet (Trpo(f>r)Tris) through whom God spoke [about Jesus] (1:2). 5. God initiates the action of the Gospel by sending (aTToaTeXXoj) God's messenger before Jesus [God] (1:2; cf. Mai 3:1). 6. God has a messenger (dyyeXos) who will prepare Jesus' [God's] way (1:2; cf. Mai 3:1). 7. God has the way (686s; cf. Mai 3:1), which is Jesus' (1:2). 8. God has the way (686s; cf. Isa 40:3), which is Jesus' (1:3). 9. The paths (Tpipos; cf. Isa 40:3) for God are for Jesus (1:3). 10. God has the holy Spirit (jruev\ia ayiov) with which Jesus will baptize (1:8). 11. God undoes God's setting of the firmament (cf. Gen 1:6) by rending (axtCto) the sky at Jesus' baptism (1:10). 12. God has the Spirit (jTvev[ia) that descends onto Jesus (1:10). 13. God has a voice (§uvr\) that addresses Jesus (1:11). 14. God has the Beloved Son (note the repetition of ulos; cf. 1:1), Jesus (1:11). 15. God is pleased with (euSoKew) Jesus (1:11). 16. God has the Spirit (-nvevyia) that drives Jesus into the desert (1:12). 17. God has messengers (ayyeXos) who serve Jesus (1:13). 18. God has the gospel (eixryyeXiov; cf. 1:1), which Jesus proclaims (1:14). 19. God fulfills (TrXrjpoo)) the time, which is part of Jesus' proclamation (1:15). 20. God has the reign (PaaiXeia), which is part of Jesus' proclamation (1:15). 21. God has the gospel (euayyeXiov), which is part of Jesus' proclamation (1:15). These twenty-one references, which initiate God's characterization, simultaneously assert information about Jesus and stress Jesus' positive and intimate relationship with God, which approaches identification with God at certain points. The narration of 1:1-15 reiterates that Jesus is God's Son and that God and Jesus have the gospel and grants one of only four Markan insights into God's own experience (delight in Jesus). It also ascribes to Jesus as benefactive what belongs to God, indicates that God's Spirit directs Jesus' actions and that God's messengers prepare for and serve Jesus, and establishes Jesus as the agent who proclaims and makes present what belongs to God. The direct or indirect insinuation of Jesus into every aspect of God's characterization in 1:1-15 engenders an indelible bond between God and Jesus that precludes any understanding of either character without immediate reference to the other. Beginning in 1:16-8:26, reference to God in all argument roles diminishes precipitously. The density of references then builds from this low, more than doubling in 8:27-10:52 and reaching a crescendo in 11:1-13:7. With the onset of Jesus' passion in 14:1-15:41, the density of references to God again decreases sharply, reaching a nadir in 15:42-16:8. This pattern of references plays a significant role in the narrative development

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of Mark. The density of references to God in 1:1-15 places the character God in the foreground and cultivates for the narrative audience an expectation of continued frequent reference to and involvement by God. The same references introduce and establish Jesus' intimate relationship with God. The precipitous drop in references to God in 1:16-8:26 places the character God into the background precisely as the character Jesus takes center stage. With the foregrounding of Jesus, the narratively cultivated expectation for references to and involvement by God join with the recognition of Jesus' intimate relationship with God to invite the narrative audience to find the fulfillment of expectations concerning God in the character Jesus. In this way, the narrative rhetoric encourages a profound identification of Jesus with God that extends beyond the aspects of identification within the assertions of 1:1-15. This identification invites a response to and relationship with the character Jesus that parallels and even coincides with the narrative audience's response to and relationship with the character God. Once the narration of 1:16-8:26 establishes Jesus as the primary vehicle of God's presence and involvement, references to God increase until 11:1-13:37, after which God again recedes from view. The narrative rhetoric of the characterization of God in 1:1-15 is quite complex. The opening verses evoke the authorial audience's preexisting beliefs concerning the intimate relationship between Jesus and God and sophisticate beliefs about both by repeatedly relating the content of their associated narrative frames. This repetition simultaneously introduces and reinforces an expectation for continued and frequent references to God, which subsequently is subverted by the almost complete cessation of references to God beginning in 1:16.37 Thus, the frustration of the narrative audience's cultivated expectation for repeated references to God constitutes a deconstructive rhetorical strategy, and the frustration itself cultivates an expectation that, in the absence of God and God's agency, the presence and activity of Jesus will be foregrounded. The cessation of frequent reference to God simultaneously evokes and sophisticates preexisting beliefs concerning the remoteness of God that receive explicit statement in the subsequent straightforward notice that the Lord of the Vineyard is distant (dTro8r)|ieG), 12:1). b. The Order, Frequency, and Distribution of Agent Arguments The analysis of references to God indicated that agent references play a determinative role in relating other characters to God and establishing criteria for evaluating their actions. Table 3 relates the order, relative frequency, and distribution of references to God as agent. 37. Andrew T. Lincoln considers several Markan examples of the cultivation of expectations and their subsequent frustration within Jesus' passion ("The Promise and the Failure: Mark 16:7, 8," JBL 108 [1989]: 283-300).


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Table 3. Comparisons of the Frequency of Agent References

1:1-15 1:16-8:26 8:27-10:52 11:1-13:37 14:1-15:41 15:42-16:8 Agent (75) 4 17 13 33 8 0 % of agent 5.33% 22.67% 17.33% 44.00% 10.67% 0 0.51 0.96 2.49 0.67 0 % agent/% words 2.37 Table 3 indicates that the relative frequency of agent references parallels that of all references, except that now 11:1-13:37 has the greatest density and 1:1-15 is second.38 The density of agent references drops steeply from 1:1-15 to 1:16-8:26, builds in 8:27-10:52, marks its greatest increase in 11:1-13:37, which presents almost half of all agent references, then drops precipitously in 14:1-15:41, and falls to zero in 15:42-16:8. Although 1:1-15 includes three verbs with God as agent that set the stage for subsequent repetition, the first realized repetition with God as agent appears in 1:16-8:26. In this passage, the threefold notice that God forgives (OX|>LTI|JU, 2:7; *3:28; *4:12) directly positively aligns Jesus (2:5,9; cf. 2:10 for the Son of Man) with God; and the fourfold repetition of give (8L8O)|II, *4:11, *25; *6:2; *8:12) directly positively relates Jesus (6:7, 41; 8:6; 10:37, 40; 14:22, 23; cf. 10:45 for the Son of Man; 13:34 for Lord of the Household) to God. In 8:27-10:52, repetition of baptize (ponTTi£iT]|ii) sins "on the earth" (2:10). The contextual interpretation of the cup that Jesus will drink (10:38-39) in terms of the Son of Man being handed over, being condemned to death, being killed, and rising (10:33-34) and serving and giving his life (10:45) indicates that God as Abba Father in 14:36 wants Jesus to fulfill the divine necessity (Set, 8:31) governing the Son of Man. In acting to fulfill this divine necessity, Jesus becomes a paradigm for those doing the will of the Father (cf. 3:35) even when they want to do otherwise; and his resulting action redounds to the benefit of the many for whom he gives his life as a ransom (10:45). The straightforward narration of these occurrences indicates that the authorial audience already recognizes these areas of contrast between what Jesus and God know and want.21 In five of the seven remaining occurrences of 0eXo), what Jesus wants is realized and benefits others: cleansing for the leper (1:40, 41); being made the twelve/apostles for particular disciples (3:13; cf. 3:15-16); private teaching for disciples that the Son of Man is going to be handed over, killed, and rise (9:30; cf. 9:31-32); and the meal for disciples in which Jesus gives his body and blood (14:12; cf. 14:13-25). In the two remaining occurrences, what Jesus wants is not realized; but what Jesus actually does benefits others. Jesus, who wants to pass by the disciples (6:48), instead encourages them not to be afraid and goes into the boat with them (6:50-51).22 Here Jesus' calming (KOTrd£o), 6:51) of the wind 20. Repetition of listen with delight (r)8ea)s OLKOIKO) directly aligns Herod and the crowd; for, just as Herod listens to John the Baptist with delight (6:20) before ordering his execution (6:27), the crowd listens to Jesus with delight (12:37) before calling for his crucifixion (15:13; cf. 15:11). 21. This conclusion receives the support of Pryke, Redactional Style, 171 -72. 22. Joel Marcus {Mark 18: A New Translation with Introduction and Commentary [AB 27; New York: Doubleday, 2000], 421-26) and John Paul Heil {Jesus Walking on the Sea: Meaning and

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recalls his previous exercise of divine prerogatives for disciples in rebuking (eTTLTL|id(i), 4:39) the wind, which became calm (KOTrdCw, 4:39).23 In 7:24, Jesus, who wants no one to know where he is, instead is found by a Syrophoenician woman who ultimately secures from him the expulsion (eKpdXXo), 7:26-30) of a demon from her daughter. This story clarifies the temporal succession in Jesus' mission, first (upojTov, 7:27; cf. 3:27; 4:28; 9:11, 12; 13:10) to the children (Jews) and then to the dogs (Gentiles).24 This indicates that the last occurrence of GeXo) in Jesus' statement "Not what I want but what you [want]" (14:36) may cultivate for the narrative audience a recognition that the two previous frustrations of what Jesus wants constitute further examples of divergence between what God and Jesus want and that these divergences likewise are resolved by Jesus choosing to do God's will over his own. Thus, although all that Jesus does is done by the authority given him by God and so is in accord with God's will, what Jesus wants may (generally) or may not (on at least one and perhaps three occasions) accord with God's will. These observations clarify that experiencer argument roles are unique in that they do not impose positive or negative evaluations in a straightforward fashion. Instead, only the content, that is experienced—in this case, what is wanted— directly receives positive or negative evaluation; and the evaluation of the experiencer depends on how the character as agent acts in response to this content. Here Jesus receives positive evaluation in all occurrences by accepting the positively evaluated content of what God wants and by acting on it for the benefit of others. Most other characters are portrayed as wanting something that is negatively evaluated and, by implication, against the will of God and then acting to realize this negative content: Herodias wants (6:19) and acts (6:24) to kill John the Baptist; Herodias's daughter wants and requests the head of John the Baptist (6:25; cf. 6:22); Herod does not want to deny the request of Herodias's daughter (6:26) Gospel Functions of Malt 14:22-23, Mark 6:45-52 and John 6:15b-2l [AnBib 82; Rome: Biblical Institute Press, 1981], 69-71) consider further implications of Jesus wanting to pass by the disciples. The context, however, does not clarify whether pass by (nape pxo urn, 6:48) evokes preexisting beliefs concerning the use of this verb in stories of God's self-revelation (cf. Gen 32:31 LXX; Exod 33:17-34:8; 1 Kgs 19:11—13; Dan 12:1 LXX) and so the direct positive relationship between Jesus and God which this verb asserts. 23. Evocation of 4:35-41 by 6:45-52 also is encouraged by repetition of when it was late (oijjias yevoêvris, 4:35; 6:47), to the other side (els TO TTepav, 4:35; 6:45), crowd (oxXos, 4:36; 6:45), boat (TTXOLOV, 4:36, 37a, 37b; 6:47, 51), wind (dv€|ios, 4:37, 39a, 39b, 41; 6:48, 51), and sea (GdXacKJci, 4:39,41; 6:47,48,49). 24. Repetition of satisfy (xopTd£w, 6:42; 7:27), bread (ap-ros, 6:41a, 41b, [44]; 7:27), and eat (ecrOu), 6:36, 37a, 37b, 42,44; 7:28) also may evoke for the narrative audience 6:33-44, and so prepare for the following extension of Jesus' ministry in the feeding of the four thousand (8:1-10), where satisfy (8:4, 8), bread (8:4, 5, 6), and eat (8:1, 2, 8) reappear. P, Pokorn? ("From a Puppy to a Child: Some Problems of Contemporary Biblical Exegesis Demonstrated from Mark 7.24-30/Matt 15:21-8," NTS 41 [1995]: 321-37, here 324) and David Rhoads ("Jesus and the Syrophoenician Woman in Mark: A Narrative-Critical Study," JAAR 62 [1994]: 343-75, here 357) discuss the severity of the designation "dog" (Kwdpiou, 7:27) and its implications for exegesis.

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and so orders John's execution (6:27); they did what they wanted with Elijah/ John the Baptist (9:13); James and John want and request to sit at Jesus' right and left hand in his glory (10:36; cf. 10:35); the scribes want to walk around in stoles and greetings in the market places and act accordingly (12:38); and the crowd does not want Jesus released (15:9) and calls for his crucifixion (15:13). Of these, only James and John do not obtain what they want but, instead, will do what God wants: drink Jesus' cup (10:38a, 39b). Thus, James and John are directly positively related to Jesus as characters who do or will do what God wants even when they want otherwise. Positively evaluated content of GeXw appears with Bartimaeus, who wants to see (10:51), and "you," who may want to give to the poor (14:7). Bartimaeus's reception of sight by faith as instrument (10:52) indicates that what he wants coheres with what Jesus (and God) want. A positive alignment for those wanting to give to the poor, however, is contingent on their doing so (10:21).25 The only other occurrence of know (ol8a) asserts that Jesus knows the hypocrisy of some of the Pharisees and Herodians (12:15) and responds to them accordingly (12:15-18). This assertion coheres with the broader development concerning Jesus' capacity to recognize (eTuyivcocrKu), 2:8; 5:30) internal dispositions. Jesus as experiencer is moved with compassion (airXayxvôjiai) for a leper (1:41), the crowd (6:34; 8:2), and the boy with the unclean spirit and his father (9:22) and responds with the positively evaluated actions of cleansing the leper (1:41), teaching (8i8daK0), 6:34) the crowd and blessing (evXoyeoi) the bread (6:41) and fish (8:7), breaking ([KaTa]KAda), [6:41]; 8:6), and giving (8i8a)|ii, 6:41; 8:6) bread to the disciples for the crowd to eat (6:42; 8:8), and rebuking (eTTiTi|±da)) and commanding the unclean spirit to come out of the boy (9:25). Spit on (6|ITTTU(O, 10:34; 14:65; 15:19) indirectly negatively relates to Jesus/the Son of Man as goal the agents, the Gentiles (10:34); the chief priest and whole Sanhedrin (cf. 14:54), who condemn (KcrraKpiva)) as worthy of death (Odvcrros, 14:65); and the soldiers (15:19) who crucified (aTaupoo), cf. 15:24) him. Repetition directly relates these agents to each other. Eleven repeated words cultivate beliefs about Jesus as benefactive. Of these, four are reserved to God/Jesus: right [hand] (8e£id, 12:36; 14:62/10:37, 40; 15:27); power or force (8uvaîs, 12:24; *14:62/*5:30; * 13:26); and gospel (euayyeEXioy, 1:1, 14, 15; 8:35; 10:29; 13:10; 14:9) and way (686s, 1:2, 3; 12:14), for which their benefaction always is linked. Repetition of these words identifies Jesus with God. 25. The remaining occurrences of 06 Xw appear in statements employing indefinite pronouns and refer to characters who may receive what they want if they do what is required: anyone (ris) wanting to follow behind Jesus may do so by denying oneself, taking up one's cross, and following Jesus (8:34); whoever (bs av) wants to save one's life may do so by destroying it (8:35); anyone (TIS) wanting to be first may be so by being last of all and servant of all (9:35); whoever (6s dv) wants to become great among the twelve may do so by becoming the servant of the others (10:43) and slave of all (10:44).

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Authority (ejouata, 1:22, 27; 11:28a, 28b, 29, 33; cf. 2:10 for the Son of Man) directly positively relates the twelve (3:15; 6:7) to Jesus and his slaves to Jesus as Lord of the Household (13:34). The fact that God gives authority to Jesus (11:28) and Jesus gives authority to the twelve (6:7) identifies the twelve with Jesus. Death (Qavaros) directly positively relates to Jesus whose life or self is sad unto death (14:34)/the Son of Man who is condemned (KcrraKpivG)) to death (10:33; 14:64), those who will not taste death until they see the reign of God having come in power (9:1), and the brother handed over by brother to death (13:12) because of Jesus (cf. 13:9) or his name (cf. 13:13). Death also directly negatively relates to Jesus the one who is to be put to death for speaking evil of father or mother (7:10) and indirectly negatively relates to Jesus the chief priests, scribes, and elders/the chief priest and the whole Sanhedrin, who condemn the Son of Man to/as worthy of death (10:33/14:64) and the brother who hands over brother to death (13:12). God (6 Geos, 15:34a, 34b) indirectly positively relates Jesus to God who abandons him. Jesus' benefaction of disciples (\iaQr\rai9 2:15, 16, 18, 23; 3:7, 9; 4:34; 5:31; 6:1, 35, 41, 45; 7:2, 5, 17; 8:1,4, 6,10, 27a, 27b, 33, 34; 9:14,18, 28, 31; 10:10, 13,23,24,46; 11:1, 14; 12:43; 13:1; 14:12, 13, 14, 16,32; 16:7) is the most frequently asserted relationship for Jesus in Mark; and the nature of their indirect relationship with Jesus receives consideration in chapter 4. Mother, brothers [and sisters] (JITITTIP, d8eXoi [mi d8eXc|>ai], 3:31, 32, 33, 34, 35) are indirectly negatively related to Jesus when defined biologically and indirectly positively related to Jesus when defined as those doing God's will (3:35). Name (6vo|ia, 6:14; 9:37, 38, 39, 41; 13:6, 13) directly positively relates to Jesus Simon, who receives the name Peter from Jesus (3:16); James and John, who receive the name Boanerges from Jesus (3:17); Jairus (5:22), whose daughter is healed by Jesus (cf. 5:41-42); and God as the Lord (11:9) and indirectly positively relates to Jesus those who act in Jesus' name by receiving a child (9:37), casting (eKpdXXw) out demons (9:38), doing a powerful deed (9:39), giving a drink of water (9:40), and those who are hated because of Jesus' name (13:13). Name relates Jesus directly negatively to Legion (5:9a, 9b) and indirectly negatively to the many who will come in his name and mislead (13:6). Life/self (4JDXI1) directly positively relates to Jesus, whose life/self is sad unto death (14:34)/the Son of Man, who gives his life as a ransom for many (10:45), the one who destroys one's life for the sake of Jesus and the gospel (8:35b), and the one who loves God with one's whole life (12:30), and directly negatively relates Jesus to the one who destroys one's life not for the sake of Jesus and the gospel (8:35a) and the one who gains the whole world but forfeits one's life (8:36). Nine repeated words cultivate beliefs about Jesus as referent of the patient argument. Of these, die (orrroOvrjaKa)) directly positively aligns Jesus (15:44b; cf.

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15:44a for Gi/âKO)), Jairus's daughter (5:35, 39), the son with a mute spirit (9:26), and a series of brothers (12:19,20,21) and their wife (12:22). All of these subsequently are portrayed as rising: Jesus as Teacher (cf. 5:35) commands Jairus's daughter to rise (eyeipG), 5:41), and she rose (dviaTaum, 5:42); Jesus as Teacher (cf. 9:17) raises (eyeipa), 9:27) the son with the mute spirit, and he rose (dvL8€Ka) or apostles (diTooToXoi) who are to preach (Krjpuaatt)) and have authority (efjouaia) to cast out (eKpdXXo)) demons (3:14-15), the special name given to Simon (3:16), and the twelve's sending (dTTocrreAA(o) to proclaim and cast out demons (6:7-13).2 The narration indicates preexisting beliefs that the 1. This study develops topics introduced in Paul Danove, "A Rhetorical Analysis of Mark's Construction of Discipleship," in Rhetorical Criticism and the Bible: Essaysfrom the 1998 Florence Conference (ed Stanley E. Porter and Dennis L. Stamps; JSNTSup 195; Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 2002), 289-306. 2. This study assumes that information about the twelve and apostles may be applied to the disciples at least with respect to the general elements of discipleship: see Ernest Best, "Role of the Disciples in Mark," NTS 23 (1977): 377-401, here 380-81, who points out that, although Mark distinguishes to a limited extent between the disciples and the twelve, narratively the two groups are used similarly. Further justification for this approach to the twelve and apostles appears below.

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The Rhetoric of the Characterization of Jesus' Disciples

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disciples saw (opdco) the risen Jesus (14:28) and proclaimed the gospel (13:10). Preexisting negative beliefs about the disciples are evoked in the notices that Judas Iscariot handed over (irapa8t&op.i, 3:19) Jesus and that the disciples left (d4>LT)|i.L) Jesus and fled at his arrest (14:50). The introduction of content without attempts to explain or justify the positive implications for the disciples, especially in Mark 1-3, indicates that the authorial audience holds the disciples in high esteem and is familiar with much of the narrative content about them.

2. Cultivation of Beliefs about the Disciples: Repeated References Since the number of repeated words and phrases that cultivate beliefs about Jesus' disciples is large, this discussion limits its focus to repeated words that occur at least five times and to less frequently occurring words that receive emphasis through incorporation into repeated contexts and structures. The discussion of the thirty-two repeated agent and non-agent references identified by these criteria sequentially investigates repeated vocabulary that cultivates consistently positive, consistently negative, initially positive and subsequently negative, and potentially positive but never realized beliefs about the disciples. Agent references, which are most common (fifteen of thirty-two), receive first consideration under each category; and vocabulary investigated in the discussion of the characterization of Jesus (ch. 3 sec. 2) receives only summary statement. The discussion concludes by examining three repeated designations for Jesus' disciples. a. Cultivated Positive Beliefs about the Disciples Ten repeated words cultivate consistently positive beliefs about the disciples' actions (four) and attributes (six). Go forth (dTTepxoiim) directly positively relates the disciples (1:20; 3:13; 6:32) to Jesus (1:35; 6:32, 46; 7:24; 8:13) and the Syrophoenician woman, who goes forth (7:30) at Jesus' command (cf. 8:29), and indirectly positively relates the disciples to Jesus in the two occurrences in which Jesus is the referent of the goal (1:20; 3:13).3 Directly negatively related to the disciples are those who go forth to Gehenna (9:34); Judas, who goes forth (14:10) to the chief priests; and anyone who would go forth (6:36) instead of eating (cf. 6:42,44) the bread from Jesus.

3. The verb oiTrepxoM.ai has three distinct connotations: (1) "go forth," which requires an agent and a goal introduced by "into" (els, 1:35; 6:32, 36, 46; 7:24, 30; 8:13; 9:34), "behind" (OTTLCHD, 1:20), or "to" (-rrpos, 3:13; 14:10); (2) "leave," which requires an agent and an adjective describing the state of the subject (10:22); and (3), "go away," which requires an agent and a source introduced by "from" (d™, 1:42; 5:17) or permissibly omitted (5:20, 24; 6:27, 37; 11:4; 12:12; 14:12; 14:39. Disciples are agents only with the first usage.

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Proclaim (KTWVOOU) directly positively aligns the twelve or apostles (3:14; 6:12) as agents with Jesus (1:14, 38, 39), John the Baptist (1:7), the former demoniac (5:20), and anyone who proclaims the gospel (13:10; 14:9).4 Distribute (TrapaTi6r)|±i, 6:41; 8:6, 7) indirectly positively relates the disciples to the patients, the [bread and] fish that Jesus blesses ([6:41]; 8:7) and the bread for which Jesus gives thanks (8:6), and to the goal, the crowd (cf. 6:34; 8:1,2). Drink (TTIVCO) directly positively relates James and John (10:38a, 39b) and the twelve (14:23) only to Jesus (10:38b, 39a; 14:25) and indirectly positively relates them to cup (TTOTTIPIOI;, 10:38a, 38b, 39a, 39b; 14:23), which is interpreted in terms of the Son of Man's being handed over, condemned to death, spat on, killed, killed and rising (cf. 10:33-34), and giving his life (cf. 10:45) and as Jesus' blood, which is of the covenant and shed for many (cf. 14:24). This verb links the disciples to the "passion" elements of Jesus' portrayal. Give (8IS(I)^JLI) indirectly positively relates the disciples as goal only to Jesus and God as agents. God gives (4:11) the mystery of God's reign to those around Jesus with the twelve and will give (13:11) to Peter, James, John, and Andrew what they will say. Jesus/the Lord of the Household gives (6:7/13:34) authority (eôuaia) to the twelve/his slaves. Jesus gives to his disciples the bread which he blesses (6:41) and for which he gives thanks (8:6). Jesus gives to the twelve the bread which he blesses and interprets as his body (14:22) and the cup, which he interprets in terms of his blood (14:23). This action is not realized with respect to disciples only in 10:37, in which James and John ask that Jesus give to them to sit at his right and left in his glory, and in 10:40, in which Jesus states that this is not his to give. Here neither the giving or sitting at Jesus' right and left receives negative evaluation; for God prepares and gives these positions (cf. 10:40). Instead, it is the fact that James and John want (OeXw, 10:35, 36) and act to secure these positions for themselves that receives negative evaluation. Authority (eôvaia) directly positively relates the twelve/the slaves of the Lord of the Household as benefactive (3:15; 6:7/13:34) to Jesus (1:22, 27; 11:28a, 28b, 29, 33; cf. 2:10 for the Son of Man).5 Send (ctTToaTeXXo)) directly positively relates the patients, the twelve or apostles (3:14; 6:7; cf. 6:30) and two disciples (11:1; 14:13), to Jesus (9:37)/the Beloved Son (12:6) and the slaves of the Lord of the Vineyard (12:2,4; cf. 12:5), who may be taken to include John the Baptist/Elijah (1:2; cf. 1:4/Mal 3:1). The twelve are the only named characters whose sending is tied through a purpose clause to particular actions and attributes: proclaiming (Kriptiaaca, 3:14) and having authority (eôvoia) to cast out (etcpaXXw) demons (3:15). These subse4. When not used intransitively (1:38, 39; 3:14; 7:36), the content of Kripucraw is the gospel (1:14; 13:10; 14:9), repentance (6:12), the baptism of John (1:4, 8) and Jesus (1:8), or l<what Jesus did for him" (5:20). 5. The discussion concerning who has given authority to Jesus (11:28, 33) introduces a contrast between what is from heaven (e£ ovpavov) and what is from human beings (e£ ctyOpcu-nw). This contrast is part of a broader development that receives consideration below.


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quently are realized when Jesus sends them and gives (SiScoui) them authority (6:7) and they proclaim (6:12), cast out demons, heal (6:13), and teach (6:30 [as apostles]).6 Hand over (TTapa8i8u)|±i) directly positively aligns the patients Peter, James, John, and Andrew (13:9, 11) with Jesus/the Son of Man (3:19; 14:18, 42, 44; 15:1, 10, 15/9:31; 10:33; 14:21, 41) and the brother handed over by a brother (13:12) because of Jesus' name (cf. 13:13). Indirectly negatively related to them are the agents Judas (3:19; 14:21,41), the chief priests and scribes (10:33), those handing over brothers or sisters because of Jesus' name (13:12), the Sanhedrin (15:1), the chief priests (15:10), and Pilate (15:15).7 Summon (TrpoaKaXeo|±ai) directly positively relates the patients Jesus' disciples (8:1; 12:43), the twelve (3:13; 6:7; 10:42), the crowd (3:23; 7:14), and the crowd with his disciples (8:34), and indirectly positively relates them to Jesus as agent. This verb introduces significant actions by Jesus for the twelve whom he makes (uoieo), 3:14) and sends (diroaTeXXa), 6:7; cf. 3:14). Satisfy (xopTd£a)) directly positively relates the patients the disciples and crowd (6:42; 8:8), the crowd (8:4), and the children/Jews (7:27) and indirectly relates Jesus' disciples to the bread [and fish] which Jesus blesses ([6:41]; 8:7) and for which he gives thanks (8:6 ). As previously noted (ch. 3 sec. 2), the disciples who proclaim (Krjpwaa)), have authority (e£owia), and are sent (dTTOQTeXXo)) also are identified with Jesus. b. Cultivated Negative Beliefs about the Disciples Six repeated references associated with five verbs cultivate consistently negative beliefs about the disciples either by sophisticating preexisting negative beliefs or by developing a negative interpretation of preexisting neutral or ambiguous beliefs about them. Discuss (8iaXoyt£(HJLai) negatively evaluates and directly relates the disciples and twelve to the scribes and to the chief priests, scribes, and elders. The disciples (cf. 8:10), who discuss (8:16,17) that they have no bread, are depicted as not understanding Jesus' statements and having a hardened heart (cf. 8:17). The disciples, who discuss (9:33) who is greatest, are corrected in Jesus' teaching to the twelve about being last and servant of all (cf. 9:35). The scribes, who discuss

6. God's sending of Jesus/the Beloved Son (9:37/12:6) who sends the twelve or apostles/disciples (3:14; 6:7/11:1; 14:13) identifies God as the ultimate agent (through Jesus) of the sending of the twelve/apostles/disciples. That God also sent a messenger to prepare Jesus' way (1:2) interprets the sending of the twelve/apostles/disciples as a preparation for the advent of Jesus. 7. Elsewhere TTapciSiSwiii is intransitive (4:29) or has nonhuman (7:13) or unspecified (13:12) referents. Since the handing over of John the Baptist and Jesus is intimately tied to their deaths (John 1:14; cf. 6:14-29; and Jesus as Son of Man, 9:31; 10:33), the disciples who will be handed over (13:9, 11) because of Jesus (13.9; cf. 8.35) possibly to their deaths (13:12) again receive direct alignment with John and Jesus and share in their positive evaluation.

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(2:6, 8a, 8b) in their hearts that Jesus is blaspheming, are countered by Jesus' statements and action (2:8-12); and the chief priests, scribes, and elders, who discuss (11:31) the origin of John's baptism, are revealed as lacking faith and fearing the crowd (11:31-32), which esteems Jesus (11:18). Rebuke (emTiiidw) directly negatively relates to Jesus (1:25; 3:12; 4:39; 8:30, 33; 9:25) the agents Peter (8:32), the disciples (10:13), and disciples and the crowd (10:48); for in each case Jesus explicitly contradicts their actions (8:33; 10:14; 10:49). Rebuke (emTiiida)) negatively evaluates and directly relates to each other the experiencers unclean spiritfs] (1:25; [3:12]), the wind (4:39), the disciples and Peter (8:30), Peter (8:33), and an unspeaking and deaf spirit (9:25) and indirectly negatively relates them to Jesus as agent. In each case, their negative evaluation as experiencer depends on how they act with respect to the content of experience (ch. 3 sec. 2b). The negative evaluation of the disciples and Peter (8:30) results from Peter's action of stating that Jesus is the Christ (cf. 8:29); and that of Peter (8:33) from his action of rebuking Jesus. That of the unclean spirit[s] (1:25; [3:12]) results from their action of crying out Jesus' identity (cf. 1:23-25; [3:11-12]); that of the wind (4:39) for causing the boat to fill up; and that of the unspeaking and deaf spirit (9:25) from seizing (cf. 9:18, 22) and casting a boy into the fire in order to destroy him (cf. 9:22). Not know (ot8a, 4:13; 9:6; 10:38; 13:33, 35; 14:40, 68, 71) consistently realizes negative evaluations for disciples as experiencers and directly negatively relates them to God's messengers and Son (13:32). Those around Jesus with the twelve do not know (4:13) Jesus' parable and ask Jesus about his parables (cf. 4:10) despite the fact that God has given to them the mystery of God's reign (cf. 4:11). Peter does not know (9:6) what he might respond and makes a negatively evaluated statement (cf. 9:5) because of fear (cf. 9:6). James and John do not know (10:38) what they are asking but request it anyway (cf. 10:37). Jesus asserts the potential for the positive evaluation of Peter, James, John, and Andrew as slaves of the Lord of the Vineyard who do not know when the time is/when the Lord of the Household is coming (13:33/35) if they act by remaining alert (ypTjyopeo), 13:34, 35, 37). However, the narration realizes only a negative evaluation for Peter, James, and John, who subsequently do not remain alert (14:34, 37, 38) and do not know (14:40) what they might respond. Peter claims not to know (14:68) the content of the statement that he was with Jesus and acts by denying its content; and Peter claims not to know (14:71) Jesus and responds by cursing and swearing.8 Understand {<jvvir\\ii) also consistently negatively evaluates the disciples as experiencers. The straightforward notice that those around Jesus with the twelve 8. The lone example of oi8a without "not" presents a similar development. Despite the fact that the twelve know (10:42) that those seeming to rule the gentiles lord over them and that their great ones exercise authority over them, James and John ask to sit at the right and left of Jesus (cf. 10:37); and the ten in response become angry with James and John (cf. 10:41).


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asked Jesus about his parables (4:10) indicates preexisting beliefs that Jesus' disciples did not always understand his teachings. Those who do not understand (4:12; cf. Isa 6:9-10) then are negatively evaluated as outsiders for whom everything is in parables.9 The context (cf. 4:10-12) identifies Jesus' parables as the content that those around Jesus with the twelve do not understand (4:13) and indicates that they do not respond properly to reception of the mystery of the reign of God by turning. The disciples who see Jesus walking on the sea shout out (cf. 6:49) from fear (cf. 6:50), which the narratorial statement of 6:52 interprets as their response to not understanding about the bread and having a hardened heart.10 The disciples then act on their failure to understand (8:17, 21) by discussing (8iaXoyiCo|iai, 8:16) that they have no bread, which again indicates that their heart is hardened (8:17; cf. 6:52). n This interprets the disciples' negatively evaluated action as their continuing failure to turn in response to being given the mystery of the reign of God. Fear (<j>opeo|iai) consistently imposes a negative evaluation on disciples as experiences.12 In 4:41 the disciples' fear reflects their lack of faith (cf. 4:40) and results in their improper response of questioning Jesus' concern (cf. 4:38) and identity (cf. 4:41). The disciples who fear (6:50) shout out (cf. 6:49) and are depicted as lacking understanding (ovvir\\ii) and having a hardened heart (cf. 9. E. J. Pryke attributes all but one occurrence of <JVVIX)[LI to authorial composition (Redactional Style in the Marcan Gospel: A Study of Syntax and Vocabulary as Guides to Redaction in Mark [Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1978], 137). Developments concerning not understanding (auvtruii) and not knowing (ol8a) are contextually linked in 4:10—13. 10. Suzanne Watts Henderson interprets the source of the disciples' negative evaluation as their failure to understand Jesus' identity and to act on the pattern of Jesus ('"Concerning the Loaves': Comprehending Incomprehension in Mark 6:45-52," JSNT 83 [2001]: 3-25, here 23): see also Elizabeth Struthers Malbon, 'The Jesus of Mark and the Sea of Galilee," JBL 103 (1984): 363-77, here 374. 11. Developments concerning auvLTî are linked to 8iaAoyi£oum in 8:16-17. The disciple's lack of understanding and not knowing (ol8a), which were linked in 4:10-13, receives collateral development in the straightforward introduction of preexisting beliefs that Jesus questioned the disciples about their failure to understand (voew) his teaching (7:18; 8:17) and that Peter claims not to know (emaTaum, 14:68) what the slave is saying. Subsequently voew is coordinated first with lacking understanding (aovveros, 7:18) and then with [not] understanding (auvin.ni, 8:17); and the related word, not know (ayvoew, 9:32), has as its content Jesus' statement about the Son of Man being handed over, killed, and rising. 12. The authorial audience recognizes that fear (6opeo|iai) may indicate either a positive or a negative response in general Koine usage and may impose a very positive evaluation on those who respond to divine activity with "holy awe": see Horst Balz, "(j>opew, <j>o(Seo|jLai, 4>6|Sos, 8eos," TDNT 9:189-219, here 189-97. The straightforward narration of cj>opeou.ai in 6:50 with the disciples as experiencers indicates that the authorial audience's preexisting positive evaluation of the disciples accommodates the fact that the disciples at times reacted with fear to Jesus' deeds. In isolation from the subsequent development concerning <j>o|3<EOiiai and precluding the very negative narratorial comments in 6:52, a range of possible preexisting interpretations ranging from holy awe to negative fear is possible in 6:50. The authorial audience's primarily positive preexisting evaluation of the disciples, despite knowledge of their occasional fear, however, could be expected to grant the most positive interpretation of fear possible in this instance.

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6:52).13 This constitutes the first example of verbal repetition that cultivates negative beliefs about the disciples.14 In 9:32 the disciples' fear prevents them from inquiring further; and in 10:32 the fear of those following Jesus contradicts Jesus' earlier command to the disciples (cf. 6:50) who follow him (1:18). Repetition of ôpeofim directly relates Jesus' disciples to other negatively evaluated characters. The Gerasenes who fear (5:15) ask Jesus to go from their region, indicating that they do not want to be with Jesus, a central theme of 3:13-6:6a.15 The fear of the woman with the flow of blood (5:33) initially prevents her from responding to Jesus. In 5:36 Jesus commands Jairus not to fear, for this would prevent Jairus's continued association with (troubling of) Jesus (cf. 5:35). Herod's fear (6:20) of John the Baptist is contextually linked to his actions of having John beheaded (6:16) and imprisoned for speaking God's word (6:17-18; cf. Lev 18:16). Various religious authorities who fear Jesus (11:18) or the crowd (11:32; 12:12) that esteems Jesus (cf. 11:18) and John (cf. 11:32) seek how to destroy (cf. 11:18) and arrest Jesus (cf. 12.12).16 The women's fear (16:8) precludes their action of passing on the young man's message and results in their negative evaluation.17 The only occurrence of fearful (eKcôpos < opeo|iai, 9:6) explains why Peter does not speak coherently. Repetition of cf>opeopm contributes to the vilification of the disciples by relating them to characters who respond to fear with overt actions against Jesus and John the Baptist without ascribing to the disciples comparable overt actions against Jesus.18 c. Cultivated Positive to Increasingly Negative Beliefs about the Disciples Four verbs that require agent arguments initially cultivate positive beliefs about the disciples and subsequently cultivate negative beliefs about them. These verbs 13. Developments concerning o|3eo|jiai in 16:8 indicates a positive reaction to the divine and would limit this positive connotation to this one occurrence. The introduction of such a singular connotation in the last verse of the narrative, however, is untenable. Since ôpeopm has a consistently negative connotation in its earlier occurrences, the frames evoked by this occurrence impose evaluations highly resistant to a positive interpretation. 18. See Mary Ann Tolbert, "How the Gospel of Mark Builds Character," Int 47 (1993): 354.


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exhibit two patterns of development. Leave (air\[Li\ cast out (eKpaXXw), and do/make (noiea)) initially realize positive evaluations that subsequently are undermined; and ambiguities in the meaning of follow (aKoXouGea)), which initially cultivates positive evaluations of disciples, later permit the verb to impose positive and negative evaluations simultaneously. Leave (dcj>Crm,L) initially evokes preexisting positive beliefs about Simon and Andrew, who leave their nets and follow Jesus (1:18), and James and John, who leave their father in the boat and go forth behind Jesus (1:20).19 In 4:36, the disciples who leave at Jesus' command also receive positive evaluation. In 10:28, Peter's assertion that he and the disciples (cf. 10:13) have left everything and followed Jesus is verified by the previous occurrences of dc|>tr||XL (1:18, 20; 4:36) and by the notices that Peter and other disciples follow Jesus (1:18; 2:14a, 14b; 6:1). This results in their positive evaluation. In 10:29, however, Jesus reformulates Peter's statement by generalizing the agent from "we" in reference to particular disciples to the indefinite "anyone" and by specifying that leaving everything constitutes leaving house, family, and possessions for the sake of Jesus and the gospel. This new formulation establishes the potential for the future positive evaluation of any character who fulfills the noted requirements without realizing this potential with respect to Peter and disciples. The occurrence in 14:50 then realizes a negative evaluation for those who leave Jesus and flee at his arrest. Since the only characters present are Jesus; those with Judas who came to arrest Jesus (cf. 14:43); Peter, James, and John (cf. 14:33, 41-43); and Jesus' other disciples (cf. 14:32), those who leave Jesus and flee are disciples who receive negative evaluation. Repetition of OK|)LT][IL heightens the contrast between the final action of the disciples as a group, leaving Jesus and fleeing (14:50), and their initial actions, leaving nets and following Jesus (1:18) and leaving father and going behind Jesus (1:20). Cast out (eK(3dXXo)) initially directly positively aligns the twelve or apostles (3:15) and the twelve (6:13) as agents with Jesus (1:34,39; 3:22; 7:26) and someone casting out demons in Jesus' name (9:38) and indirectly negatively relates them to the demons that are cast out. The disciples' subsequent failure to cast out (9:18, 28) the unclean spirit from a boy then directly negatively relates them to Jesus, who accomplishes this action (cf. 9:25). This undermines the twelve's previous identification with Jesus through this verb (ch. 3 sec. 2a). Do/make (irotea)) initially positively evaluates the disciples who, as agent, make a way (2:23, 24) and are defended by Jesus (cf. 2:25-28). In 6:30 this verb reprises all of the positively evaluated actions of the twelve as apostles when sent (6:6b-13). This occurrence also plays an integral role in developing the specialized connotation of noieo) to designate all of Jesus' saving actions (ch. 3 sec. 2a). In 9:5, however, Peter's suggestion to make tents for Jesus, Elijah, and Moses is 19. In this usage, leave (air|u.i) requires an agent, a patient, and a location that may be left unspecified. Two other connotations of acj>ir|p.i, forgive and permit, which require different semantic roles of their arguments, were clarified in ch. 3 sec. la.

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rejected, ascribed to his not knowing what to respond and to the fact that he, James, and John are afraid (eKôPos). This results in his and their negative evaluation. Although the final two occurrences (11:3, 5) positively evaluate two disciples who do as Jesus commands, their action of untying a colt is in stark contrast to the saving actions of the twelve or apostles on mission. This undermines the twelve's previous identification with Jesus through this verb (ch. 3 sec. 2a). Follow (otKoXouOeo)) requires an agent and a goal and has the basic meaning "proceed behind [the goal]," and a specialized meaning "be[come] a disciple [of Jesus]."20 Both connotations appear in 8:34 in Jesus' statement "If one wants to follow behind me, let one deny oneself and take up one's cross and follow me," where the former occurrence denotes "be[come] a disciple" and the latter "go behind." The basic meaning also is indicated when Jesus orders two of his disciples to follow someone other than himself (14:13). The initial straightforward narration of Jesus' calls of Peter and Andrew (1:18) and Levi (2:14a, 14b) can have their full impact only if the authorial audience already recognizes the verb's specialized (discipleship) connotation; but, even in these contexts, the basic connotation also is enacted. These initial occurrences positively evaluate those who follow Jesus under both connotations and cultivate an expectation that the basic and specialized meanings will be linked unless contextual considerations (as noted above) indicate otherwise. In five of the nine occurrences of aKoXouOeco with disciples as agent and Jesus as goal, both the basic and the specialized meanings result in a positive evaluation of disciples: Simon and Andrew (1:18); Levi (2:14a, 14b); Jesus' disciples (6:1); and Peter and the disciples (10:28).21 To these can be added the potential positive evaluation of any disciple, who, wanting to follow Jesus, denies oneself, takes up one's cross, and follows him (8:34a, 34b). Repetition of aKoXovQeo) directly relates these disciples to many tax collectors and sinners (2:15), a great multitude (3:7), a great crowd (5:24), Bartimaeus (10:52), and Mary Magdalene, Mary of James the Lesser and mother of Joses, and Salome (15:41), who also receive positive evaluation. In 10:32, the [ones] following (oi (XKoXouGouvTes) Jesus, including the twelve, fear (op€O|iai) and so are negatively evaluated. This directly relates the twelve to the negatively evaluated man with many possession whom Jesus invites to follow (10:21) but who, instead, goes away sad (cf. 10:22). The remaining three occurrences highlight both the basic and the specialized connotations of ctKoXouOea) and result in simultaneous positive (basic) and negative (specialized) evaluations of disciples. In 9:38, John and the remainder of the twelve (cf. 9:35) prevent someone from casting out (eKpdXXa)) demons by Jesus' name because he did not follow "us" (the twelve and Jesus). The reference to 20. Gerhard Kittel, "ckoAoueea)," TDNT 1:210-15. 21. Developments concerning dKoAou6e(o and a$ir\\i.i (leave) are linked only in contexts of the earlier positive evaluation of disciples (1:18; 10:28).


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casting out demons highlights the specialized connotation of dtKoXoi;0ea) and evaluates John and the twelve negatively because Jesus is the only appropriate referent of the goal with the specialized connotation. However, Jesus' next statement, "For whoever is not against us is for us" (9:40), positively evaluates the referents of the pronoun, us (Jesus and the twelve), and encourages an interpretation of (XKoXouGtoi) in 9:38 according to its primary connotation. In 11:9, the notice that those following shouted and the coordination of those preceding and those following emphasizes a spatial relationship and encourages interpretation according to the verb's primary meaning. However, contextual linkage with prior actions specifically attributed to disciples (11:2-7) or appropriate for disciples (spreading cloaks and cutting off leafy branches) encourages interpretation according to the specialized meaning. In this light, coordination of those preceding with those following directly aligns the disciples with those violating the proper relationship with Jesus, who is supposed to precede (Trpodyco, cf. 10:32).22 Finally, the qualification of Peter's following in 14:54 as occurring from a distance (aub [taKpoBev) suggests the primary, spatial connotation. However, the implications of this phrase for specifying the quality of Peter's discipleship in light of his prior flight at Jesus' arrest (14:50), his subsequent threefold denial of Jesus and his discipleship (14:68-72; cf. 14:30), and his concluding weeping (14:72) emphasize the specialized connotation. d. Cultivated Potential but Unrealized Positive Beliefs about the Disciples Jesus commands (usually with imperative verbs) or predicts (with future indicative verbs) five repeated actions and seven repeated attributes that have the potential to evaluate the disciple positively, but this positive potential never is realized within the narration. Destroy (dTTo\Xu|ji) asserts but does not realize the potential for the positive evaluation of the disciple who as agent destroys one's life for the sake of Jesus and the gospel (8:35b) and gives a cup of water in his name and so does not destroy one's reward (9:41). Such action would directly positively relate the disciples to Jesus, who can destroy unclean spirits (1:24), and to God as the Lord of the Vineyard, who will destroy the farmers of the vineyard (12:9) and directly negatively relate the disciple to the one who would destroy the new wine by placing it into old wineskins (2:22), the Pharisees and Herodians/the chief priests and scribes who would destroy Jesus (3:6/11:18), the storm that could destroy the disciples (4:38), the one who would save one's life but ultimately destroys it (8:35a), and the unclean spirit that attempts to destroy a boy (9:22). Remain alert (ypriyopeo)) would positively evaluate the disciple who remains alert (13:34, 35, 37) and contrasts this action with sleeping (KaGetjSw, 13:36).23 22. A negative evaluation of those shouting in 11:9 also results in the negative evaluation of the content of their shout, "Hosanna . . ." (ll:9b-10), and may contribute to an explanation of Jesus' immediate departure from the temple in 11:11. 23. The straightforward introduction of ypriyopew in 13:34 indicates preexisting beliefs that

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Jesus' commands to Peter, James, and John to remain alert (14:34, 38) prior to his arrest again assert this positive potential; but their failure to do so (13:37) realizes their negative evaluation. The three notices that Peter (14:37b) and Peter, James, and John (14:37a, 40) instead sleep recalls the former contrast (13:35-36) between these verbs and negatively evaluates James, John, and, especially Peter. Give (8I8OJ(IL) asserts the potential for the positive evaluation of Jairus, his wife, and Peter, James, and John (cf. 5:37, 40) if they give Jairus's daughter something to eat (5:43) and of Jesus' disciples if they give the great crowd something to eat (6:37a). The disciples' immediate response of incomprehension (6:37b) and their failure to give, however, results in their negative evaluation.24 Speak (XaXew) would positive evaluate the disciple who believes what one speaks will happen (11:23), who does not worry about what one will speak (13:1 la) for it will not be the disciple speaking but the holy Spirit (13:11c), and who will speak about what the woman who anointed Jesus did wherever the gospel is proclaimed (14:9). Such action would directly positively relate the disciple to Jesus who speaks [the word] ([2:2], 7; [4:33], 34; 5:35; 6:50; [8:32]; 12:1; 14:43), those from Jairus (5:36), and the deaf mute (7:35) and others (7:37) and directly negatively relate the disciple to demons (1:34). This action is realized only for Peter, who says (14:31) that, if necessary (8et), he would die with Jesus and not deny him. This contradicts both preexisting and subsequently realized (cf. 14:68, 70, 71) beliefs and so is negatively evaluated. Pray (Trpoaei>xo|jm) would positively evaluate the disciple who believes that one will receive that for which one prays (11:24) and who remains alert (ypriyopeoj) and prays (14:38). This action would relate the disciple directly positively with Jesus (1:35; 6:46; 14:32, 35, 39), indirectly positively with God, and directly negatively with the scribes who pray at length for show (12:40). That Jesus finds Peter, James, and John sleeping (14:40) indicates that they did not comply with Jesus' command to remain alert and, by implication, to pray and so realizes only their negative evaluation.25 Will see (6pd(o) indirectly positively relates Peter, James, John, and Andrew (13:26)/Jesus' disciples (16:7) to the parousaic Son of Man/Jesus the Nazarene and directly negatively relates them to the chief priest and the entire Sanhedrin (14:62). Death (Qdvarog) would positively evaluate the disciple who will not taste death (9:1) until one sees the reign of God having come in power and the one who is handed over by brother to death (13:12) because of Jesus (cf. 13:9) or his name (cf. 13:13). This disciple would receive direct positive alignment with Jesus imposed this requirement on his disciples: see Pryke, Redactional Style, 171-72, who attributes only the occurrences of ypriyopew in 13:35 and 14:34,37 to Markan redaction. 24. The disciples' subsequent distribution of the bread given them by Jesus somewhat redeems this negative evaluation; but the use of a different verb withholds the complete reversal of their negative evaluation. 25. The threefold repetition irpooevxoâi in 14:32-42 and its coordination with ypriyopew in 14:38 also link the negative developments concerning praying and remaining alert.


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Jesus whose life or self is sad unto death (14:34) and the Son of Man who is condemned (KaTaKptva)) to/as worthy of death (10:33/14:64) and a direct negative relationship with the one who is to be put to death for speaking evil of father or mother (7:10). Life/self (4juxi) would positively evaluate the disciple who destroys one's life (8:35b) for the sake of Jesus and the gospel and who loves God with one's whole life/self (12:30). This disciple would receive direct positive alignment with Jesus whose self is sad unto death (14:34) and the Son of Man who gives his life as a ransom for many (10:45) and direct negative relationship with the one who destroys one's life not for the sake of Jesus and the gospel (8:35a) and who gains the whole world but forfeits one's life (8:36). Baptize (paiTTL£a)) would positively evaluate the disciple who is baptized (10:38b, 39b) with the baptism with which Jesus is baptized and would directly positively relate the disciple to the patients the people of Judea and Jerusalem (1:5, 8) and Jesus (1:9; 10:38a, 39a). Servant (SiaKovos) would positively evaluate the disciple who becomes servant and directly positively relate the disciple to all for whom one is servant (9:35) and to each other (10:43). Slave (8oOXos) would positively evaluate the disciple who is slave of all (10:44) and of Jesus as Lord of the Household (13:34) and assert the following relationships for the disciple: direct positive to the slaves of the Lord of the Vineyard (12:2, 4); indirect positive to all, Jesus as Lord of the Household, and God as Lord of the Vineyard; direct negative to chief priest's slave (14:47); and indirect negative to the chief priest. First (TrpwTOs) would identify the disciple with the last who will be first (9:35/10:3 lb) and relate the disciple directly negatively to those who presently are first (10:31a) but will be last and indirectly positively to those for whom one is servant (10:44). Be necessary (8ei) would positively evaluate and directly positively relate the disciple who proclaims (KT}piiaaa>) the gospel to all nations (13:10) and dies with Jesus (14:31) to the Son of Man who suffers, is rejected, is killed, and rises (8:31) and to Elijah/John the Baptist who came first (9:11). e. Cultivated Beliefs Associated with the Designations for Disciples Jesus constitutes two groups of characters in indirect positive relationship with him. The larger group, referenced by the designation n.a0TiTai (disciples), is constituted through Jesus' invitation to go behind (Seme OTTLCKD, 1:17) or follow (otKoXouOeco, 2:14) him and through their response of leaving (d((>iTi|ii) their work (1:18, 20) and family (1:20) and following (otKoXovOeo, 1:18; 2:14) or going forth behind (aix4px°\iai omaa), 1:20) Jesus.26 This group is distin26. These two contexts present further vocabulary parallels: Jesus passes by (Trapdyw, 1:16; 2:14) along the sea (rrapa rx\v OdXaaaav, 1:16; 2:13) and sees (opdw, 1:16,19; 2:14) those whom he will invite to be disciples prior to their invitation.

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guished by the fact that, whereas Jesus speaks to all others in parables, he explains all things to those designated by |ia9r)Tcu (4:34). Jesus also makes (TTOL60), 3:14, 16) a smaller group, referenced by the designation [ol] 8(o8eKa (the twelve) of named members so that they might be with him and he might send (diToaTeXXa)) them to proclaim (KTIPIKKTOI), 3:14) and to have authority (e£ouaia) to cast out (eKpdXXo, 3:15) demons. Jesus also designates this smaller group as duoaToXoL (apostles), which highlights what those so designated do when sent (cf. 6:30). Those designated as Sonera and aTToa-roXoi are distinguished from those designated as |ia9r)Tai by particular actions (proclaiming, casting out, healing, and teaching) and attributes (having authority and being sent). The smaller group, however, is composed of members of the larger group (Simon, Andrew, James, and John, 3:16-18; cf. 1:16, 19); those designated by SciSem retain their designation by [LaQr\rai (cf. 8:27-29; 10:23-28 with respect to Peter); and Jesus teaches those designated by both d&beKa (10:32) and |±a9r|Tai (4:34). Nor are the distinctions in actions and attributes absolute: Jesus sends (diToaTeXXa)) both |iaGT}Tai (11:1; 14:13) and 8c58eKa or drrroaToXoi (3:14; 6:7); and the promise of Jesus' invitation to Simon and Andrew to follow, that he will make them fishers of human beings (1:17), is fulfilled only when Jesus sends them under the designations 8u8eKa and aTToaToXoi (6:7; cf. 3:14). This overlap among the designations has permitted the use of the generic reference to disciples in contexts that explicitly reference only 8o58eKa and CLTTOGTOXOI. Prior observations concerning the twelve and apostles generally were reserved to contexts in which SciSem and aTrocrToXoi appear; whereas observations concerning disciples included both explicit references to \mQr\Tai and general references that have \iaOr\rai as a remote antecedent.27 The following discussion, in contrast, distinguishes observations about designations from comments about the groups they reference by rendering the designations in Greek and noting that particular evaluations or beliefs are "associated with" designations. This distinction clarifies the discussion of contexts in which a designation and the group it references are evaluated differently. For example, the young man's command to the women in 16:7 associates with |ia0r|Tai a positive evaluation insofar as this designation is the antecedent of those whom Jesus precedes (Tipodycj), those who will see Jesus, and those to whom Jesus spoke. The women's flight and implied failure to deliver the young man's message, however, precludes the referenced characters' action and results in the negative evaluation of the characters, not the designation itself. The noun |ia0rjTai requires a benefactive argument (disciples "of"); and Jesus is referent of the benefactive on forty-two occasions. Since most of these occurrences have received previous comment, evaluations associated with this 27. The only previous references to the twelve without the designation 8w8eKa concerned 10:35-45, in which the linkage of James and John (10:35), members of the twelve (cf. 3:14-17), with the ten (ol 8eKa, 10:41) and the reservation of an articular number elsewhere to the twelve were deemed adequate to identify them (avrovg) in 10:42 with the twelve.


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designation receive summary tabulation, with positive evaluations on the left and negative evaluations on the right. Occurrences with the same evaluation appear consecutively; and occurrences with opposing evaluation begin a new row. When |ia9T]Ta.L realizes an argument of vocabulary that received previous study, this vocabulary appears in parentheses after the citation; and when |±a0T]Tca is the antecedent of a reference to an argument of such vocabulary, that vocabulary appears in double parentheses: Positive Evaluation

Negative Evaluation

2:15 ((dKoXoueeco)), 16,18d, 23; 3:7,9; 4:34 5:31 6:1 6:35 6:41

7:2,5 7:17((daweTos)) 8:1 8:4 8:6,10,27a, 27b, 33,34; 9:14 9:18 ((eKpdXXo) 31 ((oP€OM.ai)) 10:10 10:13 (eTTiTi|ida>) 10:23 10:24,46 ((cTr 11:1 (dTToaTeXXa)), 14; 12:43; 13:1; 14:12,13 (dTToaTeXXd)), 1 4 , 1 6 , 3 2 ; 16:7

The initial positive evaluations appear in contexts of straightforward narration, indicating that the authorial audience's preexisting beliefs associate a positive evaluation with |±a8r|Tai. Cultivated negative evaluations, in contrast, are associated almost exclusively with the noted repeated vocabulary and so are deemed to arise through sophisticating negative repetition. The preponderance of positive evaluations, especially in the concluding occurrences, contextualizes negative beliefs associated with this designation within an overarching positive context that coheres with the authorial audience's predominantly positive beliefs associated with |ia0r]TaL. The initial occurrences of both 8 8:35a, 35b, 36, 37; 10:45). Although the teachings generally employ the indefinite phrases whoever (os . . . av) and anyone (TIS), they are addressed either to a larger group that includes the disciples (8:34-9:1) or specifically to the twelve (9:35-41; 10:42-45) and so have direct application to the disciples. The first teaching introduces five subsequently repeated words: want (GeXw), follow (dKoXouGew), save (aw£G))9 destroy (dTr6\Xu|ii), and life (fyvxA)* Of these, GeXco requires a subject experiencer; aKoXouOeo), aai£a), and aTr6XXu|±i require a subject agent; andi|;vxi requires a benefactive. Repetition of these words highlights what the disciples may want, do, and have and places primary focus on GeXu), which initiates Jesus' teaching and includes the other words within its content argument: "if anyone wants to follow..." (8:34); and "whoever wants to save one's life" (8:35).38 Evocation of 8:34-9:1 by both 9:35-41 and 10:42-45 and introduction of the latter teachings by GeXco prior to other repeated words that reference the disciples continue to highlight their wanting, doing, and having with the focus on wanting and maintain the emphasis on the disciples as experiences in earlier vocabulary and in the controversies (cf. c^poveo), think).39 Contextual repetition of the teachings contributes to the disciples' characterization in four ways. First, identification of the disciples as appropriate referents of the indefinite pronouns in Jesus' teaching has the potential to directly positively align the disciples with Jesus through the repetition of want (GeXw) and save (a(pCw); and the statement "Whoever wants to save one's life will destroy it" (8:35) relates the disciples and Jesus as characters whose want of negatively evaluated content will be frustrated within the narration (ch. 3 sec. 2b.). Second, the teachings address the disciples' negatively evaluated thinking and action in the controversies in a way that clarifies both the source of their negative evaluation and the requirements for their rehabilitation. In the first teaching, Jesus' statement "If anyone wants to follow behind m e . . . " implicitly recognizes and grants his validation to the disciples' desire to follow him prior to [re]defining the content argument "to follow me," that is, "be my disciple" (see ch. 4 sec. 2d), as denying oneself, taking up one's cross and following him (8:34). Here Jesus' initial validation encourages the disciples (and narrative audience) to have a stake in this redefined and positively evaluated content. Thus, even as the first 38. Life (MJuxri) evokes the point of information that this word also may connote "self: see Eduard Schweizer, 'tyuxn," TDNT 9:637-56, here 637-38,643. Thus, destroy life (tyvxw cnToXXuui, 8:35b; cf. 8:35a) may cultivate a link between this concept and denying self in 8:34. 39. The repeated emphasis on disciples as the experiencers, first of thinking (cj>pove(i)) and now wanting (0£\w), stresses the appropriateness of their designation by u.a0r|Tai, which is derived from |xay0dv(i) (learn), which requires a subject experiencer. This emphasis later receives confirmation in the fourfold repetition of love (dyairdw, 12:30, 31, 33a, 33b) in Jesus' teaching about the first and greatest commandmentfs] (12:28-34), which impose on those present, including Peter and the disciples (cf. 11:20-22), the requirement to love both God (12:30,33a) and neighbor (12:31,33b).

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controversy (8:32b-33) negatively evaluates Peter's thinking and action, the first teaching cultivates beliefs concerning what is required for his (and similarly errant disciples') positive evaluation. Jesus then implicitly recognizes and validates the disciples' want to save their lives before [re]defining this positively as destroying (aTroXXujii) their lives for the sake of Jesus and the gospel (8:35).40 In the second teaching, Jesus responds to the twelve's argument about who is greatest (9:33-34) by validating their want to be first (TTP&TOS) before [re]defining this positively as being last and servant (SICIKOVOS) of all (9:35).41 Again in 10:42-45, Jesus responds to the request of James and John, who want to sit at Jesus' right and left (10:35-40), and to the ten, whose umbrage indicates their similar desire (10:41), by validating their desire to be great (10:43a) and first (10:44a) before [re]defining these positively as being servant (10:43b) and slave (8oO\os) of all (10:44b).42 In each case, the negative portrayal of the disciples in the controversies is followed by specification in the teachings of the positively evaluated content of wanting whose enactment is required to reverse their negative portrayal. Third, the redefined content of wanting receives further clarification through comparisons or contrasts concerning the required thinking and acting of disciples.43 In 8:34-9:1, denying oneself, taking up one's cross, and following Jesus (8:34) and destroying one's life for the sake of Jesus and the gospel (8:35) are contrasted with being ashamed of (eTraiaxwo|±ai) Jesus and his words (8:38). In 9:35-41, being last and servant of all (9:35) is compared positively to receiving a child in Jesus' name (9:37), contrasted with preventing others from casting out demons in Jesus' name (9:38-39), and compared positively to giving a drink of water in [Jesus'] name because someone is Christ's (9:41).44 In 10:42-45, 40. Here repetition of "gospel" recalls its occurrence in 1:15 and clarifies that destroying one's life for the sake of Jesus and the gospel is possible only for the one who believes (maTeuw) in the gospel: see David Rhoads, "Losing Life for Others in the Face of Death: Mark's Standards of Judgment," in Gospel Interpretation: Narrative Critical & Social Scientific Approaches (ed. Jack Dean Kingsbury; Harrisburg, Pa.: Trinity Press International, 1997), 89; and Christopher Marshall, Faith as a Theme in Mark's Narrative (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1989). 41. The relationship between 9:33-34 and 9:35-41 receives further investigation in Harry Fleddermann, "The Discipleship Discourse (Mark 9:33-50)," CBQ 43 (1981): 57-75, here 61; and in Frans Neirynck, 'The Tradition of the Sayings of Jesus: Mark 9,33-50," in The Dynamism of Biblical Tradition (ed. Pierre Benoit and Roland E. Murphy; trans. Theodore L. Westow; Concilium 20; New York: Paulist, 1967), 62-74, here 65. 42. Jesus' statements in 10:35-40 also indicate that the appropriate identification of disciples with Jesus is as agent of drink (TTLVW) and patient of hand over (TrapaSiSwui, 10:33) and not as the patient of sit (Ka6i£o), 10:37) and, in light of the previous discussion (ch. 4 sec. 2c), the goal of fol43. Narry F. Santos details various developments concerning the redefined content ("Jesus' Paradoxical Teaching in Mark 8:35; 9:35; 10:43-44," BSac 157 [2000]: 15-25). 44. This discussion views the disciple as the referent of the subject (goal) of 8exoum (receive): see Vincent Taylor, The Gospel According to St. Mark (London: Macmillan, 1963), 405-6; Joachim Gnilka, Das Evangelium nach Markus (EKKNT 2.1-2; Zurich: Benziger; Neukirchen-Vluyn: Neukirchener Verlag, 1978, 1979), 2:57; and Rudolf Pesch, Das Markusevangelium (Freiburg:


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being servant (10:43) and becoming slave of all (10:44) are contrasted with lording over and exercising authority over others (10:42) and compared positively to the Son of Man's action of serving (SictKoveo), 10:45; cf. SLOKOVOS in 9:35 and 10:43 for the twelve). The resulting portrait of discipleship clarifies the requirements for the positive evaluation of disciples as agent (deny oneself, take up one's cross, follow Jesus, destroy one's life, not prevent other's actions in Jesus' name, give a drink, not lord over others, not exercise authority over others, serve others), experiencer (not act as one who is ashamed of Jesus and his words), goal (receive a child), and patient (be last of all, be servant [of all], be slave of all). Jesus' statements also develop who or what the disciple is as patient in terms of what the disciple does as agent: being last of all and servant of all (patient) becomes not preventing (agent) and giving a drink (agent); and being servant and becoming slave of all (patient) becomes serving (agent). This cultivates a further parallel with Jesus in that designations asserting his identity (as patient) receive their development primarily through verbs that indicate his agency (ch. 3 sec. 2c). Fourth, the teachings conclude by clarifying potential benefits for disciples who fulfill the redefined and further developed requirements of discipleship: some will not taste death (Gdvaros) until they see (opdo)) the reign of God having come in power (9:1); one who gives a drink will not destroy (drroXXuiii) one's reward (9:41); and one who becomes servant and slave of all by implication is among those for whom the Son of Man gives his life (10:45). Contextual repetition identifies the one who will not destroy (OTTOXXUIJII) one's reward (9:41) as the one who destroys (onToXXuin) one's life for the sake of Jesus and the gospel (8:35) and relates the Son of Man who serves (SiaKOveo), 10:45) to the disciple who is servant (SICIKOVOS, 9:35; 10:43). Life (îÔi) links the Son of Man who gives his life (10:45) to the one who destroys one's life (8:35). The final verse of the first and third teachings also indirectly positively aligns with the Son of Man the disciple who follows Jesus' teaching. This indirect positive alignment first occurs in a context (8:38-9:1) that emphasizes the Son of Man's parousaic identity and activity and later occurs in a context (10:45) that emphasizes the Son of Man's near future suffering and death. Repetition of the teachings is deemed a positive sophisticating rhetorical strategy. The contextual repetition of 1:16-20; 3:13-19; and 6:6b-13, 30-32 previously introduced "difficult" elements of discipleship, leaving one's livelihood and family (1:16-20) and being sent with minimal provisions (6:6b-13). In the same repeated context, repetition of do/make (noted)) directly positively aligned disciples and the twelve with Jesus precisely in those activities that may be assoHerder, 1984), 105. Interpretation of the disciples as the referent of the object (patient) by Eduard Schweizer (The Good News According to Mark [trans. Donald H. Madvig; Richmond: John Knox, 1970], 192- 93) and by Hugh Anderson (IJie Gospel of Mark [Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1976], 234-35) fails to recognize that all other redefinitions of content within the repeated contexts consistently identify the disciple as the referent of the subject argument.

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ciated with being a servant (SidKovog) and the Son of Man's serving. The straightforward narration of much of the content of Mark 13 indicates that the authorial audience already recognizes that the disciples will be handed over (Trapa8L8o)|iL, 13:9, 11) for the sake of Jesus (eveicev e|±oO, 13:9; cf. 8:35) and possibly be killed (GavaToo), 13:12), and that these same disciples will be designated slaves (SoOAos, 13:34; cf. 10:44). Thus, the repeated teachings augment both preexisting and previously sophisticated positive beliefs about the disciples with coherent content concerning their potential for future positively evaluated actions and attributes.45 d. Structural Repetition of 8:31-9:1; 9:30-41; and 10:32-45 Deconstructive repetition of the predictions (ch. 3 sec. 3a) cultivates beliefs about the Son of Man's near future suffering, being killed, and rising that diverge significantly from preexisting beliefs that emphasize the Son of Man's present exercise of divine prerogatives and parousaic identity and activity. Deconstructive repetition of the controversies then cultivates very negative beliefs concerning the disciples' erroneous thinking about Jesus as Son of Man and Christ and about themselves as disciples that contradict generally positive preexisting beliefs about the disciples. Sophisticating repetition of the teachings then evokes and relates positive elements of preexisting and cultivated beliefs about the disciples and, by positively [rejdefining the content of what they want, cultivates a model of the thinking and acting required for the potential positive evaluation and rehabilitation of errant disciples. The teachings, however, provide little explicit development of the positive relationship with Jesus (and God) that must characterize disciples who attempt to fulfill these requirements. The teachings' reservation of potential benefits for the future paints the disciples' present as a time of struggle and hardship; and linkage of repeated occasions of the disciples' actual erroneous thinking and negatively evaluated acting (controversies) to the required thinking and acting that raises only the potential for disciples' future success and positive evaluation (teachings) might suggest that the prospects for realizing these benefits, in fact, are quite grim. This, however, is not the whole story of the disciples or discipleship in Mark. Previous studies indicate that the structural repetition of 8:31-9:1; 9:30-41; and 10:32-45 links and tempers negative (controversies) with potential positive (teachings) elements of the disciples' portrayal and parallels the exacting requirements of discipleship (teachings) to the near future experience and activity of the Son of Man (predictions and teachings). The following discussion identifies two further ways in which this repeated structure strengthens the potential for the disciples' positive thinking and acting and alignment with Jesus 45. This conclusion receives the support of Pryke, Redactional Style, 163-66, who classifies the majority of the significant vocabulary in 8:34-9:1 and 9:35-41 as traditional and observes that scholars are rather evenly divided concerning the traditional or redactional nature of the significant vocabulary in 10:42-45.


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and God: by evoking the disciples' former fulfillment of the exacting requirements of discipleship and their resulting very positive evaluation and relationship with Jesus and God and by clarifying the requirements for their positive relationship with the parousaic Son of Man. The vocabulary of the controversies and teachings evokes the very positive beliefs about the disciples cultivated in 1:16-20; 3:13-19; and 6:6b-13, 30-32. The first controversy (8:32b-33) introduces Peter (8:32b; cf. 3:16; and 1:16 for Simon) and behind (OTTICFG), 8:33; cf. 1:17, 20) in the phrase behind me (omao) JJOU), which last appeared in Simon's (Peter's) call in 1:17. The first teaching presents Jesus summoning (rrpoaKaX€O|iai, 8:34; cf. 3:13; 6:7) and continues the emphasis on the invitation to discipleship through 6TTLCF and aKoXouGeo) encourage the evocation of 1:16-20; and TrpoamXeoiica incorporates the evocation of 3:13-19 and 6:6b-13, 30-32. Evocation of the first controversy and teaching by the subsequent controversies and teachings links them to 1:16-20; 3:13-19; and 6:6b-13, 30-32; and this linkage is encouraged by repetition of the twelve (ol Severn, 9:35; cf. 3:14, 16; 6:7) and John (9:38; cf. 1:19; 3:17) in 9:33-41 and James and John (10:35, 41; cf. 1:19; 3:17), of Zebedee (10:35; cf. 1:19; 3:17), and summon (10:42; cf. 3:13; 6:7) in 10:35-44. Evocation of 1:16-20; 3:13-19; and 6:6b-13, 30-32 by the controversies and teachings contributes to the disciples' portrayal in two ways. First, its evocation by the controversies relates the most positive cultivated beliefs about the disciples to the most negative cultivated beliefs about them; and its evocation by the teachings relates the exacting requirements for the disciples' potential positive evaluation to the twelve's most positive realized evaluation while on mission (6:6b-13, 30-32). In particular, evocation of 1:16-20; 3:13-19; and 6:6b-13, 30-32 by 8:32b-9:l links Jesus' invitations to Simon/Peter and relates Jesus' teaching to deny oneself (aTTapv€O|iai, 8:34) and to take up (cilpo), 8:34) one's cross to the disciples' previously accomplished leaving (Cr||XL, 1:18, 20) of livelihood and family and taking up (aip(D, 6:8) of scant provisions for mission. The content of Jesus' rebuke of Peter in 8:33 demonstrates that, even if a disciple's erroneous thinking and negatively evaluated acting identifies one with Satan, Jesus neither rejects nor denies the disciple but admonishes, teaches, and invites to discipleship. The vocabulary of Jesus' response insinuates into his harshest rebuke of a disciple within the narration (8:33) a source of consolation and hope for all disciples characterized by similar erroneous thinking and improper acting. Second, the vocabulary in the controversies and teachings that evoke 1:16-20; 3:13-19; and 6:6b-13,30-32 asserts the disciples' direct positive alignment with Jesus and clarifies its implications for disciples. The prior discussion (ch. 3 sec. 2b) indicates that Jesus and those positively aligned with him have what they want (OeXa)) realized when it conforms to God's will and benefits others. The

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teachings present three examples of what the disciple may want and have realized: to follow (8:34) Jesus, which they previously accomplished (1:18; cf. 6:1); and to be first, defined as being last and servant of all (9:35), and to become great (10:43) and be first (10:44), defined as being servant (10:43) and slave of all (10:44), which are linked to the twelve's success when sent (6:6b-13, 30-32). These confirm the potential for direct positive alignment with Jesus, whose want of particular disciples in 3:13 is realized. Even the negatively evaluated content of the disciples' wanting, to save one's life (8:35) and to sit at Jesus' right and left in his glory (10:35, 37), relates them to Jesus as the only characters whose wanting is frustrated and asserts the potential for their direct positive alignment with Jesus, should they choose to act according to what God wants. Thus, the disciple who actually destroys his or her life for the sake of Jesus and the gospel (8:35) will save it; and the disciple who is baptized with Jesus' baptism and drinks Jesus' cup (10:38-39) will be positively aligned with the Son of Man, who serves and gives his life as a ransom for many (10:45).46 Finally, the fact that Jesus is sent (9:37) and that the twelve are sent (3:14; 6:7) by Jesus identifies and directly positively aligns the disciples with Jesus and, through Jesus, mediately positively aligns them with God. This, the only explicitly asserted relationship for the disciple with God within the teachings, stresses the disciples' action especially when sent. The repeated structure as a whole contributes to the disciples' portrayal in two further ways. First, it links the necessary (8el, 8:31) near ftiture experience and activity of Jesus as Son of Man to the required thinking and acting of disciples and, in so doing, cultivates a series of parallels and reciprocities between what the Son of Man does and what the disciple is required to do. The Son of Man gives his life (tyvxA) as a ransom for many (10:45); and the disciple is to destroy his or her life (tyvxA) for the sake of Jesus and the gospel (8:35). The Son of Man serves (diaKOveo), 10:45); and the disciple who wants to become great is to be a servant (SICIKOVOS, 10:43). The closest parallel appears in Jesus' statement that James and John will drink the same cup that Jesus drinks and will be baptized with the same baptism with which Jesus is baptized (10:38-39). Although this statement does not explicitly reference the Son of Man, its inclusion between Jesus' prediction (10:33-34) and teaching (10:45) about the Son of Man inter46. The grammar of these passages merits attention. The negatively evaluated wanting in 8:35 is expressed through the subjunctive of want and an infinitive for its content, to save life; and the negatively evaluated content of what James and John want in 10:35 and 36 is expressed through subjunctive clauses and anaphorically in 10:37 through an imperative. In each case, the content of negatively evaluated wanting appears in a mood that conveys only possibilities. The redefined statement in each case is presented in the indicative: whoever will destroy (8:35); and are you able (10:38), we are able (10:39), and you will drink . . . be baptized (10:39). The contrast between the negatively evaluated possibilities that cannot be realized and the positively evaluated redefined content is most apparent in grammatically unparallel and so awkwardly coordinated clauses in 8:35, "Whoever may wish to save one's life will destroy it, but whoever will destroy one's life for my sake and the gospel's will save it."


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prets Jesus' cup and baptism in terms of the Son of Man's passion, death, and resurrection. Thus, this repeated structure cultivates the content of the required thinking and acting of disciples explicitly in relation to the narrative audience's cultivated (and divergent) beliefs about the Son of Man's necessary suffering, being killed, and rising. This is in stark contrast to the cultivation of positive beliefs about the disciples in 1:16-20; 3:13-19; and 6:6b-13, 30-32 which relied almost exclusively on preexisting positive beliefs about the disciples and Jesus and that never associated the disciples with the Son of Man (ch. 3 sec. 2c). These considerations also interpret the rejection of the new contradictory content about the Son of Man in the first controversy as an implicit rejection of the required thinking and acting that it demands. Second, this repeated structure links the Son of Man's necessary near future suffering, being killed, and rising (8:31) and serving and giving his life (10:45) both to the parousaic Son of Man's coming in the glory of his Father with the holy angels (8:38) and to the disciple's required thinking and acting as delineated in the teachings.47 Thus, it is the Son of Man's near future experience and activity that mediates the relationship between the disciple's required thinking and acting and the Son of Man's parousaic identity and activity. The disciple and the parousaic Son of Man appear in direct parallel only as experiencer subjects of be ashamed (eTraiaxi>vo|±ai): the parousaic Son of Man will be ashamed of those who are ashamed of Jesus and his words (8:38), which include Jesus' teachings about the gospel (8:35), the exacting requirements of discipleship (8:34-37), and the Son of Man's necessary near future suffering, being killed, and rising (8:31). This specifies that only proper thinking about Jesus as Son of Man and fulfilling the exacting requirements of discipleship positively relate the disciple to the parousaic Son of Man. Thus, it is the disciple's thinking and acting that determine who the parousaic Son of Man will be (identity) and what he will do (activity) for the disciple. Thus, the disciple's relationship with Jesus as parousaic Son of Man who comes in the glory of his Father with the holy angels (8:38) is determined by thinking and acting on the pattern of the Son of Man who suffers, is killed, and rises (8:31). Repetition of this structure is deemed a positive sophisticating rhetorical strategy with respect to the disciples' portrayal. Although deconstructive repetition of the controversies introduces and reinforces new negative information about the disciples, the structural linkage of the controversies with the teachings provides a broader context for reinterpreting these very negative developments. Evocation of 1:16-20; 3:13-19; and 6:6b-13,30-32 by both the controversies and teachings balances the present negative portrayal of the disciples (controversies) with their earlier positive portrayal and links the exacting requirements for the disciples' potential positive evaluation (teachings) with the most positive examples of their 47. Structural repetition of 8:27-9:1; 13:21-27; and 14:60-65 (ch. 3 sec. 3d) then strengthens the link between the Son of Man's near future experience and activity and his parousaic identity and activity.

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former realized success. This linkage cultivates new avenues for the disciple's direct positive alignment with Jesus as Son of Man and mediated positive alignment with God and recasts occasions of erroneous thinking and improper acting into opportunities for rehabilitation. Thus, this repeated structure cultivates for the narrative audience both very negative and potentially very positive beliefs about the disciples' thinking and acting. Since the authorial audience already recognizes, but does not emphasize, that disciples at times did not understand Jesus' teachings and did not act properly, and since the previous narration has cultivated an expectation that Jesus will respond to disciples who do not understand with corrective teachings, the structural repetition of 8:31—9:1; 9:30-41; and 10:42-45 sophisticates both preexisting and narratively cultivated beliefs with frequently difficult but, through reinterpretation in the teachings, generally coherent content. e. Contextual Repetition of 8:34-9:1; 10:26-30; and 13:3-13 This repeated context, which incorporates salient content from the study of the contextual repetition of 1:1-15; 8:31-9:1; and 13:3-13 (ch. 2 sec. 4b), relates cultivated beliefs about actions and attributes that establish the potential for the disciples' future positive evaluation and relationship with God and Jesus. Come (epxopm, 8:38; 9:1; 10:30; 13:6), save (acpCd), 8:35a, 35b; 10:26; 13:13), for my sake(<EV€K€v ejioO, 8:35; 10:29; 13:9), father (TTaTrjp, 8:38; 10:29; 13:12), and gospel (evayyeXiov, 8:35; 10:29; 13:10) encourage evocation of the former contexts] by the latter. Amen I say to you (d|±f)v Xeyoj u|itv, 9:1; 10:29), follow (ctKoXouGeG), 8:34a, 34b; 10:28), and word (Xoyos, 8:38; 10:22, 24) further encourage the evocation of 8:34-9:1 by 10:26-30. Brother (d8eXc|)6s, 10:29, 30; 13:12a, 12b) and child (T€KVOV, 10:29,30; 13:12a, 12b) encourage the evocation of 10:26-30 by 13:3-13; and give (8I8GJ|JU, 8:37; 13:11) and death (GdvaTos, 9:1; 13:12; cf. 0avaToco, 13:12) encourage the evocation of 8:31-9:1 by 13:3-13. For the sake of me [Jesus] (evexev 6|io0, 8:35; 10:29; 13:9) links destroying (drroXXuiiL) one's life (8:35); leaving (dc|)ir)|ju) house, brothers, sisters, mother, father, children, and fields (10:29); and being handed over (Trapa8i8G)|ii) to Sanhedrins and synagogues, being beaten, and standing before governors and kings (13:9). Although linked, these actions and attributes are distinguished by the fact that destroying one's life for the sake of Jesus is attached to no time referent; leaving is specified for now in this time (mipos, 10:30); and being handed over, being beaten, and standing are reserved to the future (13:9). These actions and attributes also receive development through linkage to other vocabulary. The first context (8:34-9:1) relates destroying one's life to denying oneself, taking up one's cross, and following (dKoXouOea)) Jesus (8:34) and to not being ashamed of Jesus and his words (8:38) and highlights the link between Jesus' words (Xoyos, 8:38) and the gospel (euayyeXiov, 8:35). The second context, 10:26-30, evokes and develops the previous linkage of leaving (dc|>ir)|ju)

The Rhetoric of the Characterization of JesusJ Disciples

117

and following (dKoXou06O), 10:28; cf. 1:18) and makes all of the noted actions and attributes for the sake of the Jesus and gospel (eveicev ejioO m l [eveicev] TOO euayyeXioi;, 8:35; [10:29]). The third context, 13:3-13, repeats hand over (13:9, 11, 12) which directly positively relates the brother handed over by brother to death (Odvcrros) and the child (TCKVOV) handed over by its father (TraTfjp, 13:12), links these to being led (13:11) and speaking (XaXeo, 13:11a, lib), being turned against and killed by children (13:12), being hated by all because of Jesus' name (13:13), and persevering to the end (13:13), and relates these to the previous actions and attributes. The third occurrence of ZveKev €[iou without the expected coordinated reference to the gospel asserts that the purpose (els, 13:9) of disciples' being handed over, being beaten, standing, and other actions and attributes for the sake of Jesus (and the gospel) is witness. The expected reference to gospel then appears in Jesus' statement that it is necessary (8et) that the gospel first be proclaimed (KT]piia

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