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Instructional Design Frameworks and Intercultural Models

Patricia A. Young University of Maryland, Baltimore County, USA

Information Science reference Hershey • New York

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Published in the United States of America by Information Science Reference (an imprint of IGI Global) 701 E. Chocolate Avenue, Suite 200 Hershey PA 17033 Tel: 717-533-8845 Fax: 717-533-8661 E-mail: [email protected] Web site: http://www.igi-global.com/reference and in the United Kingdom by Information Science Reference (an imprint of IGI Global) 3 Henrietta Street Covent Garden London WC2E 8LU Tel: 44 20 7240 0856 Fax: 44 20 7379 0609 Web site: http://www.eurospanbookstore.com Copyright © 2009 by IGI Global. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored or distributed in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, without written permission from the publisher. Product or company names used in this set are for identi.cation purposes only. Inclusion of the names of the products or companies does not indicate a claim of ownership by IGI Global of the trademark or registered trademark. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Young, Patricia A., 1964Instructional design frameworks and intercultural models / by Patricia A. Young. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-1-60566-426-2 (hardcover) -- ISBN 978-1-60566-427-9 (ebook) 1. Instructional systems--Design. 2. Educational technology--Social aspects. 3. Distance education--Social aspects. I. Title. LB1028.38.Y68 2009 371.33--dc22 2008043211 British Cataloguing in Publication Data A Cataloguing in Publication record for this book is available from the British Library. All work contributed to this book is new, previously-unpublished material. The views expressed in this book are those of the authors, but not necessarily of the publisher. If a library purchased a print copy of this publication, please go to http://www.igi-global.com/agreement for information on activating the library's complimentary electronic access to this publication.

For Daddy Frank and Mother Minnie

Table of Contents

Foreword.............................................................................................................. ix Preface ................................................................................................................ xii Acknowledgment........................................................................................... xxviii Section I: Building Culture in Design Chapter I Beginnings in Instructional Design and Culture............................................... 1 Pioneers in Learning, Learning Theory, & Psychology ....................................... 1 Early Instructional Design Models........................................................................ 4 Assessing Learners and Learning.......................................................................... 6 ISD......................................................................................................................... 7 Transforming Theories........................................................................................... 7 Perspectives and Concepts of Culture................................................................... 9 Mapping Culture to Instructional Design and ICTs............................................ 13 References............................................................................................................ 14 Endnotes............................................................................................................... 24 Chapter II The Nature of Culture in Design...................................................................... 25 Culture as a Design Construct............................................................................. 26 Qualifying Culture in Design............................................................................... 27 Culture in Perspective.......................................................................................... 28

What Models of Culture Do................................................................................. 30 The Polaric Dimension of Culture....................................................................... 31 References............................................................................................................ 33 Endnote................................................................................................................ 36 Chapter III The Culture-Based Model Framework............................................................ 37 What is CBM?...................................................................................................... 37 Where Did CBM Come from?.............................................................................. 39 What can CBM Do?............................................................................................. 39 Who Would use CBM?......................................................................................... 40 What are CBMs Components?............................................................................. 40 How Does CBM Work?........................................................................................ 45 How do You Manage CBM?................................................................................. 50 Why is CBM Intercultural?.................................................................................. 52 References............................................................................................................ 52 Section II: The Culture-Based Model: ID TABLET Chapter IV CBM Inquiry, Development.............................................................................. 55 CBM Inquiry........................................................................................................ 55 CBM Development............................................................................................... 65 References............................................................................................................ 71 Endnote................................................................................................................ 72 Chapter V CBM Team, Assessments, Brainstorming........................................................ 73 CBM Team............................................................................................................ 73 CBM Assessments................................................................................................ 76 CBM Brainstorming............................................................................................. 80 References............................................................................................................ 86 Endnotes............................................................................................................... 87 Chapter VI CBM Learners.................................................................................................... 88 CBM Learners...................................................................................................... 88 References............................................................................................................ 98 Endnotes............................................................................................................... 99

Chapter VII CBM Elements I............................................................................................... 100 CBM Elements................................................................................................... 100 The Anthropology of Culture.............................................................................. 103 Cultural Aesthetics............................................................................................. 104 Cultural Artifacts............................................................................................... 107 Cultural Capital..................................................................................................115 Cultural Classi.cation ....................................................................................... 120 References.......................................................................................................... 122 Endnotes............................................................................................................. 125 Chapter VIII CBM Elements II............................................................................................. 126 Cultural Communications.................................................................................. 126 References.......................................................................................................... 139 Endnotes............................................................................................................. 140 Chapter IX CBM Elements III............................................................................................ 142 Cultural Demographics..................................................................................... 142 Cultural Environment........................................................................................ 160 References.......................................................................................................... 169 Endnotes............................................................................................................. 173 Chapter X CBM Elements IV............................................................................................ 174 Cultural History................................................................................................. 174 References...........................................................................................................211 Endnotes............................................................................................................. 214 Chapter XI CBM Elements V.............................................................................................. 215 Cultural Knowledge........................................................................................... 215 Cultural Language............................................................................................. 217 Cultural Physiology........................................................................................... 220 Cultural Relations . ........................................................................................... 223 Cultural Resources............................................................................................. 225 References.......................................................................................................... 229 Endnotes............................................................................................................. 230

Chapter XII CBM Elements VI............................................................................................ 232 The Psychology of Culture................................................................................. 232 Cultural Beliefs and Values................................................................................ 234 Cultural Experiences......................................................................................... 236 Cultural Ideas.................................................................................................... 238 Cultural Identity................................................................................................. 239 Cultural Interests............................................................................................... 241 Cultural Misconceptions.................................................................................... 242 Cultural Ways..................................................................................................... 244 References.......................................................................................................... 249 Endnotes............................................................................................................. 253 Chapter XIII CBM Elements VII.......................................................................................... 254 The Science of Culture....................................................................................... 254 Cultural Anomalies............................................................................................ 255 Cultural Cultures............................................................................................... 261 Cultural Futures................................................................................................. 271 References.......................................................................................................... 275 Endnotes............................................................................................................. 278 Chapter XIV CBM Elements VIII & Training..................................................................... 279 Cultural In.nities ............................................................................................... 279 Cultural Nature ................................................................................................. 291 CBM Training.................................................................................................... 293 References.......................................................................................................... 294 Endnotes............................................................................................................. 296

Section III: Case Studies Using The Culture-Based Model Chapter XV Case Study of an Educational Product.......................................................... 298 References.......................................................................................................... 314 Endnote.............................................................................................................. 315 Chapter XVI Case Study in Game Design............................................................................ 316 CBM Guide—Video Game Entries: Preproduction—July 3, 2008.................... 323 References.......................................................................................................... 329 Endnotes............................................................................................................. 330

Chapter XVII Case Study in E-Learning............................................................................... 331 CBM Guide—E-Learning Entries: Preproduction............................................ 335 References.......................................................................................................... 340 Endnote.............................................................................................................. 341 Chapter XVIII Case Study in Research................................................................................... 342 Example 1: Research Design Speci.cations . .................................................... 342 Example 2: Ethnographic Instrument................................................................ 355 References.......................................................................................................... 358 Chapter XIX Conclusion........................................................................................................ 359 References.......................................................................................................... 362

About the Author............................................................................................. 365 Index.................................................................................................................. 366

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Foreword

Instructional design (ID) theory currently reflects increasingly diverse points of view, but the array of design and instructional strategies used are typically dependent upon an understanding of how people learn and how their backgrounds impinge the learning process. On the other hand, ID practitioners, while not disagreeing with this fundamental way of thinking, routinely are confronted with a multitude of other issues. They are required to produce high-quality instruction delivered through a wide variety of new technologies in a short period of time and with decreasing resources. The instruction must be motivating and technologically sophisticated. In addition, corporate designers are frequently dealing with global markets, and educators are faced with students of wildly diverse ethnic backgrounds. Patricia Young tackles this set of conditions through an exploration of how to design instruction by emphasizing the culture of the learners. Instructional Design Frameworks and Intercultural Models presents a culture-based design model which aims to make instruction more accessible for diverse groups of people. Some might call it an over-lay model, one which adds the cultural component to a somewhat traditional ID model. It is a model geared toward product design with a special emphasis on computer-based technologies. It is a model, however, that is supported by rock-solid research. While few would dispute the importance of learner culture, many have difficulties in providing a concrete explanation of precisely what this means after dealing with the obvious issues of language and clear differences in values and customs. Culture is explicated here in detail. It is explained from an anthropological point of view, a psychological point of view, and a scientific point of view. Twenty-five elements of culture are described and explained with examples from throughout the world. These are not elements that designers typically address. For example, Young speaks to the role of: • • •

Conceptions of what is beautiful; Class and status in a society; Non-verbal communication traditions;

• • • •

Behavior norms; Emotional patterns; Orientations toward time; and Conceptions of intimate, personal, social and public space.

Culture impacts many ID procedures. It is critical to the needs assessment and analysis processes, especially learner, context and at times content analysis. Culture impacts the selection of instructional strategies and often plays a role in media selection as well. Product development is affected by cultural considerations, particularly with respect to the use of visuals. It is also a key consideration in the design of assessment and evaluation instruments. In addition, Young shows how culture factors can influence ID project management from team formation to trainthe-trainer activities. Knowledgeable and creative use of culture data greatly enhances any instructional product, and understanding the effects of learner diversity is an essential instructional design competency. Nonetheless, a careful reading of the Young book seems to suggest that taking full advantage of the culture-based model is dependent upon including either design experts or culture experts on the project team. However, I suspect that the problem that will be raised by many is not the expertise required to deal with culture, but rather the additional time required to meaningfully address it, especially as culture is broadly described in this book. It’s a part of the resistance to needs assessment in general that many designers routinely confront. Young addresses this in part by viewing her book as a workbook or a handbook that designers will use by selectively attending to only those elements that are pertinent to a given project. She further facilitates the process by providing the range of questions that could be asked to gather data related to each culture element. This will not totally meet the concerns of skeptics. Fundamentally, designers will need to agree with Young that culture is critical to design and instruction. ID scholars and theorists are beginning to recognize this issue, and culture is beginning to be the focus of some ID research agendas. Hopefully, this body of research will provide results that support the logic and faith many designers now have in the power of cultural influences on the learning process. The impact of culture on ID is a timely topic. It not only meets the needs of those designing globalized and localized instruction, but it addresses a number of current theoretical issues confronted by ID scholars today that were not previously considered. In much of the twentieth century behavioral scientists commonly supported the tenets of logical empiricism or logical positivism. This thinking relies upon the value of sensory data as a means of determining truth, and rejects any view of reality that was not based upon empirical observation and verification. The products of this type of inquiry were universal generalizations. During this same

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period the fundamental structure of our instructional design models was established and they too tended to initially reflect such empiricist thinking. As a consequence, these ID models were not only rooted in research, but they were presented as being environmentally neutral and applicable to all education and training settings. The positivist orientation, however, ultimately lost its broad base of support to a great extent because it discounted the impact of culture, history, and individual characteristics. Instructional Design Frameworks and Intercultural Models presents a postpositivist examination of culture. This is a book that would not likely have been written in the 1960’s or 1970’s. The current dominance of constructivist and other learner-centered theories provides an intellectual foundation for this book today. Young’s culture-based ID model is compatible with current theory which views learning as a social process and knowledge construction as being unique to each individual. It is compatible with views of communication as less of a transmission process and more of an interaction process. It is compatible with a systemic (rather than a systematic) view of the world. Of equal importance, however, this book speaks to the problems of today’s instructional designers, even as it expands the field’s conception of all that instructional design entails. Rita C. Richey, Professor Emeritus Instructional Technology Wayne State University Detroit, MI Rita C. Richey is Professor Emeritus of Instructional Technology at Wayne State University. She was at Wayne State for thirty-seven years and has extensive experience in program design and development, teaching and in education and training research. She is widely published in the area of instructional design and technology. She has written or edited ten books, and published over 40 articles and books chapters. She has two Outstanding Book Awards from the Association of Educational Communication and Technology (AECT) Division of Design and Development and also the AECT Brown Publication Award. While at Wayne State University, she coordinated the Instructional Technology program for over 20 years and received five major University awards, including induction into the Academy of Scholars. In recognition of her career’s work, in 2000 she received the AECT Distinguished Service Award.

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Preface

Information and communication technologies (ICTs) saturate the daily lives of most human beings on Earth. Those in technologically advanced societies live with computers, radios, televisions, print technology, and so forth. As of 2008, one and a half billion people access the Internet (Internet World Stats, 2008). Video games have captured the attention of youth and adults, with sales expected to reach US $48.9 billion worldwide by 2011 (Scanlon, 2007). Employers are developing serious online games to train, recruit, and better communicate with employees (McConnon, 2007). In 2008, sales in mobile phones worldwide surpassed the US $1 billion mark because of industry expansions in untapped emerging markets (Gartner, Inc., 2008). College and university students access knowledge through distance education; this continues to be a high-growth area for education and training (Waits & Lewis, 2003). E-learning has exploded across industry, government, business, and education. The need to know, retrain, and acquire knowledge is at an all-time high. These statistics and facts define the growth and impact of ICTs on the global imprint of humanity, but how can technology serve the needs of many while serving the needs of a few? Here are several true scenarios where the needs of a few specialized target audiences have been considered. Elsa Evers wanted a dual undergraduate degree in communication (i.e., media production) and international studies. As part of her studies, she spent her fourth academic year in Xalapa, Mexico, where she took the remainder of her courses through distance education; in this situation, Elsa would access course content at a place and time of her choosing. Elsa welcomed the opportunity to explore another culture that differed from her own. She immersed herself in the Spanish language, focused on understanding the lifestyle, and reflected on her own cultural predispositions and their influence on her experience (Bhandari, 2007). Elsa is embarking upon an enriching international relations learning experience that is culture-specific. China and India are experiencing a surge in the video game industry. Game developers from North America want in on these international markets, realizing that games are a culture within themselves. The dilemma for North American video game companies is how to make games culture-specific (Vlessing, 2008).

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In Illinois and Pennsylvania, researchers developed computer-mediated mathematics games that focused on the culturally relevant learning and the ethnic histories of their student populations. These educational games served as interventions to help improve the academic achievement of African American students and better meet mainstream educational standards. These are cases in which culture-specific design was implemented out of desperation and disappointment with mainstream educational practices (Gilbert et al., 2008; Leonard, Davis, & Sidler, 2005). E-learning broadly serves many masters from telecommunications to the Internet. In pockets of the world, the potential of mobile e-learning is being explored with handheld devices such as mobile phones, personal digital assistants, and pocket personal computers. The digitization of Maori, an indigenous language of New Zealand, is being explored by university students through media players that run podcasts (Tahana, 2008). Innovators in Tokyo, Japan explore text messaging with cell phones that have the same writing system in the native tongues of Bengali, Myanmarese, and Nepalese (Shimbun, 2008). In these cases, e-learning is made more culture-specific through a focus language. In Uganda, Deogracious Kiganira Kijambu, a 23-year-old entrepreneur wants to access the Internet in his native language—Lusoga. Accessing the Internet in his own language would help him grow his e-commerce agribusiness and it would enable other Bantu speakers of Lusoga to participate in information and communication features of the Internet. Kijambu knows that there are few people, in the Mayuge district, who have acquired computer knowledge and skills; however, those few cannot access the Internet because of the dominance of English. Speakers of Lusoga are the customers for Kijambu’s business. The localization of the Lusoga language is needed in terms of computer user interface, content, language, and other cultural design preferences (Musinguzi, 2008). These examples demonstrate scenarios in which culture-specific designs were considered for the few. For Elsa, the distance education program was specialized to her interest in Spanish culture, but can culture-specific educational experiences be replicated throughout distance education programs?1 North American game companies desire to create culture-specific video games to broaden their market, but how can other companies create culture-specific entertainment games? Researchers in Illinois and Pennsylvania designed culturally relevant computer-mediated environments for African American children; can culture-specific educational products be designed for other specialized groups of people? In several examples, e-learning is made culture-specific through the infusion of language, but what other design specifications can make a product more culture-specific? For Kijambu in Uganda, there is a need to localize, specialize, or make more culture-specific user interfaces that address content, language, and other cultural considerations; how can other indigenous languages be included in this Internet revolution? These scenarios dem-

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onstrate that, worldwide, there is a need to better understand the impact of culture on design and development. In designing for societies, culture, or people, culture is considered. When we design for people, we should design with culture in mind. When it is unclear why a group of people rejected a product, culture should be considered. When a product does not sell, culture should be considered. Culture should be considered: • • • • • • • • • • • • •

When learners fail to communicate in a distance education environment. When learners fail to learn. When users fail to understand the intricacies of user interfaces. When a culture fails to learn from its previous historical mistakes. When rulers overthrow a country. When government officials kill themselves. When consumers fail to buy products. When users fail to communicate. When technologies are not used by consumers. When the design of a product fails learners or users. When we do not understand our target audience. When indigenous cultures reject technology or appropriate technology. When an entertainment game fails to entertain.

When we cannot figure out where to begin, begin with culture, because culture is everything. Questions this book seeks to answer include: Is culture important to the design of ICTs? What does it mean to create a culture-based product? How can research help product development and understanding the target audience? How can integrating culture better meet the needs of the target audience? How do you plan and design with culture in mind? How do you analyze ICTs for culture? How do you create an unbiased product? Is it possible to create a culture-specific product for one target audience? Is it possible to make the design process more explicit? How does culture impact design decisions? This book details the culture-based model (CBM), a model of culture that assists designers, researchers, and practitioners in building a framework for culture-based ICTs. CBM is an intercultural, instructional design framework that guides designers through the management, design, development, and assessment process while taking into account explicit culture-based considerations. The model is intercultural because it operates inside, outside, and across cultures and cultural contexts. This book defines the entire model. Relevant case studies of how to use the model in instructional design, e-learning, game design and as a diagnostic tool are provided.

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CBM is adaptive in that it can be used in conjunction with traditional instructional design models or on its own. The designer prescribes methods on the basis of the preproduction analysis and research, the ongoing production, and the postproduction (Reigeluth, 1983). The model, as with any instructional design model, should be modified on the basis of the context of the processes (Bates, 1995; Gustafson & Branch, 2002; Seels & Glasgow, 1998; Tessmer & Wedman, 1995). Traditional instructional design models are “blueprint[s] of the instruction itself,” and they focus on “what the instruction should be like” (Reigeluth, 1983, p. 24). However, CBM focuses much more broadly. It is a blueprint of the management and design processes, and it focuses on what the content should be. CBM brings the human element into design-related disciplines (Douglas, 2006). A complete analysis of the empirical study, where CBM is derived can be found in Young (1999). Within the context of this book, instructional design maintains its traditional definition and meaning. Instructional design proposes that learning occurs in a systematic-oriented manner, producing measurable outcomes, and that there is a process to facilitate this learning (Reigeluth, 1983; Richey, 1986). This process is grounded in a generic system of Analysis, Design, Development, Implementation, and Evaluation—the ADDIE model. Instructional design translates principles of learning theory and instruction into a plan for the design of instructional products, activities, and evaluations (Smith & Ragan, 2005). This process approach is significant for the design of ICTs because it provides a systematic or structured methodology that all practitioners can follow in the design process. By systematizing or organizing the design of products or online environments, they are more apt to be well built and researched instruction. This type of “designed instruction” is integral to meeting the needs of learners (Gagné, Briggs, & Wager, 1992, p. 4). Culture is a core construct of all design decisions; however, its potential to improve the design process has been mostly ignored in the field of instructional design (Subramony 2004; Young, 2008b). This is exemplified in key texts on instructional design where culture is described in its environmental context or from a cultural historical perspective—not in terms of designing instruction (Dijkstra, Seel, Schott, Tennyson, 1997; Reigeluth, 1983; Tennyson, Schott, Seel & Dijkstra, 1997). This lack of interest in culture as a design construct may be prevalent for various reasons. First, designers are not sure how to represent culture in the design process, what to look for, or what to include. Second, there may be conflicts between the culture of the target audience and the technology, and many designers are grappling with how to bridge these communication connections (Chu & Reeves, 2000). Third, a comprehensive framework in which to align culture with the ADDIE model has not been available. Finally, the inclusion of “cultural frames of reference” may not have been seriously considered (Gay, 2000, p. xix). This book crosses academic and disciplinary camps, and national and international waters, to obtain balanced perspectives. Knowledge is knowledge, and it is

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there for one to freely learn from and make one’s own scholarship. Interdisciplinary work like this is not an easy task, but it has been an education I hope worth the time and effort. CBM brings something old, something new, something borrowed and something blue to the discussion of culture; this work positions culture as a design construct. Culture as conceptualized here is real and imaginary. Culture is real when designers design with real people in mind. Culture is imaginary when designers build fictionalized worlds and design with real people in mind (Plotkin, 2003). The human element is always present when designing with culture in mind. Design allows the freedom to be multidimensional in one’s thinking and doing.

From Designers to Researchers In general, this book is for anyone who is attempting to design with culture in mind. It is also for anyone who seeks to analyze culture in anything from printed documents to Web-based environments. The content of this book provides the tools for building, evaluating, and designing a society, culture, or target audience. Next, I have defined how this book can help people with different roles and interests.

Designers For the novice/professional instructional designer and e-learning designer who has interests in incorporating culture into the design of instructional products, user interfaces and other on-line environments, this book assists in building a framework for the design of a culture-based product. It provides the tools to tailor instructional content to a particular target audience. It aids in addressing the communication and miscommunication issues that are prevalent in online environments. In terms of user interfaces, this book provides the features for creating for generic or specialized interfaces.

Professors Professors could use this text to define culture, provide a background to the fields of culture and instructional design, conceptualize culture as a design construct, exemplify the aspects that make up a culture, and demonstrate how students might integrate CBM in their designs. This book can be used as a resource in understanding the dynamic complexity of culture and what should be considered when designing with culture in mind. For a course in design, this could be one of the primary texts or workbooks. Section I provides all the research and theory. Sections II and III

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are designed to be used as a workbook. With Section II, students are not expected to read through all the areas of CBM but to use these areas as guides in the design process. Section III provides case studies and students may read through these chapters when formulating their thoughts to begin designing.

Sudents Graduate and undergraduates who have interests in designing ICTs should find this handbook helpful. In terms of research, students will find the book a resource for research references and a tool to analyze societies, cultures, and groups/individuals. The practical examples throughout the model provide students with guidance in understanding design factors and making design decisions. The guiding questions throughout give students the support needed to work on their own or in small groups. The guiding questions support design and research efforts; they help students ask the right questions and choose the best direction. Section III provides four chapters of case studies that detail the design process using CBM. Students should find these chapters accessible and comprehensive. The problem for students may be limiting the number of design factors, given the amount of options offered in CBM.

Rsearchers This text can be used as a handbook for researchers who seek to define anthropological, psychological, or scientific concepts in relation to ancient and existing cultures, contemporary or indigenous groups, instructional products, on-line environments, printed documents, or any other ICTs. The design factors in CBM Elements enable researchers to collect data, analyze information, assess cultures, and define target audiences. CBM Learners allow researchers to evaluate the connections between learning and culture. Section I provides the theory, research, and concepts for further in-depth research. Researchers who are interested in the empirical path to this model of culture may begin with Young’s (1999) work, continue with subsequent articles and chapters (Young, 2001, 2008a, 2008b, 2008c, 2008d, in press-a), and end with this book.

More on the Book This book seeks to appeal to national and international audiences. Although a Westerner has written this book, there are examples throughout from people, cultures, and societies around the world. As the author, I have tried to provide a culturally sensitive text that has cross-cultural applications. This is a difficult task nonetheless; however, I ask readers to be open-minded in rediscovering how to reconceptualize culture.

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The bibliographic references are used throughout to support the writing and provide the reader with additional data on how some ideas were developed. The book is thoroughly researched to provide authenticity to each section, and examples are offered to guide the design process. This is a book to be used, not just read. This means that a researcher who wants to analyze a culture may read the entire book but only use the chapters related to CBM Elements for the analysis. Any designers of instructional ICTs could read and use the design factors throughout the entire book. Game designers might read and use design factors throughout the entire book. ICTs, as defined in this book, follow the description adopted in the field of education. ICTs include a broad range of technological and resource tools that communicate, store, transmit, produce, manage, and disseminate information. These technologies include the following: Internet, World Wide Web, computers, cameras, CD-ROMs, DVDs, audiotapes, videotapes, radio, television, films, telephones, and print technologies (Blurton, 1999). Two other terms that need defining are society and culture. A society is a group of people who share commonalities that are understood by all and who collectively inhabit a particular physical area (Germain & Bloom, 1999; Segall, Dasen, Berry, & Poortinga, 1999). Every society has a culture or ways of being, doing, and thinking. This culture shapes the society’s behavior (Ember & Ember, 1996; Hofstede & Hofstede, 2005). In understanding a culture, there must also be an understanding of its past and present histories and the histories of its people (Kim & Park, 2006). This book does not claim to incorporate all factors consistent with culture-based designs. It provides a comprehensive set of design factors that, when implemented, can best serve to authenticate a culture-based design. As designers, researchers, and educators, it is important to understand the impact of culture on design. This book provides guidance in making explicit those aspects of human nature and Mother Nature that make cultures valid.

The Instructional Designer andd Instruction is shaped by the instructional designer. Instructional designers create physical and virtual environments where learning is facilitated, incentives offered, and rewards earned (Johnson, 1989). These designs can comprise a single set of instructional materials, one course, or an entire program or curriculum. The instructional designer differs from the curriculum specialist in that the curriculum specialist is usually an expert in a particular subject matter; however the instructional designer works through a process whereby he or she designs projects in a number of disciplines. Although instructional designers are usually not teachers, they base

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their knowledge on what they know about how people learn (Richey, 1986; Smith & Ragan, 2005). It is assumed that their designs will foster learning. Instructional designers proceed through a process type approach when they design solutions. The design process has several stages: “[I]dentify the problem, design a solution, implement the solution” (Van Patten, 1989, p. 18). Identifying the problem means finding out as much as possible through observations; the analysis of artifacts; and discussions with clients, sponsors, subject matter specialists, producers, actors, teachers, and learners (Rowland, 1993; Van Patten, 1989). This needs assessment should include the impact of a problem or need, and it should be recorded. Designing a solution that efficiently meets the needs of the project is the next step. This solution must be financially doable. Instructional designers then create a number of design solutions or products that address the problem or need, its impact, and the expense (Van Patten, 1989). Then, instructional designers use three types of information: “what they know, what they observe and what they feel” (Van Patten, 1989, p. 18). Designers use their wisdom, observational skills, and intuition to ascertain the problem. Thereafter, they design and implement a solution specific to the needs of the learner (Van Patten, 1989). Anne-Marie Armstrong (2004), a practicing instructional designer argues that, in the real world of instructional design frequently there is limited time for preparation and long-term contemplation. Production is quickly followed by assessment, revisions, and then piloting the product. The instructional designer must be flexible, efficient, and creative. Jillian Rickertt (2004), an instructional designer, described an assignment in Asia where her limited understanding of a particular Asian culture conflicted with her job of designing and delivering a “Train the Trainer” course to a group of Asian customer service representatives. During and after the job, Rickertt (2004) reflected on her response to situations and her beliefs. For example, the classroom environment in which Rickertt would “train the trainers” was cramped with rickety chairs, and only 3 of 20 computers were operational. Rickertt had higher expectations, being from Australia. On the morning of the first day of training, technicians were working on the room; in hours, the chairs were fixed and all the computers were working. In this example, Rickertt’s perception of the quality of the environment was based on her own cultural experience. Rickertt also reflected on how she could have created better formative evaluations had she known that taking tests and achieving high scores motivated the target audience in this culture. There is a tendency for designers to impose their ideologies upon the target audiences who will use their products or implement their designs (Taylor, 1992). By considering the culture of the target audience in the design process, the designer might be more inclined, for example, to have text in multiple languages, consider the relevancy of graphic images, explore gender issues, design appropriate tests, exhibit cultural consciousness and sensitivity, and consider the cultural context.

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Taylor (1992) examined how software designers could aid companies in acquiring an international market share for their computer technology. To acquire these foreign markets, he found that operating systems needed to function in a language conducive to the learner, not the designer. Doing this is “just good business (p. 10).” Software products needed to incorporate the language and culture of the target audience—what Taylor described as internationalization (foreign) or localization (domestic). This is prevalent in that some operating systems function in many languages and incorporate cultural concepts.2 Like the software programmer, the instructional designer needs to acknowledge his or her own culture, language, ideologies, and standards. Instructional designers need to provide a “cultural context” and culture-specific design specifications. A cultural context means examining situations from the point of view of the target audience (Taylor, 1992). Culture-specifc design specifications can be applied based on models of culture—like CBM.. Interacting in a world of diverse peoples requires that individuals have their own cultural identity (Hofstede, 1991) and understand their cultural values. These skills translate into an understanding of others. The instructional designer might begin with these seven steps: Develop a deeper understanding of your own culture. Ask family members about your ethnic heritage. Become proactive in learning about your ancestry. 2. Wipe out any preconceived notions about the target audience 3. Start with a basic slate of what you know about human beings and social interaction. 4. Apply only the coloring that is there, not what you have come to believe. 5. Situate the design in context. Build the cultural and instructional context around the target audience. 6. Go with what you know about ADDIE! 7. Be creative! 1.

To limit cultural bias, an individual needs to de-center themselves3. De-centering is the process in which members of a team reject the focus on Western ideologies and try to promote a focus on the target audience’s culture and learning needs (Hofstede, 1991). Designs and designers are not equitable; therefore, the assumption that, if one thinks culture, one does culture is not true (Scheel & Branch, 1993). Integrating culture in design must be an explicit act.

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Otline of the Book Section I provides background research to all areas covered in the book—namely instructional design and culture. The nature of culture as a design construct is defined and explored. CBM is introduced and an overview of the components of the model. Chapter I provides the theoretical, methodological, and conceptual background to understanding the role of culture in instructional design. It begins with an overview of learning theories to the development of instructional design theories. Then the chapter reviews some early perspectives on culture. Last, connections are made between culture, design, and ICTs. This chapter provides international and national perspectives in instructional design. Chapter II is a conceptual chapter that explores perspectives on the nature of culture in design. This chapter looks at the many facets of culture. Chapter III provides an overview of CBM. It uses a question-and-answer format to address basic questions about the model, such as the following: What is CBM? Where did CBM come from? What can CBM do? Who would use CBM? What are CBMs components? How does CBM work? How do you manage CBM? Why is CBM intercultural? Section II should be used as a handbook or reference resource. These chapters cover all components of CBM. The areas are defined, described, and illustrated with relevant examples. Guiding questions that direct the designer in creating a generic or specialized product are provided. Generic products are guided by culture guiding questions (culture GQ). Specialized products are guided by target audience guiding questions (target audience GQ). Given the comprehensiveness of CBM’s ID-TABLET, it is best covered over several chapters. Therefore, the areas of the model are covered in Chapters IV-XIV. The areas are ordered according to CBM’s management and design system—the ID-TABLET. Chapter IV covers CBM Inquiry and Development. Inquiry acts as a monitoring system for the design process. Development controls issues related to problem solving. Chapter V includes CBM Team, Assessments, and Brainstorming. Team handles all the decision making for the project. Assessments cover several forms of evaluation, and Brainstorming is the primary planning area for the project. Chapter VI focuses on the area CBM Learners that manages most of the instructional goals of the project. Chapter VII begins CBM Elements I; Elements is divided over eight chapters. The focus of CBM Elements is content development. This first section of CBM is devoted to Elements specific to the anthropology of culture. This chapter continues with design factors Cultural aesthetics, Cultural artifacts, Cultural capital, and Cultural classification.

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Chapter VIII covers CBM Elements II. This chapter focuses on the design factor Cultural communications. Chapter IX covers CBM Elements III. This chapter outlines the design factors Cultural demographics and Cultural environment. Chapter X covers CBM Elements IV. Cultural history is covered in its entirety. Chapter XI focuses on CBM Elements V. This chapter covers several design factors that include: Cultural knowledge, Cultural language, Cultural physiology, Cultural relations, and Cultural resources. Chapter XII covers CBM Elements VI, and begins with the section the psychology of culture. The design factors covered include: Cultural beliefs & values, Cultural experiences, Cultural ideas, Cultural identity, Cultural interests, Cultural misconceptions, and Cultural ways. Chapter XIII covers CBM Elements VII, and begins with the section the science of culture. The design factors covered include: Cultural anomalies, Cultural cultures, and Cultural futures. Chapter XIV completes the final parts of CBM Elements VIII and the area Training. The design factors covered include Cultural infinities and Cultural nature. Training is another area under the management of the project. This is where education about the product takes place. Section III provides 4 realistic case studies using CBM and the concluding chapter. These chapters align with CBM’s framework. Chapter XV examines CBM’s ID-TABLET and how it functions in building an educational product. Specifically, this example demonstrates the basics of a custom development or building a project from scratch. Chapter XVI connects CBM’s ID-TABLET to a case study in game design. This example illustrates an Add-on or adding on to an existing video game. Chapter XVII connects CBM’s ID-TABLET to a case study in e-Learning. This example demonstrates how to use the ID-TABLET for re-engineering an e-learning environment. Chapter XVIII connects CBM’s ID-TABLET to a case study in Research. This example presents the use of the ID-TABLET as a diagnostic evaluation tool. The conclusion, Chapter XIX, offers some thoughts on the future of culturebased designs, the field of instructional design, learners and designers of the future, and other ideas. The significance of culture in the design ICTs will be important as business, industry, government, and educational institutions that seek to meet the needs of target audiences, diversify the designs of products and services, and capture larger markets. This globalization in design practices is the future of instructional design and design practices in general.

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References Armstrong, A. (2004). Preface. In A. Armstrong (Ed.), Instructional design in the real world: A view from the trenches (pp. vii-xvi). Hershey, PA: Information Science Publishing. Bates, A. W. (1995). Technology, open learning and distance education. London: Routledge. Bhandari, N. (2007, August 9). Home and away: Tertiary study 2008. Sydney Morning Herald, p. 5. Blurton, C. (1999, August 18). New directions in education. World communication and information report 1999-2000. Paris: UNESCO. Retrieved July 18, 2008, from http://www.unesco.org/webworld/wcir/en/report.html Chu, G., & Reeves, T. C. (2000, April 24-28). The relationship between cultural differences among American and Chinese university students and the design of personal pages on the World Wide Web. New Orleans, LA: Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association. Dijkstra, S., Seel, N. M., Schott, F., & Tennyson, R. D. (Eds.). (1997). Instructional design: International perspectives. Vol 2: Solving instructional design problems (Vol. 2). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Publishers. Douglas, I. (2006). Issues in software engineering of relevance to instructional design. Tech Trends, 50(5), 28-35. Ember, C. R., & Ember, M. (1996). Cultural anthropology. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. Gagne, R. M., Briggs, L. J., & Wager, W. W. (1992). Principles of instructional design. Fort Worth: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich College Publishers. Gartner, Inc. (2008). Gartner says worldwide mobile phone sales increased 16 per cent in 2007 [electronic version]. Stamford, CT: Author. Retrieved June 1, 2008, from http://www.gartner.com/it/page.jsp?id=612207 Gay, G. (2000). Culturally responsive teaching. New York, NY: Teachers College Press. Germain, C. B., & Bloom, M. (1999). Human behavior in the social environment: An ecological view (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Columbia University Press. Gilbert, J., Arbuthnot, K., Hood, S., Grant, M. M., West, M. L., McMillian, Y., et al. (2008). Teaching algebra using culturally relevant virtual instructors. The international journal of virtual reality, 7(1), 21-30.

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Gustafson, K. L., & Branch, R. M. (2002). Survey of instructional development models. Syracuse, NY: ERIC Clearinghouse on Information & Technology. Hofstede, G. (1991). Cultures and organizations: software of the mind. London: McGraw-Hill Book Company. Hofstede, G., & Hofstede, G. J. (2005). Cultures and organizations: Software of the mind. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill. Internet World Stats. (2008). Internet usage statistics. The Internet big picture: World Internet users and population stats. Retrieved June 1, 2008, from http://www. Internetworldstats.com/stats.htm Johnson, K. A. (1989). The foundations of instructional design. In K. A. Johnson & L. J. Foa (Eds.), Instructional design: New alternatives for effective education and training (pp. 3-13). New York: National University Continuing Education Association. Kim, U., & Park, Y. S. (2006). The scientific foundation of indigenous and cultural psychology: The transactional approach. In U. Kim, K. S. Yang, & K. K. Hwang (Eds.), Indigenous and cultural psychology: Understanding people in context (pp. 27-48). New York, NY: Springer. Leonard, J., Davis, J. E., & Sidler, J. L. (2005). Cultural relevance and computerassisted instruction. Journal of Research on Technology in Education, 37(3), 263284. McConnon, A. (2007, August 13). The name of the game is work [electronic version]. Business Week. Retrieved June 1, 2008 from http://www.businessweek.com/innovate/content/aug2007/id20070813_467743.htm?chan=innovation_special+report+-+the+power+of+gaming_the+power+of+gaming Musinguzi, B. (2008, April 9). African languages absent in cyberspace. Daily Monitor Online. Retrieved June 12, 2008, from http://www.monitor.co.ug/artman/ publish/features/African_languages_absent_in_cyberspace.shtml Plotkin, H. (2003). The imagined world made real: Towards a natural science of culture. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press. Reigeluth, C. M. (1983). Instructional design: What is it and why is it? In C. M. Reigeluth (Ed.), Instructional-design theories and models: An overview of their current status (pp. 3-36). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Publishers. Richey, R. (1986). The theoretical and conceptual bases of instructional design. London: Kogan Page.

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Rickertt, J. (2004). Cultural wisdom and hindsight: Instructional design and delivery on the run. In A. Armstrong (Ed.), Instructional design in the real world: A view from the trenches (pp. 53-67). Hershey, PA: Information Science Publishing. Rowland, G. (1993). Designing and instructional design. Educational Technology Research and Design, 41(1), 79-91. Scanlon, J. (2008, August 13). Getting serious about gaming [electronic version]. Business Week. Retrieved July 18, 2008 from http://www.businessweek.com/innovate/content/aug2007/id20070813_756874.htm Scheel, N. P., & Branch, R. C. (August 1993). The role of conversation and culture in the systematic design of instruction. Educational Technology, 33, 7-18. Seels, B., & Glasgow, Z. (1998). Making instructional design decisions. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. Segall, M. H., Dasen, P. R., Berry, J. W., & Poortinga, Y. H. (1999). Human behavior in global perspective: An introduction to cross-cultural psychology. Needham Heights, MA: Pearson Education. Shimbun, K. (2008). Mobile phones as language learning tool. The Daily Yomiuri. Smith, P. L., & Ragan, T. J. (2005). Instructional design (3rd ed.). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Subramony, D. P. (2004, July/August). Instructional technologists’ inattention to issues of cultural diversity among learners. Educational Technology, 19-24. Tahana, Y. (2008, February 26). Maori learning plugs into media players. The New Zealand Herald. Retrieved July 18, 2008 from http://www.nzherald.co.nz/topic/story. cfm?c_id=252&objectid=10494565&ref=rss Taylor, D. (1992). Global software: Developing applications for the international market. New York, NY: Springer. Tennyson, R. D., Schott, F., Seel, N., & Dijkstra, S. (Eds.). (1997). Instructional design: International perspectives. Vol. 1: Theory, research, and models. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Publishers. Tessmer, M., & Wedman, J. (1995). Context-sensitive instructional design models: A response to design research studies and criticism. Performance Improvement Quarterly, 8(3), 38-54.

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Van Patten, J. (1989). What is instructional design? In K. A. Johnson & L. J. Foa (Eds.), Instructional design: New alternatives for effective education and training (pp. 16-31). New York, NY: National University Continuing Education Association. Vlessing, E. (2008, January 19). Game market boom daunting for developers. The Hollywood Reporter, p. 1. Waits, T., & Lewis, L. (2003). Distance education at degree-granting postsecondary institutions: 2000-2001 (No. NCES 2003-017). Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education: National Center for Education Statistics. Young, P. A. (1999). Roads to travel: A historical look at African American contributions to instructional technology. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, CA. Young, P. A. (2001). Roads to travel: A historical look at The Freedman’s Torchlight—An African American contribution to 19th-century instructional technologies. Journal of Black Studies, 31(5), 671-698. Young, P. A. (2008a). Exploring culture in the design of new technologies of literacy. In J. Coiro, M. Knobel, C. Lankshear & D. J. Leu (Eds.), Handbook of research on new literacies (pp. 325-358). London, England: Routledge. Young, P. A. (2008b). Integrating culture in the design of ICTs. British Journal of Educational Technology, 39(1), 6-17. Young, P. A. (2008c). The culture-based model: A framework for designers and visual ID languages. In L. Botturi & T. Stubbs (Eds.), Handbook of visual languages for instructional design: Theories and practices (pp. 52-75). Hershey, PA: IGI Global. Young, P. A. (2008d). The culture-based model: Constructing a model of culture. Journal of Educational, Technology & Society, 11(2), 107-118. Young, P. A. (in press-a). The Brownies’ book: Exploring the past to elucidate the future of instructional design. Journal of Language Identity and Education.

Ed

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Entertainment games include any of the following: educational, serious, massivemultiplayer online, video, etc. Taylor (1992) found that software must address the cultural context of the learner. He identified several concepts related to language, notational conven-

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tions, and other features of hardware and software interfaces. (a) Transliteration means translating concepts from one language to another. For example, shifting cases on American keyboards does not translate into other languages that do not have capital letters, such as Arabic and Hebrew. (b) Hyphenation rules differ from one language to another. Words in some languages are not hyphenated, and some languages lend themselves to hyphenation rules. (c) Spelling checkers in software programs are difficult to adapt to the cultural contexts and idiomatic expressions of languages. For example, a spell checker fails to function with slang and colloquialisms such as “sho nuf.” (d) Collation or sorting is associated with languages. For example, the letter n is added to the Spanish language, and in Japanese, sorting is not done alphabetically but by proper names. (e) Notational conventions are concepts such as time, date, numbers, currency, and so forth that vary from one culture to another. Although Hofstede (1991) is referring to research, the idea of decentering oneself from cultural bias is also applicable in this example.

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Acknowledgment

If you come out of a design background, when asked why do you design?: the answer would be “because I have to.” Creating, designing, and producing are part of who I am—my being and existing. I need to create. However in academia, the creative side is not as valued. There is room for innovation in the work we do as educators. Finding that creativity again is part of what designing for and about culture is all about. Being creative is something I thought I had lost in the process of buckling down and becoming an academic; however the culture-based model builds on theory, methodology, practice, design and creativity beyond my scope of reasoning. This is truly a constructed model. That said, there are many who I would like to thank for supporting this creative process. At the University of Maryland, Baltimore County (UMBC), Deans John Jefferies and Kathy O’Dell directly participated in the support of this scholarship. During the two years of concentrated writing and revisions, I utilized the help of many UMBC Department of Education graduate assistants and I extend a warm thanks to them. I would like to thank the IGI Global team and Jan Travers (Vice President of Editorial) for their help through this journey. I appreciate their patience. My development as a professor/researcher can be accredited to a variety of individuals in addition to those who encouraged me along the way. They include the following professors: Michael Banks, New York Institute of Technology, USA Renee Clift, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, USA Ann DeVaney, Emeritus, University of Wisconsin at Madison, USA Anne Haas Dyson, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, USA Patricia Edwards, Michigan State University, USA Lily Wong Fillmore, Emeritus, University of California at Berkeley, USA Sarah Warshauer Freedman, University of California at Berkeley, USA Michele Foster, Claremont Graduate University, USA Bernard R. Gifford, University of California at Berkeley, USA

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Etta R. Hollins, University of Southern California, USA Jean Lave, Emeritus, University of California at Berkeley, USA Donald J. Leu, University of Connecticut, USA Jabari Mahiri, University of California at Berkeley, USA Pedro Noguera, New York University, USA A special thanks to colleagues who reviewed drafts offering constructive feedback and suggestions on how to improve this manuscript. In addition, I would like to thank Rita Richey for writing the forward and acknowledge her valuable contributions to the fields of instructional design and technology. I would like to send a big hug to my family and friends. In particular, my mother Minnie listened tirelessly to my anguish, fears and surprises. My sister Debbie continued to provide me with supportive jokes. My sister Angel lent many an ear over the years and did so again in this process. My sister Brenda, brother Johnnie, and sister-in-law Anna, gave me individual support in their own special ways. Thanks to my friend and colleague Dr. Tryphenia Peele-Eady who listened and offered advice to my ideas even when they were out of her field of study. Cheryl Blackwell-Johnson is a friend and colleague who supported me in the collection of data and soothed me through this time. Finally, a special thanks to Frank James Eagles who talked me through many of these ideas, supported my professional development and designed some of the graphic figures. This has been an informative journey.

Section I

Building Culture in Design

Building culture in design looks broadly at the building blocks of documented knowledge and how this knowledge has shaped the field of instructional design and what we know about culture. It further looks to the future of what culture could and should be as we move forward in the 21st century. This section provides historical, theoretical, and conceptual research in the areas of learning theory, instructional design, constructivism, and culture. These chapters outline one of many possible paths to the history of instructional design and its connection to culture. The meaning and multicontexts of culture are defined and explored. Specifically, the reasoning behind situating culture as a design construct is explained. The culture-based model (CBM) is introduced and an overview of the components of the model. The foundation of the model is revealed through a series of questions.

Beginnings in Instructional Design and Culture

Chapter I


Pioneers in Learning, Learning Theory, & Psychology If the history of the world is properly searched, the birth of innovation in learning theory as a practice and psychology as a science can be found in the literature of scholars across nations. In Germany, Wilheim A. Lay (1903) studied the relationship between psychology (i.e., memory, perception, muscle response) and the practice of teaching subject matter (i.e., reading, writing, and arithmetic). Lay believed that educational topics could benefit from an experimental approach that explored “not only the psychological but also the biological, anthropological, hygienic, economic, logical, ethical, aesthetic, and religious experiences of the pupil and his community by means of observation, statistics and the experiment (Lay, 1936, p. 139).” In Geneva, Edouard Claparède (1905) argued that the type of teaching should be dependent on the knowledge the child brings with them. Claparède believed that the learner needed to know how to learn in order to learn. Ernst Meumann (1907), in Germany, continued with this line of inquiry into experimental psychology and experimental pedagogy examining the application of psychology methods to pedagogical problems. Given the increased demands on children to learn more information, Meumann sought to develop psychologically based methods to improve Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.

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teaching and learning. Meumann (1913) wrote in the introduction of the book The Psychology of Learning: In the traditional pedagogy we read a great deal about methods of teaching; but in most cases, the pedagogical text-books can tell us nothing about methods of learning. And yet we find ourselves confronted by the very serious question as to whether the efficiency of school-room management may not be increased by systematically improving the pupil’s procedure in the act of learning in such a fashion that his learning may be perfected in its technical aspects and accomplished more economically (p. xiv). In the United States, early examples of the scientific approach to the child study movement can be found in the works of psychologists G. Stanley Hall (e.g., The Contents of Children’s Minds on Entering School - 1893) and James M. Cattell (e.g., Mental Tests and Measurements -1890). Furthering the research in child psychology, John Dewey and Edward Lee Thorndike explored the psychology of schooling and the child. Dewey (1897) theorized that, to educate an individual, one must know about their “psychological structure and activities” and their “social conditions” (p. 4). This knowledge aided in determining where the child came from and where they were headed. Specifically, Dewey sought to understand how socialization influenced learning and how it could aid in educating the individual. Edward Lee Thorndike (1903, 1906) contributed several textbooks on the psychology of education, teaching, and learning. In the textbook Educational Psychology, Thorndike (1903) examined the influences of mental development, environment, and genetics. In formulating a theory of education, Thorndike (1903) hypothesized the following: To know the original natures of the beings to be educated and to know the influence of the forces of nature, human lives and all the paraphernalia of civilization upon these original natures is to know how to control their education in the interest of the aim we have chosen (p. 163). Thorndike proposed that, through knowing humankind, it is possible to control the quantity and quality of our knowledge. This possibility, like the theorizing of Thorndike’s predecessors, had great implications for the design of instruction and, further, in educating the human race. The contributions of Marxist psychologists should be added to the history of instructional design. This work contributed to the research conducted during the 1920-1940s on child study, teaching, and learning. In the United Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR), Lev Vygotsky’s research with the Institute of Psychology at Moscow University produced a manual on the practical applications of teaching. Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.


This 1926 teachers’ manual, titled Educational Psychology (Pedagogical Psychology), sought to provide teachers with insight on the psychology of children and the process of instruction (Vygotsky, 1926). Vygotsky wrote extensively in the area of child development. By example, the publication of The Problem of the Cultural Development of the Child (1929) provided insight into the natural and the cultural psychological development of a child. Alexander R. Luria, Vygotsky’s colleague, collaborated in writing Ape, Primitive Man, and Child: Essays in the History of Behaviour (1930). In this text, Luria and Vygotsky (1930) presented a theory of psychological development from ape to cultured child. Another notable psychologist who contributed to child study is Henri Wallon [The Origins of Thought in the Child (1947) and The Psychological and Sociological Study of the Child (1947)]. By the start of World War II, the beginnings of the process approach were clearly defined as psychologists and educators conducted research and developed training materials to help war efforts. Robert Gagné, Leslie Briggs, John Flanagan, and others used the research on learning, instruction, and behavior to inform instructional strategies that they developed for the military. The systematic design procedures aided in the management of military projects (Johnson, 1989; Richey, 1986; Seels, 1989). For example, the development process of the atomic bomb was an application of the systems approach. Instructional systems development (ISD) was the military’s version of instructional design. Industry used ISD in its training films. These instructional films taught large groups of people skills such as aircraft maintenance, nursing, and woodworking, as these jobs were needed during wartime (Saettler, 1990). By the 1950s, the pioneering work of behaviorists and cognitivists further defined the field of instructional design. B. F. Skinner examined the behavior of organisms and how these organisms learned (Skinner, 1954). Specifically, Skinner’s work on programmed instruction and his development of teaching machines1 provided methods and devices to scientifically investigate instruction and learning (Reigeluth, 1988; Seels, 1989; Skinner, 1954; Tennyson & Schott, 1997). Skinner’s (1954) programmed instruction is based on operant conditioning where the learner’s responses are followed by a reinforcing stimulus. Through the use of teaching machines, Skinner shaped the learner’s responses by offering information in small increments through a mechanical device. The learner proceeded through a series of stimulus-response-reinforcement cycles where they were provided with a stimulus, prompted to initiate a response, and then received feedback or reinforcement as to the correctness of the response. Cognitive learning theory flourished throughout the world. In Switzerland, psychologist Jean Piaget’s theory of cognitive development explored the development of intelligence in a child (Piaget, 1954). Hans Aebli’s (1951) foundational work in “psychological didactics” led to instructional innovations in Austria, Germany, and Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.

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Switzerland. Aebli transformed Piaget’s work in developmental psychology into an instructional theory. Specifically, in this work Aebli used a didactical method consisting of “active methods,” “learning by acting,” and “searching and inquiring.” These methods aided in constructing mental operations and helped with “exterior operations and step-by-step symbolizations” (as cited in Einsiedler, 1997, p. 272). In the 1960s, behaviorist approaches to learning transitioned into cognitive approaches. Learning theories gave way to theories pertinent to the design of instruction. Jerome Bruner (1966) developed a theory of instruction that supported both learning and development. Bruner’s theory of instruction proposes that (a) the learner’s environmental experiences should foster a predisposition to learn; (b) there must be a structure to the acquisition of knowledge; (c) materials for learning should be presented in a sequence; and (d) rewards and punishments must be paced. Bruner believed that obtaining knowledge is a process. David Ausubel (1960) developed a theory of cognitive structures that emphasized the subsumption of knowledge—meaning how one increases and reorganizes one’s knowledge. His instructional theory proposed the use of advance organizers to arrange information from the general to the more specific. The work of Robert Gagné for the next two decades strongly influenced the field of instructional design because of its focus on learning, learning outcomes, design, instruction, systems development, and the needs of learners or users. Gagné’s (1962b) “theory of knowledge acquisition” proposed that knowledge can be acquired through a systematic means (p. 357). Learners must first perform simple tasks to acquire subordinate knowledges. These subordinate knowledges once recalled create a hierarchy to the more complex tasks or superordinate knowledges. Then in 1965, Gagné’s publication Conditions of Learning provided descriptions of learning conditions that could be observed and therefore experimentally studied. Gagné argued that the design of a “learning situation” determines its effectiveness (p. 250). Therefore, if instruction is programmed it allows for the creation of an adaptive design that meets the needs of learners and provides indicators for assessment.

Early IIodels From the research in task analysis, systems development and instructional systems came some of the earliest examples of instructional design models (Gagné, 1962a; Silvern, 1967). Most instructional design models are represented by some form of visual language (i.e., flowchart, venn diagram or graphic shapes) (Botturi & Stubbs, 2008). Gagne (1962a) designed a flowchart to represent his model of systems development. Figure 1.1 demonstrates that in the systems development of machines there must be a simultaneous development of the human functions. The model plans Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.


Figure 1.1. A systems development model

Note: Data derived from Gagné’s (1962a)

the human interaction with the machine. The goal is to achieve the highest level of efficiency as the human and machine engage. Other models of the 1960s included those of Leonard C. Silvern, Bela H. Banathy, and John Barson. Silvern (1967) created a “cybernetic model” that examined the multiple paths from outside the high school that supply real-life employment information to the occupational teacher who would, in turn, make curriculum adjustments on the basis of this information (p. 82). Banathy’s (1968) model demonstrated how to apply the systems approach to curriculum development and specifically focused on learners in a school environment. Barson (1967) designed a decision-making model for higher education institutions that used the systems approach to improve teaching and instruction and further implement new communications media. These early models laid the foundation to a framework for design and development. By Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.

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the 1970s, many more instructional design models were created with a focus on the systematic design of instruction (Dick & Carey, 1978; Gagné & Briggs, 1974; Gerlach & Ely, 1971; Kemp, 1971). Several histories of instructional design models have been written in 70s, 80s, 90s and 2000s to demonstrate their continued proliferation and evolution (Andrews & Goodson, 1980; Edmonds, Branch, & Mukherjee, 1994; Gustafson, 1991; Gustafson & Branch, 1997, 2002; Salisbury, 1990; Stamas, 1973; Twelker, Urbach, & Buck, 1972). This evolution is marked by diversity in the types of models, purpose, origin, function, audience, plan of instruction, and learning goal. Further, many of these instructional design models consistently maintain components of ADDIE. During the ADDIE process, all areas (i.e., analysis, design, development, implementation and evaluation) interact with each other at different stages of the process. The most prevalent change from the early models to the more contemporary is that the design and development of instruction is multifaceted; this is demonstrated through the variety of visual languages that have moved from linear to “concurrent or recursive” design procedures (Gustafson & Branch, 2002, p. 5).

Asessing Learners and Learning Testing and evaluation research from the 1960s-1970s also documents a shift from behavioral to cognitive objectives in techniques such as: criterion referenced measures, norm-referenced measures and task analysis. Criterion referenced measures evaluate an individual’s proficiency at any designated level of performance. Normreferenced measures evaluate an individual’s performance, compared with others in the group. Consistent with the need to design instruction for learners, there is a need to determine whether the instructional design caused some level of achievement in the learner. Criterion and norm referenced measures aid in providing behavioral characteristics of the learner and determining the instructional conditions or treatment in which the behavior of achievement lies (Glaser, 1963; Glaser & Klaus, 1962). Earlier examinations of criterion and norm referenced measures can be found in the works of Flanagan (1951) and Ryans and Frederiksen (1951). Task analysis provides information about human functions that are performance specific, observable, and measurable (Glaser & Klaus, 1962; Miller, 1962). For example, what is the difference between a proficient reader versus a struggling reader? What is the difference between a skilled versus less skilled learner of mathematics? Task analysis is a technique to describe the cognitive demands of psychological processes such as memory, attention, perception, and language; it also identifies knowledge and skill when sequencing instruction (Glaser, 1978). In Europe, as cited by Tennyson and Schott (1997), researchers examined task analyses that focused on content (i.e., the Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.


situation) and behavior (i.e., mental procedures). These task analyses were designed around criterion-referenced tests (Klauer, 1974; Klauer, Fricke, Herbig, Rupprecht, & Schott, 1972; Schott, 1975, 1992).

IS The systems approach to instructional design was fully established by the 1970s. This is evident by the creation of graduate educational programs in instructional systems at colleges and universities and teacher and university faculty training devoted to the use of media and the implementation of instructional design (Merrill, 1971; Patridge & Tennyson, 1979). Instructional systems design found a place in business and industry in the area of training. The military continued to use ISD to streamline its training and improve efficiency (Mager, 1977).

Transforming Theories Learning theory flourished both internationally and nationally in the late 1970s and early 1980s. In Europe, Hans Aebli’s (1978, 1980, 1981) work on constructivist learning investigated knowledge construction. Aebli experimented with how the mind constructs and acquires knowledge and the relationship of this knowledge to schema construction (as cited by Steiner, 1997). In North America, Robert Gagné and Leslie Briggs formulated a theory of learning specific to instructional design. Gagné and Briggs (1974) argued that to design instruction, it is best to work from the end (i.e., outcomes) to the beginning, thereby setting up the educational goal. The framework proposed by Gagné and Briggs consisted of five categories of learning outcomes: attitude, cognitive strategies, intellectual skills, motor skills, and verbal information. These five categories are acquired through human learning and can be observed and analyzed to design instruction based on human performance. Joseph M. Scandura’s (1971, 1977) structural learning theory provided a framework for explaining and predicting cognitive behavior as it pertains to certain learning situations. This theory deals with three perspectives of a theory of knowledge that include determining (a) the characterization of knowledge; (b) the ideal cognitive behavior of how knowledge is learned, selected, and used; and (c) cognitive capacity as it relates to information processing and memory. By the 1980s, learning theories transformed into integrated instructional design theories of learning that focused on the methods of instruction versus learning processes (Merrill, 1983; Reigeluth, 1979; Reigeluth & Stein, 1983; Tennyson & Cocchiarella, 1986). M. David Merrill’s (1983) component display theory guides the Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.

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design of learning activities (i.e., events that the learner must acquire to achieve objectives) through a set of prescriptive relationships related to content and performance. It specifically deals with the development of microstrategies in the management of instruction, whereas Reigeluth and Stein’s “The Elaboration Theory of Instruction” (1979) offers methods of sequencing and organizing instruction on the macrolevel across the areas of sequencing, selection, summarizing, and synthesizing. Tennyson and Cocchiarella’s (1986) theory of concept teaching proposes that the design of instructional strategies is contingent on how information or content is structured. Content can be structured as relational or attribute characteristics; thereafter, the appropriate instructional strategy can be determined. Constructivist theories of learning dominated the 1990s as methodologies to improve learning and instruction. Although constructivist theories hold a diversity of perspectives, consistency is held on the following points: (a) Learners actively construct knowledge in their mind, and (b) instruction supports the construction of knowledge. Therefore, knowledge is socially constructed (Duffy & Cunningham, 1996). Constructivists are interested in connecting the learner to their environment by authentic or real world situations. Cognitive experiences are situated in authentic or real world activities (i.e., cognitive apprenticeship) (Bednar, Cunningham, Duffy & Perry, 1992). Authentic activities include those that involve the task and the environment (Brown, Collins & Duguid, 1989; Resnick, 1987). These authentic learning environments should be adaptable in complexity and should reflect the learner’s experience and knowledge base (Bednar et al., 1992). Cognitive apprenticeship, by example, focuses on developing, acquiring, and using cognitive skills in authentic tasks. This methodology assists in improving teaching and learning. Teaching becomes a process used by experts to manage complicated tasks and guide a learning experience (Collins, Brown, & Newman, 1989). The 1990s mark a period of new approaches to the process of design, systems of information delivery, and innovations in technology. New approaches to the process of design included rapid prototyping and concurrent engineering. Rapid prototyping is a design methodology, usually used in software engineering, whereby workable prototypes are built, tested, and refined before final production. In instructional design, rapid prototyping has been used to quickly evaluate an instructional product (Jones & Richey, 2000; Tripp & Bichelmeyer, 1990). Concurrent engineering is an approach to product development where team members work concurrently on different features of a product. This engineering process improves communication among team members, thereby making a better product to best meet the needs of the target audience. Typically, instructional design models focus on sequential versus concurrent engineering (Doré & Basque, 2000). The 1990s also introduced new approaches to systems of information delivery such as knowledge manage-

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ment systems and performance support systems. Knowledge management systems, like databases in the early days, are information technology applications that make available the “collective knowledge” of organizations (Alavi & Leidner, 2005, p. 171). These applications may provide instructional design with a common repository for the collection of learning outcomes and evaluating instructional designs (Spector, 2002). Performance support systems are computer-based applications that improve human performance and productivity through on-line access to information, instruction, and other materials to be learned. Within ID, performance support systems might provide asynchronous instructional materials that support work-related activities and functions (Milheim, 1997). Innovations of the 1990s in interactive technology include distance education and e-learning. Distance education is a method where the technology allows learners to interact with instructors and obtain information at a place and time of their choosing. Technologies of third-generation distance education include videoconferencing and the Internet. E-learning, similarly, is a method that allows the learner to interact with the instructor through technologies. Technologies specific to e-learning include the many forms of telecommunications, as well as the Internet and its capabilities of e-mail, Wiki’s bulletin boards, and digital videoconferencing. Instructional design remains integral to the project management and design involved in e-learning and distance education approaches (Bates, 2005).

Perspectives and Concepts of Culture Consistent across perspectives on culture is the desire to explain, understand, and explore human behavior and the world we inhabit. This inquiry has taken theorists and researchers into qualitative and quantitative examinations of individuals, groups, cultures, and societies, and it has defined traditional disciplines such as psychology, sociology2, anthropology, education, biology, chemistry, economics, and political science. This section provides a glimpse into the origins of traditional theories of culture to provide insight into the discourse on culture as it relates to several disciplines—sociology, anthropology and psychology. It further looks at concepts related to culture. Specifically, what does it mean to take a sociological view of culture? What is an anthropological view of culture? What is a psychological view of culture? How do these perspectives and concepts aid in understanding culture? This review is not comprehensive, given the enormous amount of data, but its goal is to provide insight into the nature of culture.


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Sciological Perspectives Sociological perspectives on culture may focus on social tradition (the process) or social heritage (the product). The product or social heritage is that which is acquired (handed down), and the process or social tradition is the course in which the acquisition takes place. Sociologists describe their perspectives on culture in the following ways: patterned behavior of a group; life history of a group; customs of a group; social relationships of the individual as it pertains to the whole group; social heritage of a group (i.e., art, beliefs, knowledge, morals, tools and tool use, and law); and socially shared group habits (Kroeber & Kluckhohn, 1966). One of the earliest examples of this sociological perspective on culture comes from the empirical work of French sociologist and founding contributor to modern sociology Émile Durkheim, who believed that society must be understood as a whole or through its “collective consciousness” (Durkheim, 1984, p. 84). A collective consciousness meant that the society, culture, or group responds with shared beliefs, ideas, values, and norms. These characteristics define the social aspects of a society or culture. Durkheim’s work disclosed the sociological nature of culture through an examination of the different layers, levels, and structures of the “social phenomenon” enacted through beliefs, practices, and predispositions (Durkheim, 1938, p. 7). This is evident in Durkheim’s classic sociology text, The Division of Labor in Society (1893) that analyzed the impact of the environment on social relations and how morals and norms formed within these social relations.

Anthropological Perspectives Anthropological perspectives on culture emphasize learned ways acquired throughout one’s life experiences. Culture is not innate, instinctive, or biologically transmitted. Culture examines the actions and interactions of individuals or groups and the tangible or crystallized products of human behavior. Anthropologists describe their perspectives on culture as: ways of life; ways of thinking, acting, doing, and feeling; social interaction; behavior that is learned, taught, shared, and transferred to other persons; patterns or forms of behavior or thinking; symbols; the making and use of objects or tools; interactions among groups; attitudes; language use; language articulation; and thoughts. All of these can be sanctioned or unsanctioned by society (Kroeber & Kluckhohn, 1966). Franz Boas (1911), a pioneer in the field of anthropology, viewed culture from a whole-versus-parts interpretation, meaning that “all” social behavior of an individual, an individual in a group, or the group itself is characterized through mental and physical activities. These activities enable the production of products that serve a function in the society or culture. The elements of culture are dependent on other Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.

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elements, and collectively, these elements create the structure of culture. Boas’s research and practice lead to the division of anthropology into four distinct fields: archaeology, linguistic anthropology, physical anthropology, and cultural anthropology. These four fields of research cover “the whole of humanity beyond time and space” (Boas, 1938, p.1). Archaeology is the study of past ways of life through analyses of material remains. Research in this field may include the collection of data such as building remains, stone tools, skeletons, pottery, and other artifacts. Linguistic anthropology originally was the study of undiscovered written language; however, now it broadly covers human language and speech. The history of languages; the relationship of language to societies, cultures, and people; and the sound, meaning, and grammar of a language are research areas in this field (Ferraro, 2004; Miller, 2002). Physical or biological anthropology is the study of biological organisms such as humans and, specifically, human behavior and biology. Research in this field includes understanding, studying or replicating the evolutionary growth, and the organic/inorganic distinctions of organism(s). Cultural anthropology examines the ways of life in a society or culture. This type of study entails a detailed or ethnographic description of the people gained through observations, conversations, and living with the people being studied (Ferraro, 2004; Haviland, 1987).

Psychological Perspectives Psychological perspectives on culture focus on learning and habit. In this case, culture is the culminating total of learning and recognized habits that are acquired by people and transferred for generations to come. Psychologists describe their perspectives on culture as: the total of all learned; learned behavior; a focus on the individual; or a mental activity (Kroeber & Kluckhohn, 1966). Lev Vygotsky (1929), a pioneer in the field of psychology, viewed culture as a product of nature, meaning that human behavior only developed to the point in which it was influenced by culture and not beyond. Culture alters nature to meet the needs of human beings; it is a reciprocal process. Vygotsky further formulated his ideas into the cultural historical approach to psychology, proposing that higher mental functions are found in humans social interaction with their environment. Humans actively create their environment. Culturally, society organizes tasks and tools for a young child to master that are structured in social ways. By example, language is a tool3 invented by humankind that aids children in the organized development of higher mental processes. Historically, humans have created and perfected tools that facilitate interaction with the physical environment, control mental and physical behavior, and carry human’s social history (Luria, 1979; Vygotsky, 1978).


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Conceptual Perspectives Other perspectives on culture move beyond disciplinary focuses into concepts such as modification, structure, and heredity. Similarly, concepts may deal with ideas or hypotheses about culture. Modification concepts propose that culture is created and recreated. Through modifications to society, culture is manifested. These modifications are based out of need. For example, overcrowding in a city might create the demand for the expansion of the city, acquisition of land, construction of housing, and so forth. Structure concepts propose that culture is organized and arranged. Culture becomes structured when connections are made between institutions or systems across time. Examples of culture focused on the merger of inventions, both tangible and intangible, within a society and the acceptance of these inventions by groups. Heredity concepts propose that culture is tangible (i.e., artifacts or products) or intangible (i.e., ideas or symbols). All inventions or tools of use created and recreated are, themselves, culture. Culture is not the human body. The tangible and intangible products of man’s inventiveness has transcended through history (Kroeber & Kluckhohn, 1966). The production, implementation, and distribution of ideas are culture at work. The culmination of all that humans have made is culture. These interpretations, perceptions, and conceptions consistently use qualitative and quantitative analyses to examine cultures and societies. Researching cultures and societies requires these methodologies and procedures. Qualitative analyses generate accounts of individuals, environments, and dialogues that focus on understanding individuals or groups from their perspectives. Both historical and ethnographic (i.e., ethnography) analyses are included under the area of qualitative research. Ethnography has traditionally been used to describe cultures. The techniques of qualitative research method include the following: observation, participant observation, open-ended interviews, and the collection and review of documents and artifacts. Quantitative analyses generate statistical relationships between numbers; the data collected are translated into variables (i.e., numbers or letters), analyzed, and plotted on a table or graph. Techniques of this research method include surveys, structured observations and interviews, data sets, and experiments (Alasuutari, 1995; Bogdan & Biklen, 1992). The different perceptions of culture are not neatly packaged. The blending into another field or practice is a natural part of the nature of culture. Culture is more than a layered, leveled, fixed, or transfixed phenomenon. As a theory, method, or concept, culture is everything known and yet to be known. Culture is all that there is or could be.



pplture to Instructional Design and ICTs Culture is significant to how learners learn. It is the way learners see the world and themselves in it. The theory and research on learning (Brown & Duguid, 1996) and culture assists in building ICTs and further understanding how culture affects learners interactions with technology (Collis, 1999). Researchers have examined culture as a factor in helping learners bridge their understanding and adapt to the academic needs of learning environments (Banks & Banks, 2003; Gutiérrez & Rogoff, 2003; Ladson-Billings, 1994; Lee, 2003; Nieto, 1996). This adaptation has been both educational and technological as the integration of culture would situate learners in their “cultural frame of reference” when learning (Branch, 1997; Gay, 2000, p. xix; Lave & Wenger, 1991; Mazyck, 2002; Powell, 1997; Thomas, Mitchell & Joseph, 2002; Young, 2001, 2002, 2008). In some cases, researchers and practitioners have created ICTs to meet the academic needs of ethnically diverse learners (Chascas & Cummins, 2004; Eglash, Bennett, O’Donnell, Jennings, & Cintorino, 2008; Gilbert et al., 2008; Pinkard, 1996, 1998). Without an existing framework, they have found ways to integrate culture in their designs, and they have done so through the use of technology. However, these culture-specific creations have been few in number. Theorists have proposed that learning is influenced by culture (Bruner, 1996; Vygotsky, 1978), and culture is significant to how learners acquire new understandings (DuBois, 1903). Learning takes place in a context that is specific to the environment and content information (Bednar et al., 1992; Brown et al., 1989; Bruner, 1985; Resnick, 1987; Rogoff & Lave, 1984). Therefore, learning should be situated from the learner’s perspective (Lave & Wenger, 1991; Vygotsky, 1978). In Bruner’s (1985) examination of the relationship between learner and learning, he understood that learning is acquired in a variety of ways and that learning happens in a variety of ways. Further, Bruner argued that learning is “context sensitive” (1985, p. 6). It follows that learning takes place in a context situated from the learner’s cultural perspective or a cultural context. The literature mapped to support a cultural context in instructional design has been articulated as culturally responsive, culturally relevant, culturally mediated, cultural accommodation, cultural compatibility, cultural congruence (Au & Kawakami, 1994; Gay, 2000; Hollins, 1996; Jordan, 1984; Ladson-Billings, 1994), and multiculturalism (Banks & Banks, 2003; Bennett, 2001; Sleeter & Grant, 1988). Gay (2000) argued that culturally responsive pedagogy focuses on the needs of ethnically diverse learners by allowing them to use their prior knowledge; situates learning from the learners’ cultural frames of reference; incorporates learners’ ways of being, seeing, and doing; and integrates learners’ histories, language, and learning styles while affirming and validating them. Hollins (1996) contended Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.

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that culturally mediated instruction is characterized by the homogeneity of the curriculum, instruction, teacher, and learner; this means that all share the same culture. However, in cultural accommodation, the teacher and learner do not share the same culture; academic learning is facilitated through the moderate integration of the student’s culture. Ladson-Billings (1994) proposed that culturally relevant teaching assists in sustaining the culture of the learner and transcending norms of the dominant culture; this pedagogy empowers learners through the use of cultural referents that bridge home and school cultures. Cultural compatibility, as defined by Jordan (1984) assumes that there are relationships between the culture of the school and the culture of ethnically diverse learners and that those connections need to be identified, developed within a cultural context, and used to promote academic achievement. Au and Kawakami (1994) hypothesized that cultural congruence happens when ethnically diverse learners perform poorly in school on the basis of the mismatch between school culture and home culture. Banks’ (1995) definition of multiculturalism dvocates providing learners from diverse racial, ethnic, and socioeconomic levels with an equitable educational experience and opportunities for academic achievement and socioeconomic advancement. Collectively, these theories and methods focus on the needs of a target audience, integrate culture, and situate learning from and through the learner (Young, 2008). This research suggests that culture influences learning and learners. To better meet the needs of learners, culture must be considered when designing ICTs. This means that the business as usual ways of design need to be transformative in globalizing learning.

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cational Research and Improvement. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED335027) Gustafson, K. L., & Branch, R. M. (1997). Revisioning models of instructional development. Educational Technology Research and Design, 45(3), 73-89. Gustafson, K. L., & Branch, R. M. (2002). Survey of instructional development models. Syracuse, NY: ERIC Clearinghouse On Information & Technology. Gutierrez, K. D., & Rogoff, B. (2003, June/July). Cultural ways of learning: Individual traits or repertories of practice. Educational Researcher, 32(5), 19-25. Hall, G. S. (1893). The contents of children’s minds on entering school. New York: E. L. Kellogg & Co. Haviland, W. A. (1987). Cultural anthropology (5th ed.). New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc. Hollins, E. R. (1996). Culture in school learning: Revealing the deep meaning. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc. Johnson, K. A. (1989). The foundations of instructional design. In K. A. Johnson & L. J. Foa (Eds.), Instructional design: New alternatives for effective education and training (pp. 3-13). New York: National University Continuing Education Association. Jones, T. S., & Richey, R. C. (2000). Rapid prototyping methodology in action: A developmental study. Educational Technology Research and Development, 48(2), 63-80. Jordan, C. (1984). Cultural compatibility and the education of ethnic minority children. Educational Research Quarterly, 8(4), 59-71. Kemp, J. E. (1971). Instructional design: A plan for unit and course development. Belmont, CA: Fearon Publishers. Klauer, K. J. (1974). Methodik der Lehzieldefinition und Lehrstoffanalyse [Methodology of defining educational goals and analyzing subject matter to be taught]. Düsseldorf, Germany: Schwann. Klauer, K. J., Fricke, R., Herbig, M., Rupprecht, H., & Schott, F. (1972). Lehrzielorientierte Test [Educational goal-referenced tests]. Düsseldorf, Germany: Schwann. Kroeber, A. L., & Kluckhohn, C. (1966). Culture: A critical review of concepts and definitions. New York: Vintage Books.


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Ladson-Billings, G. (1994). The dreamkeepers: Successful teachers of African American children. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Lave, J., & Wenger, E. (1991). Situated learning: Legitimate peripheral participation. Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press. Lay, W. A. (1903). Experimentelle didaktik ihre grundlegung mit besondere rucksicht auf muskelshen, wille und tat [Experimental didactics: Its foundations, with some considerations of muscle sense, will and action]. Wiesbaden, Germany: Otto Nemnich. Lay, W. A. (1936). Experimental pedagogy: With particular reference to education through activity (A. Weil & E. K. Schwartz, Trans.). New York: Prentice Hall, Inc. Lee, C. D. (2003). Toward a framework for culturally responsive design in multimedia computer environments: Cultural modeling as a case. Mind, Culture and Activity, 10(1), 42-61. Luria, A. R. (1979). The making of mind. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Luria, A. R., & Vygotsky, L. S. (1930). Ape, primitive man, and child: Essays in the history of behaviour (E. Rossiter, Trans.). London: Harvester & Wheatsheaf. Mager, R. F. (1977). The “winds of change.” Training and Development Journal, 31(10), 12-15. Mazyck, M. (2002, March/April). Integrated learning systems and students of color. Tech Trends, 46(2), 33-39. Merrill, M. D. (1971). Instructional design in teacher training. In M. D. Merrill (Ed.), Instructional design: Readings (pp. 55-71). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. Merrill, M. D. (1983). Component display theory. In C. M. Reigeluth (Ed.), Instructional design theories and models: An overview of their current status,1, 279-333. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Publishers. Meumann, E. (1907). Vorlesungen zur eiffuhrung in die experimentelle pedagogik (Lectures on the introduction to experimental pedagogy). Leipzig, Germany: Engelmann. Meumann, E. (1913). The psychology of learning: An experimental investigation of the economy and technique of memory (J. W. Baird, Trans.). New York: D. Appleton and Co.



Milheim, W. (1997). Instructional design issues for electronic performance support systems. British Journal of Educational Technology, 28(2), 103-110. Miller, B. D. (2002). Cultural anthropology. Boston: Allyn & Bacon. Miller, R. B. (1962). Task description and analysis. In R. M. Gagné (Ed.), Psychological principles in system development (pp. 187-228). New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston. Nieto, S. (1996). Affirming diversity: The sociopolitical context of multicultural education. White Plains, NY: Longman Publishers. Patridge, M. I., & Tennyson, R. D. (1979). Graduate education in instructional systems: A review of selected programs. Journal of Instructional Development, 2(2), 18-26. Piaget, J. (1954). The construction of reality in the child. New York: Basic Books. Pinkard, N. (1996). Rappin’ reader [Computer software]. Evanston, IL: Northwestern University. Pinkard, N. (1998). Say say oh playmate [Computer software]. Ann Arbor: MI: University of Michigan. Powell, G. (1997). On being a culturally sensitive instructional designer and educator. Educational Technology, 37(2), 6-14. Reigeluth, C. M. (1979). In search of a better way to organize instruction: The elaboration theory. Journal of Instructional Development, 2(3), 8-15. Reigeluth, C. M., & Stein, F. S. (1983). The elaboration theory of instruction. In C. M. Reigeluth (Ed.), Instructional-design theories and models: An overview of their current status,1, 335-381. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Publishers. Resnick, L. (1987). Education and learning to think. Washington, DC: National Academy Press. Richey, R. (1986). The theoretical and conceptual bases of instructional design. London: Kogan Page. Rogoff, B., & Lave, J. (1984). Everyday cognition: Its development in social context. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Ryans, D. G., & Frederiksen, N. (1951). Performance tests of educational achievement. In E. F. Lindquist (Ed.), Educational measurement (pp. 455-494). Washington DC: American Council on Education. Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.

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Salisbury, D. (1990). General systems theory and instructional systems design. Performance and Instruction, 29(2), 1-11. Saettler, P. (1990). The evolution of American educational technology. Englewood, CO: Libraries Unlimited, Inc. Seels, B. (1989). The instructional design movement in educational technology. Educational Technology, 29(5), 11-15. Silvern, L. C. (1967). Systems analysis and synthesis applied to occupational instruction in secondary schools. Los Angeles, CA: Education & Training Consultants, Co. Skinner, B. F. (1954). The science of teaching and the art of learning. Harvard Education Review, 24(1), 86-97. Scandura, J. M. (1971). Deterministic theorizing in structural learning: Three levels of empiricism. Journal of Structural Learning, 3, 21-53. Scandura, J. M. (1977). Structural approach to instructional problems. American Psychologist, 32(1), 33-53. Schott, F. (1975). Lehrstoffanalyse. Ein Beschreibungssystem fur Analyse von Inhalt und Verhalten fei Lehrtielen [Analysis of teaching material. A description system for the analysis of content and behavior concerning instructional goals]. Dùsseldorf, Germany: Schwann. Schott, F. (1992). The useful representation of instructional objectives: A task analysis of task analysis. In S. Dijkstra, H. P. M. Krammer & J. J. G. van Merriënboer (Eds.), Instructional models in computer-based learning environments (pp. 43-59). Berlin: Springer-Verlag. Sleeter, C. E., & Grant, C. A. (1988). Making choices for multicultural education. Columbus, OH: Merrill. Spector, J. M. (2002). Knowledge management tools for instructional design. Educational Technology Research and Design, 50(4), 37-46. Stamas, T. S. (1973). A descriptive study of a synthesized operational instructional development model, reporting its effectiveness, efficiency and the cognitive and affective influence of the developmental process on a client. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI. Steiner, G. (1997). Educational learning theory. In R. D. Tennyson, F. Schott, N. M. Seel, & S. Dijkstra (Eds.), Instructional design, international perspectives, 1, 79-112. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Publishers. Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.


Tennyson, R. D., & Cocchiarella, M. J. (1986). An empirically based instructional design theory for teaching concepts. Review of Educational Research, 56(1), 4071. Tennyson, R. D., & Schott, F. (1997). Instructional design theory, research, and models. In R. D. Tennyson, F. Schott, N. M. Seel, & S. Dijkstra (Eds.), Instructional design, international perspectives, 1, 1-16. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum Associates, Publishers. Thomas, M., Mitchell, M., & Joseph, R. (2002). The third dimension of ADDIE: A cultural experience. Tech Trends, 46(2), 40-45. Thorndike, E. L. (1906). The principles of teaching: Based on psychology. New York: A. G. Seiler. Thorndike, E. L. (1903). Educational psychology. New York: Lemchke and Buechner. Tripp, S. D., & Bichelmeyer, B. (1990). Rapid prototyping: An alternative instructional design strategy. Educational Technology Research and Design, 38(1), 31-44. Twelker, P. A., Urbach, F. D., & Buck, J. E. (1972). The systematic development of instruction: An overview and basic guide to the literature. Stanford, CA: ERIC Clearinghouse on Media and Technology. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 059 629) Vygotsky, L. S. (1926). Pedagogical psychology. Moscow, USSR: The Worker of Education Publishing House. Vygotsky, L. S. (1929). The problem of the cultural development of the child. Journal of Genetic Psychology, 36, 415-434. Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Wallon, H. (1945). Les origines de la pensée chez l’efant [The Origins of Thought in the Child] (1 ed.). Paris, France: Presses universitaires de France. Wallon, H. (1984). L ‘etude psychologique et sociologique de l’efant (1947) [The psychological and sociological study of the child] (D. Nicholson-Smith, Trans.). In G. Voyat (Ed.), The world of henri wallon. New York: Jason Aaronson. Young, P. A. (2001). Roads to travel: A historical look at The Freedman’s Torchlight—An African American contribution to 19th-century instructional technologies. Journal of Black Studies, 31(5), 671-698.


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Young, P. A. (2002). Empowering minority students through tech talk. Tech Trends, 46(2), 46-49. Young, P. A. (2008). Exploring culture in the design of new technologies of literacy. In J. Coiro, M. Knobel, C. Lankshear, & D. J. Leu (Eds.), Handbook of research on new literacies (pp. 325-358). London: Routledge.

Endd

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3

Small mechanical devices used for individualized instruction. See the work of Maximillian Webber for a sociological examination of theories of culture. In Cole and Scribner’s (1978) introduction to the book Mind in Society: The Development of Higher Psychological Processes by L. S. Vygotsky, language is viewed as a sign not a tool. Given the context, language can be a sign or tool.


The Nature of Culture in Design 25

Chapter II

The Nature of Culture in Design

There have been many definitions of culture hypothesized by theorists and scholars as a way to understand human beings, other species and entities; human nature; Mother Nature, and artifacts (Giles & Middleton, 1999; Hall, 1996; Kroeber & Kluckhohn, 1966; Williams, 1958). Culture has been characterized as being descriptive, historical, normative, psychological, structural, and genetic (Kroeber & Kluckhohn, 1966). Kroeber (1948) theorized culture as “how it comes to be” versus “what it is” (p. 253). Therefore, culture is socially constructed. Geertz (1973) interpreted culture as a “historically transmitted pattern of meanings embodied in symbols, a system of inherited conceptions expressed in symbolic forms by means of which men communicate, perpetuate, and develop their knowledge about and attitudes toward life” (p. 89). Hofstede (1991) proposed that culture is learned; it is not part of one’s genetic makeup. In the area of cultural studies, culture is concerned with how meanings are interpreted and created in a society (Gray & McGuigan, 1997; Hall, 1997). Williams (1958), a cultural theorist, believes that “culture is ordinary” (p. 74). It is made in the human mind, making possible effort, examination, and explication. This means culture is what is known (tradition) and what comes to be known through investigation and invention (creativity). Baumeister (2005) argued that culture is not innately human. Other species (e.g., monkeys and chimpanzees) Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.

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show patterns of learned behavior that is passed on from generation to generation. Culture is artificial; it is civilization. (Kroeber, 1948). A simple question-and-answer scenario about culture might proceed as follows: What is culture? Culture is everything human made and nature made. What is the purpose of culture? The purpose of culture is to serve humans. How does culture function? Culture functions as directed by humans. When will culture end? When humankind ends, culture will end. Where is culture? Culture is everywhere. Why do we need culture? We need culture to tell our history.

Culture as a Design Construct Design is about creating something that does not already exist; it is a deliberate action (Banathy, 1996). Design has an intention. This purpose may be what a product, process, or program may do; how it is used; or how it is perceived. Design functions by centering on the concerns of human beings. It is a conscious act, influenced by the interactive or iterative process between the designer and the medium. Design is creative; it requires knowing what humans need and recognizing what they should have. The act of design generates meaning; these meanings are up for interpretation by the designer, user, learner, consumer, or observer. Design becomes a social act because of the focus on human needs (Winograd, 1996). Specifically, design may concern the culture of the workplace, home, or school; this signals a focus on environmental or ways of life aspects of a culture. Design may also concern the culture of employee relations, family connections, student learning, or user interactions; this signals a focus on the individual/group or the human behavior aspects of a culture. Design is a disciplined, selective, and evaluative process that is concerned with finding solutions for what is and what should be (Banathy, 1996). Design frameworks, such as CBM, look at solutions or guidelines to design (van de Akker, 1999). Design theories are broadly constructed based on evidence. Design constructs function to explain, predict and interpret design related data. As a design construct, culture takes on the properties of design. Culture functions as an explicit act, focuses on the needs of human beings, promotes creativity, supports social acts, maintains meaning and order, and manages the design and evaluation process. “Culture is a design” (Kroeber & Kluckhohn, 1966, p. 120). As a design, culture takes on the properties of design such as the process to develop a plan for a product, system, or service. This semiotic relationship is managed by the designer. Culture Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.


is a plan for living. It seeks out human behavior for enactment but not the act itself. The infusion of culture as a system of designs for living conveys that there is a “purpose or end” (Kroeber & Kluckhohn, 1966, p. 120). Culture has a purpose. Culture is a means to an end. Culture works, moves, builds, creates, and processes as a system. It is not static, fixed, or fossilized.

Qualifying Culture in Design The nature of culture in design moves beyond petrified interpretations. Culture is not tied to a discipline, theory, or controversy. The transformation is like moving culture from theory to practice, and in this sense, the pieces of culture must be deconstructed and transferred from a theoretical dimension to a practical dimension. In a practical dimension; culture maintains both physical and virtual properties, and the properties of culture are free to be transported, reinvented, mixed, and coagulated in the space of design. Culture is dynamic, malleable, fluid, and always in motion.1 Therefore, culture can take on any form, fashion or feline. Culture exists freely in the space of design. This emulsion is the space in which design should exist and designers should work. In the design of ICTs, the goal is to recreate or represent culture. As a design construct, culture takes on properties that make it visible and invisible, dynamic and static, virtual and physical. Like the paint an artist applies to canvas, the nature of culture in design maintains an infinite number of possibilities and properties. Culture does not have physical or virtual properties in design until the designer assigns those properties. Culture is not real until designers make it real. The nature of culture in design is creative. This creativity is derived through the implementation of the design process. However, some innate creative ability is required of designers and the design. Should creativity be a prerequisite for designers, or can anyone be a designer? An inventive spirit requires the ability to see beyond the obvious and to design new ways to envision one’s physical and virtual reality. So yes, creativity is highly desirable. Because culture has to be recreated, simulated, virtualized in the space of design, it must contain dynamic, free-flowing properties. These properties are assigned by designers, programmers and other members of the design team. The assignment of property gives functionality and purpose. The nature of culture in design maintains fluid properties that are managed by its creators. To think about culture in design, the mind must be free of preexisting notions of what culture means. Therefore, one’s personal dispositions and biases must not taint the creative work necessary to integrate culture in design. It is about making choices—changing, moving, executing, creating, producing, devising, contriving, Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.

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planning, and inventing things—products This movement is mental, physical, and even virtual; it is unique and looks different for every designer. In that, it is the art of design. The nature of culture in design can take on any variation of humanity that a designer sees fit to create or recreate. Creativity is limitless; therefore, design thinking and doing should take on this same freedom.

Culture in Perspective The last decade of research on culture and design has focused on internationalization and localization (Aykin, 2005; Hall & Hudson, 1997; Taylor, 1992) or the inclusion of multicultural theories and methods in the design of products and services (Scheel & Branch, 1993). Internationalization centers on globalizing the design process or making it accessible to cross-cultural target audiences (Aykin, 2005). Localization seeks to specialize products or services making them acceptable to target groups through “culture-specific” designs (Aykin, 2005; Degen, Lubin, Pedell, & Zheng,

Figure 2.1. Culture-based circumference for use when designing ICTs (Young, 2008)



Figure 2.2. Generic symbol for turning or going right

Figure 2.3. The hamsa, a Judaic symbol for protection

2005, p. 314). Multiculturalism is added to designs in forms such as cultural diversity, cultural pluralism and cultural sensitivity (Scheel & Branch, 1993). However, these perspectives of designing through internationalization, localization, and multiculturalism serve a limited scope of what it means to integrate culture into design (Aykin, 2005; Hall & Hudson, 1997; Scheel & Branch, 1993; Taylor, 1992). A much broader interpretation that is supported in this work is that all designs are based in culture; however, some are culture neutral and others culture-specific. This means that all designs are culture-based, but the degree to which one is more neutral and the other more specific is based on the goals of the project and the final product. The culture-based circumference (see Figure 2.1) displays the space in which design happens, and this space is occupied by design specifications that meet generic and specialized target audiences (Young, 2008).


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Generic features can be generalized across cultures, but they are still culturebased. Specialized features focus on meeting the needs of the target audience, and they are also culture-based (Horton, 2005). For example, graphic symbols can be generic or specialized. Figure 2.2 is a generic symbol for turning or going right. Figure 2.3 is specialized; it is the hamsa, a Judaic symbol regarded as a sign of protection warding off evil and leading to good fortune and personal well-being. If the goal of the project is to internationalize, then the design specifications are generic and culture neutral (see Figure 2.1). If the goal of the project is to localize, then the design specifications are specialized and culture-specific. Internationalization focuses on globalizing the design process or making it accessible to cross-cultural target audiences (Aykin, 2005). The point of internationalization is to eliminate culture (e.g., cultural symbols, religious references, etc.), making the product one that can be used by all or a universal design (Horton, 2005). Therefore, internationalization seeks to create a homogenous technological product that can be used across cultures. Localization seeks to specialize products or services, making them acceptable to target groups through culture-specific design (Aykin, 2005; Degen et al., 2005). Localization tailors products to the needs of a target audience (Horton, 2005). For designers, this means that culture-based design specifications exist within a circumference of the generic to specialized; therefore, there is a much broader palette in which to design (Young, 2008). This research advocates that if the purpose is to internationalize then focus on internationalizing the product. If the focus is on localization, then focus on localization of the product. It does not advocate designing for internationalization with localization in mind. Designers should design with the goal of adaptation. This means that products are always subject to adaptations in technical, aesthetic, content, culture-based, or target audience features. The best product will be one for which the team pays attention to the task at hand. If a product has been internationalized using CBM, then its framework allows for the retooling and rethinking needed to later create a localized product.

What Models of Culture Do Models of culture have traditionally been constructed to explain humankind and our existence in the world; to explore diverse learning and learners; and to provide a framework for cross-cultural research, analysis, and design. These models of culture can be found across disciplines and conceptualized in a variety of forms and formats. In the field of psychology, researchers formulated models of culture to explain processes of the mind (D’Andrade, 1990; Quinn, 1987; Schank & Abelson, 1977). In anthropology, models of culture examine the shared behavior and knowledge of an entire culture (Hall, 1976). Researchers in intercultural communications have designed models of culture to explain value systems and orientations and how Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.


values differ across cultures (Condon & Yousef, 1975; Hofstede, 1980). The field of business has also participated in this discourse with models of culture that assist business personnel in understanding the effects of culture on management and how cultural values and practices are similar or different (Javidan & House, 2001; Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, 1998). In the field of instructional design, models of culture focus on the integration of culture in the design process and enhancing learning through the incorporation of culture-based design specifications (Edmundson, 2007; Henderson, 1996, 2007; Kim, 1999; Lee, 2003; Thomas, Mitchell, & Joseph, 2002). This multidisciplinary inquiry into models of culture suggests a need for frameworks grounded in culture that can deconstruct the complexity of cultures and provide guidance in cross-cultural designs, relations, meanings, and communications. The perception of what a model of culture can be used for is limited by the present state of available models. In examining the importance of models, Hoft (1996) argued that models of culture act as databases for the gathering of information pertinent to the needs of a target audience; therefore, designers need to understand the cultures and cultural context of their users or learners. The implementation of a model of culture in the design of instruction aids designers in the following: distinguishing between generic and specialized design specifications; internationalizing or localizing designs; identifying cultural biases; minimizing culture-based mistakes; evaluating designs; and better meeting the learning needs of their target audience. If models of culture act as databases or repositories, then they house data until designers are ready to use these data to build ICTs. Data come in many forms, such as text, graphics, and multimedia formats. As a repository, the model of culture can have a limitless (or limited) input of information. With any database, the information and the system itself may periodically need updating. A database contains only the information that has been inputted into it. The Internet, for example, only contains data that people have stored in it. CBM is a repository for the gathering of data about societies, cultures, and target audiences. Once the data has been collected, it can be organized into a CBM guide of the target audience. The CBM guide is used to begin thinking about how to design, develop, and evaluate products or services for the target audience. This database can be shared with others. However, the beauty of the database is that it allows for multiple product developments.

The Polaric Dimension of Culture The world operates by a universal law of communal balance that constitutes a polaric dimension. The polaric dimension refers to the need for equilibrium within and among all that exists in the universe. This equilibrium is manifested through Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.

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Figure 2.4. The sun, moon, and Earth

opposites or interdependence. Opposites operate complementary in the polaric dimension. They are not in opposition to one another; rather, they need one another. Interdependence translates as a semiotic relationship in which the energy of one entity is sustained by the energy of another. The energy can decrease or increase in either entity; however, through interdependence they remain in balance (Chungyuan, 1975; Maciocia, 1989). This harmonizing relation creates and maintains equilibrium. When there is equilibrium, the polaric dimension functions properly. All is well. The polaric dimension is not human made; it is an entity of the universe. It is what it is. It has no tangible parts for touching, holding or feeling. It is pure energy—intangible—just as human’s belief in God is pure faith. The question is: How do we know it exists? The polaric dimension is a natural balance of the universe. As demonstrated in Figure 2.4, the sun and moon bring balance to Earth. Earth tilts on its polar axis through the North and South poles. If this polarity, or polaric dimension, exists in the galaxy and around Earth, then it also exists on Earth. The polaric dimension is a natural part of life’s force. It is all around us, in the words we speak and in the books we read. It haunts our lives. It plagues us daily. The polaric dimension is part of this earthly world, as there is day and night and cause Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.


and effect. The words we speak can be good or bad and make us happy or sad. Books are structured with a beginning and end. For many individuals, our lives are haunted by beliefs of a God and Devil or good and evil. Daily, we are faced with the reality of life and living versus death and dying. Therefore, the polaric dimension is a force between everything that is; as such, it holds together all that humans call culture. The polaric dimension of culture is the alpha and omega, energy and matter, feminine and masculine. Therefore, proposing culture as a design construct means that culture-based designs require divergent constructions—opposites. This means to examine life, the designer must examine death. To examine freedom, the designer must also examine incarceration; poverty—wealth; joy—pain; past—present, or macro—micro. These oppositional or complementary qualities make up the polaric dimension of culture. Human nature can not be explained through just one perspective. If a book described a society of people who all looked the same, acted the same, ate the same food and had the same emotions, it would make for a very boring story. Adding something different that is totally opposite than the norm, the story becomes more interesting or real. Applying the polaric dimension to design should be done carefully and sparingly. There should be a limited number of things in which the polaric dimension is applied. In design, the goal is to make the real—believable and the imaginary—real. This means that good design is seamless as the contents of its construction are not overtly apparent. For example in designing an instructional product, error messages may display a pop up window indicating “wrong answer” that is accompanied by a sound. Instead of the learner receiving only negative responses, wrong answer feedback can provide hints or clues to getting the answer correct. Therefore, when the error message indicates “wrong answer: it should also provide options for getting the answer correct. An e-learning site on children’s literature could include those books that won children’s book honors and awards, as well as those books that were banned. In video game design, representations of weapons of mass destruction can be paralleled with weapons that, when used for good, make a positive impact on the society or culture. In a diagnostic evaluation of an educational software program, the analysis should determine what is there and also what is not there in the design.

References Aykin, N. (2005). Overview: Where to start and what to consider. In N. Aykin (Ed.), Usability and internationalization of information technology (pp. 3-20). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers. Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.

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Banathy, B. H. (1996). Designing social systems in a changing world. New York: Plenum Press. Baumeister, R. F. (2005). The cultural animal: Human nature, meaning and social life. New York: Oxford University Press, Inc. Chung-yuan, C. (1975). Tao: A new way of thinking. New York: Harper & Row, Publishers. Condon, J. C., & Yousef, F. S. (1975). An introduction to intercultural communication. Indianapolis, MN: Bobbs-Merrill Educational Publishing. D’Andrade, R. (1990). Some propositions about the relations between culture and human cognition. In J. W. Stigler, R. A. Shweder & G. Herdt (Eds.), Cultural psychology: Essays on comparative human development (pp. 65-129). New York: Cambridge University Press. Degen, H., Lubin, K. L., Pedell, S., & Zheng, J. (2005). Travel planning on the Web: A cross-cultural case study. In N. Aykin (Ed.), Usability and internationalization of Information Technology (pp. 313-343). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers. Edmundson, A. (2007). The cultural adaptation process (CAP) model: Designing E-Learning for another culture. In A. Edmundson (Ed.), Globalized E-Learning cultural challenges (pp. 267-290). Hershey, PA: Idea Group, Inc. Geertz, C. (1973). The interpretation of cultures. New York: Basic Books. Giles, J., & Middleton, T. (1999). Studying culture: A practical introduction. Malden, MS: Blackwell Publishers. Gray, A., & McGuigan, J. (Eds.). (1997). Introduction. In A. Gray & J. McGuigan (Eds.), Studying culture: An introductory reader (pp. xi-xv). New York: Arnold. Hall, E. (1976). Beyond culture. New York: Doubleday. Hall, S. (1996). Cultural studies and its theoretical legacies. In D. Morley & K. H. Chen (Eds.), Critical dialogues in cultural studies (pp. 262-275). London: Routledge. Hall, S. (Ed.). (1997). The work of representation. In S. Hall (Ed.), Representation: Cultural representations and signifying practices (pp. 15-64). London: Sage Publications. Hall, P. A. V., & Hudson, R. (1997). Software without frontiers: A multi-platform, multi-cultural, multi-nation approach. New York: John Wiley & Sons. Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.


Henderson, L. (1996). Instructional design of interactive multimedia: A cultural critique. Education Technology Research and Development, 44(4), 85-104. Henderson, L. (2007). Theorizing a multiple cultures instructional design model for e-learning and e-teaching. In A. Edmundson (Ed.), Globalized e-learning cultural challenges (pp. 130-153). Hershey, PA: Information Science Publishing. Hofstede, G. (1980). Culture’s consequences: International differences in workrelated values. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage Publications. Hofstede, G. (1991). Cultures and organizations: Software of the mind. London: McGraw-Hill. Hoft, N. L. (1995). International technical communication: How to export information about high technology. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Horton, W. (2005). Graphics: The not quite universal language. In N. Aykin (Ed.), Usability and internationalization of information technology (pp. 157-188). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum & Associates Publishers. Kim, H. (1999). Transcultural customization of international training programs. New York: Garland Publishing, Inc. Kroeber, A. L. (1948). Anthropology: Race, language, culture, psychology, prehistory. New York: Harcourt Brace. Kroeber, A. L., & Kluckhohn, C. (1966). Culture: A critical review of concepts and definitions. New York: Vintage Books. Javidan, M., & House, R. J. (2001). Cultural acumen for the global manager: Lessons from Project GLOBE. Organizational Dynamics, 29(4), 289-305. Lee, C. D. (2003). Toward a framework for culturally responsive design in multimedia computer environments: Cultural modeling as a case. Mind, Culture and Activity, 10(1), 42-61. Maciocia, G. (1989). The foundations of Chinese medicine: A comprehensive text for acupuncturists and herbalists. Edinburgh, Scotland: Churchill Livingstone. Quinn, N. (1987). Convergent evidence for a cultural model of American marriage. In D. Holland & N. Quinn (Eds.), Cultural models in language & thought (pp. 173192). New York: Cambridge University Press. Schank, R., & Abelson, R. (1977). Scripts, plans, goals, and understanding: An inquiry into human knowledge structures. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.

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Scheel, N. P., & Branch, R. C. (1993, August). The role of conversation and culture in the systematic design of instruction. Educational Technology, 33, 7-18. Taylor, D. (1992). Global software: Developing applications for the international market. New York: Springer. Thomas, M., Mitchell, M., & Joseph, R. (2002). The third dimension of ADDIE: A cultural experience. Tech Trends, 46(2), 40-45. Trompenaars, F., & Hampden-Turner, C. (1998). Riding the waves of culture. New York: McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. van den Akker, J. (1999). Principles and methods of development research. In J. van den Akker, R. M. Branch, K. Gustafson, N. Nieveen & T. Plomp (Eds.), Design approaches and tools in education and training (pp. 1-14). Boston: Kluwer Academic Publishers. Williams, R. (1958). Culture is ordinary. In N. McKenzie (Ed.), Convictions (pp. 74-92). London: MacGibbon and Kee. Winograd, T. (1996). Introduction. In T. Winograd (Ed.), Bringing design to software (pp. xiii-xxv). New York: ACM Press. Young, P. A. (2001). Roads to travel: A historical look at The Freedman’s Torchlight—An African American contribution to 19th-century instructional technologies. Journal of Black Studies, 31(5), 671-698. Young, P. A. (2008). Integrating culture in the design of ICTs. British Journal of Educational Technology, 39(1), 6-17.

Endd

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This definition of culture is informed by the works of Giles and Middleton (1999), Hall (1996), Kroeber and Kluckhohn (1966), Scheel and Branch (1993), and Williams (1958).


The Culture-Based Model Framework

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Chapter III


The incorporation of culture in the design process is not a simple task. It is one with multiple layers of depth and complexity. But it is also not impossible. CBM captures the nature of culture in design by providing designers with guidance in creating, replicating, modeling, planning, understanding, monitoring, researching, analyzing, integrating, enhancing, communicating, managing, and assessing culture in ICTs.

What is CBM? CBM is an intercultural instructional design framework that guides designers through the management, design, development, and assessment process while taking into account explicit culture-based considerations. The framework provides design guidance from the inception of an idea to its completion and beyond. Guidance is approached from the target audience’s perspective. This type of situatedness is consistent with constructivist theories and research that, to build ICTs for individuals or groups, the design must be situated from the target audience’s perspective (Bednar, Cunningham, Duffy, & Perry, 1992; Brown, Collins, & Duguid, 1989; Bruner, 1985; Lave & Wenger, 1991; Resnick, 1987; Rogoff & Lave, 1984; Vygotsky, 1978). Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.

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Figure 3.1. The culture-based model: ID-TABLET—A model of culture

CBM represents a contemporary example of a model of culture (Young, 2008). It is symbolized by the graphic representation of a circle encased by other circles to demonstrate its iterative functioning and self-selection process (see Figure 3.1). The functioning symbolizes how the model continues to work like a machine with each active component responding to the next. The self-selection allows designers to choose which areas best meet the needs of the project. CBM comprises eight areas consistent with the acronym ID-TABLET: Inquiry, Development, Team, Assessments, Brainstorming, Learners, Elements, and Training. In classifying CBM in the field of instructional design, it might be referred to as a product-oriented model versus a classroom or systems oriented model. Productoriented models focus on the development of products. These models have been developed by researchers in the fields of computer-aided software engineering (de Hoog, de Jong, & de Vries, 1994), video production (Bergman & Moore, 1990), distance education, e-learning (Bates, 1995), curriculum development, computerassisted design (Nieveen, 1997) and instructional design (Seels & Glasgow, 1998). This line of research exemplifies the complex process of product development and the multifaceted needs across disciplines. Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.


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Product-oriented models usually serve a need, involve the production of a product, require analysis and re-analysis, and enable individualized instruction (Gustafson & Branch, 2002). Product-oriented models: • • • • • • • • • •

Focus on the production of a product; Typically the production is a few hours or days; Are usually well financed; Involves a team of highly skilled people; Is high quality, original, technologically stylish, and marketable; Requires more time in preproduction analysis; Must be self-instructional and intuitive requiring little human facilitation; Provide comprehensive testing and modifications; Use mass distribution; and Provide an aesthetically pleasing product (Gustafson & Branch, 2002).

The use of product-oriented models should be contingent on the context of the instructional design project. CBM, as with any instructional design model, should be modified on the basis of the context of the processes (Bates, 1995; Gustafson & Branch, 2002; Seels & Glasgow, 1998; Tessmer & Wedman, 1995).

Where did CBM come from? Traditionally, instructional design models have been based on learning theories. However, CBM evolved from an empirical study of instructional products designed by and for African Americans. A treasure of themes and concepts related to culture were found in these materials and were classified as cultural remnants. Cultural remnants are the racial, ethnic, cultural, linguistic, political, social, historical, educational, and economic artifacts embedded in discourses. The cultural remnants found in these instructional products were generalized to meet the design needs of cross-cultural audiences, and this translation resulted in CBM (Young, 1999; Young, 2008).

What can CBM do? CBM can help designers: • •

Create a fictitious virtual world; Recreate a culture using ICTs;


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• • • • • • • • • •

Model an instructional strategy, task, or activity; Plan the entire design process; Understand people and societies; Monitor product development; Research the qualities of a society, culture or target audience; Assess and assess ICTs. Integrate features of culture throughout ICTs; Enhance existing ICTs; Communicate across cultural contexts and; Manage the design and development process. CBM has the following features:

• • • •

It works in a variety of contexts (e.g., education, business, industry, government). It addresses instructional issues. It addresses management, process, and content issues. It is a multidimensional and dynamic processing system.

Who would use CBM? CBM can be used by instructional designers, e-learning designers, Web designers, usability practitioners, researchers, curriculum developers, professors, students, and other practitioners.

WHATAREs COMONENTS ? CBM’s ID-Tablet The ID-TABLET focuses on project management and design. Project management entails problem solving, planning, educating, evaluating, learning, and decision making. The areas under project management include: Brainstorming (B1-B10), Team (T1-T3), Development (D1-D10), Learners (L1-L10), Assessments (A1-A4), and Training (Tr1-Tr2). The project design focuses on monitoring and content development. The areas under project design include: Inquiry (I1-I6) and Elements (E1-E25). These areas operate simultaneously; they maintain an interactive relation in that certain steps are repeated or referred back to throughout the design process. Therefore, the process is always in motion—something is always happening. Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.


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The following description provides an overview of the areas and design factors in CBM’s ID-TABLET. Section II details the 70 design factors in the model. Each area is sequentially numbered so that additional design factors can be added as the model continues to develop. Organizationally, each area has a letter followed by a corresponding number—for example, Assessment (A1) and Brainstorming (B1).

I Inquiry (I1-I6) monitors development, automates the internal flow of the design process and functions as internal sensors. It provides a series of questions to be asked and answered during pre-production, production and post production. I1. Genre – aids in the selection of ICTs. (preproduction & production) I1a. What ICTs are being used and why? I1b. Which ICTs are more effective given the content? I1c. Is the project affordable to the target audience, given the ICTs used? I1d. How have ICTs influenced the design of the product?

I2. Framing assists in maintaining the target audiences perspective. (preproduction, production & postproduction) I2a. I2b. I2c. I2d. I2e. I2f.

Who is the target audience? How is the content presented to the target audience? What is the content presented? Is the content appropriate for the target audience and why? Where, within the products design, is this content most appropriate? Why is this content appropriate?

I3. Omission helps in assessing a design. (production & postproduction) I3a. What has been intentionally omitted and why? I3b. What has been unintentionally omitted and why? I3c. What has not been considered? I3d. Will these omissions be detrimental to the project and why?


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I4. Backgrounding helps in providing a balanced design. (production & postproduction) I4a. What has been backgrounded? I4b. Is the backgrounding intentional or unintentional and why? I4c. Will this backgrounding be detrimental to the project?

I5. Foregrounding helps in providing an objective design. (production & postproduction) I5a. What is emphasized and why? I5b. Is this what should be emphasized? I5c. How does this emphasis influence the overall design?

I6. Visual Representations assists in conveying meaning. (preproduction, production & postproduction) I6a. I6b. I6c. I6d. I6e. I6f. I6g. I6h.

How do the visual representations frame the product? How do visual representations assist in the instructional process? Who is portrayed in these visual representations? What is portrayed in these visual representations? What purpose do the visual representations serve? Are inappropriate visual representations in the design? Where are these visual representations placed in the product? Why were these visual representations selected?

Development Development (D1-D10) provides the management structure for problem solving. It considers those features that are important in the overall development of the product. D1. Consider technical, aesthetic, content, culture-based, and target audience (TACCT) design specifications. Technical design specifications focus on function; aesthetic—visual, content—subject matter, culture-based—generic or specialized, and target audience—people. D2. Mass distribution formats. Produce in formats for mass distribution that allow access and equity. Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.


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D3. Effective technology. Use the most efficient and effective technology available to produce the product. D4. Diversify ICT format. Provide multiple forms of information and communication technologies or manipulatives to meet the needs of the target audience. D5. Understand target audience. Know your audience. Focus on that audience throughout the design. D6. Explore environmental & Individual/group cultures. Environmental cultures explore societies and cultures ways of life (e.g., workplace). Individual/group cultures explore people (e.g., Japanese culture). D7. Quality design. Create a good product for other people who desire to create similar products. D8. Authenticate product. Authentic representations of target audiences are needed to validate the product. D9. Control for interference. Provide products that limit bias, attitudes, and prejudices. Try to control for human, machine, and environmental interference. D10. Model the product or process. Create prototypes, sketches, storyboards, or visual languages.

Tam Team (T1-T3) focuses on the recruitment of a culturally sensitive design team that includes a cultural expert, an educator, and other culturally informed members. This is where much of the decision making happens. T1. Cultural expert. The cultural expert is the insider who acts as a liaison with the target audience and community representative. T2. Enlist educators. Educators with expertise in subject matter and/or educating the target audience must be on the team (professors, teacher educators, etc.). T3. Culturally informed team. Have an educated creative team with valid interests in the target audience.

Assessments The area of Assessments (A1–A4) covers multiple evaluation options. These evaluations provide evidence of the products effectiveness and evaluate the goals set for the target audience. A1. Multiple evaluation options. Provide internal and external evaluation opportunities. A2. Assess the assessment. Evaluate the evaluation tools. Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.

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A3. External review. Implement other evaluations of the product. A4. Culture-specific assessments. Create specialized evaluations.

Brainstorming Brainstorming (B1-B10) determines the direction to proceed and serves as an initial review of the design process. It is the first step in planning. B1. Financial support. Obtain comprehensive funding for the project. B2. Pilot studies/Field tests of product. Engage in assessments throughout project. B3. Assess community’s response. Get the public’s response to the product. B4. Community representative on team. The community representative is a person versed in the cultural nuances of the target audience, and they have been designated as an integral part of the team. B5. Investigate target audience to authenticate product. Provide the team with an ethnographic portrait of the target audience. B6. Reflect and assess learning goals. Engage in ongoing reflections and assessments of the product. B7. Affordable design. Provide an affordable design and ICTs that are financially accessible to the target audience. B8. Meet needs of target audience. Determine how the product meets the instructional and/or cultural needs of the target audience. B9. Discuss and consider cultural context. Discuss and consider historical, social, political, economic, and educational reasons for implementing this project. B10. Present and consider outcomes. Throughout the design process, present and consider learner outcomes or the user goals.

Learners Learners (L1–L10) centers on the needs of learners and learning. These design factors assist in providing a dynamic learning environment that is supportive of the learner’s cultural frame of reference. L1. Extend learning. Provide opportunities for extended learning. L2. Differentiate opportunities to learn. Provide a variety of learning options. L3. Empower and engage learners. Provide opportunities for empowering learners and engaging instruction. L4. Teach proactive learning. Help learners to be proactive in improving their own learning. Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.


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L5. Identify educational objectives. Have an underlying educational and/or learning objective. L6. Culture-specific instructional strategies. Consider instructional strategies that are individual or group specific. L7. Enrich instructional content. Expand instructional content beyond subject matter. L8. Adapt instruction to learner. Provide adaptable instruction that is not too grade level or age level specific. L9. Plan for instruction. Focus on the short- and long-term instructional needs of the target audience. L10. Enculturate the learner. Use the product to enculturate the learner into the culture.

Elements Elements (E1–E25) facilitate content development. These Elements seek to be comprehensive in providing the fundamental total of which all culture is composed (see Table 3.1).

Training Training (Tr1–Tr2) is the education of individuals. This is another phase in providing full management of a project. Tr1. Product training. Provide training of the product as needed. Tr2. Culture-based Training. Provide training that is culture-based incorporating CBM Elements and interactions with cultural expert and target audience.

How does CBM work? CBM builds a framework for the design, development, management, and assessment of products. This framework begins with identifying the goal of the design. These goals can be classified in one of the following categories: C: A: R: D:

Custom development Add-on Re-engineer Diagnostic evaluation


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Table 3.1. CBM elements Elements

Tangibles and Intangibles

The anthropology of culture: E1. Cultural aesthetics

That which is considered beautiful

E2. Cultural artifacts

Products that exist or remain

E3. Cultural capital

Economics and material wealth

E4. Cultural classification

Divisions in a culture or society

E5. Cultural communications

The exchange or transmission of information

E6. Cultural demographics

Characteristics of a population

E7. Cultural environment

Physical and social conditions in which a human being, other species or entity lives and develops

E8. Cultural history

Narrative representation of historical events

E9. Cultural knowledge

What is known and what one comes to know

E10. Cultural language

Language form, content, use and meaning

E11. Cultural physiology

The physiological characteristics of a human being, other species or entity

E12. Cultural relations

The relationship of one being to another being

E13. Cultural resources

The use and cultivation of resources

The psychology of culture: E14. Cultural beliefs & values

Beliefs (shared truths); Values (shared ideas)

E15. Cultural experiences

The interpretation of the world from inside and out

E16. Cultural ideas

The use and meaning of ideas and perceptions

E17. Cultural identity

Distinguishing qualities of a human being, other species or entity

E18. Cultural interests

Deeply personal desires, wants, wishes

E19. Cultural misconceptions

Untruths, myths, stereotypes

E20. Cultural ways

Behaviors, norms, feelings

The science of culture: E21. Cultural anomalies

Happenings that promote, initiate, or force cultural change

E22. Cultural cultures

The scientific identification of cultures, worlds, ecosystems

E23. Cultural futures

That which is to come

E24. Cultural infinities

Those things without limits: time, space, distance

E25. Cultural nature

Intrinsic characteristics of a human being, other species or entity

Custom Development Custom development is suitable for a multi-tiered project that requires the design of a variety of products for a particular target audience. This type of project requires the use of all or most of the components of the model. Using CBM for custom developCopyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.


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ment will initially take considerably longer than most instructional design models. However, the proper incorporation of culture-based design specifications requires this type of in-depth design processing and management. This should not be seen as a weakness of the model but an opportunity to provide as authentic a product as possible. Once the CBM guide is created, many products and services for the target audience can be quickly built. The CBM guide houses information about the target audience. The guide can be continuously updated as needed or shared with other designers. Chapter XV provides a case study of custom development. Custom development is for the construction of a project from scratch. The project is totally new in that it is still in the idea phase. Projects that require custom development use all the areas of CBMs ID-TABLET. Each area of the ID-TABLET serves a particular function in custom development. In Table 3.2, CARD Functions serves as an example of how the needs of the project can be quickly assessed. Inquiry monitors development, automates the internal flow of the design process, and functions as an internal sensor. This monitoring checks and rechecks that the design process is executing properly. The development area is where problem solving happens for the overall development of the product. The team area is where the decision making happens by the team leader to recruit a culturally sensitive group of people; once selected, the team collaborates and continues with the decision making. Assessments serve as the area for evaluating the product, target audience, and the general public. Brainstorming functions as the planning area where most of the initial design and development decisions are formulated. The Learning serves those projects where the needs of learners are part of the project’s goals. Elements functions as the major component for content development. Educating the team and trainer happens in the area of Training.

Add-O An add-on is suitable for existing ICTs where the goal is to make the ICT more culture-specific. The objective here is to evaluate what exists in the design and use CBM as a guide in adding on to the pre-existing design. Add-ons may be applied to save money, avoid reinventing the wheel, update content, or better meet the needs of the target audience. Chapter XVI provides a case study of an add-on. A quick assessment to determine what is missing from the ICT is to conduct the TACCT evaluation which is under CBM DEVELOPMENT D1 (TACCT design specifications). This will determine whether the product or online environment has any design specifications in the following areas: technical, aesthetic, content, culture-based, and target audience. The extent of the add-on needs to be determined on the basis of the project’s limitations and the investment in using CBM. Depending on the needs of the project, the team selects those areas of CBM ID-TABLET that are most appropriate for Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.

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Table 3.2. CARD functions I

Custom Development

Add-on

Re-engineer

Diagnostic Evaluation

Monitoring

Monitoring

Monitoring

Exploring

D

Problem solving

Problem solving

Problem solving

Exploring

T

Decision making

Decision making

Decision making

?

A

Evaluating

Evaluating

Evaluating

Exploring

B

Planning

Planning

Planning

?

L

Learning

Learning

Learning

Exploring

E

Content development

Content development

Content development

Exploring

T

Educating

Educating

Educating

?

the project. The following ID-TABLET guiding questions should aid in assessing which areas are needed: Inquiry Development Team Assessments Brainstorming Learners Elements Training

Does the project need monitoring for design and development issues? Have all the problems been solved? Will the team have to be trained or replaced? Does the project need evaluating or re-evaluating? Does the project require more planning? Does the project require meeting the needs of learners? Does the content need to be revised, reviewed or recreated? Will training be needed for the team or trainers?

For any question for which the answer is yes, this area is needed for adding on to an existing design. Compare the projects budget and any other limitations with how much time it might take to implement components of CBM. The most timeconsuming component of the model is CBM Elements. Determine the extent to which CBM Elements will be used. If some or most of the data needed for CBM Elements are accessible, then the management of the data and the re-evaluation of the project need to be considered. If none of the data from the CBM guide are available, then it will take time to gather the data; however, if certain areas are selected and others are eliminated, data collection will take less time.

Re-E ngineer Re-engineering a product or online environment means that part or most of the design can be revamped. Re-engineering requires making major changes to the software codes, restructuring, and rebuilding. For this task, the budget must be Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.


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fully considered and the design re-evaluated. The same guiding questions can determine which areas of CBM should be used in the redesign. Chapter 17 provides a case study of re-engineering.

Diagnostic Evaluation A diagnostic evaluation serves as a means of measurement. CBM’s ID-TABLET functions in an exploring mode when it is used as an evaluation tool. CBM aids in researching design specifications of existing ICTs and can serve as an ethnographic instrument. Chapter XVIII provides a case study of a diagnostic evaluation.

Research Design Specifications CBM’s ID-TABLET meters pre-existing design specifications to determine aspects such as: culture neutral, culture-specific, technical, aesthetic, content, culture-based, target audience focused, assessments, learning, and bias. The ID-TABLET can evaluate ICTs from print to electronic formats determining the status as culture neutral or culture-specific. This means that the ID-TABLET can evaluate ICTs from a children’s book to an e-learning Web site. The areas of CBM’s ID-TABLET which are most appropriate for a diagnostic evaluation depends on the goals of the project. Use the ID-TABLET’s guiding questions to determine which areas are most relevant.

Ethnographic Instrument Ethnographic research describes people’s ways of life. This research uses methods such as participant observation, interviewing, and data collection (e.g., field notes, videotapes, audiotapes, photography, personal documents, official documents; Fetterman, 1998). The design factors in CBM Elements serve as an ethnographic guide in analyzing a society, culture, or target audience. A designer or researcher who is conducting an evaluation can begin with CBM Elements. As an example, a society can be examined for its aesthetics, artifacts, capital, classification system, demographics, or history; these are all design factors under CBM Elements. Each design factor has guiding questions or (GQ). The Culture GQ directs the designer in disclosing details of a society or culture. The Target Audience (GQ) directs the designer in discovering the characteristics of human beings in this society or culture. Through this analysis, the data collection is comprehensive in covering anthropological, psychological, and scientific perspectives related to the society, culture, or target audience.


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Howwou manage CBM? Using Knowledge Management Sstems Knowledge Management Systems (KMS) are information technology applications that make available the “collective knowledge” of organizations (Alavi & Leidner, 2005, p. 171). In the early days this type of system was called a database. Databases allowed the collection of information into specific fields. The information retrieved contained subsets of the data inputted. Database functions included adding, browsing, deleting, modifying, and searching. Then databases integrated more functions such as exporting files, linking the database to other applications, and personalized log-ons. Databases evolved into information management systems, which have progressed into KMS. KMS support features such as communication (e.g., threaded discussions, e-mails), collaboration (e.g., electronic group-shared calendars), coordination (e.g., shared documents & images), and control (e.g., locking documents, accessing past versions of documents) (Spector, 2002). For example, Spector (2002) argued that KMS might aid the field of instructional design by providing a common repository where learning outcomes and the instructional design can be more readily evaluated. The implementation of CBM requires a place that can serve as a common repository where information about the project can be easily stored, accessed, retrieved, updated, corrected, transferred, applied, shared, and evaluated across the design team. An existing KMS could house the collective knowledge from the design team, the information about the target audience, and aid in the data management of the project. KMS have been criticized as being slanted toward an American business perspective. Mason’s (2003) analysis of six KMS reports indicated a focus on technical and content standardization, organizational knowledge, and the implementation of incentives to follow a business culture. Considerations of a national culture and ethnic background of employees was only measured in one report. The findings of Mason’s study indicate that these KMS promoted a generic organizational culture and disregarded the contributions of employee’s national cultures and ethnic backgrounds. This is something to consider with generic KMS.

CBM Guide The CBM guide is a repository of the data gathered in relation to the society, culture, or target audience, and it aligns with the areas and design factors of CBM. The CBM guide can be housed in KMS or a Wiki, Web site, or database. The collection of this information is important for the following reasons: 1.

It creates a common repository of information that all team members can access and keep updated.



2. 3. 4. 5.

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The data may be used by multiple clients. It minimizes bias, stereotypes, and other misinformation about a society, culture, or target audience, because all of the collected data is authentic. It speeds the process when updating or adding on to an existing product. It allows for an organized and managed design process.

The primary goal of cultural models is to act as repositories for data. The collection and input of accurate data are imperative for a comprehensive portrait of the target audience and the ultimate design of the product. The CBM guide should house print and electronic forms of information. This collection should be fully accessible to all persons on the design team. However, the number of persons inputting data should be limited. Depending on the schedule for project development, the database could be a preproduction project that is completed before the design team comes on board. However, depending on the team, they may want feedback as to what goes into the overall digitally managed system. The collection of data is valued by designers and researchers. Both are interested in the performance of the learner, instructor, or user and the product. From this repository of data, the designer or researcher draws conclusions about the design process. These conclusions are integrated it the product and process (Richey & Klein, 2007).

Table 3.3. Product development of Japanese video games Society

Culture

Target Audience

Inside

Define Japans video game industry.

Determine who buys and plays video games.

Japans target audience is Japanese males ages 13-35. Determine what this population likes about video games.

Outside

Define Japan’s economy. Determine the types of entertainment people buy and where video games fit.

Determine the type of video games that are produced (e.g., console, online, mobile, arcade).

Japanese males play video games. Japanese females play other types of games (e.g. online puzzles, card games, arcade games, trivia, etc). Determine the differences in male and female perspectives on games.

Across

Define Japan’s video game production and distribution of hardware and software in comparison to the U.S. and China.

Determine the quality and content of Japan’s video game industry in comparison to the U.S. and China.

Across cultures those target audiences that do play video games include: US males 18-35, US females 18-35, Chinese males 18-35, Chinese females 18-35, Japanese males 18-35, Japanese females 18-35. Compare and contrast beliefs and feelings about video games amongst these groups.


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Why is CBM Intercultural? The model is intercultural because it operates inside, outside and across cultures. Cross-cultural implies a comparison across cultures. Intracultural refers to happenings within a distinct culture. However, intercultural means happenings from, between and across different cultures. Given these definitions, intercultural seemed the more appropriate. As part of CBM, the term intercultural is not tied to any particular discipline. It exists freely to be used and manipulated. This flexibility allows intercultural to operate inside, outside and across a society, culture or target audience. Within the design process, CBM guides the collection of data such as that illustrated in Table 3.3.

References Alavi, M., & Leidner, D. E. (2005). Review: Knowledge management and knowledge management systems: Conceptual foundations and research issues. In I. Nonaka (Ed.), Knowledge management: Critical perspectives on business and management (pp. 163-202). Abingdon, UK: Routledge. Bates, A. W. (1995). Technology, open learning and distance education. London: Routledge. Bednar, A. K., Cunningham, D., Duffy, T. M., & Perry, J. D. (1992). Theory into practice: How do we link? In T. M. Duffy & D. H. Jonassen (Eds.), Constructivism and the technology of instruction: A conversation (pp. 17-34). Hillsdale: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Publishers. Bergman, R. E., & Moore, T. V. (1990). Managing interactive video/multimedia projects. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Educational Technology Publications. Brown, J. S., Collins, A., & Duguid, P. (1989). Situated cognition and the culture of learning. Educational Researcher, 18, 32-42. Bruner, J. (1985). Models of the learner. Educational Researcher, 14(6), 5-8. de Hoog, R., de Jong, T., & de Vries, F. (1994). Constraint-driven software design: An escape from the waterfall model. Performance Improvement Quarterly, 7(3), 48-63. Gustafson, K. L., & Branch, R. M. (2002). Survey of instructional development models. Syracuse, NY: ERIC Clearinghouse on Information & Technology.



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Lave, J., & Wenger, E. (1991). Situated learning: legitimate peripheral participation. Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press. Mason, R. M. (2003). Culture-free or culture-bound? A boundary-spanning perspective on learning in knowledge management systems. Journal of Global Information Management, 11(4), 20-36. Nieveen, N. M. (1997). Computer support for curriculum developers: A study on the potential of computer support in the domain of formative curriculum evaluation. Unpublished dissertation, University of Twente, Enschede, The Netherlands. Richey, R. C., & Klein, J. D. (2007). Design and development research: Methods, strategies and issues. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Publishers. Seels, B., & Glasgow, Z. (1998). Making instructional design decisions (2nd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, Inc. Spector, J. M. (2002). Knowledge management tools for instructional design. Educational Technology Research and Design, 50(4), 37-46. Tessmer, M., & Wedman, J. (1995). Context-sensitive instructional design models: A response to design research studies and criticism. Performance Improvement Quarterly, 8(3), 38-54. Resnick, L. (1987). Learning in school and out. Educational Researcher, 16(9), 13-20. Rogoff, B., & Lave, J. (1984). Everyday cognition: Its development in social context. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Young, P. A. (2008). The Culture-based Model: Constructing a model of culture. Journal of Educational, Technology & Society, 11(2), 107-118. Young, P. A. (1999). Roads to travel: A historical look at African American contributions to instructional technology. Unpublished dissertation, University of California, Berkeley: Berkeley, CA.


Section II

The Culture-Based Model: ID TABLET

This section outlines in detail the 70 design factors of the culture-based model’s (CBM’s) management and design system: the ID-TABLET. This outline is intended to guide the designer or researcher in better understanding the intricacies of a society, culture, or target audience. Designing and analyzing are in-depth processes; however, the degree of detail is contingent upon the needs of the project. CBM comprises eight areas: Inquiry, Development, Team, Assessments, Brainstorming, Learners, Elements, and Training. Certain situations may not require all eight areas of the ID-TABLET. It is up to the designer to select those areas that best represent the project. Then, within an area, the designer selects those design factors that are most appropriate for the project. The chapters in this section outline each area of the ID-TABLET and its subsequent design factors. Each area is defined. Then each design factor within that area is provided with a definition and described in terms of the definition; some design factors are illustrated through an example or offer guiding questions. The guiding questions break down the design factors and help to provide an in-depth portrait of a society, culture or target audience. The guiding questions direct the designer in creating a generic or specialized product. Generic products are guided by culture guiding questions or Culture GQ. Specialized products are guided by target audience guiding questions or Target Audience GQ. Given the comprehensiveness of CBM’s ID-TABLET, it is covered in Chapters IV–XIV. These chapters should be viewed as a workbook in that they guide the design or research process. The model is reviewed in the order of the acronym, not in the workflow order, because each workflow is different. The areas under project management include Brainstorming (Chapter V), Team (Chapter V), Development (Chapter. IV), Learners (Chapter VI), Assessments (Chapter V), and Training (Chapter XIV). The areas under project design include Inquiry (Chapter IV), and Elements (Chapters. VII–XIV).

CBM Inquiry, Development

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Chapter IV


CBM II Inquiry (11-16) monitors development, automates the internal flow of the design process, and functions as internal sensors. This monitoring checks and rechecks that the process is executing properly1. It is interactive and always operational if used by the design team. Inquiry provides a series of questions to be asked and answered during preproduction, production and postproduction. These questions outline the design of the product and allow for a review of the product before, during, and after production; this is a surface assessment. The list of questions is not exhaustive, but they provide a broad selection of questions meant to focus on the needs of the target audience, enable the design process, and screen for bias. These questions are reviewed and reiterated throughout the design process to keep it active. Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.

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Inquiry is divided into six design factors that provide a foundation for design applications in any form of information and communication technologies (ICTs). I1. I2. I3. I4. I5. I6.

Genre: Aids in the selection of ICTs Framing: Assists in maintaining the target audiences perspective Omission: Helps in assessing a design Backgrounding: Helps in providing a balanced design Foregrounding: Helps in providing an objective design Visual representations: Assists in conveying meaning

I1. Genre (Preproduction & Production) Genre refers to the type of ICTs (e.g., Internet, World Wide Web, newspaper, magazine, video, software, television) through which groups communicate (Berkenkotter & Huckin, 1995). Determine the type of ICTs to be used in the project. This format is referred to as the genre. The questions related to genre focus on determining the format of the ICT, influence of other technologies and the affordability of the product. As a product evolves, changes in design can influence the format, the price of the product and other product considerations. Therefore, reiteration is necessary. Inquiry questions for this category can be asked and answered during preproduction and production. These questions can be asked at any point in the preproduction or production process and reiterated when needed. The reiteration of these questions throughout the design process is to control for bias. The questions related to genre focus on determining the format of the ICTs and the affordability of the product. As a product evolves, the changes in design can influence the format and the price of the product; therefore, reiteration is necessary. Seels and Glasgow (1998) argued that the design process necessitates that questions are asked throughout the process.

I1a. What ICTs Are Being Used and Why? This question is specific to the genre of the product. These ICTs might include Webbased, software, DVD, video, audiotape, print, or other formats. Determine which ICT best represents the project. Determine why one ICT is being used over all others by providing specific evidence. Evidence can be supported through a detailed physical description of the technology, its functions, and the designer’s rationale.

I1b. Which ICTs Are More Effective Given the Content? The design team or client considers the most effective format to present the content. This is a collaborative decision. Determine if the content would be effectively deCopyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.


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livered through the technologies chosen. Considerations should be made in terms of the target audience’s expertise with the technology. If the target audience cannot operate the technology, then the product will not be effective. Access is another area to consider in determining the most effective technology. Determine the target audience’s ability to access the ICTs. Access means that the target audience lives near a location where the product can be purchased or accessed. Determine whether the target audience can afford to purchase the product or if there are other free or nominal means to access the product’s content. There should be evidence to support the viability and validity of the content and the ICT. Examples of other similar but effective products could be supporting evidence. The chosen ICTs should be able to store the content, provide the most effective access, and exhibit the best representation of the product’s content.

I1c. Is the Project Affordable to the Target Audience, Given the ICTs Used? Producing a product that the target audience can afford is the goal. To do the opposite is to bring bias into the design—favor is given to those who have the financial means to afford the product, and those without such means are not considered. Preliminary evaluations of the target audience should reveal their financial means to purchase, rent, or obtain the product for a nominal fee. Complementary access to the product is an option.

I1d. How Have ICTs Influenced the Design of the Product? Choosing one ICT over another can influence the design of a product. These choices may be made on the basis of monies available, the novelty of the technology, or other reasons. Determine how the ICT influences the design of the product. Make a list of the pros and cons of using this ICT. Determine the limitations and strengths of using the chosen ICT. The ICT should enhance the content and the product’s design. In focus groups, obtain the target audience’s feelings as to whether the ICT influenced their decision to purchase the product. Determine other influences in the product’s design.

I2. Framing (Preproduction, Production & Production) Framing refers to how the content is presented or the point of view (Huckin, 1995). The presentation of the content could have an angle or a slant. The frame could be manipulative (Fairclough, 1995).This means that framing can point users toward a particular interpretation. Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.

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Therefore, the frame should represent the perspective of the target audience. Throughout the design process, the frame may change based on design decisions. Focusing on the target audience as the main frame through which to make decisions limits bias in the overall design. Framing questions should be asked and answered throughout all production time schedules.

I2a. Who Is the Target Audience? The target audience is the focus of the overall design process. Most design decisions should revolve around meeting the needs of the target audience and then, where applicable, exceeding their expectations. Be specific in determining the target audience. Obtain demographic data consistent with that in CBM Elements. In whatever way possible, get to know the target audience. Although CBM provides a framework for the collection of data about the target audience, personal interactions provide confirmation and support for the data.

I2b. How Is the Content Presented to the Target Audience? The presentation of the content is important in capturing the attention of the target audience. The target audience must be interested enough to engage the product for education, work, or pleasure. Determine how the content is presented to the target audience. For example, an online children’s literature educational Web site could display the books in a virtual library, where children access the book by clicking on the book of their choice. The content of the book is opened, and the child can access the content by turning the pages virtually. In a similar situation, the content of the children’s literature could be presented by an avatar. The animated character might touch a virtual book and give a synopsis of each book he or she touches to spark an interest in the child. Once the child chooses a book, the avatar can read the book to the child, or the child could choose to read the book on screen themselves. Be specific or provide as much detail of how the content is presented visually, textually, kinesthetically, and so forth. The design of ICTs can adapt to the needs of the target audience versus the target audience adapting to the needs of the technology. Therefore, there can be multiple scenarios of how to present the content. A focus group might assist in providing some insight into the preferred ways to present content.

I2c. What Is the Content Presented? The content should appeal to the target audience in many ways; in particular, it should address their culture including learning styles, interests, language, etc. Determine Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.


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what content should be presented, what should not be presented, and why. Resist inputting one’s personal reasons for including content. The inclusion of all content must be purposeful and, above all, must support the needs of the target audience. Use CBM Elements to guide what is included in the content.

I2d. Is the Content Appropriate for the Target Audience and Why? Avoid content that is culturally inappropriate to the target audience. Know when it is appropriate to present or include certain content information. Knowing the culture of the target audience helps to limit inappropriate content. A certain level comfort should be provided. This comfort refers to both the target audience’s interaction with the technology and its content. Use CBM Elements to guide the team in culturally appropriate content decisions. Thereafter, pilot studies and focus groups should provide other authentic examples of when the content works.

I2e. Where, Within the Products Design, Is This Content Most Appropriate? A review of the content most appropriate within the product design begins with an examination of the placement of objects and functionality. Examine the design of the product to ensure all objects are properly placed within the product’s design. The content, when strategically placed, can be more effective. Objects should be in logical order, deliberately placed, and accessible. The placement is most effective if the target audience’s expectations of functionality are met.

I2f. Why Is This Content Appropriate? The design team should have research or other evidence as to why the content presented is the most appropriate. Inappropriate content presents bias in the design. Use CBM Elements to support appropriate of content.

I3. Omission (Production & Postproduction) Omission is what has been intentionally or unintentionally omitted. Omission refers to items that are not present, not stated and not implied. Omitted items are knowingly excluded; however the exclusion may have unknowingly occurred if it was never considered (Fairclough, 1995). Omission questions should be asked and answered throughout production and post production time schedules.


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I3a. What Has Been Intentionally Omitted and Why? Examine the product’s design. Determine those items that have been intentionally omitted. Decide whether the omission is significant in a positive or negative way to the project. The team’s personal ideologies should be intentionally omitted. By focusing on the target audience rather than one’s own beliefs and values, bias is minimized. Consult others who can identify omissions and seek their overall opinion. This might require input from individuals outside the project but who can act as community representatives.

I3b. What Has Been Unintentionally Omitted and Why? Omitted items are absent, not stated and not implied (Fairclough, 1995). Examine the design. Determine those items that have been unintentionally omitted. Determine why these items were unintentionally omitted. Decide what adjustments can be made to compensate for these unintentional omissions, or what can be done to include them in the design. Determining what has been unintentionally omitted might require input from individuals outside the project but who can act as community representatives. Alternatively, there are pilot studies and focus groups that can offer insight into omissions.

I3c. What Has Not Been Considered? Determine what has not been considered. The reasoning can be that it was not thought of, considered or deemed important. If what has been considered is known, then what has not been considered runs in opposition. Although it is difficult to consider everything, if well reviewed or researched, the team can feel comfortable in that they tried to limit bias throughout the design process. The design team should engage in ongoing brainstorming, and this includes discussions about what has not been considered. Identifying those things not considered requires input from a community representative or other expert. This insight should be directly related to the design of the product or the target audience.

I3d. Will These Omissions Be Detrimental to the Project and Why? These omissions should be examined to determine whether they may be detrimental to the project. If an important design specification has been omitted, determine how Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.


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it will be integrated back into the project. Determine whether its omission will be noticed by the client, the target audience, or others. Then, consider the costs involved to include the omissions. Determine why the omission should remain omitted.

I4. Backgrounding (Production & Postproduction) Backgrounding refers to what lies in the background and is de-emphasized (Fairclough, 1995). Backgrounded items can be implicit or explicit. Implicit items are implied. They are not stated or present, but it is understood in what is expressed. Backgrounded items can also be explicit. Explicit items are clear and obvious and leave no doubt of their meaning. However, explicit backgrounded items are usually de-emphasized or perceived to be de-emphasized in the design. Backgrounding questions should be asked and answered throughout production and post production time schedules.

I4a. What Has Been Backgrounded? Examine the product’s design. Identify backgrounded items that are implicit. These items can be implied in the product’s design. If implied, the items may not be stated in text or images, but the message is clearly expressed. Examine the product’s design. Identify backgrounded items that are explicit. Explicit items are visually noticeable. If it is explicit, the item should be stated in text, images, or objects. The message is clearly expressed but de-emphasized. Input from a community representative can provide insight into what they perceive to be backgrounded in the design.

I4b. Is the Backgrounding Intentional or Unintentional and Why? Determine whether implied items have been intentionally or unintentionally backgrounded. Give reasons for this backgrounding. Determine whether explicit items have been intentionally or unintentionally backgrounded. Give reasons for this backgrounding.

I4c. Will this Backgrounding Be Detrimental to the Project? Once a number of items have been identified as backgrounded, determine whether this backgrounding will be significant in a positive or negative way to the project. Identify whether the backgrounded items are positive, negative, neutral, or biased. Determine how the specific backgrounded items might be received by the target audience, outside audiences, client, and so forth. Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.

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Consult someone who can give their interpretation of the backgrounded items as positive, negative, neutral, or biased. This might require input from individuals outside the project but who can act as community representatives.

I5. Foregrounding (Production & Postproduction) Foregrounded items are present and absolute (Fairclough, 1995). Foregrounding means determining those items that are emphasized. Usually, foregrounded items receive more distinction and are perceived to be emphasized (Huckin, 1995). Foregrounding questions should be asked and answered throughout production and post production time schedules. Determine what things were foregrounded. Those things foregrounded may not be readily apparent to the design team. Consider an outside community representative, focus group etc. who can offer genuine feedback. Take this feedback as an opportunity to improve the design before its completion. It is best to obtain feedback more than once throughout the design process.

I5a. What Is Emphasized and Why? Determine which aspects of the design seem to be emphasized. This emphasis may be apparent based on size, content, color, text, image, numbers, or other aspects. Determine how the specific foregrounded items might be received by the target audience, outside audiences, client, and so forth. Decide whether the foregrounded items are positive, negative, neutral, or biased. The design team should be in agreement on what is emphasized and why. If there are discrepancies with the team’s vision, discuss and make adjustments. Then decide which direction the project should proceed.

I5b. Is This What Should Be Emphasized? Given the items emphasized, determine whether they should be emphasized. Decide whether there is too much emphasis on these items. Determine whether changes are needed to de-emphasize the items and emphasize other aspects of the design.

I5c. How Does This Emphasis Influence the Overall Design? The concepts emphasized can influence the overall design. Determine how this foregrounding influences the overall design. Decide whether the emphasis slants the project in one direction or another. Determine if there is bias in the design. If the design is slanted in favor of the target audience, then this is the correct direction. Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.


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I6. Visual Representations (Preproduction, Production & Post Production) Visual representations frame the design of the product (Fairclough, 1995). Types of visual representations include text, diagrams, tables, sketches, film, video, photography, graphics, icons, and so forth. Kress and van Leeuwen (1992) describe the dynamics of text and images as complementary to the other, or a “visual semiotic” (p. 92). This visual semiotic creates a relationship between text and images. Images do more than just “illustrate”; they are an essential part of the text and often “convey contents—meanings, values, attitudes”—that may not be a part of the text or in contradiction to the text (p. 92). Visual representations carry content and other data. The questions for visual representations should be asked and answered throughout all production time schedules.

I6a. How Do the Visual Representations Frame the Product? Examine the product. Identify the visual representations. Determine how the visual representations frame the product. Examine how text frames the graphics and how the graphics frame the text. Decide if the visual representation of graphics to text is the overall intent. For example, the size of a graphic could overshadow important text. Determine whether graphics or text dominate the design. The layout should be purposeful, maneuverable, and understandable. Determine if the amount of content is sufficient and if this was the intent. The design should provide a balance of visual representations with the goal of meeting the needs of the target audience. CBM Elements should provide data to support what works for this target audience.

I6b. How Do Visual Representations Assist in the Instructional Process? Examine the design of the product. Determine whether the visual representations assist in the instructional process. Use a variety of methods to determine whether the visual representations aid or prohibit the transfer of information. This can include an internal validity check within the design of the program or through external feedback. The transfer of information from technology to individual or from individual to technology must be measured by some means or instrument.

I6c. Who is Portrayed in these Visual Representations? Pay attention to the visual representations portrayed in the project. Determine who is portrayed in the visual representations. Determine whether these are the images the project wanted to communicate. Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.

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Enlist the help of the community representative in providing feedback about the visuals. Seek additional input from focus groups about the visual representations. Use this feedback as an opportunity to improve the design.

I6d. What Is Portrayed in these Visual Representations? Pay attention to the visual representations portrayed in the project. Determine what objects and things are portrayed in the visual representations. Determine if these are the images the project intended to communicate. Enlist the help of the community representative in providing feedback about the visuals. Seek additional input from focus groups about the visual representations. Use this feedback as an opportunity to improve the design.

I6e. What Purpose Do the Visual Representations Serve? Determine the purpose of the visual representations in the project and whether this purpose is consistent with the overall goals of the project. Determine whether using one visual representation instead of another better serves the needs of the target audience. Purposeful visual representations have a function in the design process. Visual representations may serve one or more of the TACCT (technical, aesthetic, content, culture-based, and the target audience) features; therefore, the purpose should be tied to one of the TACCT features or some other function. Guard against using inappropriate or biased visual representations. One way to forego this is to determine the purpose of all visuals. Determine how the visual representations contribute to the design of the product.

I6f. Are Inappropriate Visual Representations in the Design? Identify the visual representations. Determine whether the visual representations are inappropriate to the design. For example, visuals could misrepresent or be stereotypical of a target audience. Discuss and resolve any inappropriateness of the visual representations. Consider the bad and good in the design of the product. The recruitment of other community representatives or engaging a focus group can provide objective perspectives on the design of the product.

I6g. Where Are Visual Representations Placed in the Product? Placement of visual representations can inhibit or enhance the design. Examine the location of the visual representations in the product. Determine whether every object is as it should be, given the target audience’s expectations. Decide if the Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.


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placement of the visual representations benefits the target audience. The recruitment of other community representatives or engaging a focus group can provide objective perspectives.

I6h. Why Were These Visual Representations Selected? The selection of visual representations should benefit the target audience. The design team determines the validity of each example and how it enhances the project. If adjustments have to be made that are not in favor of the target audience, consider the ramifications of this as a design specification. Determine what adjustments will be made to make the design more equitable. Determine the consequences for these actions.

CBM Development Development (D1-D10) provides the management structure for problem solving. It considers those features that are important in the overall development of the product. This area supports both new and existing products. Design specifications focus on determining features of a design that are technical, aesthetic, content, culturebased and target audience (TACCT) related. Then, the ICT format of the product Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.

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D1. Consider technical, aesthetic, content, culture-based and target audience (TACCT) design specifications. Technical design specifications focus on function, Aesthetic – visual, Content – subject matter, Culture-based -Generic or Specialized, and Target audience – people. D2. Mass distribution formats. Produce in formats for mass distribution that allow access and equity. D3. Effective technology. Use the most efficient and effective technology available to produce the product. D4. Diversify ICT format. Provide multiple forms of information and communication technologies or manipulatives to meet the needs of the target audience. D5. Understand target audience. Know your audience. Focus on that audience throughout the design. D6. Explore environmental & individual/group cultures. Environmental cultures explore societies and cultures ways of life (e.g., workplace). Individual/group cultures explore people (e.g., Japanese culture). D7. Quality design. Create a good product for other people who desire to create similar products. D8. Authenticate product. Authentic representations of target audiences are needed to validate the product. D9. Control for interference. Provide products that limit bias, attitudes and prejudices. Try to control for human, machine and environmental interference. D10. Model the product or process. Create prototypes, sketches, storyboards or visual languages. is determined based on the design of the project; format options could include: Web based format, print, audio, software, video, and so forth. Other development considerations are to build a product that promotes efficiency, accessibility, and versatility. Multiple representations of culture are considered in particular environmental and individual/group cultures. Development focuses on creating a quality design that authentically represents the target audience and limits interference in the form of bias and misrepresentations. Throughout, the production process is supported by modeling. D1. Consider technical, aesthetic, content, culture-based and target audience (TACCT) design speci. cations. Technical design specifications focus on function, aesthetic – visual, content – subject matter, culture-based—generic or specialized, and target audience – people. Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.


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TACCT stands for technical, aesthetic, content, culture-based and/or target audience features. This design factor provides a way of categorizing and assessing large data sets specific to product design. TACCT is not useful in organizing project management; therefore project management design factors should be excluded from this assessment. (For example, TACCT can not assist in determining the types of field tests for a project; this is a project management decision). Technical features focus on function; specifically making the technology work or work better. Aesthetic features are visual; they improve the appearance of the design or the technology. Content features incorporate subject matter; this is information stored in the technology. Culture-based features are generic or specialized; most design specifications can be categorized as culture neutral or culture-specific. Target audience features focus on a specific group of people; this is a very specialized design that seeks to meet the needs of a target audience in relation to the design and technology. When the product incorporates all aspects of TACCT then the design is closer to being more specialized than generic. The steps in using TACCT are to identify the products design specifications, categorize the design specifications in relation to the TACCT table and make decisions or evaluations based on the categorization. The TACCT Table has the following design specifications: T=Technical, A=Aesthetic, C=Content, CB=Culture-based, T=Target Audience. TACCT is a quick way of assessing an ICT. It is meant to provide some preliminary data to improve the design of the ICT and determine the direction to proceed. It is not an in-depth evaluation tool. The categories should be seen as self-sustaining and as providing a surface evaluation of ICTs. D2. Mass distribution formats. Produce in formats for mass distribution that allow access and equity. Economics, access, and equity should be considered in the overall packaging of the product. Mass versus limited distribution formats are important issues to consider. A product with limited distribution may cost more to produce. A product with a larger distribution may cost less to produce. If the product is a generic design, then distribution for a larger audience is feasible. If the product is a specialized design, then distribution to a smaller audience may be required. Mass distribution considerations allows for more people to interact with new technologies, become consumers of these technologies, and consider producing these technologies. The more informed, equitable, and accessible new technologies, the more likely there can be reductions in phobias and aversions to technology. This is imperative because inhabitants of the future must be technologically savvy. On the other hand, meeting


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the needs of specialized audiences also allows technology to penetrate new markets and brings technological innovations to everyone’s door. Accessibility and equity should be considered in the target audience’s ability to purchase and afford the product. The distribution of the product to locations near the target audience allows them access to purchase the product. Equity means that the target audience can afford the product given the purchase price. Information about the target audience’s purchasing practices of such products has to be considered. These data should be gathered in the pre-production stage. Accessibility and equity should be considered in the target audience’s ability to use the product. Accessibility to the product provides the target audience with the freedom to engage and learn about the product and technology. Accessibility means access to the product either through schools, home or local community centers. Equity means the target audience has an equal number of chances to interact with the product, therefore the more interaction, the more opportunitiesthe target audience has to master the content. To consider the needs of the target audience, format, accessibility, and equity must be considered and included in the overall design. D3. Effective technology. Use the most efficient and effective technology available to produce the product. Providing an efficient and effective product is important to meeting market demands and more important to the needs of the target audience. An efficient product is one that provides much content. The product is effective if knowledge is successfully facilitated from machine to human. Plan to stay with or ahead of the competition. Having a competitive product means that there is no compromising on quality. Quality has been considered and invested in the product. Possible technologies include: audiotapes, cable, computers, CD-ROM, fiber-optics, internet, print, radio, satellite, telephone, video cassettes, video discs, or video conferencing. The type of technology (Bates, 2005) should be driven by the needs of the target audience not its novelty. D4. Diversify ICT format. Provide multiple forms of information and communication technologies or manipulatives to meet the needs of the target audience. The target audience may need more than a textual representation; therefore, providing a variety of ICTs (printed materials, video, audiotapes, computer software, DVDs, etc.) can better meet the learning modality of the target audience. Through visuals, the individual who understands graphic signs and symbols may best learn



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the content. For the acoustic individual, the auditory components may best meet their needs. For the tactile individual, manipulatives help them to understand content. Meeting the diverse learning modalities of the individual may require multiple representations of the product. For example, entertainment games2 are produced in video formats; however there are magazines and game guides that support the video formats. This diversification in formats allows users to educate themselves about the history behind the game, characters and their functions, and technical features of the game. The needs of users are met by video and printed formats. D5. Understand target audience. Know your audience. Focus on that audience throughout the design. The goals of every project should be to know your audience, focus on that audience throughout the design, and meet the needs of the audience. Gather preliminary research about the target audience; this information assists the entire design and development process. Use CBM Elements to gather preliminary and extensive data. Determine what is known about the target audience and how the design process should proceed given what is known. Specifically address how the needs of the target audience are going to be met. D6. Explore environmental & individual/group cultures. Environmental cultures explore societies and cultures ways of life (e.g., workplace). Individual/ group cultures explore people (e.g., Japanese culture). The most commonly described representations of culture propose that culture is ones environment or the culture of an individual or group. When these two perspectives come together as a whole they provide a more holistic interpretation of cultures. Environmental cultures include representations such as the workplace culture, school culture, or popular culture. This perspective on culture is consistent with that of the cultural anthropologist who examines a society’s ways of life (Ferraro, 2004; Haviland, 1987). For example, an examination of environmental cultures could include understanding, studying or replicating a society’s way of life. Individual/group cultures are tied to people such as Native American culture, Japanese culture, Haitian culture. This perspective on culture is consistent with that of physical anthropologists who study biological organisms such as humans and specifically human behavior and biology (Ferraro, 2004; Haviland, 1987). For example, an examination of a group culture could include understanding, studying, or replicating the evolutionary growth and the organic/inorganic distinctions of organisms.


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The inclusion of both environmental and individual/group perceptions of culture is needed in the design process to balance the structure of designs. Without this balance, designs are subject to bias, inequities, and misrepresentations. CBM Elements provides a more in-depth examination of the dynamics of culture. D7. Quality design. Create a good product for other people who desire to create similar products. A good product is one that others want to imitate. The creation of a good product requires focusing on the best interests of the target audience in the design. Brainstorm the steps to a good design. Implement those steps with creativity and a vision for something unique. Determine whether the team has taken the steps to a good design. D8. Authenticate product. Authentic representations of target audiences are needed to validate the product. Authentic representations mean true to life. In this case, products need to be true to the life of target audiences to validate the product. By following CBM Elements, authentic representations of culture can be manifested throughout the design. CBM Elements provides the tools for a comprehensive and in-depth analysis of societies, cultures, groups and individuals. D9. Control for interference. Provide products that limit bias, attitudes and prejudices. Try to control for human, machine and environmental interference. The dispositions of the team and client seep into all designs. This can be seen through the inclusion and exclusion of content, text, images, objects, people, cultures and societies. By following CBM for management and design decisions, the designer’s personal dispositions can be greatly reduced. The collaborative effort of the cultural expert, community representative, pilot studies participants, focus groups, and design team members should minimize bias, attitudes and prejudice throughout the management process. CBM Inquiry aids in limiting bias, attitudes and prejudices during the design and development process. If implemented, CBM Elements provides data for the authentic representation of the target audience throughout the design process. The collective implementation of multiple components of CBM offers a comprehensive framework to control for interference by way of humans, machines, or the environment.



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D10. Model the product or process. Create prototypes, sketches, storyboards or visual languages. Modeling in design means to bring something to life as a product or process. Prototypes can be physical representations of the product. Sketches can be detailed drawings. Storyboards may illustrate still images of a product. Visual languages can be notation systems, maps, diagrams, or drawings of processes. Modeling provides the tools to actualize the product or process. Modeling should be assessed by the team, cultural expert, and community representative. When ready, a more target audience friendly version can be field tested. Modeling should be performed throughout the preproduction and production stages to best meet the needs of the client and the project. Prototyping and sketching are often used in game design. Storyboarding is used in video and film making. Visual languages are often used in engineering and computer science. When creating visual languages, care should be taken in the presumptions designers, developers and engineers bring to the design process. The designer might draw a diagram of the path that the user will travel in navigating a web site; however this path is the presumed path. It is only through careful observation of the target audience that the multiple paths taken can be revealed. With this in mind, field work might consider collecting data of the users behavior when interacting with the product.

References Bates, A. W. (2005). Technology, E-Learning and distance education. Abingdon, UK: Routledge. Berkenkotter, C., & Huckin, T. N. (1995). Genre knowledge in disciplinary communication. Hillsdale: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Publishers. Douglas, I. (2006). Issues in software engineering of relevance to instructional design. Tech Trends, 50(5), 28-35. Fairclough, N. (1995). Media discourse. London: Edward Arnold. Ferraro, G. (2004). Cultural anthropology: An applied perspective (5th ed.). Belmont, CA: Thomson Learning, Inc. Haviland, W. A. (1987). Cultural anthropology (5th ed.). New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc. Huckin, T. N. (1995). Critical discourse analysis. Functional approaches to written text: Classroom applications. TESOL–France Journal, 2(2), 95–111.


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Kress, G., & van Leeuwen, T. (1992, August). Structures of visual representation. Journal of literary semantics, XXI(2), 91-117. Seels, B., & Glasgow, Z. (1998). Making instructional design decisions. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Endnote

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In software engineering, this would be similar to the concept of refactoring meaning that the design structure is reviewed continuously (Douglas, 2000).


CBM Team, Assessments, Brainstorming

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Chapter V


C Team Team (T1–T3) focuses on the recruitment of a culturally sensitive design team that includes a cultural expert, an educator, and other culturally informed members. These experts become a united team who seek to fulfill the needs of the target audience as a central goal. This is where much of the decision making happens. T1. Cultural expert(s). The cultural expert is the insider who acts as a liaison with the target audience and community representative. T2. Enlist educators. Educators with expertise in subject matter and/or educating the target audience must be on the team (e.g., professors, teacher educators). T3. Culturally informed team. Have an educated creative team with valid interests in the target audience. Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.

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T1. Cultural Expert(s). The cultural expert I acts as a liaison with the target audience and community Rpresentative. The cultural expert is the target audience’s representative. (The community representative and the cultural expert can be the same person). The cultural expert has the best interests of the target audience at heart, and their role is to ensure that the design team remains focused on the needs of the target audience as the primary focus of the design process. The cultural expert has established relationships with the target audience, and they engage in maintaining this complementary relationship. In this role, they establish and maintain relationships with the community before, during and after production. If the target audience is unhappy with the cultural expert; this may mean that one or more experts might be needed. The target audience is viewed as customer or consumer and their desires and wants are important. Before the project begins, the cultural expert visits community members to get their feedback on the proposed design. This can be in the form of focus groups, informal meetings or face to face short surveys/interviews. This data collection becomes an integral part of how the design process proceeds. In particular, design decisions are altered or adjusted based on this information. In most cases, the cultural expert can be recruited from the community. The cultural expert might live in this community or they could have lived in this community or a similar community. They need to vibe with the target audience in terms of their personal or professional experiences, class identification, social experiences, economic identification and community involvement. A high level of comfort should be apparent in the cultural expert’s interactions with the target audience and vice versa. The target audience must feel that the cultural expert is someone they can trust. Assessing this human factor is important because, if the target audience lacks trust in the cultural expert, the quality of data collection will be tainted and inauthentic.

T2. Enlist Educators. Educators with expertise in subject Matter or educating the target audience Must be on the team (e.g., professors, teacher educators, etc.).

Educators with expertise in educating the target audience should be on the team (e.g., professors, teacher educators, instructors, curriculum specialists, trainers, subject matter specialists). These educators could be experts in content area, language, or any needed discipline. Subject matter specialists have expertise in the discipline that is specific to the design. They can contribute to the bulk of the content and provide valuable inforCopyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.


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mation. However, traditional thinking and designs that have not worked with the target audience should be reconsidered. Language educators who have expertise in the language of the target audience can aid in validating the written or spoken aspects of the design. These linguistic factors are important in addressing the target audience’s ability to grasp the content. The language educator provides clarification so that the language of the target audience is authentically represented without stereotypes, exaggerations or misrepresentations. The responsibility to transfer information from ICT to learner rests on the collaborative efforts of the team with great input from educators who understand the use of technology in constructing knowledge. Finding the combination of content area and technology skills may be difficult among all team members; therefore this is an area where collective creativity is required.

T. Culturally Informed TIucated creative team with Valid Interests in the target audience. The selection of the appropriate team is key to the successful management, development and implementation of the project. Finding people who can work together in a culturally diverse environment is important to culture-based designs. It is easy to gather a team of people to whom one likes to work. However, it may seem a burden to let outsiders into ones circle. Designing for ethnically diverse learners and users requires designers to step outside of their normal comfort zone and challenge themselves to hear from others and listen to others outside their social circle. All team members regardless of race or ethnicity need to have strong interests in meeting the learning needs of the target audience and a strong belief in the effectiveness of the product. In this scenario, people from the designers to educational experts, are valuable to the project (Cockburn, 1999; Fowler, 2001). The culturally informed team receives training in the cultural elements of the target audience, derived from CBM Elements. This training is supportive, informative, participatory, and complementary to the needs of the target audience. The instructional design process is a complex multilayered process. Fostering a team of highly skilled individuals (Gustafson & Branch, 2002) is extremely beneficial to the success of a project.


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CBM Assessments The area of Assessments (A1–A4) proposes several design factors for implementing assessments. With multiple evaluation options, assessments can include internal and external evaluations that measure the learner’s acquisition of knowledge or the effectiveness of a product’s design. Assess the assessment examines the extent of bias and determines the best assessment to support the target audience. External review focuses on the hiring of an outside agency. Then, culture-specific assessments provide guidance on the building of culture-specific evaluations and measurements. A1. Multiple evaluation options. Provide internal and external evaluation opportunities. A2. Assess the assessment. Evaluate the evaluation tools. A3. External review. Implement other evaluations of the product. A4. Culture-specific assessments. Create specialized evaluations.



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A1. Multiple Evaluation Options. Provide Internal and ExI Evaluation Opportunities. Multiple evaluation options require assessments to have more than one measurement to affirm validity. These evaluations can be internal or external and should focus on measuring the learner’s acquisition of knowledge or the effectiveness of a product’s design. If assessment is part of the product’s design, then internal and external options should be considered during preproduction. Internal evaluations provide learners with opportunities to check their work and reinforce skills and knowledge. An adaptive design provides the learner with multiple opportunities to be successful and to master the skills needed. Learner-supported evaluations versus those that penalize should be carefully designed and woven throughout the product. Internal evaluations may also serve as databases or feedback of the target audience’s interactions with the product. A database can be hidden within the product’s structure and function as a resource to enhance the product in later versions. The database may collect a variety of information such as task completion, product errors, learner progress, and so forth. Internal evaluations can also provide feedback. This is exemplified with popular operating systems that display a popup window asking if the software company should be notified of this error. The software company monitors the performance of its computer application through the public’s feedback to these error messages. External evaluations can come in many forms (e.g., pilot studies, field tests, prepackaged exams, or standardized tests). The needs of the project dictate the assessment that will be used. Pilot studies are small-scale studies (Gay & Airasian, 2003) and are conducted in the actual environment and with users of the product. Pilot studies are usually short (e.g., days or weeks) in comparison to the long term intended use of the product. This method of inquiry often reveals problems, issues or design flaws. Pilot studies are usually conducted on products or online environments where there are learning outcomes that need to be measured or where learning is expected to happen. A pilot study may be conducted in a classroom setting for an educational program that will be used in schools. Field tests may be conducted in a variety of settings, given that the focus is on the product and that the product may be used in a variety of environments. Field tests are usually short in length (e.g., minutes, hours). Types of field tests can include surveys (e.g., in person, mail, telephone, Internet), focus groups, and interviews. Prepackaged exams may be found in a local bookstore. These exams provide reinforcement of materials learned in an educational setting. The content areas vary according to the subject. These materials are usually made by private companies and are normed for the mainstream population. Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.

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Standardized tests are created by testing agencies and are usually administered by schools, colleges and universities. Examples include the Standardized Assessment Test (SAT) or Graduate Records Exam (GRE). Standardized tests are administered, interpreted, and scored in the same way. The standardization provides a way to compare test takers across the nation (Gay & Airasian, 2003).

A2. Assess the Assessment. Evaluate the Evaluation Tools. Evaluate the internal and external evaluation tools. Determine the learning outcomes that are being measured. Evaluate the testing methods (e.g., short answer, multiple choice, essay) and whether the testing methods can measure the learning outcomes. Go through each question carefully to determine whether learning will be achieved through these methods of assessment. Determine whether the evaluation fairly assesses the learning outcomes that are directly related to the target audience. Establish whether the evaluation is culturally biased. Determine how bias may affect the learning outcomes. Determine the user outcomes that are being measured. Evaluate the measurement methods and whether these methods properly assess the desired outcome. For example, in a video game, the reloading of ammunition, time, or money indicates that the player is advancing to the next stage or that the player has acquired a certain level of skill that merits the increase in ammunition, time, or money. In a serious online game designed by an insurance company, the employer may create a game that measures a new employee’s knowledge of insurance policies and practices. The software may assess success in the task by the number of reasonably answered questions. Review each measurement carefully to determine whether the outcomes are achievable through these methods. Determine whether the measurement fairly assesses the user outcomes. Determine how the target audience has been addressed. Establish whether the measurements are culturally biased. Determine how bias may affect the learning outcomes. Assessing the assessment can rely on the learners’ or users’ opinions of the product. This may require a brief survey or online evaluation of the assessment. A balanced product allows for learner and user input to improving product development.

A3. External Review. Implement Other Evaluations of the Product. If an external review agency is needed, their involvement should be a part of initial brainstorming discussions. Most of these agencies charge a fee, so their services need to become a part of the overall budget. Be specific about what the external agency should assess and how long they will be involved. Then determine how the external agency’s report will be used to enhance the product or as evidence of the Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.


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product’s effectiveness. The goal of the external review is to achieve summative (i.e., summary of learning) evaluations of the learner’s progress and/or the effectiveness of the product.

A4. Culture-Specific Assessments. Create Specialized Evaluations. Culture-specific assessments focus on the needs of the target audience through culturally aligned content. The content of the assessment is specific to the frame of reference of the target audience. These assessments are specific to one group and cannot be generalized across audiences or learners. Culture-specific assessments can replace generic assessments. These assessments are unique in that they are creative and not tied to traditional evaluations that focus on multiple-choice questions, fill-ins, or true/false. If the goal is to get the target audience to move from culture-specific to culture-neutral assessments, then multiple assessments should be designed to move from the specialized to the generic. Culture-specific assessments can also address auditory, kinesthetic, visual, taste, or smell aspects; teach through the discipline of choice such as mathematics, art, science, dance; or focus on abstract and concrete operations. B1. Financial support. Obtain comprehensive funding for the project. B2. Pilot studies/field tests of product. Engage in assessments throughout project. B3. Assess community’s response. Get the public’s response to the product. B4. Community representative on team. The community representative is a person versed in the cultural nuances of the target audience, and they have been designated as an integral part of the team. B5. Investigate target audience to authenticate product. Provide the team with an ethnographic portrait of the target audience. B6. Reflect and assess learning goals. Engage in ongoing reflections and assessments of the product. B7. Affordable design. Provide an affordable design and ICTs that are financially accessible to the target audience. B8. Meet needs of target audience. Determine how the product meets the instructional and/or cultural needs of the target audience. B9. Discuss and consider cultural context. Discuss and consider historical, social, political, economic and educational reasons for implementing this project. B10. Present and consider outcomes. Throughout the design process, present and consider learner outcomes or the user goals. Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.

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CBM Brainstorming Brainstorming (B1–B10) is conducted to align the project with its design team, assess the financial status of the project from conception and beyond its completion, discuss the overall design, implement preliminary assessments, and determine learning outcomes. This preproduction period can determine what parts of the project receive more emphasis or less, given the financial situation and project due date. The design factors associated with Brainstorming determines the direction to proceed and serves as an initial review of the design process. This is the first step in planning.

B1. Financial Support. Obtain Comprehensive Funding for the Project. Obtaining reliable financial support from preproduction to postproduction is imperative to the completion of any project. This is even more important in the creation of products intended to meet the needs of diverse populations. Given the intricacies of the design, the creativeness needed, and the cultural wherewithal, funding these initial projects can cost considerably more than designs that meet a mainstream or a generic audience. Proper financing of initial costs will save money in producing the design. Culture-specific designs require more focused monies. Those requirements may include specialized research, additional planning and preparation, recruitment of a culturally sensitive design team, assessments, training, and innovative designing.

B2. Pilot Studies/Field Tests of Product. Engage in Asessments throughout Project. Pilot studies or field tests are needed of the target audience interacting with the product. Pilot studies are small-scale studies (Gay & Airasian, 2003). Field tests vary according to the project; however, they may consist of public opinion surveys, focus groups, and so forth (see CBM Assessments for more). Pilot studies and field tests should be conducted throughout the design process; thereby designs are monitored, manipulated, adjusted, or discarded if necessary. If preliminary evaluations reveal that the target audience is unsatisfied with the design, then products should be altered to meet the needs of the target audience. Assessments of the target audience throughout the design process can save time and costs. These assessments provide authenticity and benefit the target audience. Providing a high caliber of products is the point of these tests. In essence, the target audience is guarded against becoming casualties of failed experiments; the goal is to reduce or eliminate victimization. Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.


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B3. Assess Community’s Response. Get the Public’s Response to the Product. Assessment of the community and the public’s responses to the creation of the product during preproduction is important to the development process. First steps include assessing the community’s and the public’s response to the development of the product. This assessment may be in the form of focus groups, surveys, or public opinion polls (i.e., in-person, telephone, or online). However, the method of assessment should match the target audience. For example, if the target audience does not use computers, then an online public opinion poll would not work. Creativity in obtaining an authentic assessment method and an accurate sample size of the community or public is beneficial before moving forward with the project. Negative responses from the public or community can stifle production and any subsequent distribution of the product. These initial evaluations should provide insight into the target audience and their needs.

B4. Community Representative on Team. The Community Representative Iltural Nuances of the Target Audience, and They Have Been Designated as an Integral Part of the Team. The community representative knows the cultural nuances of the target audience, and they are considered part of the team. In particular, the community representative should have qualifications as someone of the same ethnic background and history. The racial/ethnic background of the community representative aids in providing an authentic representation of the target audience. Second, the community representative should have knowledge of the social class of the target audience. Just relying on the racial/ethnic identity of the community representative is not enough. This person must have personal knowledge and/or experience in the culture and social class of the target audience. This knowledge aids in authentically representing the target audience. The community representative maintains creative input or control in all stages of the production process. This person is well versed in the language, culture, and norms of that community and has sensitivity toward the target audience regardless of race, ethnicity, social class, economic status, and so forth. The community representative is connected with the community so that he or she can remain in the midst of current issues (e.g., political, economic, social) affecting these people. This person guides the design team in connecting the content described in CBM Elements to the design of the product. CBM Elements incorporates the concepts and themes to be integrated throughout. These Elements ensure a specialized product Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.

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and guards against homogenous technological designs. The use of these Elements aids in authenticating designs that seek to be culture-specific, because all designs are culture-based.

B5. Investigate Target Audience to Authenticate Product. Provide the Team with an Ethnographic Portrait of the Target Audience. Time permitting, information about the target audience can be gathered through ethnographic methods. Data collection may begin with the following: research articles, commissioned reports and studies, newspapers, magazines, television and film documentaries, cultural informants, and other ethnographic research methods (i.e., observations; interviews, artifact collection (photographs, videotaping and/or film)]. All of these methods of data collection should be viewed as multiple opportunities to triangulate fact from fiction. Current educational research can provide insight into the target audience as learners. Specifically, the data may indicate what instructional methods are preferred, how learning is best acquired, and other cultural considerations. Issues such as communication and interactions with technology are a growing part of research in all fields. This source provides peer-reviewed research that is, in many cases, authentic. Although this process may be arduous, the intricacies of understanding learning and the learner begin with a review of research (see also CBM Learners). Ethnographic studies may come in the form of books by researchers or professors who have spent considerable time in the community of the target audience. This hands-on insight is an intellectual perspective and a comprehensive case study of the target audience. Ethnographic studies tease out details that the untrained eye may not capture; therefore, the reviews of these studies are very insightful. Research studies support the notion that qualitative research methods are needed in creating culture-based designs (Dray & Siegel, 2005). Often, reports or studies are commissioned by the government or social service agencies to better understand the social needs of groups. These reports provide knowledge and background into the cultural nuances of a group. Many of these reports are housed on the Web sites of large agencies that oversee educational and social services, grants, or the dissemination of information (e.g., institutes, bureaus). Newspapers and magazines contain brief reports on groups and may provide personal anecdotes and quotes; in addition, reporters usually have to confirm sources and authenticate stories. Stories are only as valid as their source. Additional data should be used to substantiate any media reports. Television and film documentaries provide glimpses into the lives of people. They are good resources because filmmakers seek to provide factual versus fictional Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.


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information. The viewer becomes knowledgeable about a group based on what can be gleamed from the video or film. This type of anthropological data can be valuable in understanding a society, culture, or group. Cultural informants are members of the target audience. These cultural informants provide authentic insight into all aspects of the target audience. Only through interactions with cultural informants can the product be authenticated. Authentic products emanate from information and feedback obtained from the cultural informants. The collection of ethnographic data can aid in obtaining authentic products. Ethnographic research seeks to describe people’s ways of life or culture. Ethnography uses research methods such as participant observation, interviewing and data collection (eg, field notes, videotapes, audiotapes, photography, etc) (Fetterman, 1998). Ethnographic research1 methods can be helpful in obtaining data from cultural informants (i.e., observations, interviews, artifact collection). This consists of observations of the cultural informants engaging in daily activities or activities specific to the project. Observations gathered over a period of time provide rich authentic examples that can be simulated in designs. Time periods for observations can range from days to weeks to months. Interviews with cultural informants assist in authenticating designs. The interview questions can be scripted so that the questions are consistent for each interviewee or given the situation, questions can be informally asked. If there are many participants, prepared interview questions work best; consistency across interviews makes data analysis more consistent and true. The collection of artifacts is important in triangulating the data; interviews, observations, and artifacts all communicate information relevant to the society, culture, or target audience. Digital photography, videotaping and field notes are good resources in the collection of artifacts. Types of artifacts collected or documents via photography or videotape may include: clothing, family heirlooms, family photographs, and so forth. A thorough investigation of the target audience is key to authenticating the design and the design process. The product is derived from this investigative data. Thereby, misrepresentations and bias are limited because the design of the product is built from “real” people, real artifacts, and real data. Although this type of research is not traditionally, an aspect of instructional design, some degree of it should be considered to authenticate the designs2. Remember to choose those components of CBM that best fit the specifications of the project.

B6. Reflect & Assess Learning Goals. Engage in Ongoing Reflections and Assessments of the Product. By participating in ongoing reflections and assessments of the product, the focus remains on producing a product where learning goals are achieved. Ask and answer Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.

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questions that are relevant to the target audience, the product, and the design team. Determine what are the learning objectives. Then determine how the learning objectives will be met. Decide what learners will know once they have completed the product. Examine and assess the skills learned and determine if learners have met the learning goals. Determine how learning will be maximized. Establish with the client and the team whether the project is intended to be culture neutral or culturespecific. CBM Inquiry questions assist in this reflection and assessment process. These questions can be seen as a reflective way of assessing the process, product, and participants. This assessment assists in making the product authentic because the checks and balances are internal and external.

B7. Affordable Design. Provide an Affordable Design and ICTs that are Financially Accessible to the Target Audience. Provide an affordable design that is financially accessible to the target audience. Thinking about affordability begins with the design specifications themselves. The technology format, content, and costs of production all influence the cost of the product. The product should be affordable for the target audience. The target audience should always be able to use the product even if they choose not to purchase the product. If possible, the product needs to be made available through rentals, libraries, or other nominal costs or free enterprise services. The target audience should have access to the technology. This accessibility can be on-going through the life of the product. Issues of access should be at the forefront of thinking and designing for diverse populations. If possible, provide alternative ICT formats that contain the same content; multimedia (e.g., printed material, cd-rom, audiotapes, videotape, etc.) formats may best serve to provide access to the target audience. This may not be the way of big business; however, needs of the target audience are the priority. If possible, extend the longevity of the product without giving up on the quality of the product. For example, instructional products typically provide content that is particular to the grade level of the learner. However, a product that is intended to maintain longevity may provide instructional materials that are more developmental, meaning that the materials may span prekindergarten, kindergarten, and first grade. The contents of the instructional materials provide more to the target audience for their money. The product maintains longevity on the market because it is multigraded and an affordable instructional product.



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B8. Meet Needs of Target Audience. Determine how the Product Meets the Instructional and/or Cultural Neds of the Target Audience. Determine how the product meets the instructional and/or cultural needs of the target audience. By meeting the needs of the target audience, designers support what the individual brings to the product and use the technology to adapt to the individual while the individual learns the technology. Thereby, the target audience becomes an integral part of the design process. Cultural contexts are met by addressing the needs of the target audience and by acknowledging problems and challenges as design issues versus issues of the target audience (e.g., communication, language, access, usability). It is important not to blame the target audience for issues that could be altered by the design or the product. This type of proactive design thinking limits the development of deficit designs.

B9. Discuss & Consider Cultural Context. Discuss and Consider Historical, Social, Political, Economic and Educational Reasons for Implementing this Project. The design of nonbiased products requires much discussion about the target audience in terms of their history, social interactions, politics, economic status, religious affiliations and other factors in CBM Elements. Discuss how this cultural knowledge changes the direction of the project. Determine the pros and cons of this direction. The objective of these discussions should be to educate the design team and move all of its members toward cultural consciousness and cultural sensitivity in the design process. To create culture-based products, the design team assumes the status of cultural expert of the target audience.

B10. Present & Consider Outcomes. Throughout the Design Process, Present and Consider Learner Outcomes or the User Goals. Depending on the focus of the project, the target audience will be either the learner or user. For the learner, there is a need to present and consider the learning outcomes throughout the design. For the user, there is a need to present and consider user goals throughout the design. For the learner: Define the learning outcomes that the product is expected to produce. Determine the goals that the learner hopes to accomplish through engagement with the product. Define how these outcomes will be measured by the learner. Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.

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Determine through what stages, clues, or measures learners know they have been successful. Determine what the learner is expected to do with this new knowledge. Establish how help is provided. How does the learner know they have accomplished the intended learner outcomes? For the user: Define the user goals that the product is expected to provide. Define the goals that the user hopes to accomplish through engagement with the product. Determine if these goals are achievable. Decide the steps, procedures, or paths the user must implement to accomplish these goals. Establish how the user knows they have been successful. Determine what the user is expected to do with this new knowledge. Establish how help is provided. How does the user know they have accomplished the intended goals?

References Bogdan, R. C., & Biklen, S. K. (1992). Qualitative research for education: An introduction to theory and methods. Boston: Allyn and Bacon. Cockburn, A. (1999, October 21). Characterizing people as non-linear, first-order components in software development (Technical Report No. 1999.3). Salt Lake City, UT: Humans and Technology. Retrieved July 18, 2008 from http://alistair.cockburn. us/index.php/Characterizing_people_as_non-linear%2C_first-order_components_ in_software_development Dray, S. M., & Siegel, D. A. (2005). “Sunday in Shanghai, Monday in Madrid?!” Key issues and decisions in planning international user studies. In N. Aykin (Ed.), Usability and internationalization of information technology (pp. 189-212). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Publishers. Fetterman, D. M. (1998). Ethnography: Step by step. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. Forsythe, D. E. (1999). “It’s just a matter of common sense”: Ethnography as invisible work. Computer Supported Cooperative Work, 8, 127-145. Fowler, M. (2001, June 29). Put your process on a diet. Retrieved July 18, 2008 from http://www.ddj.com/dept/architect/184414675 Gay, L. R., & Airasian, P. (2003). Educational research: Competencies for analysis and applications. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill Prentice Hall. Gustafson, K. L., & Branch, R. M. (2002). Survey of instructional development models. Syracuse, NY: ERIC Clearinghouse on Information & Technology. Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.


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Endnotes

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See Bogdan, R. C., & Biklen, S. K. (1992). Qualitative Research for Education: An introduction to theory and methods. Boston: Allyn and Bacon. The use of ethnography in technology design is not new; it has been developing since the 1980s to assist in software design and evaluation. The computersupported collaborative work community has been using anthropologists as part of design teams to engage in ethnographic work. However, according to Forsythe (1999), many non-ethnographers have been borrowing these ethnographic methods and interpreting them unsuccessfully. Forsythe (1999) argued that non-ethnographers should not engage in ethnographic research because of their lack of formal training as ethnographic researchers, lackadaisical perceptions of the research methods, and lack of respect for the ethnographic process. Should anthropologists be a part of all design teams that seek to integrate culture in the design of ICTs? What is clear is that using ethnographic research methods cannot be the only design specification in authenticating a design.


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Chapter VI

CBM Learners

CBM Learners The Learners (L1-L10) area centers on the needs of learners and learning. These design factors assist in providing a dynamic learning environment that is supportive of the learner’s cultural frames of reference and seeks to meet the learning outcomes of the project. The design factors are adaptive to learners on multiple levels including intellectual, motivational, and educational, thereby providing opportunities for individualized instruction. Other design factors in this area focus on meeting the needs of the target audience through a variety of strategies including providing opportunities to extend learning beyond design requirements; differentiating learning opportunities; empowering and engaging learners; instilling proactive learning; identifying educational objectives; enculturating the learner; and incorporating culture-based instructional strategies.


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To design instructional products for human beings means knowing how learners learn. This design process is more inquiry based. Determine what methods of learning are most appropriate for a learner. This suggests asking the learner, observing the learner, analyzing situations where the learner learns, or reviewing relevant research (Gagne & Briggs, 1974). Designing instruction without knowledge of the learner means making assumptions about the learner. This imposes upon the learner ones own values and dispositions versus allowing the learner to reveal their learning styles or ways of understanding and knowing. In terms of applying a theory of learning, this step should not be done without first knowing the learner. Once the learner is understood; then a theory of learning can be applied or applications designed based on the needs of the learner. The selection and design of instruction should be based on what is known about learners not that assumed to be known. L1. Extend learning. Provide opportunities for extended learning. L2. Differentiate opportunities to learn. Provide a variety of learning options. L3. Empower and engage learners. Provide opportunities for empowering learners and engaging instruction. L4. Teach proactive learning. Help learners to be proactive in improving their own learning. L5. Identify educational objectives. Have an underlying educational and/or learning objective. L6. Culture-specific instructional strategies. Consider instructional strategies that are individual or group specific. L7. Enrich instructional content. Expand instructional content beyond subject matter. L8. Adapt instruction to learner. Provide adaptable instruction that is not too grade level or age level specific. L9. Plan for instruction. Focus on the short and long term instructional needs of the target audience. L10. Enculturate the learner. Use the product to enculturate the learner into the culture.

L 1. E xtend Learning. Provide Opportunities for Extended L Extended learning opportunities provide an adaptive design that meets learners where they are in terms of knowing and understanding; these opportunities should Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.

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extend or advance instruction as needed. The proficient learner needs challenging tasks and situations. The struggling learner needs opportunities to work at their own pace. If the product is intended to meet a varied range of learners, then these types of extended learning opportunities should be embedded in the overall design. Extended learning opportunities provide proficient learners with complex opportunities that are multitiered in difficulty and struggling learners with opportunities to review, reinforce, and progress (see Figure 6.1).1 Extended learning opportunities can be constructed laterally, which means that the opportunities for learning are similar in complexity but basically on the same level or plane. Vertically constructed advanced learning opportunities provide instruction that increases in complexity and difficulty. This extended or “staircase” learning is constructivist as the learner continues to build on knowledge they already possess. The learner is also provided with opportunities to remain in the lateral position for as long as needed. This strategy supports learner’s where they are in skill level versus where someone thinks they should be in skill level. This self monitoring means that learners take responsibility for their own learning by moving up in complexity as they have mastered skills. Ultimately, learners increase their metacognitive skills of knowing what they know and when they know what they know. Learners learn at different rates (speed) and ranges (distance/length). Include extended learning opportunities that adapt to learners cognitive and sensory load and consider the multi-modalities of learners. When using ICTs as the vehicle through Figure 6.1. Extended learning


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which learning happens, the learning is considered multimodal. This means that the design of instruction must interact with the multi-modalities of the learner. Multimodalities means that information is delivered via the different sensory modalities of the human being; this can be through auditory, tactile, visual, taste, or smell (Hempel & Altinsoy, 2005). Research supporting the use of multimodalities in technology research indicates that it may be better to allow the learner to choose their own level of sensory input during the learning process (Moreno & Mayer, 1999; Tuovinen, 2002). Therefore, there is a need to provide designs that adapt to a variety of learners and learning styles.

L 2. Differentiate Opportunities to Learn. Provide a Variety of Learning Options. By borrowing from the educational concept of differentiated instruction that provides learners with options in instruction (Dewey, 1897; Gagné, 1962) and applying these ideas more broadly to the design of ICTs means that there can be differentiation 2 in hardware, software, teaching and instruction, and learning. Basically, learning does not have to be limited by traditional instructional practices of direct instruction, standardized curricula, or student in chair and instructor at the head of the classroom. Examples of differentiated opportunities to learn can be inclusive in media technology, teaching and instruction, and learning.

Media Technology Providing multiple forms of media technology is one place to begin in differentiating opportunities to learn. Variations of the same instructional content can be made available through various forms of media. These media should include electronic and print forms such as: Electronic: computers, video game consoles, personal data assistants, mobile phones, wearable microcomputers, video cameras, digital cameras, televisions, film, overhead projectors, etc. Print: books, magazines, newspapers, board games, flash cards). The Internet presents itself as a combination of electronic and print media. Multiple forms offer better opportunities to impact and interact with learners. By example, educators experimented with creating a customized instructional program that used wearable microcomputers and the Internet to teach project-based science curricula to eighth-grade students in Detroit, MI. The findings indicated that students began talking about science as a precursor to using scientific terms; made connections between science and their personal lives; exhibited interest in the technology-related activities; and were engaged in reading, writing, and critical inquiry (Hug, Krajcik, & Marx, 2005).


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Teaching and Instruction

Provide differentiation in teaching and instruction. Teaching is defined as the act or practice of what instructors do. Instruction refers to the knowledge and information taught. Differentiation in teaching and instruction means many things: •

•

•

•

•

•

Differentiation means that instruction should present a concept in multiple ways or methods. For example, vocabulary can be taught in isolation (i.e., a word and its meaning) or within the context of a story. Differentiation means that instruction should provide learners with opportunities to use what they have learned. For example, learners may use vocabulary words in their journal writing and when making an oral presentation. Differentiation means that the culture of the learner is considered integral to teaching practices and instructional content. The instructor learns about the culture of the learner and makes adjustments to teaching and instruction. Differentiation requires making available a diversity of instructional products to teach the subject matter or content. These instructional products should vary in media technology, subject matter or content, reading levels, interests, and intellect. Differentiation provides opportunities for all learners to be successful through challenging tasks. The tasks should provide opportunities for the learner to see and experience intellectual growth. Differentiation in teaching and instruction requires the instructor to reflect on, review, and change how they perceive learners. Negative perceptions of learners diminish the quality and efforts that instructors put forth.

Learning

Provide differentiation in learning. There are many theories of learning and instructional design theories to choose from in designing ICTs. Theories of learning have proposed description-oriented perspectives that include behaviorist, cognitive, constructivist, and humanist. Instructional design theories of learning have proposed design-oriented perspectives that include: multiple intelligences (Gardner, 2000); conditions of learning (Gagné, 1965), and cognitive apprenticeship (Collins, Brown, & Newman, 1989). Broadly examining these theories can aid in the design of learning ICTs. However, the selection of theory should be based on the goals of the project and the needs of the target audience. Designs that differentiate learning opportunities work best at meeting the educational needs of learners.


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L 3. Empower & Engage Learners. Provide Opportunities for Empowering Learners and Engaging Instruction Within the design process, there are many ways to empower and engage learners. First, there is a need to spark interest and facilitate the acquisition of knowledge. The creativity involved in this process is the interesting part of the design process. Imagination is all that is needed. The same inventiveness that is a part of the design of entertainment games, films, and other such products can be brought into the design of all products. The task is to provide learners with empowering and engaging content. This can be done through the alignment of intrinsic stimulus and extrinsic rewards. Empowerment suggests an intrinsic stimulus that motivates the learner. The stimulus, if generated through technology, is something that arouses interest, and this enthusiasm motivates the learner. In translating this into design, decisions are made on the kinds of things that would be an intrinsic stimulus given the product’s design. For example, in a video game, a digital time clock might appear on screen every 3 minutes, indicating how much time is left before the “end of the world.” The digital time clock becomes the intrinsic stimulus that propels the user to speed forward with their task before the world ends. This intrinsic stimulus is embedded throughout the game. In an educational game that focuses on algebra, a learner who is working on a problem such as [x2 + 5x – 24 = __] could be prompted with a single-digit multiplication problem (e.g., 3 × 8 = __) as a challenge incentive. The learner could choose from a choice of challenges in this multitasked learning opportunity. In this case, the intrinsic stimulus is a challenge multiplication problem chosen by the learner. Next, focus on how the intrinsic stimuli can be embedded throughout the design, locate the points where the stimuli are to be placed, and offer explanations of why these placements are most appropriate. Again, the stimuli are meant to generate a positive reaction and peek the interest the learner. The strategic embedding of stimuli lays a mine field for motivation. The explicit documentation of the stimuli should be recorded in the initial brainstorming plans. Therefore, there is a blueprint of how each stimulus was embedded and its actual representation in the product. This record is needed for when there are corrections, revisions, or other design matters. Extrinsic rewards in the design of technology are most likely not concrete. Virtual examples are feedback such as a text message or a sound indicating that an action is correct. In an entertainment game, the user might receive points, more ammunition for an assault weapon, and an opportunity to advance to the next challenge. In translating this into design, the designer decides on the kinds of items that would be an extrinsic reward given the product’s design. The placement of these extrinsic Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.

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rewards should be documented as part of the design process. These extrinsic rewards can be seen as another aspect that assists in engaging learners. Through the use of both intrinsic stimulus and extrinsic rewards, learners can be motivated to use and continue to use products. Intrinsic learners understand the value and worth of engaging the product. They do not have to be convinced that the product can benefit them. Extrinsically, the product gives back or responds positively to the learner. This feedback or response creates a reciprocal relation between learner and technology.3 Determine how the product addresses the need to motivate the learners. Determine how the product captures and maintains the attention of the learner.

L 4. Teach Proactive Learning. Help Learners to be Proactive in Improving Their Own Learning. Proactive learning requires building mechanisms into ICTs that provide incentives to learners to improve their learning. Create multiple pathways for the learner to improve, build, or develop skills, abilities, and experiences. Proactive learning strategies may consist of opportunities to review, restart, go back, skip forward, or have the problem resolved. For example, an online mathematics program that teaches fractions could provide multiple ways to solve a problem. The learner could have the choice to review previous lessons that led to this lesson on fractions. The online program could allow the learner to restart the lesson from the beginning, go back a step or two, or skip forward. Another option is to have computer simulated examples of steps the learner could have taken to solve the problem. Multiple pathways and diverse examples of how to solve the mathematical problem could be offered. Providing this type of online support limits learners need for outside assistance, helps them to see other pathways to learning and prepares them to take responsibility for their own learning. Proactive learning helps learners to use their metacognitive skills to control their learning environment. Learners take into consideration their learning modalities (e.g., auditory, visual, kinesthetic), and they use the technology to assist in the acquisition of knowledge. In a science lesson, the technology could offer three different representations of how a caterpillar transforms into a butterfly. The first representation could be abstract—only in words. Abstract learning focuses on thinking. The second representation could be concrete. The learner must click on images or text to see the transformation in controlled stages. Concrete learning focuses on feelings or hands-on activities. The third example could be a simulated representation in which the caterpillar’s transformation is fully animated and continuous with audio, visuals, and interactively engaging features. Providing choices in solving problems and understanding content can be a beneficial way of engaging learners in proactive learning. Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.

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The goal of proactive learning is for the learner to take responsibility for their own learning; therefore learners become more self-sufficient and independent.

L 5. IIucational Objectives. Have an Underlying Educational and/or Learning Objective Decide on the learning or educational objectives of the product. Begin with this outcomes-based view of learning and the learner. It is a way of beginning at the end and working backward. It is also a great start to the learning process if learners know the objectives before engaging a task or activity. This is similar to how instructors present the daily agenda to the class. Objectives let the learner know what is expected of them and hopefully aids them in achieving these goals. Therefore, the learner is expected to acquire knowledge. A second reason to identify educational objectives is to measure or assess the learning outcomes. The success or failure of the objectives can be determined by assessing the learning outcomes.4

L 6. Culture-Specific Instructional Strategies. Consider Instructional Strategies that are Individual or Group Specific. Culture-specific instructional strategies are specialized to a particular individual or group. These instructional strategies take into consideration how the target audience learns and the best way of approaching this learning. Research is the first step in better understanding the educational needs of the target audience. Gather relevant educational research (e.g., journal articles) on educating the target audience. These studies should be supported by qualitative or quantitative data. Use the findings as a guide to determine what works best in educating the target audience. Gather relevant academic books on educating the target audience. Many of these books are based on research data and have proven to be beneficial in educating the target audience. Based on the information gathered through CBM Elements (E1–E20) and other research, determine what instructional strategies should be considered in the overall design. Include those instructional strategies that would best meet the needs of the target audience. The instructional strategies will depend on the content, context, technology, and purpose of the product.

L 7. Erich Instructional Content. Expand Instructional Content Beyond Subject Matter. Instructional content is unlimited in the information age, as there is so much information. However, the packaging of this information and the selection of appropriate Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.

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content are the challenges of design. In addition to the basic instructional content, connections can be made to other culture-specific elements of learners such as topics related to politics, morality, ethics, beliefs, language, identity, and social actions (see CBM Elements). In doing so, a more holistic picture of learners is presented. Products that meet the needs of learners encompass a variety of content. This content is not limited if it seeks to consider all aspects of the learners’ lives in the design process. Incorporate all aspects of the lives of the individual, group, or community (e.g., politics, morality, ethics, beliefs, language, identity, social actions). This holistic account of learners provides a more authentic representation.

L 8. Aapt Instruction to Learner. Provide Adaptable Instruction that is not too Grade Level or Age Level Specific. Adapting instruction to the learner means that the product incorporates multilevels of instruction that translate beyond grade and age to cognitive ability. Design materials that offer several ranges above and below the median point. Learning, in this sense, is contingent upon the learner’s intellectual ability. Learners are not penalized for struggling in the task or advancing in a learning task. Multileveled learning opportunities benefit the learner in that they receive more content for their money. (This may mean less money for businesses; however, the goal of CBM is to provide more equity for learners as learners and as consumers). The amount of content found in three non culture-based commercial products are offered in a single multileveled products. This move to meet the needs of the learner offers a wider market in terms of age, grade, and skill level. For example, a biology educational program might provide instruction in the basic, intermediate and an introduction to advanced levels of biology versus only one level.

L 9. Plan for IIort and Long Term Instructional Needs of the Target Audience. A plan for instruction is not a lesson plan but a plan of action that will be implemented over a period of time. This plan should begin with long-term considerations of the instructional needs of the target audience. (Long-term could mean several years or several months.) This plan considers the long-term ramifications of the instructional aspects of the design. The long-term goal of any instructional project probably focuses on improving learning, building knowledge, or fostering understanding. Determine the long-term actions that should be taken to improve learning, build knowledge, or foster understanding. Decide in what ways the target audience benefits from this long-term plan. Determine whether an equitable plan has been put into place. Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.

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A short-term plan could cover several weeks or days. This plan of action considers the short-term ramifications of the instructional aspects of the design. The shortterm goals of projects may provide brief assessments to measure effectiveness or efficiency to prepare for the long-term plan. Short-term plans provide results quickly and may move projects forward quickly toward the long-term goals. Decide on the short-term actions to improve learning, build knowledge, or foster understanding. Determine how the short-term plans work toward making the long-term plan happen. Examine whether the plan is equitable to the target audience. A plan for instruction should consider an equitable design that meets the needs of the target audience. Equitable factors include cost, access, and cumulative content.

L 10. Eculturate the Learner. Use the Product to E nculturate the Larner into the Culture

Products can be used as social tools to acclimate versus alienate learners. Enculturation versus assimilation makes instructional designs more accessible for diverse populations. Designs that enculturate—integrate the culture of the learner into the design process. Assimilationist designs make the learner adhere to the cultural nuances of the dominant culture. The learner struggles through even though the process is culturally incompatible. For some learners, they cannot access the content without connections to their own culture. Bridging the connections between the learner, content, and technology are the goals of enculturating the learner. This balancing act can be achieved in a variety of ways: 1. Offer support for technological aspects of the product. 2. Incorporate culture-specific design specifications of the learner. This type of instruction indicates to the target audience that the designers value them, their language, history, and so forth. Basically, validate the target audience as an integral part of the design process. 3. Inform learners of what must be learned that is consistent with the dominant ideologies. Help the learner feel comfortable and buy into this learning. For example, a statement such as the following could accompany a product: ‘there are some factors consistent with Western culture that is important in interacting with this product. They include (a) the use of icons that begin on the left has been side of the screen and move to the right; (b) the following icon tested with cross-cultural audiences as an acceptable symbol for writing. These factors have been incorporated to make future versions of this product consistent across groups of people.”


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This type of informed marketing lets consumers know that their needs have been considered in the design process and that businesses are working toward bridging the lines of communication between learner, content, and technology. Some creativity is required, but it is possible. The design team should brainstorm ways of enculturating learners that cost less in time and money.

References Collins, A., Brown, J. S., & Newman, S. E. (1989). Cognitive apprenticeship: Teaching the crafts of reading, writing and mathematics. In L. B. Resnick (Ed.), Knowing, learning, and instruction: Essays in honor of Robert Glaser (pp. 453494). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Deci, E. L., Koestner, R., & Ryan, R. M. (2001, Spring). Extrinsic rewards and intrinsic motivation in education: Reconsidered once again. Review of Educational Research, 71(1), 1-27. Dewey, J. (1897). My pedagogic creed. New York: E. L. Kellogg & Co. Gagné, R. M. (Ed.). (1962). Introduction. In R. M. Gagne (Ed.), Psychological principles in system development (pp. 1-10). New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston. Gagné, R. M. (1965). The conditions of learning. New York: Holt, Rinehart, & Winston. Gagné, R. M., & Briggs, L. J. (1974). Principles of instructional design. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc. Hempel, T., & Altinsoy, E. (2005). Multimodal user interfaces: Designing media for the auditory and the tactile channel. In R. W. Proctor & K.-P. L. Vu (Eds.), Handbook of human factors in web design (pp. 134-155). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Publishers. Hug, B., Krajcik, J. S., & Marx, R. W. (2005). Using innovative learning technologies to promote learning and engagement in an urban science classroom. Urban Education, 40(4), 446-472. Moreno, R., & Mayer, R. E. (1999). Cognitive principles of multimedia learning: The role of modality and contiguity. Journal of Educational Psychology, 91(2), 358-368. Tuovinen, J. E. (2002). Cognition research basis for instructional multimedia. In S. M. Rahman (Ed.), Interactive multimedia systems (pp. 146-162). Hershey, PA: IRM Press. Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.

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E ndd

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The idea of extended learning possesses some of the qualities of Robert Gagné’s (1962) hierarchial analysis in that the learner performs simpler tasks first before moving on to more complex tasks. The term differentiation can be found in the work of learning theorists who sought answers to teaching and learning (Dewey, 1897; Gagné, 1962). For more on the benefits of intrinsic motivation and the detriment of extrinsic rewards for learners, see Deci, Koestner, & Ryan (2001). Gagné (1965b) has written extensively on the importance of instructional objectives. His ideas on measuring the objectives have been adapted here.


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Chapter VII

CBM Elements I

CBM Elements Elements (E1-E25) facilitate content development. These Elements are intended to be comprehensive in providing the fundamental total of which all culture is composed. Most of those things that formulate a culture are included in the 25 Elements. The tangibles and intangibles define the Elements. Tangibles have material qualities and intangibles nonmaterial qualities (see Table 7.1). The meanings of the terms culture and society can overlap, but they should be viewed separately within the space of design. A society is a group of people who share commonalities that are understood by all and collectively inhabit a particular physical area (Germain & Bloom, 1999; Segall, Dasen, Berry, & Poortinga, 1999). Every society has a culture or ways of being, doing and thinking. This culture Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.

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shapes societies behavior (Ember & Ember, 1996; Hofstede & Hofstede, 2005). In understanding a culture, there must also be an understanding of its past and present histories and the histories of its people (Kim & Park, 2006). The Elements are divided into three sections: the anthropology of culture, the psychology of culture, and the science of culture. These divisions are consistent with research in the disciplines of cultural anthropology, cultural psychology, and science; however, there are modifications to provide application of these concepts as design constructs. An overview of each section is provided as context for the Elements. Then each design factor is defined, described, and illustrated through relevant cross-cultural examples. A set of guiding questions for the design process are offered that are specific to the culture and the target audience.

Guiding Questions Guiding questions support design and research efforts. These questions are not meant to be comprehensive, but they are a starting point in better accessing and understanding human beings and the world in which we live. Creating guiding questions specific to one’s project is encouraged. Guiding questions that address the society and culture are broadly based allowing for a general review of societies and cultures. These questions are labeled as culture guiding questions or culture GQ. Culture GQ makes inquiries from the designer/researcher’s perspective or an objective interpretation of the data (e.g., What is the style of the object?) Answers may come from the designer/researcher’s personal perspective based on data gathered through a museum visit, government documents, and so forth. Or data can be gathered from an art historian’s interpretation of the object; alternatively, this information may be found in a textbook or magazine article. Target audience guiding questions are specific to the group or individuals in the group. These questions are labeled as target audience GQ because if these questions were listed separately it would be impossible to tell if a question was for the society/culture or the target audience. As an example, a Culture GQ might read: What products or goods are made, and the Target Audience GQ reads: What products or goods are made by the target audience? This was also done because the handbook may be used by a designer who reviews only questions related to society and culture, and a researcher may only look at the questions related to the target audience. Therefore, there is some overlap in the wording of questions. Dealing with living and non-living target audiences is important to consider. If the target audience is living, as much data as possible should be obtained from living human beings. Target audience GQ makes inquiries from the designer/researcher’s perspective of the data or directly from the target audience (e.g., What is the style Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.

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Table 7.1. CBM elements Elements

Tangibles and Intangibles

The anthropology of culture: E1.

Cultural aesthetics

That which is considered beautiful

E2.

Cultural artifacts

Products that exist or remain

E3.

Cultural capital

Economics and material wealth

E4.

Cultural classification

Divisions in a culture or society

E5.

Cultural communications

The exchange or transmission of information

E6.

Cultural demographics

Characteristics of a population

E7.

Cultural environment

Physical and social conditions in which a human being, other species or entity lives and develops

E8.

Cultural history

Narrative representation of historical events

E9.

Cultural knowledge

What is known and what one comes to know

E10.

Cultural language

Language form, content, use and meaning

E11.

Cultural physiology

The physiological characteristics of a human being, other species or entity

E12.

Cultural relations

The relationship of one being to another being

E13.

Cultural resources

The use and cultivation of resources

The psychology of culture: E14.

Cultural beliefs & values

Beliefs (shared truths); values (shared ideas)

E15.

Cultural experiences

The interpretation of the world from inside and out

E16.

Cultural ideas

The use and meaning of ideas and perceptions

E17.

Cultural identity

Distinguishing qualities of a human being, other species or entity

E18.

Cultural interests

Deeply personal desires, wants, wishes

E19.

Cultural misconceptions

Untruths, myths, stereotypes

E20.

Cultural ways

Behaviors, norms, feelings

The science of culture: E21.

Cultural anomalies

Happenings that promote, initiate, or force cultural change

E22.

Cultural cultures

The scientific identification of cultures, worlds, ecosystems

E23.

Cultural futures

That which is to come

E24.

Cultural infinities

Those things without limits: time, space, distance

E25.

Cultural nature

Intrinsic characteristics of a human being, other species or entity

of the object created by the target audience?) In the case of a non-living or inaccessible audience, this question would be appropriate. This information can be found in a textbook, documentary, journal, and so forth. In the case of a living and readily accessible audience, the following target audience question may be more appropriate: Do Mayans believe they have an artistic style? One way to find out the Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.

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answer to this question is to ask the living members of the target audience? There are fewer target audience GQ that address the living audience, but questions should be adapted to match the needs of the project.

The Anthropology of Culture Cultural aesthetics Cultural artifacts Cultural capital Cultural classification Cultural communications Cultural demographics Cultural environment Cultural history Cultural knowledge Cultural language Cultural physiology Cultural relations Cultural resources This section is entitled the anthropology of culture because it draws from key concepts in the fields of anthropology, language, history, economics, demography, communications, and the physical and environmental sciences to explore the depth of culture. The anthropology of culture takes into consideration that human beings, other species and entities have various ways of being and seeing the world (Ember & Ember, 2001). Therefore, a broad examination of the humanities and sciences are required to meet these needs. Anthropological models of culture examine the whole culture looking at the shared behavior and knowledge of an entire culture (Hall, 1976). Similarly, the anthropology of culture is a comprehensive examination of societies, cultures, groups and individuals that build and participate in a culture. The Elements allow the deconstruction of the range of human existence through an examination of its human made architecture, artifacts, economic system, social classification, living conditions, history, acquired intelligence, language dominance, physical structure and cultural resources. The Elements are defined, described, illustrated and addressed in terms of society, culture and the target audience. There are 25 design factors under CBM Elements. This chapter covers the first four that include: Cultural aesthetics; Cultural artifacts; Cultural capital; and Cultural classification. Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.

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Cultural Aesthetics E1. Cultural Aesthetics - That which is considered beautiful. Cultural aesthetics is an awareness of beauty or art in a culture. Determining what is beautiful or artistic is subjective. An understanding of the aesthetic nature of a culture or society helps to understand the things that are valued, individual and group interactions, social practices, and the level of technological advancement. Cultural aesthetics can be defined, articulated, produced, represented, celebrated, valued, expressed, or sublimed (Ruhl, 2006).

Art Art is the core of human existence (Preble & Preble, 2002); it defines societies past and present (Fumerton, 1991; Ruhl, 2006). The arts are represented through many forms such as dance, literature, music, visual arts, carving, painting and dramatic arts. Art serves to express the values of a culture; it provides pleasure, entertainment, and decoration for a society (Preble & Preble, 2002; Ruhl, 2006). The purposes that art serves may include: educational, social, political, spiritual, and daily functionality. Art communicates, educates or preserves information. The stained glass window The Tree Of Jesse (c. 1150-1170) at Chartres Cathedral, outside of Paris, portrays the genealogy of Jesus Christ. This artistic artifact serves to communicate a religious message, educate people about Jesus Christ’s family history and preserve this information in a historical monument (Preble & Preble, 2002). Art may represent a social or political purpose. Artists may use their art to criticize society or to influence public opinion. Representations of social and political acts are also prevalent in architecture, sculpture, painting, television and film (Preble & Preble, 2002). American producer and writer Michael Moore’s documentaries have impacted the social and political discourse and changed public opinion with his exposé documentaries Fahrenheit 9/11 (2004) and Bowling for Columbine (2002). Fahrenheit 9/11 mocks the failures of President George W. Bush and his War on Terrorism after the 9/11/2001 attack on the United States. Bowling for Columbine examines American gun violence. Art serves a spiritual or magical purpose in societies. One of the well known scientific examples celebrating art and religion is Stonehenge, a configuration of boulders located in England (see Figure 7.1). The boulders are believed to have some religious significance. When viewed from above the boulders make a creative pattern and appear to be artistically or strategically placed (Preble & Preble, 2002). Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.

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Figure 7.1. Stonehenge (part of the Sarsen circle)

When art serves useful functions it becomes a valued artifact of a society. Many objects used in everyday living provide enjoyment and utility from the moccasin to the sports car (Preble & Preble, 2002). A chair for example, provides the functionality of an object for sitting and resting. A bowl acts as a container for food. An automobile offers the ability to travel to distant places, the comfort of sitting, and protection from the weather.

Culture GQ What purpose does art serve in this society or culture? Who determines what is art? Who is allowed to create art? What forms of art are most prevalent? Does art provide emotional satisfaction? Does art serve as a form of entertainment? How does art adorn the society or culture? Does art serve an educational purpose? Does art convey messages or communicate? How does art express the values of the culture? Does art serve a social or political agenda? Does art serve a spiritual or religious agenda? Is art used in functional ways? Is public opinion changed by artistic expression? How has art influenced human behavior?

Target Audience GQ How does the target audience view art? Does the target audience maintain their own artistic style and if so what is this style?1 How does the target audience perceive Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.

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art? What motivates the target audience to create (e.g., survival, recording events, religious reasons, spirituality, desire to create)? What purpose does art serve in the lives of the target audience? Who, in the target audience, determines what is art? Who, in the target audience, is allowed to create art? What forms of art are most common in the culture of the target audience? Does art provide emotional satisfaction for the target audience? Does art serve as a form of entertainment for the target audience? How does art adorn the culture of the target audience? Does art serve an educational purpose for the target audience? Does art convey messages or communicate to the target audience? How does art express the values of the target audience’s culture? Does art serve a social or political agenda for the target audience? Does art serve a spiritual or religious agenda for the target audience? Is art used in functional ways by the target audience? Is public opinion changed by the artistic expression of the target audience? How has art influenced the behavior of the target audience?

Beauty Beauty is subjectively simple. Those things considered aesthetically beautiful can become icons within a culture. Cultural icons2 are persons, places or things considered to be sublime. Sublime means that the object or organism is awe-inspiring, captivating, arousing, impressive, and emotionally uplifting. It can be symbolic, religious, architectural, technological, or natural. Cultural icons bring together a diversity of groups and provide an extraordinary experience for people. Technological or human-made cultural icons considered sublime may appear as bridges, railways, skyscrapers, airplanes, factories, dams, or space vehicles. Natural examples of cultural icons include those created by the earth such as the Grand Canyon and Niagara Falls in the United States. People considered to be sublimed might include: Jesus Christ, Mahatma Ghandi, or Mother Teresa. What is sublime to one individual is not to another (Nye, 1999). Cultural icons of the 21st century include the Akashi-Kaiko Bridge built in 2005 connecting Kobe, Japan with the Awaji Island; at 3,991 meters, this is the world’s longest suspension bridge. Taipai 101 is a 101 floor skyscraper located in Taipei City, Taiwan; as of 2004, it has the world’s fastest elevator in what is now the world’s tallest building (Newsweek, April, 2006).

Culture GQ How is beauty defined in this society or culture? What objects or things are considered aesthetically beautiful? Are any human beings considered cultural icons? What technological or human-made objects are considered cultural icons? What natural Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.

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wonders are considered cultural icons? How have these cultural icons shaped the social structure of this society or culture? How have these cultural icons shaped the environmental structure of this society or culture? Have these cultural icons altered the future?

Target Audience GQ How does the target audience define beauty? Does the target audience consider a person to be a cultural icon? Does the target audience consider any technological artifact to be a cultural icon? Does the target audience consider any natural phenomenon to be a cultural icon? What has been the target audiences experience with these cultural icons? Has the target audience met, visited, seen, touched or experienced these cultural icons? What are the target audience’s impressions of cultural icons? Are the values of the target audience tied to any cultural icon and if so in what way?

Cultural Artifacts E2. Cultural Artifacts - Products that exist or remain. Cultural artifacts are products that exist or remain that can be made by human beings, other species or entities. These artifacts are usually tangible objects created specifically for a practical use or purpose (Fleming, 1974; Rieth, 2006; Ruhl, 2006). All cultures are dependent on the artifacts of its creation to represent its existence, survival, or demonstrate an extension of their humanity. To understand and know a culture requires a study of those things made (Fleming, 1974). There are five classifications, proposed by Fleming (1974), in which to link the properties of an artifact; they include: history, design, material, construction and function3.

History Cultural artifacts carry a history (Hitz, 1994). This history is embedded in objects like those gathered by archeologists who seek to examine the remains of a society. The archeologist’s search may lead to ancient or contemporary tools, food, cooking utensils, personal effects, pottery, or debris (Rieth, 2006). The linguist examines language through written documentation or recorded oral stories. The anthropologist studies artifacts such as cave paintings, photographs, or other graphic and text representations. They also record data using videotapes or films; collect public and personal artifacts such as tax records, transcripts, wills, property acquisitions, letCopyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.

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ters, diaries; and use and explore technological artifacts (Brettell, 1998; El Guindi, 1998). The art historian examines drawings; paintings; printmaking; sculpture; art made of clay, glass, metal, wood, and fiber; photography; computer imaging; graphic design and illustration; and architecture and environmental design (Preble & Preble, 2002).4 Within all of these ethnographers is a desire to discover the meanings and the stories that these artifacts tell. Fleming (1974) described the relationship of the artifact to its culture in the following excerpt: One might interpret the significance of the Model T Ford to be the pioneering application of the assembly line to mass production, its improvements on the internal combustion engine, or its provision of cheap transportation. On the other hand, its significance might be found in the fact that it was a particular instance of the general democratization of technological benefits, or that it created a revolution in the life-style of rural America. Or its significance might be found in its effects and consequences, such as the increased mobility of the American people, the liberalized sexual ethics of the middle class, or air pollution (p. 161). Authenticating an artifacts history begins with the collection of primary and secondary sources. Primary source documents include bills of sale, media advertisements, probate reports, family records, books on design, architecture, (Fleming, 1974) department store catalogs, and so forth. A more extensive history of an artifact may include information on its creator or manufacturer, details about its purchaser or owner, origins and characteristics of the construction materials, chronology of functioning, cultural meaning, and style modifications (Fleming, 1974).

Culture GQ What is the history of cultural artifacts in this society or culture? What are some facts about the object in relation to this society or culture (e.g., year of creation/built; place of origin; biographical information on the designer, creator, builder or manufacturer; biographical information on the owner and purchaser of the artifact; who was it designed for; why was it designed; chronology of the passage of ownership, history of its design, material, construction and function, etc.)? Does the object have any specific meaning to the society or culture? Does the object have any particular significance or relevance to any group or individual? How has the object changed this society or culture? Does the object have any religious or artistic significance to the society or culture? Does the object have any significance to the beliefs and values of the society or culture?5


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Target Audience GQ What is the history of cultural artifacts designed by the target audience? What are some facts about the object in relation to the target audience? Does the object have any specific meaning to the target audience? Does the object have any particular significance or relevance to the target audience? How has the object changed the target audience? Does the object have any religious or artistic significance to the target audience? Does the object have any significance to the beliefs and values of the target audience?

Design The design of an artifact refers to its form, style, and content (Fleming, 1974).6 Form, style and content address the characteristics and meaning of an artifact. Form: Form refers to the physical characteristics of an artifact. The physical characteristics include all external descriptors (Preble & Preble, 2002).

Culture GQ7 What does the object look like? What is the object’s shape? What is the object’s color or range of colors? What is the objects texture? What is the objects measurement (e.g., dimensions, weight)? How much space does the object occupy? Does the object indicate the passage of time (e.g., a painting representing the life cycle)? Does the object manipulate time (e.g., film, video)? Does the object move? Does the object occupy space in its movement? Does the object reflect light? Does the object absorb light?8

Target Audience GQ If the target audience is living, these questions may be asked. How does the target audience describe what the object looks like? How does the target audience describe the object’s shape? How does the target audience describe the object’s color or range of colors? How does the target audience describe the object’s texture? How does the target audience describe the object’s measurements (e.g., dimensions, weight)? How does the target audience characterize the space occupied by the object? To the target audience, does the object indicate the passage of time? To the target audience, does the object manipulate time (e.g., film, video)? To the target audience, does the object move or occupy space in its movement? To the target audience, does the object reflect or absorb light? Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.

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Style: Style refers to the characteristics of an artifact that identify it as an object of a particular society, culture, time period, location, group, or individual (Preble & Preble, 2002). The style of an artifact can be unique to the individual, group, community, culture, or society.

Culture GQ What is the style of the object? How does the object reflect the beliefs, values, or identity of the society or culture? How are style changes reflected, over a time period, in objects (e.g., women’s dresses in 1807 to women’s dresses in 2007)? Is there a definable period of style? [For example, in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, the Art Nouveau period, an international decorative style, flourished in Europe (Preble & Preble, 2002). This style was reflected in architecture, furniture, art, murals, mosaics, glassware, and other artifacts]. Is there a geographic style exhibited in the object in present day or across time periods? Is there a group style that exists in the creation of objects? [For example, impressionism is a style of painting developed by the French in the late 19th century. Several well-known artists, such as Claude Monet and Pierre-Auguste Renoir, adapted this style as their own and publicized their work through exhibits (Preble & Preble, 2002). Other examples of Western design movements include art deco, postmodernism, minimalism and pop art]. Is there a personal style that exists in individuals who create objects and artifacts? How is the artist, creator, or builder’s individual style affected by the culture?

Target Audience GQ

What is the style of the object created by the target audience? How does the object reflect the beliefs, values, or identity of the target audience? How are style changes reflected over time in objects created by the target audience? Is there a definable period of style for the target audience? Is there a regional style exhibited in the object created by the target audience? Is there a group style that exists in objects created by the target audience? Is there a personal style that exists in individuals, in the target audience, who create objects and artifacts? What does the target audience believe to be their style? Content: Content contains the message or meanings communicated by an artifact. This includes symbolic, thematic, narrative, emotional and intellectual. The content of an artifact is expressed through its form (Preble & Preble, 2002).9 For example, symbolism is represented in signs and images within artifacts and captures the messages and meanings related to its culture.


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Culture GQ What symbols or symbolic meanings are present in the artifact? What images are present in the artifact? What icons are present in the artifact? How do the symbols or symbolic meanings connect to some aspect of the society or culture (e.g., religion, politics)? How do the images connect to some aspect of the society or culture? How do the icons connect to some aspect of the society or culture?10

Target Audience GQ What symbols or symbolic meanings are present in the artifact that relate to the target audience? What images are present in the artifact that relate to the target audience? What icons are present in the artifact? How do the symbols or symbolic meanings connect to some aspect of the target audience? How do the images connect to some aspect of the target audience? How do the icons connect to some aspect of the target audience? What does the target audience believe to be the symbols or symbolic meaning in their artifacts?

Material Artifacts are also made from materials such as metal, wood, plastic, glass, fiberglass, fabric, rubber, stone, clay, concrete, foam, and so forth (Fleming, 1974). Materials are particular to time periods and geographic locations.

Culture GQ What material is the object made from in this society or culture? What are the characteristics of this material? Has the object been made in other kinds of materials and why? What makes this material suitable to the design of the object? What is the texture of this material?

Target Audience GQ What material is the object made from and what is its significance to the target audience? Why did the target audience use this material? From the target audience’s point of view, what makes this material suitable to the design of the object? Did the target audience view the texture of the material as important in the overall design?


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Construction The construction of artifacts can involve automated mechanical, manual mechanical or handmade techniques (Fleming, 1974). The techniques of construction are related to the type of society or culture and time period.

Culture GQ Through what techniques was the object made (e.g., automated mechanical, manual mechanical, handmade techniques) in this society or culture? Given the techniques, what was the process of its construction? How many of these objects were constructed? How often were these objects constructed? How has the construction of this object influenced the society or culture?11

Target Audience GQ Through what techniques was the object made by the target audience? Given the techniques, what was the process of construction used by the target audience? How many of these objects were constructed by the target audience? How often were these objects constructed by the target audience? How has the construction of this object influenced the target audience? What perspective did the target audience have related to the construction of the object?

Function Function includes the uses (planned functions) and the roles (unplanned functions) of the artifact (Fleming, 1974). Planned functions refer to the intended use of the artifact; unplanned functions refer to the unintended role of an artifact. This shift from use to role is exemplified in the reinvention of phonographic or vinyl records. Vinyl records are devices that store sound and have been traditionally used to playback music. However, African American hip hop DJs appropriated the turntable and used vinyl records to do scratching. Scratching means to physically create friction between a phonograph needle and the grooves of a vinyl record. Hip hop DJs scratched the vinyl record creating new sounds, rhythms, and meanings. The original use of vinyl records as playback devices shifted to the new role of sound maker (Eglash, 2004; Goldberg, 2004); thereby reinventing the technology. Artifacts may be used in a variety of ways. If an artifact is a tool, it serves a usefulness. An artifact can influence human behavior; in this case, human beings may act with or be influenced by the utility of the object. As an example, the invention of the handgun enabled humans to defend themselves, hunt for game, and acquire Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.

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feelings of empowerment. However, the handgun has also influenced others to use it for sinister purposes. Artifacts may also function to communicate messages, meanings, beliefs, values, or ideas. In this sense, artifacts that communicate carry information and messages about their history and the culture that designed, built or manufactured them (Fleming, 1974). Artifacts can be things such as a table, chair, knife, lamp, house, utensils, container, painting, sculpture, and so forth.

Culture GQ What is the object? How is the object used in this society or culture? Are there other roles in which the object is used that were unplanned from its original purpose? Has the object’s use changed human behavior? Does the object communicate any messages, meanings, values, beliefs, or ideas? Has the object’s use changed the society or culture? 12

Target Audience GQ What is the object created by the target audience? How is the object used by the target audience? Are there other roles in which the target audience uses the object that were unplanned from its original purpose? Has the object’s use changed the behavior of the target audience? Does the object communicate any messages, meanings, values, beliefs, or ideas related to the target audience? Has the object’s use changed the target audience? What does the target audience believe to be the function of the object(s)?

More on Artifacts There can be great depth in understanding artifacts, their role in history, and their impact on human existence. The classification of artifacts begins to tell the stories behind a culture and get at the essence of its existence. Table 7.2 illustrates how cultural artifacts can be classified and the data collected and organized.

Culture GQ What human-made products exist? What human-made products have been left by other human beings, species or entities? How do the cultural artifacts illustrate history? How do the cultural artifacts represent the existence of human beings, other species or entities? What is the design of the cultural artifacts? From what materials are the cultural artifacts made? How are the cultural artifacts constructed? What


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Table 7.2. Soban–Cultural Artifacts13 History: A soban is a small table and a tray used by Koreans. Early examples of this furniture were found in the 1st Choson B.C.–7th Choson A.D. (Park, 1996). Sobans were used by royal families and the upper class as status symbols and signs of economic prosperity. By the 18th and 19th centuries, the soban became more commonly used and produced. Design: Form-The soban usually measures 60 inches in length. The legs are finely carved and are a unique characteristic of sobans. The top panels come in different shapes. There are a variety of sobans some named based the region that manufactured the table (e.g., Haeju-ban, Tongyong-ban, and Naju-ban). Other sobans are named based on shape of the top panel (e.g., Dagak-ban [8-, 10- or 12sided]) or the shape of the legs (e.g., hojok-ban [tiger’s paw]) Style- Early sobans were plain in design. By the 18th and 19th centuries, the soban contained more decorative designs. It was mass produced and used by commoners and servants. In the late 19th century, the Haeju-ban was characterized by its two trestles instead of legs and its rectangular top panel. Content-The form and style of sobans contained many meanings. Some sobans were sculpted with symbols like the Chinese character for longevity ⮌ or the

Buddhist emblem ◜. Material: Sobans are usually made of light weight durable wood (e.g., pine, gingko, or paulownia). The legs are made out of hardwood. Construction: The basic construction consisted of the top panel or chonpan and the supports (legs, trestles, or bases). The top panel overhangs the supports. Most legs were joined by aprons and stretchers and reinforced by bamboo nails or pegs. Function: Sobans functioned as a cutting board, serving tray for food and eating table. Some other practical uses include: tea tray, desk, table for “memorable rites.”


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function do the cultural artifacts serve? How have the cultural artifacts changed the behavior of human beings or other species or entities?

Target Audience GQ What cultural artifacts were made or produced by the target audience? What purpose do cultural artifacts serve in the lives of the target audience? Does a style exist in the cultural artifacts that are unique to the target audience? How have the cultural artifacts changed the target audience’s behavior? What does the target audience believe about the cultural artifacts in their society or culture?

Cultural Capital E3. Cultural Capital - Economics and material wealth. Cultural capital refers to the economics of a society or culture. Economics relates to how individuals, groups, institutions, societies, or cultures cope when there is a scarcity of resources (McConnell & Brue, 2008). Economic histories capture historical time periods, institutions, changes and instability, or systems. These histories may reveal trends in an economy and patterns of economic systems such as feudalism, slavery, imperialism, or capitalism. Economic histories may also reveal phases of an economic system such as “‘competitive,’ ‘monopoly’ and ‘transnational’ capitalism” (O’Hara, 1999, p. 862). This history is also interdisciplinary as it is difficult to study poverty without examining the social issues that lead to this condition. Other important roles in an economic history are class, gender, and race/ethnicity, and these roles should be considered as part of the analysis of economic history (O’Hara, 1999). This section provides an anthropological interpretation of economics in focusing on production, distribution, and consumption (Ferraro, 2004). This interpretation is more inclusive of market and nonmarket societies and thereby provides a broad examination of societies and cultures.

Production Production is the process of acquiring natural resources from the environment and transforming these goods into usable products. Some groups may choose to procure goods through hunting and gathering, others may live by their livestock alone, and others may have sophisticated technological processing systems. Societies vary in what they produce based on the accessibility of natural resources, availability of Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.

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technological processing, and quantity of energy resources. However, the values of a culture also impact production. The Hindus in India, as an example, believe the cow to be a sacred animal; therefore, the cow is not slaughtered for its beef or consumed for food (Ferraro, 2004). Every society divides its people into productive units with specific duties to perform. The household and a business are examples of units of production. The household may be made up of family members (e.g., wife, husband, and children) or of extended family members. In a horticultural society, members of the family produce the products they consume through harvesting crops, building shelters, obtaining firewood and fuels, tending livestock, making weapons and tools, and crafting utensils and cookware. In more industrialized societies, the business or private company as a unit of production produces goods or services. Employees are the workers who produce the goods or provide services that are sold. They usually receive compensation or a salary so that they can, in turn, buy goods and services (Ferraro, 2004). In addition to units of production, a society may divide people by labor. Divisions of labor are usually based on gender and age, but there are exceptions.

Culture GQ What type of society or culture is it (e.g., horticultural, pastoral)? (See Cultural History: Agricultural for more examples.) What goods are acquired from the natural resources of the environment? How are resources acquired (e.g., hunting, machines)? What natural resources are accessible and why? What natural resources are inaccessible and why? Are there units of production? What groups of people make up the units of production? What duties are performed by the units of production? How are goods produced? Who produces these goods? What services are provided? How are people compensated or not? What are the most apparent divisions of labor? How do these divisions of labor separate what people do? How do these divisions of labor help the society or culture?

Target Audience GQ How does the target audience participate in the production process? What values of the target audience impact production? What does the target audience produce in terms of goods and services? How do the goods produced by the target audience impact the society or culture? What does the target audience believe about the production process?


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Distribution Distribution is the sharing, giving, or exchanging of goods that have been acquired from the natural resources of an environment or produced by machines or human beings. Exchange systems allow for the disposal of surplus goods; examples include markets, gift giving, theft, and exploitation (Ferraro, 2004). Markets serve as places of exchange where commodities are brought and sold. Usually, the people engaging in exchange do not know one another, nor do they have any other relationships. Their social classes may not be equal, and this exchange will most likely not yield any social connection. Contemporary market places include shopping malls and the Internet. However, there are exceptions to this where the market becomes a place of social activity (Miller, 2002). Gifts, true gifts, are freely given without expectation of return. Examples include donations of money, blood, and tithes. The gain is immaterial but personally rewarding (Miller, 2002). Theft is the taking of property that belongs to someone else. This behavior, in some cases, is an attempt to alter an inequitable economic system or human oppression (Miller, 2002). Exploitation involves the mistreatment of something or someone for personal gain; this may be considered an extreme form of exchange. The most prevalent form of exploitation is slavery where a human being is forced to work, act, or engage in activities without their consent or compensation (Miller, 2002).

Culture GQ What exchange system exists or is in place in this society or culture? What goods are brought? What goods are sold? Who are the vendors in this market? Who are the customers in this market? How is the class of the vendor similar to or different from that of the customer? Is this the type of market where social relationships are cultivated? Is the distribution of goods and services equitable? What goods are given, stolen, or exploited? What true gifts are given without expectation of return? Who gives these gifts and why? How do gifts benefit the individual, group, or society? Is theft part of this exchange system? Who participates in theft and why? Who profits from theft? Are there penalties for theft? Is exploitation part of this exchange system? Who participates in this exploitation? Who profits from exploitation? Are there penalties for exploitation? What are the unspoken rules for the exchange of goods and services? Is the overall exchange system equitable?


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Target Audience GQ How does the target audience participate in the distribution process? What values of the target audience impact distribution? How does the distribution process impact the target audience? Is the target audience involved in the exchange system in terms of markets, and if so, in what way? Is the target audience involved in gift giving, and if so, in what way? Is the target audience involved in theft, and if so, in what way? Is the target audience involved in exploitation, and if so, in what way? What does the target audience believe about the distribution process?

Consumption Consumption refers to a person’s intake and output. A person consumes and uses food, clothing, shelter, fuel, transportation, books, tools, communication devices, art, luxury goods, and so forth. Consumption requires that there is something to consume (Miller, 2002). Societies vary in the type of economies that exist. There are market economies and non-market economies. In market economies, consumption is dependent on money. Goods must be purchased. Market economies are consumer driven, with a focus on creating a supply to meet the demand. Depending on how much income a person makes or has available, expenditures on basic-needs items decrease as the income increases. For example, a person who makes $2,000 a month and spends $1,500 on food and shelter is using 75% of their budget. A person who makes $10,000 a month and spends $3,000 on food and shelter is using 30% of their budget. More expenditures are set aside for entertainment and events. Another item of exchange used in mostly market economies is money. Money can be exchanged for a diversity of goods (e.g., clothing, food, shelter) and services (e.g., car repair, carpet cleaning). Human beings are another item of exchange. This exchange may manifest in the form of institutionalized slavery and other criminal activities based on the abduction and selling of human beings (Miller, 2002). Credit cards, as another form of exchange, are an electronic form of credit that provides buyers a certain amount of credit in which to buy goods. Credit cards enable the massive purchasing of goods (Miller, 2002). In nonmarket economies, consumption takes the form of work, goods, and time. The largest percentage of expenditures is allocated to basic needs. This is followed by those items that have recurring costs, such as maintenance of weapons, tools and shelter. Even fewer expenditures are set aside for entertainment and events. Also, there are usually no taxes or monies paid to property owners, cities, or governments (Miller, 2002).


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In nonmarket economies, consumption is also referred to as exchange. A common item for the exchange of goods is food. Food and beverages may be exchanged between families as part of a wedding ceremony and in social situations between friends. Other goods for exchange may be symbolic such as sacred rituals, myths, dances, attire, and body decoration. This type of symbolic exchange is consistent with the love–magic ritual called Tjarada that is performed by women in the Balgo Hills region of Australia. The women collect narratives, and then in the ritual pass the narratives on to others (Miller, 2002; Poirier, 2005). In the exchange of labor, people contribute to work as needed. This type of labor sharing is consistent among Amish communities in the United States. Families contribute to the building of housing structures as needed within the community (Miller, 2002).

Culture GQ Is this a market or nonmarket economy? For market economies: What items are consumables? What is the monetary system? What is the purpose of the monetary system? Is the income of individuals monitored or restricted by the society or culture, and if so, in what way? Is an income tax or other form of allocation deducted by those who run the society? For nonmarket economies: What form of exchange takes place in this society or culture (e.g., work, goods, time, symbolic)? What items are consumables (e.g., food, drink)?

Target Audience GQ For market economies: What is the individual or target audience’s economic level within this society? If economic levels vary across the target audience, what do these delineations look like in terms of numbers? Is the target audience economically self-sufficient? How are things brought, sold, or bartered by the target audience? Who has the most material wealth in the target audience? How is the income of individuals in the target audience useful in understanding this market system? What part of an individual’s income, in the target audience, goes to basic needs? Are there any reoccurring costs for the target audience? What part of individual’s income, in the target audience, goes to entertainment and events? Does the individual, in the target audience, pay taxes or some form of allocation and to whom? For nonmarket economies: What item receives the largest percentage of expenses allocated by the target audience? What items are consumables for the target audience? Are there any re-occurring exchanges for the target audience (e.g., weapons, tools, shelter, food)?


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Cultural Classification E4. Cultural Classification - Divisions in a culture or society. Cultural classification is the construction of divisions in a society, usually based on the social or economic levels of its groups. Wealth, power, and prestige are criteria that measure the social and economic levels of individuals14 . Wealth distinguishes one individual from another, and what constitutes wealth varies across societies (e.g., income earned, land ownership, animal ownership). Power varies across societies and can be based on knowledge, a democratic electoral system, or elite groups within a society. Prestige also varies across societies and can be based on criteria such as being the elder of a group or holding a position in a certain profession (e.g., physician; Ferraro, 2004).

Culture GQ What social classifications exist in this society or culture? What economic classifications exist in this society or culture? How is wealth measured in this society or culture? Who are the wealthy? How is power measured? Who has the power in this society or culture? How is prestige measured in this society or culture? Who has the prestige in this society or culture?

Target Audience GQ Is the target audience classified based on a social or economic classification? Does the target audience have wealth? Is the target audience considered wealthy? Does the target audience have power? Is the target audience considered powerful? Does the target audience have prestige? Is the target audience considered prestigious? What does the target audience believe to be their classification within this society or culture?

Stratification In many societies, stratification serves to separate groups. Two basic forms of stratification are class and status. Class is attributed to individuals who may share similar financial wealth and life opportunities. In a class society, individuals have social mobility, and within a lifetime they can move their social status up or down the economic scale. With class come restrictions, whether implicit or explicit, on social interactions. Typical measures of class in a society include power, income,


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and wealth. For example, the United States is a class society that has social classes ranging from the underclass, working poor, working class, middle class, upper middle class, to the wealthy (Ferraro, 2004; Hytrek & Zentgraf, 2008). Stratification by social status is based on those characteristics most valued by a society or culture. These characteristics can include heritage, location, ethnicity, race, age, sex, and education level. Some valued characteristics individuals may have no control over such as race, ethnicity, age and sex (Hytrek & Zentgraf, 2008). In a caste society, social status is tied to one’s birthright. There is little or no social mobility. Individuals are born into a caste and remain in this status throughout their lifetime. Hindu India has a caste system based on the sacred texts of the Hindu religion. People are categorized into varnas (social castes) based on birth; they include Brahmins (priests), Kshatriyas (warriors), Vaishyas (merchants), Shudras (servants), and Dalits (untouchables; Ferraro, 2004).

Culture GQ What forms of stratification exist in this society or culture? Are these stratifications based on class or status (i.e., caste, race, ethnicity, nationality, creed, geographical, location, educational level)? How did this system of stratification come into existence? How are individuals or groups labeled within this stratification? Is there social mobility within the stratification? Is the stratification connected to the values of individuals or groups? What values in this society or culture support stratification? Does this stratification make one group superior to the other? Does this stratification make one group inferior to the other? What do the social interactions of groups look like based on class and those based on status?

Target Audience GQ Is the stratification of the target audience based on class or status? What values of the target audience are impacted by stratification? Is this stratification accepted by the target audience? If so, what behaviors indicate the acceptance or acknowledgement of the individuals or groups place in the society or culture? If not, what behaviors indicate the denial of an individual or groups place in the society or culture? How do individuals in the target audience classify themselves? How does society classify individuals in the target audience? How do the target audience’s race or ethnicity situate them in this classification? What are the various social classifications within the target audience? What are the various economic classifications? With what social groups do individuals in the target audience associate? What does the target audience believe about the stratification of their society or culture?


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Soups A social group refers to a body of people outside one’s domestic grouping. Social groups can be informal or formal. Members of both formal and informal groups may meet in person. However, there may be members of the formal group whom one has never met. Informal groups usually do not have a hierarchical or legal structure (Miller, 2002). Some social groups may be defined based on a shared identity such as ethnicity, religion, gender, profession, or political agenda. Clubs, fraternities and sororities define themselves based on a shared identity. Members of these groups may engage in initiation rituals; support a hierarchical structure; sustain and promote the group through symbols, emblems, or clothing; and engage in activities for and through the social groups. The agendas of social groups are varied and significant to economics, politics, or race.

Culture GQ Do social groups exist in this society or culture? If so, what types of social groups exist? Who participates in these groups? How can these social groups be categorized? (e.g., gang, work related, clubs, fraternities, sororities, activists). What language is used to describe people in the social groups (e.g., comrade, brother, sister)? What rites of passage are parts of the social group? What purpose does the group serve (e.g., entertainment, community service, collective task, education, labor, socialization, economic, political)? Does the social group serve the society or culture in any specific way?

Target Audience GQ With which social groups do individuals in the target audience associate? Can individuals choose their social groups, or are they chosen for them in the target audience? Can individuals join a social group in the target audience? For the target audience, what is the length of time an individual can be involved in a social group? In what categories of social groups is the target audience most likely to participate? In relation to the target audience, are social groups stratified? What does the target audience believe about social groups in their society or culture?

References Brettell, C. B. (1998). Fieldwork in the archives: Methods and sources in historical anthropology. In H. R. Bernard (Ed.), Handbook of methods in cultural anthropology (pp. 513-546). Walnut Creek, CA: AltaMira Press. Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.

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Czarnecki, J. (Producer), & Moore, M. (Writer/Director). (2004). Fahrenheit 9/11 [Motion picture]. United States: Lions Gate Films. Eglash, R. (2004). Appropriating technology: An introduction. In R. Eglash, J. L. Croissant, G. DiChiro & R. Fouche (Eds.), Appropriating technology: Vernacular science and social power (pp. vii–xxi). Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press. El Guindi, F. (1998). From pictorializing to visual anthropology. In H. R. Bernard (Ed.), Handbook of methods in cultural anthroplogy (pp. 459-511). Walnut Creek, CA: AltaMira Press. Ember, C. R., & Ember, M. (1996). Cultural anthroplogy. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. Ember, M., & Ember, C. R. (Eds.). (2001). Preface. In M. Ember & C. R. Ember (Eds.), Countries and their cultures (Vol. 1, pp. vii-ix). New York: Macmillan Reference USA. Ferraro, G. (2004). Cultural anthropology: An applied perspective (5th ed.). Belmont, CA: Thomson Learning, Inc. Fleming, E. M. (1974). Artifact study: A proposed model. Winterthur Portfolio 9, 153-173. Fumerton, P. (1991). Cultural aesthetics: Renaissance literature and the practice of social ornament. Chicago: University of Chicago. Germain, C. B., & Bloom, M. (1999). Human behavior in the social environment: An ecological view (2nd ed.). New York: Columbia University Press. Goldberg, D. A. M. (2004). The scratch is hip-hop: Appropriating the phonographic medium. In R. Eglash, J. L. Croissant, G. DiChiro, & R. Fouche (Eds.), Appropriating technology: Vernacular science and social power (pp. 107-144). Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press. Hall, E. (1976). Beyond culture. New York: Double Day. Hitz, E. (1994). Material culture. In P. N. Stearns (Ed.), Encyclopedia of social history: Garland reference library of social science, 780, 453-455. New York: Garland. Hofstede, G., & Hofstede, G. J. (2005). Cultures and organizations: Software of the mind. New York: McGraw-Hill. Hytrek, G., & Zentgraf, K. M. (2008). America transformed: Globalization, inequality and power. New York: Oxford University Press. Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.

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Kim, U., & Park, Y. S. (2006). The scientific foundation of indigenous and cultural psychology: The transactional approach. In U. Kim, K. S. Yang, & K. K. Hwang (Eds.), Indigenous and cultural psychology: Understanding people in context (pp. 27-48). New York: Springer. McConnell, C. R., & Brue, S. L. (2008). Macroeconomics (17th ed.). Columbus, OH: McGraw-Hill Higher Education. Miller, B. D. (2002). Cultural anthropology. Boston: Allyn & Bacon. Moore, M. (Producer/Writer/Director). (2002). Bowling for Columbine [Motion picture]. United States: Alliance Atlantis Communications. Newsweek. (2006). 7 New wonders of the world [Electronic Version]. Newsweek: International Edition. Retrieved April 10-17 from http://www.msnbc.msn.com/ id/12115754/site/newsweek/ Nye, D. E. (1999). American technological sublime. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press. O’Hara, P. A. (1999). Political economy: Major contemporary themes. In P. A. O’Hara (Ed.), Encyclopedia of political economy, 2, 861-868. London: Routledge. Park, H. H. (1996). Soban: A traditional Korean furniture form for dining. Unpublished thesis, New York: SUNY Fashion Institute of Technology. Poirier, S. (2005). A world of relationships: Itineraries, dreams and events in the Australian western desert Toronto, Ontario, Canada: University of Toronto Press Incorporated. Preble, D., & Preble, S. (2002). Artforms (7th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. Rieth, C. B. (2006). Archaeology. In H. J. Birx (Ed.), Encyclopedia of anthropology (Vol. 1, pp. 236-244). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. Ruhl, E. (2006). Aesthetic appreciation. In H. J. Birx (Ed.), Encyclopedia of anthropology (Vol. 1, pp. 19-22). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. Segall, M. H., Dasen, P. R., Berry, J. W., & Poortinga, Y. H. (1999). Human behavior in global perspective: An introduction to cross-cultural psychology. Needham Heights, MA: Pearson Education Company. Weber, M. (1946). From Max Webber: Essays in Sociology (H. Girth & C. W. Mills, Trans.). New York: Oxford University Press.


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For example, some aboriginal art is defined by dotted patterns of color Cultural icons are extensions of what the inventor envisions in their mind. See Edward Hall’s (1976) research on the “extension transference” (p. 28). Fleming (1974) provided further areas for the in-depth study of an artifact that includes: identification, cultural analysis, evaluation and interpretation. Some aspects of these areas have been incorporated into the five classifications presented. Sowell (1994) sees art, music, literature and philosophy as evidence of a higher culture (p. xii). These questions have been informed by Fleming, 1974. Excluded from the list of design classifications is decoration, structure, symbols and images. These questions have been informed by the work of Preble & Preble, 2002. Preble & Preble (2002) believe that light can be manipulated in, through and by objects; the terms used to describe light include reflected, directed, refracted, diffused and diffracted. These questions have been informed by Fleming, 1974. These questions have been informed by Preble & Preble, 2002. These questions have been informed by Fleming, 1974. These questions have been informed by Fleming, 1974. Facts were gleamed from an article entitled Beauty of Korea in Koreana magazine, Vol. 20, No. 4, 2006, p. 3. The image of the soban is a recreated drawing. Most of the data about the artifact was derived from Park, 1996. Ferraro (2004) found support for these ideas in the work of Max Weber, 1946.


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Chapter VIII

CBM Elements II

This chapter continues with CBM Elements and the design factors related to the anthropology of culture. Cultural communications is covered in its entirety.

Cural Communications E5. Cultural communications - The exchange or transmission of information. Cultural communications is the exchange or transmission of information. This exchange can be between human beings, other species or entities. Cultural communications serves a purpose; these purposes maybe to report, inform, persuade, warn, direct, or induce a response. However the ultimate goal is to convey meaning from the information source to destination or sender to receiver (Meadow, 2002). Cultural communications can be applied to cultures, target audiences, and other species. In terms of societies and cultures, cultural communications looks at the forms of communications or communication systems that exist. Cultural communications in relation to a target audience looks at language (nonverbal, verbal); writing; spatial, temporal, and visual cues; and semiotics (signs & symbols). Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.

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Communications for Cultures The medium of communications across cultures is very much dependent on the culture. Whether the culture is agrarian or a metropolis dictates its use, means, and access to communication technologies. The most rudimentary form of sound transmission from distance to distance is the human voice (Meadow, 2002, p. 33). The human voice is amplified and modified through artifacts such as horns. Besides variations of horns, other instruments have also assisted in sound transmission such as drums, bugles, and bagpipes. Communicating across longer distances has been aided through signaling with the use of fire and smoke. Flags have been useful in identifying locations, tribes, the military, schools, countries, corporations, and esteemed individuals (Meadow, 2002). Many cultures use various symbolic forms of written communication. These written systems are often characterized by symbols, pictographs, drawings, carvings, paintings, letters, numbers, punctuation, graphics, musical notes,1 and characters. Pictorial writing usually represents an idea or object, and alphabetic writing usually represents a sound. Distinctive of all these characteristics is that written systems translate into meaning, preserve thoughts and ideas, require someone who has knowledge of the system to translate, and communicates messages over time (Meadow, 2002). It can be argued that mathematics, music, physics, chemistry and computing are also forms of written communication. Mathematics is characterized by symbols, alphabetic writing, and numbers that form a notation system.2 Mathematical concepts can be expressed in written form and, in some cases, graphical forms; the written communication system of mathematics is understood by those who understand its notation system. Figure 8.1 represents the mathematical symbols of the normal frequency distribution, and the graphic representation is the bell curve (Meadow, 2002).

Figure 8.1. Frequency Distribution3


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Similarly, music has a notation system that is characterized by symbols (notes, flats, sharp), letters, and numbers. Physics and chemistry use symbols, letters, numbers, and graphics to describe chemical elements, classify matter, and demonstrate results. As computing continues to evolve, forms of written communication allow the hardware to interact with the software and, ultimately, to be used by the user. Computer programming languages are characterized by symbols, letters, and numbers. Java script and C++ exemplify programming languages (Meadow, 2002). Cultures that seek to maintain their history through written communication have used a variety of tools to record this information. Writing surfaces have included those that are natural and human made. Writing surfaces consisted of cave walls, clay, parchment (animal skins), papyrus (plant paper), and paper (plant fibers). Writing instruments have evolved from the stylus (for writing on clay) to quill pens, steel point pens, fountain pens, ballpoint pens, and to fiber (e.g., magic markers). Originally, another writing instrument—the pencil—was wood encased by graphite with a sharpened tip; later, lead replaced the graphite (Meadow, 2002; Panati, 1984). Writing machines brought standardization to printing. The movable-type printing press and subsequent models enabled the mass production of information. The typewriter allowed the individual access to a high-quality printable type and the use of this machine in the home and office. Computers have brought an ease of use, the ability to mass print and produce, superior print quality, and simplicity in correcting text and sending text to others (Meadow, 2002). With these advances in writing machines came the demand for the masses to know how to read and write. Therefore, the advancement in technologies of written communication became instruments of social change (Eisenstein, 1979). Communicating with people across distances has been aided by culture’s ability to provide transportation. Animals, such as horses, donkeys, camels, and pigeons, have been trained as messengers and carriers of communication. Societies that developed roads enabled the ease of animal-drawn transportation such as the stage coach and later motor cars. The development of roads gave people accessible ways to travel; this led to the building of highways, a quicker and more efficient way to travel. The telegraph line ended the need for men on horseback to carry mail and enabled the transmission of long-distance communications through Morse code4. Messages were transmitted at a high speed through electric telegraph wires. Boats hauled cargo long distances. The various types of boats evolved from oarpowered boats (or humans pulling the oars) to sail ships with navigation devices. Later came steam-powered engines propelled ships, railroad trains, and automobiles5. Railway systems advanced from steam-powered engines to those supported by electric power. Travel by aircrafts allowed for even quicker delivery of mail. Aircrafts evolved from the hot air balloons, to propeller planes, to jet engine planes that made possible communications flexibility through air mail. Steam-powered Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.

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automobiles quickly disappeared. Automobiles operated by internal combustion engines that were powered by fossil fuel. The car enabled the delivery of mail at great distances (Meadow, 2002). The need to physically travel from location to location decreased with the invention of the telegraph and telephone. The telephone moved telecommunications forward in that it allowed easy accessibility, could be used in businesses and homes, transported the human voice, permitted ease of use, and allowed for spontaneous interactivity of human beings. Wireless radio served a variety of uses such as broadcasting; radar; telegraphy; and a carrier for televisions, telephones, and computers (Meadow, 2002). Television, as a communications device, transmitted and received visual images and sound. Initially, televisions provided black and white display and 30 lines per picture; however, this technical feature evolved into color displays with over 1,080 lines. The picture tube quickly became a memory with plasma and liquid crystal displays. Computers enabled higher speeds and longer distances of transmission. The Internet allowed for the interconnection of networks. Businesses and individuals easily access and participate in a virtually instantaneous communications system through electronic mail. The World Wide Web, a network of programs and documents, allowed for the pinpointing of data (Meadow, 2002).

Culture GQ What forms of communications exist in this society or culture? Have these communication technologies affected the society or culture? How are messages communicated (e.g., gesture, pantomime, speech, written communication)? How are messages communicated from one point to another (e.g., voice; instruments [horns, drums, bugles, bagpipes]; smoke signals; travel by foot, animals, ship, car, plane)?6 What forms of written communication exists? If written communication exists, how have these data been recorded (e.g., paper, parchment, papyrus, stone, magnetic media [e.g., floppy disc, compact disc/CD-ROM, DVD, e-books])? Has transportation assisted in the society’s or culture’s ability to communicate, and if so, in what way? How have these communication technologies influenced human beings? How have these communication technologies impacted other species or entities?

Target Audience GQ What forms of communication technologies are used by the target audience? How has the target audience been affected by these communication technologies? How are messages communicated by the target audience? What forms of written communication are used by the target audience? Has the target audience been involved in inventing any communication technologies? What does the target audience Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.

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believe about the communication technologies that exist in their culture? Has the communication technologies benefited the target audience in any way? How have these communication technologies impacted the target audience?

Communications for Target Audiences Language

Nonverbal: Non-verbal communication does not involve words. To communicate in a non-verbal way can be found in all societies and cultures. Nonverbal communication serves many functions, such as defining behavior. If an individual walks into a dimly lit room where other people are moving slowly and are calm in their behavior, the individual should know to be quiet in voice and behavior. Nonverbal communication acts as a monitor for verbal communication. When someone is speaking, the other individual may smile, nod, blink, or make eye contact to acknowledge that the message conveyed is being communicated. Nonverbal communication can also convey messages. If an individual is happy, she may smile. If an individual is sad, he may frown, look down or hang his head. Nonverbal communication is culture-specific (Frank, 2002). This means that gestures, posture, body stance; touching (Ferraro, 2004); facial expressions and body language are culture-based. Nonverbal communication is a learned behavior and it is different from culture to culture (Ferraro, 2004). Silence, as a nonverbal form of communication, is used by Western Apaches in their initial greeting of strangers; this is perceived as a form of respect (Basso, 1990; Miller, 2002). Nonverbal communication is also conveyed through the physical features, looks or smell and the environment. The physical features of an individual include everything on a person’s exterior (e.g., face, lips, eyes, nose, legs, shoulders). The way one dresses and looks sends a message. The design of clothing, marks and body piercings, and hairstyles can convey messages about ethnicity, age, gender, and so forth. For Americans, gender differentiation begins at birth when boys are color coded with blue attire and girls pink. The odor of an individual communicates messages again based on culture. The smell of loved ones can be comforting to an individual. Loud perfume can be offensive to an individual who suffers from allergies. The environment where one lives or works conveys messages. Whether the environment is dark and gloomy or bright and colorful, each situation transmits a different message (Frank, 2002). What that message is will be different for each receiver based on their own cultural experiences. For example, a teenage boy arrives to pick up his date, who lives in a dilapidated 12-story high rise. He may or may not be judgmental depending on his own life experiences. Her environment will convey what the receiver has been conditioned to believe.


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Culture GQ What forms of nonverbal communication exist in this society or culture? What functions does nonverbal communication serve in this society or culture? How does nonverbal communication act as a monitor for verbal communication? How does nonverbal communication convey messages? How is nonverbal communication culture-specific? What meanings are conveyed by an individual’s physical features, look, or smell? What meanings or messages are conveyed by an individual’s living environment?

Target Audience GQ How does the target audience use nonverbal communication? What forms of nonverbal communication are consistent with the target audience? How are these forms of nonverbal communication culture-specific? What meanings are conveyed by the target audience’s physical features, look, and smell? What meanings or messages are conveyed by the target audience’s living environment? Verbal: Verbal communication, or the language of communication, is a system of organized symbols that transmit and convey meaning. To communicate through words is a human trait. Languages have been studied to determine its meaning, decipher the code of language, and to understand the people behind the language. Language is shaped by culture, and culture is shaped by language (Mandelbaum, 2002). This means that, within a society, language functions as the society or culture dictates. Individuals are the pawns in this linguistic dance as they create, use, exploit, and manipulate the language to communicate how they feel, what they believe, or communicate just to be heard. Language is tied to power. This specifically relates to who can speak or who are allowed to speak. Language is tied to faith. Those with the language of religion are taken as leaders to a higher power. Language is also political. The dominance of the English language worldwide is an indication of the desire for a lingua franca (i.e., common language), but also English is seen as the superior language in many political and social situations. Language is also gender related. Men and woman are said to have different ways of communicating, and these ways carry meanings specific to culture. Language is also valued. Those with the ability to use the language well and convey meaning across contexts and groups may be given praise or financial rewards. Verbal communication serves many functions; however, all its uses and misuses are generated by the culture. (For more on language form, content, use and meaning. See Cultural language).


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Culture GQ How has language shaped this society or culture? What is the dominant form of language? What are the subordinate forms of language? What function does language serve in this society or culture? How is language political, social, religious, or gender related? How is language created, used, exploited, and manipulated?

Target Audience GQ How has language been shaped by the target audience? How has the target audience shaped language? What is the dominant form of language for the target audience? What are the target audience’s other spoken languages? What function does language serve for the target audience? For the target audience, how is language, political, social, religious, or gender related? How has the target audience created, used, exploited, and manipulated language? Given their culture, what are the target audience’s beliefs about language?

Writing Writing is the symbols that represent ideas or sounds. The presence of a pictorial or alphabetic system in a culture provides a written record that can be preserved to communicate with others in the future. A writing system communicates the meanings of individuals in that society or culture. Writing systems are restrictive in that they are characterized by a linear structure, text directionality (right to left, left to right, top to bottom, and from center to the edge), and grammar. Writing is used to convey messages. To communicate through writing serves a purpose and function (Bruce, 2002; Marcus, 2006).

Culture GQ How did the writing system develop in this society or culture? Does the writing system consist of signs, pictographs, or alphabets; bidirectional or unidirectional? What other features are significant to the writing system (e.g., punctuation, layout, typography)? Does the writing system contain a grammar or a system of rules for the language? If a written system of communication exists, on what materials is information recorded (e.g., walls, rocks, trees, sand, the human body, clay, papyrus, manufactured paper)? Why did the writing system develop? When did the writing system appear? How has it changed in content, form, or function through time? What is the purpose of the writing system? Does the writing system convey a specific subject matter (e.g., data related to economics, politics, and genealogy)? Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.

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What percentage of the population is literate in the writing system? Who knows how to read the writing system? Who knows how to write the writing system? Are individuals or groups not allowed to read or write? Whose knowledge is conveyed in the writing system? How does this writing system function in this society? How is written communication maintained (e.g., writing courses in schools, libraries)? Who has access to written communication? How is the writing system distributed to others? Through what forms of communication technologies is the writing system conveyed?7

Target Audience GQ Does the target audience have their own writing system? How did the writing system of the target audience develop? Does the writing system of the target audience consist of signs, pictographs, alphabetic, bidirectional or unidirectional? What other features are significant to the writing system of the target audience? Does the writing system of the target audience contain a grammar or a system of rules for the language? For the target audience, on what materials is information recorded? Why did the target audience’s writing system develop? When did the writing system of the target audience appear? How has the target audience’s writing system changed in content, form or function through time? What is the purpose of the target audience’s separate system of writing? Does the writing system convey a specific subject matter (e.g., religion)? What percentage of the target audience is literate in the writing system? Who in the target audience knows how to read the writing system? Who in the target audience knows how to write the writing system? Are individuals in the target audience not allowed to read or write? Whose knowledge is conveyed in the target audience’s writing system? How does the target writing system function in this society or culture? How is written communication maintained and distributed by the target audience? How is the writing system of the target audience distributed to others? Through what forms of communication technologies, does the target audience use to convey their messages? Does the target audience read and write in the writing system of the dominant culture? What percentage of the target audience is literate in the dominant writing system? For what purposes does the target audience use the dominant writing system? Can the target audience read and write in the dominant language? What does the target audience believe about the dominant cultures writing system?

Temporal Temporal communications refers to the variety of ways to communicate over distances and over time. The idea is to create a message at one period in time and Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.

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the message is received at another period in time (Meadow, 2002). All forms of written communication (e.g., carving, drawing and writing) if preserved can provide examples of how groups communicate over distances and over time. A letter is written at one time and it is mailed. Then the letter is received at another time maybe a day or several days later. Temporal communications can be condensed or extended depending on the medium. With electronic mail, the time it takes to email individuals who live over 3000 miles away may take 5, 10 or 20 seconds to transmit. However, mailing a letter to someone 3000 miles away may take 3 days. Communicating over time is much more complicated; however it has been done in many ways. Some people have planted time capsules to tell about their history. Ancient societies bury their dead with artifacts of their histories thereby stopping time. The artifacts, that document written and spoken communication, exemplify a moment in time. Temporal communications refers to measured time in this world. It does not refer to the after life or the spirit world or other conceptions of time (King, 2006). Every culture understands time differently and every culture is influenced by time. Time can be perceived in three ways: What is time? How is time experienced? How is time measured? What is time? Within a culture, time may have a beginning. Time might be considered linear or cyclic. Time may even be considered something in itself, meaning that it exists separately from events. How is time experienced? Time is experienced differently by individuals in each culture. How is time measured? Time is measured differently in each culture. Typically, time has been linked to natural phenomena, such as the rotation of the earth around the sun, varying phases of the moon, changing weather conditions, shifting tides, and the exodus of birds and animals during migration season. Within a culture, time may serve multiple functions. For example in Western secular societies, the solar calendar is used for day-to-day functions; however, the lunar calendar is used for religious fasting and feasts (King, 2006). Humans are fascinated by time. They are hooked on temporal communications. There are many movies about time travel like Terminator (1984); Terminator 3: Rise of the Machines (2003); Back to the Future (1985); Star Trek: The Voyage Home (1986); and First Contact (1996). Those set in more contemporary modern day settings include: Déjà Vu (2006) and Click (2006). The mysteriousness of time and humans’ inability to manipulate it in the physical world makes time a commodity for future explorations and creative interpretations. (See Cultural infinities for more on the concept of time).


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Culture GQ How do individuals in this society or culture communicate over distances and time? How is time measured by this society or culture? What is time to this society or culture? How is time experienced by this society or culture? How is time used or manipulated in this society or culture? Does time serve any religious purpose in this society or culture?

Target Audience GQ How does the target audience communicate over distances and time? How is time measured by the target audience? What is time to the target audience? How is time experienced by the target audience? Does time serve a specific function for the target audience?

Visual Visual communications refers to the meanings or production of meanings from images. The visual images of a society, or those represented by mass media,8 reflect a visual language of communication, and this visual language is not understood universally. The visual language of a society is culture-specific. Those things expressed through visual communications are represented through multiple “compositional structures,” or through variations in color. These differences influence the meaning of and the meanings behind visuals (Kress & van Leeuwen, 2006, p. 2). The color white is worn by women in America when they are getting married. In India, the wearing of a white sari by women indicates widowhood (Miller, 2002)

Culture GQ What forms of visual communications exist in this society or culture? What meanings do the visual images in this society or culture communicate? How are these forms of visual communications culture-specific? What visual images are portrayed through communication technologies? Are these visual images valid or invalid representations of the society or culture and why?

Target Audience GQ What forms of visual images represent the target audience? What meanings do the visual images in this society or culture communicate about the target audience? How are these visual communications specific to the culture of the target audience? Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.

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What visual images are portrayed through communication technologies about the target audience? Are these visual images of the target audience valid or invalid representations and why? What does the target audience think about visual images represented in their society or culture?

Semiotics (Signs & Symbols) Semiotics is the study of the use, meanings, messages, and production of signs. Signs and symbols are semiotic properties. Signs: Signs are everywhere within societies and cultures. Humans create signs. A sign can be anything as long as an individual gives it meaning. Therefore, a sign can be a word, sound, image, behavior, object, odor, or flavor. Signs have no meaning until it is interpreted to have meaning. To organize signs, there are codes or coding systems (Chandler, 2007; Klyukanov, 2002). In Figure 8.2, these objects are used to house women’s personal belongings. Each object has the same use or function. However, over time they have been assigned different meanings. Figure 8.3 represents a sign or object that has multiple messages. The object is called a pail if you live in one region of the United States, and it is called a bucket if you live in another region. In Figure 8.4, the meanings assigned to all of these vowels are the same; they all represent the written form of the letter ‘a’ and the sound of the letter “a.” However the capital letter “A” has different meanings attached to it when it is at the beginning of a sentence or a name. The fonts represent different productions of the letter “a” and may serve different uses.

Culture GQ What signs are in this society or culture? What meanings have been given to these signs? Who assigns meaning to these signs? How have signs changed this society or Figure 8.2. Handbag, purse, pocketbook

This is a handbag.

This is a purse.

This is a pocketbook.


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Figure 8.3. Pail or Bucket

This is a pail.

Figure 8.4. The Letter “A

a

This is the letter “a.”

This is a bucket.

A

This is the letter “a.”

a This is the letter “a.”

culture? Are some signs considered valid and others invalid and why? Who deems what signs are valid or invalid? What social, political or religious significance is given to signs?

Target Audience GQ What signs are specific to representations of the target audience? What meanings of interpretation does the target audience assign to signs? Does the target audience assign meaning to signs? How have signs changed the lives of the target audience? Have signs created by the target audience been considered valid or invalid and why? What signs, that represent the target audience, maintain social, political, or religious significance?


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Figure 8.5. Pedestrian Crossing Ahead

Symbols: Symbols represent things other than themselves. They come in many forms: actions, characters, icons, letters, numbers, objects, and people. The written and spoken language used by humans exemplifies a sophisticated symbol system. Other languages also have symbol systems such as Morse code, computer languages, and braille (Ruben, 2002). Through communications media, symbols are stored, retrieved, duplicated, transmitted, and amplified. A speech can be recorded on CD-ROM, audio recordings, or video recordings (e.g., DVD). It can be transferred to print and e-mailed from one place to another, published in a book, posted on a Web page, stored and retrieved on a computer, duplicated with a copy machine, and amplified through text to speech software (Ruben, 2002). Symbols are created by humans and humans give meaning to symbols. It is the collective agreement of humans that allow symbols to function as communication devices. Humans create symbols and learn the meanings of these symbols in their interactions with members of their society or culture. In Figure 8.5, the meaning assigned to this object is that a pedestrian cross walk is ahead (Ruben, 2002).

Culture GQ What symbols exist in this society or culture? Categorize the symbols in terms of actions, characters, icons, letters, numbers, objects, and people. What meanings have been given to these symbols? Who assigns meaning to symbols? How have symbols changed this society or culture? Are some symbols considered valid and others invalid and why? Who deems what symbols are valid or invalid? What social, political, or religious significance is given to symbols?


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Target Audience GQ What symbols are specific to the target audience? What meanings have been given to the symbols that represent the target audience? What meanings of interpretation does the target audience assign to symbols? Has the target audience created any symbols? How have symbols changed the lives of the target audience? Have symbols created by the target audience been considered valid or invalid and why? What symbols, that represent the target audience, maintain a social, political, or religious significance?

References Basso, K. H. (1990). Western Apache language and culture: Essays in linguistic anthropology. Tucson, AZ: The University of Arizona Press. Botturi, L., & Stubbs, S. T. (2008). Handbook of visual languages for instructional design: Theories and practices. Hershey, PA: IGI Global Publishing. Bruce, B. C. (2002). Alphabets and writing. In J. R. Schement (Ed.), Encyclopedia of communication and information, 1, 21-25. New York: Macmillan Library Reference. Bruckheimer, J. (Executive Producer), & Scott, T. (Director). (2006). Déjà vu [Motion picture]. United States: Touchstone Pictures. Chandler, D. (2007). Semiotics: The basics. New York: Routledge. Bernardi, B. (Executive Producer), Herlihy, T. (Executive Producer), & Coraci, F. (Director). (2006). Click [Motion picture]. United States: Columbia Pictures. Daly, J. (Executive Producer), Gibson, D. (Executive Producer), Hurd, G. A. (Producer), & Cameron, J. (Director). (1984). The terminator [Motion picture]. United States: Orion Pictures. Eisenstein, E. L. (1979). The printing press as an agent of change. Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press. Ferraro, G. (2004). Cultural anthropology: An applied perspective (5th ed.). Belmont, CA: Thomson Learning. Frank, M. G. (2002). Nonverbal communication. In J. R. Schement (Ed.), Encyclopedia of communication and information, 2, 669-677. New York: Macmillan Library Reference. Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.

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Hall, P. A. V., & Hudson, R. (1997). Software without frontiers: A multi-platform, multi-cultural, multi-nation approach. New York: John: Wiley & Sons. Kennedy, K. (Executive Producer), Marshall, F. (Executive Producer), Spielberg, S. (Executive Producer), & Zemeckis, R. (Director). (1985). Back to the future [Motion picture]. United States: Amblin Entertainment. King, P. J. (2006). Time. In H. J. Birx (Ed.), Encyclopedia of anthropology, 5, 21962197. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. Klyukanov, I. E. (2002). Semiotics. In J. R. Schement (Ed.), Encyclopedia of communication and information, 3, 916-918. New York: Macmillan Library Reference. Kress, G., & van Leeuwen, T. (2006). Reading images: The grammar of visual design (2nd ed.). London: Routledge. Mandelbaum, J. (2002). Language and communication. In J. R. Schement (Ed.), Encyclopedia of communication and information, 2, 514-519. New York: Macmillan Library Reference. Marcus, J. (2006). Writing systems. In D. Levinson & M. Ember (Eds.), Encyclopedia of cultural anthropology, 4, 1387-1391. New York: Henry Holt and company. Meadow, C. T. (2002). Making connections: Communication through the ages. Lanham, MD: The Scarecrow Press, Inc. Miller, B. D. (2002). Cultural anthropology. Boston: Allyn & Bacon. Panati, C. (1984). Panati’s browser’s book of beginnings. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company. Ruben, B. D. (2002). Symbols. In J. R. Schement (Ed.), Encyclopedia of communication and information (Vol. 3, pp. 974-975). New York: Macmillan Library Reference. Winter, R. (Executive Producer), Bennett, H. (Producer), & Nimoy, L. (Director). (1986). Star trek IV: The voyage home [Motion picture]. United States: Paramount Pictures.

Endnotes

1

African drums have been used to communicate a language or a message (Meadow, 2002).


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4 2 3

5

6 7

8

For more information on notation systems see Botturi & Stubbs ( 2008). Frequency distribution figures adapted from a variety of sources. Morse code is a coded system of dots and dashes that represent alphabetic letters. The transmission of Morse code happens over a wire where a pulse of electricity travels from one place to another. In France around 1769, the first steam powered automobile was built (Meadow, 2002). These questions have been informed by Meadow, 2002. The questions in this section have been informed by the works of Bruce (2002); Hall and Hudson (1997); and Marcus (1996). Mass media are print or any form of electronic media such as “newspapers, magazines, CD-ROMs or websites” (Kress & van Leeuwen, 2006, p. 17).”


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Chapter IX

CBM Elements III

This chapter continues with CBM Elements and the design factors related to the anthropology of culture. Cultural demographics and Cultural environment are covered in their entirety.

Cultural Demographics E6. Cultural Demographics - Characteristics of a population. Cultural demographics provide the characteristics of a population for a geographic area. Geographic areas are identified by levels such as nation, state, city, county, tracks, blocks, province, and so forth (U.S. Census Bureau [USCB], 2005). This information is usually statistical. Demographic data provide mostly a quantitative picture of a population and aid in predicting economic or market trends. Through the use of demographic data, predictions about populations can be made in reference to increases in the demand for food, clothing, educational achievement, entertainment, housing, insurance, investments, health services, and so forth. Examples of Westernized demographic trends include: baby boom years, single parent families, two income families, and nuclear families. Demographic data are also culture-speCopyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.

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cific and can not be generalized to other populations. A culture-specific example is data from Japan’s 2000 census that calculated the total population of males at 62,110,764 males to 64,815,079 females. The number of females outnumbers males by 2,704,315 (Statistics Bureau of Japan, 2000). The collection of demographic data is unique to each society or culture. What works for one culture may not work for another. Or the collection of such data may not be operational due to other social, political, or economic factors. The characteristics of a population might include data based on the following: age, assets, birth, death, density, disease, educational achievement, ethnicity, family, growth, housing, incarceration, income, language, marital status, migration, mobility, occupation, race, sex, and size (USCB, 2005). All of these characteristics are described in this chapter. The collection of demographic data could begin with an examination of characteristics in a population such as “age” and multiple characteristics of a population, such as sex, income, household, geographic areas, disease, marriage, and so forth. Therefore, the data collection might look at age and its relation to sex, or age and income, or age and household. The guiding questions, in this section, focus on human beings; however they can be adapted to other species and entities.

Age Age demographics record the length of time in existence, duration of life, or life expectancy. This could include the stages of life (e.g., infant, child, adult, elder) and the month, day and year of birth (Meyer, 2001). These data provide many sources of understanding how age impacts a society or culture and its classification with other characteristics of a population (e.g., age and disease, age and death) (USCB, 2005). According to the 2007 U.S. Census Bureau International Database, the country with the longest life expectancy is Andorra, a small nation located in the Pyrénées Mountains nestled between France and Spain. People are said to live an average of 84 years (USCB, 2007a).

Culture GQ What characteristics should be considered with the age of a population (e.g., age and race)? What are the ages of people in this population? What are the month, day, and year of births and self reported ages? What is the average age of life expectancy? What are the stages of life? Is the population divided according to age? What are the total number of births within a given time period? What is the total number of people in each age category? How are age demographics perceived in this society or culture? Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.

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Target Audience GQ What characteristics should be considered with the age of the target audience? What are the ages within the target audience? What are the month, day, and year of births for the target audience? What is the average life expectancy for the target audience? What is the total number of the target audience members in each age category?

Assets Assets demographics are statistics on owned items, effects, or property. These data might classify assets with other characteristics of a population (e.g., assets and households). A household balance sheet from Singapore categorized assets as nonfinancial assets and financial assets. Nonfinancial assets are considered residential properties. Financial assets include currency, deposits, shares, securities, pension funds with equity, or life insurance with equity. In 2005, the assets of Singapore grew $820 billion or a 5.4% growth from 2004. Non-financial assets saw an increase of $5.3 billion, and financial assets increased $36 billion (Singapore Department of Statistics, 2006).

Culture GQ What characteristics should be considered with the assets of a population (e.g., assets and age)? What things or items are considered assets? Who has acquired these assets? What assets are most owned by which populations? How do their assets position them in this society or culture? How are assets demographics perceived in this society or culture? What are total numbers of people in each asset classification?

Target Audience GQ What assets do the target audience or individuals in the target audience own? Who has acquired these assets in the target audience? How do the assets of the target audience position them in this society or culture? What are the total numbers of the target audience in each assets classification?

Birth Birth demographics are statistics that provide a place of birth and date of birth. These data may measure a variety of factors such as live births, expected number of children, rates of birth and fertility rates (Lazer, 1994). These data also classify Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.


birth with other characteristics of a population (e.g., birth and sex). According to the United Nations’ 2003 World Fertility Report, birth rates have decreased since the 1970s. This may be due to behavioral changes such as increased contraceptive use and knowledge, family planning, population programs and policies, and the universality of nuptials or some form of union. By example, China estimates a birth reduction of 4 children per child bearing woman (United Nations, 2003).

Culture GQ What characteristics should be considered with the birth of a population (e.g., sex, age, race)? What is the birthplace of individuals in this society or culture? What is the time of birth? In a society, it is important to document who is born to whom and the frequency of these births? Are individuals, groups, animals, and/or organisms limited in the number of births? If so, how? If not, why? What is the purpose of procreation in this society? How are birth demographics perceived in this society or culture? What are the total numbers of births in each classification?

Target Audience GQ What is the place or places of birth of individuals in the target audience? What is the frequency of births for the target audience? Are births limited for the target audience? What is the purpose of procreation for the target audience? What are the total numbers of the target audience in each birth classification?

Death Death demographics are statistics of the termination of life. It provides data on the number of deaths in a particular area or at a given time. These data classify death with other characteristics of a population (e.g., death and age). The Democratic Republic of the Congos 10 year war (1996-2006) between militia armed forces and Rwandians left 3 million people dead and 3.5 million people displaced from their homes (Kimani, 2007). This type of demographic data provided striking evidence of the devastation of war and the unfathomable death toll.

Culture GQ What characteristics should be considered with death in a population (e.g., death and age)? What are the ways in which individuals die in this society or culture? Is one way or method of death more prominent than another and if so why? What are the number of deaths within a given time period? How are death demographCopyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.

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ics perceived in this society or culture? What are total numbers of people in each death classification?

Target Audience GQ What are the ways in which the target audience dies? Is one way or method of death more prominent than another for the target audience and why? What are the total numbers of the target audience in each death classification?

Density The density is the concentration of a population in an area and in relation to the size of the area. These data classify density with other characteristics of a population (e.g., density and housing, density and population). China is the most highly populated country in the world, with an estimated 1.3 billion people by midyear 2007 (USCB, 2007b). In determining whether China can maintain its population growth, researchers have examined agriculture, water supply, consumption, climate, grain production, and population density. Predictions about population growth and population density will determine the amount of food needed in corresponding provinces by 2025, the turn of the century. In 2000, Tianjin’s total population was 8.9 million with a population density of 787 people per kilometer (Heilig, Fischer, & van Velthuizen, 2000).

Culture GQ What characteristics should be considered with the density of a population (e.g., race, housing)? What is the density population across designated areas? What is the density population in relation to the size of the area? What numbers of the population live in these spaces? How are density demographics perceived in this society or culture? Are there social, economic, environmental, financial, or political issues prevalent because of population density?

Target Audience GQ Does the target audience occupy a large or small density of space? What number of the target audience live in this space? What other characteristics of the target audience can be considered (e.g., density and income, density and age) in gathering data estimates or projections? Why does the target audience choose to live in a densely populated area or not? How has the target audience been impacted by density issues? Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.


Disease Disease demographics are statistics on disorders of function, usually in an animal or plant. These data classify disease with other characteristics of a population (e.g., disease and age). The most deadly disease of the 21st century might be reported as HIV/AIDS. Worldwide, the prevention and treatment of this disease, as well as the support and care of people with HIV/AIDS, is of global concern. Through the Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS (UNAIDS), there is a desire to end and reverse this epidemic by 2015. As of 2005, worldwide figures estimate that there are 38.6 million people infected with HIV, 4.1 million people contracted HIV, and 2.8 million people died from AIDS-related causes (Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS [UNAIDS], 2006).

Culture GQ1 What characteristics should be considered with disease and a population (e.g., disease and households)? What diseases exist that affect human? What diseases exist that affect other species? How are humans, animals, and insects predisposed to certain diseases? Are these diseases curable or treatable? What percentage of the population is infected with diseases? How are disease demographics perceived in this society or culture? What are the total numbers of the people in each disease classification?

Target Audience GQ What diseases affect the health of the target audience? How is the target audience predisposed to certain diseases? What percentage of the target audience is infected with disease? What are the total numbers of the target audience in each disease classification?

Educational Achievement Education achievement demographics measure the highest educational degree or highest level of school attended (Bauman & Graf, 2003). The educational achievement of a society or culture can be classified based on grade level or age level. The total number of individuals in that classification would then be calculated (USCB, 2005). Every society or culture has different perceptions on how education is acquired, how much information is acquired, and the materials and tools for learning. Educational achievement demographics focus on the numbers in relation to each Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.

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group’s educational classification system. These data classify educational achievement with other characteristics of a population (e.g., educational achievement and income). The educational attainment from the Census 2000 U.S. Census reports that out, of 182.2 million Americans, aged 25 and over, 80% earned a high school diploma or higher education (Bauman & Graf, 2003).

Culture GQ What characteristics should be considered with the educational achievement of a population (e.g., educational achievement and occupation)? How is educational achievement classified in this society or culture? What is the highest level of schooling or academic degree of individuals and/or groups (e.g., no school to doctoral degree) in this society or culture? How is educational achievement perceived in this society or culture? What are the numbers in terms of educational achievement across classifications such as, age, sex, income, and so forth? How are educational achievement demographics perceived in this society or culture?

Target Audience GQ How is educational achievement perceived by the target audience? What is the highest level of schooling or academic degree of individuals in the target audience? What are the numbers in terms of educational achievement across classifications such as age, sex, and race for the target audience? How does the target audience perceive educational achievement data?

Ethnicity Ethnicity refers to the belonging or distinctiveness of a person of ethnic origin. Ethnic groups share historical and cultural traditions that include racial, national, linguistic, and religious associations. Ethnicity demographics record the diversity of a society either through formal (e.g., census) or informal data collection. These data classify ethnicity with other characteristics of a population (e.g., ethnicity and households, ethnicity and age). England’s Department for Education and Skills published a research topic paper titled “Ethnicity and Education: The Evidence on Minority Ethnic Pupils aged 5–16” (2006). In this 2006 paper, minority ethnic groups in schools are defined as: Bangladeshi, Black African, Black Caribbean, Black Other, Chinese, Indian, Mixed White & Black Caribbean, Mixed White & Black African and White Other. This ethnic minority makes up 21% of the primary school and 17% of the secondary school population (Department for Education and Skills, 2006). Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.


Culture GQ What characteristics should be considered with the ethnicity of a population (e.g., sex, age, race, housing)? Does ethnicity exist in this society or culture? How are ethnic groups classified? What common features exist amongst people of a particular ethnicity? What are the total numbers of people in each ethnic classification? How are ethnic demographics perceived in this society or culture?

Target Audience GQ What is the ethnicity of the target audience? Are there subdivisions within ethnic groups of the target audience? For the target audience, what characteristics do the ethnic groups share? What are the total numbers of the target audience in each ethnic classification?

Family A family is a household with two or more related persons (USCB, 2005); other nonrelated persons who are living in the housing unit are also considered part of the household. Family demographics usually consist of family composition, size, and type. These data assist with defining family structures of a population and classifying family with other characteristics of a population (e.g., family and households, family and income). The Central Statistical Office of Swaziland collected provisional data in a 2007 Population and Housing Census, and they estimated that the Kingdom of Swaziland has a total population of 953,524 people. This is based on the collection of data such as the number of residents present and absent from a household, the number of visitors present and absent, and the sex of the residents (United Nations Statistics Division, 2007). In this case, the number of residents in the housing unit defined the household.

Culture GQ What characteristics should be considered with the family of a population (e.g., family and households; family and income)? What is the structure of families (e.g., single parent with two children; married couple with no children; presence of elders, adult children, grandchildren)? What is the number of households in each family structure? How are family demographics perceived in this society or culture?


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Target Audience GQ What is the structure of the target audience’s family or families? For the target audience, what is the number of households in each family structure?

Growth Growth demographics are the increases in numbers of a population. These data assist with defining the growth of a population and classifying growth with other characteristics of a population (e.g., growth and migration). Uganda has one of the highest population growth rates in the world. As of 2006, the countries population was estimated at close to 29 million people with an estimated growth rate of 3.4% each year (UNAIDS, 2006). This population growth is fueling poverty as Uganda ranks 159 out of 175 of the world’s poorest countries. The rise in population and poverty presents economic, social and health challenges (Republic of Uganda, 2002).

Culture GQ What characteristics should be considered with the growth of a population (e.g., sex, age, race, housing)? Is there growth in the population? Does the growth of one population over another matter in this society or culture, and if so, why? What are the total numbers of growth in the population over a period of time? How are growth demographics perceived in this society or culture?

Target Audience GQ What is the growth of the target audience’s population over designated periods of time? Does the growth in population have an effect on the target audience? What are the total numbers of growth in the target audience over a period of time? How does the target audience perceive growth in their society or culture?

Husing Housing demographics are specific to housing units and households. Housing units can be a room or group of rooms, mobile home, apartment, or house. Quarters for groups are also housing; this can include: prisons, dormitories, military quarters, detention centers, nursing homes, mental (psychiatric) hospitals, juvenile institutions, and group homes (USCB, 2005). Housing units can be rented, owned, or being bought (Simmons & O’Neil, 2001). These data determine the housing ocCopyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.


cupancy, housing vacancy and tenure (renter occupied or owner occupied), and classify housing with other characteristics of a population (e.g., housing and age; housing and density). In addition to the housing unit itself, there is a need to know who lives in the household and the relationship to the householder. These data provide information about the individuals and composition of the household (Simmons & O’Neill, 2001). Individuals in the household may be labeled as follows: natural born son/daughter, adopted son/daughter, grandmother, grandfather, stepson, stepdaughter, brother, parent in law, son in law, daughter in law, niece, nephew, uncle, aunt, roomer, boarder, roommate, housemate, unmarried partner, or foster child (USCB, 2005). These data determine the applicability of households with other characteristics of a population (e.g., households and age). The Instituto Brasileiro de Geografia e Estatística collected information related to population count on December 21, 2007. The data revealed 11,422 persons who were 100 years of age or older. Of the 7,950 women aged 100 years or older, 19.7% headed households, 30.4% had a husband, 30% were stepdaughters or daughters, and 11.1% were other types of relatives. Of 3,472 men aged 100 years or older, 36.6% headed households, 43.6% were stepsons or sons, and 10.3% were other types of relatives (Instituto Brasileiro de Geografia e Estatística, 2007).

Culture GQ What characteristics should be considered with the housing of a population (e.g., sex, age, race, mobility)? How many housing units exist? How many classifications of housing units exist (e.g., apartment, house, prison, dormitory)? How many people live in these housing units? How many people, rent, own, or buy these housing units? Who lives in the household? What are the relationships of people living in the household? How much does it cost to rent homes, apartments, or space in this society or culture? How much does it cost to purchase housing units? How much does it cost to maintain a typical household that needs heating fuel and lighting? How old are the homes, apartments, and dwellings in which individuals live? What is the condition of these homes, apartments, and dwellings? How are housing demographics perceived in this society or culture? What are the total numbers of people in each housing classification?

Target Audience GQ What type of housing units do the target audience reside in (e.g., shack, apartment, house)? How much does the target audience pay for housing? How many people live in the typical homes of the target audience? Does the target audience rent, own, or Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.

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buy housing units? Who lives in the households of the target audience? What are the relationships of people living in the households of the target audience? How much does it cost to rent homes, apartments, or space for the target audience? How much does it cost to purchase housing units for the target audience? How much does it cost to maintain a typical household for the target audience that needs heating fuel and lighting? How old are the homes, apartments, and dwellings in which the target audience lives? What is the condition of the homes, apartments, and dwellings in which the target audience lives? What are the total numbers of the target audience in each housing classification?

Incarceration Incarceration demographics report data on those persons imprisoned or confined. These data classify incarceration with other characteristics of a population (e.g., sex or age). In 2005, the United States led all other countries in the world in number of people incarcerated, with 2.2 million people incarcerated in state and federal prisons or local jails. China ranked second with 1.5 million people incarcerated. Estimates predict an increase of 200,000 more incarcerated men and women in the United States by 2011 (Pew Charitable Trusts, 2007).

Culture GQ What characteristics should be considered with the incarceration of individuals in a population (e.g., incarceration and race)? Classify the acts that cause persons to be incarcerated. What types of places are used to incarcerate people (e.g., jails, prisons, internment camps)? How many people are incarcerated? What types of people are incarcerated (e.g., women, men, youth)? Are there limitations, such as age or gender, in terms of who can be incarcerated? What percentage of the population is incarcerated? What are the ages, sex and length of time for incarcerated individuals? How are incarceration demographics perceived in this society or culture? What are total numbers of people in each incarceration classification?

Target Audience GQ What percentage of the target audience is incarcerated? What crimes did individuals in the target audience commit that resulted in incarceration? What are the ages, sex and length of time for incarcerated individuals in the target audience? What are the total numbers of the target audience in each incarceration classification?



Income Internationally, the term may be referred to as earnings or revenue. Income demographics are monies or assets received for work, goods, services, and/or investments (Trumble & Stevenson, 2002a). Income or household income usually reflects all income earned by members of a household (USCB, 2005). Additional income in a household can come from alimony, social security, government subsidized monies, or retirement income. These data may classify income with other characteristics of a population (e.g., income and age). In Ireland, the average weekly earnings vary based on profession. In 2006, the average weekly earnings indicated the following salary trend: Prison officers earned $1,149.12; primary education, $831.11; secondary education, $998.67; banking and insurance workers, $829.25; manufacturing industry male, $624.45; manufacturing industry female, $451.12; and business, $644.70. Based on these earnings, it is apparent that women in the manufacturing industry are some of the lowest paid workers (Central Statistics Office Ireland, 2007). Wealth demographics can be determined by income and net worth. The complete picture of economic well-being may be calculated in the difference between assets and liabilities. Examples of assets include interest-earning accounts (savings, money market, certificate of deposit, checking, securities, bonds, etc.); stocks and mutual fund shares; rental property; mortgages for sale; business property; regular checking account; home ownership; other real estate; retirement accounts; and motor vehicles. Examples of liabilities include: secured Liabilities (broker accounts, mortgages on one’s own home, rental property or other real estate, debt on profession or business, vehicle loans, etc.), unsecured liabilities, credit cards, bills (doctor, dentist, hospital, nursing home), and loans (e.g., personal, educational; Orzechowski & Sepielli, 2003). Poverty demographics typically can be determined by income or total family income. For example in the United States, poverty is determined by poverty thresholds or income cutoffs; this means that if the total family income falls below the poverty threshold, the family is “considered to be in poverty” (Bishaw, 2005, p. 2). In the report of Participatory Poverty Assessment in Rwanda, Africa, poverty demographics are categorized as poverty and extreme poverty. Poverty is determined across social characteristics such as Umutindi nyakujya (those in abject poverty), Umutindi (the very poor), Umukene (the poor), Umukene wifashije (the resourceful poor), Umukungu (the food rich), and Umukire (the money rich; Howe & McKay, 2005).


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Culture GQ What characteristics should be considered with the income of a population (e.g., income and age)? What is the income or revenue earned (e.g.,

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