Cosmology and New Testament Theology (Library of New Testament Studies 355)

LIBRARY OF N E W TESTAMENT STUDIES 355 formerly the Journal for the Study of the N e w Testament Supplement series Ed...

Author: Jonathan T. Pennington | Sean M. McDonough

358 downloads 1436 Views 9MB Size Report

This content was uploaded by our users and we assume good faith they have the permission to share this book. If you own the copyright to this book and it is wrongfully on our website, we offer a simple DMCA procedure to remove your content from our site. Start by pressing the button below!
Report copyright / DMCA form

DOWNLOAD PDF

LIBRARY OF N E W TESTAMENT STUDIES

355 formerly the Journal for the Study of the N e w Testament Supplement series

Editor Mark Goodacre

Editorial

Board

John M. G. Barclay, Craig Blomberg, Kathleen E. Corley, R. Alan Culpepper, James D. G. Dunn, Craig A. Evans, Stephen Fowl, Robert Fowler, Simon J. Gathercole, John S. Kloppenborg, Michael Labahn, Robert Wall, Steve Walton, Robert L. Webb, Catrin H. Williams

COSMOLOGY A N D NEW TESTAMENT THEOLOGY

EDITED BY

JONATHAN T. PENNINGTON AND SEAN M. MCDONOUGH

t&t dark

Copyright © Jonathan T. Pennington, Sean M. McDonough and contributors, 2008

Published by T&T Clark International A Continuum imprint The Tower Building, 11 York Road, London SE1 7NX 80 Maiden Lane, Suite 704, New York, NY 10038 www.tandtclark.com All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording or any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers.

British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library ISBN-10: 0-567-03143-8 (hardback) ISBN-13: 978-0-567-03143-3 (hardback)

Typeset by CA Typesetting Ltd, www.sheffieldtypesetting.com Printed on acid-free paper in Great Britain by Biddies Ltd, King's Lynn, Norfolk

T h e e d i t o r s w o u l d like t o d e d i c a t e t h i s v o l u m e t o t h e i r w i v e s w i t h affectionate gratitude for their l o v e , support, a n d e n c o u r a g e m e n t . Sine qua non. Tracy Diane Pennington

Ariana M . H. McDonough

CONTENTS

List o f C o n t r i b u t o r s INTRODUCTION

ix 1

Sean M. McDonough and Jonathan T. Pennington 1.

G R A E C O - R O M A N A N D A N C I E N T JEWISH COSMOLOGY

5

Edward Adams 2.

HEAVEN, EARTH, A N D A N E W GENESIS: THEOLOGICAL C O S M O L O G Y IN M A T T H E W

28

Jonathan T. Pennington 3.

TEARING THE HEAVENS A N D SHAKING THE HEAVENLIES: M A R K ' S C O S M O L O G Y IN ITS A P O C A L Y P T I C C O N T E X T

45

M i c h a e l F. B i r d 4.

' T H E HEAVENS OPENED': COSMOLOGICAL A N D THEOLOGICAL TRANSFORMATION IN L U K E A N D A C T S

60

Steve W a l t o n 5.

LIGHT OF THE W O R L D : COSMOLOGY A N D THE JOHANNINE LITERATURE

74

E d w a r d W . K l i n k III 6.

P A U L ' S C O S M O L O G Y : T H E W I T N E S S OF R O M A N S , 1 A N D 2 CORINTHIANS, A N D GALATIANS

90

Joel W h i t e 7.

REORIENTED TO THE C O S M O S : COSMOLOGY & THEOLOGY IN E P H E S I A N S T H R O U G H P H I L E M O N

107

R o b e r t L. F o s t e r 8.

T H E C O S M O L O G Y OF H E B R E W S

125

Jon Laansma 9.

G O D A N D ' T H E W O R L D ' : C O S M O L O G Y A N D T H E O L O G Y IN T H E LETTER OF JAMES

Darian Lockett

144

viii

Cosmology

and New Testament

Theology

1 0 . C O S M O L O G Y IN T H E P E T R I N E L I T E R A T U R E A N D J U D E

157

John Dennis 1 1 . REVELATION: T H E CLIMAX OF COSMOLOGY

178

Sean M. McDonough 12. CONCLUSION

189

Sean M . M c D o n o u g h and Jonathan T. Pennington

Index of Ancient Sources Index of Names

193 210

LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS

J o n a t h a n T. P e n n i n g t o n ( P h D , U n i v e r s i t y o f St A n d r e w s ) is A s s i s t a n t P r o fessor o f N e w T e s t a m e n t Interpretation at S o u t h e r n S e m i n a r y in L o u i s v i l l e , Kentucky. S e a n M . M c D o n o u g h ( P h D , U n i v e r s i t y o f St A n d r e w s ) is A s s o c i a t e Professor o f N e w T e s t a m e n t at G o r d o n - C o n w e l l T h e o l o g i c a l Seminary, S o u t h H a m i l t o n , Massachusetts. E d w a r d A d a m s ( P h D , U n i v e r s i t y o f G l a s g o w ) is L e c t u r e r in N e w T e s t a m e n t Studies at K i n g ' s C o l l e g e L o n d o n , L o n d o n , E n g l a n d . M i c h a e l B i r d ( P h D , U n i v e r s i t y o f Q u e e n s l a n d ) is Tutor in N e w T e s t a m e n t at H i g h l a n d T h e o l o g i c a l C o l l e g e , D i n g w a l l , Scotland. J o h n D e n n i s ( P h D , U n i v e r s i t y o f L e u v e n ) is L e c t u r e r in N e w T e s t a m e n t at International Christian College, Glasgow, Scotland. R o b e r t F o s t e r ( P h D , S o u t h e r n M e t h o d i s t University, D a l l a s , Texas) is Adjunct A s s o c i a t e Professor o f O l d T e s t a m e n t ( P e r k i n s S c h o o l o f T h e o l o g y ) a n d R e l i g i o n at S o u t h e r n M e t h o d i s t University. E d w a r d W. K l i n k III ( P h D , U n i v e r s i t y o f St A n d r e w s ) is A s s i s t a n t P r o f e s s o r o f N e w T e s t a m e n t at Talbot S c h o o l of T h e o l o g y , B i o l a University, L a M i r a d a , California. J o n L a a n s m a ( P h D , U n i v e r s i t y o f A b e r d e e n ) is A s s o c i a t e Professor o f A n c i e n t L a n g u a g e s a n d N e w T e s t a m e n t at W h e a t o n C o l l e g e , W h e a t o n , Illinois. D a r i a n R. L o c k e t t ( P h D , U n i v e r s i t y o f St A n d r e w s ) is A s s i s t a n t P r o f e s s o r o f N e w T e s t a m e n t at Talbot S c h o o l o f T h e o l o g y , B i o l a University, L a M i r a d a , California. S t e v e W a l t o n ( P h D , Sheffield U n i v e r s i t y ) is S e n i o r L e c t u r e r in G r e e k a n d N e w T e s t a m e n t Studies at L o n d o n S c h o o l o f T h e o l o g y , N o r t h w o o d , E n g l a n d .

X

Cosmology

and New Testament

Theology

J o e l W h i t e ( P h D , D o r t m u n d U n i v e r s i t y ) is L e c t u r e r in N e w Testament, F r e i e Theologische Akademie, Giessen, Germany.

INTRODUCTION

S e a n M . M c D o n o u g h a n d J o n a t h a n T. P e n n i n g t o n

C o s m o l o g y is easily d i s r e g a r d e d in t h e m o d e r n w o r l d . Pictures o f the m o o n s of Saturn are q u i c k l y t o s s e d aside t o m a k e r o o m for pictures o f t h e stars o f H o l l y w o o d ; t h e lights o f t h e s h o p p i n g m a l l b l o t out t h e n i g h t sky for a g o o d portion o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n in t h e West. N o t s o for t h e ancients. W h e t h e r it w a s the p h i l o s o p h e r c o n t e m p l a t i n g t h e perfection o f t h e h e a v e n l y orbits, t h e farmer searching t h e sky for signs o f w h e n to p l a n t his c r o p s , or t h e d e s e r t - d w e l l i n g sectarian l o o k i n g for t h e e n d o f t h e w o r l d , t h e c o s m o s h e l d an e n d l e s s fascina tion. It is ironic that w h i l e scientific k n o w l e d g e a b o u t t h e u n i v e r s e h a s e x p o n e n tially w a x e d o v e r t h e last t w o m i l l e n n i a , p o p u l a r interest h a s w a n e d . In light o f t h i s , it is h a r d l y s u r p r i s i n g that t h e s t u d y o f c o s m o l o g y h a s b e e n r e l a t i v e l y u n d e r - s e r v e d in N e w T e s t a m e n t s t u d i e s . W h i l e t h e r e a r e m a n y valuable specialty studies on bits and pieces of N T cosmology available, and r e c e n t y e a r s h a v e s e e n s o m e i m p o r t a n t p u b l i c a t i o n s , t h e r e is still a n e e d for an o v e r a r c h i n g p e r s p e c t i v e o n this c r u c i a l b a c k d r o p t o t h e w o r l d o f t h e e a r l y C h r i s t i a n s . T h e p r e s e n t s t u d y is a n a t t e m p t t o b e g i n t o a d d r e s s t h i s l a c u n a in t h e field. I n it, w e w i l l a t t e m p t t o p r o v i d e t h e n e c e s s a r y o r i e n t a t i o n t o a n c i e n t c o s m o l o g y in g e n e r a l , a n d t h e n a d d r e s s specific q u e s t i o n s c o n c e r n i n g t h e p r e s e n c e a n d function o f c o s m o l o g y in t h e m a j o r a r e a s o f t h e N T c a n o n . It is h o p e d t h a t this w i l l o p e n u p a n o n g o i n g c o n v e r s a t i o n o n this a s p e c t o f N T theology.

Ancient

Roots

A fascination w i t h ( a n d fear of) t h e h e a v e n s g o e s d e e p into h u m a n history. I n the A n c i e n t N e a r East, t h e stars w e r e universally r e g a r d e d as d i v i n e b e i n g s , a n d 'astral m y t h o l o g y ' is p e r v a s i v e t h r o u g h o u t t h e literature o f E g y p t a n d M e s o p o t a m i a . T h e B a b y l o n i a n s in particular m a d e m e t i c u l o u s o b s e r v a t i o n s o f the h e a v e n l y b o d i e s , a n d t h e interplay o f their scientific calculations a n d their religious beliefs r e m a i n s a fascinating a r e a o f inquiry. O f particular interest w a s the w i d e s p r e a d a s s u m p t i o n that terrestrial e v e n t s w e r e o v e r s e e n , m a n i p u l a t e d , or e v e n c o m p l e t e l y c o n t r o l l e d b y celestial forces (see, e.g., t h e h e a v e n l y t e m p l e o f M a r d u k as t h e p r o t o t y p e for the earthly B a b y l o n i a n t e m p l e ) . T h e v e r y fact that t h e h e a v e n s w e r e t h e e p i t o m e o f p r e d i c t a b l e , o r d e r e d m o v e m e n t m a d e

Cosmology

2

and New Testament

Theology

d i s t u r b a n c e s in that o r d e r - c o m e t s , falling stars, t h e u n e v e n m o v e m e n t s o f t h e planets (the 'wanderers') - deeply troubling. N o r d i d interest in t h e h e a v e n s d i m i n i s h w i t h t h e a d v e n t o f t h e distinctively G r e e k p h i l o s o p h i c a l a p p r o a c h . T h e stars r e m a i n e d t h e s t a n d a r d o f perfect order, a n d if t h e p e r s o n a l i t i e s o f v a r i o u s h e a v e n l y b o d i e s b e c a m e less p r o n o u n c e d , t h e y w e r e c o n s i d e r e d n o less, a n d p r o b a b l y m o r e , d i v i n e for all that. A s t r o n o m i cal o b s e r v a t i o n c o n t i n u e d a n d p r o d u c e d m a n y quite r e m a r k a b l e a c h i e v e m e n t s . Astrology, w h i c h h a d d o u b t l e s s a l w a y s b e e n p r e s e n t in s o m e form, t o o k o n a greater p r o m i n e n c e in t h e H e l l e n i s t i c period, d r a w i n g u p o n b o t h a n c i e n t astral religiosity a n d scientific (or pseudo-scientific) observation.

Biblical

Resonance

The biblical texts are very m u c h a part of this world. In the H e b r e w Bible, motifs d r a w n from astral m y t h o l o g y a r e a l m o s t certainly p r e s e n t in p l a c e s like Isaiah 14 a n d E z e k i e l 2 8 , e v e n if t h e y h a v e b e e n substantially r e w o r k e d in t h e light o f t h e I s r a e l i t e s ' d i s t i n c t i v e r e l i g i o u s history. T h e w o r s h i p o f h e a v e n l y b o d i e s w a s r e g u l a r l y c o n d e m n e d , s h o w i n g t h a t it w a s c o n s i d e r e d a c l e a r a n d p r e s e n t d a n g e r b y t h e biblical a u t h o r s . Yet t h e foundational text o f G e n . 1.14 left r o o m for a p o s i t i v e e n g a g e m e n t w i t h a n c i e n t a s t r o n o m y , w h i c h c o u l d o f c o u r s e b l e e d easily into m o r e a s t r o l o g i c a l speculations. ( W h a t d o w e m a k e , for example, of the brontologia and horoscopes within the hyper-orthodox commu nity at Q u m r a n ? ) T h e s u p r e m a c y o f Y H W H , m e a n w h i l e , c o u l d b e effectively d e m o n s t r a t e d b y n o t i n g that h e is t h e c r e a t o r o f h e a v e n a n d earth, t h e o n e w h o calls t h e stars b y n a m e , t h e L o r d o f t h e h e a v e n l y h o s t A n c i e n t c o s m o l o g y is e q u a l l y i m p o r t a n t for correctly situating t h e texts o f the N T . P a u l ' s s t a t e m e n t s a b o u t t h e 'spiritual forces o f w i c k e d n e s s ' h a v e rightly b e e n seen a g a i n s t t h e b a c k d r o p o f c o s m i c battles o f g o o d a n d evil, w h i l e his m e n t i o n o f ' a s c e n d i n g to h e a v e n ' m u s t b e u n d e r s t o o d w i t h i n s o m e c o n c e p t u a l framework

o f t h e u n i v e r s e . T h e s a m e g o e s for t h e d e s c e n t / a s c e n t m o t i f s in t h e

g o s p e l s , a n d J o h n in particular. N T a p o c a l y p t i c p a i n t s its p i c t u r e o f t h e past, p r e s e n t a n d future o n a c o s m i c c a n v a s , y e t c o s m o l o g i c a l investigations of, for e x a m p l e , t h e b o o k o f R e v e l a t i o n h a v e b e e n d e e p l y flawed a n d t h e r e is m u c h yet to b e said. A l l u s i v e r e f e r e n c e s t o J e s u s a s t h e a g e n t o f creation, w i t h their e c h o e s o f P r o v e r b s 8 a n d G e n e s i s 1, a r e i n e x p l i c a b l e apart from s o m e u n d e r standing of ancient conceptions of the creation and ordering of the cosmos. A s u r v e y o f this m a t e r i a l is s o r e l y n e e d e d . O n e further refinement in t h e p r e s e n t study, h o w e v e r , is t h e attention d e v o t e d to t h e status

of cosmological

s t a t e m e n t s in t h e N T . F o r m a n y y e a r s , o n e w o u l d i m a g i n e that t h e H o l y Grail o f biblical c o s m o l o g y w a s t h e p r e c i s e d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h e n u m b e r o f ' l a y e r s ' or ' t i e r s ' o f t h e c o s m o s , w i t h d e b a t e s r a g i n g b e t w e e n t w o , t h r e e , four, s e v e n , n i n e , or m o r e o f s u c h layers. W h i l e this is a legitimate a r e a o f inquiry, it h a s distracted attention from other, p e r h a p s m o r e p r e s s i n g , c o n c e r n s a b o u t b i b l i -

Introduction

3

cal v i e w s o f t h e u n i v e r s e . M o r e o v e r , m a n y o f t h e studies s e e m t o p r e s u p p o s e that t h e r e w a s a tacit, s h a r e d 'scientific' v i e w o n t h e s e m a t t e r s w h i c h m e t w i t h m o r e or less u n i v e r s a l a p p r o v a l in t h e a n c i e n t w o r l d . T h e biblical w r i t e r s t h e n reflect, o r in i g n o r a n c e d e v i a t e from, w h a t e v e r y o n e k n e w a b o u t t h e o r d e r o f t h e c o s m o s ( i n c l u d i n g t h e p u t a t i v e l y a l l - i m p o r t a n t q u e s t i o n o f h o w m a n y layers it had). B u t is this really t h e c a s e ? B o n a fide scientific o b s e r v a t i o n s o f t h e c o s m o s g o b a c k at least to t h e B a b y l o n i a n s , a n d P l a t o h a d g i v e n a fairly c o m p r e h e n s i v e p h i l o s o p h i c a l a c c o u n t o f t h e u n i v e r s e in h i s h i g h l y influential Timaeus.

But

e v e n in t h e latter c a s e , h e g o e s o u t o f h i s w a y t o state that this is o n l y h i s b e s t g u e s s a s t o w h a t is g o i n g o n , a n d that o n e o u g h t n o t to s u p p o s e it is a definitive statement at all. M o r e t o t h e point, n o n e o f t h e N T s t a t e m e n t s a b o u t t h e c o s m o s h a s a n y t h i n g r e m o t e l y like t h e flavour o f scientific i n q u i r y a b o u t it. R a t h e r t h a n b e i n g illegitimate or distorted v e r s i o n s o f a s u p p o s e d a n c i e n t scientific c o n s e n sus, N T c o s m o l o g y s e e m s t o h a v e a n entirely different function. Could the N T writers, while gravitating towards a 'three-tiered' view of the h e a v e n s , n o t h a v e c o u n t e n a n c e d alternative s c h e m a for ' l e v e l s ' o f t h e c o s m o s , with t h e full a w a r e n e s s that t h e s e w e r e n o t m e a n t t o b e definitive a c c o u n t s o f w h a t is scientifically t h e c a s e , b u t r a t h e r w e r e e m p l o y e d b e c a u s e t h e y s e r v e d useful literary o r theological p u r p o s e s ? I f this is t h e c a s e , t h e n t h e s e a r c h for o n e definitive m o d e l o f t h e c o s m o s is d o o m e d from t h e start. Rather, w e o u g h t to r e c o g n i z e t h e latitude p e o p l e in t h e first c e n t u r y h a d to e m p l o y different m o d e l s a c c o r d i n g t o their t h e o l o g i c a l n e e d s . T h i s d o e s n o t m a r k t h e e n d o f t h e inquiry into N T c o s m o l o g y , b u t t h e p r o p e r b e g i n n i n g . D o e s t h e ' t h r e e h e a v e n s ' s c h e m e , for i n s t a n c e , refer to t h e r e g i o n s b e l o w t h e m o o n , a b o v e t h e m o o n , a n d a b o v e t h e s u n - or m i g h t it b e a tri-partite d i v i s i o n o f t h e n i g h t sky, w i t h t h e M i l k y W a y at t h e a p e x , w i t h t h e o t h e r t w o r e g i o n s d r o p p i n g into t h e n o r t h a n d south? T h e s e a r e q u e s t i o n s w e l l w o r t h a s k i n g , p r o v i d e d w e also a s k w h y P a u l m i g h t h a v e u s e d this p a r t i c u l a r s c h e m a at this p o i n t in h i s Epistle. L i k e w i s e , o n e c a n e x p l o r e t h e u s e o f huperouranos, c o m p a r e it w i t h P l a t o ' s self-consciously the soul in t h e Phaedrus.

'the above heaven', and fictionalized

fruitfully

depiction of the ascent of

W h a t w e a r e loath t o d o is t o pit t h e v a r i o u s allusions

to celestial m a t t e r s in a k i n d o f gladiatorial c o m b a t , w i t h o n e m o d e l e m e r g i n g victorious a b o v e t h e rest.

The Present

Volume

W h a t e v e r differences m a y exist b e t w e e n a n c i e n t s a n d m o d e r n s w i t h r e s p e c t t o c o n c e p t i o n s o f t h e u n i v e r s e , t h e r e is a n a g r e e m e n t that t h e c o s m o s is a large p l a c e . Yet it h a s o c c u p i e d a r e l a t i v e l y s m a l l p l a c e in f o r m a l N T study. T h e following e s s a y s h o p e to b e g i n to redress t h e b a l a n c e . I n o r d e r t o e n s u r e that n o p o t e n t i a l l y r e l e v a n t m a t e r i a l is o v e r l o o k e d , w e h a v e a d o p t e d a s u r v e y format, r a n g i n g t h r o u g h t h e c a n o n b o o k b y b o o k (or w h e r e n e c e s s a r y section b y section,

Cosmology

4

and New Testament

Theology

as in t h e P a u l i n e c o r p u s ) . O n e m i g h t easily w r i t e a m o n o g r a p h o n selected aspects of, for e x a m p l e , t h e c o s m o l o g y o f 2 Peter. It is h o p e d that t h e b r o a d strokes o f t h e p r e s e n t v o l u m e w i l l facilitate this t y p e o f detailed investigation in t h e future. A t t h e s a m e t i m e , w e h o p e t o m a k e a m a t e r i a l c o n t r i b u t i o n t o t h e field b y a consistent e m p h a s i s o n t h e theological d i m e n s i o n s o f N T c o s m o l o g y . E v e n w i t h i n this limited s p h e r e , t h e r e is a m p l e r o o m for d i s a g r e e m e n t , a n d w e will w e l c o m e alternative e x p l a n a t i o n s o f h o w t h e N e w T e s t a m e n t w r i t e r s t h o u g h t a b o u t t h e w o r l d a r o u n d t h e m ; ' i n a m u l t i t u d e o f c o u n s e l l o r s t h e r e is s a f e t y ' ( P r o v . 11.14). O u r collection b e g i n s w i t h E d d i e A d a m s ' erudite o v e r v i e w o f a n c i e n t c o s m o l o g i c a l a n d c o s m o g o n i c a l p o s i t i o n s . F o l l o w i n g this, o u r v a r i o u s essayists systematically w o r k their w a y t h r o u g h t h e N T c a n o n , a s k i n g t h e s i m p l e q u e s tion: W h a t c o s m o l o g i c a l l a n g u a g e a n d c o n c e p t s d o e s this a u t h o r e m p l o y , a n d h o w d o e s this c o s m o l o g y i n f o r m a n d affect t h e a u t h o r ' s t h e o l o g i c a l p o i n t ( s ) ? W e h a v e intentionally g i v e n m u c h latitude to t h e c o n t r i b u t o r s , n o t requir i n g a set structure o r p a t t e r n for t h e e s s a y s . A s a result, t h e e s s a y s follow the expertise a n d interest o f t h e s c h o l a r s a n d t o u c h o n a w i d e v a r i e t y o f theological topics in t h e N T . Yet, e v e n m o r e t h a n w a s anticipated at t h e outset, t h e r e are several consistent a n d crucial t h e m e s that b u b b l e to t h e t o p in a l m o s t e v e r y treatment. T h e s e i n c l u d e t h e foundational duality o f h e a v e n a n d earth, t h e w a y in w h i c h c o s m o l o g i c a l l a n g u a g e serves to form Christian identity, c o m m u n i t y a n d w o r l d view, a n d t h e e v e r - p r e s e n t h o p e o f t h e e s c h a t o n , itself inevitably d e s c r i b e d in c o s m o l o g i c a l t e r m s . A l l o f t h e studies confirm o u r initial i m p r e s sion: t h e N T a u t h o r s r e g u l a r l y e m p l o y c o s m o l o g i c a l l a n g u a g e ( m o r e t h a n h a s b e e n r e c o g n i z e d in t h e p a s t ) a n d w h e n t h e y d o so it is a l w a y s for t h e p u r p o s e o f m a k i n g i m p o r t a n t theological, p o l e m i c a l a n d exhortational p o i n t s . Weltbild a n d Weltanschauung

a r e inextricably a n d substantially intertwined.

F o r their a s s i s t a n c e in p r e p a r i n g t h e m a n u s c r i p t , t h e a u t h o r s w o u l d like t o thank: Stefan M c B r i d e , J a m e s D a r l a c k , C a m e r o n M o r a n a n d Elisa D o n n e l l y ; a n d from C o n t i n u u m , D o m i n i c M a t t o s , J o a n n a K r a m e r , Patricia H a r d c a s t l e a n d David Sanders.

1 G R A E C O - R O M A N A N D ANCIENT JEWISH COSMOLOGY

Edward Adams

C o s m o l o g y s e e k s t o e x p l a i n t h e origin, structure a n d d e s t i n y o f t h e p h y s i c a l u n i v e r s e . C o s m o l o g i c a l c o n c e r n s o c c u p i e d major thinkers o f G r e e k a n d R o m a n antiquity. Q u e s t i o n s w h i c h h a v e e x e r c i s e d c o s m o l o g i s t s in m o d e r n t i m e s w e r e 1

r e h e a r s e d l o n g a g o b y t h e p h i l o s o p h e r s o f a n c i e n t G r e e c e . Is t h e c o s m o s static or d e v e l o p i n g ? If t h e u n i v e r s e h a d a b e g i n n i n g (in t i m e ) , h o w d i d it e m e r g e ? W h a t is its size a n d c o m p o s i t i o n ? Is it finite o r b o u n d l e s s ? H o w is m a t t e r d i s tributed in t h e u n i v e r s e ? D o e s t h e u n i v e r s e s h o w signs o f intelligent d e s i g n ? O r is o u r w o r l d t h e p r o d u c t o f c h a n c e e v e n t s ? W h a t will b e t h e u l t i m a t e fate o f t h e u n i v e r s e ? R e c e n t l y p r o p o s e d m o d e l s o f t h e e m e r g e n c e , e v o l u t i o n a n d future o f t h e c o s m o s h a v e their p r e c e d e n t s in a n c i e n t theories. T h e cyclic, e k p y r o t i c theory o f scientists P a u l Steinhardt a n d N e i l Turok, a c c o r d i n g to w h i c h t h e u n i v e r s e e x p e r i e n c e s a n e n d l e s s series o f c o s m i c eras b e g i n n i n g w i t h a ' b i g 2

b a n g ' a n d e n d i n g in a ' b i g c r u n c h ' , is a c o n t e m p o r a r y r e v i v a l o f t h e Stoic v i e w o f c o s m i c c y c l e s . T h e cyclic c o s m o l o g y a d v a n c e d b y physicists L a u r i s B a u m a n d P a u l F r a m p t o n , w h i c h h a s it that o u r u n i v e r s e will shatter into s m i t h e r e e n s in a n e v e n t called t h e ' b i g r i p ' , w i t h e a c h s h a r d g o i n g into t h e formation o f n e w 3

u n i v e r s e s , h a s a p r e c u r s o r in t h e ancient A t o m i c t h e o r y o f the g e n e r a t i o n a n d destruction o f u n i v e r s e s . T h e O l d T e s t a m e n t c o n t a i n s m a t e r i a l o f a c o s m o l o g i c a l n a t u r e , t h o u g h it lacks a 'scientific' c o s m o l o g y o f t h e k i n d d e v e l o p e d , from t h e sixth c e n t u r y BCE o n w a r d in a n c i e n t G r e e c e . O l d T e s t a m e n t w r i t e r s a r e n o t r e a l l y i n t e r e s t e d in c o s m o l o g y for its o w n s a k e ; o n e m i g h t s a y that t h e k i n d o f c o s m o l o g i c a l reflec tion w e find in t h e O l d T e s t a m e n t is m o r e theological c o s m o l o g y . S o m e other early J e w i s h w r i t e r s , t h o u g h , d o i n d u l g e in a m o r e speculative ( a n d m y s t i c a l ) style o f c o s m o l o g y . C o s m o l o g i c a l interest is especially e v i d e n t in t h e J e w i s h a p o c a l y p t i c literature.

1. See M. R Wright, Cosmology in Antiquity (London: Routledge, 1995). 2. R J. Steinhardt and N. Turok, 'Cosmic Evolution in a Cyclic Universe', Physical Review (web-based journal) D65 126003 2002. 3. L. Baum and R Frampton, 'Turnaround in Cyclic Cosmology', Physical Review Letters (web-based journal) 98.071301 (16 Feb 2007).

6

Cosmology

and New Testament

Theology

T h i s e s s a y is a s u r v e y o f G r a e c o - R o m a n a n d a n c i e n t J e w i s h c o s m o l o g y , setting t h e s c e n e for t h e c h a p t e r s that follow o n t h e N e w T e s t a m e n t . T h e first a n d l o n g e r p a r t d e a l s w i t h G r a e c o - R o m a n v i e w s ; t h e s e c o n d l o o k s at t h e O l d T e s t a m e n t a n d early J e w i s h material.

1. Graeco-Roman

Cosmology

Scientific study o f the fabric o f the universe b e g a n in G r e e c e in the sixth century BCE, w i t h t h e w o r k o f t h e Ionian, or M i l e s i a n , natural p h i l o s o p h e r s ; b u t t h e r e w a s b y this t i m e a l o n g tradition o f a s t r o n o m i c a l interest a n d i d e a s a b o u t t h e structure o f t h e u n i v e r s e in M e s o p o t a m i a (especially B a b y l o n i a ) a n d E g y p t , a n d some important astronomical discoveries had already been made. For example, from a r o u n d t h e thirteenth c e n t u r y BCE, t h e E g y p t i a n s h a d identified t h e five p l a n e t s visible to t h e n a k e d e y e ( M e r c u r y , V e n u s , M a r s , Jupiter a n d Saturn) a n d 4

o v e r forty stellar constellations, i n c l u d i n g t h e signs o f t h e Z o d i a c . T h e r e w e r e also in circulation v a r i o u s p o p u l a r m y t h i c a l a c c o u n t s o f h o w t h e w o r l d c a m e t o b e . H e s i o d ' s Theogony

( o n w h i c h see b e l o w ) is to s o m e extent a synthesis o f

(competing) archaic cosmogonical myths. G r e e k cosmological enquiry, from the sixth century BCE o n w a r d s , w a s b a s e d o n the recognition that the external universe is a well-ordered s y s t e m a n d t h e conviction that this order is o p e n to rational analysis a n d explanation. It w a s t h e strong sense that the early G r e e k philosophers h a d o f the w o r l d ' s orderliness that p r o m p t e d t h e application o f the w o r d kosmos

(KOO|JOS),

w h i c h h a d the p r i m a r y

sense o f ' o r d e r ' , to the physical universe. In early G r e e k u s a g e , the t e r m w a s u s e d with reference to specific types o f social orderings, such as t h e seating order o f r o w e r s ( H o m e r , Od. 13.77), the order o f soldiers (Homer, 77. 12.225) a n d w e l l ordered political states such as Sparta ( H e r o d o t u s 1.65). It w a s also u s e d for order 5

in a general sense (Herodotus 2.52; 9.59). A c c o r d i n g to Charles K a h n , the t e r m w a s applied to the c o s m i c order ' b y conscious analogy w i t h the g o o d order o f 6

s o c i e t y ' . Initially, kosmos w a s e m p l o y e d for the order exhibited b y the universe, a n d then, b y extension, it c a m e to designate the universe itself as a well-ordered 7

s y s t e m . O n e ancient tradition ( D i o g e n e s Laertius 8.48) accords P y t h a g o r a s the distinction o f b e i n g the first to call t h e universe b y the n a m e o f kosmos,

but w e

cannot b e certain that h e w a s responsible for this semantic m o v e . B y the time o f Plato in t h e fourth century BCE, kosmos w a s w e l l established as a technical t e r m

4. Wright, Cosmology, p. 15. 5. These earlier non-cosmological senses did not fall into disuse after the cosmological usage took off, but carried on alongside it. 6. C. H. Kahn, Anaximander and the Origins of Greek Cosmology (New York: Columbia University Press, 1960), p. 223. 7. See further E. Adams, Constructing the World: A Study in Paul's Cosmological Language (SNTW; Edinburgh: T&T Clark, 2000), pp. 44-6; Kahn, Anaximander, pp. 219-30; G. Vlastos, Plato's Universe (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1975), pp. 3-22.

1.

Graeco-Roman

and Ancient Jewish

Cosmology

7

8

for the u n i v e r s e ( w h i c h w a s also designated b y t h e expressions, ' t h e w h o l e ' , TO

bAov, ' t h e a l l ' ,

T O TTCCV,

'all t h i n g s ' ,

TTCCVTO:,

a n d ' h e a v e n ' , oupccvos). T h e

ancient G r e e k s s a w b e a u t y in order. In addition to its various senses relating to order, the w o r d kosmos

h a d the aesthetic senses ' d e c o r a t i o n ' a n d ' a d o r n m e n t '

(especially the a d o r n m e n t o f w o m e n , e.g., H o m e r , 77. 14.187; H e r o d o t u s 5.92). W h e n applied to the physical world, therefore, kosmos

9

n o t only c o n v e y e d the

idea o f a well-arranged structure, it indicated that t h e orderliness displayed in the universe w a s a ' b e a u t y - e n h a n c i n g o r d e r ' .

10

T h e early G r e e k natural philosophers

o f antiquity w e r e profoundly a w a r e that w e live in an 'elegant u n i v e r s e ' .

11

T h e earliest p i c t u r e o f t h e c o s m o s w e e n c o u n t e r in G r e e k literature is that a s s u m e d in t h e e p i c p o e m s o f H o m e r , t h e Iliad a n d t h e Odyssey.

T h e e a r t h is

v i e w e d a s a circular, flat disc s u r r o u n d e d b y t h e g r e a t r i v e r O c e a n (77. 1 8 . 6 0 7 ; cf. H e r o d o t u s 4 . 8 ) , a n d t h e s k y as a b o w l - l i k e h e m i s p h e r e o f b r o n z e o r i r o n (77. 5 . 5 0 4 ; 1 7 . 4 2 5 ; Od. 1 5 . 3 2 9 ) , c o v e r i n g t h e flat earth. B e l o w its surface, t h e e a r t h e x t e n d s d o w n w a r d s as far as Tartarus (77. 8.14). A n a x i m a n d e r , in t h e s i x t h c e n t u r y BCE, p i c t u r e d t h e e a r t h a s c y l i n d r i c a l in s h a p e , like a c o l u m n d r u m , h a n g i n g w i t h o u t s u p p o r t in t h e s u r r o u n d i n g a i r .

12

In t h e fourth c e n t u r y

BCE, w i t h P l a t o , E u d o x u s a n d e s p e c i a l l y A r i s t o t l e , t h e ' c l a s s i c a l ' v i e w o f t h e c o s m o s t o o k s h a p e ; this v i e w w a s g i v e n its definitive e x p r e s s i o n b y P t o l e m y in his Almagest

( m e a n i n g ' t h e G r e a t e s t ' ) w r i t t e n in t h e s e c o n d c e n t u r y CE. A c c o r d

ing to t h e Aristotelian c o s m i c m o d e l , t h e earth lies at t h e centre o f t h e c o s m o s , surrounded by a n u m b e r of concentric, rotating spheres, to which the sun, m o o n a n d p l a n e t s are a t t a c h e d (see further b e l o w ) . T h e o u t e r m o s t s p h e r e o f t h e c o s m i c s y s t e m is that o f t h e fixed stars. T h i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e structure o f t h e u n i v e r s e , in its P t o l e m a i c form, p r e v a i l e d until C o p e r n i c u s in the sixteenth century. A h e l i o c e n t r i c p i c t u r e o f t h e c o s m o s w a s p r o p o s e d b y A r i s t a r c h u s o f S a m o s ( b . c. 3 2 0 BCE), b u t this w a s a l m o s t u n i v e r s a l l y r e j e c t e d .

13

A s u r v e y o f G r e e k a n d Hellenistic c o s m o l o g i c a l t h o u g h t s h o u l d b e g i n w i t h the p o e t H e s i o d , w h o lived a r o u n d 7 0 0 BCE. H e s i o d b r i d g e s t h e m y t h o l o g i z i n g o f h i s p r e d e c e s s o r s a n d t h e rationalizing o f his p h i l o s o p h i c a l s u c c e s s o r s . 1.1.

Hesiod

H e s i o d ' s Theogony

(Birth of the Gods) is a g e n e a l o g y o f t h e g o d s o f G r e e c e ,

i n t e r w o v e n w i t h e p i s o d e s in t h e tale o f the s u c c e s s i o n o f d i v i n e k i n g s . T h e 8. Plato, Phileb. 29e; Polit. 269d; cf. Xenophon, Mem. 1.1.11. 9. It is from kosmos in the sense of 'adornment* that we get the English words 'cosmetic', 'cosmetics', 'cosmetician'. 10. Vlastos,Plato's Universe, p. 3. Cf. Plato, Tim. 30a. 11. B. Greene, The Elegant Universe: Superstrings, Hidden Dimensions, and the Quest for the Ultimate Theory (London: Jonathan Cape, 1999). 12. G. S. Kirk, J. E. Raven and M. Schofield, The Presocratic Philosophers: A Critical History with a Selection of Texts (2nd edn; Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983), texts nos. 122-4, pp. 133-4. 13. Wright, Cosmology, pp. 153-6.

Cosmology

8

and New Testament

Theology

p o e m , w r i t t e n in t h e E p i c style, is set forth as a s o n g t a u g h t to H e s i o d b y t h e M u s e s w h e n t h e y a p p e a r e d to h i m o n M o u n t H e l i k o n (Theog.

1-32), w h i c h

g i v e s it t h e c h a r a c t e r o f a k i n d o f d i v i n e revelation. T h e c o m p o s i t i o n is p a r t l y a n a t t e m p t t o c o m b i n e v a r i o u s l o n g s t a n d i n g m y t h s a b o u t t h e g o d s into a c o m m o n narrative. It t r a c e s t h e history o f t h e g o d s from t h e b e g i n n i n g t o t h e established a n d u n c o n t e s t e d r e i g n o f Z e u s . T h e first g o d s are personifications o f t h e m a i n c o m p o n e n t s o f t h e c o s m o s , s o their a p p e a r a n c e constitutes t h e f o r m a t i o n o f the p h y s i c a l w o r l d . First c a m e C h a o s . After C h a o s c a m e Earth, Tartarus a n d E r o s . C h a o s t h e n p r o d u c e d E r e b o s ( d a r k p l a c e ) a n d N i g h t (night). F r o m t h e m c a m e A i t h e r (brightness) a n d H e m e r a ( d a y ) . E a r t h b r o u g h t forth O u r a n o s ( h e a v e n ) , m o u n t a i n s a n d sea. A striking feature o f this c o s m o g o n y is the p r i m a c y o f C h a o s . W h a t H e s i o d m e a n t b y ' C h a o s ' w a s t h e subject o f m u c h a n c i e n t d i s c u s s i o n a n d c o n t i n u e s to b e d e b a t e d . A n attractive ( t h o u g h n o t u n p r o b l e m a t i c ) s u g g e s t i o n is that it refers t o t h e g a p b e t w e e n t h e s k y a n d earth, w h i c h w o u l d m a k e t h e first stage o f creation t h e s e p a r a t i o n o f w h a t w a s formerly o n e m a s s .

1 4

The idea of

t h e s e p a r a t i o n o f a n originally indistinct earth a n d s k y w a s a w e l l - e s t a b l i s h e d feature o f A n c i e n t N e a r E a s t e r n ( A N E ) c o s m o g o n i e s .

15

T h e rest o f t h e g o d s in t h e g e n e a l o g y a r e m o s t l y a n t h r o p o m o r p h i c m y t h i c a l p e r s o n a g e s . T h e Titans, t h e y o u n g e s t o f w h o m is C r o n o s , t h e C y c l o p e s a n d t h e h u n d r e d - h a n d e d giants a r e t h e offspring o f E a r t h a n d O u r a n o s . T h e O l y m p i a n g o d s , t h e y o u n g e s t o f w h o m is Z e u s , a r e t h e children o f C r o n o s a n d his sister Rhea. T h e c l a s h b e t w e e n t h e T i t a n s a n d t h e O l y m p i a n s , a n d t h e later conflict b e t w e e n Z e u s a n d T y p h o e u s , t a k e s t h e w o r l d t o e d g e o f total collapse. H e s i o d e m p l o y s colourful i m a g e r y o f c o s m i c c a t a s t r o p h e to d e p i c t t h e battles o f t h e d i v i n i t i e s (Theog.

6 7 8 - 7 0 5 , 8 4 7 - 6 8 ) . W i t h all o p p o s i t i o n v a n q u i s h e d , Z e u s

secures t h e stable e x i s t e n c e o f t h e c o s m o s . H e s i o d s e e m s t o s u g g e s t that t h e earth is everlasting (Theog.

116-17). P h i l o ( o n w h o m see b e l o w ) r e g a r d s h i m

as t h e father o f t h e P l a t o n i c d o c t r i n e that t h e w o r l d is c r e a t e d a n d indestructible (Aet. Mund.

1.2. The

17).

Milesians

It w a s in t h e h a r b o u r c i t y a n d t r a d i n g c e n t r e o f M i l e t u s , in t h e r e g i o n o f I o n i a , d u r i n g t h e s i x t h c e n t u r y BCE, t h a t t h e first G r e e k a t t e m p t s t o g i v e a r a t i o n a l , non-mythological account of the structure of the cosmos were made. T h e pio n e e r i n g figures w e r e T h a l e s , A n a x i m a n d e r a n d A n a x i m e n e s .

1 6

These thinkers

m a i n t a i n e d that t h e u n i v e r s e o r i g i n a t e d from a single g e n e r a t i v e p r i n c i p l e o r arche.

T h e y e x p l a i n e d t h e e m e r g e n c e o f t h e c o s m o s in b i o l o g i c a l t e r m s , a s

14. Kirk, Raven and Schofield, Presocratic Philosophers, p. 39. 15. Ibid., pp. 4 3 ^ . 16. None of the writings of the Presocratic philosophers has survived. Their teachings are only known from fragments, reports and summaries.

1. Graeco-Roman

and Ancient Jewish

Cosmology

9

growth from a seed. T h e Milesians w e r e hylozoists: they believed that the c o s m o s is a n i m a t e . F o r T h a l e s , w h o m A r i s t o t l e identifies a s t h e f o u n d e r o f t h e arche t y p e o f c o s m o g o n y , t h e o r i g i n a t i n g p r i n c i p l e w a s w a t e r .

17

Thales also 1 8

s e e m s t o h a v e t a u g h t t h a t t h e e a r t h floats like a p i e c e o f a w o o d .

H e appar

e n t l y p r e d i c t e d t h e o c c u r r e n c e o f a s o l a r e c l i p s e in t h e c o u r s e o f a p a r t i c u l a r 19

year, a n d h i s p r e d i c t i o n c a m e t r u e . H o w h e m a n a g e d t o d o s o is still d e b a t e d . A n a x i m a n d e r h e l d that t h e s e e d from w h i c h t h e u n i v e r s e g r e w w a s s e c r e t e d b y 20

a n i n d e t e r m i n a t e e n t i t y w h i c h h e c a l l e d ' t h e b o u n d l e s s ' (apeirori).

H e con

t e n d e d that t h e w o r l d ' s o r d e r is m a i n t a i n e d b y t h e i n t e r a c t i o n o f o p p o s i t e s .

21

T h e r e a r e r h y t h m i c a l shifts b e t w e e n , o n t h e o n e h a n d , h e a t a n d d r o u g h t , a n d o n t h e other, c o l d n e s s a n d r a i n , a s in t h e s e a s o n s o f s u m m e r a n d w i n t e r , b u t a n o v e r a l l e q u i l i b r i u m is m a i n t a i n e d b e c a u s e o f a c e r t a i n j u s t i c e in t h e n a t u r e o f t h i n g s that p r e v e n t s o n e o f t h e o p p o s i n g forces from g a i n i n g c o m p l e t e ascendancy.

22

A n a x i m e n e s , like T h a l e s , t o o k t h e arche o f t h e c o s m o s t o b e a

m a t e r i a l p r i n c i p l e , b u t h e identified t h e s u b s t a n c e a s air. H e m a i n t a i n e d t h a t t h e p h y s i c a l e l e m e n t s c o u l d b e e x p l a i n e d a s t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s o f air. T h u s air, b y r a r e f a c t i o n , c h a n g e s i n t o fire, a n d t h r o u g h c o n d e n s a t i o n c h a n g e s i n t o w a t e r and earth.

23

T h e M i l e s i a n s a p p a r e n t l y b e l i e v e d that t h e c o s m o s w o u l d e v e n t u a l l y return to t h e p r i n c i p l e o u t o f w h i c h it a r o s e ; t h u s g e n e r a t i o n w o u l d b e m a t c h e d b y dissolution at t h e e n d o f its natural l i f e .

24

T h e r e is a tradition w h i c h states that

the M i l e s i a n s , o r A n a x i m a n d e r at least, h e l d to a cyclic v i e w o f c o s m i c history, a c c o r d i n g to w h i c h t h e c o s m o s is g e n e r a t e d , d i s s o l v e d a n d g e n e r a t e d a g a i n in endless cycles.

25

B u t w e c a n n o t b e sure that t h e I o n i a n s t h e m s e l v e s e s p o u s e d

such a scheme.

17. Aristotle, Met. 983b6. Aristotle, who is our only source of information on this point, presents Thales as teaching that all things were made of water and that water continues as the material substrate of all things. It is possible, though, that what Thales actually taught was that the earth emerged from water, and that he was simply reflecting the belief that the earth rose out of the primaeval ocean, found in ANE cosmogony and also in Homer (77. 14.201,246). But, on the other hand, Thales could well have transformed the mythological notion into a physical theory. Anaximenes, his successor, certainly believed that air was the actual material source and substrate of everything, and it is generally assumed that he was pursuing a line of reasoning instigated by Thales. See the discussion in Kirk, Raven and Schofield, Presocratic Philosophers, pp. 88-95. 18. Aristotle, de Caelo 294a28. 19. Kirk, Raven and Schofield, Presocratic Philosophers, pp. 81-2. 20. text no. 101. 21. Ibid., text no. 110 (the extantfragmentof Anaximander). On the role of the opposites in the process of world-formation, see text nos. 118,119,121. 22. Ibid., pp. 119-20. 23. Ibid., pp. 144^8. 24. So Aristotle in Afef. 983b6. 25. Eusebius, Ev. Praep. 1.7.

Cosmology

10

1.3. Heraclitus,

and New Testament

Parmenides,

Empedocles

and

Theology

Anaxagoras

H e r a c l i t u s (c. 5 4 0 - 4 8 0 BCE) s p o k e o f t h e w o r l d - o r d e r as u n m a d e : 'it a l w a y s 26

w a s a n d is a n d shall b e : a n e v e r l i v i n g fire'.

H e c o n c e i v e d o f fire as t h e b a s i c

form o f m a t t e r , t h o u g h it w a s n o t a n o r i g i n a t i n g s u b s t a n c e a s w a t e r a n d air w e r e for T h a l e s a n d A n a x i m e n e s .

2 7

A l t h o u g h later Stoics a s c r i b e d t o h i m their

d o c t r i n e o f t h e p e r i o d i c d e s t r u c t i o n a n d r e g e n e r a t i o n o f t h e c o s m o s b y fire, this fragment o f his t e a c h i n g s e e m s t o i n v a l i d a t e t h e attribution a n d r a t h e r indicates that h e t o o k t h e v i e w that t h e w o r l d h a d n e i t h e r b e g i n n i n g n o r e n d .

28

He was

thus a n early p r o p o n e n t o f t h e ' s t e a d y - s t a t e ' v i e w o f t h e u n i v e r s e . F i r e , w h i c h is the u n d e r l y i n g s u b s t r a t e , e a r t h a n d s e a a r e t h e three m a i n c o s m i c c o n s t i t u e n t s .

29

T r a n s f o r m a t i o n s b e t w e e n t h e s e t h r e e m a s s e s a r e g o i n g o n all t h e t i m e , b u t in such a w a y to preserve the quantity o f each, and to maintain the stability of the w h o l e . H e r a c l i t u s s p o k e o f t h e logos ( X o y o s ) as t h e p r i n c i p l e o f u n i t y a n d 30

b a l a n c e . T h i s logos is a c c e s s i b l e t o all, t h o u g h t h e m a j o r i t y fail t o c o m p r e h e n d it. P a r m e n i d e s o f E l e a ( b o r a c. 5 1 4 ) is o n e o f t h e m o s t c o m p l e x a n d intrigu i n g P r e s o c r a t i c p h i l o s o p h e r s . H i s c o s m o l o g i c a l v i e w s w e r e e x p r e s s e d in a p o e m t h a t h a s n o t b e e n p r e s e r v e d in its totality. T h e p o e m falls i n t o t w o p a r t s , c o m m o n l y l a b e l l e d , ' T h e W a y o f T r u t h ' a n d ' T h e W a y o f O p i n i o n ' . In t h e first, P a r m e n i d e s insists that o b j e c t i v e truth c a n n o t b e a r r i v e d at v i a s e n s o r y p e r c e p t i o n , s i n c e t h e s e n s e s c a n n o t b e trusted. R a t h e r , j u d g e m e n t s a b o u t w h a t is t r u e m u s t b e m a d e b y r e a s o n a l o n e . O n logical g r o u n d s , o n l y w h a t ' i s ' c a n be the proper subject of h u m a n thought and discourse; w h a t 'is n o t ' must b e excluded.

31

S i n c e w h a t ' i s ' is n o t subject t o c h a n g e , that w h i c h e x i s t s , i.e., t h e

u n i v e r s e , is c o n t i n u o u s a n d i n d i v i s i b l e , u n c r e a t e d a n d i m p e r i s h a b l e .

32

In t h e

s e c o n d p a r t , h o w e v e r , P a r m e n i d e s c o n s t r u c t s a c o s m o l o g y ( i n v o l v i n g t h e allp e r v a s i v e n e s s o f light a n d n i g h t ) p r e c i s e l y o n t h e b a s i s o f s e n s o r y o b s e r v a t i o n a n d t h e o p i n i o n o f m o r t a l s , t h e a p p r o a c h h e h a s j u s t rejected. H o w t h e s e t w o s e c t i o n s o f t h e p o e m a r e m e a n t t o r e l a t e t o e a c h o t h e r is n o t o r i o u s l y unclear. S u c c e e d i n g G r e e k p h i l o s o p h e r s g e n e r a l l y t o o k ' T h e W a y o f T r u t h ' as r e p r e s e n t i n g P a r m e n i d e s ' f u n d a m e n t a l p o s i t i o n . S i n c e his a r g u m e n t h e r e s t y m i e s empirical enquiry into the nature of the cosmos, subsequent natural philoso p h e r s w h o w a n t e d t o follow t h e e m p i r i c a l r o u t e h a d t o a n s w e r P a r m e n i d e s ' objection or circumvent it.

33

26. Kirk, Raven and Schofield, Presocratic Philosophers, text no. 217 (= Heraclitus,fr.30). 27. Ibid., p. 198. 28. Kahn, Anaximander, pp. 225-6; J. V. Luce, An Introduction to Greek Philosophy (London: Thames and Hudson, 1992), p. 44. 29. Kirk, Raven and Schofield, Presocratic Philosophers, text no. 218. 30. Ibid., pp. 186-8. 31. 76K/., text no. 291. 32. Ibid., pp. 249-53. 33. Luce, Introduction, pp. 54-5.

1. Graeco-Roman

and Ancient Jewish

Cosmology

11

E m p e d o c l e s m a i n t a i n e d that t h e c o s m o s d e r i v e s from t h e four e l e m e n t s or ' r o o t s ' a s h e called t h e m , earth, air, fire a n d w a t e r .

34

H e rejected P a r m e n i d e s '

d i s a l l o w a n c e o f t h e c o n c e p t o f c h a n g e , a n d s a w c h a n g e in t h e n a t u r a l w o r l d as influenced b y t h e o p p o s i n g forces o f ' l o v e ' (attraction) a n d ' s t r i f e ' ( r e p u l s i o n ) . F o l l o w i n g A r i s t o t l e ' s interpretation o f h i m (de Caelo

35

1.10), E m p e d o c l e s is

u s u a l l y s e e n a s p r o p o u n d i n g a cyclic c o s m o l o g y , a n d t h e r e l e v a n t e x t a n t

frag

m e n t s o f his w o r k h a v e b e e n r e a d in this light. O n a c o n v e n t i o n a l u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f E m p e d o c l e s ' c o s m o l o g y , t h e w o r l d alternates b e t w e e n t h e total a s c e n d a n c y of love and the complete domination of strife.

36

A t t h e h e i g h t o f l o v e , t h e ele

m e n t s a r e c o m p l e t e l y a m a l g a m a t e d , a n d t h e r e is n o distinction b e t w e e n earth, sea, etc. W h e n strife is d o m i n a n t , t h e e l e m e n t s a r e c o m p l e t e l y s e p a r a t e . A w o r l d - a r r a n g e m e n t s u c h a s w e h a v e at p r e s e n t is p o s s i b l e d u r i n g t w o p h a s e s o f t h e c y c l e , w h e n l o v e is in p r o c e s s o f a s c e n d i n g , or w h e n strife is i n c r e a s ing. H o w e v e r , in r e c e n t y e a r s , s o m e E m p e d o c l e a n s c h o l a r s h a v e rejected t h e ' c o s m i c ' interpretation o f E m p e d o c l e s ' cycle, a r g u i n g that h e w a s r a t h e r talking a b o u t t h e r e g u l a r c y c l e s o f n a t u r e , w i t h i n a fixed a n d stable c o s m o s .

37

Certainly,

E m p e d o c l e s v i e w e d t h e w o r l d as h a v i n g a birth. A r e m a r k a b l e feature o f h i s t h e o r y o f origins is his a c c o u n t o f t h e e v o l u t i o n o f a n i m a l a n d h u m a n life, w h i c h in a c r u d e w a y anticipates t h e D a r w i n i a n e x p l a n a t i o n .

38

A n a x a g o r a s (c. 500-^428) s h a r e d t h e v i e w o f h i s p r e d e c e s s o r s t h a t it is ' q u i t e i m p o s s i b l e that a n y t h i n g s h o u l d c o m e into b e i n g from t h e n o n - e x i s t e n t o r b e d i s s o l v e d into i t ' .

39

In h i s o p i n i o n , t h e c o s m o s is c o m p o s e d o f a n infinite n u m b e r

o f ' s e e d s ' o f v a r i o u s s u b s t a n c e s , e a c h o f w h i c h c o n t a i n s at t h e s a m e t i m e a tiny p o r t i o n of e v e r y o t h e r s u b s t a n c e .

40

Initially e x i s t i n g in a p r i m e v a l m i x t u r e ,

M i n d (nous) set in m o t i o n a p r o c e s s w h i c h s p r e a d a n d s e p a r a t e d t h e s e e d s , s u c h as h o t a n d cot, d r y a n d w e t , f o r m i n g t h e o r d e r e d u n i v e r s e that w e e x p e r i e n c e .

41

A n a x a g o r a s c o n c e i v e d o f M i n d as a q u a s i - a u t o n o m o u s , a l l - p e r v a d i n g force, b u t h e a v o i d s s u g g e s t i n g that it is g o d .

42

H i s successor, D i o g e n e s o f A p o l l o n i a

(fl. 4 4 0 - 3 0 BCE) identified t h e c o s m i c intelligence w i t h air, w h i c h following A n a x a m e n e s h e t o o k t o b e t h e m a t e r i a l s o u r c e o f all t h i n g s . D i o g e n e s t o o k t h e step o f calling t h e directing intelligence ' g o d ' .

4 3

34. Kirk, Raven and Schofield, Presocratic Philosophers, text nos. 346-7. 35. Ibid., text no. 348 (= Empedocles fr. 17.1-13). 36. Luce, Introduction, pp. 63-4. 37. See D. J. Furley, The Greek Cosmologists. Volume 1: The Formation of the Atomic Theory and its Earliest Critics (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987), pp. 101-2. 38. Kirk, Raven and Schofield, Presocratic Philosophers, pp. 302-5. 39. Ibid., text no. 496. 40. Ibid., pp. 365-8,376-8. 41. Ibid., pp. 362-5. 42. Wright, Cosmology, p. 171. 43. Kirk, Raven and Schofield, Presocratic Philosophers, text no. 603.

Cosmology

12

1.4.

and New Testament

Theology

TheAtomists

T h e A t o m i s t s , L e u c i p p u s a n d h i s y o u n g e r but m o r e w e l l - k n o w n c o n t e m p o r a r y D e m o c r i t u s , rejected t h e i d e a that t h e u n i v e r s e a r o s e from a single m a t e r i a l p r i n ciple, s u c h as w a t e r or air. In their v i e w , t h e c o s m o s is m a d e u p o f indestructible particles o f m a t t e r called a t o m s (atomon

m e a n i n g ' u n c u t t a b l e ' ) . T h e s e particles

are o f different sizes a n d s h a p e s b u t a r e s o tiny that they are b e l o w the threshold o f visibility. A t o m s are infinite in n u m b e r a n d m o v e r a n d o m l y in infinite s p a c e or v o i d .

44

T h e y collide, b o u n c e b a c k a n d interlock t o form a g g r e g a t e s that c a n

be seen and touched. The ordered cosmos came about w h e n a mass of atoms collected in a r e g i o n o f t h e v o i d . T h e i r collisions c a u s e d a v o r t e x or w h i r l w i n d a n d t h e a t o m s b e g a n a t t a c h i n g t h e m s e l v e s t o e a c h o t h e r t o form c o m p o u n d s . T h e h e a v i e r c o m p o u n d s collected at t h e centre t h u s f o r m i n g t h e earth. T h e lighter c o m p o u n d s , ignited b y t h e w h i r l i n g m o t i o n , f o r m e d t h e s u b s t a n c e o f t h e celestial b o d i e s .

45

T h i s w o r l d c a m e into b e i n g b y c h a n c e a n d necessity; there

w a s n o c o s m i c intelligence d i r e c t i n g t h e p h y s i c a l p r o c e s s e s . O u r c o s m o s is o n e o f m a n y kosmoi

in infinite s p a c e . L e u c i p p u s a n d D e m

ocritus m a i n t a i n e d that t h e r e a r e i n n u m e r a b l e w o r l d s , differing in size, s h a p e and constituency.

46

S o m e w o r l d s h a v e n o sun a n d m o o n , in others t h e celestial

l u m i n a r i e s a r e larger t h a n in o u r w o r l d , a n d in others t h e y a r e m o r e n u m e r o u s . Worlds a r e at v a r i o u s stages o f g r o w t h : s o m e a r e j u s t in p r o c e s s o f e m e r g i n g , s o m e a r e fully d e v e l o p e d , a n d s o m e a r e n e a r i n g their end. S i n c e all c o m p o u n d s are inherently destructible, o u r c o s m o s a n d all o t h e r w o r l d s will e v e n t u a l l y b e destroyed. L e u c i p p u s a n d D e m o c r i t u s b e l i e v e d that a c o s m o s is d e s t r o y e d w h e n it c l a s h e s w i t h a n o t h e r c o s m o s . T h e particles o f a shattered c o s m o s g o into t h e formation o f n e w w o r l d s .

1.5.

Plato

Plato d i s m i s s e d t h e A t o m i s t s ' v i e w that o u r c o s m o s is o n e o f a n infinite n u m b e r o f accidentally c a u s e d w o r l d s . H e insisted o n t h e singularity a n d u n i q u e n e s s o f o u r c o s m o s , a n d m a i n t a i n e d that t h e o r d e r m a n i f e s t e d in t h e c o s m o s w a s n o t there b y c h a n c e b u t h a s b e e n i m p o s e d u p o n it b y a d i v i n e intelligence. P l a t o set o u t h i s c o s m o l o g y in detail in h i s t r e a t i s e , t h e Timaeus,

which

b e c a m e t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t a n d influential c o s m o l o g i c a l w o r k in a n t i q u i t y .

47

In

this w r i t i n g , P l a t o d r a w s a distinction b e t w e e n t h e r e a l m o f b e i n g a n d the r e a l m o f b e c o m i n g . T h e former is t h e r e a l m o f i d e a s , w h i c h is eternal, u n c h a n g i n g a n d accessible t o r e a s o n ; t h e latter is t h e r e a l m o f s e n s e - p e r c e p t i o n , t h e visible

44. Ibid., pp. 413-16. 45. Ibid., text no. 563. 46. Ibid., text no. 565. 47. See D. T. Runia, Philo ofAlexandria and the Timaeus of Plato (Philosophia Antiqua 44; Leiden: Brill, 1986), pp. 46-57. Runia states that (p. 57), 'the Timaeus was the only Greek prose work that up to the third century AD every educated man could be assumed to have read'.

1. Graeco-Roman

and Ancient Jewish

Cosmology

13

world. Plato tells h o w the visible c o s m o s w a s formed by a craftsman-deity - a d e m i u r g e - w h o s h a p e d t h e r a w m a t e r i a l at his disposal into a n o r d e r e d structure b a s e d o n t h e m o d e l o f t h e eternal f o r m s . T h e extent t o w h i c h P l a t o i n t e n d e d h i s r e a d e r s t o interpret t h e details o f t h e c r e a t i o n - s c h e m e literally h a s b e e n d e b a t e d . T h a t h e calls his a c c o u n t a ' l i k e l y s t o r y ' (Tim. 2 9 D ) tells against a straightforwardly literal interpretation. W h e t h e r h e m e a n t t o c o n v e y t h e t h o u g h t that t h e w o r l d h a d a n actual b e g i n n i n g i n t i m e h a s b e e n a particular m a t t e r o f controversy. Aristotle interpreted h i m literally o n this point, b u t P l a t o ' s s u c cessors in t h e A c a d e m y , from X e n o c r a t e s o n w a r d , m a i n t a i n e d that h e w a s n o t a s s i g n i n g a t e m p o r a l starting-point t o i t .

48

It s h o u l d b e n o t e d that P l a t o d o e s n o t a c c e n t u a t e t h e d i s t a n c e b e t w e e n t h e ideal r e a l m a n d t h e visible w o r l d . N o r d o e s h e e m p h a s i z e , in P a r m e n i d e a n fashion, t h e u n t r u s t w o r t h y n a t u r e o f t h e sense-perceptible: in fact h e c l a i m s that t h e faculties o f sight a n d h e a r i n g a r e gifts from h e a v e n (Jim.

46C-47D).

Certainly, t h e visible c o s m o s lacks t h e a b s o l u t e perfection o f t h e r e a l m o f b e i n g ( d u e t o a n e l e m e n t o f ' b r u t e fact' in it), b u t P l a t o stresses h o w closely rial c o s m o s r e s e m b l e s t h e ideal p a t t e r n .

49

the mate

T h e c o s m o s is d e s c r i b e d as ' b e a u t i

ful'; ' t h e fairest o f all that h a s c o m e into e x i s t e n c e ' ( 2 9 A ) ; ' m o s t fair a n d m o s t good' (30B). Plato tells u s that t h e c o s m o s h a s b e e n perfectly c o n s t r u c t e d ( 3 2 D - 3 3 B ) . A l l existing m a t t e r h a s b e e n u s e d in u p its p r o d u c t i o n ; n o t h i n g h a s b e e n left o u t s i d e . In its formation, t h e e l e m e n t s h a v e b e e n perfectly c o m b i n e d . T h e c o s m o s c a n n o t b e injured b y s o m e t h i n g external t o it, n o r c a n it b e u n d o n e b y internal dishar m o n y . T h e r e f o r e , it is n o t subject t o d e c a y a n d dissolution. O n l y t h e craftsman h i m s e l f c a n u n m a k e w h a t h e h a s created. B u t t h e d e m i u r g e is w h o l l y g o o d ( 3 0 A ) a n d c o u l d n e v e r e n g a g e in s u c h a n evil act a s t o d e s t r o y this c o n s u m m a t e a c h i e v e m e n t a n d w o r k o f art. T h e p h y s i c a l c o s m o s is t h u s everlasting a n d i n d e structible. It is a living creature ( 3 0 C D ) w i t h b o d y a n d soul ( 3 4 B ) . T h e w o r l d ' s b o d y consists o f t h e four e l e m e n t s ; t h e soul e x t e n d s t h r o u g h o u t t h e b o d y a n d a n i m a t e s it. ( P l a t o ' s w o r l d - s o u l b e c a m e a central feature o f M i d d l e P l a t o n i c c o s m o l o g y . ) A s r e g a r d s its structure, t h e c o s m o s is spherical in s h a p e ( 3 3 B ) , rotating o n its o w n axis, w i t h t h e earth at t h e c e n t r e ( 4 0 B - C ) . T h e m o v e m e n t s o f t h e h e a v e n l y b o d i e s s e r v e to m a r k t i m e , w h i c h P l a t o calls t h e m o v i n g likeness o f eternity ( 3 7 D ) . T h e r e v o l u t i o n s o f t h e h e a v e n s also h a v e a n ethical function, m a n i f e s t i n g a c o s m i c o r d e r that h u m a n behjgs^ s h o u l d replicate in t h e m s e l v e s (47B-C).

50

T h e c o s m o s is s u c h an excellent structure o f m a t c h l e s s b e a u t y that

it m u s t b e r e g a r d e d as ' a p e r c e p t i b l e G o d m a d e in t h e i m a g e o f t h e I n t e l l i g i b l e ' ( 9 2 C ; cf. 3 4 B ; 6 8 E ) .

48. F. M. Cornford, Platos Cosmology: The Timaeus ofPlato (reprint of 1935 original; India napolis: Hackett, 1997), p. 26. 49. See C. J. de Vogel, 'Was Plato a Dualist?', Theta-Pi 1 (1972), 4-60. 50. Cf. Plato's Laws 897A-B.

14

Cosmology

and New Testament

Theology

After a p e r i o d o f relative n e g l e c t , there w a s a r e v i v a l o f P l a t o ' s c o s m o l o g i c a l t e a c h i n g in t h e first c e n t u r y BCE leading to t h e m o v e m e n t g e n e r a l l y k n o w n as Middle Platonism.

51

P h i l o a n d P l u t a r c h , M i d d l e Platonists o f t h e first c e n t u r y

CE, d e m o n s t r a t e a c l o s e k n o w l e d g e o f t h e Timaeus ( o n P h i l o , see b e l o w ) . 1.6.

Aristotle

Aristotle h a d m u c h to say a b o u t t h e structure a n d w o r k i n g s o f t h e p h y s i c a l c o s m o s in t h e c o u r s e o f h i s vast p h i l o s o p h i c a l p r o j e c t .

52

A number of his works

are r e l e v a n t t o t h e t o p i c , b u t e s p e c i a l l y t h e treatise k n o w n a s De Caelo (On the Heavens). A r i s t o t l e m a i n t a i n e d t h a t t h e c o s m o s is e t e r n a l , h a v i n g n e i t h e r b e g i n n i n g n o r e n d (De Caelo

1.10-12). T h e c o s m o s is s p h e r i c a l in f o r m , a n d l i m i t e d in

e x t e n t ( 1 . 5 - 7 ) . T h e r e is n o e m p t y s p a c e b e y o n d it n o r w i t h i n it. H e v i e w e d matter as extending continually throughout the universe leaving no gaps. At t h e c e n t r e is t h e e a r t h , w h i c h is e n c i r c l e d b y c o n c e n t r i c s p h e r e s t o w h i c h t h e h e a v e n l y b o d i e s a r e affixed. T h e o u t e r m o s t s p h e r e , e n c a s i n g t h e w h o l e , is t h e s p h e r e o f t h e fixed stars. T h e terrestrial s p h e r e is m a d e u p m a i n l y o f t h e e l e m e n t e a r t h , w h i c h h a s o n its s u r f a c e w a t e r , a n d is e n c l o s e d b y air, w h i c h is in t u r n e n v e l o p e d b y a s p h e r e o f fire. A r i s t o t l e d i d n o t , t h o u g h , t h i n k t h a t t h e e l e m e n t s w e r e c o m p l e t e l y d i s t i n c t ; h e a l l o w e d for t h e i r i n t e r p e n e t r a t i o n a n d t r a n s f o r m a t i o n . A b o v e t h e l u n a r s p h e r e , m a t t e r is o f a different c h a r a c t e r . T h e h e a v e n l y b o d i e s a n d t h e i r s p h e r e s a r e n o t c o m p o s e d o f a n y o f t h e four terrestrial e l e m e n t s , b u t a 'fifth e l e m e n t ' , a i t h e r ( 2 . 7 ) . A r i s t o t l e l i m i t e d c h a n g e to the sublunary sphere. F o r b o t h P l a t o a n d A r i s t o t l e , p e r f e c t m o t i o n w a s circular. H o w e v e r , t h e p l a n e t s (literally, t h e w a n d e r e r s ) d i d n o t a p p e a r to exhibit that m o t i o n c o n s i s tently. T h e y s e e m e d t o d e v i a t e o c c a s i o n a l l y from their r o t a t i o n s , t u r n i n g b a c k from their e a s t w a r d m o v e m e n t in relation to t h e constellation a n d m o v i n g w e s t w a r d for a w h i l e - a p h e n o m e n o n k n o w n a s retrogradation. E u d o x u s , a y o u n g e r c o n t e m p o r a r y o f P l a t o , offered a m a t h e m a t i c a l e x p l a n a t i o n o f p l a n e t a r y m o v e m e n t s that tried t o a c c o u n t for this p h e n o m e n o n . H e p r o p o s e d that t h e p a t h s o f t h e celestial b o d i e s w e r e p r o d u c e d b y t h e rotations o f c o n c e n t r i c s p h e r e s m o v i n g at different velocities a n d w i t h different a x e s , w i t h t h e earth a s t h e s h a r e d c e n t r e (Aristotle, Meta.

12.8.9-10). C a l l i p p u s t h e n modified E u d o x u s '

t h e o r y ( 1 2 . 8 . 1 1 ) . Aristotle m a d e h i s o w n a d a p t a t i o n s t o t h e theory, p o s i t i n g the e x i s t e n c e o f n o less t h a n fifty-five rotating s p h e r e s ( 1 2 . 8 . 1 2 - 1 4 ) . W h e r e a s

51. On which see J. M. Dillon, The Middle Platonists: A Study of Platonism 80 B.C. to A.D. 220 (London: Duckworth, 1977). 52. On Aristotle's cosmology see L. Elders, Aristotle's Cosmology: A Commentary on the De Caelo (Philosophical Texts and Studies 13; Assen: Van Gorcum & Comp. N.V., 1965); F. Solmsen, Aristotle's System of the Physical World: A Comparison with his Predecessors (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1960).

1. Graeco-Roman

and Ancient Jewish

Cosmology

15

for E u d o x u s a n d C a l l i p p u s , t h e s p h e r e s e x i s t e d o n l y o n a theoretical level, for Aristotle, t h e y w e r e actual c o r p o r e a l entities. Aristotle t h u s p r o d u c e d a n a c c o u n t o f t h e o r d e r e d u n i v e r s e as a m e c h a n i z e d s y s t e m . F o r Aristotle, t h e u n i v e r s e c o u l d n o t b e t h e c a u s e o f its o w n m o v e m e n t A p r i m e m o v e r w a s required, external t o t h e u n i v e r s e : ' s o m e t h i n g w h i c h m o v e s w i t h o u t b e i n g m o v e d ' (Met

12.7.2). Aristotle d i d n o t hesitate t o call t h e p r i m e

m o v e r ' g o d ' ( 1 2 . 7 . 7 - 9 ) , t h o u g h A r i s t o t l e ' s ' g o d ' is n o t the p e r s o n a l deity o f t h e O l d Testament. 1.7. Epicurus

and

Lucretius

E p i c u r u s ( 3 4 1 - 2 7 1 BCE) w a s t h e o n e o f t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t p h i l o s o p h e r s o f t h e H e l l e n i s t i c e r a a n d f o u n d e r o f the influential E p i c u r e a n s c h o o l o f p h i l o s o p h y . H e w r o t e extensively, p r o d u c i n g a g r a n d ' t h e o r y o f e v e r y t h i n g ' , b u t m o s t o f h i s w o r k h a s n o t survived. T h r e e letters h a v e b e e n p r e s e r v e d b y D i o g e n e s L a e r t i u s w h i c h p r o v i d e a s u m m a r y o f his t e a c h i n g .

53

E p i c u r u s a c c e p t e d t h e A t o m i s t s ' a c c o u n t o f t h e n a t u r e o f reality a n d t h e o r i g i n s o f t h e c o s m o s . O u r w o r l d , o n e o f a n infinite n u m b e r o f w o r l d s in infinite s p a c e , c a m e into e x i s t e n c e , n o t b y d i v i n e a g e n c y ,

54

but through the accidental

collision a n d c o m b i n a t i o n o f a t o m s in a n a r e a o f t h e void. It w i l l e v e n t u a l l y p e r i s h w h e n t h e c o m p o u n d b r e a k s u p a n d t h e a t o m s disperse. H e e x p l a i n e d t h e life o f a c o s m o s u s i n g a b i o l o g i c a l m o d e l .

55

A w o r l d g r o w s b y t a k i n g in

n o u r i s h m e n t . It a b s o r b s a t o m i c m a t t e i until it r e a c h e s t h e p e a k o f maturity. After g r o w t h , t h e r e is d e c l i n e , w h e n m o r e particles are e x u d e d t h a n t a k e n in, until e v e n t u a l l y t h e c o s m i c b o d y , n o l o n g e r a b l e to resist t h e e x t e r n a l forces b e a r i n g d o w n u p o n it, b e c o m e s s o w e a k that it c o l l a p s e s a n d disintegrates. L u c r e t i u s ( 9 9 - 5 5 BCE), a d e d i c a t e d E p i c u r e a n , g i v e s a n e x p o s i t i o n o f E p i c u r u s ' p h y s i c a l s y s t e m in h i s De rerum natura (On the Nature of Things);

this

is t h e fullest extant a c c o u n t o f E p i c u r e a n c o s m o l o g y . I n B o o k 5, h e attacks P l a t o n i c a n d Aristotelian belief in c o s m i c indestructibility. T h e w o r l d is a m o r t a l entity, t h e c o l l a p s e o f w h i c h is i n e v i t a b l e .

56

Its e n d m a y c o m e ' w i t h i n

s o m e short t i m e ' . H e also strikes at t h e belief that t h e c o s m o s h a s b e e n divinely o r d e r e d a n d m a d e for t h e benefit o f h u m a n b e i n g s . H e a r g u e s that t h e w o r l d is far t o o flawed to b e o f d i v i n e origin ( 5 . 1 9 5 - 2 3 4 ) . M o s t o f t h e e a r t h ' s surface is u n i n h a b i t a b l e , a n d o f w h a t is left, m u c h is w i l d a n d infertile. E x t r e m e s o f

53. Diogenes Laertius 10. Charred fragments of his work, On Nature, were discovered at Herculaneum. With technological advances, the text is gradually being recovered. 54. Epicurus believed in the existence of the gods but denied that they involve themselves in cosmic processes or human affairs. 55. See F. Solmsen, 'Epicurus on the Growth and Decline of the Cosmos', AJP 74 (1953), 34-51. 56. Lucretius (5.235-415) offers four arguments for the destruetibility of the cosmos. See further Adams, The Stars Will Fallfrom Heaven: 'Cosmic Catastrophe 'in the New Testament and its World (London: T&T Clark, 2007), pp. 112-13.

Cosmology

16

and New Testament

Theology

w e a t h e r frustrate h u m a n agricultural e n d e a v o u r s . L u c r e t i u s t h u s dissents from the v i e w that the w o r l d h a s b e e n s h a p e d t o w a r d t h e b e s t p o s s i b l e e n d . 1.8. The

Stoics

C o s m o l o g y w a s a c h i e f interest o f t h e Stoics, a n d Stoic c o s m o l o g y is a fas cinating subject in its o w n r i g h t .

57

H a h m thinks that ' f r o m t h e third c e n t u r y

BC to t h e s e c o n d c e n t u r y AD m o r e p e o p l e in t h e M e d i t e r r a n e a n w o r l d s e e m to h a v e h e l d a m o r e or less Stoic c o n c e p t i o n o f t h e w o r l d t h a n a n y o t h e r ' .

58

He

m a i n t a i n s that t h e Stoic w o r l d v i e w w a s t h e m o s t influential in G r a e c o - R o m a n antiquity. In s h a r p contrast to t h e E p i c u r e a n s , t h e Stoics v i e w e d t h e c o s m o s as t h e w e l l - c o n s t r u c t e d p r o d u c t o f a d i v i n e creator. T h e y differed from P l a t o a n d Aristotle, t h o u g h , in m a k i n g t h e d i v i n e intelligence, ' g o d ' , c o - e x t e n s i v e w i t h the c o s m o s . ' G o d ' w a s u n d e r s t o o d a s t h e rational, active p r i n c i p l e - t h e

logos

- p r e s e n t in m a t t e r ( a n d i n s e p a r a b l e from it), p e r v a d i n g it a n d g i v i n g it o r d e r ( D i o g e n e s Laertius 7.134). T h e Stoics w e r e t h u s t h o r o u g h g o i n g p a n t h e i s t s ( a n d t h o r o u g h g o i n g materialists), identifying t h e c o s m o s itself w i t h g o d ( D i o g e n e s Laertius 7.137). T h e ascription o f full divinity to t h e c o s m o s s h o w s h o w h i g h l y they e s t e e m e d it. Plato a n d Aristotle rejected the notion o f space outside the c o s m o s , b u t the Stoics argued for the existence o f a n infinite void external to the c o s m o s (into w h i c h the c o s m o s e x p a n d s w h e n it ignites at the conflagration).

59

They made

a terminological distinction b e t w e e n ' t h e w h o l e ' a n d ' t h e a l l ' , w h i c h hitherto h a d b e e n u s e d s y n o n y m o u s l y : t h e former is the physical c o s m o s ; t h e latter is the c o s m o s a n d the v o i d together.

60

T h e c o s m o s is conceived in Aristotelian fashion

as a series o f spherical tiers, w i t h earth at the centre a n d the h e a v e n l y bodies at the periphery.

61

Terrestrial matter divides into t h e four terrestrial elements: earth,

fire, air a n d water. B u t these elements are transformations o f a m o r e basic form o f 62

matter, 'designing fire', to b e distinguished from the e l e m e n t fire.

T h e celestial

bodies are c o m p o s e d o f aither, w h i c h is 'designing fire' in its purest form, t h o u g h the Stoics appear to h a v e shied a w a y from calling aither a fifth e l e m e n t .

63

57. See D. Hahm, The Origins of Stoic Cosmology (Columbus: Ohio State Press, 1977); M. Lapidge, 'Stoic Cosmology', in J. M. Rist (ed.), The Stoics (Berkeley, CA/London: University of California Press, 1978), pp. 160-85; idem, 'Stoic Cosmology and Roman Literature, First to Third Centuries A.D.', ANRW363 (1989), 1379-1429. 58. Hahm, Origins, p. xiii. 59. A. A. Long and D. N. Sedley, The Hellenistic Philosophers: Translations of the Principal Sources with Philosophical Commentary (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987), pp. 294-7. 60. Long and Sedley, The Hellenistic Philosophers, text no. 44A. 61. Lapidge,'Stoic Cosmology', p. 177. 62. Long and Sedley, The Hellenistic Philosophers, text no. 46D; Lapidge, 'Stoic Cosmol ogy', p. 167. 63. Cicero, de fin. 4.12. Lapidge, 'Stoic Cosmology', p. 178.

1.

Graeco-Roman

and Ancient Jewish

Cosmology

17

O n t h e Stoic t h e o r y o f c o s m o g o n y , t h e u n i v e r s e originates in a p u r e fire ( n o n e o f t h e G r e e k natural p h i l o s o p h e r s p o s i t e d creation ex nihilo).

T h e fiery

s u b s t a n c e c h a n g e s to air a n d t h e n to water, a n d out o f t h e p r i m o r d i a l w a t e r t h e four e l e m e n t s arise, a n d t h e s e c o m b i n e in m a n y w a y s to m a k e u p t h e variety o f t h i n g s a n d forms o f life o n earth (Plutarch, Stoic. 142).

1053a; D i o g e n e s L a e r t i u s

F r o m t h e r e s i d u e o f t h e original fiery matter, t h e h e a v e n l y b o d i e s are

m a d e . W o r l d - f o r m a t i o n is n o ^ t h o u g h , a p u r e l y m e c h a n i c a l p r o c e s s ; it is the activity o f a d i v i n e a g e n t acting in a n d t h r o u g h natural forces ( D i o g e n e s Laer tius 135-6). S i n c e g o d is c o n t e r m i n o u s w i t h matter, t h e e l e m e n t a l c h a n g e s that b r i n g a b o u t t h e v a r i e g a t e d c o s m o s are transformations o f g o d himself. E v e n t u a l l y , t h e p r e s e n t o r d e r e d w o r l d w i l l r e t u r n t o its o r i g i n a l s t a t e o f 64

p u r e fire.

T h e c e l e s t i a l b o d i e s , e s p e c i a l l y t h e s u n , w h i c h feed o n t e r r e s t r i a l

m o i s t u r e , w i l l i n d u e c o u r s e s u c k t h e c o s m o s dry, c a u s i n g it t o i g n i t e a n d t u r n i n g it i n t o a t o t a l c o s m i c fireback ( C i c e r o , Nat. de. 2 . 1 1 8 ) . T h i s is n o t a s a d e n d for t h e c o s m o s , b u t a w h o l l y p o s i t i v e e n d in t h e life o f g o d , w h e n he reaches the p e a k state of his e x i s t e n c e .

65

A f t e r t h e c o n f l a g r a t i o n , t h e fire

a b a t e s a n d t h e p r o c e s s o f w o r l d - f o r m a t i o n b e g i n s all o v e r a g a i n . T h e c y c l e r e p e a t s i t s e l f e n d l e s s l y . T h e p e r i o d i c d e s t r u c t i o n o f t h e c o s m o s i n t o fire w a s t a u g h t b y t h e e a r l y S t o i c s . It w a s a b a n d o n e d b y s o m e m i d d l e S t o i c s , i n c l u d i n g P o s i d o n i u s , w h o s e p h i l o s o p h i c a l t e a c h i n g w a s v e r y influential ( P h i l o , Aet. 7 6 - 7 ) . B u t it s e e m s to h a v e b e e n w i d e l y a c c e p t e d in R o m a n S t o i c i s m o f t h e first c e n t u r y CE. S e n e c a , in a n u m b e r o f p a s s a g e s , tries t o p o r t r a y t h e destructive event.

66

T h e S t o i c s , like P l a t o , v i e w e d t h e c o s m o s b i o l o g i c a l l y (but t h e y p r e s s e d t h e b i o l o g i c a l a n a l o g y further t h a n P l a t o ) . It c o m p r i s e s b o d y a n d s o u l ,

67

and

is a n i m a t e d b y ' b r e a t h ' (TTVEUIJCC). ' B r e a t h ' is t h e life-force o f t h e c o s m o s , s u s t a i n i n g it a n d m a i n t a i n i n g its u n i t y . it ' m u s t b e n o t s a i d t o d i e ' ;

6 9

68

The cosmos has birth and growth, but

t h e conflagration is n o t t h e d e a t h o f t h e c o s m o s

b u t its a c m e . F o r t h e Stoics, e v e r y e v e n t in history is c o n n e c t e d in a causal c h a i n : ' n o t h i n g in t h e w o r l d exists o r h a p p e n s c a u s e l e s s l y ' .

70

The whole course of universal

history, i n c l u d i n g e v e r y detail o f it, is d e t e r m i n e d in a d v a n c e b y t h e d i v i n e intel-

64. On the Stoic theory of ekpurosis or cosmic conflagration, see A. A. Long, 'The Stoics on World-Conflagration', The Southern Journal of Philosophy 23 (1985), 13-37; J. Mansfeld, 'Providence and the Destruction of the Universe in Early Stoic Thought', in M. J. Vermaseren (ed.), Studies in Hellenistic Religion (Leiden: Brill, 1979), pp. 129-88. 65. Mansfeld,'Providence', pp. 176-77. 66. Ben. 6.22.; Consol ad Marc 26.6-7; Nat. Quest. 27; Thyes. 835-884. Similar imagery is found in Lucan's Civil War. See further E. Adams, The Stars Will Fall. 67. Long and Sedley, The Hellenistic Philosophers, text no. 46E (= Plutarch, Stoic. 1052C-D). 68. See Long and Sedley, The Hellenistic Philosophers, pp. 280-9. 69. #w/.,textno.46E. 70. /ta/., text no. 55N.

Cosmology

18

and New Testament

Theology

ligence. T h i s history is r e p e a t e d exactly, o r a l m o s t exactly, in e v e r y s u c c e s s i v e world-cycle.

71

Stoic c o s m o l o g y s u p p o r t e d n a t u r a l t h e o l o g y .

72

T h e S t o i c s b e l i e v e d that g o d ' s

e x i s t e n c e a n d p r o v i d e n t i a l activity c o u l d b e d e d u c e d from t h e structure o f t h e u n i v e r s e . T h i s is p o s s i b l e b e c a u s e o f t h e affinity b e t w e e n h u m a n r e a s o n i n g a n d t h e r e a s o n or logos that p e r m e a t e s t h e c o s m o s . T h e Stoics also d r e w c o n n e c t i o n s b e t w e e n c o s m o l o g y a n d e t h i c s . T h e g o a l o f ethics, in Stoicism, is to live in a c c o r d a n c e w i t h n a t u r e , o r t h e u n i v e r s a l order.

73

T h e n o t i o n o f c o n t e m p l a t i n g a n d learning from t h e g o v e r n a n c e o f t h e

c o s m o s b e c a m e a p r o m i n e n t ethical t h e m e in R o m a n S t o i c i s m ( E p i c t e t u s , Disc. 1.9.4; 1.10.10). A k e y c o n c e r n w a s to find o n e ' s p l a c e in t h e u n i v e r s a l s c h e m e ( E p i c t e t u s , Disc. 3.1.19-20; 2 4 . 9 5 ) . T h e h u m a n individual, t h e h o u s e h o l d a n d t h e city a n d t h e state w e r e v i e w e d as m i c r o c o s m s o f t h e c o s m i c order. A c c o r d i n g to C i c e r o , The Stoics hold that the world is governed by divine will: it is as it were a city and state shared by men and gods, and each one of us is part of this world. From this it is a natural consequence that we prefer the common advantage to our own. 74

T h e s t r e a m o f t h o u g h t that t h e order o f t h e u n i v e r s e is a n a l o g o u s t o t h e civic o r d e r ran d e e p in G r e e k c o s m o l o g i c a l reflection, g o i n g b a c k as far as A n a x i m a n d e r ,

75

a n d w a s , I h a v e a r g u e d e l s e w h e r e , a feature o f t h e w o r l d v i e w e v o k e d b y t h e w o r d kosmos

( w h e n applied to t h e u n i v e r s e ) .

76

In Stoicism, t h e ideological

ramifications o f this linkage w e r e m a d e explicit. T h u s w e see t h e politicizing o f c o s m o l o g y a n d its u s e to legitimate the social o r d e r a n d t h e p o w e r structures o f the day. 1.9. A High

View of the

Cosmos

It s h o u l d b e clear from t h e f o r e g o i n g that G r e e k a n d H e l l e n i s t i c c o s m o l o g y , u p to N e w T e s t a m e n t t i m e s , w a s o n t h e w h o l e world-affirming. O u t r a g e o u s is t h e v i e w , w h i c h h a s b e e n q u i t e p o p u l a r , that G r e e k t h i n k e r s from P l a t o o n w a r d s d e n i g r a t e d a n d d e s p i s e d t h e m a t e r i a l w o r l d . A s J a a p M a n s f e l d states, By and large, Greek philosophical cosmology is positive and optimistic. This holds especially for Plato, and for Aristotle and the Stoics, who have been decisively influ enced by Plato in this respect. [T]he mainstream of Greek thought concerning the cosmos is optimistic; such less positive views as can be found, are, as a rule, against the current or are only introduced for the sake of an argument 77

71. 72. 73. 74. 75. 76. 77.

See Ibid., pp. 308-13. See Ibid., pp. 323-33. Luce, Introduction, p. 135. Cicero, On Ends, 3.62. Long and Sedley, The Hellenistic Philosophers, 57F. Kirk, Raven and Schofield, The Presocratic Philosophers, text no. 110. E. Adams, Constructing the World, pp. 69-75. J. Mansfeld, 'Bad World and Demiurge: a Gnostic Motif from Parmenides and Empe-

1. Graeco-Roman

and Ancient Jewish Cosmology

19

P l a t o , a s w e h a v e seen, at least in t h e Timaeus, w a s h i g h l y enthusiastic a b o u t the p h y s i c a l c o s m o s , calling it a ' g o d ' . T h e t e n d e n c y t h r o u g h o u t t h e Hellenistic e r a a n d early R o m a n t i m e s , w a s t o w a r d v e n e r a t i o n o f t h e c o s m o s , rather t h a n vilification o f it. Stoicism, as w e h a v e seen, fully divinized t h e c o s m o s , a n d d u r i n g t h e p e r i o d 100 BCE t o 100 CE, there d e v e l o p s , a c c o r d i n g t o Schweizer, 7 8

' a r e l i g i o n o f t h e c o s m o s ' . A distinction b e t w e e n t h e c o s m o s a n d g o d is m a i n tained in t h e S t o i c i z i n g Aristotelian treatise, De Mundo, b u t t h e w o r k n e v e r t h e less exemplifies t h e c o s m i c piety o f t h e t i m e .

2 . Ancient

Jewish

79

Cosmology

W e t u r n n o w t o O l d T e s t a m e n t a n d early J e w i s h c o s m o l o g y . T h e O l d T e s t a m e n t c o n t a i n s a g r e a t deal o f m a t e r i a l that c o u l d b e called c o s m o l o g i c a l . H o w e v e r , it is o n l y w i t h i n t h e last g e n e r a t i o n that scholars h a v e r e c o g n i z e d t h e i m p o r t a n c e of c r e a t i o n a n d c o s m o l o g y t o O l d T e s t a m e n t theology. F o r t h e best p a r t o f t h e t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y ( a n d b e f o r e ) , c o s m o l o g y w a s v i e w e d a m i n o r a n d late interest in t h e O l d T e s t a m e n t .

80

A c c o r d i n g t o G e r h a r d v o n R a d , in a n influential e s s a y

p u b l i s h e d in 1 9 3 6 , t h e d o c t r i n e o f creation d i d n o t e m e r g e in Israel until after the exile; it d e v e l o p e d o u t o f t h e H e b r e w u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f salvation in h i s t o r y .

81

O l d T e s t a m e n t scholars t e n d e d t o n e g l e c t o r historicize references t o t h e natural w o r l d in t h e H e b r e w B i b l e . T h e m o u n t i n g p u b l i c c o n c e r n for t h e e n v i r o n m e n t , t h o u g h , h a s b r o u g h t a b o u t a n u p s u r g e in interest in w h a t t h e B i b l e , particularly the O l d T e s t a m e n t , h a s t o s a y a b o u t t h e w i d e r created o r d e r .

82

S t u d y o f O l d Tes

t a m e n t t h o u g h t r e g a r d i n g creation in relation t o c o n t e m p o r a r y e n v i r o n m e n t a l c o n c e r n s is n o w a m a j o r g r o w t h area. C o n t r a v o n R a d , it s e e m s u n l i k e l y that c o s m o l o g i c a l interest w a s a late d e v e l o p m e n t in t h e history o f Israel. A s n o t e d earlier, t h e r e w a s a l o n g h i s t o r y o f c o s m o l o g i c a l speculation, largely m y t h i c a l , in t h e c u l t u r e s s u r r o u n d i n g Israel, a n d t h e O l d Testament exhibits c o r r e s p o n d e n c e s w i t h their i d e a s . I f c o s m o l o g y w a s a l o n g s t a n d i n g interest in t h e A N E generally, it is p r o b a b l e that Israel s h a r e d that w i d e r interest from a n early stage

docles to Lucretius and Philo', in R. van den Broek and M. J. Vermaseren (eds.), Studies in Gnosticism and Hellenistic Religions (Leiden: Brill, 1981), pp. 261-314 (263). 78. Schweizer, ac5|ia,rDiV7 7: 1024-94(1037). 79. A more negative cosmology did come to expression with later Platonic thinkers, especially Numenius, and among (to use the increasingly problematic label) 'Gnostic' authors. 80. Cf. T. E. Fretheim, God and the World in the Old Testament: A Relational Theology of Creation (Abingdon: Nashville, 2005), p. ix. 81. G. von Rad, 'The Theological Problem of the Old Testament Doctrine of Creation', in The Problem of the Hexateuch and Other Essays (New York: McGraw Hill, 1966), pp. 131-43. 82. See the seminal essay, B. W. Anderson, 'Creation and Ecology', in B. W. Anderson (ed.), Creation in the Old Testament (Issues in Religion and Theology 6; Philadelphia: Fortress, 1984), pp. 152-71. For more recent work, see the Earth Bible, vols 2-4.

Cosmology

20

in its h i s t o r y .

83

and New Testament

Theology

Israel's o w n cosmological thought m a y well have developed,

t o s o m e extent, in relation to t h e cult. T h e structure o f creation a n d that o f the t e m p l e a r e correlated in P s . 7 8 . 6 9 : ' H e built h i s s a n c t u a r y like t h e h i g h h e a v e n s , like t h e earth, w h i c h h e h a s f o u n d e d f o r e v e r ' . Scholars h a v e n o t e d c o r r e s p o n d e n c e s b e t w e e n t h e Priestly a c c o u n t o f creation in G e n . l . l - 2 . 4 a a n d G o d ' s instructions to M o s e s for t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e t a b e r n a c l e in E x o d u s 2 5 - 3 1 , suggesting ' a homology of world building and temple building'.

84

In t h e O l d Testament, t h e c r e a t e d u n i v e r s e is m o s t frequently d e s i g n a t e d 'heaven(s) and earth'.

85

In t h e Septuagint,

KOO|JOS

w i t h the s e n s e w o r l d or

u n i v e r s e o c c u r s o n l y in t h e later w r i t i n g s , 2 a n d 4 M a c c a b e e s (5 a n d 4 t i m e s respectively) a n d t h e Wisdom of Solomon

( 1 9 t i m e s ) , w o r k s originally w r i t t e n

in G r e e k , a n d n o t translations from t h e H e b r e w . T h i s is n o t t o say, t h o u g h , that t h e H e b r e w B i b l e itself h a s little o r n o c o n c e p t i o n o f a n orderly c o s m o s . T h a t G o d h a s e s t a b l i s h e d a w e l l - o r d e r e d a n d w e l l - r e g u l a t e d creation e m e r g e s from G e n . l . l - 2 . 4 a , a n d is e x p r e s s e d in p a s s a g e s s u c h a s P s a l m 104 a n d Prov. 8.22-31. T h e O l d T e s t a m e n t s e e m s t o p r e s u m e a three-level structure o f t h e w o r l d , w i t h a central earth, h e a v e n a b o v e a n d S h e o l b e l o w (Ps. 115.16-17; 139.8; cf. 86

Sir. 1.3). S u c h a p i c t u r e , as L u i s S t a d e l m a n n o b s e r v e s , is r o o t e d ' i n t h e basic h u m a n experience o f the external w o r l d from w h o s e impressions m a n conceived s u c h a n i m a g i n a t i v e d e p i c t i o n ' , b u t it is also reflective o f a w i d e s p r e a d m y t h o logical p a t t e r n in t h e a n c i e n t w o r l d .

87

J o b 11.8-9 s u g g e s t s a four-fold division

o f t h e e x p e r i e n c e d u n i v e r s e : h e a v e n , earth, S h e o l a n d sea. In G e n e s i s 1 (cf. P s . 19.1), t h e p h y s i c a l h e a v e n (i.e., t h e s k y ) is p i c t u r e d a s a d o m e a r c h i n g o v e r t h e earth, m u c h like t h e b o w l - l i k e c o v e r i n g e n v i s a g e d b y H e s i o d . T h e c u r v e d structure or ' f i r m a m e n t ' p r e v e n t s t h e w a t e r s a b o v e t h e earth from engulfing the earth, u n l e s s its w i n d o w s a r e o p e n e d ( G e n . 7 . 1 1 ; Isa. 2 4 . 1 8 ) . In o t h e r p l a c e s t h e h e a v e n s a r e l i k e n e d t o a c a n o p y stretched o u t o v e r t h e e a r t h ( P s . 104.2; Isa. 4 0 . 2 2 ; 4 4 . 2 4 ; etc.). T h e earth is c o n c e i v e d as resting u p o n foundations (Ps. 18.15; 8 2 . 5 ; 104.5; Isa. 2 4 . 1 8 ; 4 0 . 2 1 , etc.; J o b 9.6 h a s it s t a n d i n g o n ' p i l l a r s ' ) , w h i c h e x t e n d d o w n into t h e c o s m i c s e a ( P s . 2 4 . 2 ) . In J o b 2 6 . 7 , t h o u g h , t h e earth is said to h a n g from a b o v e a n d rest o n n o t h i n g . J o b 26.11 s p e a k s o f the 'pillars o f h e a v e n ' . T h e u s e o f architectural i m a g e r y indicates that t h e w o r l d is

83. See Robert A. Oden Jr., 'Cosmogony, Cosmology', ABD 1: 1164-7. 84. J. D. Levenson, Creation and the Persistence of Evil (San Francisco: Harper & Row, 1988), p. 84. See also J. Walton, Ancient Near Eastern Thought and the Old Testament: Introduc ing the Conceptual World of the Hebrew Bible (Nottingham: Apollos, 2007), pp. 123-5,196-9. 85. Gen. 1.1; 2.1,4; Ps. 113.6; Jer. 10.11; etc. 86. L. J. Stadelman, The Hebrew Conception of the World: A Philological and Literary Study (AB 39; Rome: Pontifical Biblical Institute, 1970), pp. 9-10. Though see also the critique of this common view in Jonathan T. Pennington, 'Dualism in Old Testament Cosmology: Weltbild and Weltanschauung', SJOT18/2 (2004), 260-77. 87. Stadelmann, Hebrew Conception, p. 9.

1. Graeco-Roman

and Ancient Jewish

Cosmology

21

b e i n g l i k e n e d to a b u i l d i n g ( s u c h a s the t e m p l e ) . T h i s a n a l o g y is g i v e n its m o s t e x t e n s i v e application in J o b 3 8 . 4 - 7 . Where were you when I laid the foundation of the earth? Tell me, if you have understanding. Who determined its measurements - surely you know! Or who stretched the line upon it? On what were its bases sunk, or who laid its cornerstone when the morning stars sang together and all the heavenly beings shouted for joy? In post-biblical c o s m o l o g i c a l tradition, w e find a desire to structure a n d n u m b e r t h e h e a v e n s . T h e n o t i o n o f three h e a v e n s , w h i c h is p r o b a b l y reflected in 2 Cor. 12.2,

88

m a y h a v e o r i g i n a t e d in t h e biblical f o r m u l a ' h e a v e n a n d t h e h e a v e n o f

h e a v e n s ' ( D e u t . 10.14; 2 K g s 8.27). T h e i d e a o f s e v e n h e a v e n s s e e m s t o h a v e b e e n m o r e c o m m o n ; it is f o u n d in t h e Testament form is a C h r i s t i a n r e d a c t i o n ) , t h e Apocalypse C h r i s t i a n w o r k Ascension

of Isaiah.

be connected with the seven planets,

of Levi ( w h i c h in its p r e s e n t of Abraham,

2 Enoch a n d t h e

T h e s e v e n h e a v e n s are often t h o u g h t to 89

b u t Yarbro C o l l i n s p o i n t s o u t that there

is n o clear indication o f s u c h a link in t h e early J e w i s h l i t e r a t u r e . 2 Baruch

90

4 Ezra a n d

o n l y s p e a k o f o n e h e a v e n , s o there d o e s n o t a p p e a r to h a v e b e e n a

consistent J e w i s h c o n c e p t i o n o f t h e w o r l d in t h e first c e n t u r y CE.

2 . 1 . The Old

Testament

In t h e O l d Testament, c o s m o l o g i c a l reflection serves a theological p u r p o s e . T h i s is clear from t h e n a t u r e p s a l m s , e s p . P s s . 8; 19.1-6; 3 3 . 6 - 9 ; 136.4-9, 104, w h i c h e x t o l t h e variety, b e a u t y a n d h a r m o n y o f t h e c r e a t e d order, n o t as virtues in their o w n right, b u t as t e s t i m o n y to t h e majesty, s u p r e m a c y a n d o m n i p o t e n c e o f t h e creator. A d m i r a t i o n o f t h e natural o r d e r a n d its s p l e n d o u r leads t o p r a i s e o f its creator. N a t u r e p s a l m s n o t o n l y elicit h u m a n p r a i s e ; s o m e o f t h e m , s u c h as P s . 148.3-10, b i d n a t u r e itself t o p r a i s e G o d .

91

Praise him, sun and moon; praise him, all you shining stars! Praise him, you highest heavens, and you waters above the heavens!

88. J. D. Tabor, Things Unutterable: Paul's Ascent to Paradise in its Greco-Roman, Judaic, and Early Christian Contexts (Lanham, MD: University Press of America), pp. 113-25, thinks Paul is working with the seven heavens scheme, but this seems less likely. 89. Cf. the seven planetary spheres in Cicero's 'Dream of Scipio' (Republic 6.17). 90. A. Yarbro Collins, 'The Seven Heavens in Jewish and Christian Apocalypses', in idem. Cosmology and Eschatology in Jewish and Christian Apocalypticism (JSJS 50; Leiden: Brill, 1996), pp. 21-54. 91. Fretheim, God and the World, pp. 249-68.

22

Cosmology

and New Testament

Theology

Let them praise the name of the LORD, for he commanded and they were created. He established them forever and ever; he fixed their bounds, which cannot be passed. Praise the LORD from the earth, you sea monsters and all deeps, fire and hail, snow and frost, stormy wind fulfilling his command! Mountains and all hills, fruit trees and all cedars! Wild animals and all cattle, creeping things and flying birds! T h e v a r i o u s p a r t s o f t h e n a t u r a l order, from t h e celestial b o d i e s a n d m e t e o r o logical p h e n o m e n a t o t h e features a n d creatures o f t h e earth, are c a l l e d to j o i n in a u n i v e r s a l a c c l a m a t i o n a n d c e l e b r a t i o n o f t h e L o r d ' s s o v e r e i g n t y a n d p o w e r . T h e r e m a y b e a n i m p l i e d critique h e r e o f t h e w i d e s p r e a d t e n d e n c y in A N E t o deify p a r t s o f n a t u r e , e s p e c i a l l y t h e celestial b o d i e s . G o d ' s p o w e r o v e r n a t u r e is also e x p r e s s e d in h y m n s a n d o r a c l e s w h i c h exhibit t h e t h e o p h a n y pattern: G o d a p p e a r s a n d n a t u r e c o n v u l s e s at h i s p r e s e n c e .

92

T h e creation o f t h e w o r l d is d e s c r i b e d in G e n . 1.1-2.4, w h i c h is c o n v e n tionally a s s i g n e d to t h e Priestly writer. T h e p a s s a g e h a s r h y t h m i c features (the r e c u r r i n g u s e o f v a r i o u s f o r m u l a e , s u c h as ' a n d G o d s a i d ' , ' a n d there w a s e v e n i n g a n d t h e r e w a s m o r n i n g ' , a n d ' a n d G o d s a w that it w a s g o o d ' ) g i v i n g it a p o e t i c quality, t h o u g h it is still m o r e p r o s e t h a n p o e t r y ( w h e n c o m p a r e d w i t h t h e n a t u r e P s a l m s , e s p e c i a l l y P s a l m 104, w h i c h are plainly h y m n i c ) . T h e creation narrative o f G e n . 1.1-2.4 h a s parallels w i t h other c o s m o g o n i e s o f t h e A N E , especially t h e B a b y l o n i a n c r e a t i o n e p i c Enuma Elish. B u t t h e differences are m o r e striking, t h e m o s t b a s i c o f w h i c h is that t h e Enuma Elisha depicts creation as t a k i n g p l a c e t h r o u g h conflict, w i t h M a r d u k killing t h e sea m o n s t e r T i a m a t a n d f o r m i n g h e a v e n a n d earth o u t o f its split carcass, w h i l e G e n e s i s b e t r a y s n o h i n t o f t h e conflict m y t h o l o g y ; G o d creates b y his o w n w o r d a n d activity. U n l i k e t h e Enuma Elish, t h e G e n e s i s n a r r a t i v e is t h o r o u g h l y m o n o t h e i s t i c (the plural o f G e n . 1.26, ' l e t u s m a k e ' , n o t w i t h s t a n d i n g ) . T h e author/editor o f t h e G e n e s i s a c c o u n t s e e m s to b e familiar w i t h older A N E creation stories, b u t h i s stance t o w a r d t h e m is p r e d o m i n a n t l y a n t a g o n i s t i c .

93

C r e a t i o n is d e s c r i b e d as t a k i n g p l a c e in s u c c e s s i v e stages, o v e r six ' d a y s ' . W o r l d - c o n s t r u c t i o n is effected b y d i v i n e c o m m a n d ( ' G o d s a i d ' , 1.3, 6, 9, etc.)

92. See J. Jeremias, Theophanie: die Geschichte einer alttestamentlichen Gattung (Wissenschaftliche Monographien zum Alten und Neuen Testament 10; Neukirchen: Neukirchener, 1965). 93. See esp. G. F. Hasel, 'The Polemic Nature of the Genesis Cosmology', Evangelical Quar terly 46 (1974), 81-102.

1. Graeco-Roman

and Ancient Jewish

Cosmology

23

a n d a c t i o n - m a k i n g ( 1 . 7 , 1 6 , 2 5 , 3 1 ) a n d s e p a r a t i n g ( 1 . 4 , 6 , 7 , etc.). T h e c l i m a x o f t h e creative p r o c e s s is t h e m a k i n g o f h u m a n k i n d ( 1 . 2 6 - 3 0 ) . T h e p r i m o r d i a l situation is d e s c r i b e d in G e n . 1.2: ' t h e earth w a s f o r m l e s s a n d v o i d a n d d a r k n e s s c o v e r e d t h e face o f d e e p ' . W h e t h e r G e n . 1.1 refers t o a p r i o r act o f c r e a t i o n - that o f b r i n g i n g t h e u n f o r m e d m a s s o f 1.2 into e x i s t e n c e - h a s b e e n m u c h d e b a t e d . It is e x t r e m e l y doubtful that t h e a u t h o r / r e d a c t o r o f G e n e s i s t h o u g h t in t e r m s o f creation ex nihilo, a n o t i o n w h i c h e m e r g e d s o m e t i m e later. N e v e r t h e less, t h e a m b i g u o u s relation o f 1.1 to 1.2 c r e a t e d s p a c e for t h e i m p o r t a t i o n o f this later i d e a into t h e text. O n e o f t h e k e y features o f t h e c r e a t i o n story is t h e e m p h a s i s laid o n t h e g o o d n e s s o f G o d ' s creative h a n d i w o r k . After e a c h act o f creation, t h e s t a t e m e n t is m a d e , ' a n d G o d s a w that it w a s g o o d ' ( 1 . 4 , 1 0 , 1 2 , 1 8 , 2 1 , 2 5 ) . A t t h e c o n c l u s i o n o f G o d ' s activity ( 1 . 3 1 ) it is stated c o m p r e h e n s i v e l y that ' G o d s a w e v e r y t h i n g that h e h a d m a d e , a n d i n d e e d , it w a s v e r y g o o d ' . A t h o r o u g h l y p o s i t i v e a s s e s s m e n t o f t h e w h o l e c r e a t e d o r d e r is t h e r e b y g i v e n . All t h e c o m p o n e n t s o f t h e u n i v e r s e , n o t m e r e l y its h u m a n i n h a b i t a n t s , a r e d e c l a r e d to h a v e a n intrinsic v a l u e t o G o d , a n o b s e r v a t i o n that h a s r e l e v a n c e for c o n t e m p o r a r y e n v i r o n m e n tal c o n c e r n s . T h e r e are traces w i t h i n t h e O l d T e s t a m e n t o f t h e conflict m o d e l o f c r e a t i o n w h i c h is rejected in G e n . l . l - 2 . 4 a ( P s . 7 4 . 1 2 - 1 7 ; 8 9 . 9 - 1 0 ; Isa. 5 1 . 9 - 1 0 ) ,

94

t h o u g h there a r e d e b a t e s a b o u t h o w this i m a g e r y functions w i t h i n t h e literary contexts in w h i c h w e find i t .

95

T h e creation p o e m / h y m n o f Prov. 8.22-31 focuses o n t h e p r e s e n c e o f w i s d o m a l o n g s i d e G o d at t h e w o r l d ' s o r i g i n s . W i s d o m is a d i v i n e attribute (not a separate entity), b u t for p o e t i c p u r p o s e s , G o d ' s w i s d o m is personified a n d g e n d e r e d f e m a l e . S h e is t h e s p e a k e r t h r o u g h o u t this p a s s a g e . W h e t h e r personified w i s d o m p l a y e d a n active p a r t in creation is u n c l e a r b e c a u s e o f t h e u n c e r t a i n t y s u r r o u n d i n g t h e H e b r e w w o r d in v. 3 0 . If translated ' m a s t e r w o r k m a n ' , as t h e N R S V h a s it, W i s d o m is b e i n g a c c o r d e d a r o l e in t h e b u i l d i n g o f t h e c o s m o s . In t h e a p o c r y p h a l w o r k , t h e Wisdom of Solomon

( 7 . 2 2 - 8 . 1 ) , W i s d o m is clearly

p r e s e n t e d a s G o d ' s i n s t r u m e n t o f creation. S h e is ' t h e fashioner o f all t h i n g s ' ( W i s . 7.22). S i n c e t h e O l d T e s t a m e n t gives attention to t h e w o r l d ' s o r i g i n s , it is n a t u r a l to a s s u m e that there w o u l d b e a c o r r e s p o n d i n g interest in its fate. T h e r e are v a r i o u s texts that s e e m to s a y that t h e c r e a t e d o r d e r is d e s i g n e d t o b e everlast ing. F o r e x a m p l e , P s . 1 4 8 . 6 , cited a b o v e , states t h a t t h e celestial o r d e r s h a v e b e e n e s t a b l i s h e d 'for e v e r a n d e v e r ' . E c c l . 1.4 s p e a k s o f t h e e a r t h r e m a i n i n g forever. T h e p h y s i c a l h e a v e n s , u n d e r s t o o d to b e p e r m a n e n t fixtures, s e r v e as a

94. On the conflict model of creation, see J. Day, God's Conflict with the Dragon and the Sea (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985), pp. 1-61. 95. For example, some think that the reference in Ps. 74.12-17 is to the Exodus, rather than the creation of the world.

Cosmology

24

and New Testament

Theology

s y m b o l o f e n d u r a n c e a n d long-lastingness ( P s . 7 2 . 5 - 7 ; 7 8 . 6 9 ; 8 9 . 2 9 , 3 6 - 7 ) . O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , t h e r e a r e p a s s a g e s that i m p l y o r s p e a k e x p l i c i t l y o f a definite e n d to t h e c r e a t e d w o r l d , a b o v e all P s . 102.25-7. T h e s e a p p a r e n t l y contradictory affirmations c a n b e r e s o l v e d w i t h i n a h i e r a r c h y o f e n d u r a n c e . A s C a i r d states, in c o m p a r i s o n w i t h t h e transitoriness o f h u m a n e x i s t e n c e , t h e earth will last till the e n d o f t i m e , b u t it is n o t everlasting as G o d is e v e r l a s t i n g .

96

P r o p h e t i c texts,

especially Z e c h a r i a h 14, anticipate a transformation o f t h e c r e a t e d order. Isa. 6 5 . 1 8 - 2 5 (cf. 6 6 . 2 2 ) e n v i s a g e s ' a n e w h e a v e n a n d a n e w e a r t h ' , t h o u g h scholars d e b a t e w h e t h e r this i n v o l v e s t h e destruction o f the p r e s e n t c o s m i c o r d e r or its (non-destructive) r e n e w a l . 2 . 2 . The Apocalyptic

97

Literature

J e w i s h apocalypticists display a particular interest in c o s m o l o g i c a l m a t t e r s . T h e c o r r u p t i o n a n d r e d e m p t i o n o f t h e natural w o r l d a r e r e c u r r i n g t h e m e s in J e w i s h a p o c a l y p t i c a n d related w r i t i n g s . T h e corruption o f creation (i.e., t h e introduction o f evil into t h e c r e a t e d c o s m o s ) is n o r m a l l y r e l a t e d to h u m a n sin or t h e sins o f t h e W a t c h e r s - there is n o indication that creation is

inherently

evil. T h e c o s m i c r e n e w a l is u s u a l l y c o n c e i v e d either a s t h e (non-catastrophic) transformation o f t h e existing creation or, m o r e c o m m o n l y , its destruction a n d re-making. A fascination w i t h t h e structure a n d operation o f the c o s m o s is a notable feature of the E n o c h i c literature, a n d this s e e m s to reflect a tradition o f cosmological speculation in the circle within w h i c h the literature arose. In 1 Enoch

17-36,

w h i c h b e l o n g s to the Book of the Watchers (7 Enoch 1-37), E n o c h is taken o n a tour o f t h e c o s m o s a n d s h o w n places out o f the reach o f other h u m a n b e i n g s .

98

The

c o s m o g r a p h y o f these chapters, w h i c h is not consistent, h a s affinities w i t h A N E a n d G r e e k c o s m o g r a p h i e s . Reflected, for e x a m p l e , is the early G r e e k tradition that the earth is a flat disc s u r r o u n d e d b y a great river. O n h i s c o s m i c tour, E n o c h sees the c h a m b e r s of thunder a n d lightning, the source o f all the w o r l d ' s

rivers

a n d the storerooms o f t h e w i n d s ( 1 7 . 1 - 1 8 . 1 ) . H e is s h o w n h o w the stars turn, a n d sees the cornerstone o f the earth a n d the four w i n d s w h i c h b e a r the w h o l e 99

cosmic edifice ( 1 8 . 2 - 4 ) . H e also visits the prison h o u s e s for the seven stars a n d the fallen angels ( 1 8 . 1 3 - 1 5 ; 21.1-10) a n d the places w h e r e the ' t h e spirits o f the souls o f the d e a d ' are kept till the final assize (ch. 22). T h e reference to the seven stars (18.13-14; 21.3-6) is intriguing. T h e y are h e l d accountable for transgressing 96. Caird, Language and Imagery (Grand Rapids: Eerdmann, 1997), p. 257. 97. For fuller discussion of OT views of creation's future, see Adams, The Stars Will Fall, pp. 28-35. 98. Chapters 17-19 and 20-36 are twin accounts of the journey. On the former see K. C. Bautch, A Study of the Geography of I Enoch 17-19 (JSJS 81; Leiden: Brill, 2003). 99. The idea of the earth resting on the four winds arises from Job 26.7. See further G. W. E. Nickelsburg, 1 Enoch 1: A Commentary on 1 Enoch Chapters 1-36, 81-108 (Minneapolis: Augsburg Fortress, 2001), p. 285.

1. Graeco-Roman

and Ancient Jewish

Cosmology

25

G o d ' s c o m m a n d (18.15; 21.6). M a t t h e w B l a c k connects the disobedient stars to the seven recognized p l a n e t s .

100

If this identification is correct, their ' w a n d e r i n g '

is b e i n g interpreted as an errant feature in n a t u r e .

101

Overall, though, the picture

in these chapters is o f a c o s m o s that operates according to G o d ' s design a n d c o m m a n d . E n o c h ' s j o u r n e y through t h e created w o r l d 'provides a frame within w h i c h h u m a n p r o b l e m s are seen in a n e w p e r s p e c t i v e ' .

102

T h e A s t r o n o m i c a l B o o k (7 Enoch 7 2 - 8 2 ) is a sustained description o f t h e m o v e m e n t s o f t h e celestial b o d i e s from a quasi-scientific p e r s p e c t i v e . T h e regularity o f the celestial p h e n o m e n a u n d e r p i n s belief in t h e o r d e r a n d h a r m o n y o f t h e c r e a t e d c o s m o s . T h e c o s m o l o g i c a l o b s e r v a t i o n s also s u p p o r t t h e solar calendar of 364 d a y s .

1 0 3

T h e introduction m a k e s clear, t h o u g h , that t h e c y c l e s

o f n a t u r e c o n t i n u e 'till the n e w creation w h i c h a b i d e s forever is c r e a t e d ' ( 7 2 . 1 ) . C h a p t e r 8 0 , w h i c h is t h o u g h t b y s o m e t o b e a later addition to t h e b o o k , d e s c r i b e s w h a t h a p p e n s w h e n t h e e n d a p p r o a c h e s , a n d t h e n o r m a l l y consistent o r d e r o f t h e c o s m o s b r e a k s d o w n w i t h the increase o f h u m a n sin that p r e c e d e s t h e end. 2 Enoch, w h i c h is n o r m a l l y d a t e d in t h e late first c e n t u r y CE, is a n a c c o u n t o f E n o c h ' s a s c e n t into h e a v e n t h r o u g h t h e s e v e n h e a v e n s ( c h s 3 - 3 7 ) a n d h i s return t o earth t o tell h i s family w h a t h e h a s seen a n d inform t h e m o f c o m i n g e v e n t s (chs 3 8 - 6 6 ) . T h e b o o k s h o w s a d e e p interest in t h e structure o f t h e c o s m o s , especially t h e h e a v e n s . T h e first h e a v e n is t h e level o f t h e a n g e l s w h o g o v e r n t h e stellar constellations. T h e s e c o n d h e a v e n is w h e r e t h e c o n d e m n e d a n g e l s a r e incarcerated. T h e third contains paradise, w h i c h is the p l a c e o f r e w a r d p r e p a r e d for t h e r i g h t e o u s . O n this level is also l o c a t e d the p l a c e o f p u n i s h m e n t r e s e r v e d for t h e w i c k e d . T h e fourth h e a v e n c o n t a i n s the tracks o f the s u n a n d t h e m o o n . T h e fifth h e a v e n is w h e r e t h e unfallen W a t c h e r s o p e r a t e . In t h e sixth h e a v e n a r e t h e a n g e l s w h o r e g u l a t e t h e stars a n d the s e a s o n s . T h e s e v e n t h a n d h i g h e s t h e a v e n is t h e d w e l l i n g - p l a c e o f G o d . C h a p t e r s 24—33 are a n e x t e n d e d a c c o u n t o f t h e w o r l d ' s creation from ' i n v i s ible t h i n g s ' . F r o m t h e invisible entities, w h i c h exist a l o n g s i d e h i m , G o d calls d o w n A d a i l a n d A r u k h a s , from w h o m light a n d d a r k n e s s originate. T h e natural w o r l d is f o r m e d t h r o u g h t h e creative p r o c e s s e s o f c o n d e n s a t i o n a n d m i x i n g . L i g h t solidifies into t h e u p p e r foundation, a n d d a r k n e s s into the l o w e r founda tion. L i g h t a n d d a r k n e s s m i x to form water. W a t e r solidifies t o f o r m r o c k s , a n d t h e r o c k s are a s s e m b l e d t o f o r m earth, a n d so on. T h e narrative r e p r e s e n t s a n a t t e m p t to c o m b i n e t h e G e n e s i s creation a c c o u n t w i t h Persian c o s m o l o g y a n d G r e e k science. 100. M. Black with J. C. VanderKam, The Book of Enoch or Enoch I. A New English Edition (Leiden Brill, 1995), p. 160. 101. Bautch (Study, pp. 147-9) connects the seven stars to the Pleiades. 102. J. J. Collins, The Apocalyptic Imagination: An Introduction to Jewish Apocalyptic Litera ture (2nd edn) (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1998), p. 58. 103. In early Judaism, there were sharp disputes about the correct calendar. See J. VanderKam, Calendars in the Dead Sea Scrolls: Measuring Time (London: Routledge, 1998).

Cosmology

26

2.3.

and New Testament

Theology

Philo

P h i l o o f A l e x a n d r i a w a s t h o r o u g h l y c o n v e r s a n t w i t h G r e e k c o s m o l o g i c a l tradi tions. H i s o w n c o s m o l o g i c a l t h o u g h t is h e a v i l y influenced b y P l a t o ' s c o s m o l ogy, a n d also to a lesser e x t e n t b y S t o i c i s m .

104

In Platonic fashion, h e c o n c e i v e s

o f t h e u n i v e r s e as g l o b u l a r in form, w i t h earth at the c e n t r e (Mos.

1.212), t h e

planets r e v o l v i n g a r o u n d it, a n d t h e s p h e r e o f t h e fixed stars at t h e outer limit (Cher. 2 3 ) .

1 0 5

L i k e P l a t o , h e e m p h a s i z e s t h e o n e n e s s o f t h e c o s m o s a n d its i n d e

structibility, a n d a l s o like P l a t o , h e calls t h e c o s m o s an intelligent creature a n d e v e n applies t h e w o r d 0 e o s t o it. H e a g r e e s w i t h P l a t o that t h e u n i v e r s e o w e s its e x i s t e n c e t o t h e g o o d n e s s o f t h e creator. P h i l o ' s treatise, On the (De Opificio)

Creation

is a r e m a r k a b l e a t t e m p t t o synthesize G e n e s i s 1-3 w i t h P l a t o ' s

Timaeus. T h e visible w o r l d is p a t t e r n e d o n t h e ideal, perfect w o r l d . P h i l o relates t h e first ' d a y '

1 0 6

o f G e n e s i s 1 to t h e creation o f t h e

KOOJJOS

v o n r o s - t h e intel

ligible w o r l d , a n d d a y s t w o to six t o t h e creation o f t h e corporeal c o s m o s . T h e logos is a n i m p o r t a n t feature o f P h i l o ' s c o s m o l o g y . It p e r f o r m s a r a n g e o f functions in relation t o t h e c o s m o s . It contains t h e w o r l d o f ideas (De ficio 2 4 ) , it is t h e i n s t r u m e n t o f c r e a t i o n (Alleg. c o s m i c c o h e s i o n (Fug. 1 2 2 ) .

Opi

3.96) a n d it is t h e p r i n c i p l e o f

107

In line w i t h S t o i c i s m , P h i l o s e e s t h e c o s m o s as a great city g o v e r n e d b y a universal l a w (Opific.

3). H e p u t s h i s o w n twist o n t h e Stoic t h e m e , t h o u g h , b y

identifying t h e u n i v e r s a l l a w w i t h t h e l a w o f M o s e s . H u m a n b e i n g s are m e a n t to live in a c c o r d a n c e w i t h t h e l a w o f n a t u r e (Abr. 6 1 ) . P h i l o exhibits t h e h i g h r e g a r d for t h e c o s m o s that w a s typical o f G r e e k a n d Hellenistic n a t u r a l p h i l o s o p h y . H i s J e w i s h n e s s c o m e s out, t h o u g h , in h i s firm insistence that t h e c r e a t e d u n i v e r s e is s u b o r d i n a t e to its father a n d m a k e r (despite calling t h e c o s m o s a ' g o d ' ) a n d in his p o l e m i c against astral w o r s h i p . P h i l o ' s e u l o g i z i n g o f c r e a t i o n is t e m p e r e d b y his p r a i s e o f t h e c r e a t o r .

108

Conclusion A c c o r d i n g to t h e faithful s a y i n g o f 1 T i m . 1.15, ' C h r i s t J e s u s c a m e into the w o r l d (els

T O V KOOMOV)

to s a v e s i n n e r s ' . N e w T e s t a m e n t scholars r e g a r d it as vital to

h a v e a n a c c u r a t e k n o w l e d g e o f t h e w o r l d or ' U m w e l t ' into w h i c h Christ c a m e , but it is also i m p o r t a n t to h a v e a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f h o w the w o r l d - u n d e r s t o o d in its b r o a d e s t s e n s e - w a s c o n c e p t u a l i z e d at t h e t i m e o f h i s c o m i n g . In this essay, I h a v e d o n e little m o r e t h a n a d u m b r a t e G r a e c o - R o m a n a n d ancient J e w i s h c o s m o l o g y , b u t I trust that t h e r e v i e w serves t h e i m m e d i a t e 104. 51-6. 105. 106. 107. 108.

See K. Schenck, A Brief Guide to Philo (Louisville: Westminster/John Knox, 2005), pp. Schenck, Brief Guide, pp. 63-4. For Philo, this 'day' is not meant to be understood literally. See further Schenk, Brief Guide, pp. 58-63. Runia, Philo ofAlexandria, pp. 458-61.

1. Graeco-Roman

and Ancient Jewish

Cosmology

27

p u r p o s e o f setting out, at least in g e n e r a l t e r m s , t h e cultural c o n t e x t o f N e w T e s t a m e n t c o s m o l o g i c a l statements. I n t e r m s o f influence, it is c l e a r that t h e O l d T e s t a m e n t is t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t b a c k g r o u n d to N e w T e s t a m e n t c o s m o l ogy. H o w e v e r , as w i l l b e seen, t h e w r i t e r s o f t h e N e w T e s t a m e n t d o n o t s i m p l y i m p a r t a w o r l d v i e w t h e y h a v e inherited. T h e c o m i n g o f Christ into t h e c o s m o s h a s for t h e m g i v e n n e w m e a n i n g to t h e c o s m o s . I n d e e d , it h a s o c c a s i o n e d a r e - c o n s t r u c t i o n a n d r e - m a p p i n g o f the c o s m o s .

2 HEAVEN, EARTH, A N D A N E W

GENESIS:

THEOLOGICAL COSMOLOGY IN MATTHEW

J o n a t h a n T. P e n n i n g t o n

Introduction O v e r 3 0 y e a r s a g o J o h n D o m i n i c C r o s s a n w r o t e a little b o o k entitled The Interval:

Towards

a Theology

of Story}

Dark

Therein Crossan provides a schema

of w a y s in w h i c h Story relates t o t h e world. O n o n e e n d o f t h e s p e c t r u m a M y t h establishes t h e story o f t h e w o r l d . O n the o p p o s i t e e n d , a P a r a b l e is u s e d to s u b v e r t t h e w o r l d ' s story. In b e t w e e n w e h a v e the c a t e g o r i e s o f A p o l o g u e ( w h i c h d e f e n d s t h e w o r l d ) , A c t i o n (describing t h e w o r l d ) , a n d Satire (attacking t h e w o r l d ) . T h e s e heuristic categories are u s e d b y C r o s s a n t o d e m o n s t r a t e that J e s u s ' p a r a b l e s are w o r l d - d i s r u p t i n g . In reflecting o n the teaching o f Matthew, Richard H a y s adopts Crossan's catego ries a n d suggests that the First G o s p e l lies ' s o m e w h e r e at the m y t h / a p o l o g u e e n d of the s p e c t r u m . . . M a t t h e w is both creating an ordered, symbolic world, in which Jesus possesses all authority in heaven and o n earth, and defending it against rival 2

w o r l d v i e w s ' . H a y s is certainly right. T h e Gospel o f M a t t h e w is a complex and highly-skilled literary piece w h i c h h a s the grand point o f establishing and defend ing a Christocentric universe, a world view that centres u p o n the person o f Jesus. It is t h e p u r p o s e o f this c h a p t e r to s h o w h o w M a t t h e w ' s frequent a n d n u a n c e d u s e o f c o s m o l o g i c a l l a n g u a g e s e r v e s t o create a n d establish a theological w o r l d view, o n e that finds its foundation in G e n e s i s a n d its c o n s u m m a t i o n in t h e n e w G e n e s i s i n a u g u r a t e d b y J e s u s Christ.

Survey

of Some Key Cosmological

Terms

It will b e helpful t o b e g i n w i t h a s u r v e y o f s o m e o f the varied w o r d s a n d e x p r e s sions in M a t t h e w that m a y b e called c o s m o l o g i c a l t e r m s . In d o i n g so w e will 1. J. D. Crossan, The Dark Interval: Towards a Theology of Story (Niles, IL: Argus Com munications, 1975). Crossan's book is a period piece from early 1970s Structuralism, which I find ultimately lacking, yet these categories are helpful in thinking about the different modes through which the biblical authors witness to their revelation. 2. R. B. Hays, The Moral Vision of the New Testament (San Francisco: HarperSanFrancisco, 1996), p. 94.

2.

Matthew

29

b e g i n to s e e t h e w a y s in w h i c h ' p h y s i c a l ' c o s m o l o g i c a l t e r m s are s i m u l t a n e o u s l y i n v e s t e d w i t h m e t a p h o r i c a l o r theological m e a n i n g . (I)

Heaven

R e g a r d i n g c o s m o l o g i c a l l a n g u a g e in M a t t h e w , p r i d e o f p l a c e certainly b e l o n g s to ' h e a v e n ' ( o u p a v o q ) . O f c o u r s e , this w o r d is n o stranger t o t h e p a g e s o f t h e J e w i s h Scriptures o r t h e N T . F r o m G e n . 1.1 t o t h e e n d o f J o h n ' s R e v e l a t i o n w e r e g u l a r l y e n c o u n t e r reference to h e a v e n . T h e v a r i e d a p p e a r a n c e s o f this i m p o r t a n t c o n c e p t c a n b e c a t e g o r i z e d into t h r e e p r i m a r y u s e s : 1.

o u p a v o g in reference to p o r t i o n s o f t h e visible creation d i s t i n g u i s h e d from t h e earth, s u c h as t h e firmament or s k y a b o v e , t h e starry h e a v e n , a n d t h e a t m o s p h e r e w h e r e t h e b i r d s fly.

2.

o u p a v o c ; c o m b i n e d w i t h yf\ as a m e r i s m t o refer t o t h e w h o l e w o r l d ,

3.

o u p a v o g in reference t o t h e invisible, t r a n s c e n d e n t place(s) a b o v e

h e a v e n a n d earth. w h e r e G o d d w e l l s a l o n g w i t h his a n g e l s a n d t h e righteous dead. O f t h e N T a u t h o r s , M a t t h e w e m p l o y s o u p a v o q m o r e t h a n a n y other, a l o n e 3

s u p p l y i n g u s w i t h 3 0 p e r cent o f all t h e N T u s e s . Additionally, t h e related t e r m oi>paviocovr| eyeveTO Ik tcov oupavcov ou el b uios uou b a y a i r n T o s , £v 001 euooKrjoa.

In those days Jesus came from Nazareth of Galilee And he was baptized by John into the Jordan. And when he came up out of the water, immediately he saw the heavens torn open And the Spirit descending upon him like a dove And a voice came from heaven, 'You are my beloved Son; with you I am well pleased' (Mk 1.9-11). T h e s t o r y o f J e s u s ' b a p t i s m is significant b o t h for e a r l y C h r i s t i a n i t y a n d for M a r k ' s G o s p e l . T h e fact that J e s u s w a s b a p t i z e d b y J o h n , w h i c h i m p l i e s J e s u s ' s u b o r d i n a t i o n t o J o h n , a n d that it w a s a b a p t i s m o f r e p e n t a n c e , w a s p o t e n t i a l l y e m b a r r a s s i n g t o t h e early C h r i s t i a n m o v e m e n t . N e v e r t h e l e s s , t h e E v a n g e l i s t s d i d n o t shirk from i n c l u d i n g t h e p e r i c o p e in their J e s u s - s t o r i e s a n d t h e y h a v e u n d e r s t o o d it a s p a r t o f J e s u s ' c o m m i s s i o n i n g as b o t h t h e S e r v a n t o f t h e L o r d a n d t h e M e s s i a h , h e n c e t h e e c h o e s o f Isa. 4 2 . 1 ; 64.1 a n d P s . 2 . 7 . W i t h i n t h e scope o f the M a r c a n narrative the baptism episode signals the inauguration of t h e n e w e x o d u s , v a l i d a t e s J e s u s ' m e s s i a n i c identity, a n d m a r k s o u t J e s u s a s t h e true r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f t h e J e w i s h n a t i o n t h r o u g h t h e solidarity o f b a p t i s m . T h e p r e s e n c e o f t h e d i v i n e v o i c e l e n d s s o m e s u p p o r t t o t h e i d e a that w h a t t r a n s p i r e s is a n ' a p o c a l y p t i c t h e o p h a n y ' .

1 7

M o r e t o t h e p o i n t , this ' t h e o p h a n y ' results in

t h e u n i o n o f t h e M e s s i a h w i t h t h e Spirit, a w e l l - k n o w n J e w i s h t h e m e (Isa. 11.2; 6 1 . 1 ; 1 En. 4 9 . 3 ; 6 2 . 2 ; Pss. Sol

17.42; T. Levi 18.6-7; T. Jud. 2 4 . 2 - 3 ) . I n M a r k ' s

n a r r a t i o n : ' J e s u s is a n o i n t e d b y t h e v e r y p r e s e n c e a n d p o w e r o f G o d ' .

1 8

A s J e s u s ' c a m e u p ' o u t o f t h e w a t e r it is r e p o r t e d that ' h e s a w t h e h e a v e n s t o r n o p e n ' . M a r k ' s l a n g u a g e is clearly a b r u p t a n d d r a m a t i c , t h u s L u k e (Lk. 3.21) a n d M a t t h e w ( M t . 3.16) feel c o m p e l l e d t o substitute t h e m o r e s u b d u e d ccvoiyco ( ' o p e n ' ) for t h e v i o l e n t axi£co ( ' t e a r ' ) . T h e v e r b el5ev h a s J e s u s a s its subject a n d n o t J o h n . I n c o n t r a s t t o M a t t h e w a n d L u k e , M a r k ' s v e r s i o n is n o t objectivized, b u t it is a n e x p e r i e n c e o f J e s u s . T h a t c o m p o r t s w i t h t h e n o t i o n that J e s u s w a s a p r o p h e t i c seer w h o e x p e r i e n c e d v i s i o n s d u r i n g t h e c o u r s e o f h i s m i n i s t r y (see Lk. 10.18).

19

T h e m o t i f o f t h e tearing o f t h e h e a v e n s is a t t e s t e d e l s e w h e r e

17. J. Marcus, Way of the Lord: Christological Exegesis of the Old Testament in the Gospel of Mark (Louisville: Westminster/John Knox Press, 1992), pp. 56-8. 18. B. Witherington, The Gospel of Mark: A Socio-Rhetorical Commentary (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2001), p. 75. 19. Cf. Christopher Rowland, The Open Heaven (London: SPCK, 1982), pp. 358-68; Ben Witherington, Jesus the Seer (Peabody MA: Hendrickson, 1999), pp. 246-92.

3.

Mark

51

in I s r a e l ' s s a c r e d traditions a n d S e c o n d T e m p l e literature (Isa. 6 4 . 1 ; E z e k . 1.1; 2 Bar. 2 2 . 1 ; T. Levi 2 . 6 ; 5 . 1 ; 18.6; T. Jud. 2 4 . 2 - 3 ; Jos. Asen.

14.2-3) as w e l l a s

t h e N e w T e s t a m e n t (Jn 1.51; A c t s 7.56; Rev. 4 . 1 ; 11.19; 19.11). V i n c e n t Taylor c o m m e n t s : ' T h e r e n d i n g o f t h e h e a v e n s is a c o m m o n feature o f a p o c a l y p t i c t h o u g h t , t h e u n d e r l y i n g i d e a b e i n g that o f a fixed s e p a r a t i o n o f h e a v e n earth o n l y to b e b r o k e n in special c i r c u m s t a n c e s ' .

from

20

T h e ' t e a r i n g ' m o s t likely e c h o e s Isa. 64.1 [LXX 63.19] a n d it is interesting t o o b s e r v e h o w s u c h intertextuality s h a p e s M a r k ' s c o s m o l o g i c a l a n d t h e o l o g i c a l perspective. Oh, that you would tear the heavens [LXX: a v o i d s TOV oupavov, MT: •''DC? nmp and come down. That the mountains might quake at your presence As when fire kindles brushwood And the fire causes water to boil to make your name known to your adversaries And that the nations might tremble at your presence (Isa. 64.1-2). In c o n t e x t , t h e p r o p h e t d e s p e r a t e l y l o n g s for I s r a e l ' s liberation from foreign o p p r e s s i o n . W h e n this d a y c o m e s , it will b e t h e c o m i n g o f G o d himself. I n t h e d i v i n e visitation t h e h e a v e n s a r e torn a n d the earth q u a k e s , b o i l s a n d m e l t s at t h e p r e s e n c e o f G o d . G o d enters into contention against Israel's o p p r e s s o r s (Isa. 6 4 . 2 - 4 ) , H e b r i n g s c l e a n s i n g from sin a n d iniquity (Isa. 6 4 . 5 - 7 ) a n d r e s t o r e s J e r u s a l e m from desolation (Isa. 6 4 . 8 - 1 2 ) . T h e p l e a o f Isaiah 61 is for a h e a v e n s h a k i n g a n d earth-shattering e v e n t w h e r e b y G o d i n t e r v e n e s a g a i n s t I s r a e l ' s a d v e r s a r i e s a n d r e s t o r e s t h e fortunes o f Israel. T h e h o p e for d i v i n e i n t e r v e n t i o n is cast in c a t a c l y s m i c a n d c o s m i c i m a g e r y w h e r e t h e tearing o f t h e h e a v e n s o c c a s i o n s t h e r e v e l a t i o n o f G o d into t h e w o r l d to radically t r a n s f o r m t h e cir c u m s t a n c e s o f h i s p e o p l e . M a r k ' s e m p l o y m e n t o f this Isaianic m o t i f h a s t h e effect that t h e d e s p e r a t e l y s o u g h t after t h e o p h a n y o f G o d a n d t h e a s s o c i a t e d e a r t h - m e l t i n g r e v e l a t i o n o f t h e divine p r e s e n c e h a s t a k e n p l a c e in J e s u s . M a r k ' s b a p t i s m a l a c c o u n t , far from i m p l y i n g a n adoptionist christology, e x h i b i t s a n implicit incarnational c h r i s t o l o g y w h e r e t h e tearing o f t h e h e a v e n s that m a r k e d t h e c o m i n g o f G o d instead m a r k s t h e u n i o n o f G o d ' s Spirit w i t h G o d ' s S o n .

21

T h e o n l y l a n g u a g e a p p r o p r i a t e to d e s c r i b e this u n i o n o f d i v i n e a g e n t s is t h e cosmological language of heaven being ripped open. A l t h o u g h it is n o t i m m e d i a t e l y obvious, t h e tearing of the veil in t h e t e m p l e at the m o m e n t o f J e s u s ' d e a t h i n M k 15.39 actually h a s great significance for M a r k ' s story. It is also related in m o r e than o n e w a y to the baptismal a c c o u n t .

22

20. V. Taylor, The Gospel According to St. Mark (London: Macmillan, 1952), p. 160. 21. Although it is common to regard Mark's Christology as 'low', this evaluation overlooks the abundance of 'God' language used for Jesus in the Marcan Gospel. See E. Boring, 'Markan Christology: God-Language for Jesus?', NTS 45 (1999), 451-71. 22. Cf. S. Motyer, 'The Rending of the Veil: A Markan Pentecost', NTS 33 (1987), 155-7.

52

Cosmology

and New Testament

Theology

b Se'lrjoous aeis 4>covr)V ueyaXrjv e^sTrveuaev. KOL\ TO KCCTaiTCTaaua TOU vaou eoxiaBr] sis duo arf avco6ev ecos KCCTCO. iScbv 5e b Kevrupicov b iTapearr|Kcos e£ evavTias CCUTOU OTI OUTCOS e^'eTrveuoev

elTTEV* aXnScas OUTOS 6 avOpcotros uibs 8eou ?|v. And Jesus uttered a loud cry, and breathed-out his last. And the curtain of the temple was torn in two, from top to bottom. And when the centurion, who stood facing him, saw that he thus breathed his last, he said, 'Truly this man was the Son of God' (Mk 15.37-39). W h a t is d e p i c t e d h e r e is t h e v e i l o r curtain o f t h e H o l y P l a c e b e i n g c o m p l e t e l y a n d t h o r o u g h l y into t w o p a r t s .

23

ripped

T h e function o f t h e e v e n t is p r o b

a b l y t w o f o l d . First, t h e t e a r i n g o f t h e v e i l functions as riposte t o t h e c h a r g e s that J e s u s is a p s e u d o - p r o p h e t ( M k 14.62) a n d p s e u d o - M e s s i a h ( M k 15.32), a n d so v i n d i c a t e s J e s u s ' c l a i m s , d e s p i t e h i s trial a n d crucifixion, a g a i n s t t h e s e c h a r g e s . Second, the tearing of the veil announces the triumph of the eschatological king and the declaration of j u d g e m e n t u p o n an apostate institution.

24

This comports

w i t h M a r k ' s v i e w o f t h e T e m p l e a s a p o s t a t e a n d ripe for j u d g e m e n t g i v e n h i s intercalation o f t h e T e m p l e i n c i d e n t b r a c k e t e d b y t h e c u r s i n g o f t h e fig t r e e ( M k 11.12-25) a n d t h e p r e d i c t i o n o f t h e T e m p l e ' s destruction in t h e Olivet discourse ( M k 13.2; cf. 1 5 . 2 9 ) .

25

23. The word vabs could refer to either the Holy of Holies (e.g. Mt 23.17, 35) or the temple generally (e.g. Mk 14.58; 15.29; Lk. 1.9; Jn 2.19-20). Likewise, KaTCCTTCTaoua could refer to the curtain of the inner sanctuary (Exod. 26.31-35; Lev. 16.2,12; 21.23; 24.3; Num. 3.26; [LXX]; Josephus, Ant. 8.75, 90; War 5.219; Heb. 6.19; 9.3; 10.20; Philo, Vit. Mos. 2.86, 101; cf. Gos. Phil. 84) or the outer sanctuary (Exod. 26.37; 38.18; Josephus, Ant. 8.75; War 5.212; Ep. Arist. 86; also used is KaXuuucc in Exod. 27.16; 40.5; Num. 3.25). In some later Christian literature the curtain in question is ambiguous (cf. Gos. Naz. 36; Gos. Eh. 6; Gos. Pet. 5.20; Gos. Jos. 24.3; T. Levi 10.3 [if a Christian interpolation]). Others such as R. Pesch (Das Markus Evangelium [2 vols.; HTKNT; Freiburg: Herder, 1976-77], 2:498) and R. Brown (Death of the Messiah [ABRL; New York: Doubleday, 1994], pp. 1109-13) think it is either irrelevant or impossible to determine which curtain was destroyed However,fromGolgotha only the outer curtain of the Holy Place or court of the Israelites would be visible (cf. Mt 27.51,54). Although the tearing of the curtain in the Holy of Holies would be theologically significant, as the metaphor is for the author of Hebrews, R. T. France (The Gospel of Mark [NIGTC: Grand Rapids, Eerdmans, 2002], pp. 656-7) is correct to note that we cannot assume that Mark shared the same theological perspective as the writer to the Hebrews. Mark's focus is not about human access to the divine as such (though it is probably implied), his attention is the dramatic and visual effect of Jesus' death and the confirmation of a forthcoming judgment against the temple. In support of a reference to the outer curtain see J. R. Edwards, The Gospel According to Mark (PNTC; Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2002), pp. 478-9; France, Mark, pp. 656-7, and BDAG, 524. See for general discussion D. M. Gurtner, 'The Veil of the Temple in History and Legend', JETS 49 (2006), 97-114 who thinks there was only 'one' curtain in the Herodian Temple. 24. C. Rowland, 'Christ in the New Testament', in John Day (ed.), King and Messiah in Israel and the Ancient Near East (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1998), p. 480. 25. C. Evans, Mark 8:27-16:20 (WBC; Nashville: Thomas Nelson, 2001), p. 509.

3.

Mark

53

P r e d i c t i o n s o f t h e T e m p l e ' s d e s t r u c t i o n ( s o m e legendary, s o m e ex

eventu,

a n d s o m e p e r h a p s g e n u i n e l y p r e d i c t i v e ) often i n c l u d e a c c o m p a n y i n g signs a s s o c i a t e d w i t h its d e s t r u c t i o n . J o s e p h u s w r i t e s t h a t m a n y d i v i n e p o r t e n t s o c c u r r e d l e a d i n g u p to t h e w a r w i t h R o m e . T h e s e w e r e a p p a r e n t l y signs that foretold t h e future d e s o l a t i o n o f t h e t e m p l e ( War 5 . 2 8 8 - 3 1 5 ) . Tacitus states that d u r i n g t h e assault o f the t e m p l e t h e d o o r o f t h e east g a t e o f the inner court sud d e n l y o p e n e d b y t h e m s e l v e s a n d a great v o i c e cried, ' T h e g o d s are d e p a r t i n g ' (Hist. 5 . 1 3 ; cf. J o s e p h u s , War 5.412). T h e Testament

of Levi d e c l a r e s t h a t ' t h e

c u r t a i n o f t h e t e m p l e w i l l b e t o r n ' as a j u d g e m e n t o n I s r a e l ' s l a w l e s s n e s s a n d s h a m e l e s s b e h a v i o u r (T. Levi 10.3). In Lives of the Prophets

a prophecy was

g i v e n that a ' w e s t e r n n a t i o n ' w o u l d c o m e a n d ' t h e curtain o f the Dabeir o f holies] w i l l b e t o r n into s m a l l p i e c e s ' (Liv. Proph.

[holy

12.11-12). In a r a b b i n i c

tradition t h e R o m a n g e n e r a l Titus s l a s h e d the veil w i t h his s w o r d (b. Git. 5 6 b ) . M a r k ' s a c c o u n t o f t h e t e a r i n g o f the veil is a n a l o g o u s t o similar s i g n s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e d e s t r u c t i o n o f t h e T e m p l e as a n act o f d i v i n e j u d g e m e n t against Israel. T h e ' t e a r i n g o f the h e a v e n s ' narrated in M k 1.10 relates t o the ' t e a r i n g o f t h e v e i l ' in M k 15.38 in several w a y s . First, b o t h tearings o c c u r in t h e c o n t e x t of b a p t i s m . T h e ' t e a r i n g ' in M k 1.10 transpires in t h e setting o f J e s u s ' b a p t i s m b y J o h n a n d in conjunction w i t h J e s u s ' identification a s the m e s s i a n i c s o n a n d his intention to l a u n c h the Isaianic E x o d u s . Conversely, the tearing o f the veil in M k 15.38 takes p l a c e at t h e m o m e n t o f J e s u s ' death, w h i c h h a s already b e e n identi fied a s J e s u s ' b a p t i s m e l s e w h e r e in the M a r c a n story ( M k 10.37-39). S e c o n d , in b o t h p a s s a g e s the tearings are a c c o m p a n i e d b y reference to m / s u p a o r ' S p i r i t ' . In M k 1.8-10, J e s u s receives t h e ' H o l y Spirit' directly after the h e a v e n s are t o r n o p e n , w h i l e in M k 15.37 h e ' e x p i r a t e s '

(EKTTVECO)

or g i v e s u p the Spirit j u s t

prior t o t h e tearing o f t h e veil. T h e activity o f the Spirit in the m i n i s t r y o f J e s u s is o n l y operative b e t w e e n his b a p t i s m a n d his death, b e t w e e n t h e and the second

ax»£co. Third,

first

oy\t^

b o t h tearings are followed i m m e d i a t e l y w i t h an

a n n o u n c e m e n t o f J e s u s ' d i v i n e s o n s h i p . In M k 1 . 1 1 a v o i c e from h e a v e n calls J e s u s , b M\6S |iou b ayaTrr|T6s ( ' m y b e l o v e d s o n ' ) w h i l e t h e c e n t u r i o n at the c r o s s professes that, aArjBcos

O U T O S

6 a v S p c o i r o s uibs

8EOU

f]v

('truly this

m a n w a s t h e S o n o f G o d ' ) . T h e d i v i n e v o i c e a n d t h e c e n t u r i o n ' s confession b e c o m e m o m e n t s o f revelation, triggered b y t h e tearings, w h i c h disclose J e s u s ' m e s s i a n i c identity a n d his u n i q u e filial relation to Israel's G o d . F o u r t h , a n d m o s t significant of all, b o t h tearings are in fact tearings o f the h e a v e n s , albeit in different w a y s . T h i s is m a d e explicit in M k 1.10 ( o u p a v o s , ' h e a v e n ' ) , b u t t h e veil in t h e outer sanctuary is also a tearing o f t h e h e a v e n s since t h e veil was decorated with an embroidered pattern of the universe upon it.

26

Josephus

describes the outer veil o f the Jerusalem t e m p l e as it w a s during H e r o d i a n times.

26. Cf. further D. Ulansey, 'The Heavenly Veil Tom: Mark's Cosmic "Inclusio" ', JBL 110 (1991), 123-5.

54

Cosmology

and New Testament

Theology

A c c o r d i n g t o J o s e p h u s , this veil w a s intricately crafted a n d m e a s u r e d s o m e 80 feet in h e i g h t . J o s e p h u s d e s c r i b e s t h e veil as follows: TTpb 6e T O U T C O V ioourjKes KccTaTTeTaoucc TTCTTXOS f\v BaPuXcovios T T O I K I X T O S e£ uaKiv6ou Kai pdoaou K O K K O U T E Km TTOpupas BauuaoTGas uev sipyaaijevos O U K aSecoprjTov 5e TT)S uXrjs T T | V Kpaoiv Ixcov aXX' cooiTep eiKova T C O V O X C O V KaTeyeypaTTTO & b

TTETTXOS

ocTTaoav

TTJV

oupaviov Secopiav

TTXTIV

£cp5icov

But before these doors there was a veil of equal size with the doors. It was a Baby lonian tapestry, with embroidery of blue and fine linen, of scarlet also and purple, wrought with marvelous skill. Nor was this mixture of materials without its mystic meaning: it typified the universe... Crafted on this tapestry was a panorama of the heavens except for the signs of the zodiac. (Josephus, War 5.212, 14). T h u s , w h i l e t h e r e is n o m e n t i o n o f t h e tearing o f t h e

oupocvos, the

same motif

is s u p p l i e d b y t h e t e a r i n g o f t h e veil w h i c h w a s a tapestry o f t h e h e a v e n s . D a v i d Ulansey writes: In other words, the outer veil of the Jerusalem temple was actually one huge image of the starry sky! Thus, upon encountering Mark's statement that 'the veil of the temple was torn in two from top to bottom', any of his readers who had ever seen the temple or heard it described would instantly have seen in their mind's eye an image of the heavens being torn, and would immediately have been reminded of Mark's earlier description of the heavens being torn at the baptism. This can hardly be coincidence: the symbolic parallel is so striking that Mark must have consciously intended it. 27

Dale C. Allison contends that the rending of the outer veil with the heavens u p o n it m e a n s t h a t t h e r e n d i n g o f t h e h e a v e n s o f t h e ' D a y o f t h e L o r d ' h a s c o m e t o p a s s ( J o b 14.12 [LXX]; P s . 1 0 2 . 2 6 ; Isa. 6 4 . 1 ; H a g . 2 . 6 ; Sib. Or. 3 . 8 2 ; 8.233, 4 1 3 ; Mt. 24.29; Lk. 21.25; 2 Pet. 3.10; Rev. 6.14).

28

T h i s is s u p p o r t e d

further o n t h e g r o u n d s t h a t t h e i m a g e r y a n d l a n g u a g e o f M k 1 5 . 3 3 , w i t h t h e s u d d e n ' d a r k n e s s ' (cf. E x o d . 1 0 . 2 1 ; Jer. 15.9; A m o s 8.9), s u g g e s t t h a t t h e c o m i n g j u d g e m e n t o f t h e D a y o f t h e L o r d is m a n i f e s t e d at J e s u s ' c r u c i f i x i o n .

29

27. Ulansey, 'Heavenly Veil Torn', p. 125. R. H. Gundry (Mark: A Commentary on His Apology for the Cross [Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1993], p. 972) objects as to whether the pattern on the tapestry can be thought of as being significant for Mark's readers: 'But Mark cannot expect an audience who require his explanation of Jewish matters to know the pictorial design embroidered on the outer veil of the Jewish temple. Had they known so much about the temple, he would have needed to specify the outer veil if they were to detect the suggest symbolism'. Against Gundry we simply do not know how much of the design and artistry of the temple was known to Mark's readers or to Christians outside of Judaea. But the spread of Christians from Palestine to the Diaspora and the reports of the Temple's destruction may have meant mat such knowledge was more widespread than Gundry allows for. 28. D. C. Allison, The End of Ages Has Come (Minneapolis: Fortress, 1985), p. 33. 29. E. Best, The Temptation and the Passion (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 3rd edn, 1990), p. 126.

3.

Mark

55

In M a r k ' s ' D a y o f t h e L o r d ' t h e r e is a c o s m o l o g i c a l transfer t a k i n g p l a c e w h e r e t h e d r a m a t i c a n d a p o c a l y p t i c e v e n t o n c e t r a n s p i r i n g in h e a v e n is n o w s a i d t o t a k e p l a c e in t h e T e m p l e , w h i c h h a s b e c o m e t h e s t r a t o s p h e r e o f d i v i n e revelation and judgement. That accords with the Jewish perception of the Temple as the epicentre of the earth and the n e x u s to heaven. T h e Temple w a s a l s o filled w i t h ' c o s m i c s y m b o l i s m ' a n d c o u l d r e p r e s e n t t h e i n h a b i t e d world, the expanse of the cosmos, an earthly counterpart to the heavens or a m i c r o c o s m o f h e a v e n a n d e a r t h (cf. P s . 7 8 . 6 9 ; J o s e p h u s , Ant. 3 . 1 8 1 ; P h i l o , Vit. Mos.

2.87-88).

30

A s s u c h , t h e lines b e t w e e n h e a v e n a n d e a r t h b e c o m e

b l u r r e d m o m e n t a r i l y u p o n b o t h ' t e a r i n g s ' . T h e first t e a r i n g i n d i c a t e s t h a t w h a t w a s e x c l u s i v e l y a v a i l a b l e t h r o u g h t h e T e m p l e , t h e d i v i n e p r e s e n c e , is n o w a v a i l a b l e t h r o u g h J e s u s . T h e s e c o n d t e a r i n g signifies t h a t t h e d i v i n e p r e s e n c e is n o l o n g e r a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e T e m p l e , a s its j u d g e m e n t is n o w s e a l e d b y v i r t u e o f t h e r o l e o f t h e t e m p l e l e a d e r s h i p in o r c h e s t r a t i n g J e s u s ' d e a t h . I n t h e w o r d s of H e r m a n Waetjen: Jerusalem is no longer the navel of the world where heaven and earth are united and where God's presence is uniquely experienced. Heaven and earth have been reconciled cosmically and universally. Accordingly, the binary opposition between the sacred and the secular, constituted by the temple as the axis mundi of Judaism, is dissolved. Both are reunited, and the entire creation once again becomes ambigu ously sacred and profane... God's presence will be experienced wherever the eschatological reality of the New Humanity that Jesus incarnated throughout his ministry is encountered. 31

The Marean

Apocalypse:

Shaking

the

Heavenlies

T h e d i s c o u r s e o f M a r k 13 h a s b e e n c a l l e d t h e ' E s c h a t o l o g i c a l D i s c o u r s e ' , t h e ' O l i v e t D i s c o u r s e ' a n d t h e ' L i t t l e A p o c a l y p s e ' . T h e s p e e c h is n o t strictly s p e a k ing an apocalypse,

32

b u t it c o n t a i n s m a n y striking similarities t o a n a p o c a l y p s e

i n c l u d i n g familiar i m a g e r y ( c o s m i c p o r t e n t s ) , c o m m o n t h e o l o g i c a l features (e.g. d e t e r m i n i s m , p e s s i m i s m , c o m b a t m y t h a n d j u d g e m e n t ) , a n d s h a r e d motifs (e.g. the p r e d i c t i o n o f familial d i s c o r d in v. 12, t h e p r e d i c t i o n o f t h e tribulation in v. 1 3 , t h e c o s m i c signs in w . 2 4 - 2 5 , a n d t h e g a t h e r i n g o f t h e elect in v. 2 7 ) that signify that M a r k 13 is a n a p o c a l y p t i c - p r o p h e t i c d i s c o u r s e w r i t t e n u p in a

30. G. K. Beale, The Temple and the Church's Mission: A Biblical Theology of the Dwelling Place of God (NSBT 17; Downers Grove, IL: Intervarsity Press, 2004), pp. 2£-80. 31. H. C. Waetjen, A Reordering of Power: A Socio-Political Reading of Marks Gospel (Min neapolis: Fortress, 1989), p. 238; see also Patella, Lord of the Cosmos, p. 111. 32. Cf. the definition given by John Collins: 'Apocalypse is a genre of revelatory literature with a narrative framework, in which a revelation is mediated by an otherworldly being to a human recipient, disclosing a transcendent reality which is both temporal, insofar as it envis ages eschatological salvation, and spatial, insofar as it involves another supernatural world'. J. J. Collins, 'Apocalypses and Apocalypticism',^/) 1:279.

56

Cosmology

u n i q u e literary f o r m .

33

and New Testament

Theology

M a r k 13 is a b o u t t h e e n d o f t h e w o r l d - m o r e p r o p e r l y

the end of ' a w o r l d ' - the world of Judaism centred u p o n the Jerusalem Tem ple.

3 4

I find m y s e l f in a g r e e m e n t w i t h a g r o w i n g n u m b e r o f c o m m e n t a t o r s w h o

s u g g e s t that M a r k 13 c o n c e r n s itself w i t h t h e d e s t r u c t i o n o f J e r u s a l e m a n d n o t (directly at least) w i t h t h e parousia

3 5

of J e s u s . 1 cannot imagine M a r k depicting

t h e disciples as a s k i n g J e s u s a q u e s t i o n a b o u t t h e d e s t r u c t i o n o f t h e T e m p l e a n d t h e n h a v i n g J e s u s r e s p o n d b y e n g a g i n g in a s p e e c h a b o u t h i s r e t u r n

from

h e a v e n . It m a y b e p o s s i b l e t o t a k e t h e later sections in w . 3 2 - 3 7 a s referring t o the eschatological d e n o u e m e n t

36

o r detect a m e r g i n g o f historical a n d e s c h a t o

logical e v e n t s t h r o u g h o u t t h e s p e e c h ,

37

b u t this is far from certain. T h a t b e i n g

said o n e d o e s n o t h a v e t o c o l l a p s e t h e entire e s c h a t o l o g i c a l s c e n a r i o into p r e - 7 0 CE e v e n t s . A s H e i n r i c h H o l t z m a n n s a w l o n g a g o , t h e d e s t r u c t i o n o f J e r u s a l e m itself m a r k s t h e b e g i n n i n g o f G o d ' s final j u d g e m e n t .

38

T h e ' D a y of the Lord'

a n d t h e ' c o m i n g o f t h e S o n o f M a n ' that b r i n g j u d g e m e n t o n J e r u s a l e m r e m a i n a typos

for a future j u d g e m e n t o f t h e

salvation of the

EAEKTO!

OIKOUIJEVT]

('inhabited world') and the

( ' e l e c t ' ) that w i l l t a k e p l a c e t h r o u g h t h e a p p o i n t e d

j u d g e , J e s u s C h r i s t , as t h e e a r l y C h r i s t i a n s w e r e t o b e l i e v e ( A c t s 1 0 . 4 2 ; 1 7 . 3 1 ; R o m . 2 . 1 6 ) . W e s h o u l d n o t forget either that r e g a r d l e s s o f h o w o n e u n d e r s t a n d s t h e referents for t h e e s c h a t o l o g i c a l e v e n t s p o r t r a y e d in M k 1 3 . 3 - 3 7 , t h e u l t i m a t e task o f t h e text is p a r a e n e t i c , viz., a n e x h o r t a t i o n t o faithfulness a n d e n d u r a n c e in t h e light o f t h e sufferings a n d tribulation a b o u t t o occur. W h a t is o f i m m e d i a t e c o n c e r n is t h e i m a g e r y in t h e later s e c t i o n s o f t h e discourse: ' AAAa i v eiceivais T O I S Tiuepais ueTa T T J V 0 A ? V | / I V eKEivrjv 6 fjAios cncoTia8f)a£Tai, Kai r\ aeArjVT) ou Scooei T O <J>eyyos auTrjs, Kai oi a o r e p e s I O O V T O I I K T O U oupavou TTiTTTovTESf

KOI

ai Suvaueis ai ev T O 7 S o u p a v o l s aaAeuSrjOovTai.

33. On the association of Mark 13 with an apocalypse see further J. D. G. Dunn, Unity and Diversity in the New Testament (London: SCM, 2nd edn, 1990), p. 329. See also Gerd Theissen (The Gospels in Context: Social and Political History in the Synoptic Tradition [trans. Linda M. Maloney; Minneapolis: Fortress, 1991], pp. 134-5) who labels the speech 'apocalyptic prophecy'. 34. Cf. N. T. Wright, yew** and the Victory of God (COQG; London: SPCK, 1996), pp. 345-6; Witherington, Mark, p. 340; Beale, Temple, pp. 212-16. 35. Examples include R. T. France, Jesus and the Old Testament (London: Tyndale, 1971), pp. 139-48,231-3; idem, Mark, pp. 497-546; G. B. Caird, New Testament Theology (ed. L. D. Hurst; Oxford: Clarendon, 1994), 365-6; Wright, New Testament and People of God, pp. 393-6; idem, Jesus and the Victory of God, pp. 339-68; S. McKnight, A New Vision for Israel: The Teachings of Jesus in National Context (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1999), p. 142; B. Pitre, Jesus, the Tribula tion, and the End of the Exile (WUNT 2.204; Tubingen: Mohr/Siebeck, 2005), pp. 330-48. 36. France, Jesus and the Old Testament, pp. 231-2; idem, Mark, pp. 541-6. 37. Cf. E. Adams, 'Historical Crisis and Cosmic Crisis in Mark 13 and Lucan's Civil War\ TynBul 48 (1997), 329-44; idem, 'The Coming of the Son of Man in Mark's Gospel', TynBul 56 (2005), 39-61; Evans, Mark, pp. 328-9. 38. H. J. Holtzmann, Lehrbuch der Neutestamentlichen Theologie (2 vols; Tubingen: Mohr/ Siebeck, 2nd edn, 1911 [1896-1897]), 1:150.

3.

Mark

57

T O T E O V | / O V T C C I T O V uibv Tou avSpcotrou epxopevov Iv ve'eAais METCX 5uva|j6cos T T O X X T J S Kai 6o£rjs. Kai T O T C aTToareAsi T O U S ayyeXous KOCI eTnauva£ei T O U S eicAeKTous E K T Q V Teooapcov avcpcov a if aicpou yfjs ecos aicpou oupavou.

Kai

But in those days, after that tribulation,titlesun will be darkened, and the moon will not give its light, and the stars will be falling from heaven, and the powers in the heavens will be shaken. And then they will see the Son of Man coming in clouds with great power and glory. And then he will send out the angels, and will gather the elect from the four winds, from the ends of the earth to the ends of heaven. (Mk 13.24-27) C o m m e n t a t o r s are p e r p l e x e d as t o w h e t h e r or n o t the i m a g e r y of celestial h a v o c refers t o t h e destruction o f J e r u s a l e m o r to t h e e n d o f the s p a c e - t i m e u n i v e r s e a n d w h e t h e r the descriptions should b e t a k e n literally o r metaphorically. T h e l a n g u a g e itself is d e r i v e d from Isa. 13.10 a n d 3 4 . 4 that depict the v e n g e a n c e o f G o d e x e c u t e d against B a b y l o n a n d E d o m (see similar m e t a p h o r s in Isa. 14.4, 12-15; E z e k . 3 2 . 5 - 8 ; Joel 2 . 1 0 - 1 1 , 3 0 - 3 2 ; 3 . 1 4 - 1 5 ; A m o s 8 . 9 ) .

39

W h a t w e find in

all o f t h e s e p a s s a g e s are predictions o f a d i v i n e j u d g e m e n t , w h i c h is t e m p o r a l , in a historical framework, a n d is orientated against a political entity that threatens Israel. T h e a c c o m p a n y i n g l a n g u a g e w i t h its c o s m i c u p h e a v a l a n d g e o p h y s i c a l disturbances invests political events w i t h theological m e a n i n g .

40

The language

o f t h e h e a v e n s b e i n g s h a k e n a n d stars falling is n o t literal (like m e t e o r s c r a s h i n g t o earth) b u t it a i m s to introduce a t r a n s c e n d e n t p e r s p e c t i v e into t h e e q u a t i o n so that t h e rise a n d d e m i s e o f e m p i r e s is n o t a m a t t e r o f p u r e l y historical c a u s e a n d effect ( d u e to e c o n o m i c , political a n d social forces) b u t results from t h e radical intervention o f Israel's G o d into the s p h e r e o f h u m a n e m p i r e s , e m p e r o r s , cities, a n d alliances. T h i s is m o s t aptly d e s c r i b e d as religio-political

cosmology.

But

this is m o r e t h a n u s i n g m e t a p h o r i c a l l a n g u a g e t o describe A n c i e n t N e a r Eastern politics, a s there is u n d o u b t e d l y a religious d i m e n s i o n to the e v e n t s described. T h e r e is a n intrinsic c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n p a g a n politics a n d t h e p a g a n p a n t h e o n ; in o r d e r t o destroy o n e , y o u m u s t destroy the other. T h e luminaries that c r a s h t o earth m a y b e t a k e n

figuratively

for t h e ejection o f p a g a n g o d s from t h e h e a v

e n l y habitation b y Y a h w e h . It is u n d e r s t a n d a b l e h o w s u c h s y m b o l i s m c o u l d b e applied t o B a b y l o n , E g y p t , E d o m o r R o m e , b u t t h e application o f s u c h vivid m e t a p h o r s t o t h e destruction o f J e r u s a l e m m a y a p p e a r d e c i d e d l y o d d . T h e ratio nale is p e r h a p s that t h e religion o f t h e J e r u s a l e m T e m p l e is effectively p a g a n a n d this T e m p l e a n d all its political a n d e c o n o m i c tiers w i l l b e a r the d i v i n e w r a t h .

39. See the excellent treatment by Pitre, Jesus, pp. 333-4 on the imagery and its connection to Jewish restoration hopes. More immediately we should note that the eclipses of the sun and moon were often regarded as signs foreshadowing the death of kings and the destruction of cities: Eusebius, Praep. Ev. 395d; Plutarch, Caes. 69; Dio Cassius 56.29.3; Josephus, Ant. 17.167; Sib. Or. 3.796-803. 40. Cf. Wright, New Testament and the People of God, pp. 298-9.

Cosmology

58

and New Testament

Theology

T h e interface o f r e l i g i o u s a n d political m e a n i n g s is c o n t i n u e d i n t h e c o m i n g o f t h e S o n o f M a n in M k 13.26. T h e l a n g u a g e is a n explicit e c h o o f D a n . 7.13-14 a n d t h e u n d e r l y i n g n a r r a t i v e c r e a t e d b y t h e i n t e r t e x t u a l a l l u s i o n is that o f t h e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f G o d ' s p e o p l e g o i n g b e f o r e t h e A n c i e n t o f D a y s (i.e. Yahweh) and receiving kingship and vindication over and against the pagan beasts w h o oppress the Jewish people. The Danielic vision of the enthronement o f t h e v i c t o r i o u s S o n o f M a n is o s t e n s i b l y t r a n s f o r m e d i n t o t h e t r i u m p h o f J e s u s against t h e T e m p l e . T h i s d o e s n o t spell o u t t h e d e m i s e o f t h e J e w i s h n a t i o n , b u t r a t h e r I s r a e l ' s v i n d i c a t i o n t h r o u g h t h e fulfilment o f J e s u s ' p r o p h e c y a g a i n s t the Temple.

41

T h e political d i m e n s i o n is u n d e r s c o r e d further w i t h t h e s t a t e m e n t

that t h e elect will b e g a t h e r e d from t h e e n d s o f t h e earth. T h e act m a y n o t only b e concurrent with the destruction of the Temple, but to s o m e degree also l o o k b e y o n d it. A c o m m o n l y h e l d h o p e in I s r a e l ' s s a c r e d t r a d i t i o n s w a s for t h e r e g a t h e r i n g o f t h e D i a s p o r a t o P a l e s t i n e a n d t h e r e t u r n o f t h e exiles t o J e r u s a l e m w i t h G e n t i l e s in t o w .

42

T h e d i s c o u r s e t h u s shifts from j u d g e m e n t t o restoration,

from political d i s i n t e g r a t i o n t o n a t i o n a l re-creation. T h u s , M a r k ' s n a r r a t i o n c o s m o l o g y is j u s t as political a s it is r e l i g i o u s a n d spatial. B e t w e e n G o d , t h e

firmament,

earth, a n d political k i n g d o m s is a n

indelible c o n n e c t i o n . H o w e v e r foreign it m i g h t b e t o o u r m o d e r n m i n d s e t , t h e s h a k i n g o f t h e h e a v e n s m e a n s t h e e n d o f political fortunes a n d t h e r a d i c a l t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f r e l i g i o u s realities.

Conclusion T h e N e w T e s t a m e n t a u t h o r s a r e h a r d l y u n a n i m o u s in s h a r i n g t h e o n e b u t t h e y d o p a r t a k e o f a s i m i l a r Weltanschauung

3

Weltbild*

in that J e s u s is G o d ' s a g e n t t o

b r i n g salvation t o t h e elect, a n d this salvation will h a v e a t r a n s f o r m a t i v e i m p a c t u p o n t h e w h o l e o f t h e i n h a b i t e d w o r l d . M a r k ' s c o n t r i b u t i o n t o that p e r s p e c t i v e is that t h e c o m i n g o f J e s u s h a s w r o u g h t a c a t a c l y s m i c t r a n s f o r m a t i o n in t h e relation b e t w e e n h e a v e n a n d e a r t h .

44

A l t h o u g h t h e Koopos is h o s t i l e t o G o d ' s

41. Cf. further France, Mark, pp. 534-5. 42. Deut. 30.4; Ps. 107.2-3 (= 106.2-3 L X X ) ; Isa. 11.11-12; 35.10; 43.5; 49.5-6, 22-26; 56.8; 60.4,9; 66.20; Jer. 3.18; 31.10; Ezek. 11.17; 20.34,41; 28.25; 34.12-16; 36.19,24-28; 37.21-23; 39.27-28; Zeph. 3.20; Zech. 2.6-11; 8.7-8; 10.9-12; 2 Mace. 1.27-29; 2.18; Sir. 36.11-22; 48.10; Bar. 4.37; 5.5; 4 Ezra 13.39-50; Tob. 13.4-5; 14.5-6; Josephus, Ant. 11.63, 98, 131-33; Philo, Praem. Poen. 117, 164-70; Pss. Sol. 8.28; 11.1-5; 17.31, 44; T. Jos. 19.2-12 (Arm); I En. 57.1; 90.33;/wZ>. 1.15-18; 23.27'-32; 2 Bar. 29.1-30.3; 78.7; T. Benj. 9.2; 10.11; 7. Mw. 10.7-10; Sib. Or. 3.265-294; 1QM 2.1-3, 7; 3.13; 5.1; 11Q19 18.14-15; 57.5-6; 59.9-13; CD 2.11-12; m.Sanh. 10.3; t.Sanh. 13.10; Tg. Isa. 45.5; 53.8; Tg. Hos. 14.8; Tg. Mw. 5.1-3; Lk. 13.28-29/Mt. 8.11-12; Jn 11.52; Lk. 24.21; Acts 1.6; 26.7; Rev. 21.12; Justin, Dial Tryph. 134.4. 43. Collins, Cosmology and Eschatology, p. 32. 44. In addition to the rending of the veil and the eschatological discourse, the transfiguration (Mk 9.2-8) has a further bearing upon Mark's cosmological perspective.

3.

Mark

59

p e o p l e , a t i m e is c o m i n g w h e n t h e Koopos w i l l b e g i n t o reflect the g o o d n e s s o f the original K T I O I S . F o l l o w i n g the Isaianic script, M a r k describes the anointing o f the m e s s i a n i c Servant for his ministry as c o m m e n c i n g w i t h the h e a v e n s b e i n g r i p p e d o p e n a n d t h e Spirit d e s c e n d i n g into h i m . T h e r e n d i n g o f t h e veil in t h e T e m p l e s i g n a l s t h e e n d , h o w e v e r , o f t h e T e m p l e ' s r o l e a s a n e x u s into t h e d i v i n e r e a l m . T h e t e a r i n g is a s y m b o l o f j u d g e m e n t u p o n the r e l i g i o u s institution a n d its l e a d e r s h i p . L i k e w i s e , t h e s h a k i n g o f t h e h e a v e n s a n d t h e falling stars w h e n j u x t a p o s e d w i t h t h e c o m i n g o f t h e S o n o f M a n in M a r k 13 is i n d i c a t i v e o f a p a r t i c u l a r m e t a p h y s i c a l c o n s t r u c t i o n w h e r e politics a n d p o r t e n t s are m e r g e d together. T h a t i m p l i e s that M a r k ' s c o s m o l o g y is all at o n c e social, r e l i g i o u s a n d political.

4

'THE HEAVENS OPENED': COSMOLOGICAL AND THEOLOGICAL TRANSFORMATION IN LUKE AND ACTS Steve Walton

In L u k e ' s story, b o t h h e a v e n a n d earth are transformed t h r o u g h J e s u s a n d b y t h e Spirit. T h i s p r o c e s s o f transformation affects e v e n h o w G o d is t o b e seen a n d understood, for there is n o w a h u m a n b e i n g in h e a v e n at G o d ' s right h a n d - a n d he p o u r s out the Spirit u p o n G o d ' s p e o p l e t o e q u i p t h e m to r e c l a i m creation for its Creator. L u k e ' s G o s p e l a n d A c t s are u n i q u e in t w o important respects for this study. 1

First, L u k e a l o n e o f t h e E v a n g e l i s t s p r o v i d e s a ' v o l u m e t w o ' telling the story of t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f the earliest Christian c o m m u n i t i e s . T h i s a l l o w s u s to see h o w the r e m a r k a b l e intervention o f Israel's G o d in h u m a n history t h r o u g h J e s u s is p l a y e d out a m o n g those w h o follow J e s u s . B y w r i t i n g A c t s , L u k e p o r t r a y s the universal c l a i m s o f J e s u s w i t h particular clarity. S e c o n d , L u k e a l o n e a m o n g t h e N T writers narrates the a s c e n s i o n o f J e s u s , and h e d o e s s o t w i c e ( L u k e 2 4 ; A c t s 1). B y contrast w i t h a n g e l s , w h o c o m e from h e a v e n a n d return t h e r e , J e s u s is a h u m a n b e i n g w h o enters h e a v e n . J e s u s both shares the rule o f G o d o v e r t h e u n i v e r s e a n d c o n t i n u e s t o intervene in the story o f his followers, b o t h in his o w n p e r s o n a n d b y t h e Spirit. I n p i e r c i n g t h e barrier b e t w e e n earth a n d h e a v e n , J e s u s restructures h o w reality is u n d e r s t o o d , both n o w a n d in the d a y s to c o m e . To e x p l o r e L u k e ' s e n g a g e m e n t w i t h c o s m o l o g y , w e shall first r e v i e w his perspective o n the k e y c o s m o l o g i c a l t e r m s a n d ideas w h i c h h e u s e s . W e shall then focus o n t h e shift o f p e r s p e c t i v e w h i c h t h e a s c e n s i o n o f J e s u s b r i n g s . T h i s will lead into discussion o f t h o s e w h o i n v a d e this r e a l m o f earth from h e a v e n , notably a n g e l s , the Spirit a n d J e s u s h i m s e l f after his a s c e n s i o n , r e p u l s i n g the o c c u p y i n g forces o f Satan, d e m o n s , a n d u n c l e a n a n d evil spirits. Finally, w e shall c o n s i d e r s o m e k e y p a s s a g e s in A c t s w h e r e there s e e m s to b e explicit dia logue w i t h rival a c c o u n t s o f c o s m o l o g y , particularly t h o s e w h i c h centre o n t h e J e r u s a l e m T e m p l e , on p a g a n i s m , or o n t h e role o f Caesar.

1. For the purpose of this study we make no assumption about the identity of the author of Luke and Acts, other than his gender.

4.

Naming

Luke-Acts

Space(s):

61

Key

Terms

L u k e u s e s o v p a v o s ( ' h e a v e n ' or ' s k y ' ) 6 1 t i m e s i n h i s t w o b o o k s . T h e L u k a n favourite UV|;IOTOS ( ' h i g h e s t ' ) c a n d e n o t e t h e h e a v e n l y r e a l m a s w e l l . L u k e also h a s a n u m b e r o f u s e s o f ?5TIS ' H a d e s ' ( 4 o f 10 N T u s e s a r e i n L u k e - A c t s ) . B y contrast, L u k e d o e s n o t u s e t h e KTI£CD ( ' c r e a t e ' ) w o r d g r o u p at all, a n d u s e s Koopos ( ' w o r l d ' ) o n l y four t i m e s . L u k e d o e s u s e yTj, v a r i o u s l y translated a s ' e a r t h ' , ' s o i l ' , ' l a n d ' , 5 8 t i m e s , n o t a b l y for o u r p u r p o s e i n c o m b i n a t i o n s w i t h

oupccvos. T h i s i m p r e s s i o n is b o r n e o u t b y m o r e detailed e x a m i n a t i o n . T h u s prima facie

L u k e s h o w s a strong interest in t h e h e a v e n l y r e a l m a n d its interac

tion w i t h t h e earthly o n e . L u k e ' s p r e f e r e n c e for ' h e a v e n a n d e a r t h ' l a n g u a g e o v e r Koopos is r a t h e r u n e x p e c t e d g i v e n that L u k e is w r i t i n g into a G r a e c o - R o m a n setting, w h e r e Koopos is m o r e c o m m o n t h a n ' h e a v e n a n d e a r t h ' a s a label for t h e u n i v e r s e . Plausibly, t h i s is a n e x a m p l e o f L u k e i m i t a t i n g t h e LXX, w h e r e u s a g e is similar.

2

Heaven/the

Heavens*

T h e large majority o f L u k a n u s e s o f

the Highest,

and

Hades

oupccvos o c c u r in prepositional p h r a s e s .

L u k a n a s s u m p t i o n o f a n a b o v e / b e l o w m e t a p h o r for t h e division o f h e a v e n a n d earth is s e e n i n t h e e x p r e s s i o n ' u n d e r h e a v e n '

(urrb T O V oupavov), in e a c h

u s e s u g g e s t i n g universality (Lk. 17.24; A c t s 2 . 5 ; 4 . 1 2 ) . Likewise, movement 'into heaven'

(sis

TOV

oupavov) is u p w a r d s in relation

to earth, especially i n J e s u s ' a s c e n s i o n (Lk. 2 4 . 5 1 ; A c t s 1.9-11). P e t e r contrasts Jesus with David, w h o did not ascend

(ccvePrj) there ( A c t s 2 . 3 4 ) . J e s u s is n o w 4

in a n exalted p o s i t i o n o f p o w e r in t h e r e a l m o f G o d (cf. A c t s 3 . 2 1 ; 7 . 5 6 ) . T h e a n g e l s d e p a r t into h e a v e n ( L k . 2 . 1 5 ) , a n d t h e sheet in P e t e r ' s vision is t a k e n u p into h e a v e n ( A c t s 10.16; 11.10). T h e a b o v e / b e l o w m e t a p h o r is e x p r e s s e d i n relation t o p r a y e r i n t h e t a x collector w h o will n o t lift his e y e s sis T O V oupavov (Lk. 18.13) a n d J e s u s l o o k i n g u p (ccva|3AEv|/as) into h e a v e n w h e n h e g i v e s

2. As a rough and ready measure, (he 71 L X X uses of K O O U O S are completely outweighed by 621 uses of oupccvos and 3043 uses of yf|. I am grateful to Dr Jonathan Pennington for suggest ing the link with the L X X to me. 3. I have excluded uses of oupccvos for 'sky' or 'air' (such as TOC T T £ T E I V C C T O U oupccvou 'the birds of the air', found five times in Luke-Acts), but have focused on those of greater cosmologi cal and theological significance. 4. It is hard to accept Strelan's antithesis concerning the three-fold use of eis T O V oupavov in 1.10-11: 'This is not a spatial or locative description; it means that Jesus now participates in the rule of God'. R. Strelan, Strange Acts: Studies in the Cultural World of the Acts of the Apostles (BZNW 126; Berlin: de Gruyter, 2004), p. 39. Why can location not be the denotation and rule the connotation of the expression?

62

Cosmology

and New Testament

Theology

t h a n k s (Lk. 9.16). I n t h e s e c a s e s ' h e a v e n ' stands for t h e r e a l m o f G o d , a s it d o e s in t h e p r o d i g a l s o n ' s affirmation that h e h a s s i n n e d ' a g a i n s t h e a v e n ' (Lk. 15.18, 2 1 ) , a n d in S t e p h e n s e e i n g ' i n t o h e a v e n ' ( A c t s 7.55). The expression 'from heaven'

(EK

T O U

oupocvou,

E£

oupccvou o r

CCTTO

T O U

oupccvou) indicates i n t e r v e n t i o n from that r e a l m into t h e earthly. Often this is positive i n t e r v e n t i o n from t h e d i v i n e r e a l m in t h e f o r m o f s o u n d (Lk. 3 . 2 2 ; A c t s 2.2; 11.9) o r sight ( A c t s 9 . 3 ; 11.5; 2 2 . 6 ) o r great signs ( L k . 2 1 . 1 1 ) . H o w e v e r , j u d g e m e n t in t h e f o r m o f fire c a n c o m e from h e a v e n (Lk. 9.54; 17.29), a n d Satan fell from h e a v e n ( L k . 10.18). A s previously, ' h e a v e n ' is t h e d i v i n e r e a l m , w h e r e t h e F a t h e r is (Lk. 11.13; cf. 2 0 . 4 ) . B y contrast w i t h t h e s e p r e s e n t - o r i e n t e d e x p r e s s i o n s , E V T G O oupccvcd, ' i n h e a v e n ' is often u s e d in future settings. T h o s e w h o follow J e s u s w i l l r e c e i v e a r e w a r d or t r e a s u r e in h e a v e n ( L k . 6 . 2 3 ; 12.23; 18.22), a n d their n a m e s are w r i t t e n in h e a v e n ( L k . 10.20). T h e r e is rejoicing in h e a v e n w h e n sinners r e p e n t (Lk. 15.7; cf. 15.10). R e j o i c i n g h a p p e n s E V inpiaTOis ' i n t h e h i g h e s t ' (Lk. 2 . 1 5 ; 19.38). H e a v e n is a l s o a p l a c e o f p e a c e a n d glory (Lk. 19.38). H e a v e n , h o w e v e r , is n o t to b e attained easily: C a p e r n a u m w i l l n o t b e exalted to h e a v e n

(EGOS

oupccvou), b u t b r o u g h t d o w n to H a d e s ( L k . 10.15). H a d e s is

a r e a l m o f p a i n a n d suffering (Lk. 16.23; a l t h o u g h a p a r a b l e , this d r a w s o n 5

p o p u l a r a s s u m p t i o n s a b o u t t h e n a t u r e o f t h e after-life ). P s . 15.10 LXX ( M T 16.10) is q u o t e d in A c t s 2 . 2 7 , 3 1 , a n d r e a d a s a p r o p h e c y o f t h e M e s s i a h n o t being abandoned to Hades. In mentioning Hades, Luke m a y n o w b e using a ' t h r e e - d e c k e r ' m o d e l o f t h e u n i v e r s e , w i t h earth in t h e m i d d l e , h e a v e n ' a b o v e ' and Hades 'below'.

6

M o s t striking for o u r s t u d y a r e u s e s o f oupccvos as c l o s e d o r o p e n . J e s u s s p e a k s o f t h e f a m i n e in E l i j a h ' s t i m e in w h i c h ' t h e h e a v e n w a s c l o s e d

(EKAEIOOT)

b o u p c c v o s ) for three y e a r s a n d six m o n t h s ' (Lk. 4 . 2 5 ) . T h e c l o s u r e o f h e a v e n is clearly a r e f e r e n c e to t h e lack o f r a i n from t h e sky, b u t p r o b a b l y also implies that G o d h a d c e a s e d t o c a r e for t h e p e o p l e o f Israel b e c a u s e o f A h a b ' s sin a n d 7

their idolatry. C o n v e r s e l y , t o s p e a k o f h e a v e n as o p e n indicates that intercourse b e t w e e n G o d a n d earthly b e i n g s is t a k i n g p l a c e - i n d e e d ' I s a w h e a v e n o p e n e d ' 8

is a s t a n d a r d a p o c a l y p t i c f o r m u l a for G o d r e v e a l i n g himself. J e s u s h a s a vision o f h e a v e n o p e n e d at h i s b a p t i s m (Lk. 3.21); S t e p h e n sees t h e h e a v e n s o p e n e d as h e is b e i n g s t o n e d a n d r e c o g n i z e s t h e e x a l t e d J e s u s in h e a v e n ( A c t s 7.56); a n d

5. J. Nolland, Luke (WBC 35; Dallas: Word, 1989-93), 2:557. 6. Cf. Leslie Houlden, 'Beyond Belief: Preaching the Ascension', Theology 94 (1991), 173-80 (177). 7. I. H. Marshall, The Gospel of Luke (NIGTC; Exeter: Paternoster, 1978), p. 188. 8. E.g. Ezek. 1.1 L X X ; John 1.51; Rev. 19.11. See the surveys of Jewish apocalyptic in M. N. A. Bockmuehl, Revelation and Mystery in Ancient Judaism and Pauline Christianity (WUNT 2/36; Tubingen: Mohr Siebeck, 1990); and Christopher Rowland, The Open Heaven: A Study of Apocalyptic in Judaism and Early Christianity (London: SPCK, 1982).

4.

Luke-Acts

63

P e t e r sees h e a v e n o p e n e d w h e n h e h a s t h e v i s i o n o f t h e sheet ( A c t s 10.11). T h i s l a n g u a g e is h i g h l y s u g g e s t i v e , for it indicates that G o d is c o m m u n i c a t i n g w i t h h i s creation, b o t h w i t h J e s u s w h i l e h e is o n earth a n d , after h i s a s c e n s i o n , w i t h J e s u s ' followers.

9

Earth,

the

World

A n u m b e r o f t i m e s t h e p a i r ' h e a v e n a n d e a r t h ' e x p r e s s e s t h e totality o f e x i s t e n c e . G o d m a d e t h e m a n d is their L o r d ( A c t s 4 . 2 4 ; 1 4 . 1 5 ; 17.24). H e a v e n is G o d ' s t h r o n e a n d earth h i s footstool ( A c t s 7.49, q u o t i n g Isa. 66.1). In a n intriguing pair o f s a y i n g s , Jesus asserts that it is easier for h e a v e n a n d earth to p a s s a w a y t h a n for t h e smallest character t o b e d r o p p e d from t h e l a w (Lk. 16.17), a n d y e t s a y s that h e a v e n a n d earth will p a s s away, b u t his w o r d s will n o t ( L k . 2 1 . 3 3 ) . H e a v e n a n d earth clearly p o s s e s s a certain durability, b u t n o t greater durability t h a n J e s u s ' t e a c h i n g ! L u k e t h u s hints at t h e c o m i n g r e n e w a l o f t h e u n i v e r s e . E l s e w h e r e h e a v e n a n d e a r t h s t a n d in contrast: t h e sheet P e t e r sees is let d o w n from h e a v e n to earth ( A c t s 10.11) a n d , suggestively, S a u l falls to t h e e a r t h after t h e light from h e a v e n shines a r o u n d h i m ( A c t s 9.3-4). H e r e t h e superiority o f t h e r e a l m o f G o d is asserted o v e r t h e h u m a n , earthly r e a l m . W h e r e y ? | o c c u r s w i t h o u t o u p a v o s it is u s e d t o s p e a k o f life h e r e a n d n o w b y implicit contrast w i t h life in h e a v e n (e.g. A c t s 8.33 [quoting Isa. 5 3 . 8 LXX]; 2 2 . 2 2 ) . T h u s J e s u s ' birth b r i n g s p e a c e u p o n earth (Lk. 2.14) a n d h e h a s author ity o n e a r t h (Lk. 5.24). T h e fixture o f w h i c h h e w a r n s w i l l i n c l u d e distress a n d suffering o n earth ( L k . 2 1 . 2 3 , 2 5 , 3 5 ) , a n d h i s o w n m i n i s t r y will b r i n g fire rather t h a n p e a c e (Lk. 12.49, 5 1 ) . In A c t s t h e e x p r e s s i o n ecos EOXCCTOU TTJS yfjs ' t o the e n d o f e a r t h ' , d e r i v e d from Isa. 4 9 . 6 , is a k e y n o t e for t h e b r e a d t h o f t h e b e l i e v e r s ' m i s s i o n ( A c t s 1.8), a m i s s i o n w h i c h t h e y g r a d u a l l y c o m e t o see includes G e n t i l e s ( A c t s 13.47) - t h u s , all t h e e a r t h ' s families w i l l b e b l e s s e d ( A c t s 3 . 2 5 , e c h o i n g G e n . 12.3).

The Universe Luke does not use the

K T I £ C Q

as Gods

Creation

' c r e a t e ' w o r d g r o u p at all, b u t t h e i d e a o f t h e

u n i v e r s e as G o d ' s creation is clear, particularly w h e r e believers are e n c o u n t e r ing p a g a n s . I n A t h e n s , P a u l p r e s e n t s G o d as t h e o n e ' w h o m a d e ( b TTOirjaas) h e a v e n a n d e a r t h ' a n d w h o (in c o n s e q u e n c e ) is ' L o r d o f h e a v e n a n d e a r t h ' ( A c t s 17.24). T h i s G o d is n o deistic w a t c h m a k e r , for h e c o n t i n u e s to g i v e

TTOCOI

£cor|v

Kai Trvorjv Kai T C C rravTa ' t o all p e o p l e life a n d b r e a t h a n d all t h i n g s ' (v. 2 5 ) , a n d ( q u o t i n g a p a g a n p o e t ) ' i n h i m w e live a n d m o v e a n d e x i s t ' (v. 2 8 ) . L u k e also p r e s e n t s J e s u s as referring t o G o d ' s k i n d l y p r o v i d e n c e t o w a r d t h e b i r d s a n d

9. I exclude here uses of yr] for 'soil', 'land' (i.e., a country) or 'land' (by contrast with sea or lake); these account for about 25 uses from a total of 58 in Luke-Acts.

64

Cosmology

and New Testament

t h e flowers o f t h e field a n d t h u s , a fortiori,

Theology

for p e o p l e m a d e in h i s i m a g e (Lk.

12.24-28). This t h e m e c a n also b e seen in S t e p h e n ' s speech (Acts 7.50, quoting Isa. 66.2), w h e r e G o d ' s ' h a n d ' is s y n e c d o c h e for G o d h i m s e l f - h i s p o w e r in particular; in t h e p r a y e r o f t h e b e l i e v e r s ( A c t s 4 . 2 4 ) ; a n d in P a u l ' s w o r d s in Lystra ( A c t s 14.24).

10

In t h e latter t w o c a s e s , t h e s e q u e n c e ' t h e h e a v e n a n d the earth a n d the

sea a n d e v e r y t h i n g in t h e m ' follows that in t h e creation story of G e n . 1.1-2.3, further u n d e r l i n i n g t h e c l a i m that t h e G o d o f t h e b e l i e v e r s is t h e Creator. G o d ' s creation o f t h e u n i v e r s e is a l s o h i n t e d at in the idea o f ' t h e foundation o f t h e w o r l d ' (Lk. 11.50), w h i c h p r e s u p p o s e s a b e g i n n i n g , a l t h o u g h hints o f creation in L u k e ' s G o s p e l a r e r a r e - it is o n l y in t h e w i d e r m i s s i o n in A c t s that this t h e m e becomes explicit.

11

Changing

Space(s):

the

11

Ascension

L u k e a l o n e n a r r a t e s J e s u s ' a s c e n s i o n , a n d d o e s so t w i c e (Lk. 2 4 . 5 0 - 5 3 ; A c t s 1.6-11); o t h e r N T a u t h o r s a s s u m e its existence or spell out its s i g n i f i c a n c e .

13

L u k e ' s d o u b l e telling s h o w s t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f t h e a s c e n s i o n , w h i c h p r o v i d e s t h e b a s i s for m u c h that follows in A c t s , a s w e l l as b e i n g t h e a p p r o p r i a t e c l i m a x to t h e G o s p e l ' s s t o r y .

14

It m a r k s J e s u s ' s t e p p i n g from t h e r e a l m o f earth into

h e a v e n , from w h e n c e h e c o n t i n u e s t o act; it m a r k s a w a t e r s h e d in h i s life a n d in t h e w a y t h e u n i v e r s e is s e e n a n d e x p e r i e n c e d . B e c a u s e t h e a s c e n s i o n is s o significant for t h e c o s m o l o g y o f L u k e - A c t s , w e shall focus o n it first, a n d t h e n c o n s i d e r h o w L u k e ' s G o s p e l p r e p a r e s for this r e m a r k a b l e event. T h e a s c e n s i o n o f J e s u s m a r k s t h e c l o s e o f t h e forty-day p e r i o d o f r e s u r r e c tion a p p e a r a n c e s ( A c t s 1.3), a n d v i v i d l y s h o w s t h e risen J e s u s e n t e r i n g h e a v e n ( s i s T O V o u p a v o v , ' i n t o h e a v e n ' ) , a n e x p r e s s i o n w h i c h o c c u r s three t i m e s in

10. Both 4.24 and 14.15 echo L X X Exod. 20.11; Neh. 9.6; Ps. 145.6 [MT 146.6]; Isa. 37.16, while not being an exact quotation of any of them. 11. It is also worth observing that, while God's fatherhood is linked in the OT and Second Temple Jewish writings with creation, this link is not made in Luke-Acts. For references and discussion, see D. G. Chen, God as Father in Luke-Acts (StBibL 92; Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang, 2006), pp. 84-5,136-7. 12. A number of significant issues concerning the ascension, including its historicity, are beyond the scope of this limited study. Significant studies include: Strelan, Strange, pp. 33-49; A. W. Zwiep, The Ascension of the Messiah in Lukan Christology (NovTSup 87; Leiden: Brill, 1997); M. C. Parsons, The Departure of Jesus in Luke-Acts: The Ascension Narratives in Context (JSNTSup 21; Sheffield: JSOT Press, 1987), with useful review of previous work on pp. 14-18; G. Lohfink, Die Himmelfahrt Jesu: Untersuchungen zu den Himmelfahrts- und Erhohungstexten heiLukas (SANT 26; Munchen: K6sel, 1971). 13. See Douglas Farrow, Ascension andEcclesia: On the Significance of the Doctrine of the Ascension for Ecclesiology and Christian Cosmology (Edinburgh: T&T Clark, 1999), pp. 15-40, 275-80; T. F. Torrance, Space, Time, and Resurrection (Edinburgh: Handsel, 1976), pp. 106-22. 14. Cf. Eric Franklin, Christ the Lord (London: SPCK, 1975), p. 35.

4.

Luke-Acts

65

A c t s 1.10-11. L k . 2 4 . 5 0 - 5 3 a p p e a r s t o relate t h e s a m e event, b u t w i t h n o t i m e frame p r o v i d e d : v. 5 0 is l i n k e d t o v. 4 9 only b y t h e v a g u e 5 s . T h i s a c c o u n t c o n t a i n s t h e s a m e n o t e o f J e s u s entering h e a v e n (v. 5 1 ) . It is b e y o n d t h e s c o p e o f this e s s a y t o d e b a t e t h e p r e c i s e relationship o f resurrection a n d a s c e n s i o n ; t h e v i e w t a k e n h e r e is that t h e r e s u r r e c t i o n a n d a s c e n s i o n , a l t h o u g h t h e y s h o u l d b e s e e n together, a r e distinct m o m e n t s i n t h e p r o c e s s o f J e s u s ' exaltation t o G o d ' s right h a n d .

15

T h e a s c e n s i o n m a y t h e n b e seen a s t h e c u l m i n a t i o n o f t h e

p r o c e s s o f J e s u s ' exaltation a n d t h e p o i n t at w h i c h J e s u s is visually e x a l t e d t o h e a v e n , t h e r e b y p r o v i d i n g t h e disciples w i t h a visual d e m o n s t r a t i o n o f t h e truth o f J e s u s ' e x a l t e d status. H e n c e , A c t s 1.9-10 u s e s a rich visual v o c a b u l a r y w h i c h stresses t h e reality o f t h e event, for t h e t e r m s u s e d a r e n o t v i s i o n a r y o r d r e a m language:

PAETTOVTCDV,

TGDV

cxj>9aApcov a u T o v ,

C C T E V I ^ O V T E S ,

1

6

EP{3AETTOVTES,

iBEaaaaSE.

What the Ascension

Implies

G i v e n t h e stress L u k e p l a c e s o n t h e a s c e n s i o n a n d h e a v e n l y session o f J e s u s , w h a t intersection d o e s it h a v e w i t h c o s m o l o g i c a l issues? A t least six p o i n t s come to mind. First, t h e a s c e n s i o n a n d exaltation o f Jesus t o G o d ' s right h a n d i m p l y that h e n o w r e i g n s a l o n g s i d e G o d from h e a v e n ; it is n o w a p p r o p r i a t e t o call h i m Kuptos ( ' L o r d ' ) a s w e l l a s X p i o x o s ( ' M e s s i a h ' ) , for G o d h i m s e l f h a s d o n e s o in e x a l t i n g Jesus t o h i s right h a n d ( A c t s 2.36). H i s a s c e n s i o n is ' i n t o h e a v e n ' (Lk. 2 4 . 5 1 ; A c t s 1.10,11). T h e a c c o u n t o f t h e a s c e n s i o n i s b r o u g h t t o a c l o s e for t h e disciples b y a c l o u d ( A c t s 1.9), a c l o u d w h i c h e c h o e s t h e singular c l o u d o f Lk. 2 1 . 2 7 u p o n w h i c h t h e s o n o f m a n c o m e s (contrast M k 13.26; M t . 2 4 . 2 9 ) . It therefore a p p e a r s that L u k e i n t e n d s a n e c h o o f L k . 2 1 . 2 7 in A c t s 1.9, a n d t h e r e b y makes a connection to Dan. 7.13 concerning the Son of M a n w h o comes to the

15. See the helpful summaries in Kevin L. Anderson, 'But God Raised Him from the Dead': The Theology ofJesus 'Resurrection in Luke-Acts (PBM; Milton Keynes: Paternoster, 2006), pp. 6-10,41-7; R. F. O'Toole, 'Luke's Understanding of Jesus* ResuiTectic^-Ascension-Exaltation', BTB 9 (1979), 106-14.1 share the view of Anderson and P. A. Van Stempvoort, 'The Interpreta tion of the Ascension in Luke and Acts', NTS 5 (1958-59), 30-42, contra Lohfink, Himmelfahrt, pp. 80-98, 270; J. A. Fitzmyer, 'The Ascension of Christ and Pentecost* in J. A. Fitzmyer, To Advance the Gospel: New Testament Studies (2nd edn; Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1998), pp. 265-94, esp. 265-77; Zwiep, Ascension. 16. Strelan, Strange, pp. 38-9 unconvincingly seeks to argue that ccTeviôvrcs implies entering into a trance-like state, which is unlikely - the verb here (as elsewhere) denotes intent looking or staring at something or someone (BDAG, 148). Even if Strelan were correct about aTevi£ovres, Luke has used numerous other visual words which carry no such implication; cf. C. K Barrett, A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on the Acts of the Apostles (2 vols; ICC; Edinburgh: T&T Clark, 1994, 1998), 1.81 on PXETTOVTCOV, whose use 'places the Ascension in the same category of events as any other happening in the story of Jesus'.

Cosmology

66

and New Testament

Theology

M o s t H i g h o n t h e c l o u d s . T h e p r o m i n e n t u s e o f a c l o u d in t h e transfiguration (three t i m e s in L k . 9.34-35) further reinforces the l i k e l i h o o d that t h e a s c e n s i o n cloud connotes G o d ' s presence and glory.

17

A l o n g s i d e t h e s e links, L u k e explicitly states that, after J e s u s a s c e n d e d , ' t h e y w o r s h i p p e d h i m ' ( L k . 2 4 . 5 2 ) . S i n c e for J e w s w o r s h i p is to b e g i v e n to G o d a l o n e , J e s u s is h e r e b e i n g p l a c e d a l o n g s i d e Y H W H as a n object o f w o r s h i p .

18

H i s e n t r y into h e a v e n is t h u s different from t h o s e o f Elijah o r E n o c h , for his entry follows his r e s u r r e c t i o n .

19

T h u s , t h e w a y ' G o d ' is u n d e r s t o o d c h a n g e s :

the way that Luke narrates the ascension of an eschatologically transformed, fleshly human being inevitably alters the life of... God and forever breaks the bounds of any cosmology, ancient or modern, that portrays the gap that needs overcoming between God and humanity as primarily ontological rather than hamartiological. 20

S e c o n d , the t w o w h i t e - r o b e d interpreters tell t h e disciples that J e s u s ' a s c e n sion p r e s a g e s h i s return from h e a v e n t o earth ( A c t s l . l l ) .

2 1

T h i s return to earth

will b e t h e t i m e o f c o s m i c r e n e w a l a n d restoration p r o m i s e d in Scripture ( A c t s 3.20-21) as w e l l a s o f j u d g e m e n t ( A c t s 17.31). T h e c l o u d a l s o b e c a m e e m b l e m atic o f t h e return o f J e s u s , a s h e w a s to c o m e from t h e p r e s e n c e o f G o d w h i c h the c l o u d s y m b o l i z e s (cf. 1 T h e s s . 4 . 1 7 ; Rev. 1.7; 14.14-16). It is p o s s i b l e that this p a r o u s i a s y m b o l i s m m a y h a v e further e n c o u r a g e d L u k e to r e p o r t t h e c l o u d as e n v e l o p i n g J e s u s . Third, h e a v e n ' s gift, t h e H o l y Spirit, flows from J e s u s ' exaltation to G o d ' s right h a n d ( A c t s 2.33). H e a v e n is o p e n ( A c t s 2.2 s p e a k s o f a s o u n d c o m i n g ' f r o m h e a v e n ' ) a n d t h e Spirit is p o u r e d u p o n G o d ' s p e o p l e as a result o f J e s u s ' 22

exaltation, w h i c h itself m a r k s h i m a s L o r d o f t h e Spirit ( A c t s 2 . 3 6 ) . T h e futur istic p r e s e n t

CCTTOOTSAACO

( L k . 2 4 . 4 9 ) a n d the e m p h a t i c eyeb s h o w that J e s u s

h i m s e l f w i l l s e n d the H o l y Spirit a s ' p o w e r from o n h i g h ' (cf. A c t s 1.5). T h e

17. Cf. the thoughtful argument of Strelan (Strange, p. 36) for early Christian appropriation of Pss. 8,46 to connect Jesus' exaltation with reigning, as well as his helpful tracing of references to clouds connoting God's presence (pp. 37-8). 18. Larry W. Hurtado, Lord Jesus Christ: Devotion to Jesus in Earliest Christianity (Grand Rapids/Cambridge: Eerdmans, 2003), p. 345. 19. This is the diametrical opposite of the puzzling view of Franklin, Christ, p. 35, that it was the ascension rather than the resurrection which marked Jesus out as 'other than one of the prophets'. 20. A. Johnson, 'Resurrection, Ascension and the Developing Portrait of the God of Israel in Acts', SJT 57 (2004), 146-62 (147); see also D. Buckwalter, The Character and Purpose of Lukes Christology (SNTSMS 89; Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996), esp. pp. 180-92. 21. Torrance, Resurrection, pp. 150-8. 22. M. Turner, Power from on High: The Spirit in Israel's Restoration and Witness in LukeActs (JPTSup, 9; Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1996), p. 278; M. Turner, ' *Trimtarian Pneumatology in the New Testament? - Towards an Explanation of the Worship of Jesus', AsTJ 57 (2003), 167-86 (178); Buckwalter, Character, pp. 194-6. ,,

4.

67

Luke-Acts

Spirit h e r e a n d in A c t s 2 . 3 3 - 3 6 is the e x e c u t i v e p o w e r o f t h e e x a l t e d J e s u s , b y w h i c h h e e x e r c i s e s his s o v e r e i g n t y o v e r t h e w o r l d .

23

T h i s s a m e Spirit will b e

t h e m e a n s o f e m p o w e r i n g t h e b e l i e v e r s for the t a s k o f calling creation b a c k to G o d as t h e y w i t n e s s to J e s u s ( A c t s 1.8),

24

in p r e p a r a t i o n for t h e d a y o f J e s u s '

return. Fourth, the heavenly Jesus will w e l c o m e and receive believers. This seems to b e t h e significance o f t h e a p p e a r a n c e o f J e s u s to S t e p h e n ( A c t s 7.55-56). J e s u s is n a m e d as ' t h e s o n o f m a n ' (v. 5 6 ) , u n i q u e l y o u t s i d e t h e G o s p e l s . H e h a s fulfilled D a n . 7.13 a n d therefore h a s r e c e i v e d t h e u n i v e r s a l j u r i s d i c t i o n g i v e n to t h e s o n o f m a n . S t e p h e n ' s m u r d e r e r s r e c o g n i z e this (to t h e m ) b l a s p h e m o u s c l a i m b y refusing to h e a r it further a n d b y s t o n i n g S t e p h e n ( w . 5 7 - 5 8 ) . D a n i e l 7 w a s , o f c o u r s e , a d d r e s s e d to a m a r t y r c o n t e x t o f t h e p e o p l e o f G o d suffering against t h e p a g a n s , p o r t r a y e d as w i l d b e a s t s ( w . 2 - 8 ) , i m m e d i a t e l y before t h e A n c i e n t o f D a y s enters t h e s c e n e to find in favour o f his p e o p l e . particularly a p p r o p r i a t e that D a n i e l 7 is a l l u d e d to h e r e .

25

It is t h u s

26

Fifth, S t e p h e n p r o v i d e s a n e x a m p l e o f a w i d e r c a t e g o r y o f J e s u s ' appear a n c e s a n d actions from h e a v e n . T h e s e flow from J e s u s ' role at G o d ' s right h a n d as G o d ' s ' c h i e f e x e c u t i v e a g e n t ' - L u k e h a s n o ' a b s e n t e e c h r i s t o l o g y ' .

27

Hence

J e s u s a p p e a r s from h e a v e n to Saul o f Tarsus o n t h e r o a d to D a m a s c u s a n d exer cises his p o w e r b y striking h i m b l i n d ( A c t s 9.8). J e s u s is n o t a b s e n t from earth, for h e is identified w i t h t h e b e l i e v e r s w h o m Saul is p e r s e c u t i n g - to p e r s e c u t e t h e m is t o p e r s e c u t e J e s u s h i m s e l f ( A c t s 9.5). T h e Jesus w h o r e i g n s w i t h t h e F a t h e r is also t h e J e s u s w h o suffers w i t h his p e o p l e , t h e r e b y s h a r i n g G o d ' s o w n ability to b e p r e s e n t in m a n y locations at o n c e - a n d this illustrates o u r h u m a n difficulty w i t h u s i n g t h e l a n g u a g e o f ' p r e s e n c e ' a n d ' a b s e n c e ' in relation to t h e exalted Jesus.

28

N o t o n l y d o e s J e s u s m e e t Saul directly, b u t h e g o e s o n to p r e p a r e for S a u l ' s integration into t h e b e l i e v i n g c o m m u n i t y b y s p e a k i n g t o A n a n i a s ( A c t s 9.10-16).

23. See, much more fully, Turner, Power, pp. 290-315. 24. I here take 'the end of the earth' as a reference to 'everywhere', in tune with the echo of Isa. 49.6, with, inter alia, L. T. Johnson, The Acts of the Apostles (SP 5; Collegeville: Liturgical Press, 1992), pp. 26-7. Note also that the crowd at Pentecost come 'from every nation under heaven' (Acts 2.5) - while all of these are Jews, the choice of term hints at the universality of the concerns of God. 25. N. T. Wright, The New Testament and the People of God (London: SPCK, 1992), pp. 291-7. 26. C. F. D. Moule, The Origin of Christology (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1977), p. 17. 27. See Turner, Power, pp. 295-6 for the point and the specific phrases, contra (famously) H. Conzelmann, The Theology of St Luke (London: Faber & Faber, 1960), passim, esp. p. 204. 28. I owe this point to an unpublished paper presented by Prof. Beverly Gaventa to the Book of Acts Section at the SBL Annual Meeting of November 2003; I gratefully acknowledge her kindness in providing me with a copy.

68

Cosmology

and New Testament

Theology

T h e exalted J e s u s s t a g e - m a n a g e s events to his o w n e n d s , a n d t h u s exercises his s o v e r e i g n t y o v e r t h e u n i v e r s e . Similarly, it is J e s u s w h o p o u r s o u t t h e Spirit ( A c t s 2 . 3 3 ) . It is J e s u s w h o h e a l s A e n e a s ( A c t s 9.34) a n d , w h e n o t h e r h e a l i n g s t a k e p l a c e in t h e n a m e o f J e s u s , t h e n a m e stands for his p e r s o n t o o (e.g. A c t s 3.6, 16; 4 . 7 , 17, 3 0 )

2 9

a n d s h o w s h i s p r e s e n t , earthly e x e r c i s e o f p o w e r : ' W h a t

b e l i e v e r s d o in J e s u s ' n a m e is in effect b e i n g d o n e b y J e s u s h i m s e l f .

3 0

That

p o w e r is a l s o s e e n in d e l i v e r a n c e from evil spirits ( A c t s 16.18 a n d , comically, 19.13, 1 7 ) .

31

I n d e e d , s o p o w e r f u l is J e s u s ' n a m e that it is t h e u n i q u e a n d sole

i n s t r u m e n t o f salvation ( A c t s 4 . 1 2 ) , so that n e w b e l i e v e r s a r e b a p t i z e d into J e s u s ' n a m e ( A c t s 2 . 3 8 ; cf. 1 0 . 4 3 ; 2 2 . 1 6 ) a n d p r o c l a m a t i o n o f t h e m e s s a g e is p r o c l a m a t i o n o f t h e n a m e o f J e s u s ( A c t s 9 . 1 5 , 2 7 , 2 8 ) . Prayer, t o o , is calling upon the n a m e of Jesus (Acts 9.14,21). Sixth, t h e a s c e n s i o n o f J e s u s , h i s p i e r c i n g t h e barrier b e t w e e n earth a n d h e a v e n , m e a n s that h e a v e n is o p e n to earth. To b e sure, h e a v e n h a s b e e n i n v a d ing earth in a n d t h r o u g h t h e m i n i s t r y o f t h e earthly J e s u s , b u t t h e flurry o f angelic activity in t h e e a r l y c h a p t e r s o f A c t s is u n p r e c e d e n t e d , directing, s a v i n g and emboldening believers and bringing God's judgement to Herod (Acts 1.10-11; 5.19; 8.26; 1 0 . 3 ; 1 2 . 7 - 1 1 , 2 3 ; cf. 2 7 . 2 3 - 2 4 ) . T h e r e p e a t e d c o m i n g a n d action o f t h e H o l y Spirit is a further i m p o r t a n t instance o f h e a v e n i n v a d i n g earth (e.g. A c t s 2 . 1 - 4 ; 4 . 8 , 3 1 ; 6.10; 7 . 5 5 ; 8.17; 9.17; 10.44; 11.28; 13.2, 9, 5 2 ) , as are t h e h e a l i n g s a n d e x o r c i s m s w h i c h t a k e p l a c e . T h e e x o r c i s m s , in particular, d r i v e b a c k t h e o c c u p y i n g forces o f evil a n d free p e o p l e from b o n d a g e t o b e l o n g to G o d ' s p e o p l e (e.g. A c t s 5.16; 8.7; 1 6 . 1 6 - 1 8 ; 19.12). ' S i g n s a n d w o n d e r s ' o c c u r at the b e a c h h e a d s o f t h e i n v a s i o n (e.g. A c t s 2 . 2 2 , 4 3 ; 4 . 3 0 ; 5.12; 6.8; 14.3; 15.12). T h o s e w h o o u t w a r d l y j o i n G o d ' s r e n e w e d p e o p l e , b u t w h o lie t o the h e a v e n l y Spirit, a r e j u d g e d ( A c t s 5.1-11). Further, G o d ' s w o r d is a n active a g e n t w i t h i n t h e m i s s i o n o f G o d ( A c t s 6.7; 12.24; 13.48-49; 2 0 . 3 2 ) ,

32

a n d acts as a

further a g e n t o f G o d ' s h e a v e n l y i n v a s i o n o f earth (cf. Isa. 5 5 . 1 0 - 1 1 ) . In contrast w i t h p r e v i o u s t i m e s , b o t h in the O T a n d in t h e m i n i s t r y o f J e s u s , h e a v e n is n o w ' o p e n for b u s i n e s s ' o n a p e r m a n e n t b a s i s .

Space

Invaders:

Heaven

Coming

to

Earth

W e h a v e d i s c o v e r e d t h u s far that t h e exaltation o f J e s u s , visually r e p r e s e n t e d a n d c u l m i n a t e d in t h e a s c e n s i o n , initiates a n e w c h a p t e r in t h e life o f h e a v e n a n d earth. T h e r e is n o w a h u m a n b e i n g r e i g n i n g a l o n g s i d e G o d , a n d earth is o p e n to h e a v e n in a fresh w a y . H o w far d o e s L u k e ' s G o s p e l p r e p a r e for this? 29. J. A. Ziesler, 'The Name of Jesus in the Acts of the Apostles', JSNT 4 (1974), 28-41 (35-37). 30. Buckwalter, Character, p. 184; see pp. 182-4 for a helpful discussion. 31. J. Goldingay, 'Are They Comic Acts?', EvQ 69 (1997), 99-107 (102-104). 32. See the valuable discussion in D. W. Pao, Acts and the Isotonic New Exodus (Grand Rapids: Baker Book House, 2002), pp. 160-7.

4.

Luke-Acts

69

T h e t i m e o f J e s u s ' b i r t h b r i s t l e s w i t h d i v i n e activity. G o d s e n d s a n g e l s t o announce both the birth of John, the forerunner of Jesus, a n d Jesus himself ( L k . 1.11-20, 2 6 - 3 8 ; 2 . 8 - 1 4 ) . T h e H o l y Spirit i n s p i r e s s p e e c h t o a n n o u n c e w h a t G o d is n o w d o i n g ( L k . 1.41-45, 6 7 - 7 9 ; 2 . 2 5 - 3 2 ) . M o s t n o t a b l y o f a l l , t h e Spirit c a u s e s M a r y t o b e c o m e p r e g n a n t ( L k . 1.35),

33

a fresh c r e a t i v e a c t

w h i c h reflects G o d ' s d e s i r e t o i n t e r v e n e a n e w i n h i s u n i v e r s e i n a n d t h r o u g h Jesus. A t J e s u s ' b a p t i s m t h e a p o c a l y p t i c e x p r e s s i o n avEcoxflrjvai T O V o u p a v o v ' t h e h e a v e n w a s o p e n e d ' ( L k . 3.21) p r e s a g e s a significant d i s c l o s u r e God.

3 4

from

H e r e , 'after a p e r i o d o f a p p a r e n t inactivity G o d h i m s e l f c o m e s d o w n

to a c t i n p o w e r ' .

3 5

J e s u s ' vision o f t h e Spirit's d e s c e n t is interpreted b y t h e

h e a v e n l y v o i c e , e c h o i n g P s . 2.7 a n d Isa. 4 2 . 1 . J e s u s is e m p o w e r e d b y t h e Spirit for h i s m e s s i a n i c t a s k a s ' g r e a t D a v i d ' s greater s o n ' .

3 6

Luke repeatedly under

lines J e s u s ' e m p o w e r m e n t b y t h e Spirit, for J e s u s returns from J o r d a n 'filled w i t h t h e H o l y Spirit' a n d is t h e n ' l e d b y t h e Spirit' ( L k . 4 . 1 ) . J e s u s e m e r g e s from t h e t e m p t a t i o n s ' i n t h e p o w e r o f t h e Spirit' ( L k . 4 . 1 4 ) , a n d a n n o u n c e s i n N a z a r e t h that h e is t h e o n e a n o i n t e d w i t h t h e L o r d ' s Spirit for h i s m i s s i o n ( L k . 37

4 . 1 8 - 1 9 , q u o t i n g Isa. 6 1 . 1 - 2 ; 5 8 . 6 ) . T h i s m i s s i o n is G o d ' s w o r k t h r o u g h J e s u s , so t h a t h i s e x o r c i s m s a r e t o b e u n d e r s t o o d a s d e m o n s t r a t i n g t h e p o w e r o f G o d ( L k . 11.20) - h i s m i n i s t r y is p r o g r e s s i v e l y b r i n g i n g d o w n S a t a n ' s e m p i r e ( L k . 38

1 0 . 1 8 ) . J e s u s ' h e a l i n g m i n i s t r y similarly restores p e o p l e t o full participation in t h e p e o p l e o f G o d , n o t a b l y a m a n w i t h leprosy ( L k . 5.12-14); t h e w o m a n w h o w a s h a e m o r r h a g i n g for 12 y e a r s ( L k . 8.43-48), w h o w o u l d b e u n c l e a n b e c a u s e o f h e r b l e e d i n g ; a n d t h e w o m a n w h o h a d b e e n b e n t o v e r for 18 y e a r s b e c a u s e o f a spirit ( L k . 13.10-17), w h o m J e s u s r e g a r d s a s a ' d a u g h t e r o f A b r a h a m ' (v. 16) and thus a m e m b e r of God's people. N o t o n l y is J e s u s h i m s e l f e m p o w e r e d b y G o d t h r o u g h t h e Spirit, b u t w e a l r e a d y k n o w from J o h n that t h e c o m i n g o n e is also t h e o n e w h o b a p t i z e s w i t h t h e H o l y Spirit ( L k . 3 . 1 6 ) - J e s u s is t h u s p i v o t a l t o G o d ' s p u r p o s e t o o p e n

33. With Turner, Power, pp. 155-60; contra R. P. Menzies, Empowered for Witness: The Spirit in Luke-Acts (JPTSup 6; Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1994), pp. 111-16. 34. Cf. Acts 10.11; Jn 1.51; Rev. 4.1; 19.11; and Isa. 64.1; Ezek. 1.1; T Levi 2.6; 2 Bar. 22.1. 35. Marshall, Gospel, p. 152. 36. See discussion in Turner, Power, pp. 197-201, contra J. D. G. Dunn, Baptism in the Holy Spirit (London: SCM/Philadelphia: Westminster, 1970), pp. 23-37; Menzies, Empowered, pp. 132-9. 37. Discussion in Turner, Power, pp. 213-64. 38. The image of Satan falling cos ocorpamiv I K T O U oupavov as lightning from heaven' likely continues an echo of Isaiah 14 found in Lk. 10.15. 10.15 applies the Isaianic imagery of being exalted to heaven and being thrown down to Hades (Isa. 14.11,13-15) to Capernaum which rejects Jesus. So L. T. Johnson, The Gospel of Luke (SP 3; Collegeville: Liturgical Press, 1992), p. 169; full discussion in S. R. Garrett, The Demise of the Devil: Magic and the Demonic in Luke's Writings (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1989), pp. 46-57. 4

70

Cosmology

and New Testament

Theology

h e a v e n to earth afresh b y e n a b l i n g t h e Spirit to c o m e . L u k e m a k e s it clear that 4

h e sees t h e fulfilment o f this p r o m i s e at Pentecost b y J e s u s ' statement t h a t J o h n b a p t i z e d w i t h water, b u t y o u will b e b a p t i z e d w i t h the H o l y Spirit n o t m a n y d a y s from n o w ' ( A c t s 1.5). T h u s t h e b e g i n n i n g s o f J e s u s ' m i n i s t r y p o i n t forward to t h e t i m e w h e n t h e b e l i e v e r s will b e e q u i p p e d to serve G o d b y calling all in creation b a c k t o h i m . W h e n w e focus o n J e s u s ' d e a t h a n d resurrection, n o n - e a r t h l y b e i n g s a n d p h e n o m e n a are a g a i n p r e s e n t .

39

T h e d a r k n e s s at t h e cross (Lk. 2 3 . 4 4 - 4 5 a ) s u g

gests that creation is t u r n i n g its b a c k o n t h e suffering M e s s i a h , J e s u s .

40

Even

G o d is t u r n i n g a w a y from Jesus as h e suffers, for d a r k n e s s s y m b o l i z e s b o t h G o d ' s a b s e n c e a n d t h e p r e s e n c e a n d d o m i n a n c e o f evil, j u s t as light s y m b o l i z e s God's presence.

41

In t h e m i d s t o f t h e d a r k n e s s t h e T e m p l e curtain is torn in t w o (Lk. 2 3 . 4 5 b ) . Readers

frequently

see this incident t h r o u g h t h e e y e s o f H e b . 10.20, w h i c h

p i c t u r e s J e s u s o p e n i n g a n e w w a y t o G o d t h r o u g h t h e curtain, a n d thus interpret t h e t e a r i n g o f t h e curtain as s y m b o l i z i n g access to G o d .

4 2

H o w e v e r , it s e e m s

likely that t h e tearing m a y r a t h e r focus o n the e m p t i n e s s o f t h e H o l y o f H o l i e s , to d e m o n s t r a t e that this is n o t w h e r e G o d is to b e f o u n d (cf. E z e k . 10; 2

Baruch

6.7; 8.2), a n d t h u s this e v e n t p o r t e n d s t h e u l t i m a t e d e s t r u c t i o n o f t h e T e m p l e .

43

T h i s l i k e l i h o o d is i n c r e a s e d b y t w o features o f A c t s . First, S t e p h e n ' s s p e e c h ( A c t s 7) is critical o f t h e e l e v a t i o n o f t h e T e m p l e as the p l a c e w h e r e G o d is k n o w n , a l t h o u g h n o t o f its f o u n d a t i o n or existence. S t e p h e n ' s s p e e c h c l a i m s that t h e T e m p l e ' s t i m e is over, for G o d is active a n d available apart from t h e 44

T e m p l e - h e is n o t limited to this particular h o l y s p a c e ( A c t s 7 AS).

Second,

G o d m a k e s h i m s e l f k n o w n t o p e o p l e in A c t s a w a y from t h e h o l y s p a c e o f t h e T e m p l e , s u c h as in t h e desert to a e u n u c h ( 8 . 2 6 - 4 0 ) , in a n u n c l e a n G e n t i l e h o u s e h o l d in J o p p a ( 1 0 . 1 - 4 8 ) , a n d in m a n y p l a c e s o u t s i d e t h e l a n d o f Palestine during Paul's travels.

45

T h e T e m p l e , w h o s e destruction J e s u s h a s p r o p h e s i e d

39. It is textually unlikely that the angel in Gethsemane (Lk. 22.43-44) is original (TCGNT, p. 151), so it is omitted from discussion here. 40. Cf. Josephus, Ant. 14.12.3 §309, a comment from a letter of Mark Antony to Hyrcanus concerning his opponents in battle: 'the sun turned away his light from us, as unwilling to view the horrid crime they were guilty of in the case of Caesar'. 41. Cf. Lk. 22.53 and note the contrast with Lk. 1.79, where Jesus' birth is depicted as the dawn rising (so R. E. Brown, The Death of the Messiah [ABRL London: Geoffrey Chapman, 1994], 2:1042); cf. J. A. Fitzmyer, Luke (AB 28; Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1981, 1985), 2:1518-19; Joel B. Green, The Gospel of Luke (NICNT; Grand Rapids/Cambridge: Eerdmans, 1997), p. 825. 42. See the useful enumeration of possibilities in Nolland, Luke, 3:1157. 43. Marshall, Gospel, p. 875; Brown, Death, 2:1101-06. 44. S. Walton, 'A Tale of Two Perspectives? The Temple in Acts', in T. Desmond Alexander and S. J. Gathercole (eds.), Heaven on Earth: The Temple in Biblical Theology (Carlisle: Pater noster, 2004), pp. 135-49 (138-43). 45. Walton, 'Tale', pp. 146-8.

4.

71

Luke-Acts

(Lk. 2 1 . 6 ) , b e c o m e s functionally r e d u n d a n t , for a c c e s s to G o d is t h r o u g h J e s u s and b y the Spirit.

46

A t t h e t o m b o f J e s u s , t h e w o m e n m e e t t w o m e n in d a z z l i n g c l o t h e s , w h o are a n g e l s a n d a n n o u n c e J e s u s ' r e s u r r e c t i o n (Lk. 2 4 . 4 - 5 , 2 3 ) . T h e s e a n g e l s f o r m a n inclusio

w i t h t h e a n g e l s w h o a n n o u n c e J e s u s ' birth in L u k e 1-2, a n d p r o v i d e

heaven's commentary on the empty tomb. L u k e ' s G o s p e l p r e p a r e s for t h e fuller p i c t u r e seen in A c t s b y p o r t r a y i n g p h e n o m e n a w h i c h s h o w that h e a v e n is e n t e r i n g the earthly r e a l m t o r e c l a i m t h e w o r l d for its Creator. T h e angels w h o s u r r o u n d t h e b e g i n n i n g a n d e n d o f J e s u s ' m i n i s t r y will b e active in t h e c h u r c h ' s ministry. T h e s a m e Spirit w h o e m p o w e r e d J e s u s for h i s m e s s i a n i c t a s k will e m p o w e r his followers for their m i s s i o n a r y task. T h e c o s m o l o g i c a l c h a n g e o f J e s u s ' p r e s e n c e in h e a v e n at G o d ' s right h a n d p r o d u c e s a t h e o l o g i c a l c h a n g e in h o w G o d is to b e s e e n , u n d e r s t o o d a n d k n o w n - it is n o w t h r o u g h Jesus a n d b y t h e Spirit that h e is t o b e k n o w n , a n d that b y t h e G e n t i l e s as w e l l as t h e J e w s ( A c t s 1.8).

Space(d)

Out? Challenging

Other

Cosmologies

Finally, w e briefly c o n s i d e r s o m e p l a c e s w h e r e there a p p e a r s to b e d i a l o g u e b e t w e e n a Christian c o s m o l o g y a n d o t h e r c o s m o l o g i e s . W e h a v e a l r e a d y n o t i c e d S t e p h e n ' s s p e e c h ( A c t s 7 ) , for h e r e S t e p h e n i m p l i c itly critiques a c o s m o l o g y w h i c h g i v e s a u n i q u e a n d special p l a c e t o t h e Jerusa l e m T e m p l e as the earthly p l a c e o f a c c e s s to G o d . Instead, S t e p h e n asserts, G o d h a s m a d e h i m s e l f k n o w n in p a g a n l a n d s (e.g., w . 2 , 9, 2 9 - 3 4 , 4 4 ) . H e p r e s e n t s t h e T e m p l e ' s status as a m b i g u o u s , in t u n e w i t h t h e a m b i g u i t y in t h e d e d i c a t i o n 4 7

o f t h e T e m p l e (1 K g s 8 . 1 5 - 5 3 , e s p . 2 7 ) . W h e n the S a n h e d r i n r e s p o n d in r a g e to the s u g g e s t i o n that t h e y o p p o s e t h e H o l y Spirit ( w . 5 1 - 5 4 ) , S t e p h e n ' s v i s i o n o f J e s u s , t h e S o n o f M a n , v i n d i c a t e d a n d exalted to G o d ' s right h a n d ( w . 5 5 - 5 6 ) , a n n o u n c e s that it is t h r o u g h J e s u s that access to G o d is n o w f o u n d - h e n c e S t e p h e n ' s p r a y e r is for J e s u s to r e c e i v e h i m (v. 5 9 ) . T h e latter p o i n t c o m b i n e s the c l a i m s that it is J e s u s w h o r e c e i v e s p e o p l e into h e a v e n - n o r m a l l y G o d ' s p r e r o g a t i v e - a n d that it is a p p r o p r i a t e to p r a y t o J e s u s , rather t h a n G o d a l o n e . S e c o n d , this c o s m o l o g y critiques t h e c l a i m e d p l a c e o f C a e s a r in t h e R o m a n e m p i r e . R a t h e r t h a n C a e s a r b e i n g t h e o n e w i t h universal j u r i s d i c t i o n a n d w o r t h y of worship, Jesus should receive the highest honours.

48

This theme underlies a

46. Cf. Green, Luke, pp. 825-6, who seeks to combine the best of both positions. 47. Walton, 'Tale', pp. 141-2. 48. E.g. Julius Caesar is described as 'the god made manifest (SIG §760) and Claudius as 'god who is saviour and benefactor' (IGRR W §584); more fully, see the listing of evidence in S. Walton, 'The State They Were In: Luke's View of the Roman Empire', in Peter Oakes (ed.), Rome in the Bible and the Early Church (Carlisle: Paternoster/Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2002), pp. 1-^1 (26-8); Jacob Jervell, Die Apostelgeschichte (KEK, 17th edn; Gottingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1998), p. 434 with n. 175. ,

3

72

Cosmology

and New Testament

Theology

n u m b e r o f e v e n t s a n d s p e e c h e s in A c t s , n o t least 17.7, w h e r e J e s u s is r e c o g n i z e d as b e i n g ' a n o t h e r k i n g ' in p l a c e o f Caesar. T h i r d , this c o s m o l o g y e n g a g e s h i g h l y critically w i t h p a g a n c o s m o l o g i e s w h i c h s e e a multiplicity o f g o d s controlling v a r i o u s e l e m e n t s o f t h e u n i v e r s e . P a u l e n g a g e s in Lystra w i t h u n e d u c a t e d p a g a n s ( A c t s 14.11-18) a n d in A t h e n s w i t h h i g h l y e d u c a t e d p a g a n s ( A c t s 17.16-31) w h o h o l d s u c h v i e w s . It is inter esting that, in Lystra, P a u l d o e s n o t s p e a k explicitly o f J e s u s in r e s p o n s e to t h e c r o w d s ' desire t o offer sacrifice to h i m a n d B a r n a b a s , a l t h o u g h o u r e x p e c t a tion as L u k e ' s r e a d e r s is that w h e n P a u l s p e a k s (14.9), it is a b o u t J e s u s . P a u l critiques p a g a n i s m b y focusing o n t h e o n e n e s s o f t h e true G o d a s C r e a t o r a n d implicitly that h e a l o n e s h o u l d b e w o r s h i p p e d ( 1 4 . 1 5 - 1 7 ) . In A t h e n s ,

49

b y contrast, P a u l explicitly s p e a k s a b o u t J e s u s a n d h i s r e s u r r e c

tion ( a n d t h u s , p r e s u m a b l y , his exaltation), a n d this p r o v o k e s t h e invitation to 50

the A r e o p a g u s ( 1 7 . 1 8 ) . P a u l e n g a g e s w i t h Stoics a n d E p i c u r e a n s ( 1 7 . 1 8 ) b o t h h e l d c o s m o l o g i e s different to t h e Christian o n e .

51

and

52

T h e Stoics c o l l a p s e d g o d a n d t h e u n i v e r s e into o n e in p a n t h e i s t i c fashion; h o w e v e r , it s e e m s likely that at least s o m e Stoic t h i n k e r s also deified natural forces: Jupiter w a s t h e s k y - g o d , N e p t u n e controlled t h e sea, a n d s o on. Stoics w e r e materialistic, a n d b e l i e v e d t h e r e to b e n o real r e a l m o u t s i d e t h e visible u n i v e r s e . T h e y w e r e h i g h l y d e t e r m i n i s t i c , a n d u s e d a u g u r y a n d h a r u s p i c y to s e e k w h a t t h e g o d s w e r e g o i n g to d o , b u t d i d n o t r e g a r d t h e g o d s a s p e r s o n a l l y ' k n o w a b l e ' b y h u m a n s . A g a i n s t S t o i c i s m , P a u l insists that t h e C r e a t o r is distinct from his creation (v. 2 4 ) , a n d that G o d is k n o w a b l e (v. 2 7 ) . A n d , rather t h a n t h e g o d s h a v i n g c o n t r o l o f particular e l e m e n t s or l a n d s , t h e true G o d allocated w h e r e all p e o p l e s lived (v. 2 6 ) . It is a m i s t a k e to identify e l e m e n t s w i t h i n c r e ation for w o r s h i p , for this is idolatry ( w . 2 4 - 2 5 , 2 8 ) .

5 3

P a u l asserts firmly that

the w a y that G o d is k n o w n is t h r o u g h J e s u s , w h o m G o d h a s r a i s e d from t h e

49. For very useful discussions, see E. Schnabel, Early Christian Mission (Downers Grove: Intervarsity Press, 2004), 2:1169-80; B. W. Winter, 'On Introducing Gods to Athens: An Alterna tive Reading of Acts 17:18-20', TynBul 47 (1996), 71-90. 50. If Winter's reconstruction is correct, the invitation was to offer grounds for building a temple to Jesus in Athens (Winter, 'Gods', esp. pp. 71-80, 87-9). If so, Paul's speech is par ticularly acute, for he rejects the premise that gods require temples, and asserts that, rather than humans building a temple for God, the one true God has created the world where he should be worshipped. 51. See B. W. Winter, 'Introducing the Athenians to God: Paul's Failed Apologetic in Acts 17?', Them 31 (2005), 3&-59 (48-57). 52. For a helpful overview of the various positions held in the ancient world, see Cicero, Nat. d., written around the middle of the first century BC, and identifying the Stoics, the Epicureans and the sceptical Academicians. See also the summary essay by Edward Adams in this volume. 53. If Paul asserted this in Ephesus, it is easy to see why the silversmiths, who made souvenir models of the temple of Artemis, would be upset (Acts 19.23-29)! It is possible that 'pure' Sto icism rejects idols; if so, Paul is critiquing a popularized version of Stoicism (although see Winter, 'Athenians', p. 54 for a contrary view).

4.

Luke-Acts

73

d e a d a n d w h o w i l l b e t h e o n e w h o w i l l j u d g e all o n t h e D a y (v. 3 1 ) . O n e c a n see w h y Stoics w o u l d b e doubtful o f t h e resurrection (v. 3 2 a ) , a n d also w h y it is t h e c l i m a x a n d c e n t r e p i e c e o f P a u l ' s s p e e c h , for it is J e s u s ' exaltation b y G o d w h i c h g i v e s J e s u s t h e status a n d right t o j u d g e . T h e E p i c u r e a n s s h a r e d t h e S t o i c s ' m a t e r i a l i s m a n d rejected i d e a s o f life after death. T h e y p o r t r a y e d t h e g o d s in h u m a n form s i n c e t h e y b e l i e v e d h u m a n form t o b e t h e m o s t beautiful. H o w e v e r , the g o d s w e r e u n i n t e r e s t e d in h u m a n affairs, so there w a s n o p o i n t in offering sacrifice, for t h e g o d s w o u l d n o t i n v o l v e t h e m selves in earthly life. W o r s h i p w a s offered, b u t o n l y t o c h a n g e t h e worshipper. A g a i n s t this b a c k c l o t h , P a u l argues n o t o n l y that G o d is t h e Creator, b u t that h e d e s i r e s to k n o w his c r e a t u r e s a n d b e k n o w n b y t h e m ( w . 2 4 , 2 7 ) . W h i l e P a u l m a k e s c o m m o n g r o u n d w i t h t h e E p i c u r e a n s in p r e s e n t i n g G o d a s n o t n e e d i n g h u m a n s (v. 2 5 ) , h e is critical in c l a i m i n g that G o d n e v e r t h e l e s s is interested in h i s creation a n d w a n t s p e o p l e to r e s p o n d t o h i m t h r o u g h J e s u s ( w . 3 0 - 3 1 ) . P a u l ' s r e s p o n s e , after b u i l d i n g c o m m o n g r o u n d w i t h h i s interlocutors, is to focus o n J e s u s a n d h i s exaltation, v i a resurrection, t o t h e p l a c e o f j u d g e m e n t o v e r the c o s m o s (v. 3 1 ) . A s e l s e w h e r e in A c t s , t h e e v a n g e l i s m o f t h e earli est b e l i e v e r s centres o n h o w G o d is n o w k n o w a b l e t h r o u g h J e s u s . T h e r i s e n J e s u s h a s a s c e n d e d t o h e a v e n t o r e s i d e at G o d ' s right h a n d , t h u s t r a n s f o r m i n g b o t h c o s m o l o g i c a l a n d t h e o l o g i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e s : h e is n o w t h e p a t h w a y for h i s p e o p l e t o j o i n h i m . H e a v e n is i n d e e d o p e n - t o e v e r y o n e w h o c o m e s to G o d through Jesus.

5

LIGHT OF THE WORLD: COSMOLOGY AND THE JOHANNINE LITERATURE E d w a r d W . K l i n k ffl

1. Introduction:

The Light of the

World

J o h n b e g i n s at t h e b e g i n n i n g o f h i s t o r y a n d t i m e itself, ' i n t h e b e g i n n i n g ' . T h i s p h r a s e is m o r e t h a n j u s t a n inter-textual link t o t h e G e n e s i s n a r r a t i v e o f the First T e s t a m e n t , b u t locates t h e entire J o h a n n i n e narrative in a c o s m o l o g i c a l e v e n t r o o t e d in t h e b e g i n n i n g o f life, o r as 1 J o h n d e c l a r e s , t h e ' w o r d o f life' (1 J n 1.1). T h e g o a l o f this c h a p t e r is t o e x p l o r e t h e c o s m o l o g y o f the J o h a n n i n e literature,

1

m o v i n g b e y o n d a n analysis o f t h e t h e m a t i c - t h e o l o g i c a l c h a r a c t e r o f t h e c o s m i c m o t i f a n d into t h e c o s m i c d r a m a foundational t o t h e J o h a n n i n e c o r p u s .

2 . Cosmological

Language

in the Johannine

Literature

O u r s t u d y m u s t b e g i n in t h e c o s m o l o g i c a l l a n g u a g e in t h e J o h a n n i n e litera ture. T h e l a n g u a g e that fits this criterion is subjective as t o h o w it is u s e d a n d c o n c e i v e d w i t h i n t h e d o c u m e n t itself. E v e n m o r e , this definition o f l a n g u a g e c a n n o t b e forced o n t o w o r d s a l o n e , b u t m u s t rest o n t h e larger structure o f t h e d o c u m e n t ( s ) . B u t it is at t h e level o f w o r d s that w e m u s t b e g i n . 2.1.

World

T h e w o r d c o s m o s (Koopog) a p p e a r s 102 t i m e s in t h e J o h a n n i n e literature. T h e w o r d a p p e a r s i n t h e G o s p e l o f J o h n 7 8 t i m e s , o v e r five t i m e s m o r e

frequently

t h a n it d o e s i n t h e S y n o p t i c s ( 1 4 ) . E v e n m o r e , t h e frequency o f u s e in o n l y the G o s p e l a n d Letters is t w o a n d o n e h a l f t i m e s that o f the entire r e m a i n d e r o f 2

t h e N e w T e s t a m e n t ( 1 8 4 ) . W h i l e t h e H e b r e w u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f ' u n i v e r s e ' is 1. By 'Johannine literature' we mean the Gospel and the three Letters. Although Revelation is traditionally considered to be Johannine, for the purpose of this volume it is being treated separately. Thus, any statistic or reference to the Johannine literature excludes Revelation. 2. N. H. Cassem, 'A Grammatical and Contextual Inventory of the Use of Koapooev kv rp.lv ( 1 . 1 4 ) . T h e c o s m i c d r a m a r e q u i r e s t h e r e a d e r t o s e e the J o h a n n i n e reality a s t h e o v e r l a p b e t w e e n G o d a n d humanity. A n d it is this reality that is p o r t r a y e d in t h e J o h a n n i n e letters, written t o the children o f G o d w h o c o n t i n u e t h e m i s s i o n o f the W o r d . It is in this w a y that B u l t m a n n ' s ' d u a l i s m o f d e c i s i o n ' e x p l a i n s t h e rhetorical function o f t h e J o h a n n i n e c o r p u s . J o h n clearly creates a n d divides its readers into t w o classes o f p e o p l e . B u t this d u a l i s m o f b e l i e f is n o t b e t w e e n ' g r o u p s ' .

66. See, for example, J. Lieu, The Theology of the Johannine Epistles (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991).

5. Johannine

89

Literature

Rather, it i n v o l v e s all w h o see t h e L i g h t o f t h e W o r l d a n d r e c e i v e t h e W o r d o f Life. T h i s c o n c e p t , s o pertinent i n t h e J o h a n n i n e literature, h a s p o t e n t i a l for assisting o u r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e identity f o r m a t i o n o f early Christians. A c c o r d i n g t o J u d i t h L i e u , t h e identity o f C h r i s t i a n s a s a ' t h i r d r a c e ' w a s c o n firmed b y t h e u s e o f t h e t e r m ' t h e w o r l d ' . A s L i e u e x p l a i n s : Although it has its roots in the Jewish eschatological contrast between 'this world' and 'the world to come', this opposition to 'the world' is characteristically, although not exclusively, Christian. Within the NT it is most developed in the Johannine lit erature where it has often been dubbed 'sectarian', yet in principle it may become a fundamental organizing point for Christian self-identity, capable of multiple expres sions. This is the language of internal identity-formation, not of external visible perception. 67

T h e story o r ' t a l e ' o f t h e J o h a n n i n e literature, therefore, is n o t m e r e l y historical o r ecclesiological, b u t c o s m o l o g i c a l . It is t h e internal p e r c e p t i o n o f o n e ' s status before G o d - w i t h d r a m a t i c i m p l i c a t i o n s for all o f life. It is life in t h e W o r d , t h e S o n o f G o d , a n d a n e x i s t e n c e as t h e children o f G o d , r e c e i v i n g from h i s fullness g r a c e u p o n g r a c e (1.16).

5 . Conclusion:

Cosmology

and the Johannine

Literature

T h e e n i g m a o f J o h n is n o t w h e r e h e e n d s b u t w h e r e h e b e g i n s . T h e t h r e e o t h e r G o s p e l s t a k e t h e r e a d e r t o t h e c r o s s ; J o h n is n o different. B u t w h i l e t h o s e s a m e t h r e e G o s p e l s start t h e r e a d e r in J e w i s h P a l e s t i n e , J o h n starts t h e r e a d e r at t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t i m e itself, at t h e v e r y c e n t r e o f t h e c o s m o s . F o r h i m , o n l y a c o s m i c p e r s p e c t i v e o n J e s u s , e v e n m o r e , a c o s m i c p e r s p e c t i v e o n t h e entire C h r i s t i a n faith, c a n fully e x p r e s s w h a t it m e a n s t o b e Christian. It is in this w a y that J o h n ' s c o s m o l o g y , t h o u g h b e w i l d e r i n g t o t h e historian a n d a m b i g u o u s to t h e t h e o l o gian, is perfectly suited t o e x p l a i n t h e life a n d m i s s i o n o f J e s u s from N a z a r e t h . R a t h e r t h a n p o s i t i n g J o h a n n i n e c o s m o l o g y as a m e r e t h e o l o g i c a l o r sociological motif, this c h a p t e r h a s a r g u e d that J o h n ' s c o s m i c d r a m a s e r v e s a s t h e o v e r r i d i n g story o f t h e J o h a n n i n e J e s u s a n d t h e J o h a n n i n e faith. T h e J o h a n n i n e literature p r o c l a i m s a c o s m i c d r a m a a b o u t t h e L i g h t o f t h e W o r l d a s t h e W o r d o f Life. T h e reality o f this truth h a s n o t h i n g less t h a n c o s m i c r a m i f i c a t i o n s .

68

67. J. Lieu, Neither Jew Nor Greek? Constructing Early Christianity (Study of the New Testament and Its World; London: T&T Clark, 2002), p. 188. Cf. V. L. Wimbush, ' "...Not of this World..." Early Christianities as Rhetorical and Social Formation', in E. A. Castelli and H. Taussig (eds), Reimagining Christian Origins: A Colloquium Honoring Burton Mack (Valley Forge: Trinity Press International, 1996), pp. 23-36. 68. Thanks are due to the Biola University Faculty Research and Development Grant Program for providing release time in early 2007, during which some of the research for this essay was accomplished.

6

PAUL'S COSMOLOGY: THE WITNESS OF ROMANS,

1 AND 2 CORINTHIANS, AND GALATIANS

Joel White

O u r topic calls at the outset for a clear definition of cosmology. W h e n I talk about P a u l ' s c o s m o l o g y I m e a n his u n d e r s t a n d i n g of the structure a n d m e c h a n i c s o f the 1

c o s m o s (i.e., t h e physical u n i v e r s e ) o n the o n e h a n d a n d o f its origin a n d p u r p o s e o n the other. Since the E n l i g h t e n m e n t attempts h a v e b e e n m a d e to limit the scope 2

of c o s m o l o g y t o the first part o f this definition. This preference underscores the fact that the perceived task o f c o s m o l o g y varies according to o n e ' s w o r l d view. T h e m o d e r n understanding o f c o s m o l o g y as a sort o f ' a n a t o m y a n d p h y s i o l o g y ' of the universe reflects t h e naturalistic p a r a d i g m of the post-Enlightenment West.

3

F r o m the perspective o f the ancient world, however, questions concerning the structure a n d w o r k i n g s o f the c o s m o s cannot b e separated from questions con 4

cerning its origin, a n d within a n early J e w i s h w o r l d view, the question of the p u r p o s e o f the c o s m o s m u s t b e considered p a r a m o u n t . O u r t a s k is t o a n a l y s e P a u l ' s c o s m o l o g y , particularly a s it surfaces in his letters t o the R o m a n s , C o r i n t h i a n s a n d G a l a t i a n s , a n d t o d i s c o v e r h o w this m a y h a v e influenced his theology. A m o m e n t ' s reflection s h o u l d m a k e it clear that the t a s k is fraught w i t h pitfalls. T h e r e is, first o f all, t h e d a n g e r o f construct ing a g r a n d a n d a l l - e n c o m p a s s i n g p a r a d i g m - c o s m o l o g y is, after all, rather h e a d y stuff - that is internally c o h e r e n t b u t h a r d t o actually a n c h o r in t h e r o u g h a n d t u m b l e l a n g u a g e o f P a u l ' s letters. W e m u s t n o t forget, in t h e thick o f o u r theorizing, that w e are n o t really ' c o n s t r u c t i n g P a u l ' s w o r l d ' , w i t h t h e b e g u i l i n g 5

p r o m i s e o f p e n e t r a t i n g insight into P a u l ' s t h e o l o g y that p h r a s e i m p l i e s . R a t h e r

1. Unless otherwise noted, I will use the English word 'cosmos' in this restricted sense below. 2. Cf. W. Gantke, 'Welt/WeltanschauungAVeltbild IV.l Religionsgeschichtlich', TRE 35: 562. 3. Cf. W. Spam, 'Welt/Weltanschauung/Weltbild IV.4 Kirchengeschichtlich', TRE 35: 595-8. 4. Cf. R. A. Oden, Jr., 'Cosmology, Cosmogony', ABD 1: 1162. 5. Peter Berger introduced the concept of 'world construction' to delineate the process by which human beings produce society in The Social Reality of Religion (London: Faber & Faber, 1969), pp. 3-28; but of course both he and those who make use of the concept are aware of its

6. Romans,

Corinthians,

Galatians

91

w e are a t t e m p t i n g t h e m o r e c i r c u m s p e c t t a s k o f articulating h i s c o s m o l o g y o n t h e b a s i s o f - it m u s t b e r e a d i l y a d m i t t e d - s p a r s e e v i d e n c e a n d o f d e t e r m i n i n g its specific r o l e in t h e f o r m u l a t i o n o f h i s theology. It is, in fact, n o t i m m e d i a t e l y a p p a r e n t at t h e o u t s e t that w e h a v e e n o u g h e v i d e n c e to fruitfully c o m p l e t e t h e task, at least w i t h r e g a r d t o P a u l ' s u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e structure a n d m e c h a n i c s o f t h e c o s m o s . P a u l offers u s little in t h e w a y o f direct d e s c r i p t i v e l a n g u a g e about the world. E v e n w h e n P a u l d o e s e m p l o y c o s m o l o g i c a l t e r m i n o l o g y - ' t h e third h e a v e n ' in 2 C o r i n t h i a n s 12, for i n s t a n c e ( o n w h i c h see b e l o w ) - w e h a v e to b e a w a r e o f a s e c o n d d a n g e r : that o f m i s t a k i n g P a u l ' s s y m b o l i c u n i v e r s e for h i s actual u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e structure a n d m e c h a n i c s o f t h e p h y s i c a l u n i v e r s e . E v e n today, c o s m o l o g i c a l l a n g u a g e is s e l d o m u s e d m e r e l y for d r a w i n g u p b l u e p r i n t s o f w h a t m o d e r n s call ' t h e n a t u r a l w o r l d ' . M o r e often, it s e r v e s m e t a p h y s i c a l e n d s . T e n a c i o u s talk o f t h e s u n rising a n d setting, for i n s t a n c e , b e t r a y s t h e n e e d , e v e n in o u r p o s t - C o p e r n i c a n w o r l d , t o c o m p r e h e n d t h e u n i v e r s e a s a m e a n i n g f u l c o n t e x t for h u m a n life. It i s , h o w e v e r , quite u s e l e s s as a n indicator o f m o d e r n Western conceptions of the physical universe. A n o t h e r d a n g e r lurks in t h e m i s u s e o f w o r d studies. O u t l i n i n g P a u l ' s c o s m o l o g y entails m u c h m o r e t h a n a n a l y s i n g all texts t h a t c o n t a i n t h e t e r m Koopxx; 6

a n d s y n t h e s i z i n g t h e r e s u l t s . F o r o n e thing, t h e t e r m s e l d o m d e n o t e s a n y t h i n g that, strictly s p e a k i n g , p e r t a i n s t o c o s m o l o g y (as defined a b o v e ) in t h e letters u n d e r e x a m i n a t i o n h e r e . O n l y in t h r e e texts d o e s it refer t o t h e p h y s i c a l earth o r 7

u n i v e r s e p e r se ( R o m . 1.20; 4 . 1 3 ; p r o b a b l y 1 Cor. 3 . 2 2 ) . In a handful o f other p a s s a g e s it refers t o the c r e a t e d o r d e r (i.e., t h e w a y t h e w o r l d w a s d e s i g n e d to 8

w o r k ; R o m . 5.12, 1 3 ; 1 Cor. 8.4; 14.10; G a l . 4 . 3 ) . W h i l e t h e s e a r e clearly o f

metaphorical nature. Cf. E. Adams, Constructing the World: A Study in Paul's Cosmological Language (SNTW; Edinburgh: T&T Clark, 2000), pp. 3-6. 6. The noun appears 9 times in Romans (1.8,20; 3.6,19; 4.13; 5.12,13; 11.12,15), 21 times in 1 Corinthians (1.20,21,27 [2x], 28; 2.12; 3.19,22; 4.9,13; 5.10 [2*]; 6.2 [2*]; 7.31 [2x], 33, 34; 8.4; 11.32; 14.10), 3 times in 2 Corinthians (1.12; 5.19; 7.10), and 3 times in Galatians (4.3; 6.14[2x]). Cf. H. Balz, 'KOOPOC;', EDNT 1:310. 7. So also Hermann Sasse, 'KOOPOC;', TDNT 3:884. Many commentators take the term here to refer more narrowly to humanity or humanity and angelic beings. 8. Most scholars treat KOOPO; in 1 Cor. 8.4 as a reference to the physical world. If, however, the phrase ou6ei> elbcxiXnv kv KOAPCJ) is a Corinthian slogan, as most commentators believe, and if, further, ou6ev is understood as a predicate ('an idol is nothing in the world'), rather than as an attributive ('there is no idol in the world'), then the sense of the phrase would more naturally be something like 'an idol is of no consequence in the nature of things'. This seems to me to be more in line with the Corinthians' position. Conversely, for either Paul or the Corinthians to say 'there is no idol in the created world', when the ancient world was chock full of them and when they actually meant 'there are no other gods in the created world' strikes me as somewhat odd. Most scholars argue for an attributive use of ou6ev because of the parallel clause ouSetc; Geo; el PF] €*IQ, in which oi>6eiX QOU V O M £ V C O V , "out of visible material", in the sense that God molded ôuvoueva into the visible objects of the world we see around us'. Hebrews' phrasing accordingly 'excludes any influence from Platonic or Philonic cosmology. It may, in fact, have been the writer's intention to correct a widespread tendency in hellenistic Judaism to read Genesis 1 in the light of Plato's doctrine of creation in the Timaeus\ Adams, 'Cosmology', though differing from Lane, also finds the wording of 11.3 to be incompatible with Platonic conceptions. Attridge, Hebrews, p. 316, takes the exact opposite view, arguing that a Platonic cosmogonic model is implicit here. Both views are defensible though both can be charged with over-reaching. In particular it is far from clear that a specifically Platonic cosmogonic model is implied in or needed for 11.3, though it plainly works for someone inclined to see that background behind the book as a whole. Attridge, 'Logic of Hebrews 4.1-11', suggests that the same idea is behind 4.1-11: 'the goal which the Exodus generation pursued corresponds to the goal which Christians pursue in the same way, as antitype to type. However, the type in this analogy (the rest in the land of Canaan) is itself an antitype of a more original type, the state of rest which God himself entered at the completion of the week of creation'. My critique in Rest still stands; Attridge's reading of the logic of 4.1-11 is problematic in that the writer of Hebrews' argument does not make anything of a typology with the earthly land (it is concerned throughout with the one reality that is or is not entered) nor of a heavenly-earthly contrast (the interest is with a future entrance); the KCCTCCTrauais is not redefined as a Sabbath-rest but rather the future Sabbath-celebration occurs in God's resting place. But - considering the book as a whole - if this writer was inclined to see the tabernacle as a model of the universe and the tabernacle was modelled after a heavenly pattern (8.5) then the universe itself wouldfind its pattern in what was shown to Moses (8.5). In other words, I agree in some important respects with Attridge's way of conceptualizing the thought of the book as a whole. The main differences with Attridge are that (1) I am not confident that this is the precise thought being expressed in the language of 11.3; (2) I see this as further in the background of Hebrews 3-4 than Attridge does; (3) in 4.1 -11, in the sense that this thought is behind the passage, this has as much or more to do with cosmology (resting place and cosmos) than experience (rest); (4) it is not clear that the Platonic tradition had a patent on this model. But in agreement with Attridge this broad conception is basic to the thought of Hebrews. 44. Ellingworth, Hebrews, pp. 568-70, taking EK as causal (BDAG, s.v. 3e); cf. C. R. Koester, Hebrews (CAB 36; New York: Doubleday, 2001), p. 474.

136

Cosmology

and New Testament

G o d (cf. 3.4; 4 . 3 ) , w h o is p e r c e i v e d o n l y b y f a i t h ' .

Theology

45

Or Lane: 'The discernment

o f t h e u n s e e n creative activity o f G o d b e h i n d the visible u n i v e r s e e x e m p l i fies t h e c a p a c i t y o f faith to d e m o n s t r a t e t h e reality o f that w h i c h c a n n o t b e p e r c e i v e d t h r o u g h s e n s e p e r c e p t i o n , w h i c h is c e l e b r a t e d a s t h e e s s e n c e o f faith 46

inv.

lb'.

T h e c r e a t e d w o r l d h a s n o t o n l y a b e g i n n i n g b u t also a n e n d ( 1 . 2 , 1 1 - 1 3 ; 3.14; 4 . 1 3 ; 9 . 2 6 - 2 8 ; 10.13, 2 7 ; 12.25-29; 13.14); this telos w a s anticipated in t h e pattern s h o w n M o s e s o n t h e m o u n t a i n (8.5). It is this that I p u r s u e in a separate essay.

47

H e r e w e n o t e m e r e l y that t h e w r i t e r o f H e b r e w s s h a r e s w i t h other N T

writers the i d e a that t h e e n d h a s a l r e a d y b e g u n ( 1 . 2 ; 6.4-5; 9 . 2 6 ) . w o r l d a l s o h a s a point.

48

T h e created

It h a s a destiny, w h i c h is b r o u g h t to fulfilment in t h e S o n

(2.6-9), w h o s e inheritance it is ( 1 . 2 ) . H a n g i n g o v e r all o f this in H e b r e w s is t h e promise

of God,

4 9

w h i c h is a l r e a d y anticipated b y t h e e x o r d i u m o f t h e letter

(1.1-4). T h i s m a k e s all o f h i s t o r y far m o r e t h a n m e r e l y p h y s i c a l ; it is a h i g h l y personal

affair, for u p o n its o u t c o m e rests t h e v e r y r e p u t a t i o n o f t h e Creator.

A s for d e m o g r a p h i c s , w e c a n a c c o u n t for G o d , t h e S o n , t h e H o l y Spirit, a n g e l s , t h e D e v i l , a n d h u m a n s . G o d is e n t h r o n e d in h e a v e n ; t h e location o f his footstool is n o t indicated (cf. Isa. 6 6 . 1 ; 1 Chr. 2 8 . 2 ; P s . 9 9 . 5 ; 132.7; L a m . 50

2 . 1 ) . T h e S o n d e s c e n d e d from t h e F a t h e r to earth in h i s incarnation, d e s c e n d e d (evidently) further t o death, w a s resurrected, a n d w a s e x a l t e d to t h e right h a n d o f G o d ; h e w i l l m a k e a s e c o n d a p p e a r a n c e w i t h i n the s p h e r e o f visible creation (9.28).

51

T h e r e is n o indication o f t h e H o l y Spirit's m o v e m e n t or location other

t h a n h i s p r e s e n c e w i t h h u m a n i t y in G o d ' s w o r k o f salvation ( 2 . 4 ; 3.7; 6.4; 9.8, 14; 1 0 . 1 5 , 2 9 ) ; t h e Spirit's r o l e in c o s m o l o g y w a s m e n t i o n e d in a footnote a b o v e . A n g e l s p o p u l a t e h e a v e n ( 1 2 . 2 2 ) , w o r s h i p the S o n (1.6), a r e sent as servants o f t h o s e a b o u t to inherit salvation ( 1 . 1 4 ) , a n d c a n b e e n c o u n t e r e d o n earth in the a p p e a r a n c e o f h u m a n strangers ( 1 3 . 2 ) . T h e D e v i l is m e r e l y associated w i t h death; h i s role in t h e larger d r a m a o f t h e c o s m o s is a l m o s t entirely a s s u m e d , b r e a k i n g t h r o u g h t o t h e surface o n l y in t h e allusion t o h i s destruction t h r o u g h

45. Ellingworth, Hebrews, pp. 569f. 46. Lane, Hebrews 9-13, p. 330. 47. Laansma, 'Hidden Stories'. 48. C. K. Barrett, 'The Eschatology of the Epistle to the Hebrews', in D. Daube and W. D. Davies (eds), The Background of the New Testament and its Eschatology (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1956), pp. 363-93; Hurst, Background, pp. 7-42. 49. Cf.4.1;6.12,13,15,17;7.6;8.6;9.15; 10.23,36; 11.9,11,13,17,33,39; 12.26;also4.2, 6; Laansma, Rest, pp. 301-2. 50. Cf. Beale, Temple, p. 134. 51. The Son's movements are indicated at more than one point; see further below. It is worth noting the way in which G. Guthrie, The Structure of Hebrews: A Text-Linguistic Analysis (NovTSup 73; Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1994), pp. 121-4, demonstrates that the embedded discourses of 1.5-14; 2.5-9; 2.10-18; 5.1-7.28; 8.1-2; and 8.3-10.18 follow the path of the Son from heaven to earth and back to heaven.

8.

137

Hebrews

t h e d e a t h o f J e s u s a n d t h e d e l i v e r a n c e o f t h o s e that t h e D e v i l h e l d e n s l a v e d b y m e a n s o f their fear o f d e a t h ( 2 . 1 4 - 1 5 ) .

52

L i v i n g h u m a n s p o p u l a t e t h e earth;

b e l i e v e r s h a v e a c c e s s t o t h e h e a v e n l y t h r o n e r o o m . T h e r e is n o clear indication o f w h e r e d e c e a s e d p e r s o n s a r e at p r e s e n t ( 1 2 . 2 3 ? ; w h o a r e faithful w i l l b e b o d i l y r e s u r r e c t e d

55

53

11.5?).

54

Ultimately those

a n d enter t h e p l a c e o f salvation,

w h i c h g o e s u n d e r different depictions (see b e l o w ) . T h e e n e m i e s o f G o d - in this letter t h e s e a r e a b o v e all t h o s e w h o d o n o t c o n t i n u e in faith - w i l l find t h e m selves w i t h o u t a n e s c a p e ( 2 . 3 ; 12.25), m a d e a footstool o f t h e S o n ' s feet ( 1 . 1 3 ; 2 . 8 ; 10.13), e x c l u d e d from the p l a c e o f salvation, ' r e m o v e d ' as that w h i c h c a n b e s h a k e n ( 1 2 . 2 7 ) , in r a g i n g fire ( 1 0 . 2 7 ; cf. 6.8), a n d in t h e h a n d s o f t h e living G o d ( 1 0 . 3 1 ) w h o is a c o n s u m i n g fire ( 1 2 . 2 9 ) . O n earth t h e central locations a n d architecture are M t Sinai, t h e w i l d e r n e s s , a n d e s p e c i a l l y t h e t a b e r n a c l e . T h e closer earthly realities, R o m e ( a s s u m i n g this t o b e t h e location o f t h e l e t t e r ' s recipients) w i t h its p e r s e c u t i o n , J e r u s a l e m w i t h its T e m p l e (if it is still s t a n d i n g ) , G e t h s e m a n e , a n d G o l g o t h a (cf. o n l y 12.2; 6.6), a r e p r e s e n t o n l y b y implication. Yet J e r u s a l e m is in m i n d t h r o u g h o u t t h e a r g u m e n t . A n d J e s u s ' crucifixion is central, b u t this is s w a l l o w e d in t h e i m a g e r y o f t h e h e a v e n l y t a b e r n a c l e a n d cultus. H e a v e n c o n t a i n s G o d ' s t h r o n e , w i t h a seat t o its right, l o c a t e d in t h e M o s t H o l y P l a c e o f a h e a v e n l y t a b e r n a c l e . T h e r e is a curtain, after t h e p a t t e r n o f that w h i c h separates t h e H o l y P l a c e (present in h e a v e n o n l y b y implication) t h e M o s t H o l y P l a c e in t h e earthly t a b e r n a c l e .

56

from

T h e r e is a b o o k inscribed w i t h 57

t h e n a m e s o f t h e c h u r c h o f t h e firstborn ( 1 2 . 2 3 ) . T h e s a m e

5 8

location, w i t h its

52. The Devil's appearance in 2.14-15 indicates that this much of the drama is relevant to the needs addressed by Hebrews, and certainly his role fits with both the key function of Genesis 1-3 in Hebrews generally and the apocalyptic cast of the book. The isolated nature of this allusion, however, suggests that this is not a topic that was currently problematized in this community. 53. According to Ellingworth the tension with 11.40 suggests that in 12.23 'the heavenly iravTiyupts is anticipated rather than fully realized: worshippers now enjoy communion in advance with the righteous of earlier generations with whom they will be made perfect at the end... It is probably misleading to suggest that the righteous are thought of here as having been made perfect in spirit, but not yet in body: this dichotomy does not appear significant in Hebrews' (Hebrews, pp. 680f.). 54. Cf. Laansma, Rest, pp. 309f., 283 n. 149; F. F. Bruce, The Epistle to the Hebrews, rev. edn (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1990), p. 110. 55. 2.9, 14-15; 5.7; 6.2; 9.27-28; 11.19, 35; 12.2; 13.20; cf. Wright, Resurrection, pp. 457-61. 56. See D. M. Gurtner, 'The Veil of the Temple in History and Legend', JETS 49/1 (2006), 97-114. In Hebrews the earthly tabernacle as a whole is made obsolete but neither of the veils earthly or heavenly - is ever explicitly 'torn' (Mk 15.38 par.) or removed. The question is one of the privilege of passing beyond it 57. Exod. 32.32f.; Ps. 69.28; Isa. 4.3; Dan. 12.1; Mai. 3.16; Lk. 10.20; Phil. 4.3; Rev. 3.5; 13.8; 17.8; 20.12,15; 21.27. 58. Lane's comment fits here: 'The designation "city of the living God, heavenly Jerusalem"

138

Cosmology

and New Testament

Theology

e n v i r o n s , is v a r i o u s l y d e p i c t e d a s t h e d e s t i n y o f t h e faithful: It is a resting p l a c e (KaTaTrccuais), o r w o r l d (oiKOU|JEvr|) o r a city (TTOAIS) p l a c e (TOTTOS, 11.8), fatherland (TrccTp(s), p l a c e o f i n h e r i t a n c e (KAr|povo|Jia), M o u n t Z i o n a n d t h e city o f t h e living G o d , t h e h e a v e n l y J e r u s a l e m (Zicov o p o s Kai TTOAIS 0EOU £ c o v T o s , ' l e p o u a a A r | | j e r r o u p a v i o s ) , o r a n u n s h a k a b l e k i n g d o m (fJccaiAEia CCOOCAEUTOS). T h e a c c e s s o f b e l i e v e r s t o this locale is b o t h i m m e d i a t e (as d i v i n e t h r o n e r o o m ) a n d i m m i n e n t (e.g., as t h e KCCTCtTrauais). T h e m o v e m e n t s o f t h e S o n - H i g h Priest in relation to t h e c o s m o s a n d t h e h e a v e n l y t a b e r n a c l e h a v e b e e n p l o t t e d o u t b y E l l i n g w o r t h , for w h o m w e c a n n o t afford t h e s p a c e that critical interaction w o u l d r e q u i r e , b u t w h o s e s t u d y d e s e r v e s n o t i c e . H e c o m m e n t s that 'It is r e m a r k a b l e . . . h o w often t h e w r i t e r ' s view of w h o Jesus w a s and what he did does involve presuppositions about the u n i v e r s e . . . T h e a u t h o r t h i n k s synthetically, n o t analytically: for h i m , w h a t Jesus did, w h o h e w a s , a n d h o w t h e u n i v e r s e is framed, b e l o n g together, t h o u g h t h e last is least i m p o r t a n t for h i m ' .

5 9

T h e m o s t p r o b l e m a t i c texts, h e n o t e s , are

t h o s e that c o m b i n e latent ( p r e s u p p o s e d ) c o s m o l o g y a n d p a t e n t s o t e r i o l o g y ( 2 . 9 ; 4 . 1 4 ; 6.19f.; 7.26; 8.1-2; 9.1-14; 9.24; l O . ^ f . ) .

6 0

A survey of the language of

structure a n d m o v e m e n t in t h e s e p a s s a g e s leads h i m to t h e s e s u g g e s t i o n s :

61

(1)

' T h e vertical l a n g u a g e o f 2 . 9 ; 4 . 1 4 ; a n d 7.26 p r o b a b l y o w e s m o r e to p r i m i t i v e Christian tradition, w h e r e a s t h e h o r i z o n t a l l a n g u a g e o f t h e h e a v e n l y a n d earthly t a b e r n a c l e s . . . is d e v e l o p e d in a distinctive w a y t o e x p r e s s t h e a u t h o r ' s o w n t y p o l o g y ' . (2) A t least in s o m e p l a c e s (e.g., 10.20) t h e ' c o s m o l o g i c a l l a n g u a g e is u s e d in a n ad hoc a n d incidental w a y to e x p r e s s a soteriological r e a l i t y ' . A l m o s t certainly h e r e w e h a v e l a n g u a g e b e i n g e m p l o y e d m e t a p h o r i c a l l y t o d r a w o u t t h e t h e o l o g i c a l significance o f t h e cross a n d exaltation. (3) T h e verti cal a n d h o r i z o n t a l c o s m o l o g i c a l i m a g e s o f t h e b o o k d o n o t r e a d i l y r e c o n c i l e ,

62

b u t ' t h e t w o t y p e s o f l a n g u a g e c o m p l e m e n t o n e a n o t h e r ' . In e x p l a n a t i o n h e

evokes the thought of the heavenly sanctuary or temple as well. Cody has observed that in the NT, when the idea of God present and meeting with his people is stressed, there is a strong tendency to prefer the temple symbolism. When the allusion is to the goal of pilgrimage in its social significance (the fellowship of the elect and the angels), writers prefer to use the symbol of the city, as in 22a...' (Hebrews 9—13, p. 466; citing A. Cody, Heavenly Sanctuary and Liturgy in the Epistle to the Hebrews [St Meinrad, IN: Grail, 1960], p. 115 n. 65). 59. Ellingworth, 'Universe', p. 340. 60. Eliminating several passages that either treat only one or the other of these, or where neither is a factor (e.g., 3.7-4.11, as he sees it, is explicitly cosmological and does not do much with Christology). Some of the passages in Ellingworth's list of eight are particularly difficult and admit of alternative interpretations. 61. Ellingworth, 'Universe', pp. 348-50. 62. He considers rotating the horizontal through ninety degrees, especially since the horizon tal imagery is only implicit. But he notes that the writer is nowhere concerned to reconcile the horizontal and vertical images and he finds it difficult to equate the curtain (from the horizontal imagery) with the intermediary angelic sphere (from the vertical imagery). I am not sure the writer of Hebrews operates with the intermediary sphere, but hisfirstpoint is significant.

8.

139

Hebrews

a d d s , ' o n e m i g h t s a y that t h e h o r i z o n t a l , t y p o l o g i c a l l a n g u a g e e x p r e s s e s n a t u r e or origin, w h e r e a s t h e vertical l a n g u a g e e x p r e s s e s location, a n d is t h u s m o r e truly c o s m o l o g i c a l ' .

63

General

Observations

Based

on this

Survey

F o u r b r o a d o b s e r v a t i o n s in r e s p o n s e t o t h i s s u r v e y o f c o s m i c l a n g u a g e in Hebrews: (1) If it is o b v i o u s that s o m e o f this is self-consciously figurative in t h e w r i t e r o f H e b r e w s ' m i n d - that is, a w a y o f d e p i c t i n g s o m e t h i n g s o a s t o d r a w o u t its t h e o l o g i c a l significance - it is also clear that t h e s e features ( w h e r e v e r t h e y m a y b e i n t h e letter) b l e n d w i t h o u t distinction into a w o r l d that t h e w r i t e r o f H e b r e w s t a k e s quite seriously as reality. H e certainly b e l i e v e s in b o d i l y resurrection. T h e r e is g o o d r e a s o n to t h i n k that h e b e l i e v e s that a n g e l s exist a n d that t h e y h a v e a n d c a n still a p p e a r in h u m a n form; h i s a r g u m e n t s in c h s . 1-2 a n d at 13.2 fall flat if h e d o e s n ' t . T h e r e is n o r e a s o n t o d o u b t that h e b e l i e v e s that h e a v e n 64

is u p , t h o u g h it is gratuitous s i m p l y to a s s u m e that h e d o e s b e l i e v e i t . T h e r e is g o o d r e a s o n to d o u b t that h e p i c t u r e s G o d as s e a t e d o n a t h r o n e , J e s u s c a r r y i n g a b o w l o f b l o o d t h r o u g h a h e a v e n l y t e m p l e , o r living b e l i e v e r s a s m y s t i c a l l y 65

v e n t u r i n g u p (in t h e n a t u r e o f a M e r k a b a h a s c e n t ) into t h e h e a v e n l y t h r o n e r o o m . W h e r e to d r a w t h e lines is t h e p r o b l e m , a n d r u n s t h e risk o f fostering m o r e m i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g . T h i s g o e s n o t least for 12.25-29, w h i c h m a n y interpreters h a v e b e e n q u i c k t o t a k e a s ' l i t e r a l ' description. I n m y j u d g e m e n t , W i l l i a m L a n e h a s s h e d t h e m o s t light o n that p a s s a g e , a n d I d e v e l o p e d m y o w n c o n c l u s i o n s o n it e l s e w h e r e .

63

66

I.e., 'In horizontal, typological language, the nature of Christ's work is heavenly, while that of the levitical cultus was of the earth. In vertical, cosmological language Jesus lived and died on earth, and now reigns in heaven at therighthand of God'. 64. The canvas of imagery as a whole assumes it, of course, though I cannot see that any thing in his argument depends on whether he thought that language to be descriptively accurate (and recall the insights of Walton, noted above). But saying this does not mean that we know whether and how the writer of Hebrews would have been theologically shaken by the argu ment that heaven is not straight up. As has already been stated, the hermeneutical problems are difficult at this point. Some answers may come through reexamination of the Scriptural texts in their contexts, allowing for the conclusion that apparent contradictions between the Bible and science are really just apparent. But other answers will probably require the admission that Scriptures meaning cannot be reduced to the human author's theological understanding. Perhaps Moses and the writer of Hebrews would have been theologically shaken by a modem course in physics. So much the worse for the human authors, who, it may appear, wrote better than they knew. There is also wisdom and considerable perspective in the words of J. Pelikan, Whose Bible Is It? A Short History of the Scriptures (New York: Penguin Books, 2005), pp. 232-3. 65. Cf. Hurst, Background, pp. 82-5. 66. Lane, Hebrews 9-13, pp. 464-91; Laansma, 'Hidden Stories'.

140

Cosmology

and New Testament

Theology

(2) T h e c o s m o s is m o r e than j u s t setting for the writer o f H e b r e w s . T h e t h e m e surfaces t o o insistently t o treat it as m e r e l y stylistic e m b e l l i s h m e n t (e.g., at 3.4). It is h e r e to highlight t h e jurisdiction

o f G o d a n d t h e S o n , w h i c h is c o m p r e h e n

sive chronologically, g e o g r a p h i c a l l y a n d a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l l y ( 4 . 1 2 - 1 3 ; 9 . 2 6 - 2 8 ; 12.25-29). T h e implications a r e g o o d o r b a d , d e p e n d i n g o n faithfulness. It is h e r e to assert t h e finality, scope, h e r e t o m a n i f e s t t h e superiority

a n d nature o f G o d ' s salvation in t h e Son. It is o f t h e S o n , a n d i n d e e d h i s separation from t h e

other s o n s / c h i l d r e n a n d h i s p o s i t i o n o n t h e d i v i n e side o f t h e d i v i n e - a n g e l i c / cosmos divide.

67

Finally, H e b r e w s ' c o s m o l o g y is h e r e t o p o i n t u p t h e glory

G o d , a n d in t h e best o f t h e biblical tradition to r e q u i r e exclusive

of

reliance on G o d

a n d his w o r d . It is t h e great q u e s t i o n : Will w e cling t o t h e R o c k o f salvation or to t h e r o c k s o f c r e a t i o n ? H e will s h a r e his glory w i t h n o o n e a n d n o t h i n g a n d t o instil t h e p o i n t h e declares that h e will s h a k e out a n d c h a n g e h i s v e r y creation ( 1 . 1 0 - 1 2 ; 12.25-29). B u t for m y p a r t it is finally unsatisfying to s a y that all this is d e v e l o p e d m e r e l y to set u p a great snuffing out o f t h e visible u n i v e r s e at 12.25-29. P u r e a n d s i m p l e annihilation is a n o d d w a y to treat o n e ' s inheritance. O f c o u r s e G o d ' s w a y s are n o t o u r w a y s , b u t s u c h a n e n d is n o t in a n y e v e n t t h e writer o f H e b r e w s ' e x p e c t a t i o n . A s e l s e w h e r e an e n d (death) is t h e o c c a s i o n for r e c l a m a t i o n (resurrection), w h i c h r e d o u n d s all t h e m o r e to t h e g l o r y o f G o d (13.20-21).

68

(3) T h e latter p o i n t d o e s b r i n g u s b a c k to t h e p e r e n n i a l q u e s t i o n o f t h e c o n ceptual b a c k g r o u n d o f H e b r e w s , b r o a d l y consisting o f t h e t u g o f w a r b e t w e e n t h o s e a d v o c a t i n g for a m o r e P l a t o n i c a n d t h o s e a d v o c a t i n g for a m o r e a p o c a l y p tic m a t r i x . B u t that d e b a t e t e n d s to h a v e m o r e to d o w i t h w h a t t h e a u t h o r s a y s about t a b e r n a c l e a n d cultus t h a n a b o u t t h e c o s m o s itself.

69

The exception to

67. Cf. L. W. Hurtado, Lord Jesus Christ (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2003), especially pp. 497-504. 68. The very idea of bodily resurrection - which is certainly present in Hebrews - seems on theological grounds to entail the inclusion of the entire cosmos, which is where Paul takes the idea (Rom. 8.20-21; cf. Wright, Resurrection, p. 813). The writer of Hebrews may take a different view but I doubt it, for exegetical and scientific reasons already given. If the annihilationist view can claim the advantage of a primafacie reading of 12.25-29 then a resurrection model can claim the advantage of the broader tradition (represented by Romans 8) in which this writer plainly stood. In any event, our argument does not hang entirely on a deduction from resurrection. 69. The writer of Hebrews' spatial and metaphysical dualism divides terminologically along these lines: On the one hand, there is the 'true tent' (8.2; 9.24), 'pattern' (8.1-5), 'greater and more perfect tent, not made with hands' (9.11,24), 'heavenly things themselves' (9.23), 'heaven itself (9.24), 'the image itself of the [coming] things' (10.1). On the other hand, there is the 'copy', shadow' (8.1-5; 9.23), 'made with hands' (9.11, 24), 'antitype of the true' (9.24), 'regulations of flesh' (9.10), 'shadow of the good things coming' (10.1). To this can be added the language of creation surveyed above, especially related to the heavenly world. What is immediately apparent is that the language of 'copy', 'shadow', 'made with hands', and 'antitype' all attaches specifi cally to the earthly tabernacle with its law, that is, to something within the cosmos more than to the cosmos as such. In other words, the heavenly world tends to be merged in these comparisons,

8.

141

Hebrews

70

that s t a t e m e n t is 1 2 . 2 5 - 2 9 , a n d p o s s i b l y 3 . 7 - 4 . 1 1 a n d 1 1 . 3 . O f t h e s e , 12.25-29 r e q u i r e s t h e m o s t attention a n d w e h a v e dealt w i t h this e l s e w h e r e ; h e r e t h e i d e a that t h e t a b e r n a c l e r e p r e s e n t s t h e future o f t h e c o s m o s c o m e s t o its h e a d . In brief, w e c a n reinforce t h e c o n c l u s i o n s o f o t h e r s , e s p e c i a l l y W i l l i a m s o n and Hurst,

71

to t h e effect that t h e L e t t e r ' s c o s m o l o g y e v i d e n c e s n o real s h a r i n g

in t h e Platonic thought w o r l d represented, e.g., b y Philo o f A l e x a n d r i a . B e y o n d w h a t w a s m e n t i o n e d a b o v e , t h e o b s e r v a t i o n c a n b e a d d e d that n o n e o f t h e various e l e m e n t s o f t h e writer o f H e b r e w s ' c o s m o l o g y are b r o u g h t forth for pur p o s e s o f allegorical m e a n i n g s , certainly n o t relating to p h i l o s o p h i c a l currents in t h e P l a t o n i c tradition. T h e w r i t e r o f H e b r e w s ' soteriological a n d christological c o n c e p t i o n s a r e subtle a n d creative b u t the letter's c o s m o l o g i c a l features are rather u n a d o r n e d .

72

(4) I n d e e d , the a b o v e description e n c o u r a g e s t h e i m p r e s s i o n that t h e w r i t e r is w o r k i n g w i t h a c o s m o l o g y that w o u l d h a v e b e e n c o n s i d e r e d traditional b y Christians s t e e p e d in t h e O T . It w o u l d b e consistent w i t h t h e i d e a that this w r i t e r derives his c o s m o l o g y m o r e from h i s Scriptures a s filtered t h r o u g h ( b y n o w ) traditional christology t h a n from either e m p i r i c a l o b s e r v a t i o n o r p h i l o s o p h i c a l speculations, h o w e v e r a c q u a i n t e d h e m a y b e w i t h t h i n k i n g s u c h as w e find in P h i l o a n d to w h a t e v e r d e g r e e it affects t h e form o f his e x p r e s s i o n .

Closing

Reflections

T a k e n t o g e t h e r t h e foregoing p r o v i d e s p e r s p e c t i v e o n t h e relationship b e t w e e n l a n g u a g e a n d c o n c r e t e referent for t h e writer o f H e b r e w s . T h e n u m b e r o f w a y s meaning that when the author is speaking in this way of the heavenly world as present or future he telescopes in and out from the tabernacle and city to the realm of heaven in general. On the earthly side of things, however, he keeps narrowly to the tabernacle and its law. The possible exception is the 'city' and 'fatherland' imagery of ch. 11(11.10-16; cf. 13.14) but (1) by this time in the book's argument the idea is plainly that of sacred space (cf. 12.18-29; in other words, these are specific parts of creation that had symbolic import, especially as spheres in relation to the Most Holy Place, rather than creation as such; we can observe that in the OT the land, like the tabernacle and temple, was portrayed as a symbolic return to Paradise, i.e., to the original creation); (2) the latter passages are decidedly oriented along temporal, futuristic lines; and (3) nothing in these passages on their own requires anything beyond the conception of, say, 1 Pet 1.1,17; 2.11; Phil. 3.19-21; Gal. 4.25-26; Col. 3.1-4; Rev. 21.1-2. There is accordingly no direct line from the language of 'copy', etc. to the writer's general view of the cosmos. He does not picture creation as such as a copy or shadow or antitype. The assumed indirect line between this language and his view of the cosmos would be closer to this: The heavenly world as a whole was a pattern for the tabernacle/ law, which was itself the shadow of the state of the world as a whole to come, a world identified with the pre-existing pattern shown to Moses on the mountain. 70. Perhaps also 9.11; 11.10, 13-16. 11.3 was dealt with above; see the preceding note on 11.10-16. 71. Williamson, Philo and the Epistle to the Hebrews, passim; Hurst, Background, passim. 72. This aspect of this subject - the contrasts with the Platonic tradition - are more thoroughly examined by Adams, 'Cosmology'.

142

Cosmology

and New Testament

Theology

in w h i c h t h e p l a c e o f salvation c a n b e p i c t u r e d - tabernacle, city ( = M o u n t Z i o n , h e a v e n l y J e r u s a l e m ) , r e s t i n g p l a c e , fatherland, w o r l d , etc. - a l r e a d y e x p r e s s e d m o r e interest in g e t t i n g at significance a n d u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h a n in d e s c r i b i n g realistically a n d literalistically a c o n c r e t e reality, a s if t h e r e is actually a h e a v enly a n d future tabernacle structure, a city w i t h b u i l d i n g s , a n d so o n . In particu lar, t h e elasticity o f t h e cultic a n d t a b e r n a c l e i m a g e r y p o i n t s in t h e direction o f m e t a p h o r i c a l u s a g e . E s p e c i a l l y in c h s 5 - 1 0 t h e w r i t e r v e r y creatively exploits the t a b e r n a c l e cultus a n d liturgy t o articulate c h r i s t o l o g y a n d s o t e r i o l o g y in p o w e r f u l l y practical

w a y s . It is e v i d e n t that h e is finding y e t a n o t h e r w a y o f

expressing t h e ' a l r e a d y - n o t y e t ' p e r s p e c t i v e that is f o u n d e l s e w h e r e in t h e N T ; the attempt is to articulate t h e b a s i s a n d nature o f t h e ' e n t r a n c e ' that t h e believer already h a s w h i l e a w a i t i n g t h e e n t r a n c e t o c o m e . In c o n n e c t i o n w i t h t h e p o i n t m a d e earlier a b o u t s a c r e d s p a c e w e c a n g o a n o t h e r step. If w e a r e r i g h t that G o l g o t h a is c o n c e i v e d after t h e m a n n e r o f the M o s t Holy Place as the intersection of the earthly sanctuary and divine t h r o n e r o o m , a n d if t h e w r i t e r o f H e b r e w s is n o t i m a g i n i n g a f o r m o f m y s t i c a l a s c e n t for b e l i e v e r s , t h e n t h e l a n g u a g e o f heavenly

e n t r a n c e (eiaEpxopcct) a n d

a p p r o a c h (Trpoaspxopcci) is a l w a y s oriented p r e c i s e l y t h r o u g h G o l g o t h a ' s v e r y earthly cross a n d s o , for t h e present, is a l w a y s conceptualized as the w a y o f suf fering, o f c r o s s b e a r i n g . T h i s is consistent n o t o n l y w i t h t h e d y n a m i c s o f s a c r e d s p a c e , b u t w i t h t h e l a n g u a g e a n d t h e j u x t a p o s i n g o f i d e a s t h r o u g h o u t t h e letter (e.g., 2 . 1 0 - 1 1 ; 6.9-20; 10.19-36; 12.1-29; 13.12-16). T h e t h e m e s o f 'suffering/ s h a m e ' a n d ' a p p r o a c h t o t h e d i v i n e t h r o n e ' are n o t m e r e l y r e l a t e d a s ' n e e d a n d provision' but as t w o aspects of the one movement of worship. T h u s w e a p p r o a c h t h e d i v i n e t h r o n e in h e a v e n p r e c i s e l y a n d only w h e n w e g o out (eêpxoiicci) to J e s u s a n d h i s faithful o n e s o u t s i d e t h e c a m p , t o t h e n e w a n d u l t i m a t e c e n t r e o f s a c r e d s p a c e , suffering o u t s i d e t h e g a t e w h e r e G o l g o t h a is found, b e a r i n g h i s s h a m e (TOV o v s t S i a p b v CCUTOU (|>epovTes). T h a t is w h e r e t h e h e a v e n l y d i v i n e t h r o n e is t o b e f o u n d o n earth; there is n o o t h e r p o r t a l . H e n c e forth b e l i e v e r s w i l l n e i t h e r s e e k n o r cling t o a n y p l a c e o r m e a n s o f security a n d sanctification b e y o n d G o l g o t h a w i t h i n ' t h i s c r e a t i o n ' for h e r e t h e y h a v e n o a b i d i n g city - n o t e v e n J e r u s a l e m , far less R o m e . Rather, t h e y a r e c o m m u n a l l y s e e k i n g that city that is c o m i n g ( 1 3 . 1 2 - 1 4 ) , t h e c l e a n s e d c o s m o s in its entirety as t h e t e m p l e o f G o d . T h e p o s i t i v e cast o f 13.15-16 s h o u l d n o t c a u s e u s t o m i s s t h e c r u c i f o r m n a t u r e o f t h e life it calls forth a s a n e n c a p s u l a t i o n o f t h e w h o l e string o f e x h o r t a t i o n s t o faithful action - focused p a r t i c u l a r l y in t h e d o i n g o f g o o d w i t h i n t h e C h r i s t i a n fellowship - that r u n s t h r o u g h t h e Letter. To say, t h e n , that this c o s m o l o g i c a l a n d h e a v e n l y t a b e r n a c l e l a n g u a g e h a s n o c o n c r e t e referent is to m o c k e x p e r i e n c e a n d h o p e . N o r a r e w e c l a i m i n g that the preceding paragraphs b y any means exhaust what the writer of Hebrews m a y h a v e u n d e r s t o o d t o b e t h e c o n c r e t e reality t o w h i c h this l a n g u a g e refers. B u t neither is it t o say that h e w o u l d h a v e (or c o u l d h a v e ) s u r r e n d e r e d a n y o f his i m a g e s for a m o r e 'literalistic' a t t e m p t at description o r for a n y o t h e r set o f

8.

Hebrews

143

i m a g e s . T h e s e a r e i m a g e s h e w o u l d - I t h i n k - h a v e insisted o n a s n e c e s s a r y a n d i n d i s p e n s a b l e b y d i n t o f their b e i n g revealed

(cf. 8.5; 9.23-24). T h e y

finally

b e l o n g to a c o h e r e n t w o r l d d r a w n from t h e O T a s m e d i a t e d t h r o u g h C h r i s t i a n tradition; t h e y form a n o r g a n i c w h o l e , a k i n d o f self-sustaining e c o s y s t e m that d o e s n o t a d m i t o f t a m p e r i n g . T h e r e m a y b e n o h e a v e n l y tabernacle - a s w e k n o w t a b e r n a c l e s - b u t if w e m e n t a l l y raze t h e i m a g e the reality itself disappears from view. T h e i m a g e d o e s n o t h o l d t h e t h i n g in e x i s t e n c e b u t it m a k e s it k n o w a b l e in t h e o n l y w a y it c a n b e a n d ( m o r e importantly, g i v e n t h e w r i t e r ' s p a s t o r a l c o n cerns) must b e k n o w n . O r t o revisit a n d r e d e p l o y t h e i m a g e r y o f c o n v e n t i o n a l a n d infrared p h o t o g r a p h y w i t h w h i c h this e s s a y b e g a n , w e m a y s a y that e v e n if a n o t h e r t y p e o f ' p h o t o ' o f t h e s e h e a v e n l y a n d e s c h a t o l o g i c a l realities w e r e p o s s i b l e t h a n t h e o n e i n v o l v i n g t h e cultic s y m b o l i s m o f t h i s Letter, t h e w r i t e r o f H e b r e w s w o u l d insist o n this i m a g e a s t h e m o s t r e l e v a n t a n d m e a n i n g f u l for t h e q u e s t i o n s that matter. A n d , in a n y event, B e a l e is correct to stress that for t h e w r i t e r o f H e b r e w s a s for o t h e r early C h r i s t i a n s - w h a t w a s c o n s i d e r e d ' f i g u r a t i v e ' a n d w h a t w a s considered 'real' w a s the reverse of what w e m a y b e accustomed to thinking.

73

I n t h e e n d t h e ' r e a l ' t a b e r n a c l e h a s n o t h i n g to d o w i t h a locatable b u i l d i n g ; it w a s t h e M o s a i c t a b e r n a c l e that w a s figurative. S o for t h e w r i t e r o f H e b r e w s it is n o t a m a t t e r o f t r y i n g t o u s e a ' r e a l ' t a b e r n a c l e

figuratively

t o talk a b o u t a

' s p i r i t u a l ' o n e , b u t o f u n d e r s t a n d i n g p r o p e r l y w h a t w a s a l w a y s a figure t o get at t h e reality to w h i c h it a l w a y s p o i n t e d , t h e h e a v e n l y eternal a n d c o s m i c a l l y future KCCT6:TTO:UOIS. W h e t h e r this is ' d e m y t h o l o g i z i n g ' d e p e n d s t h e n o n h o w w e define m y t h a n d w h a t in t h e w o r l d is to b e i n c l u d e d in i t .

74

73. Beale, Temple, pp. 295-8. 74. Among other works that help in thinking through this sort of use of figurative language and the relationship between metaphor and referent, see J. M. Soskice, Metaphor and Religious Language (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1985); H. Weder, 'Metaphor and Reality', in J. Polkinghorne and M. Welker (eds), The End of the World and the Ends of God (Harrisburg: Trinity Press International, 2000), pp. 291-7; R. Bauckham and T. Hart, Hope Against Hope: Christian Eschatology at the Turn of the Millennium (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1999).

9 G O D A N D 'THE W O R L D ' : COSMOLOGY A N D THEOLOGY IN THE LETTER OF JAMES

Darian Lockett J a m e s declares, ' w h o e v e r w i s h e s to b e a friend o f the w o r l d b e c o m e s a n e n e m y o f G o d ' (4.4b) a n d thus d r a w s a line in the sand (or in the c o s m o s ) separating the antithetical w o r l d v i e w s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h ' t h e w o r l d ' a n d G o d . T h o u g h a c c o r d i n g t o 4 . 4 it s e e m s clear that J a m e s ' u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f the c o s m o s r i d e s u p o n this G o d / ' w o r l d ' d i v i d e , it h a s often b e e n a r g u e d that J a m e s lacks a n y s u c h coher ent structure a n d theology. M u c h o f this d i s c u s s i o n h a s b e e n d o m i n a t e d b y the influential a s s u m p t i o n s o f M a r t i n D i b e l i u s . H e c o n c l u d e d that b e c a u s e the text w a s m a d e u p largely o f s a y i n g s m a t e r i a l , 'the entire document 1

in thought'

a n d t h u s 'has not "theology"

lacks

continuity

'?

If J a m e s lacks coherent structure, a n d thus any clear theology, w h y include the Letter in a text considering the interplay b e t w e e n c o s m o l o g y a n d theology? T h o u g h an a n s w e r to such a question s e e m e d certain for Dibelius, the last t w o decades h a v e seen quite a shift, b e g i n n i n g with Peter D a v i d s ' c o m m e n t that 'the a g e o f the string-of-pearls conception o f the letter is passed, a n d its essential theological unity 3

is ready for exploration'. M a t t J a c k s o n - M c C a b e nicely indicates this in his recent article: ' W i t h the general shift, since the 1960's, t o w a r d reading strategies that emphasize coherence a n d connections in t e x t s . . . has c o m e a steady erosion in the 4

h e g e m o n y o f Dibelius's atomistic, form-critical approach to J a m e s ' . Furthermore L u k e Timothy J o h n s o n notes that J a m e s , as w i s d o m literature, t h o u g h 'general in i n t e n t i o n . . . is particular in expression. E v e n m i n i m a l arrangement o f materi als represents a n interpretation a n d point o f v i e w ' . H e continues b y insisting that though ' a p h o r i s m s m a y b e w o r n to c l i c h e s . . . they d o claim to m a k e statements about reality - not only to say something well b u t to say

5

something'.

1. M. Dibelius, James: A Commentary on the Epistle ofJames (rev. H. Greeven; trans. M. A. Williams; Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 11th edn, 1976), p. 2 (emphasis original). 2. Dibelius, James, p. 21 (emphasis original). 3. P. H. Davids, The Epistle of James: A Commentary on the Greek Text (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1982), p. 13. 4. M. Jackson-McCabe, 'The Messiah Jesus in the Mythic World of James', JBL 122 (2003), 701-30 (703). 5. L. T. Johnson, Brother of Jesus, Friend of God: Studies in the Letter of James (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2004), pp. 204-5, n. 14 (emphasis mine).

9.

James

145

Johnson has noted h o w the w i s d o m sayings of James have been arranged. H e asserts that t h e ' i m p o r t a n t o r g a n i z i n g ( a n d selecting) p r i n c i p l e in J a m e s is a central set o f c o n v i c t i o n s c o n c e r n i n g the a b s o l u t e i n c o m p a t i b i l i t y o f t w o c o n struals o f reality a n d t w o m o d e s o f b e h a v i o r following from s u c h d i v e r s e u n d e r standings. This "deep structure" of polar opposition... undergirds the inclusion 6

a n d s h a p i n g o f J a m e s ' m a t e r i a l ' . H e a r g u e s , ' [ e ] v e n a c u r s o r y s u r v e y o f this c o m p o s i t i o n s h o w s that J a m e s characteristically establishes p o l a r c o n t r a s t s ' . J o h n s o n c o n c l u d e s that the central contrast b e t w e e n 'friendship w i t h G o d ' a n d ' f r i e n d s h i p w i t h t h e w o r l d ' in 4 . 4 offers t h e b e s t ' t h e m a t i c centre for [ J a m e s ' ] ethical a n d religious d u a l i s m ' .

7

H e r e w e will e x p l o r e , in J o h n s o n ' s w o r d s , t h e ' s o m e t h i n g ' J a m e s s a y s , specifically w i t h r e s p e c t t o h o w J a m e s ' s t a t e m e n t s r e g a r d i n g t h e c o s m o s m a y b e s e e n t o g e t h e r a s a w h o l e a n d w h e t h e r this c o s m o l o g i c a l

framework

may

indicate a well-crafted t h e o l o g i c a l p o i n t o f view. It is in the fitting confines o f ' t e x t ' that s u c h a n e n c o d i n g o f w o r l d v i e w t a k e s p l a c e , for in J u d i t h L i e u ' s w o r d s : ' T e x t s p l a y a central p a r t n o t j u s t in d o c u m e n t a t i o n o f w h a t it m e a n t t o 8

b e a C h r i s t i a n , b u t in actually s h a p i n g C h r i s t i a n i t y ' . A c c o r d i n g t o Lieu, C h r i s tian reality (theological reality) w a s textually constructed. T h u s , in d e s c r i b i n g the c o s m o s , J a m e s calls forth a n e w identity for his r e a d e r s a n d articulates a t h e o l o g i c a l c o n s t r u a l o f reality. T h e p r e s e n t c h a p t e r will outline t h e v a r i o u s indications o f c o s m o l o g y in J a m e s a n d will a t t e m p t to u n d e r s t a n d t h e m w i t h i n a c o h e r e n t , textually c o n s t r u c t e d v i e w o f the u n i v e r s e . F r o m t h e s e o b s e r v a t i o n s w e will reflect u p o n h o w J a m e s ' c o s m o l o g y r e n d e r s a t h e o l o g i c a l m a p w h i c h plots b o t h h u m a n a n d d i v i n e action - c h a r t i n g a n e w , t h e o l o g i c a l identity for his r e a d e r s . O u r p r e s e n t j o u r n e y t h r o u g h this J a c o b e a n m a p o f t h e c o s m o s b e g i n s w i t h t h e ' e a r t h l y ' , n a m e l y a d i s c u s s i o n o f ' t h e w o r l d ' in J a m e s , t h e n p r o c e e d s u p w a r d t o h e a v e n , especially c o n s i d e r i n g the p h r a s e ' f r o m a b o v e ' , a n d

finally

descends d o w n w a r d to 'Gehenna'.

1. 'The World* in

James

To v i e w J a m e s ' m a p o f t h e c o s m o s w e m u s t first v i e w t h e ' w o r l d ' as h e d o e s . J a m e s u s e s t h e t e r m ' w o r l d ' (Koopos) 5 t i m e s ( 1 . 2 7 ; 2 . 5 ; 3.6; 4.4 [ 2 * ] ) a n d ' e a r t h l y ' (ETTiy£»os) o n c e ( 3 . 1 4 ) . In its first o c c u r r e n c e , t h e t e r m ' w o r l d ' is set i n contrast t o G o d ' s s t a n d a r d o f m e a s u r e ( 1 . 2 7 ) . F o r J a m e s , ' p u r e a n d undefiled' religion is qualified as s u c h

6. L. T. Johnson, The Letter of James (AB 37A; New York: Doubleday, 1995), p. 14. See also, T. B. Cargal, Restoring the Diaspora: Discursive Structure and Purpose in the Epistle of James (SBLDS 144; Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1993), pp. 229-32; and K. D. Tollefson, 'The Epistle of James as Dialectical Discourse', BTB 21 (1997), 62-9 (62). 7. Johnson, The Letter of James, p. 84. 8. Judith Lieu, Christian Identity in the Jewish and Graeco-Roman World (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004), p. 7.

146

Cosmology

and New Testament

Theology

' b e f o r e G o d , t h e F a t h e r ' (TTapa TCO 0ECO Km TTaTpi). T h e TTapa h e r e c a n b e t a k e n s u g g e s t i n g s p h e r e : ' i n t h e sight/judgement o f G o d ' (see R o m . 2 . 1 3 ; 1 Cor. 3 . 1 9 ; 7 . 2 4 ; 1 P e t . 2 . 2 0 ) w h i c h i n d i c a t e s t h e u l t i m a t e s t a n d a r d b y w h i c h all a s p e c t s o f w o r s h i p , t h o u g h t , a n d c o n d u c t s h o u l d b e a s s e s s e d a n d w i l l in t h e e n d 9

b e j u d g e d . It is ' w i t h reference to G o d ' s scale o f m e a s u r e m e n t ' that s u c h reli g i o n is ' p u r e a n d u n d e f i l e d ' . A n d this religion, a c c e p t a b l e in G o d ' s estimation, is set o v e r a g a i n s t w o r t h l e s s religion in 1 . 2 6 . H e r e J a m e s insists that it is G o d ' s p e r s p e c t i v e that functions as t h e k e y indicator s e p a r a t i n g w o r t h l e s s religion from ' p u r e a n d undefiled r e l i g i o n ' . F u r t h e r m o r e , t h e p r e p o s i t i o n a l p h r a s e TTapa TCO 0ECO a l o n g w i t h t h e similar p h r a s e in v. 2 7 (CCITO TOU Koopou), ' c l e a r l y suggest an opposition between G o d and the w o r l d ' .

1 0

T h i s rhetoric indicates

that t h e a u t h o r d o e s n o t w i s h to cast t w o types o f r e l i g i o n as e q u a l b u t o p p o s i t e ; rather, h e refers t o G o d as t h e o n l y o n e w h o a p p r o v e s p u r e religion, d e m o n s t r a t ing that t h e r e is o n l y o n e w a y to c o n s t r u e o r d e r e d w o r s h i p a n d piety. T h e definition o f a c c e p t a b l e religion in t h e sight o f G o d is first c h a r a c t e r i z e d as l o o k i n g after o r p h a n s a n d w i d o w s in their affliction a n d t h e n a s k e e p i n g o n e s e l f ' u n s t a i n e d ' (OCOTTIAOV) from ' t h e w o r l d ' (TOU Koopou) ( 1 . 2 7 ) . To r e m a i n ' u n s t a i n e d ' w i t h r e s p e c t t o ' t h e w o r l d ' J a m e s ' r e a d e r s m u s t m a i n t a i n a particular b o u n d a r y b e t w e e n t h e m s e l v e s a n d t h e influences o f ' t h e w o r l d ' . E l s e w h e r e in t h e N T t h e t e r m ' u n s t a i n e d ' is p a i r e d w i t h t h e t e r m ' u n b l e m i s h e d ' ( a p c o p o s )

1 1

w h i c h t o g e t h e r c o n v e y t h e n o t i o n o f defilement. H e r e J a m e s ' r e a d e r s m u s t k e e p t h e m s e l v e s from ' t h e w o r l d ' b e c a u s e it is the agent o f pollution w h i c h , b y m e a n s o f contact, t r a n s m i t s a c o u n t e r form o f ' r e l i g i o n ' c o n t a m i n a t i n g J a m e s ' r e a d e r s . B e c a u s e o f their 'failure t o live in a c c o r d w i t h this c o m p l e t e l a w a n d their c o m p r o m i s e w i t h the alien v a l u e s a n d n o r m s o f s o c i e t y ' , as r e m e d y , J a m e s ' u r g e s his r e a d e r s t o s e v e r their ties w i t h secular p o l l u t i o n . . . t o purify their h a n d s a n d hearts b y b r e a k i n g c l e a n from s o c i e t y ' s p o l l u t i o n ' .

12

' W o r l d ' a p p e a r s a g a i n in ch. 2 . I n c h a l l e n g i n g h i s r e a d e r s w i t h t h e i n c o n g r u ity o f b e l i e v i n g in J e s u s C h r i s t a n d practising favouritism, J a m e s rhetorically a s k s in 2 . 5 , ' H a s G o d n o t c h o s e n t h e p o o r in the w o r l d (TCO Koopco) to b e

9. Johnson, The Letter of James, p. 212. 10. Wesley Wachob, The Voice ofJesus in the Social Rhetoric ofJames (SNTSMS 106; Cam bridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000), p. 83. 11. See 1 Pet. 1.19, with reference to Christ as an 'unblemished' lamb; 2 Pet. 3.14. In Jude 24, several manuscripts read doTriXous either beside ducouous r earlier in the verse (cf. Sp , C, 945, 1243, 1505) and thus may add weight to understanding the two terms as commonly being used together. 12. J. H. Elliott, 'The Epistle of James in Rhetorical and Social Scientific Perspective: Holiness-Wholeness and Patterns of Replication', BTB 23 (1993), 71-8 (78). Elliott's notion of 'breaking clean from society's pollution' specifically entails drawing boundaries of sectarian separation. I have argued elsewhere that 'keeping oneself unstained from the world' need not imply the construction of sectarian boundaries (see D. Lockett, Purity and Worldview in the Epistle of James [LNTS; London: T&T Clark, forthcoming], ch. 5). 72

G

9.

James

147

rich in f a i t h ? ' T h o u g h a f e w m a n u s c r i p t s r e a d TOU Koapou, t h e d a t i v e is w e l l attested a n d m a k e s b e t t e r s e n s e h e r e . r e a d as a dative o f a d v a n t a g e

14

13

The phrase

TCO Koopco

should be

a n d t h u s ' p o o r in t h e e y e s o f t h e w o r l d ' . T h e

syntactical construction indicates that it is from t h e p e r s p e c t i v e o r valuation o f ' t h e w o r l d ' that t h e s e p e o p l e are c o u n t e d p o o r o r l o w in social a n d e c o n o m i c status. N o t e the similar u s e o f a dative o f a d v a n t a g e w i t h r e g a r d to t h e ' p o o r ' in M t . 5 . 3 : MccKCcpioi oi TTTCOXCM TCO TTVEupcrn. T h e u s e o f t h e d a t i v e , b o t h in J a s . 2.5 a n d M t . 5.3, indicates that t h e p o o r m a y b e v i e w e d from different v a n t a g e p o i n t s and, specifically in J a m e s b e c a u s e it is from t h e w o r l d ' s v a n t a g e point, this is t h e w r o n g v i e w or m e a s u r e o f the poor. J o h n s o n h a s o b s e r v e d that b e c a u s e t h e p o o r w i t h r e s p e c t t o 6 Koopos are to b e ' r i c h in faith' i m p l i e s that ' t h e " w o r l d ' s " m e a s u r e m e n t o f v a l u e is directly o p p o s e d to G o d ' s ' .

1 5

Rather

t h a n h u m a n i t y in g e n e r a l , ' t h e w o r l d ' h e r e is t h e s y s t e m o f o r d e r c o n t r a r y t o t h e h e a v e n l y order, ' a m e a s u r e distinguishable from G o d ' s ' .

1 6

In 3.6 J a m e s identifies the t o n g u e as a ' w o r l d o f w i c k e d n e s s ' ( b Koopos TTJS a S i K i a s ) , or taken adjectivally, ' a w i c k e d w o r l d ' w h i c h 'stains (oTnAouocc) the w h o l e b o d y ' . A precise translation o f the first p h r a s e o f v. 6 is e x t r e m e l y difficult. T h e p h r a s e consists o f five n o u n s in the n o m i n a t i v e case along w i t h o n e v e r b , a n d the p r o b l e m is h o w best to c o m b i n e these w o r d s in a w a y that m a k e s b o t h g r a m m a t i c a l a n d logical sense. In J o h n s o n ' s estimation '[t]he p r o b l e m s revolve m a i n l y a r o u n d h o w to understand the phrase ho kosmos

tes adikias,

especially

since it h a s a definite article, a n d h o w t o understand it syntactically in relation to the substantive " t h e t o n g u e " \

1 7

S o m e h a v e argued that b Koopos m e a n s ' w h o l e ' 18

or ' s u m total' as in LXX Prov. 1 7 . 6 . Others h a v e suggested the translation ' a d o r n m e n t ' (1 Pet. 3.3) a n d thus understand the t o n g u e as the ' a d o r n m e n t ' o f evil.

13. Davids understands the genitive as a scribal attempt to smooth out the grammar {James, p. 112). 14. As in D. Wallace, Greek Grammar Beyond the Basics (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1996), p. 144, or a dativus commodi. Examples of commentators who understand the dative in this way include Johnson, Brother of Jesus, Friend of God, p. 212; Dibelius, James, p. 138; Davids, James, pp. 111-2; R. P. Martin, James (WBC 48; Waco: Word, 1988), pp. 64-5; D. Moo, The Letter of James (PNTC; Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2000), p. 107; pace S. Laws, A Commentary on the Epistle of James (BNTC; London: A&C Black, 1980), p. 103, who takes it as a dative of respect. 15. Johnson, Letter of James, p. 224. 16. Johnson, Brother ofJesus, Friend of God, p. 212. Laws {James, p. 174) rightly argues that 'world' in James denotes 'in general the values of human society as against those of God, and hence the man who pursues pleasure aligns himself with the world and compromises or actually denies his relationship with God' (see L. L. Cheung, The Genre, Composition and Hermeneutics ofJames [Carlisle: Paternoster Press, 2003], pp. 202-3). 17. Johnson, Letter of James, p. 259. 18. Both Cheung (Hermeneutics of James, p. 203) and Moo (Letter of James, p. 157) feel this may be due to the influence of the Vulgate (universitas iniquitatis), a translation reflected in the NLT. Both scholars reject this meaning.

Cosmology

148

and New Testament

Theology

B u t Dibelius correctly objects, ' N o reader w o u l d h a v e h e a r d either o f those t w o m e a n i n g s in this e x p r e s s i o n ' .

19

' W o r l d ' conveys neither o f these senses in other

occurrences in J a m e s , thus M a y o r s e e m s to h a v e h a d the best feel for the p h r a s e saying: ' I n our m i c r o c o s m , the t o n g u e represents or constitutes the unrighteous world'.

20

W i t h M a y o r m o s t take xfjs ccSiKias as an attributive genitive a n d thus

render the phrase, 'unrighteous w o r l d ' as the RSV. U n d e r s t a n d i n g the p h r a s e b KOCHJOS T % a S i i a a s as ' t h e unrighteous w o r l d ' , w e m u s t p l a c e it w i t h i n the s e n t e n c e a s a w h o l e . M o o o b s e r v e s that there a r e three p o s s i b l e o p t i o n s .

21

T h e first o p t i o n is as follows. ' T h e t o n g u e is a fire,

t h e w o r l d o f u n r i g h t e o u s n e s s . T h e t o n g u e is a p p o i n t e d a m o n g o u r m e m b e r s a s t h a t w h i c h stains t h e w h o l e b o d y . . . ' T h i s r e n d e r i n g (a) t a k e s ' w o r l d o f u n r i g h t e o u s n e s s ' in a p p o s i t i o n to ' f i r e ' ; (b) p l a c e s a full s t o p after this p h r a s e ; a n d (c) takes t h e p h r a s e ' w h i c h stains the w h o l e b o d y ' as t h e p r e d i c a t e o f ' i s a p p o i n t e d ' (KaBiaTocTcci). T h o u g h t h e appositional r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n 'fire' a n d ' w o r l d o f u n r i g h t e o u s n e s s ' c a n n o t b e ruled out, M o o is correct in n o t i n g that t h e ferninine participle ' s t a i n ' (f) a m A o O o a ) is ' v e r y difficult t o turn into t h e p r e d i c a t e o f the v e r b "is a p p o i n t e d " \

2 2

A second rendering maintains, 'The

t o n g u e is a p p o i n t e d as a fire, i n d e e d , as t h e w o r l d o f u n r i g h t e o u s n e s s in our m e m b e r s ; it stains t h e w h o l e b o d y , sets o n fire t h e c o u r s e o f o u r e x i s t e n c e . . . ' H e r e a g a i n ' w o r l d o f u n r i g h t e o u s n e s s ' stands in a p p o s i t i o n to 'fire', y e t it is t h e t e r m 'fire' that is t a k e n as t h e p r e d i c a t e o f the v e r b ' i s a p p o i n t e d ' . A third, a n d m o s t popular, o p t i o n m a i n t a i n s t h e translation, ' A n d the t o n g u e is a fire. T h e t o n g u e is a p p o i n t e d a m o n g o u r m e m b e r s as t h e w o r l d o f u n r i g h t e o u s n e s s , staining t h e w h o l e b o d y . . . ' H e r e ' w o r l d o f u n r i g h t e o u s n e s s ' is t h e p r e d i c a t e o f t h e v e r b ' i s a p p o i n t e d ' a n d as M o o p o i n t s out, it p l a c e s ' a p u n c t u a t i o n b r e a k b e t w e e n t h e initial assertion a n d t h e further e l a b o r a t i o n ' .

23

T h i s final o p t i o n is

likely the b e s t overall r e n d e r i n g o f t h e p a s s a g e ; h o w e v e r , in o r d e r t o m a i n t a i n uniformity w i t h h o w the v e r b KaSiaTOCTOCi is u s e d e l s e w h e r e in J a m e s (4.4) t h e translation s h o u l d m a i n t a i n the m i d d l e voice. T h u s t h e p a s s a g e s h o u l d b e r e n d e r e d , ' A n d t h e t o n g u e is a fire. T h e t o n g u e a p p o i n t s itself a n u n r i g h t e o u s w o r l d a m o n g o u r m e m b e r s , staining t h e w h o l e b o d y . . . ' . T h i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e p a s s a g e is consistent w i t h t h e L e t t e r ' s overall n o t i o n o f b KOOUOS as a n evil a n d u n r i g h t e o u s s y s t e m in o p p o s i t i o n to G o d . J o h n s o n n o t e s :

19. Dibelius, James, p. 194. 20. J. B. Mayor, The Epistle of St. James (3rd edn; London: MacMillan, 1913, p. 115; cf. J. H. Ropes, A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on the Gospel of St. James (Edinburgh: T&T Clark, 1916), p. 233; Laws, James, p. 91; Johnson, Letter of James, p. 259; Cheung, Hermeneutics of James, p. 203. Here the genitive is a substitute for the adjective as elsewhere in James (cf. 2.4 KpiTCu SiaAoyiaucov Trovrjpcov, 'judges with evil motives'; cf. / En. 48.7; Mk 16.14; Lk. 16.9). 21. Moo, Letter of James, pp. 157-8. 22. Ibid.,p. 158. 23. Ibid.

9.

James

149

James' meaning is only to be grasped in the light of 1.27 and 2.5, where kosmos and God are opposed, and in light of 4.4, where the same verb (kathistemi) is used for those whose choice of 'friendship with the world' has 'established' them as an enemy of God. 24

G i v e n this understating o f the 'unrighteous w o r l d ' , the surrounding context d o e s s p e a k o f creation in implicitly positive t e r m s , n a m e l y h u m a n i t y m a d e in the likeness o f G o d (3.9). Yet ' t h e w o r l d ' , o v e r against G o d ' s g o o d creation, carries the negative connotation o f an evil a n d unrighteous system in opposition to G o d w h i c h finds particular manifestation in t h e t o n g u e . Therefore j u s t a s ' t h e w o r l d ' is t h e a g e n t o f p o l l u t i o n w h i c h r e a d e r s a r e to a v o i d ( 1 . 2 7 ) , s o t o o the t o n g u e is likened to t h e ' u n r i g h t e o u s w o r l d ' that is able to p o l l u t e ' t h e w h o l e b o d y ' (3.6). L a w s aptly c o m m e n t s that: It is the tongue that brings the individual man into relation with 'the world'; indeed brings the world within him... The tongue effects in a man the defilement that is inherent in the world (cf. i.27, with the warning already in i.26 that the religious man must bridle his tongue), and its effect is total: it defiles the whole body. The idea is presumably that it is in his speech that a man identifies with that total hostility to God, and shows that it is part of his inner character. 25

It is t h r o u g h t h e t o n g u e that hostility t o G o d , a n d c o n s e q u e n t l y a l i g n m e n t w i t h t h e c o u n t e r s y s t e m o f ' t h e w o r l d ' , is manifest. T h e final t w o o c c u r r e n c e s o f ' t h e w o r l d ' a r e f o u n d in J a m e s 4 . I n 4 . 4 J a m e s u s e s ' w o r l d ' t w i c e in c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h f r i e n d s h i p : ' Y o u a d u l t e r e s s e s , d o y o u n o t k n o w that f r i e n d s h i p w i t h t h e w o r l d (TOU Koopou) is h o s t i l i t y t o w a r d G o d ? T h e r e f o r e w h o e v e r w i s h e s t o b e a friend o f t h e w o r l d (TOU Koopou) m a k e s h i m s e l f a n e n e m y o f G o d ' . Significantly r e a d e r s a r e w a r n e d a w a y from ' f r i e n d s h i p ' w i t h ' t h e w o r l d ' . T h e n o t i o n o f ' f r i e n d s h i p ' (<j>iA'ia) in t h e G r a e c o - R o m a n w o r l d m e a n t a b o v e all t o s h a r e , t h a t is t o h a v e t h e same mindset, the same outlook, the same view of reality.

26

To b e a

friend

o f ' t h e w o r l d ' is to l i v e in h a r m o n y w i t h its v a l u e s a n d l o g i c - in 4 . 1 - 1 0 t h i s e n t a i l s e n v y , rivalry, c o m p e t i t i o n a n d m u r d e r . F r i e n d s h i p w i t h ' t h e w o r l d ' is t h e h e i g h t o f d i s l o y a l t y t o w a r d G o d ( n o t e t h e t h e o l o g i c a l l y l o a d e d l a b e l ' a d u l t e r e s s e s ' in 4 . 4 d i r e c t l y c o n n e c t e d t o I s r a e l ' s c o v e n a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p t o G o d ) . O n e o f t h e m o s t c o m m o n u s e s o f f r i e n d s h i p in a n c i e n t l i t e r a t u r e a p p l i e d to a l l i a n c e s , c o o p e r a t i o n o r n o n - a g g r e s s i o n t r e a t i e s a m o n g p e o p l e s .

2 7

24. Johnson, Letter of James, p. 259. 25. Laws, James, p. 150 (emphasis original). 26. Friends were essentially 'one soul' (Euripides, Orestes 1046); they 'share all things in common' (Aristotle, Eth. nic. 9.82); afriendis 'another self (Eth. nic. 1166A; Cicero, De amicitia 21.80); furthermore, friends 'saw things the same way' for in friendship there is 'equality' (Plato, Laws 151 A; 744B; Aristotle, Eth. nic. 1157B; see Johnson, Letter ofJames, pp. 243-4). 27. See Homer, //. 3.93, 256; 4.17; 26.282; Virgil, Aen. 11.321; Demosthenes, On the Navy Boards 5; On the Embassy 62; Letters 3.27.

Cosmology

150

and New Testament

Theology

Thus, 'friendship' with 'the w o r l d ' constitutes an alliance with a system of v a l u a t i o n set a g a i n s t G o d . The emerging

framework

from

this a n d t h e a b o v e references to ' t h e w o r l d '

s h o w s that J a m e s is n o t w o r k i n g w i t h a strict c o s m o l o g i c a l d u a l i s m - ' t h e w o r l d ' is n o t m e r e l y t h e trees, cities a n d p e o p l e s o f t h e p h y s i c a l earth. Rather, as J o h n s o n 28

puts it, the w o r l d is ' a s y s t e m o f u n t r a m m e l e d desire a n d a r r o g a n c e ' . T h e ' w o r l d ' here is more t h a n t h e material w o r l d o r h u m a n i t y in general, b u t rather t h e entire cultural v a l u e s y s t e m o r world-order w h i c h is hostile t o w a r d w h a t J a m e s frames as the divine v a l u e s y s t e m . H e r e references t o ' t h e w o r l d ' are clearly i n t e n d e d to b e plotted as b o u n d a r y lines u p o n J a m e s ' theological m a p o f reality. A r e l a t e d r e f e r e n c e t o w h a t is ' e a r t h l y ' c o m e s in c h . 3 . H e r e ' w i s d o m

from

a b o v e ' is set at o d d s w i t h w i s d o m that is 'earthly, u n s p i r i t u a l , d e m o n i c ' ( 3 . 1 4 ) . T h i s s o - c a l l e d w i s d o m , w h i c h a n i m a t e s self-seeking, is ' e a r t h l y ' (ETnyEios), ' u n s p i r i t u a r (V|/UXIKTI), a n d ' d e m o n i c ' (5cci|JOvcoSr}s). E a c h adjective i n d i c a t e s a n i n c r e a s i n g l y n e g a t i v e a s p e c t o f this w i s d o m a n d t h u s further a l i e n a t i o n from God.

2 9

T h e first term, ' e a r t h l y ' , is n o t attested in t h e LXX a n d in t h e N T it is

often u s e d for w h a t is c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f t h e e a r t h as o p p o s e d t o t h e h e a v e n l y ( s e e J n 3.12; 1 Cor. 15.40; 2 Cor. 5 . 1 ; P h i l . 2 . 1 0 ) . W i t h this i m p l i c i t c o n t r a s t in m i n d , ' e a r t h l y ' d e n o t e s n o t o n l y w h a t is inferior t o t h e h e a v e n l y , b u t also that w h i c h is in o p p o s i t i o n t o t h e h e a v e n l y . I f J a m e s c o n s i s t e n t l y u s e s ' t h e w o r l d ' t o d e n o t e t h e c o n t a g i o u s s y s t e m o f v a l u e s s t a n d i n g in o p p o s i t i o n t o G o d , t h e term ' e a r t h l y ' t h e n certainly r e i n f o r c e s this n o t i o n . ' E a r t h l y ' specifically d e s c r i b e s a c o u n t e r form o f s o - c a l l e d w i s d o m w h i c h is n o t ' f r o m a b o v e ' b u t is o f 'earthly, d e m o n i c ' origin. T h e n e x t verse carries t h r o u g h o n t h e logic o f this w i s d o m , for J a m e s states t h a t ' w h e r e j e a l o u s y a n d selfish a m b i t i o n exist, there w i l l b e d i s o r d e r (aKCCTaaTaaicc) a n d every v i l e (<J>auAov) p r a c t i c e ' ( 3 . 1 6 ) . ' E a r t h l y ' w i s d o m traffics in j e a l o u s y a n d selfish a m b i t i o n , t h e e x t e r n a l qualities i n d i c a t i v e o f o n e m o t i v a t e d b y self-interest, v i e w i n g o t h e r s as rivals b e c a u s e they p o s s e s s w h a t h e h i m s e l f l a c k s . A g a i n , this is n o m e r e dualistic c o n c e p t for, a c c o r d i n g t o 3.16, this ' e a r t h l y ' w i s d o m is a n e x t e n s i o n o f a t h e o l o g i c a l world-order w h i c h is h o s t i l e t o w a r d G o d . ' W o r l d ' a n d ' e a r t h l y ' t h r o u g h o u t J a m e s c o n s i s t e n t l y refer t o t h e w o r l d as a c o u n t e r m e a s u r e o f order over a g a i n s t t h e order o f G o d . M o o c o m m e n t s in this regard: The 'world' is a common biblical way of referring to the ungodly worldview and lifestyle that characterizes human life in its estrangement from the creator. Christians who have ended that estrangement by accepting the reconciling work of God in Christ must constantly work to distance themselves from the way of life that surrounds us on every side - to keep themselves 'spotless'... from the world's contaminating influence. 30

28. Johnson, Brother of Jesus, Friend of God, p. 210. 29. Ropes, St. James, p. 248. 30. Moo, Letter of James, p. 97

9.

James

151

W h e r e a s J a m e s refers to G o d ' s c r e a t e d o r d e r i n p o s i t i v e t e r m s ( 3 . 9 , s e e a l s o 1 . 1 8 ) , ' t h e w o r l d ' ( o Koopos) is c l e a r l y a s y s t e m o f v a l u a t i o n at o d d s w i t h G o d ' s s y s t e m o f v a l u a t i o n a n d order.

2 . The Heavenly 'Father

in James:

of Lights'

'From Above*and

in James'

the

Cosmology

W h e r e a s ' e a r t h l y ' w i s d o m p r o d u c e s ' b i t t e r j e a l o u s y ' a n d 'selfish a m b i t i o n ' ( 3 . 1 4 ) , w i s d o m ' f r o m a b o v e ' (avcoSev) p r o d u c e s t h e h o s t o f p o s i t i v e qualities listed in 3 . 1 7 (purity b e i n g c h i e f a m o n g t h e m ) . A s t h e rhetoric o f t h e p a s s a g e u n f o l d s , t h e origin o f w i s d o m is h i g h l i g h t e d as c o m i n g d o w n ' f r o m a b o v e ' , that is, from G o d , a n d t h u s t h e o n l y real w i s d o m . T h e 8E i n 3 . 1 7 s i g n a l s a contrast w i t h w h a t h a s c o m e b e f o r e , n a m e l y that w i s d o m ' f r o m a b o v e ' is set a g a i n s t ' e a r t h l y ' w i s d o m b o t h w i t h r e s p e c t t o its o r i g i n a n d its effect. A g a i n , the r h e t o ric r e v e a l s t h e a u t h o r ' s v i e w that ' e a r t h l y ' w i s d o m is really s u c h b y n a m e only, a n d that t h e w i s d o m c o m i n g d o w n from a b o v e , that is from G o d , is t h e o n l y real w i s d o m b y w h i c h o n e m a y d e m o n s t r a t e h e is ' w i s e a n d u n d e r s t a n d i n g ' ( 3 . 1 3 ) . T h e first characteristic o f ' w i s d o m from a b o v e ' is that it is ' p u r e ' ( a y v r j ) . Here, a y v o s

d e n o t e s that ' w i s d o m from a b o v e ' is

free

from

theological

contamination (which 'the world' conveys to J a m e s ' readers, 1 . 2 7 , 3 . 6 ) and, therefore, entails total sincerity or a l l e g i a n c e t o G o d . T h i s is v e r y m u c h like t h e central n o t i o n o f w h o l e h e a r t e d , u n d i v i d e d c o m m i t m e n t t o G o d c o n v e y e d b y t h e central i d e a o f ' p e r f e c t i o n ' (TEAEIOS) i n t r o d u c e d in 1 . 2 - 4 .

3 1

Hartin suggests:

This pure wisdom is such that it has come down from above (3:17) as opposed to the wisdom from the earth, which is 'demonic* (3:15). This provides the backdrop to the search for wholeness and purity: it comes from having access to God, from being in a wholehearted relationship with God. 32

O n o n e level this spatial d u a l i s m , ' f r o m a b o v e ' o v e r a g a i n s t ' e a r t h l y ' r e v e a l s an important region of J a m e s ' cosmological m a p of the universe. That which c o m e s ' f r o m a b o v e ' is implicitly related t o G o d a n d t h u s p u r e . J o h n Elliott notes: This distinction between divine wisdom 'from above' and devilish wisdom 'from below' is significant conceptually and socially. Conceptually, this distinction between above and below demarcates and contrasts two distinct and opposing realms of the cosmos in terms of a spatial perspective. Accordingly, for James, space rather than time, as in other Christian writings, becomes the dominant perspective for viewing issues of human allegiance, good and evil, purity and impurity. 33

31. Both Cheung (Hermeneutics of James, p. 143) and P. Hartin, A Spirituality of Perfection: Faith in Action in the Letter of James (Collegeville: Liturgical Press, 1999), p. 72 n. 34 make this connection independently of one another. 32. Patrick Hartin, James (Collegeville: Liturgical Press, 2003), p. 74. 33. Elliott, 'Holiness-Wholeness', p. 77 (emphasis original).

152

Cosmology

and New Testament

Theology

Unfortunately Elliott o n l y sees t h e c o n c e p t u a l a n d social significance o f this c o n trast. W i t h o u t a d o u b t t h e s e r e a l m s o f c o s m o s , w h i l e c o n v e y e d in spatial t e r m s , are indicative o f h o w J a m e s charts t h e o l o g i c a l reality a s a w h o l e . F u r t h e r m o r e , Elliott p o s i t s t o o s h a r p a distinction b e t w e e n s p a c e a n d t i m e in J a m e s . T h o u g h largely implicit, J a m e s indicates a full e x p e c t a t i o n that t h e spatial distinction b e t w e e n w i s d o m ' f r o m a b o v e ' a n d ' e a r t h l y ' w i s d o m is u l t i m a t e l y related to the t e m p o r a l c o n s u m m a t i o n o f ' p e r f e c t i o n ' (1.4) in h i s r e a d e r s in t h e eschatological future. C l e a r l y t h e patient w a i t i n g for t h e ' c o m i n g o f t h e L o r d ' (5.7) a n d its i n c u m b e n t future e x p e c t a t i o n o f restoration casts d o u b t o n s u c h a s h a r p s p a c e / 34

t i m e d i s t i n c t i o n . W h a t is u l t i m a t e l y b e h i n d t h e contrast b e t w e e n the t w o k i n d s o f w i s d o m in their c o s m o l o g i c a l orientation is a theological contrast b e t w e e n G o d a n d the w o r l d / d e v i l , w i t h their r e s p e c t i v e s y s t e m s o f v a l u e s . A n d s u c h a contrast rhetorically p u s h e s t h e r e a d e r s to m a k e a c h o i c e t o w h i c h s y s t e m they will align t h e m s e l v e s . F u r t h e r m o r e , w i s d o m ' f r o m a b o v e ' (avcoBsv) is v i e w e d a s a n i n s t r u m e n t originating c o s m o l o g i c a l l y (spatially) a n d theologically from G o d . T h e o n e lacking w i s d o m is to a s k from G o d in faith (1.5), a n d this w i s d o m certainly is the ' g o o d e n d o w m e n t a n d e v e r y perfect gift' that c o m e s ' f r o m a b o v e ' (avcoBsv) (1.17). T h e s e g o o d a n d perfect gifts c o m e d o w n ' f r o m t h e F a t h e r o f l i g h t s ' , a n o t h e r indication o f J a m e s ' c o s m i c cartography. W h e r e a s J a m e s d e s c r i b e s G o d in characteristically J e w i s h t e r m s , referring t o t h e classic articulation o f J e w i s h m o n o t h e i s m t h e Shema ( 2 . 1 9 ; 4 . 1 2 e l s SOTIV [6] VOMO8£TT)S Kai KpiTT|s, 4 . 1 2 ) , J a m e s a l s o refers to G o d in t h e b r o a d e r s e n s e o f creator o f all, n a m e l y a s ' F a t h e r o f l i g h t s ' . T h i s description o f G o d is r a r e a n d m o s t likely refers t o t h e fact that G o d c r e a t e d t h e l u m i n a r i e s ( G e n . 1.14-19, n o t e especially that h e r e t h e s u n a n d m o o n , r a t h e r t h a n called b y n a m e , a r e c a l l e d the ' t w o great l i g h t s ' ) . A n d it is b y m e a n s o f G o d ' s c r e a t i o n a n d c o n t r o l o f t h e l u m i n a r i e s that h i s s o v e r e i g n p o w e r is clearly d e m o n s t r a t e d (T. Abr. 7.6; C D 5 . 1 7 - 1 8 ) .

35

James makes another

allusion to G o d a s C r e a t o r in ch. 3 . T h o s e c r e a t e d b y G o d are n o t to b l e s s ' t h e L o r d a n d F a t h e r ' o n l y to t u r n a n d c u r s e others w h o h a v e b e e n c r e a t e d in the likeness o f G o d ( 3 9 ; cf. t h e implicit allusion to G e n . 1.26-28). T h u s J a m e s clearly c o n c e i v e s G o d a s b o t h L a w g i v e r ( 2 . 1 9 ; 4 . 1 2 ) a n d C r e a t o r ( 1 . 1 7 ; 3.9). O b s e r v i n g this description o f G o d , t h e c o s m o l o g i c a l a n d t h e o l o g i c a l i m p l i cations o f 1.17 m a y b e p r o b e d further still. I n 1.17 J a m e s contrasts t h e character o f G o d w i t h t h e l u m i n a r i e s : t h e ' F a t h e r o f lights w i t h w h o m there is n o varia tion o r s h a d o w d u e t o c h a n g e ' . T h e p h r a s e ' w i t h w h o m t h e r e is n o ' ( n a p ' GO OUK EVI) implicitly sets o u t a s h a r p contrast b e t w e e n creator ( ' F a t h e r o f l i g h t s ' ) a n d c r e a t e d t h i n g s (the l u m i n a r i e s ) . T h e r e is n e i t h e r ' v a r i a t i o n ' (TrapaAAayTJ)

34. See for example the work of Todd Penner, who argues that the epistolary opening and closing of James points to an eschatological horizon for the wisdom instruction of the text (The Epistle ofJames and Eschatology [JSNTSup 121; Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1996]). 35. Martin, James, p. 38.

9.

James

153

n o r ' s h a d o w d u e to c h a n g e ' (TpoTrfjs aTroaKiaoua) - b o t h characteristic o f t h e h e a v e n l y l u m i n a r i e s - t o b e found in t h e ' F a t h e r o f l i g h t s ' . T h e p h r a s e h a s l o n g p r o v e n difficult t o establish, for e a c h G r e e k t e r m is a hapax legomenon

in the

N e w Testament. T h e n o u n TTapaAAayri o n l y a p p e a r s h e r e a n d in LXX 2 K g s 9.20 w h e r e it r e n d e r s t h e H e b r e w flUaE

o r ' m a d n e s s ' . T h o u g h TTapaAAayri

is rarely u s e d a s a technical astrological t e r m , TponT) ( ' p r o c e s s o f t u r n i n g ' o r ' c h a n g e ' ) c a n d e s c r i b e a ' s o l s t i c e ' (Plato, Laws 7 6 7 C ; W i s . 7.18) o r t h e general m o v e m e n t s o f h e a v e n l y b o d i e s (Plato, Timon 3 9 d ; Aristotle, Historia

Animalia

5, 9 ) . A T r o a K i a o u a ( o r t h e genitive form aTToaiaaauccTOs p r e s e r v e d in t h e m a r g i n o f X a n d in B ) literally refers t o a ' s h a d o w ' c a u s e d b y s o m e object w h i c h b l o c k s t h e s u n ' s rays. J o h n s o n n o t e s that, t h o u g h there a r e several p o s s i b l e variations o f this p h r a s e ,

36

t h e basic m e a n i n g is quite clear: ' T h e text o p p o s e s

t h e steadfastness o f G o d t o t h e c h a n g e a b l e n e s s o f creation, exemplified b y t h e heavenly bodies'.

37

T h o u g h s o m e w o u l d p r o c e e d t o a r g u e that s u c h l a n g u a g e

b e t r a y s J a m e s ' Hellenistic leanings t o w a r d d e s c r i b i n g G o d a s ' u n c h a n g e a b l e ' (the n o t i o n o f cxTpsTrros) this contrast n e e d n o t lead in t h e direction o f G r e e k thought - namely ontological immutability.

38

H e r e J a m e s m a r k s t h e vacillation

o f t h e c r e a t e d order, especially t h e l u m i n a r i e s , in contrast t o G o d ' s steadfastness (1.17) a n d singularity ( G o d is ' s i n g l e ' 1.5). G o d , a s creator o f t h e l u m i n a r i e s , exists in t h e h i g h e s t h e a v e n l y s p h e r e a n d r e m a i n s constant in contrast t o t h e m o v e m e n t o f t h e c r e a t e d lights. T h e ' s i m p l i c i t y ' o f G o d , h i s u n c h a n g e a b l e n e s s or better steadfastness, is a characteristic o f his 'perfection' o r w h o l e n e s s (holi n e s s ) - a characteristic J a m e s ' readers a r e t o strive for o v e r against duplicity o r vacillation ( s e e 1.2-4 a s setting t h e t h e m e for t h e entire letter). N o t o n l y h a s G o d c r e a t e d t h e l u m i n a r i e s b u t h e ' g a v e u s birth b y t h e w o r d o f truth, s o that w e w o u l d b e c o m e a k i n d o f first S u i t s o f his creatures (KTiapccTcov)' (1.18). S o m e h a v e a r g u e d that t h e birth i m a g e r y h e r e o n l y refers t o G o d ' s creation o f h u m a n b e i n g s - a n d t h u s specifically n o t t o r e d e m p t i o n .

39

Yet if,

a s D o n a l d Verseput h a s argued, t h e ' F a t h e r o f l i g h t s ' l a n g u a g e in fact reflects t h e J e w i s h m o r n i n g prayer, w h i c h m o v e s from a c k n o w l e d g i n g G o d a s creator (literally a s ' F a t h e r o f l i g h t s ' ) directly t o a c k n o w l e d g i n g h i m a s r e d e e m e r , then

27

36. There are six different readings of the phrase noted in the Nestle-Aland apparatus. Dibel ius (James, p. 102) offers the conjecture: TrapaXXayrj T p o n % fj aTTOOKiaauaTOs ('alteration of change or shadow'). 37. Johnson, Letter of James, p. 197. 38. See the discussion in D. J. Verseput, 'James 1.17 and the Jewish Morning Prayers', NovT (1997), 177-91. Here he suggests that the image here refers to the unwavering character of God's faithfulnessratherthan an ontological immutability. 39. Jackson-McCabe ('The Messiah Jesus', p. 712, n. 44) argues that '...the description of those so "born" as "a sort of first fruits of [God's] creatures" ... can be understood quite well in light of the Stoic notion of humanity's elevated place in the order of creation due to its endow ment with logos'. Indeed Philo uses the Greek verb 6:ITOKUECO in the sense of God's creation of humanity (Philo, On Drunkenness 30). Also see the discussion in Moo (Letter of James, p. 79).

154

Cosmology

and New Testament

Theology

t h e 'first fruits o f c r e a t i o n ' in 1.18 s h o u l d rather b e v i e w e d a s a r e f e r e n c e to r e d e m p t i o n . T h u s M o o helpfully c o n c l u d e s : ' t h e l a n g u a g e J a m e s u s e s in t h e v e r s e , w h i l e c a p a b l e o f a g e n e r a l " c o s m o l o g i c a l " application, is m o r e likely to b e r e a d in a soteriological l i g h t ' .

40

T h e creational m o t i f (KTIOMOCTCOV) indicates

n o t o n l y that G o d c r e a t e d h u m a n i t y b u t that creation is in n e e d o f r e d e m p t i o n . L u k e C h e u n g correctly a s s e r t s : ' . . . t h e creation m o t i f h a s b e e n a p p l i e d to a t i m e o f n e w creation in t h e O T a n d t h e entire c r e a t i o n . . . is in n e e d o f r e d e m p t i o n . Christians are seen as t h e firstfruit [sic] in t h e c o s m i c r e d e m p t i o n ' .

41

Though

C h e u n g d o e s n o t p u r s u e t h e e s c h a t o l o g i c a l implications o f his statement, it is clear i n light o f J a s . 5.7-11 that r e a d e r s are to e n d u r e p r e s e n t c i r c u m s t a n c e s in light o f future h o p e o f r e s t o r a t i o n - t h e first fruits o f w h i c h m a y b e seen in p r e s e n t r e d e m p t i o n (1.18).

3 . Gehenna

and the Terrestrial

Sphere

H a v i n g c o n s i d e r e d t h e ' e a r t h l y ' a n d h e a v e n l y ('from a b o v e ' ) , w e finally d e s c e n d to t h e d e p t h s in 3.6: ' A n d t h e t o n g u e is a fire. T h e t o n g u e is a n u n r i g h t e o u s w o r l d a m o n g o u r m e m b e r s , staining t h e w h o l e body, setting o n fire t h e c y c l e o f n a t u r e (TOV T p o x b v TTJS y s v e o e e o s ) , a n d set o n fire b y G e h e n n a (yesvvris)'. W e h a v e a l r e a d y c o n s i d e r e d t h e c o s m o l o g i c a l significance o f ' u n r i g h t e o u s w o r l d ' a b o v e . H e r e w e a s k further h o w ' t h e c y c l e o f n a t u r e ' a n d ' G e h e n n a ' (ysEvvrjs) fit into J a m e s ' view of the universe. R i c h a r d B a u c k h a m h a s m a d e a v e r y interesting a r g u m e n t that t h e text o f Jas. 3.6 s h o u l d b e c o r r e c t e d a c c o r d i n g to t h e Peshitta b y inserting uAr]

after

42

a S i K i c c s . B a u c k h a m t h e n translates 3.5-6: ' S e e h o w s m a l l a fire sets alight so large a forest [ w o o d ] ! T h e t o n g u e is a fire, the sinful w o r l d w o o d ' . G i v e n this r e c o n s t r u c t i o n h e c o n c l u d e s that t h e 'first s e n t e n c e states t h e i m a g e , w h i c h t h e s e c o n d interprets b y identifying t h e t w o e l e m e n t s in t h e allegory. T h e i m a g e is t h e n p i c k e d u p a g a i n in v e r s e 6 b ("setting o n fire t h e w h e e l o f e x i s t e n c e . . . " ) , w h e r e TOV Tpoxbv T % y e v e o e e o s is s y n o n y m o u s w i t h 6 KOO|JOS T % CCSIK'ICCS \

4 3

N o t i n g that it is o n l y a possibility, B a u c k h a m o b s e r v e s that J a m e s ' p h r a s e ' w h e e l o f e x i s t e n c e ' is strikingly similar to t h e Hellenistic p h r a s e ' t h e circle o f e x i s t e n c e ' ( b T p o x b s TX\S y s v e o e c o s ) , w h i c h w a s u s e d t o d e s c r i b e a traditional p u n i s h m e n t in t h e u n d e r w o r l d .

44

H e suggests that t h e o d d p h r a s e TOV T p o x b v

40. This is apparent especially in light of the redemptive context provided by the phrase 'by the word of truth'; see Moo, Letter ofJames, p. 79. 41. Cheung, Hermeneutics of James, p. 87 n. 1. 42. R. Bauckham, 'The Tongue Set on Fire by Hell [James 3.6]', in Fate of the Dead. Studies on the Jewish and Christian Apocalypses (NovTSup 93; Leiden: Brill, 1998), pp. 119-31 (119 n. 1); here he follows J. B. Adamson, The Epistle of James (NICNT; Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1976), pp. 158-9. 43. Bauckham, 'The Tongue Set on Fire by Hell', p. 119 n. 1. 44. In Hades Zeus bound Ixion to a wheel so that he would revolve around it for eternity

9.

James

155

xfjs yev'eoecos in 3.6 w a s selected b e c a u s e o f t h e p u n b e t w e e n yev'eoecos a n d yeevvrjs w h i c h t h e o l o g i c a l l y indicates that t h e p u n i s h m e n t ( G e h e n n a ) fits t h e c r i m e ( t h e entire ' l i f e ' affected b y t h e t o n g u e ) .

45

T h a t G e h e n n a is a fitting a n d v e r y real p l a c e o f p u n i s h m e n t s k e t c h e s a further c o s m o l o g i c a l feature o f J a m e s ' theological atlas. W h e r e a s 3.6 is often u n d e r s t o o d as i m p l y i n g that the defilement o f t h e t o n g u e d e r i v e s from t h e p o w e r s o f G e h e n n a , a n d therefore t h e d e v i l ,

46

this is unlikely. A g a i n , B a u c k h a m p o i n t s

out that G e h e n n a is n o t t h e location o f t h e devil or o f the forces o f evil in firstc e n t u r y J e w i s h o r C h r i s t i a n thought. Rather, h e asserts G e h e n n a is the place where the wicked are punished, either after the last judgment or... after death. Its angels, terrifying and cruel as they are, are servants of God, executing God's judgment on sin. They are not evil angels who rebel against and resist God. These evil angels, with Satan or the devil at their head, will at the end of history be sent to their doom in Gehenna, but they are not there yet. Rather, they inhabit the terrestrial area from the earth to the lowest heavenly sphere. (It is with this area that James associates them when he contrasts the wisdom mat comes from heaven with the false wisdom that is earthly [eiriyios] and demonic [SaiuovieoSrjs] [3.15].) 47

W i t h this u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f G e h e n n a it is clear w h y J a m e s contrasts w i s d o m ' f r o m a b o v e ' w i t h ' e a r t h l y ' w i s d o m , instead o f w i s d o m ' f r o m b e l o w ' . It is p r e c i s e l y t h e d e m o n i c p o w e r s at w o r k in t h e terrestrial s p h e r e that p r o d u c e a counterfeit w i s d o m that sets itself o v e r against w i s d o m ' f r o m a b o v e ' . H e r e J a m e s u s e s G e h e n n a a s t h e fitting location o f future p u n i s h m e n t d u e t o t h e t o n g u e ' s defilement w h i l e i m p l y i n g that d e m o n i c forces a r e currently at w o r k u p o n t h e earth specifically t h r o u g h counterfeit w i s d o m ( 3 . 1 4 - 1 6 ) .

4 . Conclusion:

Cosmology

and Theology

in

James

J a m e s charts t h e u n i v e r s e v i a t w o c o m p e t i n g w o r l d v i e w s , or s y s t e m s o f v a l u e , w h i c h o r d e r c o s m o l o g i c a l a n d theological order. T h e c o s m o s is bifurcated

(Pindar, Pythian Odes 2.20). Bauckham further notes that 'the philosopher Simplicius (writing c. 300 CE), refers to the myth and gives it an allegorical interpretation in terms of Orphic beliefs: the wheel, he says, is "the wheel of fate and becoming..." (In Aristot. de caelo comm. 2.168b). James may not have known this Orphic interpretation of the myth, but he could have been aware of the wheel as a punishment in hell depicted in Jewish apocalyptic descriptions, which had borrowed it, like various other infernal punishments, from the Greek Hades...' ('The Tongue Set on Fire by Hell\ p. 130). 45. Bauckham, 'The Tongue Set on Fire by Hell', p. 130. That the phrase 'cycle of nature', or 'wheel of existence' refers to 'life' see Dibelius, James, p. 198; Davids, James, p. 143. 46. See William R. Baker, Personal Speech-Ethics in the Epistle of James (WUNT 2/68; Tubingen: Mohr [Siebeck], 1995), p. 128: 'what is conveyed here is tht [sic] the person who does not control his tongue makes his tongue an agent for Satan's harmful designs on the individual and society'. 47. Bauckham, 'The Tongue Set on Fire by Hell', p. 120.

156

Cosmology

and New Testament

Theology

along the boundary between these two world views - one associated with ' G o d ' ( 1 . 2 7 ; 2 . 5 ; 4.4) a n d t h e o t h e r w i t h ' t h e w o r l d ' ( 1 . 2 7 ; 2 . 5 ; 3.6; 4 . 4 [ 2 x ] o r ;

' e a r t h l y ' 3.14-17). N o t o n l y are t h e s e s y s t e m s o f m e a s u r e set in opposition, b u t ' t h e w o r l d ' is e x p r e s s l y m a r k e d off a s c o n t a g i o u s territory - p o l l u t i n g g r o u n d (1.27). F u r t h e r m o r e , t h e a l l e g i a n c e o f J a m e s ' r e a d e r s is d e t e r m i n e d b y their cartographic location w i t h respect t o r e g i o n s o f ' t h e w o r l d ' or G o d - if o n e is a friend o f ' t h e w o r l d ' , a n d t h u s p l o t t e d w i t h i n defiled territory, t h e n h e is a n e n e m y o f G o d (4.4). R a t h e r t h a n b o u n d w i t h i n t h e ' e a r t h l y ' r e a l m , G o d is n o t o n l y a b o v e ' t h e world', but above the luminaries as well. A s 'Father of lights' he remains con sistent in contrast to t h e variations o f the h e a v e n l y o r b s a n d t h u s , i n h a b i t i n g t h e highest h e a v e n , is a faithful a n d steadfast s o u r c e o f g o o d gifts (1.17) a n d w i s d o m (1.5). B e c a u s e G o d is ' f r o m a b o v e ' , w i s d o m ' f r o m a b o v e ' (3.17) n e c essarily is h i s i n s t r u m e n t a l m e a n s o f r e n d e r i n g defiled r e a d e r s ' p u r e ' (3.17). It is within t h e c o s m o l o g i c a l s p h e r e o f the ' e a r t h l y ' , t h e a r e a from t h e g r o u n d t o t h e lowest h e a v e n l y r e a l m , that the battle b e t w e e n ' d e m o n i c ' ( 3 . 1 4 ) a n d h e a v e n l y w i s d o m is w a g e d - w h e r e the struggle takes o n t h e f o r m o f h u m a n s u b m i t ting (to G o d ) a n d resisting (the ' d e v i l ' ) (4.7). In this Epistle w e v i e w J a m e s ' textually constructed, theological g r i d as it m a p s o u t t h e w a y o f ' p e r f e c t i o n ' o r w h o l e n e s s (holiness) (1.2-4) for his r e a d e r s . A n d , as w e h a v e seen, this ' p e r f e c t i o n ' is ultimately e x p e c t e d in t h e future r e n e w a l r e a d e r s are to w a i t for w i t h e n d u r i n g h o p e (1.2-4 a n d 5.7-11). W i t h i n t h e lines o f this m a p t h e r e is at least o n e clear a n d practical w a r n i n g : t h e t o n g u e is t h e c o n d u i t t h r o u g h w h i c h t h e polluting w o r l d transmits duplicity, t h u s c o m p r o m i s i n g r e a d e r s ' p r e s e n t ' p e r f e c t i o n ' ( 1 . 2 7 ; 3.6) - a n d t h u s p e r h a p s future ' p e r f e c t i o n ' a s w e l l . J a m e s ' c o s m o l o g i c a l l a n g u a g e is l i n e - d r a w i n g l a n g u a g e - o r ' w o r l d v i e w ' l a n g u a g e - that r e n d e r s a m a p o f theological reality. R e a d e r s a r e t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e m s e l v e s a s p l o t t e d w i t h i n this theological construal o f t h e u n i v e r s e , a n d t h u s inscribed w i t h a n e w identity. It is clear, if r e a d e r s are m a p p e d in ' w o r l d l y ' t e r m s , a n i m a t e d b y ' e a r t h l y ' w i s d o m , t h e y are in d a n g e r o f theological defilement. A ' p e r f e c t ' relationship t o G o d clearly calls for separation from ' t h e w o r l d ' s ' defilement. Yet this separation from ' t h e w o r l d ' is n o t m e r e l y c o s m o l o g i c a l ; t h e c o s m o l o g y is integrated into a t h e o l o g i c a l u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e u n i v e r s e w h e r e individuals m u s t s t a n d free from t h e w o r l d v i e w o f ' t h e w o r l d ' in o r d e r to b e w h o l l y d e v o t e d to G o d - the line in t h e s a n d d r a w n b e t w e e n a friend o f G o d a n d a friend o f ' t h e w o r l d ' .

10 C O S M O L O G Y IN THE PETRINE LITERATURE A N D J U D E

John Dennis

This chapter will e x a m i n e passages in the Petrine literature a n d J u d e that e m p l o y explicit c o s m o l o g i c a l c o n c e p t s a n d terminology. C o s m o l o g y is u s e d h e r e to describe the w a y in w h i c h o u r literature speaks about the structure o f the c o s m o s , 1

or universe, as a meaningful place. B u t our authors are n o t c o n c e r n e d w i t h c o s m o l o g y as a n e n d in itself or for m e r e speculative purposes. Rather, c o s m o l o g y is dealt w i t h for the express p u r p o s e o f theology,

that is, in order to say s o m e

thing about G o d a n d particularly G o d ' s salvific w o r k in Christ. C o s m o l o g y is the c a n v a s , so to speak, o f Heilsgeschichte

(salvation history). T h e p r i m a r y goal,

then, o f this contribution will b e to investigate h o w c o s m o l o g y serves t h e a u t h o r s ' theological

a n d ethical purposes. S o m e o f the p a s s a g e s dealt w i t h are notoriously

difficult a n d w e d o not pretend to settle all the debated issues. Nevertheless, it is h o p e d that this study will p r o v i d e a clear, t h o u g h introductory, account o f the function o f c o s m o l o g y in the Petrine literature a n d Jude.

1 1. The Setting

of 1

Peter

Peter

T h e life-situation o f t h e recipients o f 1 P e t e r is o n e o f p e r s e c u t i o n a n d suffering. T h u s , P e t e r w r o t e to c o n s o l e ' t h o s e c a u g h t u p in s u c h a d v e r s e c i r c u m s t a n c e s ' M i d t o p r o v i d e ' p e r s p e c t i v e o n Christian life that will e n a b l e t h e c o m m u n i t y to s u r v i v e p e r s e c u t i o n s w i t h its faith i n t a c t ' .

2

O n e of the ways the author

a c c o m p l i s h e s this strategy is to relate h i s r e a d e r s ' lives t o the r e d e m p t i v e story b e g i n n i n g w i t h G o d a s creator ( 4 . 1 9 ) a n d h i s r e d e m p t i v e activity from b e f o r e creation (1.20) t o t h e c o n s u m m a t i o n (1.5). T h e r e f o r e t h e a u t h o r is n o t interested b y ' e x p l a i n i n g m e t a p h y s i c s , history, or c o s m o l o g y t o t h e m , b u t b y a d d r e s s i n g t h e m from w i t h i n this w o r l d , confirming t h e n e w w o r l d t h e y r e c e i v e d at their n e w birth, a n d b y d e e p e n i n g a n d w i d e n i n g their p e r c e p t i o n o f t h e n e w reality in

1. See R. A. Oden, 'Cosmogony, Cosmology', in ABD 1:1162. 2. P. J. Achtemeier, 1 Peter: A Commentary on First Peter (Hermeneia; Minneapolis: Fortress, 1996), p. 65. See also A. Schlatter, Petrus und Paulus nach dem Ersten Petrusbrief (Stuttgart: Calwer, 1937), p. 13.

158

Cosmology

and New Testament

Theology

3

w h i c h t h e y l i v e ' . T h u s , c o s m o l o g y is a m e a n s to a n e n d for Peter, t h e e n d b e i n g his r e a d e r s ' faithful o b e d i e n c e t o t h e G o s p e l e v e n in t h e c o n t e x t o f suffering a n d persecution. 2 . 1 Pet

1.20:

The Foundation

of the Cosmos

and the Last

Times

T h e l a r g e r c o n t e x t o f 1 P e t . 1.20, n a m e l y , w . 1 3 - 2 5 , c o n t i n u e s t h e a p o s t l e ' s p a r a e n e s i s to t h e s e b e l e a g u e r e d C h r i s t i a n s . H e e n c o u r a g e s t h e m t o 'fix y o u r h o p e c o m p l e t e l y ' o n t h e future g r a c e p r o m i s e d to t h e m at C h r i s t ' s p a r o u s i a (v. 13) a n d to b e t h e m s e l v e s h o l y in all their b e h a v i o u r , a c c o r d i n g to G o d ' s h o l i n e s s as their p a t t e r n (v. 15), r a t h e r t h a n b e i n g c o n f o r m e d to their f o r m e r desires in their i g n o r a n c e as n o n - b e l i e v e r s (v. 14). 1 Pet. 1.17 c o m m u n i c a t e s essentially the s a m e idea: t h e r e a d e r s a r e to ' c o n d u c t y o u r s e l v e s in fear

(or

reverence)

d u r i n g t h e t i m e o f y o u r p i l g r i m a g e ' . T h e section c o m p r i s i n g w . 18-21 s e r v e s as the g r o u n d for the m a i n c l a u s e o f v. 17 ( ' c o n d u c t y o u r s e l v e s . . . ' ) . T h u s , b e c a u s e t h e s e Christians h a v e firm c o n f i d e n c e that their r e d e m p t i o n (Xirrpoo)) w a s secured ' b y m e a n s o f t h e v a l u a b l e b l o o d (TLIILCO a i f i a T i ) ' o f C h r i s t (v. 19), t h e y s h o u l d c o n d u c t t h e m s e l v e s in r e v e r e n t fear t o w a r d G o d in t h e c o n t e x t o f their p r e s e n t p i l g r i m a g e in a hostile w o r l d (v. 17). Verses 2 0 a n d 2 1 t h e n spell out further a s p e c t s o f t h e p r e c e d i n g v e r s e s : f o l l o w i n g u p o n t h e m e n t i o n o f C h r i s t ' s b l o o d in v. 19, v. 2 0 further d e s c r i b e s C h r i s t a s t h e o n e w h o w a s ' f o r e k n o w n before t h e foundation o f t h e w o r l d ' . O u r p r i m a r y focus h e r e c o n c e r n s t h e m e a n i n g a n d function o f t h e o b v i o u s cosmological term

Koa|iog

in t h e p h r a s e

upb KcrrapoXfis

KOO\LOV

( ' f r o m the 4

foundation o f the w o r l d ' ) in v. 2 0 . T h e t e r m Koafios ( w o r l d , u n i v e r s e ) , u s e d 7 5

t i m e s in o u r literature, t a k e s o n t h e f o l l o w i n g three b a s i c m e a n i n g s in t h e N T : 6

(1) ' t h e s u m total o f e v e r y t h i n g h e r e a n d n o w ' , that is, t h e c r e a t e d u n i v e r s e ; (2) t h e a b o d e o f h u m a n i t y , o r t h e i n h a b i t e d w o r l d ; a n d (3) t h e r e a l m o f sin a n d 7

alienation from t h e C r e a t o r . In 1-2 P e t e r a n d J u d e , all t h r e e o f t h e s e senses are found. B u t , it m u s t b e k e p t in m i n d that significant o v e r l a p in m e a n i n g is inevitable. A l t h o u g h 1 Pet. 4.7 d o e s n o t e m p l o y t h e t e r m KGopd,

airroO eyev€To) and Acts 7.49-50 where the adjective Trdira refers to 'all things' created by God including 'heaven and earth'. 9. R. Bauckham, Jude, 2 Peter (WBC 50; Waco: Word, 1983), p. 250. 10. Ibid. Meaning (2) (cosmos as the inhabited world) is clearly found in 1 Pet. 5.9: 'your brethren who are in the world'. BDAG, p. 561, categorizes 1 Pet. 5.9 under the definition 'world as the habitation of humanity'. 11. J. N. D. Kelly, A Commentary on the Epistles of Peter and of Jude (BNTC; London: A & C Black, 1969), p. 332; and particularly E. Adams, The Stars will Fall From Heaven: Cosmic Catastrophe in the New Testament and its World (LNTS 347; London: T&T Clark, 2007), pp. 214-16. 12. Bauckham, Jttdfe, 2 Peter, p. 250. 13. SeeAchtemeier, I Peter, p. 294. 14. The translation here is Bauckham's from his Jude, 2 Peter, p. 182. 15. Bauckham's translation of emOuuia in 2 Pet 1.4 as 'sinful desire' is wholly justified. The term's basic sense is 'desire for something forbidden or simply inordinate, craving, lust' (BDAG, p. 372). In our literature it is used in the follow ways: 1 Pet 1.14; 2.11 (lusts of the flesh); 4.2 (human desires and will of God contrasted); 4.3; here; 2 Pet. 2.10; 2.18 (desires of the flesh); 3.3; Jude 16,18 (ungodly lusts).

Cosmology

160

and New Testament

Theology

16

1.4). B u t a g a i n a m e s s a g e o f eschatological h o p e is p r e s e n t i n t h e s e p a s s a g e s . B e l i e v e r s h a v e ' e s c a p e d ' (dTro0opd) a n d 'defile m e n t s ' ( p i a a p a ) o f a n d in this w o r l d ( 1 . 4 ; 2.20). B e c a u s e o f G o d ' s 'magnificent p r o m i s e s ' (1.4) a n d ' i n a c c o r d a n c e ' w i t h t h e m , believers in this p r e s e n t w o r l d ' w a i t for n e w h e a v e n s a n d a n e w e a r t h ' (3.13), or, t h e ' e s c h a t o l o g i c a l gift o f a0opoia ("imperishability", 1 Pet. 1 . 4 , 1 8 , 2 3 ) ' .

1 7

R e t u r n i n g t o 1 Pet. 1.20, t h e t e r m ' w o r l d ' falls u n d e r m e a n i n g (1) a n d refers to t h e c r e a t e d c o s m o s . T h e t e r m is u s e d in 1.20 in a prepositional p h r a s e ('before t h e foundation o f t h e w o r l d ' ) that e m p l o y s t h e n o u n KcrrapoXii ( ' f o u n d a t i o n ' ) a n d t h e p r e p o s i t i o n Trpo ( ' b e f o r e ' ) a n d a s such refers t o a t i m e ' b e f o r e ' o r ' p r i o r t o ' t h e creation o f all t h i n g s (cf. G e n . l . l ) .

1 8

O u r prepositional p h r a s e is u s e d

o n l y t w o o t h e r t i m e s in t h e N T : E p h . 1.4 s p e a k s o f G o d ' s election o f h i s p e o p l e in Christ ' b e f o r e t h e foundation o f t h e w o r l d ' a n d J n 17.24 s p e a k s o f the eternal love o f the F a t h e r for t h e S o n ' b e f o r e the foundation o f t h e w o r l d ' . In 1 Pet. 1.20 Christ is d e s c r i b e d w i t h a parallel p a i r o f participial p h r a s e s : (a)

(a) who was foreknown before the foundation of the world (b) who has appeared at the end of times

TRPOE-YVWCJP.EVOU TTPB KDTAPOAFJS VLOO\LOV

(b) 4>av€pa)0€VTO9 €7T' £OX&TOV T(3I>

xp&vuw

T h e p e r s o n o f Christ, a n d b y implication t h e r e d e m p t i o n t h r o u g h h i m ,

1 9

is

related to eternity p a s t and t h e e n d o f t h e a g e in w h i c h believers n o w live. G o d ' f o r e k n e w ' o r ' d e s t i n e d ' (TTpoyivuxjKco) Christ before t h e creation o f t h e world.

20

T h e s e C h r i s t i a n s ' r e d e e m e r a n d h i s r e d e m p t i o n therefore h a v e n o t h i n g

to d o w i t h the corruption a n d defilements o f this w o r l d ( 1 . 4 ; 2.20) b u t rather stand o u t s i d e its s p h e r e . A s B . R e i c k e

21

h a s p o i n t e d out, 1.20a c o r r e s p o n d s in

e s s e n c e to t h e t e a c h i n g o f 1.4: G o d r e s e r v e d a n d s e c u r e d b e l i e v e r s ' inheritance in h e a v e n for t h e m a n d in 1.20 G o d h a s ' d e s t i n e d ' Christ a n d his r e d e m p t i o n 'for y o u r s a k e ' before creation. G o d not only foreknew or destined Christ before creation, h e also c a u s e d h i m to b e r e v e a l e d ' a t t h e e n d o f t i m e s ' , that is, at t h e

16. Bauckham, Jude, 2Peter, p. 182; Balz, 'KOOUOS', EDNT2:3U. 17. Similarly, Bauckham, Jude, 2 Peter, p. 182. 18. The phrase, according to Balz, Voauos', EDNT2:311, means: the 'Cosmos has a begin ning that has been established by God'. 19. The two participles TTPOEYVAXJU.evoi; and (JxiveptoOevTos clearly describe XpiaToO and not God's 'plan' of redemption. But given that the redemption secured with Christ's blood (v. 19) and the fact that Christ 'has appeared at the end of times for your sake* (v. 20) suggest that Christ, along with the redemption he came to bring his people, was also 'foreknown before the founda tion of the world'. 20. Achtemeier's translation of TRPOEYVOXJUIVOU ITPB KCRRAPOXRIS K<XJU.OU captures well the intended sense: 'whose destiny was set before creation'. 21. Reicke, The Epistles ofJames, Peter and Jude (AB; Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1980), p. 86.

10. Petrine Literature

'the beginning of the end of

22

time'

andJude

161

in w h i c h b e l i e v e r s n o w live. S i n c e all o f

t h e s e o c c u r r e n c e s ( 1 . 2 0 a - b ) h a p p e n e d precisely for t h e s a k e o f G o d ' s p e o p l e ('for y o u r s a k e ' , v. 2 0 ) , t h e y h a v e t h e effect o f ' f o c u s i n g t h e w h o l e s w e e p o f history o n the r e a d e r s , a n d sets t h e m , exiles a n d aliens that t h e y a r e , at centre stage in t h e d r a m a o f s a l v a t i o n ' .

23

In addition, b e c a u s e t h e s e C h r i s t i a n s ' k n o w '

these things c o n c e r n i n g their r e d e e m e r a n d r e d e m p t i o n ( w . 18-21), they can, w i t h confidence, ' c o n d u c t t h e m s e l v e s in fear d u r i n g their p i l g r i m a g e ' (v. 17) in t h e s e 'last t i m e s ' .

3 . 1 Pet.

3.18-22

T h i s e x t r e m e l y difficult p a s s a g e is full o f exegetical minefields w h i c h w e shall 24

n o t b e able to d i s c u s s in detail in this c h a p t e r . W e will limit t h e f o c u s ily o n t h e references to t h e ' c o s m i c p o w e r s '

2 6

25

primar

in v. 19 ( ' t h e spirits in p r i s o n ' )

a n d in v. 2 2 ( ' a n g e l s a n d authorities a n d p o w e r s ' ) , all o f w h i c h relate t o the Jewish apocalyptic 'cosmic m y t h ' .

2 7

It is p r o b a b l y b e s t to t a k e t h e ' f o r ' (on) that b e g i n s v. 18 a s p r o v i d i n g t h e ' t h e o l o g i c a l b a s i s ' for t h e entire p r e c e d i n g section ( 3 . 1 2 - 1 7 ) ,

28

a section that

e n c o u r a g e s b e l i e v e r s to c o n t i n u e their ' g o o d b e h a v i o u r in C h r i s t ' (v. 16) e v e n as t h e y a r e b e i n g p e r s e c u t e d for it. In this w a y , t h e s e Christians c a n live lives that b e a r w i t n e s s t o their h o p e in Christ (v. 15). C h r i s t ' s u n i q u e d e a t h ( ' o n c e for a l l ' , cnra?) is p r e s e n t e d ' a s t h e objective g r o u n d a n d c a u s e o f s a l v a t i o n ' p r o v i d e s t h e s e C h r i s t i a n s w i t h confidence in their suffering

29

which

that C h r i s t ' s d e a t h

a n d r e s u r r e c t i o n a c c o m p l i s h e d their reconciliation t o G o d (it b r o u g h t t h e m ' t o G o d ' , v. 18) a n d v i c t o r y o v e r e v e r y o p p o s i n g p o w e r .

30

W e m u s t k e e p in m i n d

that this is t h e overall p o i n t o f 3.18-22. C h r i s t ' s o n c e for all suffering for sins in v. 18a is further d e s c r i b e d in v. 18b as C h r i s t ' h a v i n g b e e n p u t t o d e a t h in t h e flesh, b u t m a d e alive in t h e spirit'

22. L. Goppelt, A Commentary on I Peter (trans. J. E. Alsup; Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1993), p. 118. 23. Achtemeier, 1 Peter, p. 132. 24. On the extensive history of interpretation of w . 18-22, see particularly B. Reicke, The Dis obedient Spirits and Christian Baptism: A Study of 1 Peter iii.21 and Its Context (Copenhagen: Munksgaard, 1946), pp. 7-51; and W. J. Dalton, Christ's Proclamation to the Spirits: A Study of 1 Peter 3:18-4:6 (Rome: Pontificio Istituto Biblico, 1989), pp. 15-41. 25. In light of space restrictions exegetical conclusions will be mentioned for which I can provide (at best) limited support. 26. Designated as such by Goppelt, I Peter, p. 248. 27. Ibid., p. 251. 28. So Achtemeier, / Peter, p. 243; L. Thuren, Argument and Theology in 1 Peter. The Origin of Christian Paraenesis (JSNT 114; Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1999), p. 158; Kelly, Commentary, p. 146; Dalton, Proclamation, p. 158. 29. Dalton, Proclamation, p. 122. 30. Achtemeier, 1 Peter, p. 251.

162

Cosmology

and New Testament

Theology

( N A S B ) . T h e s e p h r a s e s refer to C h r i s t ' s d e a t h o n t h e c r o s s a n d his v i n d i c a tion b y r e s u r r e c t i o n respectively. T h e |±€v-8e c o n s t r u c t i o n that correlates t h e s e participles s u g g e s t s that t h e e m p h a s i s is p l a c e d o n t h e s e c o n d e l e m e n t ,

31

so that

C h r i s t ' s r e s u r r e c t i o n is t h e e m p h a s i s . T h e following t w o g r a m m a t i c a l / s y n t a c t i cal q u e s t i o n s that b e a r directly o n t h e m e a n i n g o f w . 19-20 are: w h a t is t h e s e n s e o f t h e d a t i v e c a s e o f t h e t w o n o u n s a a p i d /irvev[iari

(v. 18) a n d w h a t

d o e s ev <S (v. 19) refer to a n d m e a n ? T h e t w o n o u n s in t h e d a t i v e c a s e ( N A S B translation: ' i n t h e f l e s h ' / ' i n t h e s p i r i t ' ) h a v e b e e n u n d e r s t o o d in a n u m b e r o f w a y s , b u t p r o b a b l y the o n l y real o p t i o n s a r e t o c o n s t r u e t h e m a s either d a t i v e s o f reference/respect ( ' w i t h refer e n c e to t h e

32

flesh'),

sphere ('in the sphere of the S/spirit')

datives ('by the Spirit').

33

or as instrumental

34

If t h e c l a u s e £a>OTroir)9eis m>€U|iaTi is a reference t o C h r i s t ' s r e s u r r e c t i o n b y t h e a g e n c y o f t h e Spirit t h e n this s u g g e s t s that ev to (v. 19), w h o s e a n t e c e d e n t is t h e i m m e d i a t e l y p r e c e d i n g W€U(iaTL, s h o u l d l i k e w i s e b e u n d e r s t o o d instrumentally

35

a n d w i t h t h e f o l l o w i n g s e n s e : ' b y w h o m [the Spirit] h e w e n t a n d

p r o c l a i m e d to t h e spirits in p r i s o n ' .

36

In t h e e n d , a s M i c h a e l s o b s e r v e s , t h e r e is

n o t a great d e a l o f difference in t e r m s o f the overall s e n s e , s i n c e ' t h e w o r d s ev to Kai s e r v e to link Co)OTToir|6eig c l o s e l y t o t h e TropeuGeis eKT\pvêv that follows, m a k i n g C h r i s t ' s p r o c l a m a t i o n to t h e spirits a direct o u t c o m e o f h i s r e s u r r e c t i o n from t h e d e a d ' .

3 7

W h e r e did Christ ' g o ' , what did he 'proclaim', and to w h o m

d i d h e p r o c l a i m ? T h e s e a r e t h e i m p o r t a n t q u e s t i o n s that p e r t a i n t o w . 19-20. One of the dominant interpretations

38

t h r o u g h t h e c e n t u r i e s h a s b e e n to

a r g u e that C h r i s t p r o c l a i m e d t h e g o s p e l to t h e d e p a r t e d spirits (i.e., ' t h e spirits in p r i s o n ' , v. 19), that is, t h e u n b e l i e v i n g c o n t e m p o r a r i e s o f N o a h , w h o w e r e p r e s e r v e d in a p l a c e o f p u n i s h m e n t after their d e a t h .

39

T h e r e f e r e n c e in 1 Pet.

4.6 to t h e g o s p e l b e i n g p r e a c h e d to ' t h e d e a d ' is often u s e d to s u p p o r t this

31. See D. Blass and R. W. Funk, A Greek Grammar of the New Testament and Other Early Christian Literature (Chicago/London: University of Chicago Press, 2000), §447; BDAG, p. 629; Dalton, Proclamation, p. 137. 32. J. R. Michaels, 1 Peter (Waco: Word, 1988), p. 205. 33. Kelly, Commentary, p. 151. 34. Achtemeier, / Peter, p. 250; J. S. Feinberg, '1 Peter 3:18-20, Ancient Mythology, and the Intermediate State', WTJ 48 (1986), 303-36 (335); R. T. France, 'Exegesis in Practice: Two Examples', in I. H. Marshall, ed., New Testament Interpretation: Essays on Principles and Methods (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1977), p. 267. 35. Reicke, Disobedient Spirits, pp. 103-15 and Michaels, I Peter, p. 205. 36. Achtemeier, 1 Peter, pp. 252-3. Similarly, Goppelt, I Peter, p. 254, n. 28. 37. Michaels, 1 Peter, pp. 205-6. 38. See the excellent summary of the history of research on 1 Pet. 3.19-20 in Feinberg,' 1 Peter 3:18-20', pp. 309-12. 39. So F. W. Beare, The First Epistle of Peter: The Greek Text with Introduction and Notes (Oxford: Blackwell, 1970), p. 172; and Goppelt, I Peter, p. 259. The main thrust of this view was also held by Augustine.

10. Petrine

interpretation.

40

Literature

and

Jude

163

H o w e v e r , t h e interpretation that is far m o r e likely argues that

the ' s p i r i t s ' o f 1 Pet. 3.19 are t h e fallen a n g e l s identified w i t h story o f G e n . 6.1-4 in J e w i s h (particularly 1 Enoch 6 - 1 6 ) a n d C h r i s t i a n tradition (2 Pet. 2.4-5 and Jude 5-7).

4 1

T h e full s t o r y a p p e a r s in 1 Enoch

6-16,

4 2

a second-century

BCE J e w i s h a p o c a l y p t i c text. It is i m p o r t a n t to n o t e that in m o s t i n s t a n c e s o f this e x p a n d e d J e w i s h s a g a a b o u t fallen angels/spirits, t h e flood story (follow i n g G e n . 6.1-6) features as a n integral part, j u s t as it d o e s in 1 Pet. 3 . 1 9 - 2 0 . F o l l o w i n g t h e full a c c o u n t in 1 Enoch

6 - 3 6 , t h e story c a n b e s u m m a r i z e d

as follows. (1) T h e a n g e l i c ' W a t c h e r s ' left their G o d - g i v e n p r o p e r a b o d e as 'spiritual b e i n g s ' , that is, h e a v e n (7 En. 15.4-7) a n d t h e y r e b e l l e d against their p r o p e r function a s h e a v e n l y b e i n g s (7 Enoch 2 - 5 ) in o r d e r t o m a t e w i t h h u m a n w o m e n . A s a result, t h e W a t c h e r s b e g e t ' g i a n t s ' a n d e n g e n d e r all m a n n e r o f corrupt, sinful, a n d f o r b i d d e n acts a m o n g h u m a n b e i n g s . T h e offspring o f t h e u n i o n o f t h e W a t c h e r s a n d t h e w o m e n a r e identified w i t h ' e v i l spirits u p o n t h e e a r t h ' (7 En. 15.8-12). (2) T h e W a t c h e r s are p u n i s h e d b y b e i n g p u t a w a y in a h o l d i n g p l a c e until their eternal p u n i s h m e n t o n t h e final j u d g e m e n t d a y (cf. 7 En. 10.6-12). T h i s ' h o l d i n g p l a c e ' is v a r i o u s l y d e s c r i b e d as a ' h o l e in t h e d e s e r t ' (7 En. 10.4-6), ' u n d e r n e a t h t h e r o c k s o f t h e e a r t h ' or ' i n s i d e t h e e a r t h ' ( 1 0 . 1 2 ; cf. Jub. 5.6; 14.5), ' i n c h a i n s ' in t h e s e v e n t h h e a v e n (2 Enoch 7 ) , or as a ' p r i s o n h o u s e o f t h e a n g e l s ' (7 En. 18.21) w h e r e t h e earth a n d h e a v e n s c o m e together, ' t h e u l t i m a t e e n d o f h e a v e n a n d e a r t h ' (7 En. 18.11-16). A p a r t

from

t h e clear parallels b e t w e e n t h e story o f t h e W a t c h e r s in t h e s e J e w i s h texts a n d 1 P e t e r 3 , it is a l s o striking to n o t e that t h e N o a h a n d t h e flood story is a l m o s t 43

a l w a y s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h this s t r a n g e story o f t h e W a t c h e r s , j u s t as t h e N o a h a n d t h e flood story is a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e 'spirits in p r i s o n ' in 1 Pet. 3 . 1 9 - 2 0 . It is therefore m o s t likely that t h i s a p o c a l y p t i c s a g a s t a n d s b e h i n d 1 Pet. 3 . 1 9 - 2 0 (as it explicitly d o e s in J u d e 5 - 7 a n d 2 Pet. 2.4-5). W i t h this c o n c l u s i o n in m i n d , w h e r e is t h e ' p r i s o n '

(uXaKTJ)

in w h i c h t h e

' s p i r i t s ' a r e l o c a t e d a n d w h e r e d i d t h e r i s e n C h r i s t ' g o ' (Trop€UO|iai) in o r d e r t o p r o c l a i m a m e s s a g e to t h e m ? T h e r e is g o o d e v i d e n c e that t h e participle

40. We will not specifically deal with 1 Pet. 4.6. But, suffice it to say that 4.6 uses the term 'dead' not 'spirits' (3.19) and the verb 'preach the gospel' (etjayyeXiCo)), not the general term 'proclaim' (icnptiooa)). 1 Pet. 4.6 concerns the Christians who have died, not the 'spirits' of the unbelieving dead. See Achtemeier, 1 Peter, pp. 286-91 and France, 'Exegesis', p. 269. 41. This is now the dominant interpretation. E.g., Achtemeier, 1 Peter, p. 256; N. Brox, Der erste Petrusbrief(Zurich: Benziger, 2nd edn, 1979), p. 172; Michaels, 1 Peter, pp. 207-9; France, 'Exegesis', pp. 264-81; Kelly, Commentary, pp. 153-4. 42. The story is also referred to in the mid-second-century BCE book of Jubilees 5, Josephus' J W. 1.73-74 and the late first-century CE 2 Baruch 56. All translations for the pseudepigraphical literature here and below are from Charlesworth's Old Testament Pseudepigrapha (2 vols.; New York: Doubleday, 1983,1985). 43. For example, in Josephus, J W. 1.73-74 we find a clear association between the stories of the Watchers, the 'sons of God' of Genesis 6, and Noah and the flood. See also T. Naph. 3.4-5.

Cosmology

164

TTopeuOetg ( ' w e n t ' ) ,

and New Testament

Theology

f o u n d in t h e s t a t e m e n t that Christ ' w e n t a n d p r o c l a i m e d ' 44

(v. 19), refers t o h i s a s c e n s i o n , j u s t as it d o e s in v. 2 2 : ' H e is at t h e right h a n d o f G o d , after h a v i n g g o n e (TropeuGeis) into h e a v e n . . . ' T h e v e r b Tropeuopcu is, after all, t h e v e r b that n o r m a l l y d e s c r i b e s C h r i s t ' s a s c e n s i o n ( o r h i s ' g o i n g ' ) t o h e a v e n in t h e N T .

4 5

W h e r e h e w e n t , o r w h e r e t h e p r i s o n w a s l o c a t e d in P e t e r ' s

m i n d , is n o t at all clear. F o l l o w i n g o n from interpreting Tropeuopai ( ' C h r i s t w e n t ' ) a s C h r i s t ' s a s c e n s i o n , D a l t o n a r g u e s that t h e p r i s o n w a s s o m e w h e r e in 46

t h e h e a v e n s , as it is in 2 En. 7 . 1 - 3 . C h r i s t t h e n p r o c l a i m e d t o t h e s e d i s o b e d i e n t angelic spirits in the context o f his ascension. T h i s m a y w e l l b e t h e case. B u t in light o f t h e v a r i o u s locations o f t h e p r i s o n in t h e a p o c a l y p t i c texts n o t e d a b o v e , t h e ' p l a c e ' u l t i m a t e l y e l u d e s u s . N e v e r t h e l e s s , that t h e r e w a s s u c h a p r i s o n for evil s p i r i t s

47

' i s a s s u m e d in t h e N T a n d J e w i s h t r a d i t i o n ' .

48

W h a t d i d C h r i s t ' p r o c l a i m ' (icnpuaaa)) t o t h e spirits, s a l v a t i o n o r c o n d e m n a t i o n ? T h e v e r b KT)puaoa) c a n b e u s e d o f p r e a c h i n g t h e g o s p e l ,

49

b u t in e v e r y

s u c h c a s e , t h e object o f t h e v e r b is t h e n o u n ' g o s p e l ' ( e u a y y e X i o v ) . In 1 Pet. 3.19 t h e v e r b is u s e d w i t h o u t a n explicit object a n d t h u s t h e ' m e s s a g e ' o f t h e p r o c l a m a t i o n is n o t specifically stated. T h a t t h e m e s s a g e o f t h e p r o c l a m a t i o n is n e g a t i v e is s u g g e s t e d b y t h e f o l l o w i n g e v i d e n c e : (1) as D a l t o n p o i n t s o u t ,

50

2 Pet. 2.5 d e s c r i b e s N o a h a s a ' p r e a c h e r ' (»Ti). I n t h e s a m e c o n t e x t ' m u r k y T a r t a r u s ' is clearly s y n o n y m o u s w i t h t h e ' g l o o m y c h a s m '

63. See the second-century CE Christian work known as Sib. Or. 2:229-240 in which those who have been locked in 'Hades', namely, the 'ancient phantoms, Titans and the Giants and such as the Flood destroyed' will be led to thefinaljudgement seat of God and Christ. 64. See also Sib. Or. 4.185 where we find another Hellenistic Jewish author associating the place of the final punishment of sinners as being under the earth, Tartarus, and Gehenna. 65. A. V6gtle, Der Judasbrief /Der 2. Petrusbrief (Neukirchen-Vluyn: Neukirchener Verlag, 1994), p. 190. 66. Similarly Kelly, Commentary, p. 331; D. J. Moo, 2 Peter, Jude (The NTV Application Commentary; Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1996), p. 103. 67. Cf.IEn. 13.1; 10.4-6; 14.5; 54.3-5; 56.1-4; 88.1; see also Jub. 5.6 and 2 Bar. 56.13. 68. The term is found five times in the New Testament: 2 Pet. 2.4, 17; Jude 6, 13; and Heb. 12.18. 69. Cf. Homer, Odyssey 11.54-7; 20.356; Iliad 15.191; 21.56. Cf. BDAG, p. 429. Cf. Bauck ham, Jude, 2 Peter, p. 53. 70. Theogony 721; 736; 807. 71. Theogony 729. See also Theogony 650 where 'under the murky gloom' (irrrb Cfyov TT€p6evTos) is clearly describing the same reality as 'murky Tartarus'.

Cosmology

168

and New Testament

Theology

( x d e o s £o€poio), t h e p l a c e w h e r e the Titans a r e a s s i g n e d (Theogony

807-814).

I w o u l d therefore s u g g e s t that a l t h o u g h 2 P e t e r m a k e s explicit reference t o t h e t w o t e r m s t h a t refer t o t h e m y t h i c a l s u b t e r r a n e a n a b y s s , £64)09 a n d Tartarus (2.4), J u d e l i k e w i s e refers t o t h e s a m e reality b u t b y m e a n s o f o n l y o n e o f the t e r m s , £6os. I n s o d o i n g , b o t h a u t h o r s d e s c r i b e t h e J e w i s h c o n c e p t o f the a b y s m a l ' d a r k n e s s ' o r ' p r i s o n ' (cf. 1 Enoch

10; 1 P e t . 3.19) in w h i c h t h e evil

a n g e l s a r e b o u n d b y m e a n s o f t h e t e r m s £6os. T h e k e y v e r s e s in 1 Enoch 10 r e a d a s follows: The Lord said to Raphael, 'Bind Azaz'el hand and foot (and) throw him into dark ness!'And he made a hole in the desert which was in Duda'el and cast him there; he threw on top of him rugged and sharp rocks. And he covered his face that he may not see light; and in order that he may be sent into the fire on the great day of judgement (w. 4-6). This temporary holding place should probably b e equated with Hades, the place o f the dead,

72

r a t h e r t h a n G e h e n n a s i n c e H a d e s w a s directly a s s o c i a t e d

w i t h Tartarus i n J e w i s h a n d e a r l y C h r i s t i a n tradition (LXX E z e k . 3 2 . 2 7 ; P h i l o , Rewards,

1 5 1 ; Sib. Or. 2 . 2 2 9 - 2 4 0 ) . G e h e n n a o n t h e o t h e r h a n d a p p e a r s t o s t a n d

for t h e final p l a c e o f e t e r n a l fiery j u d g e m e n t ,

73

that i s , t h e ' p l a c e ' w h e r e evil

creatures c o n g r e g a t e after t h e final j u d g e m e n t . I n light o f t h e s e c o n n e c t i o n s , t h e reality d e s c r i b e d b y Cocôs a n d Tartarus m a y b e e q u a t e d w i t h t h e ' a b y s s ' a n d ' p r i s o n ' i n w h i c h t h e d e v i l is ' t h r o w n ' a n d ' b o u n d ' until t h e final fiery d e s t r u c 74

tion i n R e v . 2 0 . 1 - 1 0 . M o o ' s c o n c l u s i o n i s therefore w a r r a n t e d : ' T a r t a r u s [and I w o u l d a d d £6<J>09]... a p p e a r s n o t s o m u c h t o r e p r e s e n t a p l a c e o f final o r e n d l e s s p u n i s h m e n t (as o u r " h e l l " often d o e s ) , b u t t h e limitation o n s p h e r e o f influence that G o d i m p o s e d o n t h e a n g e l s w h o f e l l ' .

2. Slandering

the Glorious

75

Ones: Jude 8 and 2 Pet. 2.10b

In b o t h 2 P e t e r a n d J u d e t h e false t e a c h e r s a r e a c c u s e d o f ' i n s u l t i n g / s l a n d e r i n g 76

( p X a o ^ n p e a ) ) t h e g l o r i o u s o n e s ' ( 2 Pet. 2 . 1 0 b ; J u d e 8). M o s t interpreters a g r e e that t h e t e r m S o f a s ( ' g l o r i o u s o n e s ' ) refer t o a n g e l s , b u t i n J u d e t h e y are g o o d a n g e l s a n d in 2 P e t e r t h e y are e v i l .

77

I n J u d e , the t w o ' e x a m p l e s ' (8eXypa, v. 7)

in v. 6 a n d v. 7 ( t h e a n g e l i c W a t c h e r s a n d S o d o m a n d G o m o r r a h ) a r e enlisted t o s h o w that s u c h sins w i l l b e e s c h a t o l o g i c a l l y p u n i s h e d b y G o d . T h e sins o f immorality of these two groups are equated: the Sodomites 'indulged in i m m o -

72. 73. 74. 75. 76.

Cf. Mt. 11.23; Acts 2.27,31; Rev. 1.18; 6.8; 20.13,14. See BDAG, p. 19. BDAG, pp. 190-1; J. Jeremias, '$8r|s\ TDNT 1:148. Similarly J. Jeremias,' afivooos', TDNT 1:9-10. Moo, 2 Peter, Jude, p. 103. The verb pXaacJ>r|u.ea) can mean 'to revile, defame, slander, speak disrespectfully o f

someone. See BDAG,

p. 178.

77. So Bauckham, Jude, 2 Peter, p. 261; Vdgt\G,Judasbrief, p. 50; Moo, 2 Peter, Jude, p. 122; Kelly, Commentary, p. 337.


and

Jude

169

rality' (eicrropveua)) ' i n t h e s a m e w a y a s ' (TOV S|ioiov Tp6*rrov) the angels in v. 6. J u d e is clearly referring to t h e incident in G e n . 19.1-11 a n d t h u s B a u c k h a m ' s a s s e s s m e n t is a c c u r a t e : ' A s t h e a n g e l s fell b e c a u s e o f their lust for w o m e n , so t h e S o d o m i t e s d e s i r e d s e x u a l relations w i t h a n g e l s ' .

78

B a u c k h a m is a l s o correct

t o s e e in J u d e ' s references to t h e W a t c h e r s a n d S o d o m a similar tradition a s is f o u n d in T. Naph. 3 . In this c h a p t e r the sins o f S o d o m a n d t h e W a t c h e r s a r e d e s c r i b e d a s n o t c o n f o r m i n g to the divinely established o r d e r o f t h e c o s m o s : ' S u n , m o o n , a n d stars d o n o t alter their order; t h u s y o u s h o u l d n o t alter t h e L a w o f G o d b y t h e d i s o r d e r o f y o u r a c t i o n s ' (T. Naph. 3.2). In o t h e r w o r d s , t h e b e h a v i o u r o f G o d ' s p e o p l e s h o u l d reflect a n d c o n f o r m to G o d ' s o r d e r e d (that is, o b e d i e n t ) c o s m i c structure. T h i s is p r e c i s e l y t h e c o n c e p t i o n o f t h e ' s i n ' o f t h e W a t c h e r s in J u d e 6, for t h e y ' d i d n o t k e e p their o w n d o m a i n , b u t a b a n d o n e d their p r o p e r a b o d e ' ( J u d e 6). ' A b a n d o n i n g o f t h e p r o p e r a b o d e ' , w h e t h e r b y a n a n g e l or h u m a n , is a sinful action at least in p a r t b e c a u s e it constitutes r e b e l l i o n against G o d ' s c o s m i c o r d e r o f t h i n g s (as in 7 Enoch 2 - 5 ) . In 1 Enoch 2 , a s in T. Naph. 3 , t h e c o s m i c e l e m e n t s (the sky, l u m i n a r i e s o f h e a v e n , t h e earth, t h e s e a s o n s , trees, t h e sun, c l o u d s , rain, etc.) function ' a c c o r d i n g t o their [divinely] a p p o i n t e d o r d e r ' (7 En. 2.1) a n d as s u c h t h e s e c o s m i c e l e m e n t s are t h e w o r k o f G o d w h i c h ' o b e y h i m [ G o d ] ' a n d d o ' n o t c h a n g e ; b u t e v e r y t h i n g functions in t h e w a y in w h i c h G o d h a s o r d e r e d it' (7 En. 5.2). ' Y e t in t h e s a m e m a n n e r t h e s e d r e a m e r s defile t h e flesh' ( J u d e 8), that is, t h e y b e h a v e a s t h e sinful a n g e l s a n d t h e S o d o m i t e s d i d w h e n t h e y ' w e n t after strange flesh' ( J u d e 7) a n d a s a result r e b e l l e d ' a g a i n s t t h e divinely established o r d e r o f t h i n g s ' . ' I n d o i n g s o t h e y w e r e m o t i v a t e d , like t h e W a t c h e r s a n d t h e S o d o m i t e s , b y s e x u a l lust, a n d , like t h e S o d o m i t e s , insulted t h e a n g e l s (v. 8 ) ' .

7 9

T h e actual n a t u r e o f t h e ' r e v i l i n g /

i n s u l t i n g ' o f the a n g e l s is unclear. B a u c k h a m m a y b e correct to g r o u n d t h e insults in their a n t i n o m i a n 'rejection o f the authority o f t h e L o r d '

8 0

(v. 8) a n d

h i s l a w s , particularly in light o f t h e fact that t h e a n g e l s w e r e v i e w e d a s t h e g u a r d i a n s o f t h e M o s a i c L a w (cf. G a l . 3.19) a n d t h e c r e a t e d order, a n 'office from w h i c h t h e W a t c h e r s apostatized, v. 6 ' .

8 1

In 2 Pet. 2 . 1 0 a - b t h e false t e a c h e r s a r e similarly d e s c r i b e d a s t h o s e w h o ' i n d u l g e the flesh (cf. J u d e 8: 'defile t h e flesh'), 'flout the authority o f the L o r d ' ( J u d e 8: 'reject t h e authority o f t h e L o r d ' ) a n d 'slander/insult t h e g l o r i o u s o n e s ' ( J u d e 8: 'slander/insult t h e glorious o n e s ' ) . B u t for 2 Peter t h e focus is a bit different. T h e description o f t h e false t e a c h e r s follows u p o n t h e m a i n p o i n t

78. Bauckham, Jude, 2 Peter, p. 54. 'Going after strange flesh' (dTreX0ouaai omaa) aapicbs €T€pas), in this context and the context of Gen. 19.1-22, must refer to the 'flesh of angels'. See also Kelly, Commentary, p. 259. 79. Bauckham, Jittfe, 2 Peter, p. 58. 80. The phrase KuptOTT|Ta aQerovaiv in Jude 8 means 'they reject the authority of the Lord'. See Bauckham, Jude, 2 Peter, pp. 56-7 and Vogtle, Judasbrief, pp. 49-50. 81. Bauckham, ./!«&?, 2 Peter, p. 58.

Cosmology

170

and New Testament

Theology

that P e t e r m a k e s in t h e e x a m p l e s h e e m p l o y s in 2 . 4 - 8 , n a m e l y , that t h e L o r d ' k n o w s h o w to r e s c u e t h e g o d l y ' a n d ' t o k e e p t h e u n r i g h t e o u s u n d e r p u n i s h m e n t for t h e d a y o f j u d g e m e n t ' (2.9). 2 Pet. 2 . 1 0 functions to spell out further t h e k i n d s o f sins that will b e e s c h a t o l o g i c a l l y p u n i s h e d . U n l i k e J u d e , t h e state m e n t a b o u t ' s l a n d e r i n g t h e g l o r i o u s o n e s ' in 2 Pet. 2 . 1 0 b is further e x p l a i n e d in v. 1 1 . A l t h o u g h t h e r e h a s b e e n m u c h d e b a t e a b o u t t h e p r e c i s e m e a n i n g o f v. 1 1 , the following v i e w is s u p p o r t e d b y m o s t interpreters. T h e false t e a c h e r s w h o d a r e t o s l a n d e r t h e ' g l o r i o u s o n e s ' , or rebellious a n g e l s , in v. 10b are c o m p a r e d to t h e ' a n g e l s w h o , a l t h o u g h t h e y a r e greater in strength a n d p o w e r [than t h e glorious o n e s , v. 1 0 b ] , d o n o t u s e insults w h e n p r o n o u n c i n g j u d g e m e n t o n t h e m [the glorious o n e s , v. 10b] from t h e L o r d ' (v. I I ) .

8 2

T h e false t e a c h e r s ' lack o f

fear (they ' a r e n o t afraid', v. 10b) a n d their p r e s u m p t u o u s overstepping o f their G o d - g i v e n b o u n d a r i e s , e v i d e n c e d b y their c o n t e m p t for a n d lack o f r e s p e c t for angelic p o w e r s , will i n c u r t h e s a m e eschatological destruction as will t h e evil angels (v. 12). E v e n t h o u g h t h e y d e n y it, t h e p o i n t h e r e is t o s h o w that t h e false t e a c h e r s ' eschatological j u d g e m e n t ' i s n o t idle, a n d their destruction is n o t asleep'(2.2).

3 . Cosmic

83

Destruction

a. 'All Things Continue

and Renewal:

3.4-13

as They Were from the Beginning

of Creation'

(2 Pet.

3.4b). T h e p r i m a r y false t e a c h i n g o f P e t e r ' s o p p o n e n t s , o r t h e ' s c o f f e r s ' (3.3), is r e v e a l e d in 3.4a-b: ' W h e r e is t h e p r o m i s e o f H i s c o m i n g ? F o r since t h e fathers fell a s l e e p , all t h i n g s c o n t i n u e as t h e y w e r e from t h e b e g i n n i n g o f c r e a t i o n ' . In w . 5-10, P e t e r e m b a r k s o n h i s direct refutation o f t h e false t e a c h e r s ' assertion in v. 4 . B u t w h a t d o t h e false t e a c h e r s assert o r d e n y in v. 4 ? T h i s v e r s e is c o m p r i s e d o f a m a i n p r o p o s i t i o n in t h e form o f a rhetorical q u e s t i o n in v. 4 a a n d o n e that p r o v i d e s t h e a r g u m e n t a t i o n for it in s o m e w a y in v. 4 b . T h e t w o p r o p o s i t i o n s c a n b e p a r a p h r a s e d as follows: t h e p r o m i s e o f C h r i s t ' s p a r o u s i a is e m p t y , that is, it h a s failed t o o c c u r (v. 4 a ) because died,

84

( y a p ) , s i n c e t h e fathers

all t h i n g s ( r a v T a ) c o n t i n u e u n a b a t e d , that is, n o t h i n g in e x i s t e n c e h a s

b e e n altered o r interfered w i t h since the origin o f t h e c o s m o s . B u t h o w d o e s this constitute a n a r g u m e n t for their denial o f t h e p a r o u s i a in v. 4 a ? T h e s t a n d a r d v i e w o f v. 4 b states that it constitutes a rejection o f t h e p o s s i b i l ity o f divine intervention in history a n d therefore, b y definition, t h e p r o m i s e o f t h e future p a r o u s i a and d i v i n e j u d g e m e n t is r u l e d o u t .

85

B a u c k h a m , following

82. So Bauckham, Jude, 2 Peter, p. 261; V5gtle, Judasbrief, pp. 199-201; Kelly, Commen tary, p. 337; Moo, 2 Peter, Jude, pp. 121-2; S. J. Kraftchick, Jude, 2 Peter (Nashville: Abingdon, 2002), p. 136. 83. V6gfile, Judasbrief, p. 203. 84. Adams argues that 'the fathers* most likely refers to the OT fathers since the scoffers of 2 Peter seem to be denouncing the OT prophetic promises of God's eschatological parousia (pp. 204-6). He is probably correct. See also Moo, 2 Peter, Jude, p. 167. 85. Bauckham, Jude, 2 Peter, pp. 293-5; Vogtle, Judasbrief, p. 221; Kraftchick, Jude, 2 Peter,

10.

J. N e y r e y ,

86

Petrine

Literature

and

171

Jude

is representative w h e n h e n o t e s that t h e closest parallel to t h e o p p o

n e n t s ' 'rationalistic s k e p t i c i s m a b o u t d i v i n e intervention in t h e w o r l d ' a p p e a r s to b e t h e E p i c u r e a n d e n i a l o f p r o v i d e n c e .

87

E . A d a m s h a s r e c e n t l y a r g u e d that t h e scoffers' c o s m o l o g i c a l assertion in v. 4 b d o e s n o t r e s e m b l e E p i c u r e a n t h o u g h t . F o r e x a m p l e , ' t h e scoffers affirm t h e created

n a t u r e o f t h e u n i v e r s e (KTLOL?); E p i c u r e a n s , o f c o u r s e , totally

r e p u d i a t e d t h e n o t i o n o f t h e divine creation o f t h e c o s m o s ' . In addition, t h e scoffers s e e m to assert t h e c o n t i n u a n c e o f all t h i n g s since t h e b e g i n n i n g o f creation, w h e r e a s t h e E p i c u r e a n v i e w t a u g h t t h e o p p o s i t e : ' t h e c o s m o s a n d all t h e c o s m o i a r e inherently d e s t r u c t i b l e ' .

88

T h u s , t h e s t a t e m e n t in 3.4 ' i s b e s t

t a k e n a s affirmation o f c o s m i c i n d e s t r u c t i b i h t y ' , reflecting n o t E p i c u r e a n i s m b u t ' t h e Platonic/Aristotelian d o c t r i n e o f c o s m i c i n d e s t r u c t i b i l i t y ' .

89

Neverthe

less, b o t h t h e traditional interpretation o f v. 4 b a n d t h e o n e set forth r e c e n t l y b y A d a m s r e c o g n i z e that t h e a u t h o r ' s o p p o n e n t s reject t h e e x p e c t a t i o n o f C h r i s t ' s e s c h a t o l o g i c a l a d v e n t , or h i s s e c o n d c o m i n g (v. 4 a ) . T h e u p s h o t o f their b a s i c d e n i a l o f t h e p a r o u s i a e x c l u d e s t h e e s c h a t o l o g i c a l j u d g e m e n t w h i c h is p a r t a n d p a r c e l o f t h e p a r o u s i a . T h u s , ' t h e y a r e free to c o n d u c t their lives (cf. 3) a c c o r d i n g to their o w n p a s s i o n s ' . b . Counter-Argument

90

Against

the Opponents

(2 Pet. 3.5-7). Consistent w i t h the

m a i n thrust o f 2.9-12, 3.5-7 stress that the u n g o d l y ( d a e p ^ g ) will face e s c h a t o logical ' j u d g e m e n t a n d destruction'

Ocpioecos Kal

dTrcoXetg, v. 7; cf. 2.2), despite

t h e fact that t h e o p p o n e n t s i g n o r e or o v e r l o o k k e y facts a b o u t creation a n d t h e Flood ( w . 5-6).

91

T h e c o s m o l o g i c a l l a n g u a g e in w . 5-7 s e r v e s t h e p u r p o s e o f

h i g h l i g h t i n g that t h e G o d w h o b y h i s w o r d (Xoyco) c r e a t e d t h e c o s m o s ( ' h e a v e n s a n d e a r t h ' , v. 5 )

%

is t h e o n e w h o b y w a t e r (UOOLTL) d e s t r o y e d t h e c o s m o s o f

pp. 152-3; M. Green, The Second Epistle General of Peter and the General Epistle of Jude (Leic ester: Intervasity Press, 1987), pp. 138-9. 86. Neyrey, 'The Form and Background of the Polemic in 2 Peter', JBL 99 (1980), 407-31. 87. Bauckham, Jude, 2 Peter, p. 294. 88. Adams, The Stars Will Fall From Heaven, p. 207. There may be another problem with the majority view. As mentioned above, the false teachers of 2 Peter seem to be regarded (or at least regard themselves) as in some sense 'Christian'. In light of this, Moo has suggested that, if the opponents denied divine providence and intervention in the world, 'it is difficult to understand how they could make any claim to be Christian, for they would have to deny the incarnation and resurrection of Christ as well as his Parousia' (2 Peter, Jude, p. 168). 89. Adams, Stars Will Fall From Heaven, p. 208. 90. Kelly, Commentary, p. 357. 91. Adams, Stars Will Fall From Heaven, p. 210, is probably correct in arguing mat it is not the feet of the world's creation as such that the opponents ignore or overlook, but rather the Flood and 'the character of that event as the reversal of creation'. 92. 'Heavens and earth' in w . 5,7 refer to the cosmos in its entirety. This is demanded by the term K 6 O U . O S in v. 6 which clearly refers to the same reality as 'heavens and earth' in w . 5, 7. So Adams, Stars Will Fall From Heaven, pp. 213-14.

172

Cosmology

and New Testament

Theology

N o a h ' s day, i n c l u d i n g t h e w o r l d ' s u n g o d l y i n h a b i t a n t s (v. 6 ) . F u r t h e r m o r e , it is b y m e a n s o f this s a m e G o d ' s c r e a t i v e ' w o r d ' (Xoyw) that h e h a s d e t e r m i n e d that t h e p r e s e n t ' h e a v e n s a n d e a r t h ' (i.e., t h e c o s m o s ) ' a r e b e i n g r e s e r v e d (T€6r)aaupia[i€i>oi) for fire' a n d ' k e p t ' (rnpoufievoi) until t h e final j u d g e m e n t (v. 7 ) , all o f w h i c h a g a i n z e r o s in o n t h e u n g o d l y (daepTfe).

93

Therefore, con

trary t o the false t e a c h e r s ' assertion in v. 4 , ' t h e o b s e r v a b l e stability o f t h e w o r l d i s . . . n o g u a r a n t e e o f its c o n t i n u e d stability in t h e f u t u r e ; '

94

the cosmos and the

u n g o d l y a r e certainly ' b e i n g k e p t for final j u d g e m e n t a n d d e s t r u c t i o n ' (v. 7). T h e central i s s u e s r e l a t e d t o w . 5-7 a r e : ( 1 ) w h a t d o t h e t w o p r e p o s i t i o n a l p h r a s e s e£ vSaTos Kai 8 t ' iiSaTos ( ' o u t o f w a t e r a n d b y m e a n s o f w a t e r ' ) refer to (v. 5 ) ? (2) W h a t is t h e b a c k g r o u n d t o t h e n o t i o n s o f t h e c o s m i c destruction b y w a t e r (v. 6) a n d ( 3 ) e s c h a t o l o g i c a l j u d g e m e n t b y m e a n s o f c o s m i c conflagration (w. 7,10,12). 1 . 2 Pet. 3.5: Word, Water and Creation.

The notion of the cosmos as having

b e e n c r e a t e d b y m e a n s o f G o d ' s ' w o r d ' clearly d r a w s u p o n t h e O T ( G e n . 1.3-30; P s . 3 3 . 6 , 9; 1 4 8 . 5 ; cf. Sir. 3 9 . 1 7 ) a n d C h r i s t i a n ( H e b . 11.3) tradition. T h i s is n o t d e b a t e d . T h e first p r e p o s i t i o n a l p h r a s e , €£ ii&rrog (the c o s m o s w a s c r e a t e d ' o u t o f w a t e r ' ) , is p r o b a b l y l i k e w i s e g r o u n d e d in t h e G e n e s i s c r e a t i o n n a r r a t i v e ( G e n . 1.2-7), w h i c h in turn e c h o e s t h e g e n e r a l A n c i e n t N e a r E a s t v i e w

9 5

that t h e

c o s m o s e m e r g e d out of t h e w a t e r y c h a o s o r p r i m a e v a l o c e a n ( G e n . 1.6; cf. G e n . 96

1.2-9; P s . 3 3 . 7 ; 136.6; Prov. 8.27-29; Sir. 3 9 . 1 7 ) . A s M o o p u t s it, t h e p h r a s e e £ u8aTos s u g g e s t s that ' P e t e r is a g a i n t h i n k i n g o f t h e story o f c r e a t i o n in G e n e s i s 1, w h e r e w a t e r p l a y s a significant r o l e ' .

9 7

T h e s e c o n d p r e p o s i t i o n a l p h r a s e in

2 Pet. 3.5 ( 8 i ' 0 8 a T o s ) is n o t as easily a c c o u n t e d for. W h a t c o u l d it m e a n for t h e c o s m o s t o h a v e b e e n c r e a t e d 8 i ' uScrros? M o s t interpreters still w a n t t o see this s e c o n d p h r a s e against t h e b a c k d r o p o f t h e G e n e s i s c r e a t i o n a c c o u n t a n d as s u c h it is t a k e n i n s t r u m e n t a l l y b y B a u c k h a m ( ' b y m e a n s o f w a t e r ' ) t o s u g g e s t that ' w a t e r w a s , in a l o o s e s e n s e , t h e i n s t r u m e n t o f creation, since it w a s b y s e p a r a t i n g a n d g a t h e r i n g t h e w a t e r s that G o d c r e a t e d t h e w o r l d ' .

9 8

T h i s is

r e a s o n a b l y e v i d e n t in G e n . 1.7 w h e r e G o d ' m a d e t h e firmament a n d s e p a r a t e d

93. That this final judgement and cosmic conflagration have as their focus the punishment of the ungodly and not just the destruction of the cosmos may be indicated by the fact that the other occurrences of the notion 'kept (Tnpea)) for final judgement/destruction' have as their subjects disobedient beings (angels, 2.4; the unrighteous, 2.9; the opponents, 2.17; and the ungodly, 3.7), and all employ the term n]peoi. 94. Bauckham, Jude, 2 Peter, p. 302. 95. By 'echoes' I am not suggesting that Genesis simply takes over Ancient Near Eastern cosmogony. Rather, Genesis seem to be opposing Ancient Near Eastern cosmogony and theology by arguing that Israel's God is the true and only creator of the cosmos and thus he is wholly other than the cosmos. 96. See Bauckham, Jude, 2 Peter, p. 297; and V6gtle, Judasbrief, pp. 225-6. 97. Moo, 2 Peter, Jude, p. 170. 98. Bauckham, Jude, 2 Peter, p. 297; cf. Kelly, Commentary, pp. 358-9.


and

Jude

173

t h e w a t e r s w h i c h w e r e b e l o w t h e firmament from t h e w a t e r s w h i c h w e r e a b o v e the

firmament'.

T h u s , G o d ' s act o f ' s e p a r a t i n g t h e w a t e r s ' b r o u g h t o r d e r t o t h e

c h a o s o f G e n . 1.2 a s w e l l as t h e formation o f ' h e a v e n ' (v. 8) a n d t h e ' e a r t h ' ( w . 9-10). E. A d a m s c h a l l e n g e s t h e s t a n d a r d interpretation o f b o t h p h r a s e s , w h i c h h e b e l i e v e s a m o u n t s to ' a strained a t t e m p t to m a k e t h e l a n g u a g e fit G e n e s i s 1 ' . " H e a r g u e s that t h e d o u b l e p h r a s e e£ i)8aTog Kai 8 i ' u 8 a T o s (2 Pet. 3.5) ' m a k e s b e s t sense against t h e b a c k g r o u n d o f Stoic c o s m o g o n y : w a t e r w a s t h e i m m e d i a t e substance out of which the cosmos w a s m a d e ' .

1 0 0

A d a m s s h o w s that a c c o r d i n g

to t h e Stoic v i e w , t h e c o s m o s originated from p r i m a l fire, w h i c h c h a n g e d into air a n d t h e n c o n d e n s e d into water. T h e ' w a t e r y m a s s ' t h e n c h a n g e d a g a i n into t h e four terrestrial e l e m e n t s w h i c h c o m b i n e d t o m a k e t h e earth a n d life-forms o n it. T h e c o s m o s t h e n e n d s in fiery destruction, o n l y t o r e p e a t t h e e n d l e s s c y c l e o f renewal and destruction.

101

T h e c y c l e b e g i n s a n d e n d s w i t h fire, b u t , ' t h e c h a n g e

to w a t e r is p r o p e r l y the beginning

m

of our world*.

T h i s is illustrated w e l l in

P l u t a r c h ' s Stoic, rep. 1053a a n d D i o g e n e s Laertius 7.142. P l u t a r c h states: ' T h e transformation o f fire is like this: b y w a y o f air it t u r n s into w a t e r ; a n d from this, as earth is p r e c i p i t a t e d . . . t h e stars a n d t h e s u n are k i n d l e d from t h e s e a ' (Stoic, rep. 1053a). D i o g e n e s describes t h e p r o c e s s as follows: ' T h e w o r l d . . . c o m e s into b e i n g w h e n its s u b s t a n c e h a s first b e e n c o n v e r t e d from fire... a n d t h e n t h e c o a r s e r p a r t o f t h e m o i s t u r e h a s c o n d e n s e d as e a r t h ' ( 7 . 1 4 2 ) . A d a m s m a y b e right in a r g u i n g that t h e c o n c e p t o f w o r l d formation ' b y m e a n s o f w a t e r ' ( 8 i ' i)8aT09) in 2 Pet. 3.5 reflects Stoic c o s m o g o n y . T h e a u t h o r certainly referred to o t h e r G r e e k c o n c e p t s , s u c h as Tartarus a n d Cfyos

( 2 . 4 ) , in o r d e r t o c o m

m u n i c a t e J e w i s h - C h r i s t i a n content. A n d , as A d a m s e m p h a s i z e s , in 2 Pet. 3.5 t h e a u t h o r w a s n o t solely d e p e n d e n t o n S t o i c i s m ; rather, h e h a s c o m b i n e d t h e creation a c c o u n t o f G e n e s i s w i t h Stoic c o s m o l o g y . H o w e v e r , I c a n n o t g o a s far as A d a m s in s u g g e s t i n g that ' i f t h e a u t h o r . . . is alluding t o t h e Stoic v i e w o f w o r l d - f o r m a t i o n , h e is i m p l y i n g that the w a t e r p r e - c o s m i c state o f G e n . 1.2 w a s p r e c e d e d b y a m o r e p r i m a l state o f things - a state o f p u r e

103

fire'. 1

see n o

e v i d e n c e in 2 P e t e r 3 for this c o n c l u s i o n . 2. 2 Pet. 3.6: The Deluge

as Cosmic Destruction

of the Ancient

World. T h e

c o s m o s w a s c r e a t e d b y G o d ' s w o r d ' t h r o u g h w a t e r a n d b y w a t e r ' (v. 5). B u t (be) ' t h e c o s m o s at that t i m e ' (6 Tore KOO\LOS)

9

that i s , t h e a n t e d i l u v i a n w o r l d ,

was destroyed by the same word of God and w a t e r

104

o f creation (v. 6 ) .

1 0 5

This

99. Adams, Stars Will Fall From Heaven, p. 212. 100. Ibid. 101. Ibid., p. 115. 102. Ibid, p. 213, n. 56. 103. Ibid.,p.2\3. 104. That v. 6 refers not to a local destruction (via the Flood) but rather a cosmic destruction is clear. See Bauckham, Jude, 2 Peter, p. 299; Adams, Stars Will Fall From Heaven, p. 214. 105. The prepositional phrase 8i' pat>6

Cosmology and New Testament Theology (Library of New Testament Studies 355)

Deuteronomy in the New Testament (Library of New Testament Studies)

New Testament

new testament

Old Testament Theology: 1 (Old Testament Library)

Old Testament Theology: 1 (Old Testament Library)

Minor Prophets in the New Testament (Library Of New Testament Studies)

Between Two Horizons: Spanning New Testament Studies and Systematic Theology

Studies in the Textual Criticism of the New Testament (New Testament Tools and Studies)

Between Two Horizons: Spanning New Testament Studies and Systematic Theology

The Theology of the Gospel of Mark (New Testament Theology)

The Theology of the Johannine Epistles (New Testament Theology)

The Theology of the Pastoral Letters (New Testament Theology)

The Theology of the Later Pauline Letters (New Testament Theology)

The Theology of the Later Pauline Letters (New Testament Theology)

The Theology of the Pastoral Letters (New Testament Theology)

The Theology of the Johannine Epistles (New Testament Theology)

The Theology of the Johannine Epistles (New Testament Theology)

Greek Particles in the New Testament: Linguistic and Exegetical Studies (New Testament Tools and Studies 3)

On the New Testament

Mapping the New Testament

Holy Bible - New Testament

Old Testament Quotations in the New Testament

Ephesians (New Testament Readings)

Semantics of New Testament Greek (Semeia Studies)

On the New Testament

Mapping the New Testament

New Testament Introduction

Revelation (New Testament Readings)

The Timeless New Testament

James (New Testament Readings)

Cosmology and New Testament Theology (Library of New Testament Studies 355)

Deuteronomy in the New Testament (Library of New Testament Studies)

New Testament

new testament

Old Testament Theology: 1 (Old Testament Library)

Old Testament Theology: 1 (Old Testament Library)

Minor Prophets in the New Testament (Library Of New Testament Studies)

Between Two Horizons: Spanning New Testament Studies and Systematic Theology

Studies in the Textual Criticism of the New Testament (New Testament Tools and Studies)

Between Two Horizons: Spanning New Testament Studies and Systematic Theology

The Theology of the Gospel of Mark (New Testament Theology)

The Theology of the Johannine Epistles (New Testament Theology)

The Theology of the Pastoral Letters (New Testament Theology)

The Theology of the Later Pauline Letters (New Testament Theology)

The Theology of the Later Pauline Letters (New Testament Theology)

The Theology of the Pastoral Letters (New Testament Theology)

The Theology of the Johannine Epistles (New Testament Theology)

The Theology of the Johannine Epistles (New Testament Theology)

Greek Particles in the New Testament: Linguistic and Exegetical Studies (New Testament Tools and Studies 3)

On the New Testament

Mapping the New Testament

Holy Bible - New Testament

Old Testament Quotations in the New Testament

Ephesians (New Testament Readings)

Semantics of New Testament Greek (Semeia Studies)

On the New Testament

Mapping the New Testament

New Testament Introduction

Revelation (New Testament Readings)

The Timeless New Testament

James (New Testament Readings)

Recommend Documents