Communication skills for educational managers: an exercise in self study

Communication Skills for Educational Managers: An Exercise in Self Study

Prof. N. Pradhan Dr. Niti Chopra

Book Enclave Jaipur

India

First Published: 2008 ISBN: 978-81-8152-226-9 © Editors

Published by

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Contents

Part-I The Study 1.

2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

1.

2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Introduction 3 20 Review of Literature Plan and Procedures for the Study 36 54 'Role Analysis' of College Principals Communication Needs Assessment-Survey Analysis 76 Development, Implementation and Evaluation of the Module 101 113 Findings, Conclusion and Recommendations Part-II The Module 125 Conceptual Understanding of 'Communication' 183 Understanding Organizational Communication 230 Oral Communication 245 Written Communication 268 Use of Technology in Communication 288 Epilogue

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Part-I

The Study

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1

Introduction Preamble Communkation is the transfer of information from one person to another person. It is a way of reaching others by transmitting ideas, facts, thoughts, feelings and values. Its goal is to have the receiver understand the message as it was intended. When communication is effective, it provides a bridge of meaning between the two people so that they can each share what they feel and know. By using this bridge, both parties can safely overcome misunderstandings that sometimes separate people. Communication always involves at least two people-a sender and a receiver. One person alone cannot communicate. Only one or more receivers can complete the communication act. The transmission of a message is only the beginning. Several hundred messages may be sent, but there is no communication until each one is received, read, and understood. Communication is what the receiver understands, not what the sender says. The Importance of Communication Communication enables a person to enter into meaningful relations with other persons and exchange experiences with them. Persons often develop themselves on the strength of the relationships they have with others. For a person to attain his/

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Communication Skills for Educational Managers

her full growth potential, 'communication' is important and a basic necessity too. This is because human beings need as much .. to communicate with others to lead a normal and fulfilling life, as they need to eat, sleep, and love. Communication involves an interaction with our environment-physical, biological, and social. A person deprived of communication is one inflicted with suffering. The basic need for communication can perhaps be traced to the process of man's evolution from lower species. Animals, for instance, have to be in sensory communication with their physical and biological surroundings to find food, protect themselves, and to reproduce their species. A loss of sensationthe inability to hear a predator, for example-can mean loss of life. Similarly, to be lost from primitive social communicationfrom the pack, the herd, or the tribe-is to be condemned to death. But sensory communication alone was not enough for man to survive. Hence the invention of symbolic communication called language-from non-verbal gestures ... to the verbal and then to the written and printed word; and further on of course, all the technological innovations and advancements for communication. All modes of communication have grown out of the same fundamental desire to express oneself and reach out to others. The human need to communicate remains the same, only the forms change over the years (Kumar, 2001).

Communication in Organizations Organizations cannot exist without communication. Central to any organization is the communication that happens within and from it (Kumar, 1997). It is one of the most important aspects that allow an organization to be what it is. Without communication employees would not know what their co-workers were doing, managements would not receive information inputs, and supervisors and team leaders would find it difficult to govern and give instructions. Coordination of work would become impossible, and the organization would collapse for lack of it. Cooperation among workers would also be difficult since people would not be able to communicate their needs and feelings to others. Every act of communication influences the organization in some way. Communication helps accomplish all the basic management functions-planning, organizing, leading, and controlling-so that organizations can achieve their goals and

Introduction

5

meet their challenges. When communication is effective, it tends to encourage better performance and job satisfaction. People understand their jobs better and feel more involved in them. In some instances they would even voluntarily give up some of their long established privileges because they see that a sacrifice is necessary. Such positive responses of employees support one of the basic propositions of organizational behaviour-that open communication is generally better than restricted communication. In effect, if employees know the problems which their organization is facing, as also what managers are trying to do to resolve the same, they would usually respond favourably and try to help. Thus, as Simon (1945) said, "Communication is absolutely essential to organization"; and as Bavelas and Barrett (1951) said, "It (communication) is the essence of organized activity and is the basic process out of which all other functions derive".

Effective Administration/Management In recent years, through many efforts at readjustment, Management has undergone a tremendous change-a change for self-improvement. In the process of change, one of the major realizations has been that at every point in managerial or administrative activity, communication is involved by implication. Many management consultants now have no doubt that just as the neglect of the positive role of communication led to serious weaknesses in the scientific management of organizations, _ emphasizing the understanding of the role of communication makes it possible to structure the organization well and control its activities. This approach, then, assumes that a proper organizational structure can be made to emerge from an effective communication system rather than the other way around. Therefore, it would be in the right spirit to say that ensuring appropriate communication is the only way to manage an organization in an effective way. Management is all about getting work done effectively in an organization, and communication is indeed an indispensable tool in enhancing the same. Good communication is the foundation of sound management in all organizations including educational institutes like colleges. In a managerial process, keeping everyone informed is vital; and this can be achieved by sharing information through the various communication channels, techniques, and networks.

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Communication Skills for Educational Managers

As an administrator, it is important to bind people together in the organization to ensure a smooth flow of work-within the designations, groups, activities, duties and responsibilities as assigned. Moreover, as a manager in a pivotal role, with multiple communication linkages; it would be important to discern and identify the appropriate modes of communication to use as also ensure an effective nature of treatment-in order to deal with different situations as they present themselves in the proceeds of one's job.

Communication for College Principals Communication has already been defined by us as the basic process of passing information and understanding from one individual to another. For conducting this process, one person alone cannot communicate. It would always involve two personsa sender and a receiver. In the case of any organization, these two persons are superiors and subordinates, generally a manager and the employee. In colleges, it is usually the principal and his/her subordinates at all levels. As an organization, a college is quite big and complex, thus making the instances of interaction and communication more significant. Groups and subgroups of persons in a college set up are large, varied, and multitudinous; and relationships within and among them are more involved and complicated in nature. The success of such organizations running smoothly largely depends upon the coordination of efforts of all its members, with , the College Principals relying heavily on the quality, amount and timeliness of relevant information reaching them. The rest of the, organization, in tum, depends upon the efficiency with which the principal can deal with this information and reach conclusions, decisions, etc. It is thus obvious that communication is not a secondary or derived aspect of organization, rather it is the essence of organized activity and forms the very basic and fundamental process out of which, as stated earlier, all other functions are derived. Numerous management problems arise due to failure in communication or miscommunication. Frequent conflicts between management and subordinates are very often traceable to communication failures. The cost of miscommunication in terms of the time factor, money, and energy involved is, undoubtedly,

Introduction

7

very high, but what is more alarming is the cost, arising as a consequence of hostility, inefficiency and misunderstandingwhich ultimately leads to indiscipline and low morale, resulting in poor productivity, the cost of which could be quite prohibitive to any organization (Newstrom and Davis, 1998). To avoid such adverse circumstances, it is important for managerial heads; in the context of this study-College Principals-to be equipped with good personal skills as a sender and receiver of communication. Moreover, developing sensitivity to language and emotional content of messages, cultivating an ability to overcome communication barriers and being competent enough to tap meaningfully the ideas and experiences of others; would go a long way in enhancing the College Principals effectiveness as an educational administrator. The Concept of Communication Communication denotes a process that is both interactive and purposeful (Kuppuswamy, 1984). The word 'Communication' is derived from the Latin "Communis", which means 'to share', 'to impart', or 'to transmit'. Through communication, people influence the behaviour of one another and unite themselves in groups. Thus, 'Communication' is a means for breaking down the barriers to human integration. It is a means for achieving mutual understanding. Communication implies sharing some information or an idea with another person or group of persons. Thus, in any attempt to define the term "Communication", 'interaction', 'interchange', a 'sharing', and a 'commonness' are ideas that come to the mind immediately. According to Denis Mcquail (1969), 'Communication' is a process which increases 'commonality', but also requires elements of commonality for it to occur at all. There are other factors too such as a shared culture and a common interest which bring about a sense of commonality, and significantly, a sense of community. Communication, in its simplest sense, is a human relationship involving two or more persons who come together to share, to dialogue, and to commune, or just be together at a time of celebration or mourning. Communication is thus not so much an act or even a process, but rather social and cultural 'togetherness' (Kumar, 2001).

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Communication Skills for Educational Managers

Different Contexts of Communication Communication is a basic instinct of life. It is a fact of life not only for human beings, but also for animals and plants. It is a continuous process, fundamental to the very existence of all. Communication is indeed vital to human survival. Vital because every human society, whether modern or primitive, is founded on the capacity of its members to maintain a working consensus about the social order through communication. As Ashley Montagu and Floyd Matson in their book 'Human Communication' (1979), say, 'Communication is the name we give to the countless ways that humans have of keeping in touch-(not just words and music, pictures and print)-to every move that catches someone's eye and every sound that resonates upon the ears. Communication is not limited to human being alone. Animals, birds and bees, they all communicate by singing, croaking, and by the other sounds and gestures- they make. They also communicate through visual and olfactory signals. Communication is a social, political, economic and cultural need of human beings. It is a social need for the articulation of individual and community needs. It is essential politically to create an informed and enlightened public opinion. Culturally, communication is a means of individual and community expression, discovert) and enrichment and recreation. Communication includes all methods of disseminating information, knowledge, thought, attitudes and beliefs through such media as modern mass media, traditional media such as a puppet show, and interpersonal media.

The authors of the book The Human Communication quoted earlier, see 'Communication' as more than just media and message, information and persuasion. "Human Communication... also meets a deeper need and serves a higher purpose. Whether clear or garbled, tumultuous or silent, deliberate or fatally inadvertent, communication is the ground of meeting and the foundation of community. It is, in short, the essential human connection". Giving another angle to Communication, W.S. Cardon, a leading Kinesiologist (student of body language) says that interaction within a culture is governed not so much by language but by 'body synthesizers' set in motion almost immediately after birth and therefore are conditioned by culture. Communication is,

Introduction

9

therefore, not a matter of 'isolated entities sending discrete messages' back and forth; but a process of mutual participation in a common structure of rhythmic patterns by all members of a culture. Further, communication is viewed by Montagu and Matson (1979) from yet another angle: "Communication is the form of

interaction that takes place through symbols. The symbols may be gestural, pictural, plastic, verbal or any other which operate as stimuli to behaviour which would not be evoked by the symbol itself in the absence of special conditions of the person who responds". Thus, Communication is a multi-faceted activity and a term that has several meanings. It encompasses all forms of expression for serving the purpose of mutual understanding.

Better Communication Much emphasis is now placed on positive communication, and it is indeed a very important thing in management or administration. It is crucial though, not to communicate until the time is right. For example, planned changes in connection with reorganization, placement of staff or personnel, or promotion policies should not be announced prematurely. Plans at experimental stages should be kept under wraps. At a supervisory level, plans and programmes being brain stormed or considered, should not be announced outside of management levels. The timing of communication is very important to enhance better or appropriate impact. Particularly in organizational settings, when changes are in place, or plans and programmes are complete and final, only then should they be transmitted to those person'5 affected by them. Premature release of information may cause needless morale or other upsets. The following could be some of the other reasons for communication confusion or break down (Kumar, 1997) : • • • • •

When the receiver hears what he expects to hear. When the sender and receiver have different perceptions. When words mean different things to different people. When the emotional state of the receiver conditions what he hears, and The sender does not know how the receiver perceives the situation.

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Communication Skills for Educational Managers

Some of the above limitations and other barriers can be overcome to enhance better communication by practicing some of the following tips : • Maximising and utilizing feedback by using many channels of communication. • Using more face-to-face communication. • Being sensitive to the world of the receiver. • Being aware of symbolic meanings. • Tuning messages carefully. • Reinforcing words with action, and • Using direct and simple language. Better communication can raise aspirations and project a more meaningful future in the present. It can also raise awareness, meet information needs, and reinforce existing beliefs. Good communication can motivate towards better performance of ones duties through promise of self-gratification or reward. In institutes where there is a free flow of communication there is work efficiency and a clearer perception of goals, as also a greater possibility of goal realization. And most importantly, there is a greater acceptance of communication messages which are adapted to the psychological predisposition of the audiences, and where there is constant monitoring and adaptation of messages to feedback.

Communication Link to Organizational Effectiveness As early as 1938, Chester Barrand observed that in any organization, communication occupies a central place, because the structure, extensiveness, and the scope of the organization are almost entirely dependent on communication techniques. It is one of the most important aspects that allow an organization to be what it is. There would really be no organization if all the forms of communication are removed from it. Research studies have revealed that depending upon one's position within an organization, commwlication forms about fifty to ninety percent of activity of the working day. Poor communication causes tensions, anxieties and frustrations which have a dramatic effect upon the general atmosphere of the organization and the employee's mental and physical state in particular. The low morale further leads to decreased productivity and lagging

Introduction

11

output. Thus, communication is directly linked to organizational effectiveness and plays a significant role in enhancing the same (Mcphee, 1985). Communication in Educational Administration 'Communication' is one of those words like 'Organization' : it is not easy to define (Ludlow and Panton, 1995). One way of looking at it is as 'an interpersonal process of sending and receiving symbols with meanings attached to them'. It is therefore supposed to result in the exchange of information and shared understanding between people. So a measure of the effective management of interpersonal communication is that information is passed, and relationships are built. The success of information passing depends on the nature and quality of the relationship between the persons involved. People tend to experience personal satisfaction when communicating and interacting with friends, relatives and others they know well; in fact-with people with whom they feel comfortable they don't feel the need to be guarded because of the way they manage their relationships with each other. But managers frequently have to work with others with whom they have not developed close relationships in order to achieve organizational objectives. Misunderstandings often lead to disagreement, conflict and mistrust; which in tum may result in lack of cooperation and an unhealthy work climate. People may be polite to each other, and may appear outwardly cooperative. But because of the underlying interpersonal problems which remain undealt with, the quality of 'communication' and ultimately the work output suffers. Moreover, an organization consists of a number of people, and it involves interdependence. People are interdependent when the behaviour 3l1d performance of an individual affects and is affected by the behaviour and performance of others. Relationships between colleagues then-become more critical to the success of the organization as information would have to be transferred and integrated across internal boundaries. So, as a manager's role in gathering and passing information increases, his skills as an intelpersonal communicator will determine his effectiveness. Thus, communication consists of transfer of information and understanding between departments and people within an

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Communication Skills for Educational Managers

organization (micro-level); as well as outside of it. Reaching out to people outside of the organization is also an important managerial! administrative function. For such macro level communicatio~ requirements the mass media become the vehicles of information transfer. Hence, an understanding of communication concepts and the sharpening of communication skills would be critical to be an efficient Manager/Administrator of a successful well-run organization. Pointers are certainly towards the requirement of a 'Communication Audit'. The Communication networks which the Educational Administrators use or are linked to-from the simple postage material to the modem electronic internet, or the government machinery; as well as all modes/types of communication-viz., intra, inter, group and mass communication -all need to be identified. Further, the loose chains in these linkages if tied together and strengthened-would certainly lenlend substance and credibility to the effort towards helping Educational Administrators like College Principals and many others attain proficiency in the performance of their delineated roles. Commtmication Skills for College Principals Communication awareness and skills for College Principals can be enhanced in terms of their conceptual understanding of 'Communication' and 'Organizational Communication', as also skills per se for written and oral communication, and use of technology in communication. Consequently, with consistently manifest effective communication on their part, the College Principals as administrators would enjoy better interpersonal relations, respect and support of the subordinates; and an overall healthy and good-spirited atmosphere would prevail in the organization-leading to good and meaningful work output. An administrator or manager, who seems, almost intuitively, to say the right thing at the right time, is actually exercising skills. Putting into practice some basic principles of communication would also help College Principals enhance communication performance. Few such principles of good communication are listed below (Kumar, 1997) :

Introd uction

13

• • •

Seeking to clarify ideas before communicating. Examining the true purpose of each communication. Considering the total physical and human setting before communicating. • Consulting with others, where appropriate, while planning the communication. • Being mindful while communicating of the overtones as well as the basic contents of the messages. • Taking the opportunity whenever possible to convey something of help or value to the receiver. • Following up the communication. • Communicating while keeping in mind a perspective for at least the near future. • Making sure that actions support the communication, and lastly • Seeking to be not only understood but also to understand by being a good listener. College Principals, of course, need to enhance communication skills necessary to be active and effective administrators. They should be equipped to take appropriate action vis-a-vis the different situation they face in the proceeds of their work. The communication challenges typically faced by College Principals have to do with oral and written communication, as also effective communication networking for all activities falling in the purview of their job, within and outside the educational institute they head.

Self-Learning through a Communication Module Research in the field of Education has established the usefulness of comprehensive modules in enhancing 'learning' in particular target groups. 'Need based' modules, are known to encourage creative learning, bring about desirable changes in knowledge, attitude, and skills (which ultimately help in solving problems); and also help create and sustain interest among learners. Moreover, it is now essential for organizations to remain 'learning' organizations-where the employees keep taking courses and programmes to better their qualifications and performance. It is important for professionals to learn from mistakes as well as the experiences of others, keep abreast with

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Communication Skills for Educational Managers

the information media, and (ultimately) make it good in ones career in shorter time spans. In most organizations, employees are encouraged to attend seminars and conferences, but it is often not possible for all to take advantage of them and gain awareness or relevant new information. It is thus important that self-instructional material be developed vis-a.-vis learning requirements. A 'Communication Module' could help fill in the loose or missing links in the communication abilities of the College Principals-which in turn would lead to healthy and more effective communication networking on their part-enabling them to perform efficiently and optimally at their job. A selfcontained, self-explanatory module could facilitate self-learning at their own pace since College Principals do keep busy round the year. Setting of the Study: The Gujarat University Principals of colleges face an uphill task in terms of communication performance since they have to interact with hundreds of people at different levels as also dispense communication of the required type to higher authorities, co-staff, subordinates, students and others. The main problem they face is of maintaining amicable interpersonal relations particularly while putting across their problems, as also with communication articulation-both oral and written for different purposes as appropriate. The researcher decided to consider College Principals as the target group for the study, and the Gujarat University was selected for the purpose of carrying out the research owing to its proximity to Baroda, as also since its infrastructure and setting of colleges suited the purpose of the study. Moreover, Gujarat University being the largest affiliating University of Gujarat, the methodology evolved in terms of sampling and data collection (i.e., working with College Principals) could best be implemented at the colleges here. The University headquarters in the Navrangpura area of Ahmedabad covers a land- estate area of 260 acres. It was against a background of adventure and spirit of self-sacrifice that Gujarat University had been conceived since the nineteen twenties in the minds of public-spirited and learned men like Gandhiji, Sardar Patel, Acharya Anandshankar Dhruva, Dada Saheb Mavlankar,

Introduction

15

Kasturbhai Lalbhai and many others. It could not, however, achlally take birth till after the achievement of Independence, when in 1949 it was incorporated under the Gujarat University Act of the State Government as a 'teaching and affiliating University as a measure in the decentralization and reorganization of the University education' in the then Province of Bombay. During the course of its life of over 50 years the University has seen the rise of seven more Universities in the State, viz., the Sardar Patel University, Saurashtra University, Bhavnagar University, South Gujarat University, Gujarat Ayurveda University, Gujarat Agricultural University and North Gujarat University. Even so, the Gujarat University is the largest university in the state catering to the needs of higher education of more than 1.8 lakhs of students scattered over 188 Colleges, 15 recognized institutions and 23 approved institutions. There are 34 PostGraduate University departments and 213 P.G. Centres. Gujarat University is an affiliating University at undergraduate level, while it is a teaching one at post-graduate level. Indeed, the responsibility for post-graduate instruction has been statutorily given to the University, and accordingly it has evolved a plan of co-ordinated instruction under the direct control and supervision of the University so as to ensure efficient and diversified instructions. The University also offers good library and health centre facilities. The Gujarat University is run by an Academic Council and an Executive Council whose members are drawn from the Education fraternity of the university with the Vice Chancellor being the ex-officio chairperson of both the councils, and a 'Court' whose ex-officio members include the Chancellor (Governor of Gujarat), university officials, as well as persons from the government and corporation machinery and nominees from the SOciety at large (Gujarat University Diary, 2001-2002). Rationale for the Study If one looks at organizations today, whether they be schools, colleges or any other; it becomes clear that the required communication performance to be effective managers is sometimes difficult to enllance owing to different reasons-which could simply be coined as 'problems'. In reality, one of the greatest challenges as a manager is that other people are different from

16

Communication Skills for Educational Managers

the way one is. Two of the basic differences between people are personality and perception. These differences cause people to behave differently towards others in different situations, and cause communication problems. There could also be external problems like those of 'out-reach' or having to meet with certain societal/market situations which would require an awareness or knowledge of the media and communication skills. These problems manifest at different levels in different ways and create dysfunction and inefficiency in running of the organization. It is possible to overcome these problems by acquiring and enhancing the required communication knowledge and skills for becoming efficient educational managers-for the betterment of the field of education and the larger interest and well-being of the society as well. The solution may lie with the Educational Administrators themselves. They would have to gear-up and take relevant courses/training programmes to re-equip themselves with the required newer qualifications and experiences. In light of the ideas discussed above, the researcher thus proposed to develop an Instructional Module in Communication which would be useful for Educational Administrators (Educational Administrators here-refers to College Principalswho indeed--shoulder major responsibilities of Educational Administration) . The College Principals have major responsibilities in terms of planning, co-ordinating, communicating, maintaining human relations, evaluating performance and giving feedback, resource mobilization, and above all handling the financial matters. The leadership qualities and the g{;.~\eral personality traits of the College Principals contribute a lot to the overall organizational climate of the institution since all manifest performance is hinged on the role that they play within the framework of the managerial . needs and requirements. The overall competence and enhanced communication skills of the College Principals in performing that role would to a great extent determine their overall efficiency. Thus, in the complexity of todays interrelatedness in all spheres of academics and professional as well as social activity, 'Communication' has indeed become a key word; and the need for research and development in this area has thus become an imperative concern.

Introduction

17

'Communication' is indeed one of the most overlooked aspects of educational administration and teaching, yet it is fundamental to all organizational life, particularly life in educational institutes. Thus, review of the concept of 'Communication' in the context of formal and informal systems of the same in educational organizations; and academic and practical work related to the teaching and learning of 'Communication' would be of great significance and help in plugging the research gap, thereby contributing a lot to the field. If one were to work in this area then would it not be pertinent to look at the actual 'role' that educational administrators play in the purview of their job? And what exactly are their needs in 'communication'? How equipped are they to combat the demands of their duties and responsibilities, particularly in context of their communication abilities? And how useful really would a selfinstructional module in communication be to them to help enhance their communication skills? In light of the above research questions, the researcher formulated her study. Statement of the ProbLem The statement of the problem is thus articulated as under: "Development of a Self-Instructional Module to Enhance Communication Skills of College Principals". Objectives of the Study Stemming from the above rationale, the objectives of the study were drawn as follows: 1. To do a 'Role Analysis' of College Principals. 2. To identify the Needs of College Principals in 'Communication'. 3. To develop a Self-Instructional Module in 'Communication' for College Principals. 4. To administer the Self-Instructional Module in 'Communication' to the College Principals for self-study. 5. To evaluate the usefulness of the module through selfappraisal and feedback by College Principals. Operational Definitions For the purpose of this study, the following are the operational definitions of the key words from the statement of the problem under consideration for research :

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Communication Skills for Educational Managers

1. Self-Instructional Module:

'Self-Instructional' means self-explanatory, self-contained material for self-study including progress-check questions and self-assessment exercises for the purpose of self-learning. There are three ways of preparing self-instructional educational material. One is the linear type of programming based on the B.F. Skinner's theory of operant conditioning, the second is the branching type of programming based on Norman A. Crowder's theorization, ilIld the third is the modular type of programming. For this study, the material is in printed form and is called the 'module'. The module is self-contained and consists of two sections, which are further divided into units and segments as appropriate to the content. The components and sequencing of the module is as follows: Section 1 deals with the 'Conceptual Understanding of Communication', while Section 2 deals with 'Organizational Communication and its Dynamics'. Section 2 is further divided into four units viz. (a) Understanding Organizational Communication, (b) Oral Communication, (c) Written Communication, and (d) Use of Technology in Communication. Both the Sections comprised detailed segments which provided information on particular delineated areas with the help of theoretical content which included models, graphics, illustrations and examples as required. Progress check questions were included to help them determine how much they had understood and could recall, and self-assessment exercises would help them analyse their own personality traits and routine managerial and communication habits which they may otherwise be taking for granted. References for further reading are also given at the end of the module to help the learners pick up more on the subject areas that may have interested them. Clearly, management and communication skills cannot be acquired through reading and understanding of theorization alone, and hence this activity based module would indeed be useful to college principals to gain information and the much needed practice of what they learnt through the assignments provided-thereby eventually, enhancing their manifest communication skills. 2. Communication : A process which is both-interactive and purposeful, a constant social interaction between an individual and the society

Introduction

19

for the mutual satisfaction of needs. For this study, communication is considered as the transaction that is essential between the College Principals and his higher-up officials, co-staff, subordinates, students and others. The interaction may include oral, written, or any other form of communication including the use of technology for the same. The 'communication module' developed for the purpose of this study includes conceptualization, theorization, information and applications for gaining knowledge, understanding and skills for communication enhancement and performance.

2

Review of Literature In this chapter, an attempt has been made to present findings from the review of related literature pertaining of organizational communication and preparation of self-instructional material for educational administrators and its effectiveness. Owing to the interdisciplinary nature of the study, the literature reviewed was quite varied in nature and content. Background to the Review of Literature The researcher initiated the review with a scrutiny of literature on organizational communication since it was important to address oneself as a researcher to this academic field, beginning by acknowledging two important facts: viz., (1) that the subject matter associated with the field has been designated by a variety of labels, of which 'Organizational Communication' is the most recent. Of course, this label did not achieve general use until the late 1960s or perhaps even the early 1970s; moreover, ill the 1980s uther labels frequently emerged, and (2) Academic course work and research programs dealing with organizational communication alw.l:. s have been, and still are, offered in a bewildering diversity of departments or other administrative units. These include such entities as business administration, financial management, industrial management, psychology, sociology, speech (oral) communication, and, finally, communication. The historical overview to the emergence of 'Organizational

Review of Literature

21

Communication' as a concept has been reviewed in detail for the present study. Next, the researcher reviewed some work on 'Job Satisfaction', since in her own study, she worked on the premise that job satisfaction is to a great extent determined by the 'communication' component as manifest in the varied demands of the nature of the work in all the different professions. Literature which emphasized the significance of 'life-long education' for all was also reviewed. The relevance of this concept lies in making a case for taking steps to sustain interest and cultivate an attitude among adult learners of keep~g a readiness for self-learning to enhance required skills. Literature in the context of 'Role Analysis' and 'Needs Assessment' was looked at vis-a-vis the methodology undertaken by the researcher for the purpose of the study. No relevant studies, though, pertaining to or focusing on the 'role analysis' and 'needs assessment in communication' aspects were found, and the researcher thus explored literature on the same in terms af conceptual understanding and in meaning per se. Lastly and importantly, literature pointing to the need for research and documentation in the area of communication for educational administrators was reviewed. Excerpts from Documents Reviewed Following are the relevant excerpts from the documents reviewed by the researcher : Orgallizatiollal Commullicatioll : The Story of a Label According to Redding (1985), labels can be no more than lexical tags, or they can speak volumes about their referents. When "business and industrial" was generally dislodged by "organizational" as a modifier, this symbolized what one could nominate as the most important conceptual shift in the history of the field: the final acceptance of the blatantly obvious fact that the world is full of many kinds of organizations in addition to just those we call businesses and industries. Moreover, the noun term" communication" is also noteworthy. It gradually came to replace narrower labels denoting such specific skills (or processes) as "speaking" and "writing", not to mention even narrower ones like "public speaking", "report writing", and "corporate publications". Although we can find

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Communication Skills for Educational Managers

instances of "communication"-or its variants, "communicate" and "communications" -in the business literature as early as the late nineteenth century, the term appears to have become popular only after the United States entered World War II. A six-year period, 1942-1947, has been identified as "The Seminal Years" in the history of the field. It was during these years that "communication" emerges repeatedly in both academic and nonacademic publications. However, the cases in which "communication" was paired with "organizational" were extremely rare until the 1960s. We now get down to specifics about the phrase "organizational communication", in its literal lexical form. The answer to the question, "Who first used the label 'organizational communication', and when?" is that nobody knows. However, one can locate some early examples - very few before 1960. First we find that H.A. Simon, renowned authority on organization theory (and a Nobel laureate), used a phrase very similar to "organizational communication". In his classic treatise Administrative Behavior (1945) he discussed "organization communications" systems. Note the omission of the suffix aI, and the plural s. Simon left no doubt~ jn his separate chapter devoted entirely to "communication" (the generic term, no s), that the basic process of communication was of the highest importance in his theory of organizational behavior. Simon is famous for positing the "decisional premise" as the fundamental unit of organizational functioning. It was in this frame of reference that he offered a formal definition of communication as "any process whereby decisional premises are transmitted from one member of an organization to another" (Simon, 1945 : 154). However, despite his sophisticated theorizing, Simon was also able to slip into a less exalted view of communication in the organizational setting. Modem readers may be startled, for example, by such pronouncements as the following : The crucial point is whether the recipient of an order, or of any other kind of communication, is influenced by the communication in his actions or decisions, or whether he is not. The problem of securing employees' compliance with a safety rule is not ven) different from the problem of securing a customer's

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acceptance of a particular brand of soap [Simon, i945 : 164; emphasis added]. Indeed, Simon proposed that there are just two basic dimensions characterizing all organizational messages : "intelligibility" and "persuasiveness" (p. 171). Those who are familiar with "Boulwarism", the labor relations philosophy espoused by Lemuel R. Boulware, vice president of General Electric in the 1940s and 1950s, may recall that Boulware also insisted that persuasion was the major objective of corporate (that is, managerial) communication. It is not enough, Boulware said repeatedly, for management to "do right". The company must also persuade its employees that it is indeed doing right. In one of his earliest published statements, Boulware (1948) urged managers to sell their employees (see Baritz, 1960 : 242; also Northrup, 1964 : 25-36). Whether Boulware had read Simon (1945) is, of course, impossible to determine. What matters is that, at least in some limited respects, the views of the theoretician Simon and of the corporate manager Boulware overlapped. This can be said while at the same time honoring Simon for having made some of the most creative and sophisticated contributions to the theory of communication in this century. In 1951 Bavelas and Barrett, two mathematically oriented experimenters, published a paper that has become one of the most influential publications in the history of the field-a paper with the precise lexical phrase "organizational communication" in its title : "An Experimental Approach to Organizational Communication". Like Simon, they postulated communication as a fundamental determinant of organization : Simon (1945) : "Communication is absolutely essential to organization" . Bave/as and Barrett (1951) : It [communication] is the essence of organized activity and is the basic process out of which all other functions derive". The authors went further to suggest a minimum of three basic dimensions of organizational communication : (1) message content, (2) technique (for example, rhetorical devices), and (3) channels. Then they proceeded to devote their research report entirely to the last of these : channels-or networks. The paper

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Communication Skills for Educational Managers

described experimental manipulations of communication channels in small (five-person) groups, operating in highly controlled lab.oratory settings. Results were couched largely in terms of effects upon speed and accuracy of problem solving, as compared with effects upon "morale". Although conducted with small groups in restricted settings, and with highly artificial modes of transmitting messages, the Bavelas and Barrett (1951) study was a pioneer in the network tradition. If we were to select a single contribution as the starting point for the network approach to the study of organizational communication, the Bavelas and Barrett paper would probably qualify. However, it would have to share this particular "first" with another influential paper published the same year (1951) by Jacobson and Seashore. The difference between the two is important. Whereas Bavelas and Barrett concerned themselves with a small laboratory group operating under artificial, controlled circumstances, Jacobson and Seashore applied network analysis to a large real-life organization (n=204), using a descriptive rather than experimental design. Also, Jacobson and Seashore spoke in terms of "communication practices in complex organizations" and especially of the "communication structure of organization"; at no time did they use the label" organizational communication". Five years after the Bavelas and Barrett article had appeared, the journal Advanced Management printed an essay by Professor Harold Zelko of Pennsylvania State University. A widely known professor of speech, and consultant to corporations and government agencies, Zelko addressed himself to the problem of determining the overall effectiveness of a business firm's total communication efforts : "How effective are your company communication?" (Zelko, 1956). What concerns us here is that the label "organizational communication" was a prominent feature of the Zelko article. More important, the article itself was a preview and summary of major topics discussed in a collegelevel textbook, written by Zelko and a coauthor, the following year: Management-Employee Communication in Action (Zelko and O'Brien, 1957). Both in the article and in the textbook, the phrase "organizational communication" was used in a less-thancomprehensive sense. First, two broad divisions of the total

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subject were delineated, under the labels "internal communication" and "external communication". No label was offered that would embrace both these divisions : Obviously, the title of the book, Management-Employee Communication in Action, could not logically subsume the heading "external". One might imagine that "organizational" would have been reserved to provide a single, comprehensive designator-at least for all "internal" communication phenomena. But such was not the case. The authors, rather surprisingly (as it appears from the vantage point of the 198Os), chose to subdivide "internal communication" into two areas, one of which was called "organizational"; the other, "interpersonal communication". In fact,they went so far as to declare, "It is a long jump from organizational to interpersonal communication", adding that "the close, personal relation between supervisor and worker and between employees themselves is the ketj to the communication system" (Zelko and O'Brien, 1957: 21; - emphasiS added). One can justifiably regard the Zelko and O'Brien (1957) book as the first comprehensive, college-level textbook taking a broad view of communication in the organizational setting-as contrasted to earlier titles that consistently dealt only with restricted aspects of communication, such as speaking or writing. Adapting principles taught in speaking and writing courses (especially group discussion), rather than findings from "scientific" research, Zelko and O'Brien set out to provide a general-purpose guide to practical application. Considerably more than half their book was devoted to specific, detailed instructions for improving communication skills-with heaviest emphasis upon the oral situations of public speaking, conversation, interview, and smallgroup conference. As the authors pointed out in the preface: The principles and suggestions in this book are the result of years of experience in organizing and conducting training programs in communication. We have found our proving ground for testing our theories and methods in many consultative activities with groups and industries (Zelko and O'Brien: xiii). Whereas Zelko and O'Brien (1957) were offering a practical textbook and singing the praises of communication as a humanizing elixir in organizational life, another book came out in the same year that could almost be regarded as a point-by-

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Communication Skills for Educational Manag~;s

point rebuttal of Zelko and O'Brien. Chris Argyris-who has since become one of the most famous authorities on organizational behavior-published Personality and Organization. Ostensibly a painstaking, scholarly review of the theoretical and research literature (and, in fact, a very good one), the book is much more. It IS a well-documented polemic, attacking the typical modem organization as an engine of destruction, frustrating any "mature" needs its members might harbor. It is included in the present discussion because : (a) it singles out "organizational communication" for special attention, and (b) it brings its heaviest artillery to bear against the then-popular precepts of "human relations", with partidIlar reference to corporate communication programs. Argyris directly challenges many of the most widely touted communication "rules", arguing that most organizational communication practices are based upon such assumptions as "management knows best", and employees "are inherently lazy" or stupid. Communication programs, he charges, are filled with mindless gimmicks derived from the "human relations fad" (Argyris, 1957 : 139-174). Although much of the research cited by Argyris is now outdated, contemporary students of organizational communication would do well to go back and read his book, for much of what he says still poses a cogent critique of important concepts and premises in the field. . Further, looking at publications that appeared until the end of the 19505, we find no important documents other than the few already cited that featured "organizational communication" as a title or chapter heading. What terminology, then, was in fashion during those early years? The fact is that no single label earned unanimous support. However, as the years passed, the terms "business", "industrial", and especially "business and industrial" appear to have been used more often than any others. When one adds such adjectives as "administrative", "managerial", "corporate", "employee", or "management-employee", about ninety percent of all the modifiers paired with "communication" are accounted for. One key development, however, must be noted : the rapid increase-after 1940---in the frequency with which "communication" (or one of its variants) was used. Two psychologists, Sexton and Staudt (1959) published an exhaustive review of the literature,

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using the overall label "business communication". This is the earliest systematic and comprehensive literature review to be completed in the history of the field. The authors listed a total of 178 titles, the great majority of which had appeared between 1945 and 1958. Of these 178 entries, the only one displaying "organizational communication" in the title was the piece discussed earlier by Bavelas and Barrett (1951). But a quick count indicates that about one hundred, or almost 60 percent of the whole list, contained "communications", or "communicate" in their titles. Before 1940, any derivative of the verb" communicate" was a rare occurrence in publications dealing with subject matter relevant to this chapter. However, while "communication" was steadily gaining ground throughout the 1940s, "organization" did not fare nearly so well. Of the 178 items in the Sexton and Staudt (1959) review, only three revealed in their titles any variant of the term "organization". This is a highly significant fact, for it reflects the astounding reluctance, on the part of both scholars and practitioners, to conceptualize "organization" as a genre in its own right. Everyone was preoccupied with one or more particular types of organization; business, industry, the military, government, and the like. But it was not until 1958 that March and Simon published their groundbreaking book Organizations. And when the pioneering anthology Modern Organization Theon) appeared the following year, the editor remarked, "Even ten years ago, it would not have been possible to bring together such a group of papers", considering that "the term 'organization theory' itself would have seemed out of place" (Haire, 1959 : 1). Reflecting upon this state of affairs, then, we can hardly be surprised that several years were to pass before the phrase "organizational communication" achieved a semblance of general currency. The fact is, the label "organizational communication" dfd not resurface with significant frequency until the late 1960s. A convenient landmark event is the "Conference on Organizational Communication", which took place at the Marshall Space Flight Center, in Huntsville, Alabama, August 8-11, 1967 (Richetto, 1967). Under the direction of Walter Wiesman, internal communication coordinator for the Marshall Center (NASA), the four-day conference brought together management representatives

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Communication Skills for Educational Managers

from government agencies and MSFC contractors, as well as academic specialists from four universities. The major address, delivered by Phillip K. Tompkins (then of Wayne State University, and a consultant to the Center) consisted of a comprehensive . review of empirical research that had been completed in the field up to that time. It was a pioneering "state-of-the-art" effort, and the earliest (to my knowle0.ge) to be published explicitly under the title "organizational communication" (Tompkins, 1967). This 1967 conference at Huntsville was also, so far as can be determined, the first conference specifically devoted to theory and research (along with implications for practice) ever held under the label "organizational communication". Coincidentally, the earliest known bibliography of the field to be published under the "organizational communication" label also made its appearance in 1967 : Voos (167). Like the NASA conference at Huntsville, this project was also underwritten by a government agency, the Office of Naval Research. Thus, with these two events occurring in the same year, one could nominate 1967 as "The Year of Official Acceptance" in history. (An important literature review and bibliography had, indeed, appeared in 1965, under the authorship of Harold Guetzkow; but its title was "Communications in Organizations" (Guetzkow, 1965). Thus, it is no exaggeration to say that the basic contours of "organizational communication" were determined by around 1950, with no drastic changes for the next fifteen to twenty years, and the 'official acceptance' of the label accomplished in 1967. Organizational Communication in India: Preliminary Findings from an Empirical Study This study by Dholakia (2002), being essentially empirical in nature, is based on primary data relating to Indian organizations. The primary data has been collected through a sample survey based on a questionnaire focusing on the following aspects of organizational communication: (a) Nature of Communication, focusing on the proportion of working time spent in talking and listening and also the perceived extent of non-verbal communication. (b) Communication Content, focusing on the communication of compliments and criticism across levels.

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(c) Communication Outcomes, focusing on the communication goof-ups and the degree of satisfaction with one's communication dealings within the organization. An attempt has been made in the study to try and examine communication dealings by differentiating between the people working in the Corporate and Academic Organizations; and Males and Females. The study highlights significant differences between males and females in terms of several aspects of organizational communication. There are a few differences in some aspects of organizational communication between the people working in the corporate and academic organizations. The main findings of the study reflect that organizational communication has been viewed as highly significant by all the respondents without exception. While commenting on the significance of communication at the workplace, many respondents observed that communication is the lifeline of the organization and the overall effectiveness of the organization depends critically on the nature, content and outcome of organizationai communication. Based on the findings of the sample survey, the following preliminary conclusions can be drawn : • Persons working in the corporate and academic organizations in India spend more time in talking than listening. • Almost all employees use non-verbal communication at all levels and across all categories. • Frequency of complimenting is higher than that of criticizing and compliments are also conveyed much earlier than criticisms at all levels and across all categories. • Most of the employees face the problem of communication goof-ups regardless of the level or the category; though by and large they are satisfied in their communication dealings with their colleagues and subordinates but not so satisfied in their dealings with the boss. • There are significant differences between males and females in terms of several aspects of organizational communication.

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Communication Skills for Educational Managers •

There are a few differences in some aspects of organizational communication between the people working in the corporate and academic organizations. In most cases, the differences in the given aspects of organizational communication across categories and levels observed in this study seem to corroborate the broad conceptual patterns emerging from the available literature on organizational communication. The Context of Job Satisfaction Being 'satisfied' is one of the most important criteria one ascribed to work. According to Hoppock (1935), job satisfaction is any combination of psychological, physiological and environmental circumstances that causes a person truthfully to say, "I am satisfied with my job". Job satisfaction stands for the complex state of the workers attitude towards work (Blun, 1956). In other words, it is a 'verbal expression of an incumbents evaluation of his/her job' (Katzell, 1957). According to Smith et. al., (1969), it represents the difference between what is expected and what is experienced in relation to the alternatives available in a given job situation. Thus it represents the degree of satisfaction obtained by the individual employee from performing the job (Chatterjee, 1970). It expresses the extent of agreement between ones expectations of the job and the rewards that the job provides (Davis, 1981). Several theories exist concerning the dynamiCS of job satisfaction and its general impact upon worker behaviour. Further, Kanungo (1982), has drawn a subtle distinction between job involvement and work hlVolvement. He regarded work involvement as a generalized cognitive state of psychological identification with work, when work is considered to have the power to satisfy ones needs and aspirations. On the other hand, according to him, job involvement refers to a specific cognitive belief-state of psychological identification with the present job. Besides, job involvement is influenced by the situational, personalpsychological, and the demographic variables of an individual in a specific socio-economic and cultural milieu. Importance of Life-Long Leaming According to Singh (2001), life-long education should enable people to develop a better awareness of themselves and their

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environment, of their strengths and weaknesses; and encourage them to play their social role at work, in the community, and in the government of the country. However, while planning any programme of education, its following characteristics should be kept in mind : (i) It should be need-based (ii) It should encourage creativity (iii) It should help in solving problems (i\') It should bring in desirable changes in knowledge, attitude and skills, and (v) It should create and sustain interest among the learners. An effective life··long education system is possible only through intelligent selection and proper use of various communication channels. Too often, we have pushed illconceived messages through weak communication channels to inappropriate audiences. In addition to the age-old person-toperson communication, the latest communication strategies to spread messages quickly and effectively should also be employed. Moreover, emphasis of research should also shift as suggested below: (i) Shifting attention from end users to decision-making process (ii) Emphasising the role of Education in the structural change process (iii) Shifting attention from individual effects to institutional effects (iv) Laying greater emphasis on improving quality output by ensuring peoples' professional upgradation too. A powerful and innovative communication programme can play a significant role in motivating masses towards self improvement. Communication and education are the primary tools for conscientizing the people towards organizing themselves to take actions necessary for their emancipation and development. Knowledge can prepare the people to discover their strengths and weaknesses and their potential role in the process of change and development. Communication is the tool in the hands of educators to bring desirable changes in the knowledge, attitude

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Communication Skills for Educational Managers

and skills of the people through information, helping them to help themselves through active participation. An appropriate communication strategy based on a multimedia approach; deliberately planned, organized and directed in a manner and form which are popularly relevant to the changing environment and the desired change would be essential for the success of all the life-long learning programmes.

Tire Context of Role Analysis In the context of Role Analysis, Pande (1989) in her study A Study of Role Analysis - Role Enactment, Role Contentment and Role Constraint of Home Science College Teachers" stated that the role concept was introduced into the terminology of social sciences by Linton (1936) whose first formulation about role was: A status, as distinct from the individual who may occupy it, is simply a collection of rights and duties ... A role represents the dynamic aspect of a status .... When (an individual) puts the rights and duties into effect, he is performing a role ... Status and role serves to reduce the idea! patterns for social life to individual terms. They become models for organizing the attitude and behaviour of the individual so that these will be congruous with those of other individuals participating in the expression of the pattern. In this definition - status and role are pictured as two aspects of the same thing and quite inseparable. Linton (1945) in his later book shifted his emphasis to introduce new features. He states: The term 'role' will be used to designate the sum total of the culture patterns associated with a particular status. It thus includes the attitudes, values and behaviours ascribed by the society to any and all persons occupying the status. It can even be extended to include the legitimate expectations of such persons with respect to the behaviour towards them of persons in other statuses within the same system. In this definition 'role' is an ideal pattern of conduct which actual behaviour rarely quite fulfills. Newcomb T.H. (1950) does not follow Linton's use of 'status' but instead pictures every member of a society as occupying a 'position'; each position has -a function in the life of a group and consists of rules concerning behaviour towards others. The ways of behaving which are II

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expected of any individual who occupies a certain position constitute the role ... associated with that position. Talcott Parsons (1951) states that in his terminology every position consists of two halves-the role, denoting its obligations, and the status, referring to its rights. Though Parsons suggested that the consensus over the content of roles may be related to the stability and integration of the system, and to the commitment of individuals to particular roles, he also indicates to assume consensus in practice. Banton (1968) states that behaviour can be related to the individual's own ideas of what is appropriate (role cognitions) or other people's ideas about what he should not do (Norms). In this light, Banton states that a role may be understood as a set of norms or expectations applied to the incumbent of a particular position. The Context of Needs Assessment According to Dooley (1995), the Needs Assessment stage identifies goals, but does not determine whether the programme has met the goals. Thus, needs assessment occurs in the early, formative stages of programme planning. Often based on surveys or archival data, needs assessment searches for an unmet need and describes its size and location. The resulting data bothjustify the programme and set its goals. Ideally, programmes should dispense their resources giving priority to those areas and populations in greatest need. The failure to conduct a needs assessment can lead to waste. For example, an existing project may expand not because of documented need but because of staff enthusiasm. As a result, scarce resources may go to people with little needs or needs different from the ones best met by the programme. Needs assessment can also help in the later judgement of programme impact by setting clear goals against which to measure the intervention. In case of the present study, it would be relevant to look at or try to assess the communication needs of College Principals in the context of their job setting in order to ensure that the self-study module to be developed for them would serve the required purpose of skills enhancement. Relevance of Utility of Subject Matter/Content Thomas (1984) in her study stated that: for instructional purpose, deciding and preparing the content or subject matter is the most important and crucial task needing a great deal of

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Communication Skills for Educational Managers

attention. The subject matter should be selected on the basis of its assurance of future utility. Tefler (1979) while discussing the theory of futurism in relation to the field of education indicated that, nothing should be included in a required curriculum unless it can be strongly justified in terms of future, even at the cost of scrapping a substantial part of the formal curriculum. It does not hint at total destruction of past or total removal of the basic knowledge. What it means is that the subjects whose 'present' and future utility is questionable should be removed to make room for more beneficial subjects. He suggested Mass Communication and certain common skills needed for human communication/integration as having high future utility. Musgrove (1968) also suggested that broad flexible curricula should be developed in line with major trends in the society. Need for the Development of a 'Communication Module' for Educatiollal Administrators An important concern that has been reflected in some doctoral researches and research projects is to draw, of course with discrimination, upon insights into administration derived from other fields and disciplines. Some of the neglected areas of research in educational administration are: administrative climate of educational institutions, administrative behaviours of principals, human relations, communication, evaluation as a feedback service, institutional and decentralized educational planning, the evaluation of the planning machinery in education, training of educational administrators in managerial skills and procedures of planning, university governance, and operational effectiveness of its authorities, boards and committees, decision making in universities, and educational administration as a social science discipline. The Second Survey of Research in Education (1979), stated that: Administration of Education, like any other field of administration, is oriented to human experiences and has concern about effective management, quality output and greater and speedier development in the area that it is administered. While some doctoral researchers did encompass the 'human relations' approach, and few others developed instructional material based on the assessment of 'learner stage'-in their work in the area of educational administration; no documentation that touched the areas such as 'Role Analysis' or examining the

Review of Literature 'Communication Needs' of College Principals as educational administrators, and developing a self-instructional module for the same-was found. Summation of the Review of Literature From all of the above Review of Literature, it clearly emerged that of all subject areas, communication skills needed for human communication and integration have the potential for very high future utility. Of course though, appropriate development and design of course content for any target group would be important if it was to lead to enhanced learning and practice. Moreover, it clearly emerges that communication is one of the neglected areas of research in educational administration of which there is a dearth of documented material, and hence it imperatively needs attention and application. It would be a significant contribution on part of researchers to take up required developmental studies which would fill in the gap in existing literature. Thematically and methodologically too, it would be interesting to look at the 'role' educational administrators play, as also assess their communication needs-studies of the nature of which, though required, have not been taken up nor adequately highlighted. Clearly there are pointers towards taking up studies like the present one where need-based self-instructional material is developed-in the case of the ·present study-for College Principals-to enhance their communication skills and performance.

3 Plan and Procedures for the Study This chapter deals with the plan and procedures followed for the study. Stemming from the rationale and objectives which have been presented in Chapter One, and the comprehensive Review of Literature presenfed in Chapter Two-the researcher evolved the required methodology. The population of the study ,. included all the principals of the colleges located in Ahmedabadaffiliated to Gujarat University. There are totally ninety-one colleges in Ahmedabad comprising thirteen facuIties-with an affiliation to Gujarat University. These were then sampled for the study-the details of which are discussed in the Sampling Plan. Design of the Study Nature/Type of Study As per the objectives of the study the present piece of work is of Developmental type. For the finalization of the module and to find out its utility an empirical approach was followed. Phases of the Study The study was conducted in three phases as per the objectives: Phase I comprised : (i) Role Analysis of College Principals, and (ii) Needs Assessment of College Principals

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Phase II comprised : The Development of the Module Phase III comprised: (i) Implementation of the module, and (ii) Evaluation of the module. In Phase I of the study, the researcher first undertook data collection for 'Role Analysis' of College Principals with the help of a 'Role Analysis Schedule'. The 'Role Analysis' was conducted in order to look at the nature of the work the principals attended to in all its nuances-in the context of communication. The researcher visited the sampled colleges twice and took notes on the observations made on the college premises and information elicited through interaction (informal discussions) with College _ Principals. Next, the researcher undertook the 'Needs Assessment' survey to determine their needs in communication with the help of a 'Needs Assessment Schedule'. The researcher visited the sampled colleges to meet the College Principals and elicit the required data through interaction (informal discussion) with them. The data for 'Role Analysis' was additionally in the form of statements and opinions-all of which was inferred through descriptive analysis; and data for the 'Needs Assessment' was in the form of ratings, statements, and opinions; as also of course information, observations, and notes-for which tallies and frequencies were marked and percentages calculated. The researcher also interacted with five retired College Principals to get their views and opinions on 'Role Analysis' and the 'Needs Assessment' planned for the study. Part of the data was inferred through a descriptive analysis. The Pilot Study . For the second part of Phase I of the study-viz. the Needs Assessment Survey, the researcher conducted a Pilot Study to test how well the tool-the Needs Assessment Schedule-would work. The Needs Assessment Schedule would help identify and determine meaningful parameters for inclusion in the selfinstructional module in communication. After the tool was constructed, and before it was used for the pilot study, it was validated through experts-who represented both the fields of Communication and Education. Two experts from the field of communication were :

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Communication Skills for Educational Managers

1. Head of a Communication Research Group (Male), and 2. An Academician in Communication (Female). The other three experts from the field of Education were: 1. A senior retired College Principal (Male), 2. A senior officiating College Principal (Female), and 3. A deputy registrar-administration (Male). The validators approved of the tool, though there was a suggestion from one of them-that of including an open ended question immediately after the closed ended one on the understanding of the various parameters of communicationinquiring about information/understanding about'communication' already possessed by the respondents-viz., the college principals. This would help the researcher to guage their present level of understanding of the concept of communication and plan further inputs accordingly. Analysis of the Pilot Study Background Information and Profile of the Respondents : The pilot study was conducted on ten respondents who were selected on the basis uf them being representative of the Educational Administration System. Of the ten respondents, nine were males and one female; four were in the age group of 51 to 60 years, three were in the age group of 61 to 70 years, while three of the respondents were in the age group of 71 to 80 years. Of the ten respondents three had a Masters degree, two had a double Masters degree, one respondent had an M.Phil. qualification, and four of the respondents had Doctorate degrees as educational qualifications. Further, one of the respondents was currently a college principal, three were retired college principals, one was a retired Principal/Director of an Educational Organization; yet another respondent was an ex-principal-currently a Writer. Two of the respondents were directors of Open Universities-one at a State level university, and another at a national level; and two more of the respondents were registrars of the university system-one of the examination section and another of the administrative section. All of the respondents had over fifteen to twenty-five years of experience in varied educational organizations or academic set-ups. The profile of the respondents reflected their high academic qualifications, years of rich experience and a

Plan and Procedures for the Study

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good professional stature. Thus, in their capacity as Pilot Study respondents for the study, they formed a varied, yet comprehensive, holistic representative group. Responses to the Tool Questions one and two of the schedule on job satisfaction and the significance of the communication component of the same were understood and responded to well and the five point rating scale for the same from 'Highly Significant' to 'Cannot decide' seemed appropriate. The third question on the rating of professional performance in terms of communication abilities with people at the work place was also well responded to, and the five point rating of 'very good' to 'very poor' seemed appropriate. The fourth question on the usefulness of the understanding of the concept of communication had to he explained to a few of the respondents. An interesting finding from the responses here was that there was a strong endorsement of the categorization, and the open ended question too on understanding of the concept of communication already possessed-elicited appropriate answers. The next two questions on the problems encountered with written and oral communication by the college principals worked well too with the respondents. Along with the five point rating scale of' Always' to 'Never', two other options of 'Not in the purview of the job', and 'Would like to enhance the skills' were also added to give them more scope for answer. The next two questions on problems encountered by the college principals with using technology at work, and problems encountered with executing their administrative functions and responsibilities-were both well understood and responded to with a suggestion to include in the list of administrative functions the criteria of maintaining students records-which is indeed an important administrative responsibility of the principals office. For these two questions too, the five point rating scale of 'Always' to 'Never', and the two additional categories of response-were approved by the respondents. Finally, in response to the question whether a self-instructional module would help college principals in the enhancement of their communication skills, the answer was an emphatic "Yes". The responses and suggestions elicited from the pilot study paved the way for incorporating the required changes and

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Communication Skills for Educational Managers

finalizing the Needs Assessment Schedule to be used for further data collection-viz., conducting the Communication Needs Assessment Survey of College Principals. The respondents had felt comfortable while answering the questions, and only on a couple of occasions did the researcher have to clarify what had been asked. Thus, the pilot study proved to be useful to the researcher since it instilled in her a conviction regarding the workability of the tool; and also helped her in getting a feel of actual data collection. She realized she would have to make it a point to interact as much as possible with the College Principals in order to gain better insights through meaningful data for the purpose of the study. In Phase IT of the study, the researcher undertook the development of the self-instructional module in communication for the College Principals-based on the findings of the role analysis and the needs assessment survey. The module included content in two sections on 'Communication' and 'Organizational Communication and its Dynamics'-which were presented in further break-ups of units and segments. The module was activity based and included progress-check questions and selfassessment exercises, and before it was implemented and administered to the College Principals, it was validated through subject experts. In Phase III of the study, the module was administered to the sampled College Principals by reaching it to them for self-study with an explanation of what was expected of them. They were requested to keep a time frame of eight to ten weeks for study and response. In the second part of Phase III of the study, data obtained through the Feedback Schedule (sent back by the College Principals after studying the module) in the form of ratings, information and comments/suggestions-were inferred through marking of frequency tallies and calculation of percentages. Some of the data was descriptively analysed. This phase of the study evaluated and helped determine the usefulness and future utilization of the module. Constructiott of Tools All the three tools (as mentioned above in the Phases of the Study) used for data collection were developed by the researcher, as no appropriate standardized tools were available which could

Plan and Procedures for the Study

41

focus on the required information drawn from the intended population. The three tools constructed were: ] . The Role Analysis Schedule used in the first phase (Appendix lA). 2. The Needs Assessment Schedule used in the first phase (Appendix IB). 3. The Feedback Schedule used in the third phase (Appendix IC). The tool for the 'Role Analysis'-viz.,-the Role Analysis Schedule comprised of open-ended observation criteria, the details of which would be filled up by the researcher herself during her data collection interaction with the College Principals. The tool for the 'Needs Assessment'-viz.,-the Needs Assessment Schedule comprised of both-open and close ended questions. The nature of the information needed to be elicited being such, the researcher on some occasions interacted with the College Principals and filled up the schedule herself; and at other times left it with the respondents to fill, who later mailed it back. The tool for the Evaluation of the Module-viz.,-the Feedback Schedule was included in the module itself and was required to be filled in and mailed back to the researcher by the College Principals after they had studied the module. The validity of all the three tools was est~blished by submitting them to a thorough scrutiny and subsequent approval of a panel of six experts representing the fields of 'Communication', 'Education', and 'Management'. The experts had been asked to gauge how well the tool would work in terms of the particular data that was required to be elicited through the same vis-a.-vis the real data collection situation. Sampling Plan The sample of college principals for the study was selected through the Probability Sampling (more specifically Multistage Cluster Sampling) Method; for which the following criteria was considered : (i) Type of funding of the college (ii) TImings of the college (iii) Gender of students (as eligibility for admission to the college)

42

Communication Skills for Educational Managers (iv) Medium of instruction at the college (v) Geographical location of the college.

The tables on the following pages represent the sampling details evolved for the purpose of the study. Table 3.1 Facultywise Colleges Located in Ahmedabad, Number Sampled and Representative Percentage for the Study Sr. Name of Faculty No.

Total Number in Ahmedabad

1. Arts Colleges 2. Arts and Commerce Colleges 3. Arts and Science Colleges 4. Commerce Colleges 5. Science Colleges 6. Dental Colleges 7. Education Colleges 8. Engineering ITechnology Colleges 9. Law Colleges 10. Medical Colleges including Nursing and Physiotherapy 11. Pharmacy COlleges 12. 'Bachelors of Business Administration' Colleges 13. 'Bachelors of Computer Application' Colleges 14. Post-Graduate University Departments* Total

Number Sampled for the Study

Representative Percentage

10

4

40

15 2 22 5 1 8

7 2 10 2 1 7

46.66 100 45.45 40 100 87.5

2 6

2 2

100 33.33

5 1

4 1

80 100

7

3

42.85

7

3

42.85

* 91

2 50

* 54.94

.. There are many post-graduate departments in the University but the departments of Management and Communication were included in the sample because of the relevance of the subject areas to the study.

Table 3.2 Facu lywlse ~r.

Name of

No. Faculty

Brea k ~o f All C o11lejtes of Ah medabad vis-i-via the Criteria for Sample Selection

Total No in

N