CliffsTestPrep NYSTCE: Multi-Subject Content Specialty Test

CliffsTestPrep ® NYSTCE®: Multi-Subject Content Specialty Test (CST) An American BookWorks Corporation Project Contri...

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CliffsTestPrep

®

NYSTCE®: Multi-Subject Content Specialty Test (CST) An American BookWorks Corporation Project

Contributing Authors/Consultants Linda Anderson, MFA Jana Dixon, Ed.M. Sara Dubow, Ph.D. Chandra J. Foote, Ph.D. Debrah Goldberg, Ph.D. John Niman, Ph.D. Paula Pierson, MFA. Josette C. Seibles, Ph.D. Ken Springer, Ph.D. Mark Turner, DMA Laraine Wallowitz, Ph.D.

CliffsTestPrep

®

NYSTCE®: Multi-Subject Content Specialty Test (CST)

CliffsTestPrep

®

NYSTCE®: Multi-Subject Content Specialty Test (CST) An American BookWorks Corporation Project

Contributing Authors/Consultants Linda Anderson, MFA Jana Dixon, Ed.M. Sara Dubow, Ph.D. Chandra J. Foote, Ph.D. Debrah Goldberg, Ph.D. John Niman, Ph.D. Paula Pierson, MFA. Josette C. Seibles, Ph.D. Ken Springer, Ph.D. Mark Turner, DMA Laraine Wallowitz, Ph.D.

About the Author

Publisher’s Acknowledgments

Since 1976, American BookWorks Corporation has been producing and publishing a wide variety of educational books for many of the major publishing houses. The company specializes in Test Preparation books, as well as K–12 Review Books and Study Guides. In its role as a book producer, it functions as a “co-publisher,” providing publishers with strong editorial, marketing, and technological expertise, based on more than 30 years of experience.

Editorial Project Editor: Suzanne Snyder Acquisition Editor: Greg Tubach Copy Editor: Kelly Henthorne Technical Editors: Tom Page (Mathematics), Steve Math (Science and Technology) Production Proofreader: Broccoli Information Management Wiley Publishing, Inc. Composition Services

CliffsTestPrep® NYSTCE®: Multi-Subject Content Specialty Test (CST) Published by: Wiley Publishing, Inc. 111 River Street Hoboken, NJ 07030-5774

Note: If you purchased this book without a cover, you should be aware that this book is stolen property. It was reported as “unsold and destroyed” to the publisher, and neither the author nor the publisher has received any payment for this “stripped book.”

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Copyright © 2007 Wiley, Hoboken, NJ Published by Wiley, Hoboken, NJ Published simultaneously in Canada Library of Congress Control Number: 2006931708 ISBN-13: 978-0-471-78592-7 ISBN-10: 0-471-78592-X Printed in the United States of America 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 1O/RY/RQ/QW/IN No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, scanning, or otherwise, except as permitted under Sections 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act, without either the prior written permission of the Publisher, or authorization through payment of the appropriate per-copy fee to the Copyright Clearance Center, 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, 978-750-8400, fax 978-646-8600, or on the web at www.copyright.com. Requests to the Publisher for permission should be addressed to the Legal Department, Wiley Publishing, Inc., 10475 Crosspoint Blvd., Indianapolis, IN 46256, 317-572-3447, fax 317-572-4355, or online at http://www.wiley.com/go/permissions. THE PUBLISHER AND THE AUTHOR MAKE NO REPRESENTATIONS OR WARRANTIES WITH RESPECT TO THE ACCURACY OR COMPLETENESS OF THE CONTENTS OF THIS WORK AND SPECIFICALLY DISCLAIM ALL WARRANTIES, INCLUDING WITHOUT LIMITATION WARRANTIES OF FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE. NO WARRANTY MAY BE CREATED OR EXTENDED BY SALES OR PROMOTIONAL MATERIALS. THE ADVICE AND STRATEGIES CONTAINED HEREIN MAY NOT BE SUITABLE FOR EVERY SITUATION. THIS WORK IS SOLD WITH THE UNDERSTANDING THAT THE PUBLISHER IS NOT ENGAGED IN RENDERING LEGAL, ACCOUNTING, OR OTHER PROFESSIONAL SERVICES. IF PROFESSIONAL ASSISTANCE IS REQUIRED, THE SERVICES OF A COMPETENT PROFESSIONAL PERSON SHOULD BE SOUGHT. NEITHER THE PUBLISHER NOR THE AUTHOR SHALL BE LIABLE FOR DAMAGES ARISING HEREFROM. THE FACT THAT AN ORGANIZATION OR WEBSITE IS REFERRED TO IN THIS WORK AS A CITATION AND/OR A POTENTIAL SOURCE OF FURTHER INFORMATION DOES NOT MEAN THAT THE AUTHOR OR THE PUBLISHER ENDORSES THE INFORMATION THE ORGANIZATION OR WEBSITE MAY PROVIDE OR RECOMMENDATIONS IT MAY MAKE. FURTHER, READERS SHOULD BE AWARE THAT INTERNET WEBSITES LISTED IN THIS WORK MAY HAVE CHANGED OR DISAPPEARED BETWEEN WHEN THIS WORK WAS WRITTEN AND WHEN IT IS READ. Trademarks: Wiley, the Wiley Publishing logo, CliffsNotes, the CliffsNotes logo, Cliffs, CliffsAP, CliffsComplete, CliffsQuickReview, CliffsStudySolver, CliffsTestPrep, CliffsNote-a-Day, cliffsnotes.com, and all related trademarks, logos, and trade dress are trademarks or registered trademarks of John Wiley & Sons, Inc. and/or its affiliates. NYSTCE is a registered trademark of National Evaluation Systems, Inc. All other trademarks are the property of their respective owners. Wiley Publishing, Inc. is not associated with any product or vendor mentioned in this book. For general information on our other products and services or to obtain technical support, please contact our Customer Care Department within the U.S. at 800-762-2974, outside the U.S. at 317-572-3993, or fax 317-572-4002. Wiley also publishes its books in a variety of electronic formats. Some content that appears in print may not be available in electronic books. For more information about Wiley products, please visit our web site at www.wiley.com.

Table of Contents Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 About the Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Subarea I: English Language Arts (21%) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Subarea II: Mathematics (18%) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Subarea III: Science and Technology (13%) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 Subarea IV: Social Studies (15%) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 Subarea V: The Fine Arts (8%) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 Subarea VI: Health and Fitness (8%) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 Subarea VII: Family and Consumer Science and Career Development (7%) . . . . . . . . . . . 3 Subarea VIII: Foundations of Reading: Constructed-Response Assignment (10%) . . . . . . 3 Taking the Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 How to Answer Multiple-Choice Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 The Constructed Response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 Final Thoughts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

PART I: SUBJECT REVIEW Subarea 1: English Language Arts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 Objective 0001 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 Levels of Literacy Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 Phonological and Phonemic Awareness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 Print Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 The Alphabetic Principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 Word Identification Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 Constructing Meaning from Text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 Review Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 Objective 0002 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 Literal Comprehension Skills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 Inferential Comprehension Skills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 Evaluative Comprehension Skills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 Reading Comprehension Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 Self-Monitoring Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 Comprehension Assessment Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 Review Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 Objective 0003 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 Genre-Specific Reading Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 Information Resource Handling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 Assessing Credibility or Objectivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 Visual Representations of Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 Literary Response Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 Reading for Enjoyment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 Review Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 Objective 0004 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 The Writing Process: Prewriting Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 The Writing Process: Note Taking, Outlining, and Drafting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 The Writing Process: Revising Written Texts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 The Writing Process: Editing Written Texts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 The Writing Process: Proofreading Written Texts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 Using Technology to Research and Write . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 Review Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

CliffsTestPrep NYSTCE: Multi-Subject Content Specialty Test (CST)

Objective 0005 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 Factors to Consider Before Writing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 Incorporation of Graphics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 Writing Research Papers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 Credibility and Objectivity Enhancement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 Writing Literary Responses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 Voice Awareness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 Review Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 Objective 0006 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 Developing Listening Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 Factors in Effective Listening . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 Factors in Effective Spoken Communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 Varying Speaking Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 Communicating to Various Audiences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46 Applying Oral Language Conventions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46 Review Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 Objective 0007 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 Fiction versus Nonfiction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 Story Elements in Fiction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 Dramatic Structure and Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 Types of Nonfiction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 Style, Tone, and Viewpoint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 Elements of Poetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 Review Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 Objective 0008 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 Time and Place Awareness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 Cultural Values and Ideas Awareness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 Themes and Characteristics in Children’s Literature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56 Important Works and Authors for Children and Adolescents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58 Themes and Elements in Childrens’ and Young Adult Literature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 Review Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59

Subarea II: Mathematics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61 Objective 0009 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61 Mathematical Relationships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61 Arguments and their Validity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61 Drawing Conclusions from Simple and Compound Statements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62 Using Inductive Reasoning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62 Problem-Solving Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62 Review Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63 Objective 0010 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66 Representing Relationships by Mathematical Notations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66 Visual Representation of Mathematical Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67 Math Concepts Expressed through Language . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67 Word Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67 Math Concepts Translated Into Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68 Mathematical Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68 Review Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69 Objective 0011 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71 Commutative, Distributive, and Associative Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71 Ratios, Proportions, and Percents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72 Converting Decimals to Fractions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72 Expressing Equivalent Forms of Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72 The Division Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73 Simplifying Algebraic Expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73 Review Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74

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Objective 0012 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78 Describing Mathematical Relationships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78 Representing Patterns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78 Analyzing Patterns and Relationships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79 Deriving Algebraic Expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79 Algebraic Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79 Performing Algebraic Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79 Changing Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80 Review Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80 Objective 0013 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84 Two- and Three-Dimensional Shapes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84 Using Basic Geometric Figures to Solve Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84 Similarity and Congruence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85 Inductive and Deductive Reasoning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86 Coordinate Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86 Transformations and Symmetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87 Review Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87 Objective 0014 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91 Units of Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91 Using the Correct Unit of Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91 English and Metric Conversions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92 Determining Area and Volume . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92 Derived Measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92 The Pythagorean Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93 Review Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93 Objective 0015 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96 Organizing Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96 Displaying Data in Various Visual Formats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97 Computing Probabilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98 Estimating Probabilities through Simulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99 Mean, Median, and Mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100 Properties of the normal distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100 Statistics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101 Data Analysis in Decision Making . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101 Review Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101

Subarea III: Science and Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 Objective 0016 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 Scientific Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 Formulating and Testing a Hypothesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106 Quantitative and Qualitative Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106 Graphing Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107 Interpreting Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109 Evaluating the Conclusion’s Validity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109 Laboratory Safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109 Review Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110 Objective 0017 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111 The Earth-Moon-Sun System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111 The Earth and Its Cycles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117 Physical Changes and Physical Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120 Chemical Changes and Chemical Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121 Energy and Its Transformations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122 Forces and Newton’s Laws of Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123 Inferring Physical Science Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125 Review Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127

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Objective 0018 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133 Characteristics of Living Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133 Continuity of Life: Genetics and Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136 Evolution: Diversity of Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143 Basic Life Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146 Ecology and the Interdependence of Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154 Inferring Biological Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158 Review Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159 Objective 0019 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165 The Engineering Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165 Technological Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165 Engineering Design Process: Modeling and Optimization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167 Evaluating and Testing Technological Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171 Technological Impact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172 Review Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176 Objective 0020 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180 Common Themes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180 Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184 Mathematical Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186 Designing Solutions to Environmental Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187 Review Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188

Subarea IV: Social Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193 Objective 0021 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193 Concept Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193 Developments in Human History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194 Ancient Civilizations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195 Organization of Historical Periods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195 Effects of European Contact and Settlement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195 Contributions of Individuals and Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196 Review Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197 Objective 0022 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198 Geographic Terms and Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198 Geography’s Six Essential Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199 Characteristics of the Earth’s Surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199 Functions of Systems in Different Settings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200 Demographic Change and Population Density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200 Human Impact on the Physical Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200 Review Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201 Objective 0023 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202 Concepts Related to Human Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202 Personal Identity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203 Cultural Diffusion, Acculturation, and Assimilation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203 Social Groups and Institutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203 Differences in Perspective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204 Processes of Social and Cultural Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204 Review Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205 Objective 0024 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206 Economic and Political Terms and Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206 The United States Economic System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207 Economic and Governmental Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208 The Constitution of the United States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208 Issue Perspectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209 Political and Cultural Influences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209 Review Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209

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Objective 0025 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211 Important United States Documents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211 Democratic Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212 Election Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213 Civic Participation in Politics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213 Good Citizenship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214 Civil Rights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214 Review Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215 Objective 0026 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216 Resources and Research Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216 Maps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217 Interpreting Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218 Interpreting Graphics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218 Identifying Point of View . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218 Review Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218

Subarea V: The Fine Arts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221 Objective 0027: Art . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221 Basic Elements of Art . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222 Analyzing Art Works . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223 Characteristics of Art Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223 Basic Tools and Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227 Art as a Reflection of Culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228 Art from Different Cultures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228 Review Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229 Objective 0028: Music . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231 Types of Musical Instruments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231 The Elements of Music . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232 The Physics of Music . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234 Technical Skills Involved in Making Music . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235 Music of Different Cultures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236 Review Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237 Objective 0029: Theater and Dance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241 Dramatic and Theatrical Forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241 Types of Dance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241 Aspects of Theater Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242 Communicative Elements of Theater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243 Cultural Uses of Drama and Dance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244 Review Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245

Subarea VI: Health and Fitness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247 Objective 0030 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247 Chronic and Communicable Diseases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247 Health Goals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248 Decision-Making and Problem-Solving Skills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248 Nutrition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249 Contemporary Health-Related Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250 Health Information in the Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251 Health and the Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252 Review Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253 Objective 0031 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255 Physical Developmental Levels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255 Motor Skills Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256 Movement Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256 Safety Concepts and Practices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256 Sport-Related Skills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257

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Developing Personal Living Skills through Sports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257 Review Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257 Objective 0032 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260 Major Body Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260 Components of Health-Related Fitness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261 Developing a Personal Fitness Plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262 Physical Activity as a Preventative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262 Activities for Developing Strength and Endurance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262 Review Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264

Subarea VII: Family and Consumer Science and Career Development . . . 267 Objective 0033 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267 Child Development Stages and Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267 Interpersonal Relationships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271 Family Relationships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272 Childhood Accidents and Safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273 Health and Hygiene . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273 Review Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274 Objective 0034 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276 American Consumerism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276 Major Purchase Decisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279 Budget and Money Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280 Credit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281 Insurance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281 Review Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282 Objective 0035 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283 Career Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283 Evaluating Careers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285 The Job Search . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286 Personal or Social Factors in the Workplace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288 Rights and Responsibilities in the Workplace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289 Sample Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291

Subarea VIII: Foundations of Reading: Constructed Response . . . . . . . . . 293 An Overview of the Written Assignment for the CST . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293 Writing Tips for the Written Assignment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293 Sample Directions for the Written Assignment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294 Performance Characteristics and Scoring Scale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295 Performance Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295 Scoring Scale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295 Sample Writing Assignment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296 Written Assignment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296 Written Assignment III . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297

PART II: PRACTICE TESTS New York State Teacher Certification Examination Practice Test 1 . . . . . . 303 Answer Key for Practice Test 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315 Answers and Explanations for Practice Test 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317

New York State Teacher Certification Examination Practice Test 2 . . . . . 327 Answer Key for Practice Test 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341 Answers and Explanations for Practice Test 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343

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Introduction This book will help you prepare for the New York State Teacher Certification Examinations (NYSTCE). Although your experiences throughout your academic career—and more recently, your college studies—are what will be tested on this exam, this book will help you review the topics that will be covered on the examination, as well as help you understand the types of questions you will encounter. These tests are criterion-referenced and object-based, which means they are designed to measure your knowledge and skills based on an established standard, rather than measuring your performance in relation to other candidates taking this test. The test’s purpose is to evaluate your specific level of knowledge and skills against those necessary to become a New York State public school teacher. The material that appears on the tests is based on standard textbooks, teacher education curricula, specific certification standards, and, of course, New York State learning standards and various curriculum guides. There is a passing score for each test, and you may retake any portion of the test if you do not pass it.

About the Test This test consists of eight content areas, each of which contains individual subareas and objectives. The test is four hours long and is designed so that you should have enough time to complete the entire test within the allotted time. You may take as much time as you need on any section of the exam, and you can work on whichever section you wish. We have divided this book into chapters based on the specific major content domains that will be covered on the test, as well as the approximate percentage of questions that will appear on the actual test. The following are content areas and the individual subareas.

Subarea I: English Language Arts (21%) ■ ■ ■

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Understanding the foundations of reading development. Understanding skills and strategies involved in reading comprehension. Understanding and applying reading skills and strategies for various purposes (including information and understanding, crucial analysis and evaluation, literary response, and social interaction). Understanding processes for generating, developing, revising, editing, and presenting or publishing written texts. Understanding and applying writing skills and strategies for various purposes (including information and understanding, crucial analysis and evaluation, literary response, and social interaction). Understanding skills and strategies involved in listening and speaking for various purposes (including information and understanding, crucial analysis and evaluation, literary response, and social interaction). Understanding and applying techniques of literary analysis to works of fiction, drama, poetry, and nonfiction. Demonstrating knowledge of literature, including literature from diverse cultures and literature for children/ adolescents.

Subarea II: Mathematics (18%) ■

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Understanding formal and informal reasoning processes, including logic and simple proofs, and applying problemsolving techniques and strategies in a variety of contexts. Using mathematical terminology and symbols to interpret, represent, and communicate mathematical ideas and information.

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■

■ ■

■

■

Understanding skills and concepts related to number and numeration and applying these concepts to real-world situations. Understanding patterns and applying the principles and properties of linear algebraic relations and functions. Understanding the principles and properties of geometry and trigonometry and applying them to model and solve problems. Understanding concepts, principles, skills, and procedures related to the customary and metric systems of measurement. Understanding concepts and skills related to data analysis, probability, and statistics and applying this understanding to evaluate and interpret data and solve problems.

Subarea III: Science and Technology (13%) ■ ■

■ ■ ■

Understanding and applying the principles and processes of scientific inquiry and investigation. Understanding and applying concepts, principles, and theories pertaining to the physical setting (including earth science, chemistry, and physics). Understanding and applying concepts, principles, and theories pertaining to the living environment. Applying knowledge of technology and the principles of engineering design. Understanding the relationships among and common themes connecting mathematics, science, and technology, and applying knowledge and skills in these disciplines to other areas of learning.

Subarea IV: Social Studies (15%) ■

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Understanding major ideas, eras, themes, developments, and turning points in the history of New York State, the United States, and the world. Understanding geographic concepts and phenomena and analyzing the interrelationships of geography, society, and culture in the development of New York State, the United States, and the world. Understanding concepts and phenomena related to human development and interactions (including anthropological, psychological, and sociological concepts). Understanding economic and political principles, concepts, and systems and relating this knowledge to historical and contemporary developments in New York State, the United States, and the world. Understanding the roles, rights, and responsibilities of citizenship in the United States and the skills, knowledge, and attitudes necessary for successful participation in civic life. Understanding and applying skills related to social studies, including gathering, organizing, mapping, evaluating, interpreting, and displaying information.

Subarea V: The Fine Arts (8%) ■

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Understanding the concepts, techniques, and materials of the visual arts; analyzing works of visual art; and understanding the cultural dimensions and contributions of the visual arts. Understanding concepts, techniques and materials for producing, listening to, and responding to music; analyzing works of music; and understanding the cultural dimensions and contributions of music. Understanding concepts, techniques, and materials related to theater and dance; analyzing works of drama and dance; and understanding the cultural dimensions and contributions of drama and dance.

Subarea VI: Health and Fitness (8%) ■

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2

Understanding basic principles and practices of personal, interpersonal, and community health and safety and applying related knowledge and skills (e.g., decision making, problem solving) to promote personal well-being. Understanding physical education concepts and practices related to the development of personal living skills. Understanding health-related physical fitness concepts and practices.

Introduction

Subarea VII: Family and Consumer Science and Career Development (7%) ■

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Understanding concepts and practices related to child development and care and applying knowledge of family and interpersonal relationships. Understanding skills and procedures related to consumer economics and personal resource management. Understanding basic principles of career development; applying processes and skills for seeking and maintaining employment; and demonstrating knowledge of workplace skills, behaviors, and responsibilities.

Subarea VIII: Foundations of Reading: Constructed-Response Assignment (10%) ■

(These are written assignments, based on the first two objects in Subarea I.)

Taking the Test The subareas listed in the previous section are major test areas and topics that you should have covered in your college and/or graduate studies. As should be obvious, there is no one textbook that can cover all of this information, and as such, no one test-review book that can cover all of these topics in depth; however, we have presented these topics to you in the form of brief overviews of each of the topics and have given you enough information to help you recall what you should have learned previously. More importantly, we’ve tried to cover as much as possible in terms of what may appear on the test. The test changes from time to time, as does the emphasis on the various topics, but you should have enough information here to help you prepare; you cannot, however, expect to learn everything you should know for the test in just this one book. Keep in mind that the purpose of this book is to help you prepare for the test. You should use other books as reference for each of the topics. It is an accepted truism that the more you practice on actual test-type questions before the actual examination, the better you will do. First, you will have learned what is required from you in each section. Second, you will be able to practice on similar-type multiple-choice questions, and when you check your answers at the end of each test, you should have an idea of what subject areas need more intensive study. In addition to the two full-length sample tests we’ve given you in this publication, there are also hundreds of additional questions throughout the book, accompanying each of the fields. There are approximately 90 questions on the examinations that we have presented in this book, and all of the questions are multiple choice, except for the Foundations of Reading, which require you to write an essay based on a given topic.

How to Answer Multiple-Choice Questions In many cases, it’s a decided advantage to take a test like this with multiple-choice questions, and the better your skill at answering them, the better your chances are at doing well. Of course, besides the skill, you must also have a basic knowledge of the material. There are three basic steps to follow. 1. The first approach is to read the question; if you read the question and immediately know the answer, look at the choices given, select the correct one, and mark it on your answer page. This is the easiest way to answer the question—you know the answer. 2. The second method is to read the question and, if the answer doesn’t immediately come to mind, read the answer choices. If you know the material fairly well, the correct answer will be clear to you at once. If the answer is not immediately clear, a little thought will root out the right answer. 3. The third step is to use the process of elimination. Very simply, this process involves eliminating the wrong answer choices so that you’re left with the correct one, or at least with fewer choices. When test developers create questions for multiple-choice tests, there’s a process that is often followed. In questions with four choices, such as those you’ll find in the exams in this book, there is always one answer choice that will be undeniably correct. The other choices

3


are called “distracters.” There is usually one choice that is completely incorrect and can be quickly eliminated. The other two choices may be similar to the correct answer, but there may be clues in the answers that make them incorrect. The question setup may be something like this: 1. Question A. B. C. D.

Totally Incorrect Choice Almost Correct, but not quite correct. Correct Choice Almost Correct, but not quite correct.

In mathematics, there may be things like decimals in different places in the answer choices. For instance, there’s a big difference between .106, 1.06, 10.6, and 106. Keep these things in mind as you solve math problems. They should also all be labeled correctly and consistently. Look for “give-away words” like always, never, or not. Most things in the world are not always or never, and you should be careful if a question asks, “Which of the following is NOT...”! By using the process of elimination, you increase your chances of getting the right answer. Remember that you are not penalized for incorrect answers on the exam, so it’s worth taking a chance. Only correct answers are counted. What this means is that if you just guess, you have a one in four chance—25 percent—to guess correctly. But what if you are able to eliminate two of the choices because they just seem wrong to you? That leaves two choices. You now have a one out of two chance of selecting the correct answer; that’s 50 percent, which is surely better than 25 percent. In the end, however, it’s worth taking a chance and just trying your best. Remember that multiple-choice questions like these ask you for your best answer; don’t try to see if the questions are trying to trick you. They’re not. These are straightforward questions testing your knowledge. As we said earlier, you can work at your own pace and work on any questions or sections you wish; however, make sure that if you skip a question, you also skip the appropriate row of answer choices on your answer sheet. You may also write in your answer booklet (e.g., perform calculations and so on), but only answers that are on your answer sheet will count toward your score. If you have any time left when you’ve completed the test, go back to check the answers to the questions that gave you the most difficulty.

The Constructed Response The constructed response is the writing section of the exam. Please note that it counts for 10 percent of your final score. Take the time to read through the review section of this book. It is also important that you understand the directions. This section calls for you to write a 150- to 300-word response to a given task rather than respond to multiple-choice questions. The constructed response assignment is taken directly from content found in Subarea I, Objectives 0001 (Understanding the Foundations of Reading Development) and 0002 (Understanding Skills and Strategies Involved in Reading Comprehension); therefore, take the time to review those sections a little more than you might otherwise.

Final Thoughts For additional information about the NYSTCE exam and other available licensing tests, go to www.nystce.nesinc.com. There you will be able to get information about test dates, as well as print the registration bulletin for this examination. This will not be an easy test. It’s a major step in your career—becoming certified as a teacher at this level. However, with proper preparation and study, you should be able to do well and receive your certification. Good luck!

4

PART I

S U BJ E CT R EVI EW

Subarea 1: English Language Arts Objective 0001 Understands the foundations of reading development. The following topics are covered under the subject area of Objective 0001: ■

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Demonstrating knowledge of the developmental progression from prereading to conventional literacy, with individual variations, and analyzing how literacy develops in multiple contexts through reading, writing, and oral language experiences Defining phonological awareness and phonemic awareness and analyzing their roles in reading development Demonstrating knowledge of concepts about print (e.g., book-handling skills, awareness that print carries meaning, recognition of directionality, ability to track print, ability to recognize and name letters) Demonstrating knowledge of the alphabetic principle and analyzing how emergent readers use this principle to master letter-sound correspondence and to decode simple words Demonstrating knowledge of a variety of word identification strategies, including use of phonics, use of semantic and syntactic cues, content clues, syllabication, analysis of word structure (e.g., roots, prefixes, suffixes), and use of sight-word recognition Analyzing factors that affect a reader’s ability to construct meaning from texts (e.g., word recognition, reading fluency, vocabulary development, context clues, visual cues, prior knowledge, and experience)

Levels of Literacy Development There is a developmental progression from prereading to the attainment of conventional literacy. Prereading is also referred to as reading readiness and emergent literacy. Prereading refers to all the knowledge, skills, and experiences that are the precursors to the attainment of conventional literacy. The development of some aspects of prereading can begin when children are infants and toddlers and learn to associate pleasure with sharing books with their parents or other caretakers. As preschoolers have additional prereading experiences, they develop both the oral and written skills that are necessary to attain conventional literacy. Young children gain the oral vocabulary that will be used in reading texts, learn sentence structure, develop phonological awareness, and learn to tell oral narratives. They also begin to gain exposure to print and learn its various uses. Later, children learn the names and sounds of letters, gain a deeper understanding of story and text structure, develop awareness of print, and learn to use multiple cueing systems to decode print. They also learn the conventions of writing and write, supplementing their knowledge of conventional spelling with invented spelling. Eventually, children master conventional literacy. All children progress at their own pace in their literacy development. Since literacy is a complex system, it is based on many factors. Thus, it is important that teachers conduct frequent evaluations of emergent readers. Many measures can be used to gauge a student’s progression from prereading to conventional literacy. Teachers should assess emergent readers’ understanding of how texts work and their knowledge of phonemic awareness, the alphabet, and phonics. Another assessment that is often used in measuring a student’s literacy development is the running record. A running record is created by having each student individually read an excerpt from a book while the teacher notes the student’s errors. The development of literacy occurs in multiple contexts in the school, home, and community. It is important in the school context to provide students with reading, writing, and oral language experiences. Balanced literacy models provide students with emerging literacy with a variety of reading, writing, and oral language experiences including readalouds, shared reading and writing, and guided reading and writing. Some of these activities are done with students individually or in small groups so that they can be adapted to the developmental level of the students. For example, in a lower elementary classroom, some books can be labeled by level so students can easily find books that are “just right” for their reading abilities.

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Part I: Subject Review

Phonological and Phonemic Awareness One of the foundations of reading development is phonological awareness. To read, students must learn that individual sounds can be combined into syllables to form words and that words can be combined to form sentences. Phonological awareness is the broad term used for the development of the skills of identification and manipulation of the components of language: sentences, words, and phonemes. Phonemic awareness is one important component of phonological awareness. Phonemes are the individual sounds in words. Phonemic awareness is the ability to identify and manipulate the individual sounds in words. Phonemic awareness is often developed through tasks that are done orally because the development of phonemic awareness can occur before students have learned the written alphabetic system. There are five major types of tasks that students must master when developing phonemic awareness. The first of these tasks is to recognize that sets of words have similar sounds. For example, students can learn to identify the rhyming words in a sentence. Second, students can learn to examine a set of words and determine which one has sounds that are not like the others. This is sometimes called an oddity task. Third, students can learn how to blend sounds to create words. Fourth, students can learn to divide words into their phonemes (segmenting words) and count the number of sounds in a word. Finally, students can learn how to manipulate the sounds in a word by substituting or deleting one or multiple phonemes. Some students develop phonemic awareness without formal instruction by being exposed to language through participating in read-alouds and naturally developing an understanding of oral language; however, phonemic awareness is also developed through classroom instruction in early childhood classrooms. Phonological awareness plays a crucial role in reading development. English uses an alphabetic system of writing that is based on the sounds of individual words. Phonological awareness is required for students to benefit from phonics instruction. If students understand the concept that words are composed of sounds, they will more readily be able to begin learning the written letters that are used to represent sounds in print. Phonological awareness is also a prerequisite to learning to spell. As students gain a better understanding of the phonemes in a word, they can use this understanding when they are trying to represent sounds in writing. Explicit, focused, and sequential instruction in phonemic awareness has been shown to increase reading and spelling abilities. Many assessments of beginning reading include measures of phonemic awareness, and it is important for early childhood teachers to monitor their students’ growing understanding of phonemic awareness. Some reading difficulties are caused by students’ limited development of phonemic awareness.

Print Concepts One of the foundations for learning to read is developing an understanding about how text works to communicate a message. Helping students learn concepts about print includes teaching early readers how to handle books, learn the vocabulary that readers use to describe aspects of text, locate and track print, and recognize the letters of the alphabet. While students can develop many of the concepts about print from shared reading experiences, classroom read-alouds, and early independent reading experiences, teachers will also want to explicitly draw attention to certain concepts about print as part of their instruction for beginning readers. First, students should have many experiences handling books and having books read to them so that they develop bookhandling skills. Students need to learn the parts of the book and how to find the front cover and the beginning of the story. Students also need to learn to differentiate between text and pictures. They need many experiences with print to recognize that letters written in different fonts, colors, and sizes all carry meaning. Second, students need to learn the meta-language that readers use to describe text. One important concept is being able to distinguish between letters, words, and sentences. Students also need to learn the conventions of written English. Two important conventions include leaving a space between words and ending sentences with different types of punctuation. A writing workshop can be a good context for introducing and developing these basic concepts of print through writing mini-lessons. In addition, teachers can begin to develop the students’ understanding of word boundaries by teaching students how to track print. One prerequisite skill to tracking print is for students to learn about the directionality of print in English. Beginning readers need to learn that English print begins at the top of the page and is read from left to right. Art projects and movement activities can be used to teach the concepts of top, bottom, left, and right. When teaching students to track text, it is best to begin with very simple books that have one line of text on each page, and then slowly introduce more

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Subarea 1: English Language Arts

complex books. During some shared reading experiences, the teacher can point to each word when she is reading, and the teacher can have student helpers assist with this task. Alphabet recognition, the ability to recognize and name letters, is an essential part of learning to read. While many students begin school able to sing the alphabet song or recite the letters, they will still need additional practice in alphabet recognition. Students need to be able to read and write all the uppercase and lowercase letters of the alphabet and to name letters when they are not in alphabetic order. Teachers can use a wide variety of activities to teach alphabet recognition. For example, many teachers focus on the letters that appear in the names of the students in the class. There are also many alphabet books that can be used with beginning readers. Some students learn best through movement activities or through songs that describe the shape of each letter.

The Alphabetic Principle English is an alphabetic language. The alphabetic principle is that written letters represent the sounds in words. While there are many irregularities in the system of English writing, more than 80 percent of English words follow regular spelling patterns. Thus, it is essential for emergent readers to master letter-sound correspondence so they can use this knowledge to help decode print. One difficulty in mastering the English letter-sound correspondence is that English has more than forty phonemes and yet is written with only twenty-six letters. Teachers usually begin their instruction of English letter-sound correspondences by introducing consonant letters such as m and d and the short vowel sounds, which have only one corresponding sound. Then students can learn to master more complex letter-sound correspondences. For example, emergent readers need to learn that some sounds are written with a combination of two letters such as sh (ship) and oa (goat). When one sound is written with a combination of two letters, it is called a digraph. On the other hand, when two vowels are in one syllable, but both vowels are heard, it is called a dipthong. Emergent readers also need to learn that all of the letters in the word may not be pronounced, but these letters may still give us information about how to pronounce other letters in the word or information about the origin of the word. For example, a silent e at the end of the word can indicate that the previous vowel is a long vowel (cake). Emergent readers also need to learn that the sounds of English can be spelled in various ways, and if one possible sound for a letter does not match an expected word, they should try other possible sounds that can be spelled using the same letters. For example, the digraph ow can stand for the differing final vowel sounds in mow and cow. When students master these basic letter-sound correspondences, these patterns can be used to practice decoding simple words. Teachers usually begin decoding practice with one-syllable words that follow a CVC (consonant-vowelconsonant) pattern such as bat. When students have mastered the decoding of basic words, more complex patterns can slowly be introduced. One necessary skill that emergent readers need to learn to be able to decode simple words is the ability to blend together the sounds for the letters that they are reading. Some students need to practice blending together each sound in a simple word until they are able to recognize that the sounds together make a familiar word. It is especially important that students practice blending consonant clusters at the beginning and end of words. Consonant clusters are two consonant letters that stand for two consonant sounds such as dr (drive) that are blended together without an intermediate vowel sound. The use of letter-sound correspondence can be developed by helping students through mini-lessons and shared reading lessons to become more reflective when analyzing words. Beginning readers should be taught to try to determine how many sounds are in an unknown word and to try all of the possible sounds that could be represented by the letters that they see.

Word Identification Strategies One important component of reading instruction for beginning readers is assisting learners to develop the flexible use of a number of different word identification strategies. While mastering basic decoding can help students recognize many words, beginning readers also need to be able to use a number of strategies to determine words that are not in their reading vocabularies. One strategy that students can use to identify unknown words is their knowledge of phonics. One type of phonetically based word identification strategies is the use of word families (phonograms). In English, syllables can often be divided

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into an onset and a rime. The onset is formed from the initial consonants in the syllable, and the rime is the vowel and the ending consonants. Students can learn to identify many common words if they learn a small number of frequently used rimes. Beginning readers should also supplement their knowledge of phonics with the use of a variety of textual cues. When students use semantic cues, they are using their knowledge of the world and objects within in it to figure out what word would make sense in a particular text. Syntactic cues are used when beginning readers use their knowledge of grammar and the parts of speech to figure out a word. From knowledge of the content of other sections of a particular text, students may be able to use content clues to figure out unknown words. Teachers can develop students’ ability to use a variety of cuing systems by presenting students with texts that are missing a word and having students practice using different cues to guess the identity of the missing word. As students’ reading levels increase, beginning readers will need to read more words that contain two, three, or four syllables. Knowledge of syllabication and word structure will help students be able to segment words into their syllables correctly. It is useful for students to learn a limited number of highly regular syllabication rules. For example, students can be taught that in most words that end in a consonant followed by le (little), the le is the final syllable. Students can also be taught to divide compound words (butterfly) into their smaller word parts, and then they can attempt to figure out each part in order to identify the larger word. Students should learn to identify the most common prefixes and suffixes in English. The inflectional suffixes, those suffixes that provide grammatical information (ed, ing), are especially important for students to learn to recognize since they are commonly used in texts for beginning readers. Sight-word recognition is also very important because a number of the most common words in the English language have irregular spellings. Many teachers use word walls and flash cards to help students learn to read non-decodable words. The Dolch List is a helpful tool that gives more than two hundred of the words that should be in the sight-word vocabulary of beginning readers.

Constructing Meaning from Text It is crucial that beginning readers not only learn how to decode text and recognize words but also develop the ability to construct meaning from the texts that they read. First, emerging readers need to learn to recognize words easily and develop reading fluency. Reading fluency means that students can automatically recognize the words in the text and can read easily without frequently stopping to decode words. Students can develop reading fluency by reading texts in which they can recognize almost all the words. One way to encourage fluency is to give students the chance to read a text several times. For example, some teachers have students select a set of books for the week and have the students practice reading these books independently several times both at school and at home. It is also useful to model fluent reading for students in class read-alouds and through the use of a listening center. Another crucial element of reading comprehension is the development of a large vocabulary. Many common words in English have multiple definitions, and emerging readers also need to learn the subtle differences between related words. Vocabulary can be developed though oral discussions and reading. The use of daily classroom read-alouds is crucial in helping students to develop a larger vocabulary. It is also important that teachers include nonfiction texts frequently in their instruction. These texts contain many domain-specific vocabulary words that emerging readers need to learn. Vocabulary is also an important element to include in prereading activities and discussions. Many teachers use graphic organizers such as word webs or attribute charts to activate and review vocabulary when introducing a reading selection. Emerging readers should also learn to use visual clues and context cues to construct meaning from texts. Visual cues are especially important for emerging readers since many beginning level texts are picture books. Teachers can encourage students to use visual cues by taking “picture walks” through the books before reading. In a picture walk, the reader looks at the pictures in a text first and tries to predict what will happen in a story or what information will be discussed in a non-fiction text. Then the text can be read, and the predictions can be compared to the text. Various context clues can also assist the reader. Cloze exercises are one example of an activity that encourages students to use context clues. In a cloze exercise, a passage is rewritten with some words deleted. Students give suggestions for what words could make sense in the blanks.

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The development of extensive prior knowledge and experience will also aid emerging readers in comprehending text. Both academic and practical experiences can add to students’ stores of prior knowledge. It is important for teachers to provide many hands-on experiences such as science experiments, real-world problems with math manipulatives, and art projects. Varied experiences such as assemblies, guest speakers, and field trips can also increase students’ prior knowledge. It is important that emerging readers learn to activate their schema about a subject before reading. For example, teachers can work with the class before reading to create a K-W-L chart that lists what students know about a topic and what they want to learn. After they have read the text, the class can make a list of what they learned.

Review Questions 1. Which of the following is NOT a component of phonemic awareness? A. B. C. D.

Recognize that sets of words have similar sounds. Blend sounds to create words. Build up sight-word recognition. Learn to divide words into segments and count the number of sounds in a word.

The correct answer is C. Phonemic awareness is an important component of phonological awareness. Phonemes are the individual sounds in words, and phonemic awareness is the ability to identify and manipulate the individual sounds in words. There are five major tasks that students must master when developing phonemic awareness: recognize that sets of words have similar sounds, examine a set of words and determine which one has sounds that are not like the others, blend sounds to create words, divide words into their phonemes (segmenting words) and count the number of sounds in a word, and manipulate the sounds in a word by substituting or deleting one or multiple phonemes. 2. A first grade teacher invites her students to choose three books on their independent reading levels and to practice reading them several times at home and at school for one week. Why is she doing this? A. B. C. D.

Emerging readers need to learn to recognize words easily and automatically. Re-reading books is part of a sustained silent reading program. Reading a book several times is helpful when the school has a limited library. None of the above.

The correct answer is A. Emerging readers need to learn to recognize words easily and to develop reading fluency. Reading fluency means that students can automatically recognize the words in the text and can read easily without frequently stopping to decode words. Students can develop reading fluency by reading texts in which they can recognize almost all the words. One way to encourage fluency is to give students the chance to read a text several times. It is also useful to model fluent reading for students in class read-alouds and through the use of a listening center. 3. A pre-service teacher watches an in-service teacher read a book aloud to his students. The observer notices the teacher point to each word in the text as he reads the story and then to the picture once he is finished with the text. At the end of the day, the observer inquires about this. What reason does the teacher give? A. B. C. D.

The teacher is modeling one way in which a text communicates its message. The teacher is teaching his students concept of word or that words have boundaries. The teacher is instructing his students in the directionality of print English. All of the above.

The correct answer is D. Teachers can begin to develop the students’ understandings of word boundaries by teaching students how to track print. One prerequisite skill to tracking print is learning about the directionality of print in English. Beginning readers need to learn that English print begins at the top of the page and is read from left to right. During some shared reading experiences, the teacher can point to each word when he is reading, and the teacher can have student helpers assist with this task. One way to assess a student’s understanding of word boundaries is to have a

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student memorize a short passage or rhyme and then ask the student to repeat it (or “read it”) back while pointing to the words. If the student moves his finger from left to right, top to bottom, he understands directionality. In addition, if he points to each word as he repeats the passage, then he has concept of word. The latter is an important step toward conventional literacy. 4. Which of the following is(are) a word-identification strategy(ies)? A. B. C. D.

Use of word families (phonograms). Knowledge of syllabication and word structure to segment words into their syllables correctly. Sight-word recognition for commonly used words with irregular spellings. All of the above.

The correct answer is D. An important component of reading instruction for beginning readers is assisting learners to develop the flexible use of a number of word identification strategies. While mastering basic decoding can help students recognize many words, beginning readers also need to be able to use a number of strategies to determine words that are not in their reading vocabularies. The above strategies are all ways to teach word identification, along with knowledge of syllabication and word structure. Syllabication and word structure help students learn to segment words into their syllables correctly to divide compound words into their smaller word parts and then figure out each part in order to identify the larger word.

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Objective 0002 Understands skills and strategies involved in reading comprehension. The following topics are covered under the subject area of Objective 0002: ■

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Demonstrating knowledge of literal comprehension skills (e.g., the ability to identify the sequence of events and explicitly stated main ideas, details, and cause-and-effect patterns in a text) Demonstrating knowledge of inferential comprehension skills (e.g., the ability to draw conclusions or generalizations from a text and to infer ideas, details, and cause-and-effect relationships that are not explicitly stated in a text) Demonstrating knowledge of evaluative comprehension skills (e.g., the ability to distinguish between facts and opinions, to detect faulty reasoning, and to detect bias and propaganda in a text) Applying knowledge of strategies to use before, during, and after reading to enhance comprehension (e.g., developing and activating prior knowledge, connecting texts to personal experience, previewing a text, making predictions about a text, using K-W-L charts and other graphic organizers, taking notes on a text, and discussing a text) Demonstrating knowledge of methods to help readers monitor their own comprehension (e.g., think-alouds, selfquestioning strategies) as they read Demonstrating knowledge of various methods for assessing comprehension of a text (e.g., questioning the reader, having the reader give an oral and written retelling, or asking the reader to identify the theme or themes or to paraphrase or summarize the main idea)

Literal Comprehension Skills Literal comprehension is reading for information that is directly stated in the text. Literal comprehension is an important building block for teaching students how to make inferences and draw conclusions. Literal comprehension skills include the ability to identify the sequence of events, main ideas, details, and cause-and-effect relationship patterns. Identifying the sequence of events is when a student can recognize the order that actions or ideas occurred in a text and can then recall them in chronological order. Teachers should help students recognize time words such as now, before, first, second, third, following, and since in fiction and nonfiction. Once teachers have modeled how to recognize the sequence of events and time words, they can hand out stories and ask students to underline words in the text that signal the order of events. Another way to teach sequencing is through a story walk, wherein the teacher “walks” through a story, pointing out the order of events as they happened. Another way to demonstrate sequencing is through the use of a story map. Teachers should begin by reading a story and writing a sequenced summary on an overhead or the board. Next, using a story map graphic organizer, the teacher places the title, topic, or main idea of the story in the center bubble. Then the teacher draws lines from the center to accommodate the elements of a story in the order that they appeared in the summary: character, setting, problem, and solution. From there, he adds more lines from the secondary bubbles to fill in the details of the story that were included in the summary. Finally, the teacher reviews the organizer with the students. To assess students’ understanding of the sequence of a story, the teacher can have students practice by choosing a story on their reading levels and filling out their own story maps. To identify the main idea of a story at the factual level, the student should look for a topic sentence. In nonfiction texts, the main idea is often stated in the topic sentence and only requires the students to recall what they read. Restating the central idea of a story requires higher-level thinking skills. Students have to synthesize and interpret the information presented in the story to arrive at one main idea. One way to help students identify the main idea of a story is to ask them to use their memories to recall specific details from the reading. The type of detail will depend on the question being asked. Teachers ought to assist students in identifying main ideas by practicing with the following: who, what, where, when, how, and why. For example, a who question is asking students to recall a main character, person or animal; what is looking for a thing or an event; where is inquiring about the name of a place; when is requesting information about time; how is querying about the way something is or was done; and why is soliciting the reasons behind something. Students can practice identifying details by reading a selection and answering the types of questions mentioned above. News articles work particularly well for practicing identifying details.

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Finally, recognizing cause-and-effect requires an explanation of the causes of events in the story and the outcomes of those events. At the literal level, causal information is explicitly stated in the text; therefore, students rely on their memories to comprehend why certain events happened in the reading. Teachers can elicit information from students by asking questions such as “What made the character do what he did?”

Inferential Comprehension Skills Once students have mastered literal comprehension of texts, they are ready for learning inferential comprehension proficiencies. Literal readers expect that the text will supply them with all of the information they need to understand the text. It is the teacher’s job to model and teach how to “read between the lines” and infer meaning using what the author has provided. Making inferences requires several reading behaviors: recognizing a pronoun’s antecedent; learning unknown words from context clues; concluding or generalizing about characters’ beliefs, motivations and relationships; identifying cause-and-effect; and naming the author’s worldview. Teachers will need to model making inferences and then have students practice persistently throughout their education. One way to begin is for the teacher to place a short passage on the overhead and think-aloud as he makes inferences about the reading. The teacher should follow up by having students practice the different skills such as reading their own passages or sentences and pointing out referents such as the pronoun’s antecedent, defining an unknown word using context clues, or adding details to events. Teachers can also ask questions that require students to make inferences. For example, after reading a short story or chapter, students can infer what the character might do next based on what he has already done or said, or by other context clues provided by the author. Other queries include questions such as “Why did a character do what she did?” and “Why do you think the book/story/chapter is named what it is?” The answers to these questions are not found in the book; instead, students learn to draw conclusions based on what they already know about the characters, setting, events, and other related cues. Using dramatic activities, the students can practice making inferences. For the sake of time and plot development, writers omit certain events from the text. Students can write the script of a conversation that happened outside the pages of the book. They can also write a missing scene or, at the conclusion of a reading, the “final” chapter using what they have concluded about the setting, characters, and author’s intentions.

Evaluative Comprehension Skills Nonfiction texts are often based on an opinion of the author. It is the author’s job to support his or her argument with facts to gain the trust of the reader and increase the text’s reliability. However, in trying to prove a point, many writers use opinions as if they are facts. It is the responsibility of the teacher to show students how to evaluate a text to distinguish between facts and opinions to detect faulty reasoning and discover the author’s bias. A fact is something that has been or can be proven, and an opinion is something that is believed to be true. For example, it is a fact that soda has sugar in it, but it is an opinion to say that everyone loves soda. It is still an opinion if everyone you asked over the course of a week loved soda. It is impossible to prove that everyone in the whole world loves soda; however, if the author states that he thinks everyone loves soda, then he is stating a fact. When a writer uses opinions to support an article or book, he weakens his argument, so the text should be read with caution. Writers, especially advertisers and politicians, use faulty reasoning to convince readers to buy their product or vote for their candidate. Faulty reasoning is an argument based on stereotypes, generalizations, loaded words, or opinions. For instance, an advertiser might try to sell a dishwashing detergent that promises to leave your dishes virtually spotless. Virtually is a loaded word because it means that it will not, in fact, leave the dishes spotless. This way the advertiser does not have to say that there will still be spots on the dishes, which will be sure to alienate the consumer. An advertiser might also use a faulty if-then statement: if you do not use this detergent, then your dishes will not be clean. This is an opinion because the company cannot prove that using another detergent will result in unclean dishes. Basing arguments on stereotypes also signals faulty reasoning.

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To uncover an author’s bias, students should first identify the writer’s argument and then recognize the types of information he or she uses to prove his or her contention. What sources did the writer consult? Are those sources reliable? Does the author rely mostly on opinion or facts to support his or her claim? If a writer uses only one source, how can the source be generalized? What other sources might the author have used? Did the author interview people on both sides of an issue? If not, ask what the author has left out and why. What issues did the author not address? Did the author leave out certain voices and opinions? Often, authors leave out information they fear might weaken their argument. Once a student recognizes the author’s bias, then he can decide whether this writer should be taken seriously or dismissed because of faulty reasoning and biased reporting. Armed with this information, students will be less likely to be manipulated and controlled by what they read.

Reading Comprehension Strategies According to schema theory, students make meaning by using their previous experiences or schemas to understand new ones. For students to comprehend and interpret their readings, teachers must help students activate prior knowledge so the students can use their prior understanding of the world to help them makes sense of the new information they will acquire as they read. Without a place to put new knowledge, the students are more likely to misunderstand and forget what they learn. To activate students’ prior knowledge, a teacher can apply a K-W-L strategy. A K-W-L chart first asks students to write down everything they already know about a topic or book. Next, the student or students list what they want to know or find out about the topic before reading. Once the reading is complete, students revisit the K-W-L chart to record what they learned as a result of their reading. Anticipation guides are other frontloading activities that help students begin to think about the most salient issues that will be addressed in the reading. Anticipation guides are made up of statements about issues or themes in the text that students can either agree or disagree with. The statements should be opinions. For example, prior to reading Roll of Thunder, Hear My Cry by Mildred Taylor, students can discuss their opinions on the following statement: In America, all people are created equal. Once the class talks about the statements, students read the text to confirm or refute their original decisions. To familiarize students with the vocabulary of the reading, students can perform word sorts. There are two kinds of word sorts: closed and open. With a closed word sort, the teacher chooses important or unfamiliar vocabulary and creates the categories with which the students will label the words. In an open word sort, students must find commonalities among the words and generate categories themselves. By familiarizing students with the vocabulary prior to reading, the teacher activates prior knowledge and anticipates comprehension problems that may arise because of unknown vocabulary. A strategy for before and during reading is the double-entry journal. Double-entry journals help students make personal connections; the teacher should first model how to create and keep a double-entry journal. On the left side, the student records quotes from the reading, and on the right side, the student finishes the line, “This reminds me of...”. Students can also code the text for personal experience. To code for personal connections, the student reads and places a T-S (for textto-self) in the places where she identifies with some aspect of the text. Double-entry journals also help students record information from textbooks, fiction, or other informational texts while they read. Students divide their papers in half, folding vertically down the middle. On one side, they record notes, and on the other side, they can do one of three things: react to the recorded selection, question the text, or record where they obtained the information. GRTAs, or guided reading-thinking activities, offer support by engaging students in the reading and improving comprehension of narrative texts. They teach students how to make predictions, focus their reading on confirming or disproving the prediction, and make adjustments in their thinking as they continue to read and predict. Teachers begin by discussing the book title and cover. The class then makes predictions based on the title and cover and records those predictions. The teacher (or the student) asks a focusing question before the students read a particular section of the book. Once they have finished, the class can check the reading against the predictions they made earlier. Students then begin again by making a new prediction. The cycle is repeated throughout the remainder of the book. GRTAs are a form of

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scaffolding and should eventually be removed once students have internalized the process. GRTAs are best used prior to and during reading. The SQ3R, a method that stands for survey, question, read, review, and recite, is a nonfiction note-taking technique that students employ during reading. First, students should survey the chapter and look for a pattern. They should pay particular attention to chapter and section titles, bold and italicized print, and bulleted information. Once they have discovered a pattern, the students should set up their notes in a manner that reflects the organization. Students then turn the titles and bold print into questions using when, who, why, how, and what. As the students read the text, they answer the questions in their notes. This helps them determine what important information should be in their notes. Next, students review their notes until they feel they can recite the information without looking at the notes. Another note-taking technique, the Cornel Notes Method, should also be applied to nonfiction texts. This style of taking notes is best for information presented in a linear fashion. The left side of the paper is for recording main ideas, and the right side is for writing down the details and particulars of the main ideas. At the bottom, the student should leave space for a summary of the above notes. On completion of a reading, students should be encouraged to discuss the reading. Three ways in which the teacher can encourage conversation are literature circles, Socratic seminars, and fishbowls. Literature circles are peer-led discussion groups organized around a common text. Modeled after adult book clubs, students choose their own reading material, form small (two to six people), temporary groups based on book choice, and regularly meet to discuss their reading. Literature circles provide students time to engage in natural and sophisticated conversations about texts independent of the teacher’s direct influence. To provide a support structure for the students, teachers often include role sheets. Each student in the group takes on a role for that book. Roles could include connecting the book to their lives, drawing pictures to visualize the text, creating questions for discussion, summarizing, or looking up unknown vocabulary, to name a few. Teachers act as facilitators, moving around the class, observing their students at work, but never directing their thinking. A post-reading activity, Paideia Seminars work best with older students. They are conversations about texts rich in ideas meant to improve abstract thinking and problem-solving skills. The seminar is never the sole teaching method; preceded by didactic instruction and coached projects, seminars allow students to examine ideas and values in collaboration with others. Ideally, the seminar cultivates diverse communication skills: reading, writing, listening, speaking, and thinking. The seminar also encourages higher order thinking skills such as summarizing, analyzing, synthesizing, comparing, and defending their opinions and those of others. To prepare for a seminar, students must perform a close and active reading of a text, interpret the material, and be able to defend their analysis with textual evidence. Once students have read and marked the text, seminar leaders are instructed to ask only open-ended questions and to ensure that the conversation proceeds smoothly. Participants are taught to listen to the ideas of others, defend their points of view with evidence from the selection, and discuss only the ideas suggested by the assigned reading.

Self-Monitoring Methods All readers become distracted as they read; therefore, students must learn how to self-monitor as they read. One strategy for monitoring comprehension is the think-aloud. Students get into pairs; one student reads the text, pauses occasionally, and thinks aloud as she tries to make sense of the passage. Meanwhile, the listener takes notes on a piece of paper or a sticky note so the pair can discuss the kinds of reading strategies the reader employs most often and those she does not. For example, after a think-aloud, the reader might find out from her partner that she does not make predictions as she reads. Making predictions is an important habit of effective readers. At the same time, she may also learn that she consistently makes personal connections with the reading. Students can also conduct a silent think-aloud. In this case, when a student pauses to think aloud, instead of sharing with a partner, she fills out a think-aloud sheet with reading behaviors. Students who understand their own reading behaviors are more likely to recognize when they do not understand what they are reading and to adjust using various reading comprehension strategies. Think-alouds also help the teacher assess students’ reading habits. Say Something is another during-reading activity that helps students monitor their reading comprehension. Students get into groups of two or three and take turns reading aloud from a text. Each student takes a turn reading, pausing, and saying something about what she is reading. Students can make predictions, comment on the plot, ask a question, or

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make a connection. Then the partners respond, and a different student reads and continues the say something. Upon completion, students share their observations of the things readers do as they try to make meaning from a text. Another way students can keep track of their own comprehension as they read is by asking questions of the text. Asking questions prior to reading sets a purpose for their reading, focuses them, and motivates the students to finish by creating curiosity. Students want an answer to their questions, so they are more likely to grapple with the ideas presented in the text or to work their way through a challenging text. During reading, students ask clarifying questions that will need to be addressed either by the end of the reading or by the teacher. Students can write the questions either in the text or on sticky notes so they can return to the questions once they have finished the selection. After reading questions help students and teachers track confusion. If students still have questions that are not answered in the text, they might need to make inferences based on what was provided by the author or go to other sources for answers.

Comprehension Assessment Methods There are many methods for assessing comprehension of a text: using questions generated by the teacher, having the student give an oral or written retelling, and asking the student to summarize the main idea. Each of these methods will provide the teacher with important information about how well students comprehend what they are reading, insight into the students’ reading levels, and what areas in particular need addressing. Most questioning strategies stem from Bloom’s taxonomy of questions, based on a set of hierarchically arranged cognitive tasks. Bloom’s taxonomy suggests that proper ordering of questions ensures that each step of inquiry learning is properly scaffolded. Teachers will increase understanding by beginning with knowledge and comprehension queries before constructing questions that ask students to apply, analyze, synthesize, and evaluate. One strategy that has emerged since Bloom’s taxonomy is the Question and Answer Relationship (QAR). Question and Answer Relationships teach readers how to ask questions that require different interpretive strategies. First, students ask “right-there” questions that are literal and can be found in the pages of the book. Next, “think-and-search” questions require students to make inferences by putting different pieces of the book together. “Author-and-me” questions ask the students to make personal connections to the story. Finally, “on-my-own” questions address larger problems suggested by the reading but not necessarily answered within the liminal space of the book, thereby requiring that the students make inferences. Students should practice writing the different kinds of questions to internalize the strategy. A written or oral retelling of a story helps teachers assess a student’s reading comprehension level by checking for literal and inferential understanding. First, the teacher must focus or initiate a conversation with the student by asking a recall question. The teacher can also ask a clarifying question if the answer requires additional explanation or can ask an extending question for further information. Finally, if the student responds well to the literal questions, the teacher can raise the level of questioning to a higher degree. During a nonfiction retelling, the teacher should pay attention to the student’s ability to restate the main idea, supporting details, organization, and key vocabulary. As the student recounts the organization, the teacher must pay attention for events or ideas that happened chronologically or followed the sequence of the book. Also, it is important that the student use the vocabulary of the passage correctly. Similarly, a written or oral retelling of a fictional story should contain many of the same elements as nonfiction. Teachers should ensure that the main plot elements are repeated correctly in their correct order. The main characters should be mentioned, as should the conflict and resolution. Students can also restate minor characters and unnecessary information as long as the main story is not affected. Teachers can assess a student’s ability to identify a main idea by locating the central problem of the story. Most importantly, asking students to summarize the main idea demonstrates a student’s understanding of a text. Summarizing involves higher-level thinking skills such as synthesizing and interpreting the information first and then putting the information into the student’s own words. If a student has trouble summarizing a text, it usually means that he did not comprehend the reading.

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Review Questions 1. A fourth grade teacher is teaching his students how to code texts using text-to-self (T-S), text-to-text (T-T), and text-to-world (T-W) connections. What is(are) his reason(s) for doing this? A. B. C. D.

Making connections to texts helps students better comprehend what they read. Coding provides a purpose for reading. Coding is a during-reading strategy that keeps students focused and on task. All of the above.

The correct answer is D. Coding texts serves many functions for young readers. Coding helps students make connections: personal, literary, and social or political. It also provides a purpose for a reading. Young and struggling readers do not know what is “important” when they read; therefore, they tend to focus on everything and become overwhelmed by the content, or in some cases, they will not remember any of the reading because they drifted off task. Coding supplies students with a way to record their thinking as they read and gives the students an objective. Once the class has coded a text, students can then share their connections. This way, the conversation tends to be more student-centered than teacher-directed. 2. A first-grade teacher decides to conduct a mid-year assessment of her students’ reading comprehension. She plans time for an oral retelling of a fictional text. What should she be listening for? A. B. C. D.

The main plot elements (characters, conflict, and resolution) in correct order. The main plot elements in any order; they just need to be repeated. No mention of minor characters or any unnecessary information. None of the above.

The correct answer is A. Written or oral retellings help teachers assess the reading comprehension of students. The teacher asks a series of questions, and the student should be able to repeat the story, correctly and in order, back to the teacher. It is important for the student to place the plot elements to show his or her understanding of the structure of a narrative. Major characters and events should also be mentioned and vocabulary from the text used correctly. If a student mentions minor characters or superfluous information during a retelling, the teacher should not be alarmed as long as those details do not distract from the main story. 3. A sixth-grade supervisor looks over a test recently given by a new teacher. She notices that all of the questions require students to recall factual information from the book they were reading. The supervisor immediately sets up a conference with the teacher to talk about the make-up of the test. What might be the supervisor’s concern? A. B. C. D.

There are many methods for assessing comprehension of a text, and test questions are the worst form of assessment. The teacher used a red pen to grade, and the students’ papers look like they are bleeding. Knowledge and comprehension questions are low-level cognitive tasks that do not assess high order thinking. The supervisor micro-manages her staff.

The correct answer is C. There is nothing wrong with asking students to answer questions about a reading. Asking questions helps the teacher assess for reading comprehension and also helps students think critically about the text. By transferring what they have learned from reading to apply the knowledge to a new situation or book, analyze the implications of a character’s actions, synthesize information from the text in a way that makes sense to the reader, or evaluate the literary merit of the book, the student will be working at a much higher cognitive level than by simply remembering names, places and dates. Of course, Bloom’s Taxonomy suggests that proper ordering of questions guarantees that learning is scaffolded to increase comprehension. Teachers should begin by asking knowledge and comprehension questions but not end there. The supervisor will most likely share her knowledge of Bloom’s Taxonomy and help the new teacher improve her question-writing skills for the next assignment.

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4. A fifth-grade teacher assigns a Say Something in his class. What is his purpose for applying this instructional strategy? A. B. C. D.

A Say Something is an effective method for helping students monitor their own comprehension. A Say Something will reinforce a new reading strategy that has just been taught to improve students’ reading comprehension. A Say Something forces students to read and will count as a cooperative learning activity. A and B only.

The correct answer is D. Effective readers make connections, use prior knowledge to make sense of new information, apply fix-up strategies, make predictions, set purposes for reading, ask questions, and comment on the content. For many readers, these habits must be explicitly taught and then reinforced before the reader internalizes them. One way to create independent, successful readers is to teach students to monitor their own comprehension. Think-alouds and Say Somethings are useful approaches for teaching self-assessment. In groups of two or three, students take turns reading aloud from a text and then saying something about the reading. The students can either say whatever comes to their mind or apply a reading strategy. At the end, the groups shares its observations of the things the readers do as they read for understanding. 5. Being able to do which of the following is NOT a literal comprehension skill? A. B. C. D.

identify sequence of events identify cause-and-effect patterns draw conclusions explicitly state the main idea

The correct answer is C. Literal comprehension skills help students learn information that is directly stated in a text. Literal comprehension is an essential building block for teaching students how to draw conclusions. Students must learn how to identify sequence of events, main ideas, details, and cause-and-effect relationships patterns before they can make inferences. There are many ways to teach these important skills: pointing out time words, taking students on a story walk, using a story map, locating topic sentences in nonfiction texts, and asking questions such as who, what, where, when, how, and why.

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Objective 0003 Understands and applies reading skills and strategies for various purposes (including information and understanding, critical analysis and evaluation, literary response, and social interaction). The following topics are covered under the subject area of Objective 0003: ■

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Recognizing how to vary reading strategies (e.g., skimming, scanning, in-depth reading, and rereading) for different texts and purposes and for different genres of written communication (e.g., fiction, nonfiction, poetry) Applying knowledge of techniques for gathering, interpreting, and synthesizing information when reading a variety of printed texts and electronic resources Recognizing how to analyze and assess a writer’s credibility or objectivity when reading printed and electronic texts Analyzing and interpreting information from texts containing tables, charts, graphs, maps, and other illustrations Demonstrating knowledge of strategies to promote literary response skills (e.g., connecting the text to personal experience and prior knowledge, citing evidence from a text to support an interpretation, and using reading logs or guided reading techniques) Identifying effective ways of modeling independent reading for enjoyment and encouraging participation in a community of readers (e.g., book clubs and literature circles)

Genre-Specific Reading Strategies Genre-specific reading strategies will help students better comprehend what they read. Textbooks, for example, have a very different structure than narrative texts. First, a student should scan the textbook or article, looking for its organization. Textbooks are often divided into many sections with subheadings. When students recognize the bold headings, they are already cued in to the topic’s main ideas. An article, however, has a different structure from a textbook: instead of headings and subheadings, an article will have a thesis statement and supporting paragraphs. It is important for students to identify the author’s thesis in the article. Narrative texts include fiction, biography, autobiography, and personal essays. Narratives are organized around a specific structure or plot line: exposition, rising action, climax, and resolution. Poetry contains a different structure than either narrative or nonfiction texts. Poetry uses few words to convey a deep meaning; thus, students should first learn the importance of rereading poems because each time they read a poem, its meaning will become clearer and clearer. Students should then pay attention to the title before paraphrasing sections of the poem. They should also look for uses of figurative language such as metaphors, assonance, meter, rhyme, etc. Once the genre and structure have been established, students should set a purpose for a more in-depth reading. Providing a purpose for reading helps students determine what is important or what needs further consideration. There are several ways to set a purpose when reading expository and narrative texts. Coding is one way to establish a purpose for nonfiction. Students read and mark places in the text that they find confusing, surprising, fascinating, important, or significant in any other way. The teachers and students should decide on symbols for marking the text. For instance, students can place a question mark by passages or words they do not understand, or they can place an exclamation point by something that surprised them as they read. Coding not only provides a lens through which to read a text but also keeps the students actively interacting with the information and provides a springboard for discussion. Teachers will find it helpful to start by asking students to identify what parts of the reading confused them. Students can immediately identify challenging parts for clarification. In addition to coding, students can highlight repeated words and write summaries after each subsection. Highlighting repeated words helps students locate and remember important facts and details. Using their codes and repeated words,

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students can easily write short summaries to synthesize new information, check for understanding, and record information. In expository articles, students should not only highlight repeated words but also look for and underline the thesis. To help students develop a purpose when reading a narrative text, the teacher can model skimming the back of the book or the inside cover to get a feel for the material. Students can also reflect on the title of the book and then construct questions that will provide a purpose. For example, before reading the novel The Great Gatsby by F. Scott Fitzgerald, the teacher can model the following inquiry: “Who is Gatsby?”; “Why is Gatsby great?”; and “Is Gatsby the main character?” Once the students have created their own questions and made some inferences, they can read the book to answer their initial queries. Because most authors choose their titles carefully, the students already have a window into the major themes of the book. Similar to coding expository texts, students should also mark their books when they are confused by unfamiliar vocabulary or a character’s actions. They can also code places in the reading where they made personal connections, connections to other literary works, or connections to larger world issues. Again, coding teaches students to actively interact with their reading and to continually monitor their comprehension. Most readers get distracted when they read; effective readers notice when they have allowed themselves to drift off task and apply fix-up strategies. If a student notices he has not been paying attention to the meaning behind the words, he can reread the sections he missed before moving on.

Information Resource Handling Today, students use more than printed sources to gather information. In addition to teaching students how to use the table of contents in encyclopedias, differentiate between primary and secondary sources, and keep track of bibliographic information, teachers must also show students how to navigate the Web. First, students should decide if they will use primary or secondary sources. A primary source is a firsthand account of an event. Students can gather information by interviewing, conducting surveys, or corresponding via emails or letters. Because primary materials are firsthand accounts, the information needs to be interpreted or explained to readers so they understand what information the source provides. Secondary sources are works that have been interpreted by another person who was removed from the event. Gathering information from secondary sources often requires students to use the library. Teachers should work in collaboration with the school librarian and show students how to use the school’s library. Students can learn how a library is set up; how to use computers to look up a book by author, title, subject, or keyword; and where they can find reference materials such as encyclopedias. Teachers and librarians can teach students to pay attention to bibliographic information such as publication dates. Students should be aware of when the information was recorded. In many areas, such as science, changes happen every day, so the information the students procured might be incorrect. Students can also learn to write down the source of their information, copyright year, publisher, and city of publication. This will help them later, when they have to create a works-cited page and cite in the body of their paper. Encyclopedias are still valuable resources for gathering information; however, students should only use them as a place to begin their search and not as a be-all and end-all source. Along the same lines, the internet is also a valid research tool, but it should be used only when appropriate: to find current information, to find information not found in print sources, to correspond with other people, or to share information with a public audience. The internet can be very frustrating for students who do not understand keyword searches. Similar to the yellow pages, a topic may be found under a very different name. Students need time and patience to play around with wording as they surf the Web. Once students have gathered information by note taking, reading, or researching, they need to synthesize what they have read. Students successfully synthesize by integrating their own thinking with what they have read to achieve a new understanding. Summarizing, or retelling the main points in your own words, is a form of synthesis. Students can also use double-entry journals to learn how to synthesize. On the left side of their papers, they can summarize a section of the text, and on the right side write what they think about the text. Synthesizing is cognitively more difficult than simply rewriting or retelling what was read because students must include their own thoughts and opinions, and unlike analyzing texts, in which a reader breaks a text into its parts, synthesis requires using the parts of a reading to recreate a whole with a new perspective.

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Assessing Credibility or Objectivity First, students should identify the writer’s argument and then recognize the types of information he uses to prove his contention. What sources did the writer consult? Are those sources reliable? If a writer uses only one source, how generalizable is that source? If the author interviewed a few people, do his results really represent a large portion of the reading audience? Also, students should check to see if the author has included both sides of the argument. If not, ask what the author has left out and why. What issues did the author not address? Would those issues weaken the argument? For example, if a student is reading an article about a war but only provides the American perspective, the article is clearly biased. The information should then be read with that bias in mind. Because so many students use the Internet to conduct most of their research, it is imperative that students know how to assess the credibility of a Web site. Unlike research done in the library, where the books have been reviewed by librarians, there is no way of regulating the kind of information that appears on the Web. First, students must check to make sure the information is accurate. If the reader sees incorrect information, the site should be discredited immediately. If, however, the student does not know if the information is correct, he can check the authority of the site by checking out the author: Is the author an authority on the subject? What are the author’s credentials? Can the reader get in touch with the author? Next, the student should determine the author’s bias. Most information is not objective; however, that does not mean the site should be discredited. For example, if a student is interested in finding out about the harmful effects of fuel emissions on the environment, a site sponsored by utility vehicles will most likely downplay the negative effects. On the other hand, a Web site sponsored by an environmental group might exaggerate the damage. To get the most accurate information, the reader needs to pay attention to the URL address. If the site is personal (.com), the information is more likely to contain bias. Sites with the URL of .org or .mil are more credible than personal sites because they are sponsored by organizations or the military, respectively. The most reliable information comes from government sites or addresses containing .gov. Education sites (.edu) are also reliable; however, depending on the author, they, too, can contain the bias of the faculty member. Next, the student should verify that the Web site is current or is being kept up with new information as it is discovered. For example, the same student studying the environment should not rely on a site about fuel emissions that has not been updated since 1980. There have been many changes in car design in the past twenty-five years, so the information will not be accurate. Last, the student should confirm that the author’s site contains additional sites and links that work. Did the author cover most of the issue by including many perspectives? Can a visitor to the site contact the author or the organization that designed and updates the site? That information is most likely found at the bottom of the site. Teachers should show the students that they can scroll down immediately to see if the author and contact information are included. If not, it is too difficult to determine the credibility of the site, and it may be a good idea to try to find a more reliable resource.

Visual Representations of Information Reading does not always consist of decoding words on a page; effective readers should also learn how to read visual representations of information such as tables, charts, graphs, and maps. Visual representations help readers analyze and interpret information about numbers that would otherwise be confusing. ■

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Tables consist of columns and rows to visually organize information so it can be accessed easily. Train schedules are tables that supply passengers with immediate information about times and destinations. The vertical columns consist of destinations, and the horizontal rows contain arrival times. In the beginning of textbooks, a reader can find a table of contents. The column lists the chapter number, and the row, the chapter title. Pie Charts are visual ways to read information about percentages. A pie chart is a circle or pie representing a whole, and the slices correspond to a percentage of the whole. This makes it much easier for the reader to compare the percentages by seeing the difference in size of the slices. Pie charts are often used when there is a big gap between percentages because the slices will show up unevenly, thus making the point that not everyone is getting their share of the pie. Graphs are used to show trends and changes over time to draw conclusions and make predictions. Graphs consist of two things: the quantity, or number, and the fixed interval of time over which the numbers were measured. For example, if a teacher wanted to see changes in her students’ homework during a school year for the next five


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years to see if there is a trend, she might use her class as a sample. On the vertical axis, she would place the number of assignments received at an equal interval from smallest to largest, and on the horizontal axis she would place a fixed interval of time—1 month, for instance. She can then see when her classes in that year are less likely to turn in homework. Like pie charts, graphs are manipulated to sway people’s opinions. The smaller the gap between the quantities being measured, the more dramatic the rise and fall will look. Maps provide a visual of geographic locations. Because maps are much smaller versions of the real place, they must be read using the tools the mapmaker provides: orientation, scale, and legend. Most scales include a compass to orient the reader. It is not always obvious which part of the map is north or south. To measure the distance between two points, the map will also contain a scale or ruler informing the reader what each inch equals in miles. Using a ruler, a person can figure out the distance between two points. For example, if every inch equals 100 miles and the distance between two points is three inches, then the trip is 300 miles total. The legend explains the symbols on the map. For example, the capital of a city or country is usually marked with a star; cities are marked with a dot. Major highways are often shown as a line, and minor roads as dotted lines.

Literary Response Strategies Teachers help student respond to literature by helping students activate prior knowledge. Two methods of activating prior knowledge ask teachers to frontload the reading using anticipation guides and vocabulary word sorts. Anticipation guides are statements about issues or themes at play that students can agree or disagree with. Once they have considered the statements, they read the text to confirm or refute their original decisions. Objective 0002 discusses anticipation guides and other frontloading activities in more depth. In addition to activating prior knowledge, students should be introduced to unknown vocabulary. In a word sort, the teacher gathers a list of words related to the reading and invites students to group and label the words. As students group and label, they become familiar with unknown vocabulary, recall familiarity with known vocabulary, and gain a sense of the upcoming reading. Once students have activated their prior knowledge, students should keep track of their thinking while they engage with the text. Reading logs or journals help students record their thinking about an idea, thought, personal connection, or passage. Most often, reading response logs invite students to compare their own experiences with the text. Logs can be open ended for older readers to record their thoughts, insights, connections, and feelings. Or teachers can provide structure for younger students. For example, students can take on the persona of one of the characters and respond to the story’s events/people. They can write letters to characters to in order to make personal connections and judgments. Students also respond to questions about the texts’ literary elements (plot, character, setting, conflict, conclusion) provided by the teacher. Students identify setting or protagonist. On a more sophisticated level, students can write in their logs about how the setting functions in the story or the protagonist’s weaknesses create obstacles that need to be overcome by the novel’s completion. Other activities include writing letters to authors or future readers of the novel, convincing their audience of the books’ worth. To tap into higher order thinking, students should respond to literature by writing book reviews or the traditional book report, focusing on the character, plot, setting, conflict, resolution and an art component such as a new book jacket. Students can also make inferences by wondering “what if” at key moments in the plot. Art and drama are less traditional ways of responding to literature. Emergent readers and writers can draw a picture in response to a story and then explain their pictures to the class. Fluent readers and writers may draw/paint/craft a symbolic representation for the books’ themes and conflicts. Keeping a visual diary allows learners to quickly recall incidents from longer novels and chapter books. Visuals are particularly important in teaching students the importance of picturing the people, places, and events in the novel. Filling in graphic organizers such as character webs and plot lines also help students think about literature. Drama is a useful tool for students when they read and respond to reading. Students take on the persona of a character in the novel and answer interview questions about why she made certain decisions at key points in the text. Drama also teaches students how to make inferences. Since many readers rely on the text to provide all the information, teachers should show students how to “read between the lines” by writing the script of a scene or conversation alluded to, but not written, in the book. Using their imaginations and cues from the story, they can write skits to be performed in front of the class.

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Double-entry journals are a kind of reading log that varies from task to task, but they are most often designed in the following manner: the left side of the journal is for recording selections of the text that are interesting or confusing to them, and the right side is for documenting the students’ thinking about that selection. Teachers can also model a reading strategy, such as making personal connections, and then apply the strategy to a double entry journal. In this case, the left side is for recording passages with which the reader connects, and the right side is for explaining why the reader relates to the quote. Collecting quotes in reading logs and double-entry journals also helps students use evidence from the text to support their interpretations. During class discussion, Socratic Seminars, debates, or expository essays, students learn the importance of defending their opinions with textual proof. As students begin to formulate their opinions of the reading by making personal connections to their prior experiences, they are also learning to record information that will help them support their opinions. When stating an opinion in class, students should learn to cite directly from the text until it becomes a habit.

Reading for Enjoyment Assigned reading should not be the only exposure to literature or nonfiction that students receive in school. To foster a life-long passion, teachers should model reading for enjoyment in and out of the classroom. There are several ways to encourage participation in a community of readers: book clubs, book talks, DEAR (Drop Everything and Read), independent reading, literature circles, reader’s chair, and SSR (Sustained Silent Reading). Building a classroom library is the first step in creating a culture of reading. Students should be surrounded by books that represent varying genres, interests, and developmental reading levels. It takes time to collect copies of books; however, over time, teachers can attend tag sales, write book grants, and run book drives to help diminish the cost. With a decent library, teachers can implement in-class reading time in the form of DEAR or SSR. Because students need to read to become better readers, DEAR and SSR are designed to carve out time especially for reading for enjoyment. Teachers can simply designate ten to fifteen minutes of class time for younger readers and twenty for older readers to enjoy reading a book on their independent or instructional level. For younger students, it is best to place desks in groups according to reading level and place a basket of appropriate books in the center for their choosing. This will ensure that a student does not grow frustrated during this time meant for building fluency and enjoyment. Book talks given by the teacher or the student also create a literacy climate in the classroom. Teachers give book talks about an author, a genre, or a theme to create excitement and interest when introducing new books. Student-centered book talks are often called Author’s Chair or Reader’s Chair. Reader’s Chair invites students to share with their classmates a favorite book they have recently read. The student should meet with the teacher prior to the presentation so the two can go over what the student will say. Forming book clubs is another way to encourage reading for enjoyment. Teachers group three to six students together to read and informally discuss a common read. Because the group meets without much direction from the teacher, it is important that the books chosen for the group are at their independent or instructional reading levels. Literature circles are peer-led discussion groups organized around a common text. Modeled after adult book clubs, students choose their own reading material, form small (two to six people), temporary groups based on book choice, and meet regularly to discuss their reading. Literature circles provide students time to engage in natural and sophisticated conversations about texts independent of the teacher’s direct influence. To provide a support structure for the students, teachers often include role sheets. Each student in the group takes on a role for that book. Roles could include connecting the book to their lives, drawing pictures to visualize the text, creating questions for discussion, or looking up unknown vocabulary, to name a few. Teachers act as facilitators, moving around the class and observing their students at work, but never directing their thinking. Many schools now require independent reading in addition to in-class texts. Students choose a book for enjoyment to read at home for credit in school. Depending on the school, students may have to turn in a journal documenting their thinking, present on their books, write a report, or have a parent sign off that their child read for so many hours at home.

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Review Questions 1. A teacher asks his students to code a text for personal, literary, and world connections. Why does he do this? A. B. C. D.

Coding texts for personal, literary and world connections helps student relate to the texts they are reading and see how the material connects with other books and world issues. Coding texts provides a purpose for students when they are reading. Coding texts helps students monitor their comprehension. All of the above.

The correct answer is D. Coding texts is an important reading skill for beginning and adolescent readers. For one, it provides a purpose for any genre of text: nonfiction, poetry, and fiction. As students read, they look for personal connections, connections to other texts, and connections to contemporary issues. Teachers can use their students’ codes as a springboard for discussion and as a way to assess student understanding of the reading. In addition, coding helps students monitor their own comprehension. Coding texts keeps students focused on the task and alerts them when they become distracted. 2. A teacher wants to monitor his students’ thinking while they read a difficult text. One way that he is able to observe his students’ internal thinking is by A. B. C. D.

giving an unannounced reading quiz to check for understanding. providing questions that students have to answer at the end of the reading selection. inviting students to keep a double-entry journal. interviewing the students after each assigned reading selection.

The correct answer is C. It is difficult for teachers to know what their students are thinking. One way to make the invisible process of thinking apparent for the student and teacher is by asking students to keep a double- (or triple-) entry journal. Double-entry journals vary from task to task, but they are most often designed in the following manner: the left side of the journal is for recording selections of the text that are interesting or confusing to them, and the right side is for recording students’ thinking about that selection. A teacher can then see the parts of the reading that caused the most difficulty and also examine how the student is reacting to or “reading” the text. Teachers can also model a reading strategy, such as making personal connections, and then apply the strategy to a double-entry journal. In this case, the left side is for recording passages with which the reader connects, and the right side is for explaining why the reader relates to the quote. Simply quizzing students or asking them to answer preconstructed questions will not tap into their thinking process. See the review section for an example of a double-entry journal. 3. Students in your class are going to be reading about the Arthur Miller play The Crucible. Before teaching the play, you should activate prior knowledge by A. B. C. D.

creating an anticipation guide with statements about the major issues in the play. building the students’ vocabulary by doing a list-group-label. doing nothing; you don’t want to give away any part of the play. A and B.

The correct answer is D. Schema theory teaches us that students construct meaning by using their previous experiences or frameworks to understand new experiences. For students to learn about and from the play, teachers should activate their prior knowledge or frameworks about the main issues in the play so students can store and make meaning from the new information. Two methods of activating prior knowledge ask teachers to frontload the reading by using anticipation guides and vocabulary word sorts. Anticipation guides are statements about issues or themes in the text that students can agree or disagree with. Students then read the play to confirm or refute their original decisions. To build a student’s vocabulary and activate prior knowledge, the teacher gathers a list of words related to the reading and invites students to group and then label the words.

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4. Students are ready to conduct research for their argumentative essays. You have alerted the library that you will need the computers for three periods so students can find information on the Internet to support their opinions. Students should know what about checking the validity of an electronic text? A. B. C. D.

If the Web site’s address contains “.edu,” the information has been supplied by a university, so it is valid. There is no need to check when the Web page was last updated; just because information is old, does not mean it is not useful. If the information is provided by a doctor or government official, it can be trusted. They should scroll down to the bottom of the page to make sure they know who created the Web page and how to get in touch with the page’s creator.

The correct answer is D. Students need to be reminded that information provided on the Internet has not been reviewed by anyone to ensure its validity. That said, anyone can post anything, true or false, on their Web page. It is therefore important to learn how to critically read Web pages for the writer’s credibility and legitimacy. Sites that contain .edu, .gov, or .org are less likely to be biased than .com sites. Students should learn that any site, even one that is from a university, contains bias. Scrolling down to the bottom of the page to ensure the site is being well maintained by people who provide their information is one way to ensure the site is trustworthy. They should also check to see if the links are still active and where the links take the reader. It might surprise them to click on a link and find it leads to a controversial group asking for money. 5. Prior to reading a novel, you decide to try a guided reading-thinking activity (GRTA) with your class. To successfully implement the strategy, you must A. B. C. D.

begin by discussing the title of the book and the cover with the class. make predictions about story content. present a focusing question and then allow students to read a section of the text so they can answer the question. All of the above.

The correct answer is D. Guided reading-thinking activities offer support by engaging students in the reading and by improving comprehension of narrative texts. They teach students how to make predictions, focus their reading, and make adjustments in their thinking as they continue to read and predict. Teachers begin by discussing the book title and cover. The class then makes predictions based on the title and cover. The teacher and the students should record their predictions. The teacher (or the student) asks a focusing question before the students read a particular section of the book. Once they have finished, they can check the reading against the predictions they made earlier. Students then begin again by making a new prediction.

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Objective 0004 Understands processes for generating, developing, revising, editing, and presenting or publishing written texts. The following topics are covered under the subject area of Objective 0004: ■

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Applying knowledge of prewriting strategies (e.g., brainstorming, prioritizing and selecting topics, including clustering and other graphic organizers) Identifying effective techniques of note taking, outlining, and drafting Revising written texts (e.g., formulating topic sentences, reordering paragraphs or sentences, adding transition words and phrases, and eliminating distracting sentences) to improve unity and logical organization Editing written work to ensure conformity to conventions of standard English usage (e.g., eliminating misplaced or dangling modifiers, eliminating sentence fragments, correcting errors in subject-verb agreement and pronounantecedent agreement) Editing and proofreading written work to correct misspellings and eliminate errors in punctuation and capitalization Applying knowledge of the uses of technology to plan, create, revise, edit, and present or publish written texts and multimedia works

The Writing Process: Prewriting Strategies Writing is a process; as such, it is the teacher’s responsibility to explicitly teach students the stages of the process. Even though every student has his own method, most tend to follow a certain progression from pre-writing to editing. Teachers should expose students to a variety of prewriting strategies and allow them to choose which one works best for them. The first step in the writing process is brainstorming. When brainstorming, the students are allowed to contribute anything related to the topic. A teacher can conduct class brainstorms by listing students’ thoughts as they are volunteered or by putting students in groups to share their thinking. For a more introspective brainstorm, the teacher can allot a certain amount of time for the class to free write their thoughts as they come to their minds. The idea behind brainstorming is to not place boundaries on or censor thinking. A more teacher-directed brainstorm, the K-W-L, builds on students’ prior knowledge and natural sense of curiosity to generate research topics. A K-W-L chart first asks students to write down everything they already know about the topic. Next, the student or students list what they want to know or find out as a result of the research. Once the research paper is completed, students revisit the K-W-L chart to record what they learned as a result of their work. Once ideas have been shared, the class can move on to the next step: narrowing and selecting topics. To narrow the topic, teachers can employ a number of visual strategies using graphic organizers. Graphic organizers provide a visual way for students to “envision” or see the internal order of the paper. Clustering is one kind of graphic organizer that helps students narrow topics. Students place the topic in the middle of the page. For example, in an English class, students might be writing about an author’s life and influences. Students use the branches to narrow the topic (i.e., childhood, schooling, family life, literary influences, etc.). Then students continue to branch off of each branch until they feel they have exhausted their topics. Finally, students select one of the narrower topics under one of the branches to write their papers. Depending on the type of paper, Venn diagrams, outlining, mapping, and diagramming offer students a vehicle for organizing their writing graphically. Venn diagrams can be used for a compare and contrast paper. Outlining, tree mapping, and diagramming are essentially the same. For some students, the traditional outline, using Roman numerals, is confusing. For visual learners, mapping and tree diagramming are preferable. Once students have brainstormed, prioritized, narrowed the subject, and organized their ideas, they are ready for the next step in the process: drafting.

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The Writing Process: Note Taking, Outlining, and Drafting Note taking is an important skill for students and presents many challenges. Students are not sure how to set up their notes, determine what is important, and use the notes to study or prepare for a research paper. The SQ3R method of note taking addresses the above three issues. SQ3R stands for survey, question, read, review, and recite. First, students should survey the chapter and look for a pattern. They should pay particular attention to chapter and section titles, bold and italicized print, and bulleted information. Once they have discovered a pattern, the students should set up their notes in a manner that reflects the organization. Students then turn the titles and bold print into questions using when, who, why, how, and what. As the students read the text, they answer the questions in their notes. This helps them determine what important information should be in their notes. Next, students review their notes until they feel they can recite the information without looking at the notes. This method works particularly well with textbooks. Double-entry journals also help students record information from textbooks, fiction, or other informational texts. Students divide their papers in half, folding vertically down the middle. On one side they record notes, and on the other side they can do one of three things: react to the recorded selection, question the text, or record where they obtained the information. Learning logs are an effective way for students to maintain a daily record of lessons for reference and review. Another note-taking technique, the Cornel Notes Method, is commonly used in secondary schools and colleges. This style of taking notes is best for information presented in a linear fashion. The left side of the paper is for recording main ideas, and the right side is for writing down the details and particulars of the main ideas. At the bottom, the student should leave space for a summary of the above notes. Note taking for a research paper is often taught using annotated index cards. The cards have different purposes. There are index cards for summarizing something read in a book for a quick reference of the author’s main ideas. Thesis cards are for writing down the author’s opinion about the subject the student is researching. A student can keep a critical note, reacting to the thesis, or a question index card for any new questions that emerged from the reading. Note taking takes many forms; the teacher should model different styles of note taking. For visual learners, notes can come in the form of graphic organizers such as tree diagrams, concept maps, and Venn diagrams. Outlining also takes on many shapes. As mentioned above, students can outline using Roman numerals. The main topic is Roman numeral one (I), and the supporting information for the topics is labeled from letters of the alphabet (A, B, C), and so on. Again, graphic organizers provide visual styles of planning. When the information is gathered and put into outline form, students then draft their papers. Students simply need to sit down and write their papers by following the organization from their outlines. During the drafting process, students should not begin revising and editing. They should put their thoughts on paper as best they can and know that writing is recursive; they will eventually revisit their first draft for editing.

The Writing Process: Revising Written Texts Once students have brainstormed, outlined, and drafted their essays, the next stage in the writing process is revising. During the revising phase, students check their drafts for unity, coherence, organization, and structure. At this point, the writer needs to be willing to move around paragraphs, eliminate distracting sentences, fix transitions, and rewrite topic sentences for clarity. Topic sentences are surprisingly difficult for young writers. A common mistake students make when writing topic sentences is to state a fact and not an opinion. If a topic sentence is simply a truism, the paragraph tends to ramble on and lose an inner structure. For example, a student might write about Holden Caulfield, the protagonist in Salinger’s Catcher in the Rye, “Holden has a sister.” The topic sentence is a statement, not an opinion. The student does not need a paragraph to explain, analyze, or evaluate. Instead, he will mostly likely write a plot summary of the story instead of proving his thesis. The transition to the next paragraph then becomes discordant. If the student changed the topic sentence to an opinion, “Holden feels, much like a catcher in the rye, he must protect his sister from failure,” he has a natural need to explain, analyze, or evaluate Holden’s attitude toward his sister. When revising, students can check their papers for two things: topic sentences that are statements instead of opinions and paragraphs that are simply plot summaries.

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Another common error in essays involves reordering sentences and paragraphs. Students often use the writing of the draft to formulate their ideas. As such, the last sentence in each paragraph tends to be the topic sentence. Students need to be willing to check their papers for instances when the reader must wait until the end to figure out what the writer is saying. Also, without transition words or clear organization, a student’s paper might jump from idea to idea. In that case, the student cuts the paper into paragraphs and plays around with the order until there is a clear logic to the presentation of the ideas. The student can do the same with sentences in a paragraph. Once students feel they have an organized, coherent essay, or are in the process of revising for a more organized and coherent essay, they can add transition words and transition phrases to their papers. Transition words include words like however, moreover, and similarly, and transitional phrases comprise expressions such as on the other hand, along the same lines, and in contrast. Transition words and phrases signal the reader that the topic is either staying the same or changing. For example, if a student is writing a compare and contrast essay on the causes of the Civil War, he will need transition words and phrases as he moves from one side of the argument to the other. For instance: “The north felt justified outlawing slavery; however, the southern plantation owners thought their livelihood depended on free labor.” Jumping from one idea to another without smooth transitions confuses the reader and weakens the writer’s argument. Last, as the students reread their drafts, they should be aware of distracting sentences: sentences that are unnecessary, worded poorly, or filled with jargon. One way to catch distracting sentences is to give the draft to an outside reader and have that reader mark or highlight any sentences that the reader needed to read more than once. If the reader stops in the middle of a paper to reread a sentence for clarity, the reader loses track of what he was reading, which is an indication of a poorly written sentence. Also, students can look for redundant or unnecessary sentences, that is, a series of sentences essentially making the same point. Revising an essay takes time and practice; however, it is imperative that students learn how to read their papers with a critical eye and are willing to make changes. Once they compare their initial drafts to their modified drafts, they will see for themselves the importance of revising.

The Writing Process: Editing Written Texts The last phase of the writing process is editing. Editing also involves revising; however, editing is done on a micro level. During editing, students check their work for English usage such as grammar, syntax, punctuation, and mechanics. This requires students to know some basic conventions of print: independent and dependent clauses, modifiers and appositives, subject-verb agreement, and pronoun-antecedent agreement. Once a student has drafted a written text and revised for organization and unity, he should read carefully for usage errors. One common error in usage occurs when a student does not place a phrase or clause modifier as close as possible to the words they modify. When this happens, the sentence is very confusing to the reader and is said to have a misplaced modifier. For instance, the sentence “Hungry from the marathon, chocolate cake sounded good,” contains an example of a dangling modifier because the phrase hungry from the marathon does not sensibly modify chocolate cake. The chocolate cake isn’t hungry, the person who ran the marathon is. To fix the sentence so the modifier does not dangle, or exist without a word to modify, the student can add some words for the phrase to modify: “Hungry from the marathon, the runner thought chocolate cake sounded good.” To teach students to identify dangling modifiers, share examples with the students to show them the silly unintended meanings they convey. To help students avoid sentence fragments, teachers need to show how fragments do not express complete thoughts. That is, they are not sentences that can stand on their own; therefore, the fragment should remain in the sentence of which it is a part. Also, it is important to remind students that a sentence consists of a subject and a verb and communicates a complete thought: “She went to the store.” The subject of the sentence is she, and the verb is went. “After the winter formal.” is an example of a sentence fragment. The sentence does not contain a verb and is therefore a sentence fragment. The next example is not as obvious: “The people going to the opera.” The sentence does have a subject—the people—and a verb—going; however, a verb ending in -ing cannot stand on its own without a helping verb to form a verb phrase: “The people were going to the opera.” If a student is left wondering what happened next, it is a good indication that the thought needs to be completed. Once students check for subjects, verbs, and verbs ending in -ing, they can easily fix the sentences.

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Pronoun-antecedent agreement causes problems in writing, especially because there is not a gender-neutral thirdperson pronoun in the English language other than they. For example, in the following sentence, notice how the writer tries to use they as a pronoun for one person to avoid using the universal he: “When a student does not turn in homework, they risk a failing grade.” The subject (which is also the antecedent in this instance) is singular (student), but the pronoun is plural (they). The sentence can be fixed by changing either the subject/antecedent to reflect more than one student (“When students do not turn in their homework . . .”) or the plural pronoun to a singular pronoun (“. . . she or he risks a failing grade”). Writers should also use a singular pronoun with the words anybody, anyone, each, either, everybody, everyone, neither, nobody, no one, one, somebody, someone. (Ex: “If anyone calls about the party, tell him or her that the time has been changed to 1:00.”) When editing a paper for subject-verb agreement, students should check to make sure the verb agrees with the subject. Singular subjects use singular verbs, and plural subjects use plural verbs. Case in point, the following example shows subject-verb agreement because the verb changed when the subject changed: “She was late for the party, but we were also late.” Even if the phrase before the verb is plural, a singular subject still takes a singular verb: “The teacher, as well as the parents, was proud of her students.” Because whatever in commas can be removed, the sentence is essentially about a teacher being proud of her students (“The teacher was proud of her students.”). Some words that cause confusion include anybody, anyone, each, either, everybody, everyone, neither, nobody, no one, one, somebody, and someone. These words require singular verbs. Both, few, many, and several, however, take a plural verb. (Ex: “Both the mother and the father were in attendance at the teacher conference.”) Compound subjects also cause some uncertainty. Subjects joined by and necessitate a plural verb; subjects connected by or or nor require a singular verb. To make matters more complicated, when a sentence contains both a singular and a plural subject coupled by or or nor, the verb should agree with the nearest subject: “Either the parents or the son is telling the truth.” If the sentence was changed, it would read like this: “The son or the parents are telling the truth.” Editing requires knowledge of grammar, sentence structure, and subject, verb, and noun usage. It takes time and practice to become a proficient editor. Continually applying the writing process will aid in instilling the importance of editing.

The Writing Process: Proofreading Written Texts Errors in punctuation most often happen because of ignorance of the rules. Despite the fact that commas do indicate pauses, there are times when a colon also indicates a pause. Students need to learn the rules governing punctuation and apply them often in their writing. The more often students use, recognize the misuse of, and discuss their decisions for using certain punctuation, the more likely they will be to use punctuation correctly. Punctuation tells the reader how to read the sentence. For example, the following sentence is very confusing without punctuation because the reader does not know when to pause. Ex: The teacher a veteran of the profession for thirty years decided to retire and travel to the following places Venice Italy Munich Germany and Madrid Spain. With commas, a colon and a semi-colon, the sentence becomes very readable. Ex: The teacher, a veteran of the profession for thirty years, decided to retire and travel to the following places: Venice, Italy; Munich, Germany; and Madrid, Spain. Punctuation is also essential to the intended meaning of a sentence. For instance, the next sentence conveys a very different message than the one that follows it. Ex: A woman without her man is nothing. Punctuation can change its entire implication: Ex: A woman: without her, man is nothing. Once students understand how important punctuation is to writing, they are ready to learn the rules and apply them accordingly.

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Commas There are many uses of the comma: to separate items in a sequence, two or more adjectives describing a noun, or two independent clauses joined by one of the conjunctions: and, but, nor, for, or yet. They also set off nonessential information and introductory words, phrases and clauses. ■

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Commas separate items in a sequence. Ex: I try to improve my vocabulary by reading, writing, and incorporating new words in my daily conversations. Commas separate two or more adjectives describing a noun. Ex: It was a beautiful, sunny day. An easy way to check if a comma should be included is to place the word and between the adjectives; if the sentence makes sense, the commas stay. (It was a beautiful and sunny day.) Commas are used to separate two independent clauses joined by one of the conjunctions: and, but, or, nor, for, or yet. Ex: I wanted to call in sick, but my students were counting on me. Commas are used to set off nonessential information in a sentence. That is, the clause or phrase does not need to be in the sentence for the sentence to make sense. Ex: Mrs. Johnson, my favorite teacher, is absent today. Without the appositive, my favorite teacher, the sentence can still stand on its own. Commas set off introductory words, phrases, and clauses. Ex: Yes, I would love a piece of chocolate cake. No, I would not like a piece of vanilla. Ex: In the middle of the night on Tuesday, I got a craving for chocolate cake. [more than one prepositional phrase in the beginning of the sentence] Ex: While I was home sick, I made a chocolate cake for my students. [adverb clause] Ex: Hungry from the marathon, I decided to treat myself to a piece of chocolate cake. [participial phrase] Commas are also needed after dates, addresses, and titles. Ex: October 22, 2005 Ex: New York, New York Ex: My son, Joe Smith, Jr., just earned his Ph.D.

Semicolons Semicolons, for the most part, are optional. They can be used between two independent clauses or can break up a series of items in a list when the items themselves contain commas. ■

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Semicolons separate two independent clauses. Ex: I love to read literature; I love to read nonfiction, too. Semicolons break up a series of items in a list containing commas. Ex: There are so many things I love about New York: I love the theater; Times Square; the musicals Rent, Phantom of the Opera, and Fiddler on the Roof; and the Greek, Italian, and Cuban restaurants in Queens. There is only one time when a semicolon is essential to the sentence. A sentence requires a semicolon when two sentences are joined by the following conjunctions: however, hence, consequently, therefore, otherwise, furthermore, moreover, accordingly, nevertheless, for example, for instance, that is, besides. Ex: The teacher did not prepare for today’s lesson; consequently, the students were not well behaved.

Colons A colon means “note what follows” before a list or a long statement or quotation and indicates a dramatic pause. ■

Colons are used before a list. Ex: I plan on bringing the following items on vacation: lotion, my camera, sandals, and many books.

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Colons are used before a quotation. Ex: Sojourner Truth challenged racism and sexism when she appealed to a crowd of suffragettes: “Ain’t I a woman?” Colons indicate a dramatic pause. Ex: There was only one thing left to do: tell the truth.

Apostrophes Apostrophes are used to indicate a possessive in a singular noun, time or quantity, the omission of figures in dates, omission of letters, plurals of letters, and plurals of words. ■

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Apostrophes indicate a possessive in a singular noun. Ex: The teacher’s class is on a field trip. Apostrophes indicate possession with time or quantity. Ex: Last week’s field trip was to the Bronx Zoo. Apostrophes indicate the omission of figures and dates. Ex: The graduating class of ‘05 will always remember their senior year. Apostrophes indicate the omission of letters. Ex: I s’pose if the she pays for it, he’ll agree to let them go. Apostrophes are used with plurals of letters. Ex: While we are at the Bronx Zoo, mind your p’s and q’s. Apostrophes are used with plurals of words. Ex: Before we enter the zoo, we should read the do’s and don’t’s.

Hyphens Hyphens are used to join two or more words serving as a single adjective before a noun (NOT after the noun), to form a compound number, to avoid an awkward combination of letters, to form words with some prefixes and suffixes, and to divide words at the ends of lines of printed text. ■

Hyphens are used to join words serving as a single adjective before a noun. Ex: Please pass me the chocolate-covered peanuts.

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Hyphens are not needed when the adjectives follow the noun, as in the following example. Ex: Are those peanuts chocolate covered? Hyphens are also necessary in compound numbers. Ex: forty-two Hyphens are used to avoid confusion or an awkward combination of letters. Ex: When the rule about backpacks was tabled, all of the students re-signed the petition. (Without the hyphen, the sentence reads as if the students gave up or resigned from petitioning.) Hyphens are used with the prefixes ex (meaning former), self, all; with the suffix elect; and between a prefix and a capitalized letter. Ex: ex-wife, self-assured, mid-October, all-inclusive, mayor-elect Finally, hyphens divide words at the ends of lines. The breaks should only be between syllables. Ex: Using a hyphen can be very tricky because there are so many rules to follow.

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Dashes The dash is a more dramatic pause than the comma, but it is less formal than the colon. A dash can show breaks of thought in a sentence, introduce a list of items, or end an unfinished sentence.

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The dash shows a break of thought in a sentence. Ex: The teacher—who’s also my neighbor—gave us too much homework. The dash is an informal way to introduce a list of items. Ex: My teacher said that there were three things we could not bring to the zoo—bananas, gum, and nuts. The dash ends an unfinished sentence. Ex: I went to give the monkey a banana, and I got—

Using Technology to Research and Write Technology provides numerous tools for enhancing student learning. Students use the computer and computer software programs to help them plan papers, generate ideas, and begin organizing their thoughts. Cutting and pasting also lends itself well to revising and editing. Student writers save time cutting and pasting the order of the paragraphs, sentences, or ideas when using computers. Once students are finished with their work, they can publish their work online for a much broader audience. Research suggests that writing for an authentic audience, as opposed to the teacher, results in better writing. Students can also use technology to conduct research. It is particularly imperative for the teacher to show students how to evaluate a Web site (see also Objective 0003, “Assessing Credibility or Objectivity”). Because there is no way of regulating the information on the Web, legitimate sites are often one click away from questionable sites. Students should learn not to trust everything they read on the Internet. The students need to ask themselves the following questions before they choose to use the site in their research. Who is the author of the site? What are the author’s credentials? When was the Web site updated? What is the author’s bias? Can the author be contacted? Do the links work? What domain does it come from? (i.e., government, education, personal, or nonprofit) Once the students finish their research, they can use technology as a vehicle to share their work via multimedia works. PowerPoint enhances a project or report by using music, visuals, speech downloads, or video excerpts.

Review Questions 1. A teacher wants his students to read a chapter from the Social Studies textbook and take notes. The best way to teach the students how to take notes in a way that encourages independent thinking is to A. B. C.

D.

create a formal outline on the board using Roman numerals and instruct students to use this linear format when reading the chapter. pass out a teacher-invented graphic organizer (one that reflects the chapter’s organization) and have students fill in the organizer as they read the chapter. teach students to first peruse or survey the chapter and look for an organization or common pattern (i.e., section headings, bold captions, italicized sections, etc.). Then, elicit from the students different ways of organizing the chapter (i.e., formal outlines, graphic organizers, clustering, creating questions out of the topic headings, etc.) to allow for choice. tell students to read the chapter and answer the questions at the end to test their understanding of the material. If they cannot answer the questions without looking back in the text, they should reread the chapter.

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The correct answer is C. Note taking is an important skill for students to master. Students do not always know what is important to write down and what is not. One way to help students decide what is important is to teach them how to set a purpose before reading and how to produce their own note taking method appropriate for their specific purpose. As the students read for information, their purpose becomes filling in the outline or organizer. Teachers can certainly construct an outline for the students, particularly when first modeling the process; however, students become dependent on the teacher doing the thinking. After modeling the process of surveying a chapter and showing or eliciting from the students different ways of visually organizing the information, the teacher should allow the students to decide for themselves which method best suits their purpose and learning style. Visual students will most likely opt for a graphic organizer. Simply asking students to answer the questions at the end will not help them when they are conducting research online or using reference materials or other non-fiction texts. (Note: Middle and high school students will be able to decide their own note-taking method. Younger students will need more guidance; students should receive as much support as is necessary for their developmental levels.) 2. A teacher has just completed a set of essays. To her frustration, the essays are a mess: students clearly have no understanding of topic sentences, organization, or transitions. The teacher should A. B.

C. D.

not grade the papers. Instead, she should take out her red pen and fix all of the mistakes. It takes her days, but at least the students will be able to see what they did wrong so they do not make the same errors next time. remain calm. She should then decide what are the most glaring and/or important errors the students made. Next, she must design mini-lessons using the students’ work to teach or reteach the components of an essay, one at a time. Once the lessons are completed, students apply their understanding of the writing process to their first drafts. continue to teach her curriculum and make individual appointments after or before school to tutor her students on the writing process. move on. Some students submitted well-written, well-organized papers. Not every student excels in expository writing. The other students will pick up more points during the creative writing unit.

The correct answer is B. If students make glaring mistakes in their writing, it means one of two things: either they never learned how to write an expository essay complete with a thesis, topic sentences, transitions, and a conclusion, or they were exposed to the process but did not internalize it. Either way, the students need to be retaught the process and given more opportunities to practice. To make it more personal, students can use their own work. By allowing students to revise their papers, the teacher hands over the responsibility to the students and reinforces the notion that writing papers is a recursive process. There are many ways to help students understand the writing process. The teacher can show the difference between fact and opinion when teaching the topic sentence, or she can have students cut out the sentences in the paper and then have a partner place the sentences in a logical order, similar to a puzzle. This way, students learn the importance of internal logic. Next, students can apply transition words and phrases. Simply marking the paper will only frustrate the students. Use the essay as a formative assessment; let their misunderstandings drive your instruction. 3. Your school has just won a technology grant. You volunteer to be one of the classrooms to receive the computers, promising to incorporate technology into your writing curriculum. The principal checks in now and again to assess your use of the new computers. Every time the principal observes, the students are using class time and word processing to type their weekly essays. The principal is disappointed. What are some of the uses aside from word processing and typing for the computers in your classroom? A. B.

C. D.

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Students can use the computer and computer software programs to help them plan papers, generate ideas, and begin organizing their thoughts. Cutting and pasting makes the job of revising much easier for writers. Students learn the importance of inner logic and coherency by cutting and pasting the order of the paragraphs, sentences, or ideas in an outline much easier than if they tried the same process using a paper and pencil. Thanks to the Internet, there are hundreds of online publishing sites for young, student writers. Research suggests that writing for an authentic audience improves student writing. All of the above.


The correct answer is D. Technology in the classroom does not mean word processing only. While having a spell checking tool does help writers edit their papers, technology provides many more options to enhance student learning. Students can use the computer and computer software programs to help them plan papers, generate ideas, and begin organizing their thoughts. Cutting and pasting also lends itself well to revising and editing. Rather than growing frustrated by the many rewrites that papers require, young writers save time cutting and pasting the order of the paragraphs, sentences, or ideas. Once students are finished with their work, they can publish their work online for a much broader audience. Research suggests that writing for an authentic audience improves student writing and makes the process more meaningful. In addition to aiding in the writing process, computers and technology allow for students to create multimedia presentations of their work. Students can present their research using PowerPoint or enhance a project using music, visuals, speech downloads, or video excerpts. 4. Part of the curriculum requires you to teach the research paper. You assigned the paper on a Monday and gave the students until Wednesday to collect materials from the Internet, library, and classroom materials. To your disappointment, on Wednesday, half of the class brought in no materials, and the other half brought too much. What could you have done differently to help the students generate and narrow topic ideas? A.

B. C. D.

Made the assignment less broad so the students would know where to start or where to end: Do you want students to choose one side of a controversial issue? Do you want students to research a topic related to the content they are studying? Begin by defining the purpose and intent of the assignment. Helped students narrow a research topic by inviting a class brainstorm. Students can free write, list ideas, or complete a K-W-L. Helped students visually organize their ideas using outlining, mapping, or tree diagramming. All of the above.

The correct answer is D. Writing is a process. The teacher’s job is to teach and model that process. Prewriting is the first and most important step in guaranteeing a focused paper; however, before students begin prewriting, teachers should provide some limitations. There are many different kinds of papers—compare and contrast, argumentative, informational, and analytical—all requiring different methods, processes, and skills. Once you have provided some boundaries, help students to narrow the topic further by inviting a class brainstorm. Students can free write, list ideas, or complete a K-W-L. It is important to remember that anything is allowed during a brainstorm. Brainstorms help jog students’ previous knowledge and may spark a new interest. Once ideas are available, students can group and organize their own ideas. Graphic organizers provide a visual way for students to “envision” or see the internal order of the paper. Depending on the type of paper, Venn diagrams, outlining, mapping, and diagramming offer students a vehicle for such a task. 5. A teacher committed to teaching the writing process, you carve out time for regular writing workshops. You and your students are at the editing stage of your argumentative essays. You should A. B.

C. D.

instruct students to get their independent reading books while you take a quick look through their papers for incorrect usage. explain that today’s editing workshop is dedicated to subject-verb agreement. Students can use highlighters, colored pens, or underlining to mark the subjects and verbs in their own or their partner’s papers. Readers will then check for agreement. tell students to reread their papers, looking for any grammatical, stylistic, or mechanical errors. take students to the computer lab so they can run their drafts through grammar- and spell-checking tools.

The correct answer is B. Students should be responsible for their own editing. It is not enough to simply tell the class to reread their papers and “edit” for usage, however. First, the teacher should use students’ initial drafts to assess their areas of greatest weakness. For example, the above example presupposes that students’ papers reveal many errors in subjectverb agreement. Next, the teacher provides instruction in correcting subject-verb agreements before allotting time for students to apply what they have learned to their own writing. This way, students are learning to conform to conventions of standard English in an appropriate context. With practice, students will learn to keep an eye out for concurrence with their subjects and verbs.

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6. The teacher finds that students are misusing semicolons in their papers. He can either tell the students to stop employing them or teach the students A.

B. C. D.

that semicolons are used to join two independent clauses separated by the conjunctions: however, hence, consequently, therefore, otherwise, furthermore, moreover, accordingly, nevertheless, for example, for instance, that is, and besides. that semicolons join two independent clauses that are closely related. that semicolons clarify sentences with many commas by breaking them up. all of the above.

The correct answer is D. For the most part, the semicolon is an optional punctuation mark; however, it helps writers clarify long sentences with many commas. A semicolon must also be used when two independent clauses separate the following conjunctions: however, hence, consequently, therefore, otherwise, furthermore, moreover, accordingly, nevertheless, for example, for instance, that is, and besides. Semicolons help writers create more sophisticated sentences, which reflect more sophisticated thoughts.

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Objective 0005 Understands and applies writing skills and strategies for various purposes (including information and understanding, critical analysis and evaluation, literary response and personal expression, and social interaction). The following topics are covered under the subject area of Objective 0005: ■

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Analyzing factors a writer should consider when writing for a variety of audiences and purposes (e.g., informative, persuasive, and expressive), including factors related to selection of topic and mode of written expression Recognizing how to incorporate graphic representations (e.g., diagrams, graphs, and time lines) into writing for various purposes Applying knowledge of skills involved in writing a research paper (e.g., generating ideas and questions, posing problems, and evaluating and summarizing data from a variety of print and nonprint sources) Identifying techniques for expressing point of view, using logical organization, and avoiding bias in writing for critical analysis, evaluation, or persuasion Demonstrating knowledge of strategies for writing a response to a literary selection by referring to the text, other works, and personal experience Demonstrating awareness of voice in writing for personal expression and social interaction

Factors to Consider Before Writing Prior to writing a paper, students must take purpose, audience, topic, mode, and point of view into consideration. When writing to inform, students should choose a subject of personal interest and present facts in a clear manner. Because the audience is most likely the teacher, classmates, or both, the correct form for sharing the information is an expository or five-paragraph essay, working deductively from the main idea to the facts supporting the paper’s focus. Using the traditional essay form, students begin with a thesis statement, follow up with supporting paragraphs, and end with a conclusion. Because of the formal manner in which the paper is written, third-person narration is necessary, along with a formal voice. Students should avoid slang, contractions, and idioms in a formal essay. Writing to persuade, however, begins with a problem. It is the job of the writer to convince her readers to think a certain way about the issue. Persuasive essays work best when the student chooses a contemporary and controversial issue. The writer chooses a topic about which she feels passionately and gathers facts to support her opinion. Once the information is gathered, the student presents the ideas in the form of a paper. Similar to informational writing, the correct mode for organizing the information is using academic writing. In this case, the writer begins by identifying her position on the issue. Next, she addresses the other side and anticipates any objections that side may have with the writer’s position. Then the writer offers a solution and restates her opinion in the conclusion. The writer should use a formal voice; however, she can choose to use first person because the idea is not to remain neutral but to pick a side and persuade the audience. Writing for expression, conversely, is not about convincing or informing. Creative writing satisfies students’ needs to express themselves through the use of their imaginations. The writer does not necessarily have an audience in mind, though some modes of expression such as plays are meant to entertain large audiences. Other forms of expression may be private or intended for one other person, such as a love poem. Because there are many modes of expression, point of view, topic, and voice will vary. Poems, for example, may take on the shape of a haiku, a ballad, or verse. Fiction also comes in different genres such as science fiction, historical fiction, mystery, and fantasy. One way for students to analyze the factors that go into writing for different purposes and audiences is by modeling the process, assigning different kinds of writing, and using a RAFT (Role, Audience, Format, Topic). Students choose the point of view from which they want to write and then must keep in mind audience, form/mode, and topic. Depending on the student’s level of readiness, teachers can fill in as many parts of the RAFT as they feel necessary. An example follows:

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Role

Audience

Format

Topic

Student

Board of Education

Persuasive Essay

Why the school should abolish homework

Playwright

Children

Dialogue

Student

Next year’s kindergarten class.

Letter

How to survive kindergarten

Incorporation of Graphics Graphic representations express complex information in the form of pictures. What might take several pages to explain can be summed up in a diagram, graph, or time line. As a result, graphic representations help writers show information that would otherwise be too difficult or cumbersome to include in a paper. Students ought to learn how and for what purpose to use different graphics in their writing. ■

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Graphs are one kind of graphic representation and, depending on the writer’s purpose, come in one of four forms: line, pie, bar, and stacked bar. Line graphs are used to illustrate change over time. A writer might use a line graph in a report about the changes in first grade reading test scores using a new literacy program. The amount of time or number of years is placed on the horizontal line equidistant from one another and the subject (in this case, testing scores) is found along the vertical line. After years of data collection, the writer draws a line showing the increase or decrease over time to see if the literacy program is producing positive results. Pie graphs help writers show proportions and relationships to other portions of the whole pie. If a student is writing a report on what proportion of the school population takes the bus compared to those who ride their bikes, walk or get a ride, he can use a pie chart. Bar graphs are similar to line graphs in their setup; however, bar graphs should not be used to show changes over time. Instead, bar graphs show how things compare at one given time. For example, schools often use bar graphs to track a money-raising competition for charity among different grade levels. The vertical line illustrates the amount of money being raised, and the horizontal line indicates the different grade levels. Students who are writing or presenting information that requires comparing different places, things, or amounts might benefit from a bar graph. The students may also want to consider using a stacked bar graph, which provides even more information because it compares parts within the bars. Diagrams show readers how things are constructed, how things work, or both. For example, if a student is presenting or writing about smoking and its effects on the lungs, he would include a picture diagram of a healthy lung and label its parts. Then he can incorporate a diseased lung and label the parts of the lung that have been damaged by smoking. In order to not confuse the reader, a diagram does not have to show all the parts of the subject; it is left to the discretion of the writer to label only those parts that are being highlighted or discussed. Alternatively, line diagrams help readers see how things work. Using lines, pictures, and words, a writer can provide a visual of how the heart pumps blood through the body, for example. Line diagrams are most often found in informational essays. Time lines situate the subject of the paper within a historical context. A student writing about a historical event, such as the Suffrage Movement, might include a time line to show when the movement started and what was happening at that time. Such a time line graphically demonstrates the amount of time and effort it took the women and men involved and all that happened in between. Ultimately, it provides a reference point for when and where things occurred.

Writing Research Papers Research papers begin with a question or a deep, personal interest in a subject. As such, the first step in the research process is to pick and narrow down a subject. Students begin to generate ideas and questions by brainstorming. Brainstorming can include journaling, free writing, or using graphic organizers. Graphic organizers help students in this stage of writing. K-W-L charts and clusters are the two most common types of prewriting organizers. The K-W-L works by reviewing the student’s prior knowledge on a subject to find missing information. Thus, in the first column, the student indicates what he Knows, and in the second, what he Wants to learn more about. Once the student has finished

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the research, he fills out the third column, which indicates things Learned during the course of the research. See Objective 0004 for more about K-W-Ls. Clustering is another way teachers help students generate ideas and questions for research. Students write the subject in the middle of the page and circle it. Then, for the next three to five minutes, students cluster, or write words or ideas associated with the main subject. Students can also branch off of the ideas that emerged from the central subject. Once the initial cluster is finished, students scan the cluster for an idea that interests them. They should then free write for a few minutes to see if an idea emerges from their writing. In addition to prewriting, students should learn to pose problems for research. Research requires problematizing a subject and looking at the subject from different perspectives. Students can keep a notebook and jot down things they wonder about or questions that come up in class or arise during their reading. For example, if a student asks a particularly interesting, open-ended, and complex question during a history lesson, the student can jot it down in his notebook. When it is time to teach the research process, the notebooks are a place to begin asking questions and posing problems. Also, a teacher can bring up a topic and ask students to journal about the topic from as many perspectives as possible to complicate the topic and help students begin to see that there are many sides to an issue. Once students have narrowed their topics and posed a problem to be researched, they will need the research skills to find answers to their questions. Evaluating and summarizing data from print and nonprint sources is the next step in this process. It is imperative that students learn that not all sources are credible or accurate. Learning how to evaluate the sources will ensure that they do not use faulty or biased information in their research papers. When evaluating print sources, students should ask, Who is the author? Is the author an authority on the topic? What sources does the author use to defend his argument? Does the author address both sides of the problem? Is the information accurate and current? Similarly, nonprint sources, such as the media, photographs, art, and music, also contain bias and need to be evaluated for their credibility. Movies, for example, are often influenced by popular opinion and therefore tend to sensationalize issues and historical events. If a student is writing a research report on Native Americans, he cannot rely on the film Dances with Wolves to be his primary source of information. The movie is only one person’s vision of life for Native Americans during the nineteenth century. It is important to verify the accuracy of the film by reading oral histories of Native Americans and nonfiction texts and by analyzing cultural artifacts. Because so many students use the Internet to conduct most of their research, it is imperative that students know how to evaluate the credibility of a Web site. Unlike research done in the library, where the books have been reviewed by librarians, there is no way of regulating the kind of information that appears on the Web. Objective 0003 provides a detailed description of evaluating websites. Summarizing data is an important part of the note-taking process. Students learn how to summarize information through the use of annotated index cards. When summarizing, students use as few words as possible to write down, in their own words, the main points of the article or chapter. Summarizing data will save the students’ time because they do not have to reread their sources as they approach the drafting stage of the research process; and because writing summaries necessitates students putting the information into their own words, the skill also acts as a check for understanding.

Credibility and Objectivity Enhancement When writing for critical analysis, evaluation, or persuasion, students ought to use a third person point of view. Third person suggests objectivity, which will give the student’s argument more credibility. The first person point of view is best kept for editorials, personal expression, autobiography, and fiction. Presenting an argument or opinion logically requires the writer to make a claim, support it with credible evidence, address all sides of the issue, and propose a practical and realistic conclusion. With this in mind, a student’s paper should begin with the writer’s argument or claim. Before proceeding, the writer must keep in mind the audience and explain or define any confusing words or ideas for clarification. Next, the writer must provide plenty of evidence from reliable sources to support his opinion and must also anticipate objections. Objections are best addressed by making some concessions before discrediting opposing viewpoints and finding weaknesses in their arguments. For the penultimate paragraph, the writer suggests a solution and then ends the paper once again with his claim.

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To avoid bias, the writer must be careful not to emulate some of the misleading techniques some writers use to persuade and misinform. One way to avoid being discredited is by using qualifiers. For example, a student should not make the following claim: Teachers give too much homework. If there is a teacher in the school who chooses not to give homework, the student’s statement is easily questioned. By using a qualifier, however, the student makes the statement more difficult to dismiss: Some teachers give too much homework. Students should also look out for broad generalizations in their writing. The above example is also an illustration of a broad generalization. One cannot really make the claim that all teachers give too much homework; therefore, the statement is false. Along the same lines, it is dangerous to use an oversimplification in an essay. For example, maintaining that homework would be eradicated if students never misbehaved is an oversimplification. Things are usually not as uncomplicated as they seem. Using either/or thinking is another instance of bias in writing: Either teachers start giving homework every night or students will graduate middle school unprepared. Again, the claim this writer is making oversimplifies the issue, so it can be easily rejected. Half-truths ought to be avoided as well: Homework takes up too much time; therefore, today’s kids don’t know how to play and have fun. Just as readers need to be aware of bias in what they read, writers need to be careful of bias in their analyses, research reports, and persuasive essays.

Writing Literary Responses Strategies beginning teachers use when teaching literary response include making personal and text connections. Students should refer to specific quotes or examples from the text that support their feelings, ideas, and interpretations. There are two kinds of responses: literary and personal. Literary responses ask students to analyze or interpret a text, using specific examples from the reading to support their opinions or theses. Without support, their arguments do not hold any weight with the reader. The number of references depends on the teacher or audience; however, it is best to make at least three references to the text or other works. Once the student learns the importance of using specific and relevant quotes (that is, quotes that defend his position), the next step necessitates knowledge of the Modern Language Association (MLA) and its rules for citing from a literary work. According to MLA, an in-text citation (a citation included in the body of the paper), involves the author’s last name, followed by a space and the page number where the quote is found. For example, if I quote from page 14 of a book written by Mildred Taylor, I would need to cite as follows: (Taylor 14). At the end of the paper, the student writer includes a works-cited page. Again, the student should refer to the MLA format, which calls for an alphabetical-by-last-name list of the references, the titles of the texts, the publishing cities and states, and the copyright date. The following is an example of a works-cited page. Anderson, Laurie Halse. Speak. New York: Farrar, Straus, Giroux, 1999. Students need to consult an MLA book or Web site when citing articles, movies, and other text to adhere to MLA conventions and to avoid plagiarizing. Personal responses to literary works include journals, letters to authors, personal essays, book reviews, and double-entry journals. In cases such as these, students make personal connections to a reading by referring to an instance, situation, conflict or character to which they can relate. Double-entry journals reinforce the importance of making text-to-self connections. On the left, students record quotes or examples from the book, and on the right side, they write about their personal feelings or connections. If, for example, a student is asked to personally respond to Stargirl by Jerry Spinelli, the student might relate a time in her life when somebody performed a random act of kindness or remember when she did not feel as if she fit in. Again, the student should be instructed to find specific quotes or examples that would support the connection or reference.

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Voice Awareness Voice is an important component in writing for personal expression and social interaction. Voice is the distinctive style, form, content, and diction of a particular writer. In other words, it is what makes a person’s writing unique. Oftentimes, when a writer has a strong voice, a reader can identify the writer simply by reading a passage from one of the writer’s books. Unlike writing for information, understanding, critical analysis, and literary response, writing for personal expression should be subjective and informal. Students can use the pronoun “I,” slang, colloquialisms, and dialect. Writing with a clear voice, however, means staying away from flowery language, jargon, clichés and euphemisms. One way to help students find their voices is through different kinds of writing prompts that elicit strong emotions from the writer. For instance, the students can write about a time when they were really angry about something. Students might also write using their “voices,” share the writing without revealing the author, and find out if their classmates can find their writing. Writing for social interaction includes writing letters, notes, postcards, invitations, and email messages. Social writing can be either formal or informal, depending on the purpose and occasion. Teachers can help students learn how to write for social interaction in many ways. Students might write formal invitations to their parents or guardians, inviting them to a showing of a completed project or class play. Students can also learn about other cultures and practice writing letters to pen pals in other countries. Finally, students or teachers who travel over vacations could send postcards to the class. One style of writing does not fit all audiences, purposes, or forms. Different kinds of writing require different styles, voices, and processes. It is important that teachers help students understand and apply various writing skills and strategies for different aims.

Review Questions 1. A fourth grade class is reading Out of the Dust by Karen Hesse. The teacher wants students to make personal connections to the text. She can help students by introducing which strategies? A. B. C. D.

Keeping a double-entry journal, recording instances in the book that remind the students of people or events in their own lives. Writing a letter to one of the characters in the book; the letter can include advice, reassurance, or a warning. Coding the text for personal connections and then writing a personal essay about the connections the student made. All of the above.

The correct answer is D. Students will better comprehend what they are reading if they can make personal connections to the text. To illustrate the importance of making connections, teachers should demonstrate different strategies for responding personally to a literary selection. There are several ways to show students how to refer personally to literary selections: double-entry journals, letters, personal essays, coding, and book reviews. Double-entry journals require students to record direct quotes or specific instances from the text before making a direct connection. At a later time, in a class discussion or for a personal essay, the student can use his double-entry journal for a reference. Coding teaches a similar skill; however, the student codes passages for text-to-self (T-S) connections on sticky notes or the text itself. Again, these can be used as a reference during a discussion or for a writing assignment, such as a book review. In a letter to a character, the student ought to refer to specific instances in his life that the character in the book can relate to. By identifying, writing about, and referring to specific instances in the world of the text and their own lives, students will learn that making personal connections is a practice of a successful reader.

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2. A teacher wants to help her students understand how to apply different writing strategies for various purposes. She should A. B. C. D.

tell all students to always use a third person point of view because it is the most unbiased and professional. only teach the five-paragraph expository essay because it is the format students will need when they go to high school and college. model and assign different writing assignments throughout the year, exposing them to the different purposes, audience, and forms for which writing is used. do all of the above.

The correct answer is C. In many classrooms today, teachers are asked to focus on only one type of writing: the expository essay. While useful for academic writing, there are many other forms available for expression, persuasion, or social interaction. It is essential for students to understand that not all writing is the same. This is particularly important because students will have different strengths and interests. Creative writers often feel confined by the structure of an academic essay, while others may panic at the thought of writing a poem. One form should not be stressed over another; instead, each one should be taught, used, and understood. 3. During a unit on the persuasive essay, a teacher creates several mini-lessons on avoiding bias in her students’ papers. She should include what in her lessons? A. B. C. D.

A lesson on the importance of qualifiers in persuasive writing. A lesson on misguiding language, such as half-truths, generalizations, if/then statements, and oversimplifications. A lesson on the importance of disclaimers at the beginning of their final drafts. A and B only.

The correct answer is D. Because the purpose of a persuasive paper is to convince the reader to feel a certain way about a specific topic, it is important that writers use many credible examples to prove their points. Arguing one side of an issue is implicitly biased; nevertheless, the writing itself must remain fair and balanced. There are several techniques the writer should either use or avoid. Using qualifiers in the paper is a safe way to circumvent making broad generalizations that can easily be refuted. Along the same lines, students and teachers must be aware of oversimplifications, half-truths, and if/then statements. Before these can be avoided, however, they must be taught. Once the students can recognize bias in others’ texts, they can find it in their own. 4. A teacher uses a RAFT in his class and chooses to leave the Audience section blank for the students to fill in. What is his purpose in doing so? A. B. C. D.

To allow students to have fun writing creatively because it’s a rainy Friday. He wants students to practice choosing the correct audience for various writing purposes while they practice writing to increase fluency. This is a good way to get the class started on a persuasive essay. All of the above.

The correct answer is B. It is important to have a purpose for writing instruction. Although research shows that writing frequently for brief periods of time increases fluency, writing should be focused. Teachers can have a journal entry on the board for when students enter the class or begin a new topic; students can write to show their understanding of a lesson; students can also write for expression, persuasion, information, or critical analysis and evaluation; or students can write to help generate a research topic. RAFTs provide structure and purpose in many ways. One way they aid in writing instruction is by highlighting the factors writers should consider when writing for a variety of purposes, such as point of view, audience, form, and topic. When assigning a RAFT, it is essential that the teacher point out the reasons behind the choices writers make before drafting their essays.

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5. A student is writing an informative essay on the makeup of the human heart. Which graphic representation would you suggest he incorporate into his writing? A. B. C. D.

A picture diagram of the heart with its various parts labeled. A pie chart to represent the amount of work a heart does compared to the other organs in the body. A time line for a reference of when the heart beats. None of the above. Graphic representations distract from writing.

The correct answer is A. Graphic representations help writers express composite information in the form of visuals. What might take several paragraphs to explain can be summed up in a chart, graph, or time line. For that reason, the teacher should suggest a picture graph to accompany the paper so that as the reader learns about the many parts and functions of the heart, he can follow along by looking at the labeled representation. Successful readers create pictures in their heads to better comprehend the reading; a graphic representation aids in comprehension by providing the picture for the reader.

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Objective 0006 Understands skills and strategies involved in listening and speaking for various purposes (including information and understanding, critical analysis and evaluation, literary response and expression, and social interaction). The following topics are covered under the subject area of Objective 0006: ■

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Recognizing appropriate listening strategies for given contexts and purposes (e.g., interpreting and analyzing information that is presented orally, appreciating literary texts that are read aloud, and understanding small-group and large-group discussions) Analyzing factors that affect the ability to listen effectively and construct meaning from oral messages in various listening situations (e.g., using prior knowledge, recognizing transitions, interpreting nonverbal cues, using note taking, and outlining), and applying measures of effective listening (e.g., the ability to repeat instructions or to retell stories) Analyzing how features of spoken language (e.g., word choice, rate, pitch, tone, and volume) and nonverbal cues (e.g., body language, visual aids, or facial expressions) affect a speaker’s ability to communicate effectively in given situations Recognizing how to vary speaking strategies for different audiences, purposes, and occasions (e.g., providing instructions, participating in group discussions, persuading or entertaining an audience, or giving an oral presentation or interpretation of a literary work) Applying knowledge of oral language conventions appropriate to a variety of social situations (e.g., informal conversations and job interviews)

Developing Listening Strategies Students need to learn that there are different levels of attention when listening to someone speaking. People listen differently when they are listening to a lecture than when listening to a friend give an account of his day. Listening to a presentation requires the listener to eliminate distraction and focus on the presenter or presenters. The listener should also have appropriate writing materials and jot down key words or phrases to use for analysis. The student needs to listen to the entire presentation before attempting to analyze the message. When listening to an informal conversation, the student needs to learn to focus on the speaker and the information that is being presented without trying to formulate an answer. The listener can and should pause before responding. One can be both a listener and a speaker in the conversation. When listening to someone reading a literary selection, students need to clear their minds and focus on the speaker’s voice, change in vocal expression (e.g., tone, volume, pitch, and so on), and recognize the elements of the particular genre or work being read such as rising action in a short story, imagery in a poem, and point of view in nonfiction. Listening to a tape recording of a children’s book teaches students the importance of vocal expression and will keep young students’ attention. Teachers should always provide a listening purpose and practice reading the selection before delivering. When listening in small groups, students learn to demonstrate respect by listening when another person is speaking, taking time to process the information, respecting differences of opinion, and responding in a nonconfrontational way. It is somewhat harder to focus in large groups because of the increase in distractions and the longer wait time before responding. Usually in large groups, there are more listeners than speakers. In large groups, the teacher needs to ensure that students are taking turns and rotating the opportunity to speak. The teacher should also try to encourage dialogic, or two-way, discussion among students as opposed to monologic, or one way (usually teacher-directed), discussion. Other listening strategies include choral reading and sing-alongs. Choral readings require students to listen for their cue to speak and then read orally, often using vocal expression to convey the tone of the piece.

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Factors in Effective Listening Prior knowledge helps listeners construct new meanings; therefore, speakers must begin by assessing what the students already know about the topic being presented or discussed. Making analogies is one way to activate prior knowledge. For example, if a presenter is talking about snow to students who have never seen it, he can say that it feels cold like ice, looks like cotton, and is soft like feathers. If the speaker finds that the audience knows quite a bit about the topic, he does not have to review before moving ahead. Another factor that affects a student’s ability to listen effectively is awareness of transition words and phrases. Teachers need to give students experience in recognizing key transitional words and phrases such as on the other hand, however, consequently, first, second, third, finally, and in conclusion. Listeners will learn to pay particular attention when a speaker says “in sum” or “most importantly” or “on the other hand.” Pauses are also important; they often indicate a transitional point in an oral presentation. Reading nonverbal cues such as facial expressions (frowning, smiling, scowling), gestures (thumbs up or down), body language (closed stance, hands on hip) will also help the listener construct meaning. When reading nonverbal cues, one needs to be aware of his own interpretation or understanding. Nonverbal cues are not universal, and what is considered polite in one culture may offend a listener in another culture. To retain information and construct meaning, students should learn the importance of note taking during an oral presentation. Outlining skills will help the listener, especially for longer presentations. The teacher needs to provide an outline format or graphic organizer for students to systematize incoming information. Graphic organizers include webs, tree and Venn diagrams, and T-charts, to name a few. The teacher needs to construct assessment tools to provide opportunities for students to practice repeating instructions and retelling stories. Oral retellings allow the teacher to assess students’ reading comprehension and ability to listen effectively. For more information on retellings, see Objective 0002.

Factors in Effective Spoken Communication Speakers must tailor word choices to the cognitive level of the audience and suitability to the subject. For example, a presenter speaking about bullying should choose words that convey the seriousness of the subject matter. The presenter should also not use jokes to get the point across. Audience is also important in terms of the rate at which one speaks. An astute speaker will adjust the rate at which he presents information if he is speaking to a large audience, an older audience, or a younger audience. First-time speakers should demonstrate that they should slow down when speaking to a large audience. Students will be nervous, which will cause them to speak faster. Speakers must also keep in mind volume (speaking more loudly or softly), pitch (higher or lower), and tone (angry, melancholy, fearful). One can use a combination of these to convey emotion, emphasis, or meaning change. The teacher can model the importance of using the features of spoken language by the same story using different pitches, tones, and volumes so the students can see the effects of these features of spoken language. Then students can practice it themselves. Body language and facial expressions can add emphasis to the speaker’s message. If the speaker is speaking about something serious, such as the effects of a devastating tsunami, then he should not smile during the entire presentation. If a speaker wants to signal confusion, he can shrug his shoulders. Again, the teacher can teach the importance of body language and facial expressions by using them deliberately and pointing out their effectiveness in conveying meaning. Teachers need to teach students how to use visual aids such as charts, graphs, and computer presentations, keeping in mind position timing (when to bring it in), and clarity of the visual. For example, when using PowerPoint, it is best to be succinct and not use many words on each slide. Too many words on a slide become difficult for the viewer to read and will take away from the speaker. The slides should be in addition to, and not a repetition of, what the speaker is saying.

Varying Speaking Strategies Before providing instructions, it is imperative that the speaker preplan by keeping in mind the audience, the purpose, and the occasion. First, assess the students’ background knowledge on the topic. For example, if a speaker is instructing

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a class on how to create a slide show, he should first find out the audience’s level of computer literacy. Then, break down the operation into discrete steps and adjust the delivery to the audiences’ understanding. When speaking in discussion groups, students must learn to demonstrate respect by listening when another person is speaking, taking time to process the information, respecting differences of opinion, and responding in a nonconfrontational way. They need to learn to take turns and not talk over one another. Students should address the person to whom they are responding rather than the teacher. Students will default to the instructor. It will take practice for students to learn how to talk to each other and not the teacher. Literature circles are peer-led discussion groups organized around a common book. Literature circles provide students time to engage in natural conversations about texts independent of the teacher’s direct influence. As such, literature circles also offer occasions for students to practice speaking in group situations. When persuading or entertaining, students should learn to use a carefully placed joke, pausing, body language, and facial expressions. Students should be taught the difference between an appropriate joke and a stereotype or put-down. In a persuasive speech, speakers should learn to use only information that supports their position or to eliminate information that supports the other side. In addition, the speaker must vary voice when speaking about the different sides, use repetition, and end with the one piece of information the speaker wants the audience to take with them. When giving an oral presentation, the presenter should first determine the needs of the audience, decide on visual aids, determine which features of spoken language to use, and refer to information earlier in the presentation. Then the presenter should decide if he wants to emphasize anything and use repetition or dramatic pauses at particularly important parts. Most importantly, the speaker must learn to practice so he does not read straight from the paper but speaks extemporaneously, instead. Students must use accents, voice, tone, or quality when giving their own interpretation of a literary work. Again, practice is important. Reader’s theater is a common instructional strategy used by teachers to instill the importance of practice before giving an oral interpretation of a literary work. Teachers assign a section of the short story or chapter to different students the night before they will read them aloud to the class. The students practice their parts for homework just like actors practice their lines for roles. Reader’s theater also helps students with fluency because students reread the same selection many times. It is therefore a helpful tool for both beginning and advanced readers.

Communicating to Various Audiences An effective oral communicator recognizes the differences in audience makeup. The speaker must vary the rate of speed for people of different ages, commands of the language, and background knowledge. The speaker should consider diction and word choice. Many of the words students use in their daily conversations are colloquial and may be lost on people of different ages and cultures. The speaker must also take into account how different age groups may interpret nonverbal cues. For example, when young students are speaking to a much older audience, they might want to take off their hats as a sign of respect. The speaker needs to be aware of cultural differences. For example, in Asian cultures, continual eye contact is a sign of disrespect, yet in American culture, continual eye contact is a sign of respect. Gestures often do not translate from one culture to another and can, in fact, be detrimental. Simply waving to a person from another culture can signify something derogatory. Therefore, researching the culture of the audience prior to speaking can prevent any unintended miscommunications. Some disabling conditions may impose difficulty in verbal communication. It is therefore important to teach students other ways to communicate nonverbally—through writing, for example.

Applying Oral Language Conventions All students need to learn the importance of appropriate and inappropriate language conventions. Oral language conventions change according to the context in which people are speaking. For example, when we talk to our friends, we tend to be more casual and use informal language such as slang and colloquialism and even made-up words. When talking to someone in authority, however, the speaker will change his speech to a formal manner. In a job interview, a person should talk more formally; that is, conforming to conventional grammatical rules such as subject-verb agreement, consistent verb tenses, and noun-pronoun agreement.

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Review Questions 1. A fourth grade teacher wants to teach the features of spoken language. She decides that students will practice reading their favorite books to a kindergarten class. What must the students keep in mind as they practice? A. B. C. D.

Audience. Book topic. Volume, rate, tone, and pitch. All of the above.

The correct answer is D because audience, purpose and occasion dictate the rate, tone, and volume of the speech. In this case, the fourth-graders must keep in mind that their audience is much younger than they are; therefore, the book they choose should appeal to the kindergarten students. Next, the speaker must be careful not to talk too fast. The young readers will want to look at the pictures and listen at the same time. If the reader is too fast, the young students will not have enough time to process the information. If the fourth-grade reader is going to read to the whole class, he will need to practice reading loudly and changing his pitch and tone according to the events in the book. Prior to reading their selected books, the students should practice with each other or with the teacher. Practicing will help the readers’ fluency and will help them anticipate any words they are not familiar with or cannot pronounce. 2. A sixth-grade class is assigned a major research project; each student is supposed to research a different country in Africa. It is the student’s job to report to the class about the country’s people, places, major events in history, cuisine, or anything else the student feels is interesting about that country. To celebrate the completion of the project and the various African cultures, the teacher has allotted three days at the end of the project for the students to present their findings using PowerPoint. Besides suggesting a time limit on the presentations, what should the teacher do to prepare for the presentations? A. B. C. D.

Teach the students how to use visuals to enhance, and not distract from, their presentations. Hand out a graphic organizer that will help students take notes on their classmates’ presentations. Supply a grading rubric that includes points for practicing prior to presenting. All of the above.

The correct answer is D. Students today make use of the computer and other technology more than ever. It is not rare for a student to give a PowerPoint presentation instead of simply using a poster from which to speak. It is important when using technology that teachers explain or model how to use it effectively. Visuals should not distract from the speaker. The speaker should use PowerPoint slides to repeat major ideas or to jog the speaker’s memory of his speech; therefore, he must limit the number of slides and the number of words on each slide. The pictures and lettering should be large enough for the whole class to see from their seats. Because the PowerPoint acts as an outline for the speaker, the speaker will also need to practice the speech several times until it can be done with little help from outside sources. Also, during the presentations, the students should be held responsible for listening to and learning from one another. There are many ways to teach listening skills; one way is by providing a graphic organizer for the students to fill out and turn in at the end of the speeches. 3. A third-grade class is reading an in-common text. The teacher wants to read the book aloud. The teacher also wants to provide opportunities for the students to read, but research shows that when students take turns reading out loud, reading comprehension decreases. The teacher should A. B. C. D.

get a book on tape. It’s best if the students do not read out loud at all. Actors know how to apply the features of spoken language. use the reader’s theater strategy and assign parts of the story for students to practice. use literature circles. At least students get to talk to each other once the chapter has been read out loud by the teacher. not worry about reading comprehension. This is a lesson in reading in front of an audience of their peers.

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The correct answer is B. Although research does show that when students read out loud, in a prescribed order, their reading comprehension decreases, students should still be given chances to present oral readings of literary works. Applied to fiction, reader’s theater has been shown to increase comprehension and oral presentation because the students practice their parts the night before. Rereadings increase a reader’s fluency and word recognition. Once the students know how to pronounce all of the words, they are free to apply the features of spoken language such as pitch, volume, rate, and tone. Students will feel more prepared and enjoy listening to their classmates’ interpretations of their characters.

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Objective 0007 Understands and applies techniques of literary analysis to works of fiction, drama, poetry, and nonfiction. The following topics are covered under the subject area of Objective 0007: ■ ■ ■

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Analyzing the similarities and differences between fiction and nonfiction Demonstrating knowledge of story elements in works of fiction (e.g., plot, character, setting, theme, and mood) Applying knowledge of drama to analyze dramatic structure (e.g., introduction, rising action, climax, falling action, and conclusion) and identifying common dramatic devices (e.g., soliloquy and aside) Applying knowledge of various types of nonfiction (e.g., informational texts, newspaper articles, essays, biographies, memoirs, letters, and journals) Analyzing the use of language to convey style, tone, and point of view in works of fiction and nonfiction Recognizing elements of poetic text (e.g., meter, rhyme, scheme, stanza structure, alliteration, assonance, onomatopoeia, and figurative language) and analyzing their relationship to the meaning of the text

Fiction versus Nonfiction There are more similarities than differences between fiction and nonfiction. Both genres are trying to get at the “truth” using different types of writing. Fiction writers believe in using imagination and creative license to reveal a truth about life or the human condition. They feel it is easier to get at the truth by using figurative language, invented storylines, and other literary devices. On the other hand, nonfiction writers claim that by retelling events as they occurred, they are revealing the truth and not a truth. More simply, nonfiction, except short stories and novels, is all prose writing. ■

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Fiction is written for one of two purposes: to entertain or to instruct. Some people choose to read for pleasure or as an escape from reality. Others read fiction for its educational quality. Fiction teaches by allowing the reader to learn vicariously from the character’s experiences, tragedies, and triumphs. Nonfiction is written for a variety of purposes: to inform, describe, persuade, report, or entertain. Types of nonfiction include autobiographies, biographies, essays, letters, memoirs, journals, and newspaper articles.

Story Elements in Fiction Fiction follows a sequence of events known as the plot structure or plot line, which includes the exposition, rising action, climax, falling action, and conclusion (or denouement). The author of a story reveals necessary information about the characters in one of two ways: through direct or indirect characterization. With direct characterization, the author narrates the character’s traits: what the character wants and the character’s strengths, weaknesses, values, fears, passions, or any other unique characteristic. Indirect characterization, however, requires the author to reveal the character through indirect means such as by what the characters says, does, and thinks and by what other characters say about him or her. There are two kinds of characters: flat (static) and round (dynamic). A flat character remains unchanged throughout the story. A round character is complex; that is, she contains contradictions in her personality. The round character also changes to some degree as a result of the action in the story. Most protagonists are dynamic characters and evolve by the plot’s resolution. The antagonist is the character who plays opposite the protagonist. The antagonist can be a person, place, or thing. In other words, the antagonist can be a mountain or the Atlantic Ocean; it does not necessarily have to be a person. In some cases, the antagonist can be the protagonist herself. Authors sometimes use stock characters or stereotypes such as the evil villain; the mad scientist; or the tough, rugged detective. These characters usually augment a story; a good writer creates a protagonist that is more complicated and full of inconsistencies, similar to humans themselves.

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The context (place or time) of the story is called the setting. The setting has many functions: setting the mood or atmosphere, particularly in gothic novels and mysteries; helping define the characters; generating the conflict in genre fiction such as Westerns, nature adventure stories, war novels, and detective novels; and grounding the dialogue. The plot of the story often comes out of the character’s conflict with the setting, as in the case of the play The Crucible. Puritan society’s attitudes, fears, and religious beliefs initiated the witchcraft trials. The plot would have taken a different course if the play took place in a contemporary setting. Theme is the main idea or issue explored in the story through the use of fictional characters and situations. Authors use stories to seek answers and insights into the human condition. Common themes include love, hate, revenge, jealousy, friendship, power, and the triumph of the human spirit, to name a few. Readers should ask themselves as they read: What is the author trying to say about human nature? What insights about humanity are revealed in this text? The mood sets the tone or atmosphere. The mood can foreshadow events to come, as in the case of Julius Caesar, when a terrible storm portends the death of the leader at the hands of his best friend, Brutus. The mood of a comedy can be described as happy, while the mood for a mystery is often ominous or gloomy.

Dramatic Structure and Devices The exposition or introduction introduces the reader to the setting, main characters, and any background information that will lay the groundwork for the conflict. The rising action begins with a conflict: events or complications between two conflicting forces that will eventually lead to climax and resolution of the story. Conflict can occur between two characters (person vs. person), between a character and the setting (person vs. nature), or between the main character and him- or herself (person vs. self). The first two conflicts are often referred to as external conflicts; the third is frequently labeled an internal conflict. The rising action then leads to the climax of the story. The climax is the turning point in the story when the complication comes to a head. Following the conflict is the falling action, or the events in the story that result from the conflict and lead the reader to the resolution. The resolution, or denouement, reveals the ending of the story, ties up any loose ends, or both. When the resolution of the story is not revealed, the story can be called a cliff hanger. It is then up to the reader to make an educated guess how the story ends. Because plays are written to be seen and heard, dramatic devices help to move the plot along by providing necessary background information and the characters’ inner thoughts and feelings. Examples of dramatic devices are discussed below. An aside is a short speech made by an actor in a play and can only be heard by the audience. A soliloquy is also a speech made by an actor on stage to reveal what the character is thinking and feeling. In a sense, the character is “thinking out loud” to him- or herself so that the audience knows what is going on in the character’s head. The main difference between an aside and a soliloquy is that the latter is performed alone. In Elizabethan drama, the chorus recites the prologue and epilogue and every so often comments on the events of the play; otherwise, the chorus is a group of people who sing or narrate, in union, a particular part of a drama. Comic relief is a funny or amusing scene used to relieve tension in a tragic literary work. The gravedigger scene in Shakespeare’s Hamlet is an example of comic relief.

Types of Nonfiction An autobiography is the story of someone’s life as written by that person. Most often, people choose to write their own autobiographies to share with the world how they overcame obstacles and achieved their goals. Memoirs are similar to autobiographies in that they are accounts of a person’s experiences. Unlike an autobiography, however, a memoir does not follow strict chronological order and focuses more on public aspects of the writer’s life. For example, the memoirs of an army general might focus only on his time engaged in battle and not on his childhood. Journals are personal records of a person’s daily life. They tend to be less personal than a diary and more chronological. Letters are correspondence from one person to another. They, too, tend to be less intimate than diaries because the audience is someone besides the writer. Letters can be formal, as in an invitation to a wedding, or informal, as in a letter written from a soldier to his or her parents.

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A biography is the story of someone’s life as written by someone else. Biographers choose to write about a person for any number of reasons: to celebrate a great leader, to understand the motivations behind someone’s actions, or simply to give an account of the triumphs and tragedies of everyday people. It is important to remember that even though biographers thoroughly research the facts about their subjects, the final product reflects the biographer’s interpretation of those facts. An essay is a work of nonfiction in which an author expresses her opinion about an issue. Essays can be either formal or informal. There are four kinds of essays: narrative, expository, descriptive, and persuasive. A narrative essay is written in story form. For example, a personal narrative is a story about a significant incident in the writer’s life. An expository essay presents information to explain the author’s viewpoint on a topic, event, or concept. In a descriptive essay, the author describes a person, place or thing. For instance, a writer might choose to describe a beautiful view, touching scene, or decorative landscape. Finally, a persuasive essay tries to convince or persuade the audience to accept or consider an opinion or a particular course of action. Informational texts provide factual information to the reader. Informational texts include newspaper articles, instructional manuals, textbooks, and study guides.

Style, Tone, and Viewpoint Style refers to the author’s word choice or diction, phrasing, sentence structure, tone, and use of figurative language. Essentially, style is an author’s distinctive way of writing. For example, Zora Neale Hurston’s writing style reflects her background as an anthropologist. She infuses local color into her novel Their Eyes Were Watching God by using the dialect and speech patterns of Floridians. The tone is the author’s attitude toward the subject matter and the audience. Shakespeare’s comedies, like Much Ado about Nothing, take on a humorous tone; an expository essay about the holocaust, however, would convey a serious or dark tone. Point of view, or the author’s choice of narrator for a story, is an important element of both fiction and nonfiction writing. In a fictional piece, the story is told from one of three viewpoints: first person, second person, or third person. Firstperson narration means that the story is being told from the perspective of one of the characters in the story; it is easily recognized by the use of the pronoun “I.” It is a limited point of view because the reader is privy only to the same information as the character-narrator. Readers should ask themselves if the narrator is reliable or unreliable or biased in his or her description of events and characters. Second-person narration is not very common. It involves the narrator speaking directly to the reader by using the pronoun “you” as in the case of the novel A Small Place by Jamaica Kinkaid. With third-person or omniscient narration, the narrator is located outside the story and can report on events in the story happening in different places to different characters. In this sense, it is not limited to one character’s perspective, so the narrator can be more objective. When a third-person narrator reports the events from only one character, it is identified as limited third-person narration. Nonfiction writers write from either the first or third person. First-person accounts tend to be more subjective and, many believe, biased. Narrative and persuasive essays are examples of first-person point of view. Third-person accounts are considered more objective because the writer includes or reports only the facts. Newspaper articles, expository essays, and textbooks use third-person narration. It is important to note that both first- and third-person narration contain an element of bias.

Elements of Poetry Poetry makes use of figurative language to express deep meaning with fewer words than prose. Figurative language is a metaphorical way to compare two unlike things, people, or ideas in a way that communicates new insights and original thinking. Simile, metaphor, personification, and hyperbole are examples of figurative language. A simile compares two unlike things using like or as. Shakespeare’s sonnets are full of figurative language. Sonnet number 60 contains a simile in the first line: “Like as the waves make towards the pebbled shore,/So do our minutes hasten to their end.” Shakespeare’s narrator is comparing the limited time that the lovers have together to the ocean’s end, where the water meets the shore. Metaphors are quite similar to similes; they both compare two fundamentally

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unlike things. With metaphors, however, the comparison is implied. Robert Frances compares life to a dog in “The Hound.” He begins the poem with the line, “Life the hound.” If he were to start the poem with the line, “Life is like a hound,” then it would become a simile. When writers give inanimate objects, concepts, or animals humanlike qualities, they are using personification. If a bed were to talk and call out to its owner, it would be personified. Hyperbole is exaggeration to get at the truth as the writer-speaker understands it. When we say we are dying of thirst, most often, we simply mean we are extremely thirsty. Poets also make use of sound devices, or the techniques used to enhance the sound of poem when it is read out loud. Sound devices include alliteration, assonance, consonance, onomatopoeia, repetition, rhyme, and meter. Rhyme, or rime, is the repetition of the accented vowel sound and all successive sounds. An internal rhyme occurs when the rhyming words are within the same line, and an end rhyme when both of the rhyming words come at the end of the line. Robert Frost’s poem “Fire and Ice” uses end rhyme. Rhythm or meter give the poem its structure and produce a musical effect when read orally because of the pattern of stressed and unstressed syllables. Meter provides the poem with its rhythm. In metrical poetry, called verse, accented language is arranged to occur in equal distance. The reader can tap his or her feet to the accented words and pick up on the poem’s meter, much like the beats in music. This suggests how the poem should be read. In every word of more than one syllable, one syllable is accented, or given more emphasis than the unaccented syllable(s). For example, we pronounce the word bridal by placing more weight on the first part of the word: bridal. On the other hand, we stress the second syllable of the word undone: undone. Prose also contains accented and unaccented language; however, unlike poetry, the accents occur randomly. Sophisticated readers of poetry will scan a poem and measure its verse. Verse is measured using foot, line, and stanza. A foot contains one accented syllable and one or two unaccented syllables. A line is measured by its number of feet, and a stanza by a group of lines whose meter occurs repeatedly throughout the poem. Most often, a curved line is used to indicate an unaccented syllable, and a horizontal line to specify a stressed syllable. Feet are measured by the placement of the accented syllable: Iamb (or iambic) describes a foot with the accent on the second syllable: undone. Trochee explains a foot with the accent on the first syllable: bridal. Words with more than two syllables can be called Anapest (or anapestic) or dactyl (or dactylic). The former word’s first two syllables are unaccented, as in in-ter-view; the latter is formed when the first syllable is accented and the second two unaccented, as in supercharge. When both syllables are accented, it is labeled spondee (or spondaic), as suntan. Lines are named according to the number of feet they contain: monometer (one foot), dimeter (two feet), trimeter (three feet), tetrameter (four feet), pentameter (five feet), hexameter (six feet), heptameter (seven feet), and octameter (eight feet). Shakespeare’s plays are most often written in iambic pentameter, which means that each line contains five feet, and each foot consists of an accent on the second syllable. Iambic pentameter often beats like a heart, making a ta-dum, ta-dum sound. Assonance is a musical sound device created when there is repetition of similar vowel sounds followed by different consonant sounds. For example, in the poem “That Night When Joy Began” by W.H. Auden, the lines “But morning let us pass,/And day by day relief/Outgrew his nervous laugh,/Grows credulous of peace” showcase the use of assonance. The words pass and laugh share similar vowel sounds, as do relief and peace. Along the same lines, alliteration is the repetition of similar initial consonant sounds to create a pleasant sound or to emphasize the words where repetition occurs. For instance, in the poem “Nothing Gold Can Stay” by Robert Frost, he writes, “Nature’s firs green is gold,/Her hardest hue to hold.” Green and gold and Her, hardest, and hold all share similar beginning consonant sounds. The repetition of ending consonant sounds is called consonance. “The Turtle” by Ogden Nash employs consonance: decks and sex and turtle and fertile. Other examples of sound devices consist of onomatopoeia, or a word or group of words that sound much like the meaning of the word. Buzz and swish-swash sound much like the things that they describe.

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Review Questions 1. A writer chooses fiction to recreate his experience in a major world war because A. B. C. D.

he does not want to tell the truth. he feels that using literary and creative license will allow him to get at the “truth” of what happened better than nonfiction. he does not really remember and does not want readers to obtain false information. nonfiction requires more research than he is willing to do.

The correct answer is B. Fiction does come from the imagination; however, fiction also contains elements of truth. A writer may invent a story straight from the mind or from real life experiences. Either way, the writer wants to explore or discover a truth about life or the human condition. The above author may have chosen to use fiction to explore the horror of war because simply retelling the events as he remembers will not effect a visceral response in the way enhancing it will. Also, it is important to note that fiction writers also research their topics as extensively as nonfiction writers. For example, the above writer will most likely read personal correspondence, study geography, and interview living witnesses as part of his story about surviving World War II. Without some level of accuracy, the story would lose credibility. 2. When teaching about story elements, it is important to ensure students understand that the setting may function A. B. C. D.

as mood or atmosphere. as characterization. as conflict. as all of the above.

The correct answer is D. Setting has an important purpose in fiction. Too often, students think setting is superfluous and decorative and that it does not necessarily do anything. It is not enough for students to name or identify the setting; they should also understand how it affects the characters and fuels much of the plot. Conversations about setting should include questions such as: To what extent are the characters products of their environment? How would the plot change if the story took place in a different setting? What obstacles does the setting create for the protagonist? What is the relationship between the setting and the plot? Once the students have explored the setting, have them write settings of their own. Should they begin a love story with an ominous sky? Is it appropriate for a sunny day to start a murder mystery? By writing their own stories, they will begin to read as writers and understand that the elements of a story make it what it is. 3. Students should understand that for writers, metaphors A. B. C. D.

are another literary device invented to confuse and frustrate readers. allow the writer to communicate new insights, original thinking, and unfamiliar ideas or experiences by comparing two fundamentally unlike things, people, or ideas. are comparisons of two unlike things using like or as. are all of the above.

The correct answer is B. Metaphors help writers communicate an idea or experience foreign to many of their readers by comparing the idea or experience to something more familiar. In Holocaust literature, for example, writers use metaphors to convey the horror of loss and fear in a way that readers, most of whom were not part of the genocide, will understand. Although many of us did not live through such a horrific event in history, readers can still associate with feelings of terror, grief, hunger, and loss. Metaphors also permit writers to use their writing to discover new insights and ideas. They are powerful tools for students to recognize and use in their own writing.

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4. An English class is studying Macbeth. The teacher tells the students to pay particular attention to Lady Macbeth’s soliloquy in Act I. What is the most appropriate reason the teacher gives? A. B. C. D.

Lady Macbeth is a major character in the play because she is married to Macbeth. Shakespeare is a genius, and everything he writes should be analyzed and understood meticulously. Because soliloquies reveal a character’s inner feelings and thoughts, Lady Macbeth’s private speech will provide the audience valuable insight into her motivations and future actions. Macbeth is such a dark play that Shakespeare included soliloquies to add an element of humor and relieve tension.

The correct answer is C. Soliloquies are an important part of Shakespearian dramas because most characters are driven by universal human emotions such as greed, jealousy, love, ambition, and hate, to name only a few. In much of drama, intent is not always made obvious to the viewer because the character’s actions suggest the opposite of the character’s intention. Thus, much of the dialogue between characters on stage contains subtext: they say one thing but mean another. These private speeches, then, provide the audience with the real reasons behind what drives the characters to act on their emotions. Soliloquies are Shakespeare’s way of providing his audience with needed knowledge to understand the play, plot, and characters. 5. During a unit on nonfiction, a teacher asks students to read and write persuasive essays to A. B. C. D.

locate an author’s argument or opinion on a specific topic or issue. learn how to express their own opinions about a specific topic or issue using a strong thesis statement and specific examples to defend their arguments and persuade their readers. learn how to read critically and resist manipulation by locating an author’s opinion on a specific topic or issue. learn all of the above.

The correct answer is D. Persuasive essays provide a teacher with an opportunity to teach critical thinking, reading, and writing skills. Students learn how to read critically by first locating the author’s opinion, reading the reasoning behind the opinion, and then deciding for themselves if they choose to be persuaded by the text. Newspaper articles, advertising, commercials, and op-ed pieces all try to persuade readers to think and behave in a certain way. Resisting manipulation by a well-developed essay is an important literacy skill. Teachers should also use persuasive essays as models for students to learn how to write their own essays and speeches. Persuasive essays teach students to craft an argument (thesis), anticipate criticism, provide relevant examples, and write powerful conclusions.

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Objective 0008 Demonstrates knowledge of literature, including literature from diverse cultures and literature for children/adolescents. The following topics are covered under the subject area of Objective 0008: ■ ■ ■ ■ ■

Demonstrating awareness of ways in which literary texts reflect the time and place in which they were written Demonstrating awareness of the ways in which literary works reflect and express cultural values and ideas Recognizing major themes and characteristics of works written by well-known authors Demonstrating knowledge of important works and authors of literature for children and adolescents Analyzing themes and elements of traditional and contemporary literature for children and adolescents

Time and Place Awareness It is important when teaching a literary text to provide background information on both the author and the time period in which the book was written. Without an understanding of the author’s background and environmental influences, many of the references and themes of a novel will be misunderstood. In addition, schemata theory suggests that comprehension is reliant on incorporating new knowledge with prior knowledge. For students to retain any new information from a text, they need to be reminded of and taught more about the place and time in which the book was composed. For example, to fully appreciate the novella The Yellow Wallpaper by Charlotte Perkins Gilman, a reader needs to know that she was writing at the turn of the twentieth century in America. During this time, medicine was used as a form of social control. Thousands of upper-class women were diagnosed with “hysteria” and prescribed bed rest. Women’s so-called weak nervous systems were used as an excuse to bar women from traditionally male spaces such as higher education and politics. Gilman, herself, was recommended bed rest to her own detriment. Instead of curing her of “hysteria,” the isolation sent her into a deep depression, similar to that of the protagonist in the story. The Yellow Wallpaper was written in reaction to the debilitating medial practices of the time. Context also plays a seminal role in understanding the play The Crucible by Arthur Miller. On the surface, the play appears to be about the Salem witchcraft trials that took place during the late seventeenth century. In fact, the play acts as a metaphor for the “witch hunts” of the 1950s. Students need to understand the climate of fear during this time of McCarthyism and the House on Un-American Acts Committee to fully comprehend Miller’s motivation for writing the play. Mildred Taylor’s works also reflect the time and place in which they were written. To completely value Taylor’s award winning novel, Roll of Thunder, Hear My Cry, students should study the Great Depression and its effects on southern African-American landowners. The events in her novel were inspired by the devastation caused by the racist environment stimulated by slavery and the Reconstruction. Providing background information ensures that students will more fully comprehend an assigned literary work. Historical references, colloquial language, unfamiliar vocabulary, and subtext have the potential to confuse and frustrate readers. Students cannot understand the bravery of Atticus Finch’s decision to defend Tom Robinson in To Kill a Mockingbird if they do not understand Southern race relations during the 1930s. Teaching students the ways in which texts reflect the time and place in which they were written is fundamental to enriching their reading experiences.

Cultural Values and Ideas Awareness It is the job of an English teacher to show her students how literary works reflect and express cultural values and ideas so they can better understand the story and learn to appreciate and celebrate other cultures. As part of frontloading a text, the teacher’s job is to immerse the students in the novel’s culture. For example, the novel Their Eyes Were Watching God, by Zora Neale Hurston, reflects African American cultural tropes. The reader will find instances of call and response, playing the dozens, and dialect, all of which developed from a mix of American and

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African heritage. Along the same lines, An Na’s novel A Step from Heaven reflects the cultural values of Korea and one father’s inability to incorporate his cultural beliefs and values when he brings his family to the United States. It is particularly important when teaching a novel from another culture not to judge the culture based on the reader’s own values and ideas. The idea of multicultural literature is to expose, understand, and celebrate people who might not be similar to the reader. It is also beneficial for students to find similarities with other cultures. In any good piece of literature, there will be elements that are universal to all people. It is these universals that connect all human beings.

Themes and Characteristics in Children’s Literature Major themes and characteristics in children’s literature include the following:

Children’s Literature Animals

Feelings

Kathi Appelt Oh My Baby, Little One

Karen Beaumont I Like Myself

Sarah Weeks Without You

Mem Fox Whoever You Are

Jonathan Emmett No Place Like Home

Harriet Lerner and Susan Goldner Franny B. Kranny, There’s a Bird in Your Hair

Amy West In the Rain with Baby Duck

Bugs Eric Carle The Very Busy Spider; [other titles by Carle] The Very Hungry Caterpillar; The Very Lonely Firefly; The Very Quiet Cricket Melanie Gerth Ten Little Lady Bugs Susan Hood Caterpillar Spring, Butterfly Summer

Food Eric Carle Pancakes, Pancakes Laura Joffe Numeroff If You Give a Moose a Muffin; [other titles by Numeroff] If You Give a Mouse a Cookie; If You Give a Pig a Pancake

Multicultural Sally Bahous Sitti and the Cats: A Tale of Friendship

Colors Tomie dePaola Art Lessons

Hanna Heritage Bozylinsky Lala Salama: An African Lullaby

Denise Fleming Lunch

Trish Cooke So Much

Sheila Hamanaka All the Colors of the Earth

Ann Grifalconi Fly Away Girl

Mary O’Neill Hailstones and Halibut Bones

Susan Jeffers Brother Eagle, Sister Sky

Family

Faith Ringgold Tar Beach

Karen Magnuson Beil Grandma According to Me

J. Steptoe Mufaro’s Beautiful Daughters

Siobhan Dobbs Grandpa Bud

Jeanette Winter Follow the Drinking Gourd

Robert Munch David’s Father Jillian Wynot Mother’s Day Sandwich

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Sea Life

Seasons and Weather

Debra Frasier Out of the Ocean

Eric Carle Little Cloud

Steve Metzger Five Little Sharks Swimming in the Sea

Lois Ehlert Leaf Man

Andrea and David Wojtowycz Commotion in the Ocean by Giles

Elizabeth MacDonald The Very Windy Day

Ashley Wolf Baby Beluga

Barbara Seuling Winter Lullaby Sarah Weeks Hurricane City Charlotte Zolotow Naomi Knows It’s Springtime

Adolescent Literature Adventure/Mystery

Victor Martinez Parrot in the Oven: Mi Vida Loca

Laurie Halse Anderson Fever, 1793

Walter Dean Myers Fallen Angels; [other titles by Myers]; Monster; Slam!; Somewhere in the Darkness

Robert Cormier The Rag and Bone Shop Lois Sacher Holes

An Na A Step from Heaven Lois Sachar Holes

Historical Fiction

Paul Zindel The Pigman

Julia Alverez Before We Were Free Laurie Halse Anderson Fever, 1793 Esther Forbes Johnny Tremain Karen Hesse A Time of Angels; [other titles by Hesse] Out of the Dust; Witness Walter Dean Myers Fallen Angels; [also by Myers] The Glory Field

Science Fiction/Fantasy Madeleine L’Engle A Wrinkle in Time C. S. Lewis The Lion, the Witch, and the Wardrobe Lois Lowry Gathering Blue; [other titles by Lowry] The Giver; The Messenger Jane Yolen Dragon’s Blood

Gary Paulsen Nightjohn; [also by Paulsen] Soldier’s Heart Jane Yolen The Devil’s Arithmetic

Realistic Fiction Avi Nothing but the Truth Judy Blume Deenie; [also by Blume] Tiger Eyes Robert Cormier The Chocolate War; [other titles by Cormier] The Rag and Bone Shop; We All Fall Down Chris Crutcher The Crazy Horse Electric Game; [other titles by Crutcher] Ironman; Whale Talk

Multi-Cultural Julia Alverez How the Garcia Girls Lost Their Accents; [also by Alverez] When We Were Free Nancy Garden Annie on My Mind Victor Martinez Parrot in the Oven: Mi Vida Loca Walter Dean Myers The Beast An Na A Step from Heaven Mildred Taylor Roll of Thunder, Hear My Cry Jacqueline Woodson Miracle’s Boy

S. E. Hinton The Outsiders

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Important Works and Authors for Children and Adolescents The following are important works and authors for children and adolescents.

Children’s Literature Jan Brett The Mitten Norman Bridwell Clifford, the Big Red Dog Janell Cannon Stellaluna Eric Carle The Very Hungry Caterpillar; [other titles by Carle] The Very Busy Spider; The Very Hungry Caterpillar; The Very Lonely Firefly; The Very Quiet Cricket

Laura Joffe Numeroff If You Give a Mouse a Cookie; [other titles by Numeroff] If You Give a Moose a Muffin; If You Give a Pig a Pancake Peggy Parish Amelia Bedelia Marcus Pfister The Rainbow Fish Watty Piper The Little Engine That Could Beatrix Potter The Tale of Peter Rabbit

Margaret Wise Brown Goodnight Moon

Don Freeman Corduroy

Roald Dahl Charlie and the Chocolate Factory; [also by Dahl] Witches

Ezra Jack Keats The Snowy Day Hans Augusto Rey Curious George

Dr. Seuss Green Eggs and Ham; [other titles by Seuss] The Cat in the Hat; Oh, the Places You’ll Go; The Lorax

Jon Scieszka Math Curse

Philip D. Eastman Are You My Mother?

Maurice Sendak Where the Wild Things Are

Mem Fox Wilfrid Gordon McDonald Partridge

Shel Silverstein When the Sidewalk Ends

Bill Martin, Jr. Brown Bear, Brown Bear, What do you see?

Margery Williams The Velveteen Rabbit

Tomie dePaola Art Lessons; [ also by dePaola] Strega Nona A. A. Milne The Complete Tales of Winnie the Pooh Robert N. Munsch Love You Forever; [also by Munsch] The Paper Bag Princess

Chris Van Allsburg Jumanji;[also by Allsburg] The Polar Express Judith Viorst Alexander and the Terrible, Horrible, No Good, Very Bad Day E. B. White Charlotte’s Web

Adolescent Literature Avi Nothing but the Truth

Madeleine L’Engle A Wrinkle in Time

Louisa May Alcott Little Women

C. S. Lewis The Lion, the Witch, and the Wardrobe

Judy Blume Are You There God? It’s Me, Margaret; [other titles by Blume] Deenie; Tiger Eyes

Jack London Call of the Wild; [also by London] White Fang

Robert Cormier The Chocolate War; [other titles by Cormier] The Rag and Bone Shop; We All Fall Down

Lois Lowry The Giver; [other titles by Lowry] Number the Stars; A Summer to Die

Chris Crutcher The Crazy Horse Electric Game; [other titles by Crutcher] Ironman; Whale Talk

Walter Dean Myers Fallen Angels; [other titles by Myers] Monster; Slam!; Somewhere in the Darkness

Karen Hesse A Time of Angels; [other titles by Hesse] Out of the Dust; Witness

An Na A Step from Heaven

S. E. Hinton The Outsiders

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Gary Paulsen Nightjohn; [also by Paulsen] Soldier’s Heart


R. L. Stine Haunting Hour: Chills in the Dead of the Night; [also by Stine] Nightmare Hour: Time for Terror

Jane Yolen A Devil’s Arithmetic Paul Zindel The Pigman

Laura Ingalls Wilder Little House on the Prairie

Themes and Elements in Childrens’ and Young Adult Literature Young adult literature has a very useful place in the middle school English classroom. Students can easily relate to the characters and issues present in YA novels; therefore, they make excellent bridges to more difficult, adult literature. For instance, teachers can first introduce a novel such as Mildred Taylor’s Roll of Thunder, Hear My Cry, which deals with racism, powerlessness, and family, prior to reading a text by Alice Walker, Zora Neale Hurston, or Toni Morrison, all of whom write about many of the same issues. Also, young adult novels are of high interest to young readers because they can relate to the problems and issues in the life of an adolescent: fitting in, conforming/peer pressure, growing up, identity formation, rebellion, and dealing with death or unwanted pregnancy. Another characteristic common to YA novels is the absence of parents. That is, the action of the story unfolds in spaces free from parental influence. This way, the young narrator and supporting characters learn how to navigate life for themselves. Facing their challenges alone helps excel the growing-up process. As such, the settings of YA novels include, but are not limited to, day and boarding schools, social events, summer camps, and vacations. Young adult fiction includes a variety of subjects and ethnic groups. Today’s authors write about everything from drugs and rape to homosexuality and abuse. No subject is off limits. Famous authors such as Jacqueline Woodson, Chris Crutcher, and Jane Yolen confront interracial coupling, suicide, and the Holocaust in their novels for young adults. It is important to note that despite the heavy subject matter, most young adult literature ends optimistically and quickly. The plot unfolds in a matter of weeks or months in young adult novels. Children’s literature tends to be more explicitly educational than young adult literature. Children’s books teach their young readers about the seasons and the weather, animals and bugs, food, colors, family, and feelings. In addition, it has become increasingly multicultural in the past thirty-five years. Today, subjects include stories about different religious and cultural traditions in works such as Brother Eagle, Sister Sky by Susan Jeffers, Follow the Drinking Gourd by Jeanette Winter, Fly Away Girl by Ann Grifalconi, Lala Salama: An African Lullaby by Hanna Heritage Bozylinsky, and Mufaro’s Beautiful Daughters by J. Steptoe.

Review Questions 1. A teacher provides background knowledge on the life of Jane Yolen, a map of Germany and the surrounding countries, and information about the time period before teaching the novel The Devil’s Arithmetic. Why is the teacher doing this? A. B. C. D.

Activating prior knowledge will help students store and organize new information from the book. Literary texts reflect the time and place in which they were written. Providing background knowledge about literary texts enable students to better comprehend the novel, retain and remember information, make inferences and predictions, and fill in missing pieces. All of the above.

Option D is correct because literary texts do reflect the time and place in which they were written. Background knowledge enriches the reading experience for students. Without an understanding of the author’s background and environmental influences, many of the references and themes of the novel will be misunderstood. In addition, schemata theory suggests that comprehension is reliant upon incorporating new knowledge with prior knowledge. For students to retain any new information from a text, they need to be reminded of and taught more about the place and time in which the book was composed.

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2. A teacher wants to adopt a book—Karen Hesse’s Out of the Dust—for the sixth grade curriculum. What reason should he not provide the local school board? A. B. C. D.

Young adult literature provides a bridge to more difficult texts dealing with the same themes. Young adult literature motivates reluctant readers because it deals with relevant issues and topics, is fast paced, and ends optimistically. Young adult literature builds fluency, exposes students to different places and cultures, and connects with adolescent readers. Young adult literature is usually shorter than adult texts and does not take too much time away from more serious, canonical texts.

The correct answer is D. Today’s young adult literature is more than a quick read. Young adult literature has many educational benefits in an English classroom. Teachers can and should use YA novels for several important reasons. It deals with contemporary and universal themes in the lives of teenagers. Students connect with the literature and are therefore more motivated to read. Young readers learn how other teens have faced obstacles such as fitting in, dealing with family trauma, and forming an identity. Young adult literature also helps struggling readers in two ways: it builds fluency and provides a connection to more difficult reading material. For some students, reading adult literature is a frustrating experience. To help students with reading comprehension, teachers must first aid in building reading fluency. One way to increase fluency is to have students read books on their independent reading levels. Finally, using historical fiction such as Out of the Dust will also teach students about the Dust Bowl. 3. Which of the following are important authors of literature for children and young adults? A. B. C. D.

Gary Paulsen, Robert Cormier, Chris Crutcher, Jane Yolen, Lois Lowry, Walter Dean Myers, Jacqueline Woodson, Tomie Dipaulo, and Eric Carle. Arthur Miller, Virginia Wolf, Charles Dickens, John Steinbeck, Ernest Hemingway, Emily Dickinson, Leo Tolstoy, Gabriel Garcia Marquez, and Mary Wollstonecraft Shelley. None of the above. All of the above.

The correct answer is A. Although adolescents today read adult literature in school, the authors listed in group B were not writing for a young audience. Young adult novels are narrated from an adolescent point of view, unlike Miller’s play Death of a Salesman, told from the point of view of Willie Loman, a father and business man. Also, young adult literature deals with issues related to coming of age, such as fitting in at school and falling in love for the first time. Virginia Wolf’s themes of feminism, depression, and establishing herself among the British literati were not written with teenagers in mind. 4. An educator teaching How the Garcia Girls Lost Their Accents, by Julia Alverez, and who wants to demonstrate the ways in which the novel reflects cultural values and ideas of Latina-Americans should A. B. C. D.

research unfamiliar cultural references, vocabulary, and foods to better understand the text. invite a Puerto Rican immigrant and her first-generation American daughter to class so the two can share their values, beliefs, and experiences. have students interview relatives, friends, or members of the community about intergenerational cultural conflict. All of the above.

The correct answer is D because for students to appreciate and understand the way Julia Alverez’s novel expresses the conflict between Puerto Rican mothers and their Americanized daughters, teachers need to provide learning opportunities centered on cultural conflict. There are many ways to approach such a task. Teachers and students can study Puerto Rican culture prior to or in conjunction with reading the novel. Teachers should also take advantage of community members, especially first-generation Puerto Rican Americans. Students will not only better comprehend the story but will also learn to celebrate cultures different from their own.

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Subarea II: Mathematics Objective 0009 Understands formal and informal reasoning processes, including logic and simple proofs, and applies problem-solving techniques and strategies in a variety of contexts. The following topics are covered under the subject area of Objective 0009: ■ ■ ■

■ ■

■

Using models, facts, patterns, and relationships to draw conclusions about mathematical problems or situations Judging the validity or logic of mathematical arguments Drawing a valid conclusion based on stated conditions and on evaluating conclusions involving simple and compound sentences Applying inductive reasoning to make mathematical conjectures Using a variety of problem-solving strategies to model and solve problems and evaluating the appropriateness of a problem-solving strategy (e.g., estimation, mental math, working backward, pattern recognition) in a given situation Analyzing the usefulness of a specific model or mental math procedure for exploring a given mathematical, scientific, or technological idea or problem

Mathematical reasoning, making conjectures and refining them, and constructing logical arguments (formal as well as heuristic) are fundamental to the teaching and learning of mathematics. Mathematical proofs have rigid standards supported by logic. The deductive argument in mathematics, referred to as a proof, is based on valid reasoning from agreed upon statements such as axioms, definitions, and previously proved statements. One cannot assert that something is true simply because there are numerous examples to demonstrate it. Mathematical knowledge derived only by observations, however, provides an opportunity to more exactly discover inherent properties of concepts and to prove or disprove mathematical assertions.

Mathematical Relationships Knowledge of mathematical relationships and concepts such as congruence, similarity and isomorphism is referred to as conceptual knowledge, whereas knowledge of procedures and processes such as using the division algorithm, identifying prime numbers, and multiplying two integers are examples of procedural knowledge. Mathematical activities are often a search for relationships or patterns. This search is an underlying theme in mathematical investigations. For example, in finding the next number in the sequence 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, . . . we compare two successive numbers to a third number in the sequence and conclude that each number is the sum of the two previous numbers. Thus, the next element in the sequence is 21+34, or 55. The numbers in the following sequence: 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19, . . . have the common property that each number is divisible by only itself or one. Thus, the next numbers are 23, 29, 31, etc. (These are called prime numbers.)

Arguments and their Validity An argument consists of a set of statements referred to as premises, which yield another concluding statement. If the truth of the premises logically implies the truth of the conclusion, then the argument is valid. If the truth of the premises does not logically imply the truth of the conclusion, then the argument is invalid. Consider the following valid argument: If Jane is honest, then she is telling the truth. Jane is honest. Therefore, Jane is telling the truth.

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On the other hand, the following argument is invalid: People who are concerned about the war support the troops. James supports the troops. Therefore, James is concerned about the war. Note that the set of the people who support the troops could be larger than the set of people who are concerned about the war, so James may support the troops without necessarily being concerned about the war.Consider the validity of a slightly more involved argument to prove that the 2 is irrational, that is, it cannot be expressed as a ratio of two integers. We begin by assuming the 2 is rational and, through a series of logical arguments, conclude that our assumption is incorrect, proving that the 2 is irrational. If the 2 is rational, then it can be expressed as a ratio of two integers, p p and q, where p and q cannot be divided any further: 2 = q . Multiplying both sides by q, we get q 2 = p . Squaring both sides, 2q2 = p2, and noting that 2q2 is even because any number multiplied by 2 is always even, we assert that p2 is even, and p must, therefore, be even (e.g., 16 is even and 16 = 4 is also even). If p is even, then it can be expressed as 2r, for some integer r. Substituting 2r for p in the above, we get 2q2 = p2 = (2r)2 = 4r2, or q2 = 2r2. By similar argument, we state that q2 is even because it is equal to 2r2, which is even, and q is therefore even. We just deduced that p and q are even, which can be divided further. This is contrary to our assumption that they are prime (i.e., cannot be divided any further); therefore, through contradiction, we conclude that 2 is irrational.

Drawing Conclusions from Simple and Compound Statements Venn diagrams, symbolic representations, or specified rules of logic are useful in arriving at a valid conclusion based on stated conditions. A statement is said to be a compound statement if it consists of simple statements joined by connectives such as “and,” “or,” and “not”; otherwise, the statement is simple. Consider the following simple example: If two sides of a triangle are equal, the angles opposite these sides are congruent. In triangle abc, side ab equals side bc. Therefore, the angles opposite sides ab and bc are congruent. This is a valid conclusion because if we represent the statement “two sides of a triangle are equal” by p, and “the angles opposite these sides” by q, then the fact that p → q is true, and that p is true implies that q is also true. Next, suppose that we define a rectangle as a parallelogram with a right angle. Then we can conclude that a quadrilateral is a rectangle if and only if it is a parallelogram with a right angle. We can also say that if a figure is known to be a parallelogram with one right angle, then it is a rectangle.

Using Inductive Reasoning Inductive reasoning, initially based on observation, is a useful strategy in making conjectures. For example, the sum of two odd numbers is what type of a number? To answer the question, consider the sums of 1 and 3, 5 and 7, 9 and 11, etc. In each case the sum is even. One arrives at a tentative conclusion that the sum is always even. To conclude, however, that the sum is always even no matter what two odd numbers are added, a valid logical argument must be presented. Let two odd numbers be expressed by 2m + 1 and 2n + 1. Regardless of the values of m and n, 2m and 2n are even numbers because multiplying any number by 2 results in an even number. Adding one to an even number ensures that the result is an odd number. Therefore, 2m + 1 and 2n + 1 are odd numbers. Adding them yields the following: (2m + 1) + (2n + 1) = 2m + 2n + 1 + 1 = 2m + 2n + 2 = 2(m + n + 1) Again, regardless of the value of (m + n + 1), multiplying it by 2 yields an even number. Another valid argument is to represent any two odd numbers by 2m – 1 and 2n – 1 because subtracting one from an even number results in an odd number. Thus, (2m – 1) + (2n – 1) = 2m + 2n – 2 = 2(m + n – 1) But 2(m + n – 1) is even regardless of the value of m + n – 1. Multiplying it by 2 yields an even number.

Problem-Solving Strategies Children are introduced to a variety of problem-solving strategies such as making a list of possible outcomes, making a chart, drawing a picture, or simply guessing. Consider the strategy used in solving the following word problem: Terra had twin puppies of equal weight: they all weigh 10 kg. Terra weighs 6 kg. How much does each puppy weigh?

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Subarea II: Mathematics

The model we use consists of four steps: understanding the problem, devising a plan, carrying out the plan, and looking back to check the answer. We let x = weight of a puppy. Adding the puppies’ weight, which is 2x, to that of Terra, which is 6, results in 10. This relationship, expressed as 2x + 6 = 10 can be solved as a balance: removing 6 from both sides and dividing each side by 2 yields x = 2. Looking back: 2x(2 kg) + 6 kg = 10 kg, or 10 kg = 10 kg assures us that each puppy weighs 2 kg. One can develop numerous strategies that are useful in solving problems (e.g., using the number line model for arithmetic, visualizing numerals in expanded form for mental mathematics, rounding numbers in computational estimation, modeling the problem by an equation, or working first on a simpler version of the problem before attempting to solve a more complex situation). It is known, for example, that the sum of the degree measures of the interior angles of any triangle is 180°. Based on this fact, we wish to develop a model to determine the interior angle of a regular (convex) polygon having n sides. In a regular polygon, all angles are congruent and all sides are equal. For an equilateral triangle, the sum of the interior angles is 180°; therefore, the interior angle is 180c = 60c. A square can be partitioned into two triangles, making the 3 ^180 # 2 h = 90c. Similarly, sum of the interior angles of the square 180 × 2 = 360°; thus, the interior angle of a square is 4 a regular pentagon can be partitioned into three triangles, making the sum of the interior angles 180 × 3; therefore, the ^180 # 3h interior angle of a regular pentagon is . Proceeding in this manner to the hexagon, the interior angle is given 5 ^180 # 4 h = 120c. Noting that the denominator is always the number of sides and that the numerator is 180 times the by 6 number of sides minus 2 provides the model for determining the interior angle of a regular polygon with n sides: 180 ^ n - 2 h n

Review Questions 1. Latoya has an average of 88 on 5 tests. What grade does she need on the next test to have a final average of 90? A. B. C. D.

100 90 95 98

The correct answer is A. Let x represent Latoya’s score on the last test. Then the average score is the sum of all tests ^88 # 5 + x h divided by 6, which is . But that number must equal 90, which results in solving the linear equation: 6 ^88 # 5 + x h = 90 . Multiplying both sides by 6 results in 440 + x = 540, and then subtracting 440 from both sides yields 6 x = 540 – 440 = 100. 2. Tasha rides her bicycle 8 kilometers during the same time it takes her brother John to walk 2 kilometers. At this rate, if Tasha rides her bicycle 40 kilometers, how many kilometers will John walk? A. B. C. D.

16 km 10 km 40 km 20 km

The correct answer is B. In the time that it took John to walk one kilometer, Tasha on her bicycle would cover 4 km. In other words, John’s speed is 1 th that of Tasha’s c 2 ' 8 = 1 m ; therefore, when Tasha covers 40 kilometers, John would 4 4 walk only 10 kilometers c 40 # 1 = 10 m . 4

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3. What is the maximum area of a rectangular-shaped car lot that has a perimeter of 78 feet? A. B. C. D.

378 square feet 338 square feet 380 square feet 400 square feet

The correct answer is C. By experimenting with various rectangles of different lengths and widths and calculating their areas, one observes that the closer the width is to the length of the rectangle, the greater is the area. Ultimately, equal sides would produce the maximum area. Dividing 78 by 4 would yield 19.5, but 19.5 × 19.5 = 380.25, but this is not one of the choices given; therefore, 380 square feet is closer to this number, which relates to a rectangle having a length of 20 feet and a width of 19 feet. 4. The next number in the sequence 5, 7, 11, 19, 35, . . . is A. B. C. D.

46 67 72 59

The correct answer is B. The number 7 is obtained by adding 2 to the previous number, which is 5; the number 11 is 4, or 22, added to the previous number, 7; 19 is 23 + 11; 35 is 24 , or 16, plus 19. From this pattern, one observes that the next number is 25 + 35, or 67. 5. Which of the following are possible angle measures of an isosceles triangle? A. B. C. D.

80 degrees, 50 degrees, 50 degrees 50 degrees, 50 degrees, 20 degrees 40 degrees, 70 degrees, 70 degrees Both A & C

The correct answer is D. An isosceles triangle has two equal sides and two congruent angles. Statement B cannot be true: although two angles are congruent, the sum of the three angles is not equal to 180°. Statements A and C satisfy that condition, however; therefore, the answer is D. 6. A trapezoid is A. B. C. D.

a four-sided polygon that has all four sides of equal length. a four-sided polygon having exactly one pair of parallel sides. a four-sided polygon having exactly two pairs of parallel sides. a four-sided polygon having all right angles.

The correct answer is B. Statements A and C cannot be the right answer because they would imply a parallelogram or a rhombus. Statement D defines a square. Therefore, statement B is the correct answer. 7. If a 6-inch (in radius) pizza serves one person, how many people would a 12-inch pizza serve? A. B. C. D.

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2 3 4 5


The correct answer is C. Model each pizza by a circle and calculate the area of each. A 6-inch pizza has the area of a circle πr2 = 3.14 × 36 = 113 square inches. That will serve one person. A 12-inch pizza has an area of 3.14 × 144 = 452 square inches, but that is four times (452 ÷ 113 = 4) the amount for one person. Note that although the radius of the second pizza is twice as large as the first, it does not mean that the pizza is twice as large. Therefore, statement C, and not statement A, is the correct answer. 8. Sue keeps dogs and cats as pets. The pets are all dogs except 4, and all cats except 4. The total number of pets that Sue has is A. B. C. D.

2 4 6 8

The correct answer is D. Use the symbols x and y to represent, respectively, the number of dogs and the number of cats, and n, the total number of pets. Therefore, n = x + y. But n is also equal to x + 4 (all dogs except 4) as well as y + 4 (all cats except 4). Because n = x + 4 = y + 4, subtracting 4 from both sides yields x = y. Then n = x + y = x + x = 2x, but n = x + 4 = 2x. Subtracting x from both sides yields x = 4. Therefore, the total number of dogs and cats is x + y, or 4 + 4 = 8.

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Objective 0010 Uses mathematical terminology and symbols to interpret, represent, and communicate mathematical ideas and information. The following topics are covered under the subject area of Objective 0010: ■ ■ ■ ■ ■

■

Using mathematical notation to represent a given relationship Using appropriate models, diagrams, and symbols to represent mathematical concepts Using appropriate vocabulary to express given mathematical ideas and relationships Relating the language of ordinary experiences to mathematical language and symbols Translating among graphic, numeric, symbolic, and verbal representations of mathematical relationships and concepts Using mathematical representations to model and interpret physical, social, and mathematical phenomena

Mathematical ideas can be represented through oral language, pictures, written symbols, and models that can be manipulated and used as a link between symbols and concepts. Acquiring skills in communication, in moving from one representation to another, and in interpreting symbols and solutions is essential for mathematical achievement.

Representing Relationships by Mathematical Notations It is known that a relationship exists between the temperature in degrees Fahrenheit and the chirp rate of the snowy tree cricket, as illustrated in the table below. Chirps per minute

Temperature °F

60

55

70

57.5

80

60

90

62.5

100

65

110

67.5

120

70

130

72.5

We can describe this relationship in a number of ways. For example, for an increase of 10 chirps per minute, the temperature rises by 2.5 degrees Fahrenheit. What if we divide each chirp rate by 4 and then compare the answer to the corresponding temperature? We get 60 ÷ 4 = 15, which is 40 less than 55—the corresponding temperature; 70 ÷ 4 = 17.5 = 57.5 – 40; 80 ÷ 4 = 20 = 60 – 40, etc. The temperature can now be determined from the cricket’s chirp by dividing the rate by 4 and adding 40. We can express this relationship by the following mathematical notation: Let r = the chirp rate in chirps per minute and t = the temperature in degrees Fahrenheit. Then, t = 1 r + 40 4

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Visual Representation of Mathematical Concepts In the above example, we described the situation by a formula: a mathematical model of the relationship between the cricket chirp rate and the temperature. We could also describe the relationship visually through a graph by plotting the chirp rates on the horizontal axis and the corresponding temperatures on the vertical axis and joining the points with a straight line. Consider another example: Kelly’s age last year was a square number, but next year her age will be a cube number. How long must she wait until her age is both a square and a cube number? To find when a number is both a square and a cube, we construct a sequence of square and cube numbers (i.e., 12, 22, 32, 42, . . . and 13, 23, 33, 43, . . .) and then compare them: Square numbers 1 4 9 16 25 49 64 81 100 Cube numbers 1 8 27 64 125 It becomes immediately apparent that 64 is the only number (not counting 1) in the above sequences that is both a square and a cube number. The first condition implies that the difference between a cube number and a square number is 2; but that occurs only when a square number is 25 and a cube number is 27. Consequently, Kelly must be 26; she must wait 38 years (64 – 26) for her age to be both a square and a cube number.

Math Concepts Expressed through Language A number of ancient civilizations—Egyptians, Babylonians, Mayans, Arabs, and Hindus—recognized numbers as abstract concepts and developed names, numeration systems, and symbols for those numbers, including our base ten decimal system. How do you express the place value of digits in the base ten decimal system? Moving from right to left, the first digit reveals how many groups of one; the second place digit shows the number of groups of ten; the third place digit shows the groups of 100, or 10 times 10, etc. Consider next the expression 7x – 11 or the linear equation 3x + 5 = 17. What vocabulary can you use to express them? One can express the first as eleven less than the product of seven times a number and the second as three times a number added to five equals seventeen.

Word Problems Many ordinary experiences are word problems that can be translated and solved mathematically. For example, how much does a realtor, whose commission is 6% of the selling price, earn when she sells a house for one million dollars? Clearly, 6% of $1,000,000 = (6 × $1,000,000) ÷ 100 = $60,000. The following example, however, requires more critical analysis: A regular train leaves Penn Station in New York City traveling to Washington, D.C., at an average speed of 42 miles per hour. An hour and a half later, a Metroliner train leaves Penn Station and travels at an average speed of 60 miles per hour. Both trains arrive in Washington at the same time. Based on this information, calculate the distance between New York City and Washington, D.C. Solution: Let t = time (in hours) that it took the Metroliner train to reach Washington; therefore, it took the regular train t + 1.5 hours. The travel distance of the metroliner is 60t (speed × time), which is the same travel distance of the regular train, which is 42(t + 1.5). Setting the two to equal each other, we get: 60t = 42(t + 1.5) Solving for t, 60t – 42t = 42 × 1.5, or 18t = 63, and t = 3.5 hours, which is the time that it took the Metroliner to reach Washington. Because that train was traveling at 60 miles per hour, the distance it traveled in 3.5 hours equals 60 × 3.5 = 210 miles. Note: We can also calculate the distance from the regular train: 42(t + 1.5) = 42(3.5 + 1.5) = 210 miles

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Math Concepts Translated Into Equations We wish to demonstrate this concept by solving the quadratic equation x2 + 8x = 48 through geometrical representation. First, we construct a square of side x and area of x2. Next, we construct four rectangles adjacent to the sides; the four rectangles will have an area of 8x, corresponding to the second term in the equation. The area of each rectangle is 8x ÷ 4 = 2x; therefore, the length of each rectangle is x (because it is adjacent to the square), and the width is 2. Now we “complete the square” by drawing four (dashed) squares at the corners; each one will have an area of 4 because the sides are the same as the width of the rectangles. Finally, the total area of the large square, which consists of four rectangles plus the inner square (i.e., x2 + 8x, and that is equal to 48) plus the area of the four corner squares (16), is 48 + 16, or 64. From this we can calculate the length of the side of the large square to be 8 ` 64 j , which is 2 + x + 2. Translating it into the linear equation, we get x+4=8 Solving for x, the result is 4. Looking back, we substitute 4 for x into the original equation to verify the answer: 42 + 8 × 4 = 48 42 + 8 × 4 = 48 2

x

2

x

2

Mathematical Models Mathematical models are ubiquitous in various human activities, the physical and biological sciences, economics, risk management, and the social sciences. Consider an example of a small town with a population of 45,000 inhabitants. Because of a gradual loss of industrial base, 3500 people leave the town every year. We wish to estimate the town’s population in five years, ten years, or in any year. Let P = population of the town at a given time, t. When t = 0, the population is 45,000. In five years, the number of people relocated is 3500 × 5; the town’s population is 45,000 – 3500 × 5. In ten years, 3500 × 10 leave, and the town’s population dwindles to 45,000 – 3500 × 10. From this we can construct the model for the town’s population in terms of the initial population and any time, t: P = 45,000 – 3500 × t If the condition of the exodus remains, we can predict when the town will become a ghost town by setting P = 0 and solving for t: 0 = 45,000 – 3500 × t 45000 = 3500t, or t = 12.86 years

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Review Questions 1. The sales tax on an item in New York City is 8.375%. To encourage pre-holiday sales, a store advertises a 15% discount on any item in that store (not including the sales tax). The total cost, T, is expressed in terms of the price, P, and the sales tax is A. B. C. D.

T = (P – 0.15P) + .08375P T = 0.08375 × 0.85P T = 0.08375 × 0.85P + 0.85P T = 0.08375 × 0.85P – 0.15P

The correct answer is C. The total cost of the item is the original price, P, minus the 15 percent discount, which is P – 0.15P = 0.85P. Tax must be added to that amount, which gives us 0.08375 × 0.85P; therefore, C is the correct answer. Statement A cannot be the correct answer because the tax is not added on the discounted price. The amount in statement B is only the tax on the discounted item. Statement D gives the tax on the discounted item minus the 15% discount. 2. To measure temperature, the Celsius scale is used in the metric system, while the Fahrenheit scale is often used in the U.S. In the Celsius scale, water freezes at 0° and boils at 100°, compared, respectively, to 32° and 212° in the Fahrenheit scale. The relationship between the two scales is expressed by A. B. C. D.

C = 5 ^ F - 32 h 9 5 F = C + 32 9 F = 5 C - 32 9 C = 5 F + 32 9

The correct answer is A. On the Celsius scale there is a difference of 100 degrees between the freezing and boiling of water, as compared with a difference of 180 degrees (212 – 32) on the Fahrenheit scale. Thus, each degree on the Fahrenheit scale is 5/9, or 100/180 degrees, on the Celsius scale, but we must subtract 32 to adjust for the offset in the Fahrenheit scale because the freezing of water is at 0o in the Celsius scale versus 32° in the Fahrenheit scale. 3. David invested at the beginning of the year a certain amount of money: one half of his capital in the stock market, which yielded a negative return of 5%, and the other half in inflation index bonds with a return of 6.5% at the end of the year. His total investment income was $900. What was his initial capital? A. B. C. D.

$50,000 $60,000 $9,000 $120,000

The correct answer is D. Let x be David’s initial investment. The return from the stock market was - 1 ^.05x h , while the 2 bond investment yielded 1 ^ 6.5x h . The sum equals $900: 2 - 1 ^.05x h + 1 ^.065x h = 900 2 2 Solving for x: .0075x = 900, or x = $120,000.

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4. A new 2006 Ford Explorer costs $37,150. Due in part to the anticipated high gasoline prices, it is estimated that the car’s value will depreciate at a rate of $4,500 per year for the next five years. The car’s value after four years is A. B. C. D.

$19,150 $23,650 $14,650 $29,150

The correct answer is A. After the first year, the Explorer’s value will be $37,150 – $4500 = $32,650. After the second year, the value will be $32,650 – $4500 = $28,150. After the third year, the value will be $28,150 – $4500 = $23,650. After four years, the value will be $23,650 – $4500 = $19,150. 5. The statement “the sum of two different integers is 16, where the larger integer is three times the smaller one” can be expressed as which mathematical sentence with a solution? A. B. C. D.

4x = 16 x + 3x = 16 4x – x = 16 x + 3y = 16

The correct answer is B. Let x be the smaller number. The larger number, then, is 3x. Their sum is 3x + x, or 4x, and that is equal to 16, giving the value x = 4 for the smaller number and 12 for the larger number. 6. The area of a rectangle of length (l) and width (h) is l × h. The area of a parallelogram with height (h) and side (l) (the side that is perpendicular to the height) is also l × h because the parallelogram can be transformed into a rectangle of equal area. One can find the area of a trapezoid with height (h) and sides u and w (the sides that are perpendicular to the height) from the area of a parallelogram by combining two trapezoids to form a parallelogram. The area of a trapezoid then is A. B. C. D.

1 h u + wh 2 ^ h(u + w) 2h(u + w) h×u+w

The correct answer is A. When two trapezoids are joined together to form a parallelogram, the length of the side that is perpendicular to the height, h, would be u + w (i.e., the shorter side of the trapezoid plus the longer side); therefore, the area of that parallelogram is length (u + w) times the height, h, but that gives the area of two trapezoids. Dividing that expression by 2 gives us the correct answer in A.

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Objective 0011 Understands skills and concepts related to number and numeration and applies these concepts to real-world situations. The following topics are covered under the subject area of Objective 0011: ■ ■ ■ ■ ■

■ ■

Selecting the appropriate computational and operational method to solve given mathematical problems Demonstrating an understanding of the commutative, distributive, and associative properties Using ratios, proportions, and percents to model and solve problems Comparing and ordering fractions, decimals, and percents Solving problems using equivalent forms of numbers (e.g., integer, fraction, decimal, percent, exponential and scientific notation) and problems involving number theory (e.g. primes, factors, and multiples) Analyzing the number properties used in operational algorithms (e.g. multiplication, long division) Applying number properties to manipulate and simplify algebraic expressions

A number system is defined as a set of elements with binary operations such as addition and multiplication that satisfy certain conditions, as in the commutative and associative properties. The set of whole numbers consists of { 0, 1, 2, 3, . . .}; the set of integers includes the negative, as well as the positive, whole numbers {... –3, –2, –1, 0, 1, 2, 3, . . .}. When working with fractions, we are referring to the rational numbers. A number is rational if it can be written as a ratio of two integers, whereas an irrational number such as π cannot be expressed as such, or equivalently as a fraction or repeating decimal. A real number is any number that is either a rational or an irrational number. A numeration system is a language for expressing numbers. Our own base ten numeration system allows efficient computations and algorithms. The binary numeration system, which is used in computers, is based on the digits 0 and 1. Prime factorization is the fundamental theorem of arithmetic that states that every integer greater than 1 can be uniquely expressed as a product of primes, except for the order of the factors. To find the prime factorization of a composite number (a positive integer is composite if it has a positive divisor other than itself or 1), we first factor the integer into any two positive numbers. If both factors are prime, the problem is solved. If any of the factors are composite numbers, we continue factoring each composite number into two factors until every number in the factorization process is prime. For example, to find the prime factorization of 740, we first divide the number by 5 (the divisibility test tells us that an integer is divisible by 5 if its last digit is either 0 or 5): 740 = 5 × 148 Next, factoring 148 into 74 × 2, we get 740 = 5 × 2 × 74 Finally, factoring the remaining composite number 74 into 37 × 2, the prime factorization of 740 is achieved: 740 = 5 × 2 × 2 × 37

Commutative, Distributive, and Associative Properties The system of integers consists of the set I = {. . .–4, –3, –2, –1, 0, 1, 2, 3, . . .} with two defined binary operations of addition and multiplication having the below listed properties. For any integers, a, b, and c: a + b and a × b are unique integers a + b = b + a and a × b = b × a (a + b) + c = a + (b + c)

(closure property)

(commutative property) (associative property)

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(a × b) × c = a × (b × c) a × (b + c) = a × b + a × c (b + c) × a = b × a + c × a

(distributive property)

Consider the arithmetical properties employed when [(7 + 5) + 3] × 2 is transformed into (2 × 7) + (2 × 5 + 2 × 3) [(7 + 5) + 3] × 2 = 2 × [(7 + 5) + 3] (commutative property) = 2 × [7 + (5 + 3)] (associative property) = (2 × 7) + 2 × (5 + 3) (distributive property) = (2 × 7) + (2 × 5 + 2 × 3) (distributive property)

Ratios, Proportions, and Percents The word percent, which dates back to the fifteenth century, means per hundred. It is a fundamental tool used in everyday activities such as applying for a loan or mortgage, depositing funds into a savings account, or paying income, property, or sales tax. Percent can be viewed as a fraction with 100 as the denominator. To convert, for example, the decimal 0.019 into percent, we write it first as a fraction with a denominator of 100: 0.019 = 1.9 = 1.9% . To convert 3.6% to a decimal, however, we 100 divide that number by 100: 3.6 = 0.036 . 100 In some problems it is useful to set up a proportion: the ratio of numbers to the ratio of percents. For example, what percent of 80 is 5? We write the proportion 5 = x and then solve for x: 80x = 5 × 100, or x = 500 = 6.25% 80 100 80

Converting Decimals to Fractions One way to determine which of two given decimals is greater is to convert each to a fraction (i.e., a rational number) and examine the result. For example: 0.73 > 0.61 because 73 > 61 . 100 100 Note that as the denominator of a fraction increases while the numerator remains the same, the fraction gets smaller, as in the following: 17 < 17 < 17 < 17 20 21 22 23

Expressing Equivalent Forms of Numbers A number, x, can be written in scientific notation as x = an where 1 ≤ a < 10 and n is an integral exponent. For example, 7653.21 is written as 7.65321 × 103

72


Exponential notation is an abbreviation of mathematical symbols. For example, 7 × 7 × 7 × 7 = 74 More generally, an = a × a × a × a. . .. × a (n times) where a is referred to as the base and n is the exponent. When multiplying two numbers in exponential notation having the same base, you add the exponent, as follows: an × am = a × a × a × ( a . . . × a (n times) × a × a × a . . . × a (m times) = a × a × a × a . . . × a (n + m times) That is, an × am = a n + m. The following other properties hold for any numbers a and b, where a, b ≠ 0 and n and m are any exponents: (am)n = am × n (ab)n = an × bn a0 is defined as 1, and a1 = a.

The Division Algorithm The division algorithm states that for any whole numbers a and b, where b ≠ 0, there exist unique whole numbers q (quotient) and r (remainder) such that a = bq + r where 0 ≤ r < b If we name b as the divisor, q as the quotient, and a as the dividend, the theorem states that the dividend = divisor × quotient + remainder For example, if 149 is divided by a number and the remainder is 5, what are the possible divisors? From the division algorithm, we write 149 = bq + 5 and b > 5 using the operation of subtraction: bq = 149 – 5 = 144. Next, we look for two numbers whose product is 144, but one number must be greater than 5. From the list of the two factors of 144, we observe that 6 and 24 satisfy that condition, and 149 = 6 × 24 + 5

Simplifying Algebraic Expressions Ask someone to think of a number, then have him to do the following: add 12 to it and double the result. Subtract 4 and divide by 2 and, finally, subtract the original number from the result. The answer will always be 10. If we represent the original number by n, the procedure can be expressed as 2n + 24 - 4 - n 2 To see why the answer is always 10, simplify the expression 2n + 24 - 4 - n = 2n - 20 - n = 10 2 2

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Review Questions 1. The prime factorization of the composite number 920 is A. B. C. D.

2 × 2 × 2 × 5 × 23 4 × 2 × 5 × 23 2 × 2 × 5 × 46 All of the above

The correct answer is A. 920 = 10 × 92 = 2 × 5 × 92 = 2 × 5 × 2 × 46 = 2 × 5 × 2 × 2 × 23 B and C cannot be the right answers because 4 and 46 are not prime numbers. 2. The result of substituting n = 8 into the expression n2 – n + 41 yields a A. B. C. D.

composite number. rational number. irrational number. prime number.

The correct answer is D or B. Substituting n = 8 into n2 – n + 41, we get 82 – 8 + 41 = 64 – 8 + 41 = 97 but 97 is a prime number which is also a rational number. If you substitute n = 41 in the expression, however, the result would be 412 – 41 + 41 = 412 = 1681, but 1681 is a composite number because it is divisible by 41. 3. Identify the addition properties, in the proper order, that transform the following expression on the left into the one on the right: (9 + 3) + 5 = 3 + (5 + 9) A. B. C. D.

associative property, followed by the distributive property associative property, followed by the commutative property commutative property, followed by the associative property, and again the commutative property commutative property followed by the associative property

The correct answer is C.

(9 + 3) + 5 = 5 + (9 + 3)

4. What percent of 160 is 17? A. B. C. D.

74

17.25 27.2 2.72 10.625

commutative property

= (5 + 9) + 3

associative property

= 3 + (5 + 9)

commutative property


The correct answer is D. We set up the proportion of the ratio of numbers to the ratio of percents 17 = x 160 100 and solve for x: 1700 = 160x, or x = 1700 = 10.625% 160 5. Nancy’s bank charges 22% interest rate on credit card debts. Nancy went on a shopping spree in December and incurred a debt of $3500 on her Visa card. What is her balance two months later, assuming that the bank does not charge interest the first month in which the card is used? A. B. C. D.

$4270.00 $3630.50 $3564.17 $3577.00

The correct answer is C. The balance = $3500 (original amount) + interest on that amount for one month: = $3500 + ($3500 × 22% ÷ 12) = $3564.17 6. Simple interest is defined as the interest paid only on the initial (principle) amount at the end of a time period. A bank pays a simple interest of 5.8% annually on the initial principle deposited. How much money must one deposit if $9500 is needed at the end of 6 years? A. B. C. D.

$8950 $7048 $8930 $6042

The correct answer is B. Let p = principle (initial investment), c = future value, r = simple interest rate, and t = time in years. c = p + (prt) Factoring the p: c = p (1 + rt) $9500 = p(1 + 5.8%t) = p(1 + .058 × 6) = 1.348p Solving for p:

p=

$9500 = $7048 1.348

7. Each number in the sequence 11 , 13 , 15 , 17 , 19 , . . . is 12 14 16 18 20 A. smaller than the pervious number. B. the same as the previous number. C. greater than the previous number. D. smaller than the first number in that sequence. The correct answer is C. As the numerator increases by one and the denominator also by one, the fraction gets closer and closer to the number one.

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8. Which number in the below sequence is the largest? 2 , 6 , 35 , - 8 , 3 7 42 - 9

c2

A. B. C. D.

3 4m 3 -8 -9 6 7 35 42

c2

3 4m 3

c2

3 11 4 m c 4 m 11 = = , which is larger than 35 , 67 , and 8 . You can check that answer by The correct answer is A. 3 3 12 42 9 converting each fraction to a decimal to yield the equivalent sequence: 0.83, 0.86, 0.89, and 0.92. 9. The radius of the earth is six million, three hundred and eighty seven thousand meters. The numeral can be written in scientific notation as A. B. C. D.

6.387 × 106 6.387 × 107 6.387 × 105 63.870 × 106

The correct answer is A. The numeral representation of the radius of the earth is 6,387,000. To write it in scientific notation, we note that 1 < 6 < 10. Next, we identify (by counting) the powers of ten that 6 must be multiplied by. 10. Which is the correct answer to the below computation? [(12 × 108) × (3 × 10–2)] ÷ [4 × 106] A. B. C. D.

9 × 100 9 0.9 × 101 all of the above

The correct answer is D. The answers in A, B, and C are equivalent.

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11. If you write the numbers 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6 to make a three-digit number times a two-digit number, which placement of those numbers, from left to right, will yield the maximum product of the two numbers?

×

A. B. C. D.

Place 5, 4, 2 in the upper boxes and 6, 3 in the lower boxes. Place 6, 4, 3 in the upper boxes and 5, 2 in the lower boxes. Place 6, 5, 4 in the upper boxes and 3, 2 in the lower boxes. Place 4, 3, 2 in the upper boxes and 6, 5 in the lower boxes.

The correct answer is A. Examine placing the largest numbers, 6 and 5. By writing 5 in the 100 place value in the upper left hand box and 6 in the ten place value in the lower box, the maximum product is obtained. For example, 60 × 500 + 60 × 40 + 60 × 2 = 32,520. Choosing configuration B, however, would yield the product 50 × 600 + 50 × 40 + 50 × 3 = 32,150. 12. Solve the following for x.

A. B. C. D.

x = - 17 x = 67 x=-7 6 7 x= 6

1 x+ 1 = 5 x- 1 3 12 6 8

The correct answer is B. Multiplying both sides by the least common multiple (LCM) will yield an expression that does not involve fractions. Because the LCM of 3, 6, 8, and 12 is 24, 24 c 1 x + 1 m = 24 c 5 x - 1 m 3 8 12 6 8x + 4 = 15x - 2 7x = 6 x = 67

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Objective 0012 Understands patterns and applies the principles and properties of linear algebraic relations and functions. The following topics are covered under the subject area of Objective 0012: ■ Recognizing and describing mathematical relationships ■ Using a variety of representations (e.g., manipulatives, figures, numbers, and calculators) to recognize and extend patterns ■ Analyzing mathematical relationships and patterns using tables, verbal rules, equations, and graphs ■ Deriving an algebraic expression or function to represent a relationship or pattern from the physical or social world ■ Using algebraic functions to describe given graphs, plot points, and determine slopes ■ Performing algebraic operations to solve equations and inequalities ■ Analyzing how changing one variable changes the other variable for linear and nonlinear functions

Describing Mathematical Relationships A function is a relationship between two quantities. For example, the area of a circle is proportional to its radius. The relationship can be described with words, formula, graph, or table. In a restaurant, for example, a tip is based on the cost of the meal, usually 15% of the bill. This relationship can be expressed by the formula: T = 0.15M where T represents the tip, and M the meal. In case of a circle, the formula that relates the area to the radius is given by: A = πr2 where A is the area and r the radius of the circle. The table that follows gives the cost of a taxi ride in terms of the distance traveled. Distance

1

2

3

4

5

6

Cost in $

2.25

4

5.75

7.5

9.25

11

The data shows that after the first mile, which costs $2.25, each additional mile costs an extra $1.75, as determined by taking the difference of two successive intervals: 11 – 9.25 = 9.25 – 7.5 = 7.5 – 5.75, etc. To describe the relationship between the distance traveled and the cost, however, we must account for the first mile, which is $0.5 more than $1.75. In other words, the driver automatically charges $0.5 before going anywhere. This relationship can be written as C = 0.5 + 1.75 × d where C is the cost in dollars and d the distance in miles.

Representing Patterns The following figure shows an enlargement of squares consisting of 1, 4, 9, and 16 individual blocks.

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The next enlargement would consist of 25 blocks achieved by adding an extra row and a column to the previous square. This representation serves to extend the pattern known as square numbers: 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, 49, 64, . . .

Analyzing Patterns and Relationships A baseball is thrown in the air, where its velocity, v, is a linear function of time, t, as shown in the table below. Time (sec)

0

1

2

3

4

5

Velocity (ft/sec)

95

63

31

–1

–33

–65

We can find the relationship between the velocity and time from the equation of a linear function: v = mt + b, where m is the rate of change of the velocity with respect to time and b represents the initial velocity. Because the velocity is ^ 63 - 95h linear, m = = - 32 , and b = 95 (at time t = 0). With these values, the equation becomes ^1 - 0 h v = 95 – 32t

Deriving Algebraic Expressions A linear function is associated with the general equation of a straight line: y = mx + b where b is the initial value and m is the slope or rate of change. In a linear function, the rates of change over every interval in the data are the same, and the graphs are always straight lines.

Algebraic Functions If the graph of a function is a straight line, then the function is linear. In contrast, the graph of a quadratic function is a parabola. The standard form of a quadratic function is y = ax2 + bx + c where a, b, and c are constants and a ≠ 0. For example, a parabola having its vertex at the origin is described by the familiar equation y = x2

Performing Algebraic Operations Many simple equations and inequalities can be solved mentally. For example, if x–4>0 we can conclude that the left-hand side is positive whenever x is larger than 4.

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In solving inequalities we often apply the following rules: For any real numbers, a, b, and c, If a < b, then a + c < b + c If c > 0, then a × c < b × c If c < 0, then a × c > b × c If a < b and a and b are positive, then 1/a > 1/b and a2 < b2

Changing Variables The graph of the equation y = x is a straight line from the origin. When you change the sign of x to –x, the graph is reflected along the y axis. y = −x

y

y=x

x

Review Questions 1. An American tourist in Europe exchanges $850 for 726.50 Euros and $180 for 100 British Pounds. What is the exchange rate between the British Pounds and the Euros? A. B. C. D.

One Pound = 3.54 Euros One Pound = 1.54 Euros One Pound = 2.54 Euros One Pound = 4 Euros

The correct answer is B. If 100 British Pounds equals $180, then one dollar is 100 = 10 of a British Pound. Next, we 180 18 convert the $850 to pounds: 850 # 10 = 472.2 Pounds, which is equal to 726.50 Euros; therefore, one British Pound = 18 726.50 ÷ 472.2 = 1.54 Euros. 2. An electric power company charges twenty-three dollars and fifty cents a month plus 9.25 cents per kilowatthour used. The formula for the monthly cost in dollars as a function of W, kilowatt-hours, used is given by A. B. C. D.

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C = 23.50 + 9.25W C = 23.50 + 92.5W C = 23.50 + .0925W C = 23.50 + 0.925W


The correct answer is C. The cost, C, is the monthly charge plus power charge times the amount of W, kilowatt-hours used: C = $23.50 + $0.0925 × W. Note that 9.25 cents is converted to $0.0925 because the answer is to be given in dollars. 3. The number of blocks in the triangles below are known as triangular numbers.

The pattern that governs the triangular numbers is given by the sequence A. B. C. D.

1, 3, 6, 10, 15, 21, 28, 36, 45, . . . 1, 3, 6, 10, 14, 19, 25, 32, 40, . . . 1, 3, 6, 10, 15, 23, 33, 45, . . . 1, 3, 6, 12, 19, 29, 40, 41, . . .

The correct answer is A. Each successive triangle is obtained from the previous one by adding a new column to the right, having one more block than the column of the previous triangle; therefore, the next triangle would consist of 15 blocks because the previous column has four blocks, and the following triangle would have 21 blocks, etc. 4. The sequence for n = 1, 2, 3, 4, . . . in question 3 can be represented by which expression? A. B. C. D.

n ^ n + 2h 3 n ^ n + 1h 2 2n + 5 n(n – 1)3

The correct answer is B. For n = 1, the expression

n ^ n + 1h n ^ n + 1h 2 ^ 2 + 1h = 1. For n = 2, = = 3. 2 2 2

3 ^ 3 + 1h = 6 ; therefore, the expression fits the sequence for all values of n. It also gives the sum of For n = 3, we have 2 the first n counting numbers. For example, 10 ^10 + 1h = 55 . 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 + 6 + 7 + 8 + 9 + 10 = 2 5. An arithmetical progression is given by a, a + d, a + 2d, a + 3d, . . . a + (n – 1)d where a is the first term, d is the difference between two successive terms, and a + (n – 1)d, the nth term. If the 4th term is 14, and the 7th term 23, the 15th term is A. B. C. D.

32 47 58 42

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The correct answer is B. We must find the difference between two successive terms. Because the 4th term is 14 and the 7th is 23, 23 – 14 = 9, which represents the sum of differences of 3 terms (7th term – 4th term). Because the difference between any 2 successive terms is the same, d = 9 ÷ 3 = 3. From this, we can find the 15th term by adding to 23 (the 7th term) the difference of 8 terms, which is 8 × 3, or 24, giving the value of 23 + 8 × 3 = 47 6. After Hurricane Katrina, the price of gasoline has increased dramatically. Before the hurricane, with gas at a price of $2.20 a gallon, the average weekly need of drivers was 58 gallons. When the price went up to $2.95 a gallon, the weekly demand dropped to 49 gallons. Assuming the demand, D, is linear, the formula for the relationship between demand, D, and price, P, is A. B. C. D.

D = 75 – 2.20P D = 84.4 – 12P D = 58 – 2.95P P = 48 – 2.95D

The correct answer is B. We need to find the slope, m, to derive the linear function D = mP + b, where D represents the demand and P, the price. The slope is the ratio of change in gasoline demand divided by the change in price: m=

^ 49 - 58h = -12 ^ 2.95 - 2.20 h

Note that when D = 58, p = 2.20. The equation becomes D = 58 – 12(p – 2.20) Simplifying it, we get D = 84.4 – 12p 7. The solution to the inequality 3 - c 9 m x # 21 is 2 A. x = 4 B. x < 4 C. x ≥ –4 D. x ≤ 4 3 - c 9 m x - 3 # 21 - 3 2 - c 9 m x # 18 The correct answer is C. Subtracting 3 from both sides, (multiplying by a negative constant 2 changes the direction of the inequality sign) - 2 c - 9x m $ - 2 # 18 9 2 9 x $ -4 8. The solution to the inequality A. B. C. D.

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x>6 x < 6, but x ≠ 3 x=9 x=6

9 > x is ^6 - x h


The correct answer is B. Subtracting x from both sides, we get 9 -x>0 ^6 - x h Next, we multiply x by (6 – x)/(6 – x), which is equivalent to multiplying it by 1: ^6 - x h 9 -x >0 ^6 - x h ^6 - x h

8 9 - x ^6 - x hB >0 ^6 - x h _ 9 - 6x + x 2 i >0 ^6 - x h

The numerator and denominator must have the same sign for the quotient to be positive. Factoring the numerator, the inequality becomes 2 ^ x - 3h >0 ^6 - x h The numerator is always positive because the expression in parenthesis is squared; therefore, the denominator is 6 – x > 0, or x < 6. When x = 3, the numerator is zero. To preserve the inequality, x = 3 must be excluded from the solution. The answer then is x < 6, but x ≠ 3. 9. The graph of a parabola whose vertex is at the origin is given by y = x2. If you replace x with x – 2, the parabola A. B. C. D.

shifts to the right by 2 units. shifts to the left by 2 units. shifts upward by 2 units. shifts downward by 2 units.

The correct answer is A. Replacing x with x – 2, we get the equation y = (x – 2)2. Taking various points of x and computing the corresponding values for y shows a shift of the parabola along the x-axis by two units to the right. Replacing x by x + 2, however, will result in the shift being two units from the origin to the left. If we add 2 to x2, the parabola will shift upward by 2 units. Similarly, if we subtract 2 from x2, the shift will be downward.

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Objective 013 Understands the principles and properties of geometry and trigonometry and applies them to model and solve problems. The following topics are covered under the subject area of Objective 0013: ■ Identifing relationships among two- and three-dimensional geometric shapes ■ Applying knowledge of basic geometric figures to solve real-world problems involving more complex patterns (e.g., area and perimeter of composite figures) ■ Applying the concepts of similarity and congruence to model and solve problems ■ Applying inductive and deductive reasoning to solve problems in geometry ■ Using coordinate geometry to represent and analyze properties of geometric figures ■ Applying transformations (e.g., reflections, rotations, and dilations) and symmetry to analyze properties of geometric figures The word geometry means earth measurement, and the word trigonometry means triangle measurement. The ancient Greeks developed Euclidean geometry as an abstract mathematical system based on postulates; the most famous one is the parallel postulate, which refers to the notion that parallel lines do not intersect. The statement became an object of intense study for two thousand years, and in the process of trying to prove it, non-Euclidean geometries were discovered. In the fourth century BC, the Greek mathematician Eudoxus used trigonometry to successfully calculate the radius of the earth.

Two- and Three-Dimensional Shapes From the area of a rectangle having sides a and b, one can derive the area of a right triangle by splitting the rectangle into two congruent triangles. Because the area of the rectangle is a × b, it follows that the area of a right triangle is 1 a # b . 2 b

a

Similarly, from the area of an isosceles triangle, which is one half the base times the height, we can derive the area of a regular hexagon having sides of length l. If you draw a line from the center to each of the vertices, you can partition the hexagon into six congruent isosceles triangles. Let h = the perpendicular line from the center to the side l. Because the area of an isosceles triangle is 1 lh 2 and there are six triangles, the area of the hexagon is 6 # 1 lh = 3lh . 2 Three-dimensional shapes can be constructed from congruent regular polygons: a cube is constructed from six squares, a tetrahedron from four equilateral triangles, and a dodecahedron from 12 regular pentagons.

Using Basic Geometric Figures to Solve Problems An equilateral triangle has three sides of equal length and three congruent angles. An isosceles triangle has two sides of equal length and two congruent angles. In a scalene triangle, no two sides are of the same length. A parallelogram is a

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quadrilateral: both pairs of opposite sides are parallel. A trapezoid is a quadrilateral having only one pair of opposite sides parallel. A rectangle is a parallelogram with a right angle (which implies that all four angles are right angles). A rhombus is a parallelogram with all sides being equal. The geoboard is a dynamic tool for the teaching of elementary geometry. It is a square board with five rows; each row has five pins, as shown below. In other words, the geoboard is a lattice board.

The area inside the square joining four neighboring pins is defined as one unit of area. We can develop a pattern for finding the area of any polygon on the lattice board (or the standard geoboard) by simply counting the number of pegs on the perimeter and the number of pegs on the inside. Begin first by generating polygons having no pegs on the inside and make a table of the number of area units of each polygon versus the number of pins on the perimeter, as shown here. area

1

2

3

4

1.5

pins on the perimeter

4

6

8

10

3

The table reveals the relationship between the area and the number of pins on the perimeter when there are no pins on the inside to be area = (number of pins ÷ 2) – 1. We proceed next to generate polygons with pins on the inside and then search for the relationship between area, number of pins on the inside, and number of pins on the perimeter, as shown in the following table. area

4

6

8

10

4.5

pins on the perimeter

8

10

12

14

9

pins on the inside

1

2

3

4

1

Examining this data and using the information developed above when no pins are on the inside, the following relationship becomes evident: Area of a polygon = number of pins on the perimeter divided by 2, minus 1, plus the number of pins on the inside

Similarity and Congruence Congruent figures have the same size and shape, whereas similar figures have the same shape but not necessarily the same size. Two triangles are similar if the corresponding angles are congruent or if the ratios of the corresponding sides are equal. The triangles below are similar but not congruent.

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Consider the problem of finding the height of a flagpole from the shadow it casts. If you place a one-meter stick nearby and that stick, for example, casts a shadow of 2 meters and the pole casts a shadow of 10 meters, then through similar triangles, the height of the pole can be determined from the ratios of corresponding sides: x = 1 , or 2x = 10, and x = 5 meters 10 2

1

1

x

10

2

Inductive and Deductive Reasoning Some polygons or shapes can be placed side-by-side in such a way as to cover a flat surface, leaving no gaps or overlaps. The process is referred to as tessellation, or, simply, tiling. When tiling with only one shape, and if that shape is a regular polygon, the tiling or tessellation is called regular tessellation. Observe tessellation in which four squares meet at each vertex. The total number of angles, and therefore of squares, meeting at each vertex is 360 (the angle measure of a point) divided by 90 (the interior angle of a square.) Similarly, three hexagons meet at each vertex in a hexagonal tessellation. The total number of angles, and therefore of hexagons meeting at every vertex, is 360 divided by 120 (the interior angle of a hexagon), which is equal to three. The same procedure is followed by the equilateral triangle tessellation, in which six triangles meet at each vertex—a result obtained by dividing 360 by 60.This would lead to the generalization that for any regular polygon with n sides, the number of polygons of the same type having n sides that meet at a vertex is 360 360 180 ^ n - 2 h divided by the interior angle of that polygon (i.e., ). Simplifying this expression yields 2n = 2 + 4 n n-2 ^ n - 2h through long division. 4 a whole integer. n-2 (n = 1 and n = 2 are excluded because there are no polygons with one or two sides.) When n = 3, the expression yields 6, implying that equilateral triangles tessellate the plane, and the number of triangles meeting at each vertex is 6. When n = 4, the experimental result of squares tessellating the plane is verified with four squares meeting at each vertex. When n = 5, the expression yields 3 1 rd: it would take three and one-third regular pentagons to meet at each vertex for 3 the plane to be completely covered. Next, we search for values of n greater than or equal to 3, which would render the expression 2 +

Proceeding to n = 6, the expression yields 3, which corresponds to the hexagonal pattern, as seen in a honeycomb. Finally, you can see that substituting any number greater than 6 in the expression will result in the number 2 plus a fraction; thus, through inductive and deductive reasoning, we came up with the conclusion that there are only three possibilities for regular tessellation: with the square, the triangle and the hexagon.

Coordinate Geometry When the x-axis and the y-axis cross at a right angle, the point of intersection is referred to as the origin, which is represented by the pair of numbers (0,0). The ordered pair is called a coordinate (in two dimensions). The coordinate (3,5), for example, is drawn by moving, from the origin, 3 units to the right and then 5 units up. Note that (3,5) is not equal to (5,3), because the order is important. The coordinate (–2, –3) is drawn by moving from the origin 2 units to the left and then 3 units down. The system is called the Cartesian coordinate system, as it is named after the French mathematician Rene Descartes.

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Transformations and Symmetry A transformation is a recipe for moving things around. A transformation of the plane is a one-to-one mapping on a set of points. A common transformation maps the points of the plane onto themselves in a way that keeps all lengths the same. These transformations are called isometries. There are four planar isometries: translations, rotations, reflections, and glide reflections. ■

■ ■

■

Translation: Slides all the points in the plane the same distance in the same direction. You can slide a repeating pattern along a certain distance, and it will fall back upon itself with all the patterns exactly matching. This symmetry is translation. Rotation: Turns all the point in the plane at some angle around a fixed point, called the center of rotation. Reflection: Flips all the points in a plane over a line. In other words, reflection fixes one line in the plane, which is called the axis of reflection, and exchanges points on one side of the axis with points on the other side of the axis at the same distance from that axis. Glide reflection: Is composed of reflection across an axis and a translation along the axis. In other words, glide reflection translates the plane and then reflects across a mirror parallel to the direction of translation.

Review Questions 1. The area of a regular polygon having n sides, where the length of each side is represented by l and the perpendicular distance from the center to the side by h is A. 1 nlh 2 B. (n + 1)lh C. (n – 1)(l + h) D. 6n(l + h) The correct answer is A. Similar to partitioning the hexagon, a regular polygon with n sides is partitioned into n isosceles triangles. Because the area of each triangle is 1 lh and there are n triangles, the total area of the polygon is n # 1 lh . 2 2 2. The length of the long side of the following figure is given by a, and the short side by b. The perimeter and the area of the figure is given by which answer?

A. B. C. D.

perimeter = 4a + 8b; area = 4ab perimeter = 4b + 8a; area = 8ab perimeter = 4b + 8a; area = 8ab perimeter = 4a + 8b; area = 4ab + a2

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The correct answer is D. There are 8 short sides on the perimeter, each having a length of b, and 4 long sides of length a. The perimeter, therefore, is 4a + 8b. To find the area, partition the figure into four rectangles of sides a and b, and one square of side a. The total area, then, is the area of the rectangles plus the area of the square, which is 4ab + a2. 3. Two parking lots, one circular and the other square in shape, have perimeters of the same length. The area(s) of A. B. C. D.

both lots are identical. the circular lot is greater than that of the square lot. the square lot is greater than that of the circular lot. insufficient evidence to conclude.

The correct answer is B. If a triangle and a square have the same perimeter, the areas will be different. The area of the square would be greater than that of the triangle. As the number of sides increases while the perimeter remains the same, the area becomes larger. Any polygon having the same perimeter as a circle will have an area less than that of the circle. 4. A rider on a bicycle with tires having a radius of 20 cm travels a distance of 5 kilometers. How many turns does the wheel make? A. B. C. D.

12500 π 5000 π 12500π 5000 π2

The correct answer is A. The circumference of a circle is given by 2πr. The radius is 20 cm, which is 20 , or 0.2 meters. 100 The distance traveled, which is 5 km, or 5000 meters, divided by the circumference of the wheel will give the number of turns: 5000 m = 12500 π 0.4π 5. A square pyramid consists of a square at the base and four isosceles triangles that form its lateral faces and meet at the vertex. If the sides of the square are 5 meters long and the length of the perpendicular distance from the vertex to the base is 7 meters, the total surface area of the pyramid is A. B. C. D.

85 square meters. 95 square meters. 105 square meters. 125 square meters.

The correct answer is B. The area of each isosceles triangle is 1 5 # 7 , and the area of the square = 5 × 5; therefore, the 2 total surface area is 4 # 35 + 25 , or 95 square meters. 2

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6. A vertex is defined as the point where two or more shapes meet. An edge is a line (it does not have to be straight) that joins two vertices. For example, consider the arrangement that follows:

There are five vertices, four polygons, and eight edges. There is a relationship between the number of polygons, vertices, and edges not only here but in any tessellation pattern. Based on this information, in a tiling pattern with five polygons and four vertices, how many edges are there? A. B. C. D.

8 10 9 11

The correct answer is A. You can determine the relationship by inductive reasoning. Consider a number of tessellation patterns and calculate in each the number of polygons, vertices and edges. Make a table and then examine the relationship between those numbers. You will discover that the number of polygons + the number of vertices = the number of edges plus one. 7. If the three coordinates of a parallelogram are (1,0), (5,3), and (–5,0), the fourth coordinate is A. B. C. D.

(–5,3). (–1,3). (1,3). (–3,–1).

The correct answer is B. First, draw the three coordinates on the Cartesian system: from the origin, one unit to the right, five to the right and three up, and five to the left. Join those points with a straight line, and then remembering from the property of a parallelogram that two sets of lines are parallel, draw the fourth line, which meets at the coordinate (–1,3). 8. Figure A shows a translation of the triangle to the right. Figure A

Figure B

Figure B is a transformation of Figure A of A. B. C. D.

glide reflection. rotation. reflection. translation.

The correct answer is C. All the points in Figure A are flipped over the horizontal line.

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9. Symmetry of an object is a transformation that leaves the appearance of that object unchanged. The collection of all the symmetries (rotations, reflections, translations, and glide reflections) is called the symmetry group of that object. The symmetry group of a square consists of A. B. C. D.

four rotations only. four reflections only. two reflections and two rotations. four rotations and four reflections.

The correct answer is D. When a square is rotated 90 degrees, 180 degrees, 270 degrees, and 360 degrees, its appearance does not change. Furthermore, when reflected along the two diagonals and along the horizontal and vertical axes through the center, its appearance does not change. 10. The function f ^ x h = 1x is symmetric about A. x-axis. B. y-axis. C. the origin. D. both the x- and y-axes. The correct answer is C. Make a table for various values of x and compute the corresponding values for y, then plot the points. You will notice that the graph is symmetric along the origin. This is also confirmed when you substitute x with –x in the function: f ^ - x h = -1x = - f ^ x h .

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Objective 0014 Understands concepts, principles, skills, and procedures related to the English and metric systems of measurement. The following topics are covered under the subject area of Objective 0014: ■ Demonstrating knowledge of fundamental units of English and metric measurement ■ Selecting the appropriate unit to express measures of length, area, capacity, weight, volume, time, temperature, and angle ■ Estimating and converting measurements using standard and nonstandard measurement units within the English and metric systems ■ Developing and using formulas to determine the perimeter and area of two-dimensional shapes and the surface area and volume of three-dimensional shapes ■ Solving measurement problems involving derived measurements (e.g., velocity and density) ■ Applying the Pythagorean theorem and right triangle trigonometry to solve measurement problems The ancient Babylonians, Egyptians, and Romans used parts of the body as units of measurement. In England, King Henry I mandated that the distance from the tip of the nose to the end of the thumb is one yard. Later on, that system became more precise as it developed into the standard English system of measurement that is used today in the United States. We usually use miles to measure distance, pints to measure volume, and pounds for determining weights. In the 1790s, French scientists introduced the metric system—a more convenient and easier method of measurement based on decimals. It is used throughout the world today, particularly in all branches of science.

Units of Measurement The metric system is based on prefixes to basic units of length, weight, area, and volume. The prefixes are in the table below. prefix

mega

kilo

hecto

deca

deci

centi

milli

micro

value

million

thousand

hundred

ten

tenth

hundredth

thousandth

millionth

decimal

106

103

102

101

10–1

10–2

10–3

10–6

The international metric system unit for measuring length is the meter. One kilometer is one thousand meters; one centimeter is one hundredth of a meter; one millimeter, one thousandth of a meter; and one micrometer, one millionth of a meter. The unit for mass is the gram. One kilogram is one thousand grams, and one milligram is one thousandth of a gram. The unit for volume or capacity is the liter. One liter is one thousand milliliters. In the English system, which is primarily used in the United States, we have One pound (lb) = 16 ounces (oz), 1 foot (ft) = 12 inches (in), 1 yard (yd) = 3 feet, 1 mile (mi) = 5280 feet, 1 gallon (gal) = 4 quarts (qt), and 1 pint (pt) = 2 cups (c).

Using the Correct Unit of Measurement Area in the metric system is measured in square meters (written as m2), square centimeters (cm2), square millimeters (mm2), square kilometers (km2), or hectares. Area conversions are listed here. 1 km2 = 1 km × 1 km = 1000 m × 1000 m = 1,000,000 m2 = 106 m2 1 cm2 = 1 cm × 1 cm = 10–2 m × 10–2 m = 10–4 m2 1 mm2 = 1 mm × 1 mm = 10–3 m × 10–3 m = 10–6 m2 One hectare is defined as 10,000 m2

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In the English system, 1 ft2 = 1 ft × 1 ft = 12 in × 12 in = 144 in2 1 yd2 = 1 yd × 1 yd = 3 ft × 3 ft = 9 ft2 Temperature in the metric system is measured in degrees Celsius, versus degrees Fahrenheit in the English system. The conversion between the two systems is Cc = 5 ^ Fc - 32 h 9 Angles are measured in either degrees or radians. One radian is the angle measured in counterclockwise direction at the center of a circle having a radius of one, and that angle spans an arc of length one. Because the circumference of a circle c with a radius of one is given by 2πr = 2π × 1 = 2π, and that is equivalent to 360°, one radian = 360c = 180 π . 2π

English and Metric Conversions The following table provides conversions between metric and English units. English

1 inch

1 mile

1 quart

1 pound

1 ounce

1 tablespoon

metric

2.54 cm

1.61 km

0.946 l

0.454 kg

18.35 g

14.79 ml

In some instances, conversion within the metric or English system is required. For example, how many liters are there in four cubic meters? To perform this conversion, note that 1 milliliter = 1 cubic centimeter; 1 cubic meter = 1 meter × 1 meter × 1 meter = 100 cm × 100 cm × 100 cm = 106 cm3. Therefore, 4 m3 = 4 × 106 cm3 = 4 × 106 ml = 4000 l In the English system, to find out how many cubic inches are in one cubic yard we use a similar procedure: 1 yd3 = 1 yd × 1 yd × 1 yd = 3 ft × 3ft × 3ft = 27 ft3 Then we convert one cubic foot into cubic inches: 1 ft3 = 12 in × 12 in × 12 in = 1728 in3. Thus, one cubic yard = 27 × 1728 = 46656 in3.

Determining Area and Volume The surface area of a cylinder of radius r and height h can be derived by adding the area of the two bases and the area of the face. The area of each base is the same as the area of the circle of radius r (πr2), and the area of the face is the circumference of the same circle times the height (2πrh). Thus, the surface area, A, of the cylinder is A = 2πrh + 2πr2 The volume of that cylinder is obtained by multiplying the area of the base times the height: V = πr2h

Derived Measurements When we talk about how much mass there is in a unit of volume, we are referring to density. The density of an object is defined as the quantity of a property such as mass per unit of measure (e.g., length, area, or volume).

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The rate of change is defined as change in one quantity divided by the change in another quantity. Average speed is the change in distance divided by the change in time. For example, a vehicle travels on a thruway a distance of 140 miles in 2 hours. The average speed is then 140 divided by 2 = 70 miles per hour.

The Pythagorean Theorem There is a relationship between trigonometric functions and right triangles. For angle θ in a right triangle, the relationships are listed here. opposite sin θ = =a hypotenuse c adjacent =b hypotenuse c opposite a tan θ = = adjacent b

cos θ =

c a

θ b

Consider the triangle below. θ c 5 θ 10

To find the value of c, we use the Pythagorean theorem: c2 = 52 + 102 = 125, or c = 125 = 11.18. To find sin θ, we divide 5 by 11.18 = 0.42; or to find the cos θ, we divide 10 by 11.18 = 0.89.

Review Questions 1. 32550 milligrams is equivalent to how many grams? A. B. C. D.

32.55 325.50 3.2550 0.03255

The correct answer is A. Because 1 milligram is one thousandth of a gram, 32550 ÷ 1000 = 32.550 grams.

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2. What is the sum of 120 m + 3.5 km + 10,000 mm? A. B. C. D.

363 m 36.3 km 3.63 × 106 mm 3.63 × 105 cm

The correct answer is D. If we convert the measurements to meters first, we get: 10,000 mm =

10,000 = 10 m; 3.5 km = 3.5 × 1000 = 3500 m. 1, 000

Thus the total sum in meters is 3500 + 10 + 120 = 3630, but this is not one of the answers, so we must convert it to cm: 3630 × 100 = 363000 cm = 3.63 × 105 cm. 3. Measured in degrees Celsius, a comfortable temperature in a vehicle is A. B. C. D.

30 degrees. 20 degrees. 40 degrees. 50 degrees.

The correct answer is B. 68 degrees Fahrenheit is usually considered a comfortable temperature. Converting it to Celsius, we get Cc = 5 ^ 68 - 32 h = 20 degrees. 9 30 degrees Celsius can be converted into Fahrenheit using the formula 9 Cc + 32 = Fc 9 ^ 30 h + 32 = 86 degrees 5 5 Fahrenheit. Any temperature equal to or above 86 degrees is not considered ideal. 4. The fuel efficiency of an automobile is measured in A. B. C. D.

gallons. liters. cubic centimeters. kilometers per liter.

The correct answer is D. Fuel efficiency of a vehicle is measured in terms of amount of gasoline consumed in covering a certain distance. If it takes 4 liters, for example, to drive a distance of 120 kilometers, then the fuel efficiency of that vehicle is 120 km = 30 km . 4 liters liter 5. The fuel efficiency of vehicle A is given as 30.0 mi/gal, and that of vehicle B as 12.685 km/l. Which vehicle is more fuel efficient? A. B. C. D.

Vehicle A Vehicle B Both are equal Unable to determine from the data

The correct answer is C. Because 1 gal = 4 qt and 1 qt = 0.946 l, 1 gal = 4 × 0.946 l = 3.784 l. 30 miles is equivalent to 30 × 1.61 km = 48.3 km. Using this conversion, the efficiency of vehicle A becomes 48.3 km per 3.784 l = 12.685, but that is the same as vehicle B.

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6. A regular right pyramid consists of a square at the base and four isosceles triangles that meet at the vertex. If the side of the base is 6 m long and the height of each triangle is 15 m, the total surface area of the pyramid is A. B. C. D.

216 m2 198 m2 180 m2 81 m2

The correct answer is A. The area of the base of the pyramid, which is a square, is equal to 6× 6 = 36 m2. The area of each triangle 1 6 # 15 = 45 square meters; thus, the total area is 36 + 4 × 45 = 216 square meters. 2 7. Given a sphere with a radius of 10 cm, a cube whose edge is also 10 cm, and a cylinder with a radius of 10 cm and height of 5 cm, which solid has the least volume? A. B. C. D.

they all have the same volume the sphere the cube the cylinder

The correct answer is C. The volume of a cube of side s is s3. In this case, it is 10 × 10 × 10 = 1000 cm3. The volume of a sphere is given by c 4 m πr 3 = c 4 m π103 = 4189 cm3. The volume of the cylinder = πr2h = π102(5) = 1570.80 cm3. 3 3 8. The surface area of a sphere with radius r is given by 4πr2, and its volume by c 4 m πr 3 . What is the radius of a 3 sphere that has the same numerical value for the volume as for the surface area? A. B. C. D.

2 3 4 It is not possible to have volume = surface area

The correct answer is B. We set the two quantities equal to each other and solve for r: 4πr 2 = c 4 m πr 3 3 3r 2 = r 3 r=3 9. What is the perimeter of the below triangle?

c

3

A. B. C. D.

d

4

9

24.85 58.85 144.85 26.85

The correct answer is D. Applying the Pythagorean theorem to the left triangle, we get c2 = 32 + 42 = 25, or c = 5. For the triangle on the right, d2 = 42 + 92 = 97, or d = 9.85; therefore, the perimeter is 3 + 9 + 5 + 9.85 = 26.85.

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Objective 0015 Understands concepts and skills related to data analysis, probability, and statistics and applies this understanding to evaluate and interpret data and to solve problems. The following topics are covered under the subject area of Objective 0015: ■ Demonstrating the ability to collect, organize, and analyze data using appropriate graphic and non-graphic representations ■ Displaying and interpreting data in a variety of formats (e.g., frequency histograms, tables, pie charts, box-andwhisker plots, stem-and-leaf plots, and scatterplots) ■ Computing probabilities using a variety of methods (e.g., ratio and proportion, tree diagrams, tables of data, and area models) ■ Using simulations (e.g., spinners, multisided dice, and random number generators) to estimate probabilities ■ Applying measures of central tendency (mean, median, and mode) and spread (e.g., range, percentiles, and variance) to analyze data in graphic or non-graphic form ■ Formulating and designs statistical experiments to collect, analyze, and interpret data ■ Identifing patterns and trends in data and makes predictions based on those trends Taking a chance is an essential part of human activities, whether we go to Atlantic City, Las Vegas, or Monte Carlo (although the odds are always stacked against the player) or take a life insurance policy on ourselves or someone else. Activities with games of chance date back to primeval times. The ancient Egyptians and Babylonians were rolling dice as early as 2000 BC, and Chinese and Europeans were playing with cards around the tenth century. Today, dice and cards are the main tools for legal and illegal gambling. The first significant treatise on probability was written by the Italian mathematician and physician Geralemo Cardano (1501–1576) and published posthumously in 1663 with the title “Book on Games of Chance.” Cardano was successful in gambling because of his ability to calculate chances of winning and bet accordingly. This led him to formulate the laws of probability. Other major contributions of the seventeenth century were made by Blaise Pascal (1623–1662), Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (1646–1716), and Jacques Bernouli (1654–1705). Collecting, organizing and analyzing data are essential activities in making decisions and predictions. We encounter a variety of statistics in daily life: in the consumer price index, stock market fluctuations, and test scores. It is important to interpret data correctly, to understand polls and surveys, and to determine whether errors have been inadvertently or deliberately introduced in arriving at conclusions of statistical studies.

Organizing Data We organize data into tables and charts to make sense of their distribution (e.g., the number of occurrences of an item). This is the familiar frequency distribution. When we divide frequencies by the total number in the data, we obtain the relative frequency distributions. Consider for example, the number of children the 42 U.S. presidents have had. We calculate the frequency and relative frequency distributions in the table below. Number of presidents

frequency

relative frequency

with no children

6

0.1429

with one child

2

0.0476

with two children

9

0.2143

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Number of presidents

frequency

relative frequency

with three children

6

0.1429

with four children

7

0.1667

with five children

3

0.0714

with six children

5

0.1191

with seven children

1

0.0238

with eight children

1

0.0238

with ten children

1

0.0238

with fourteen children

1

0.0238

The numbers in the frequency column add up to 42 to correspond with the number of U.S. presidents. The relative frequencies are obtained by dividing each frequency by 42. We can illustrate the frequencies or the relative frequencies with a bar graph: bars above the horizontal axis of presidents’ categories in terms of the number of children. The height of each bar corresponds to the frequency or relative frequency, as shown below. 10 9 8 7 6

relative frequency

5

frequency

4 3 2

with fourteen children

with eight children

with six children

with four children

with two children

0

with no children

1

Displaying Data in Various Visual Formats A special type of bar graph is the histogram, in which data are grouped in intervals and no gaps exist between the bars. A pie chart is a circle partitioned into pieces that are proportional to the frequencies or relative frequencies examined. The angle for each section is obtained by multiplying the relative frequency by 360 degrees. The easiest way to draw pie charts is to use a spreadsheet. The above data is represented by the pie chart that follows.

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with no children

frequency

with one child with two children with three children with four children with five children with six children with seven children with eight children with ten children with fourteen children

Computing Probabilities Consider a pair of dice, blue and red; each die is unbiased, which means that each of the six faces has an equal chance of turning up. The list of all possible outcomes for the roll of two dice—referred to as the sample space—is given in the table that follows. An event is a subset of the sample space. 1,1 1,2 1,3 1,4 1,5 1,6 2,1 2,2 2,3 2,4 2,5 2,6 B 3,1 3,2 3,3 3,4 3,5 3,6

L

4,1 4,2 4,3 4,4 4,5 4,6 U 5,1 5,2 5,3 5,4 5,5 5,6

E

6,1 6,2 6,3 6,4 6,5 6,6 R

E

D

Note that the appearance of 3 and 4, for example, on the two dice can occur in two different ways: 3 on the red and 4 on the blue or 4 on the red and 3 on the blue. Each of the 36 outcomes has a probability of 1 . The probability of getting a 36 sum of 11, for example, is 2 because this can occur in two ways: (5,6) and (6,5). 36 The probability of an event is calculated by dividing the number of outcomes that result in that event by the total number of possible outcomes. Here, the total number of possible outcomes = 36. The probability of getting a sum of 4 on the roll of two dice is 3: (1,3), (3,1), (2,2) divided by 36 = 3 = 1 . 36 12

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Consider the experiment of flipping a coin followed by rolling one die. The list of possible outcomes is in the table that follows. H, 1

H, 2

H, 3

H, 4

H, 5

H, 6

T, 1

T, 2

T, 3

T, 4

T, 5

T, 6

Note that there are two outcomes in the flip of a coin and six outcomes in the roll of one die. The total number of possible outcomes of flipping a coin followed by a roll of one die is 2 × 6 = 12. More generally, if a task is performed in multiple stages and there are x ways of doing the first stage, y ways of doing the second stage, and z ways of doing the third stage, etc., the number of ways that the task can be performed is x times y times z . . . etc This result is referred to as the fundamental principle of counting. For example, if a coin is tossed five times, the number of possible outcomes is 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 = 32 because there are two possible outcomes for each toss.

Estimating Probabilities through Simulations The probability that the spinner will point to red is 3/8 because the circle is partitioned into 8 congruent regions; each color outcome is equally likely.

Very often, the expression “odds against” is used. If the odds against an event occurring is x to y, this means that for every x times the event does not occur, the event is expected to occur y times; equivalently, if an experiment is repeated x + y times, the event is expected to happen y times and not to happen x times. For example, the odds against rolling a 3 on a roll of a single die is 5 to 1 because there is only one way to roll a 3 and five ways not to roll a 3. If you repeatedly roll a pair of dice and record and graph the frequency and relative frequency of identical sums, your result should be similar to the theoretical distribution table shown below. Sum of 2 dice

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

Number of ways

1

2

3

4

5

6

5

4

3

2

1

Probability

1 36

1 18

1 12

1 9

5 36

1 6

5 36

1 9

1 12

1 18

1 36

Suppose a dealer rolls two dice, a player places a pledge determined by the dealer, and after the roll, the player received the amount equivalent to the sum on the two dice.

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Consideration of what constitutes a reasonable pledge would lead to the idea of mathematical expectation. In this case, the expectation of the returns can be obtained by adding the sum of each possible outcome times the probability of its occurrence: 2 # c 1 m + 3 # c 2 m + 4 # c 3 m + f + 12 # c 1 m = 7 36 36 36 36 This means that on the average, a player receives 7 units (dollars, for example) per bet. For the dicer to make a profit, he or she charges more than 7 units.

Mean, Median, and Mode The mean of a set of data is the sum of the values divided by the number of values. The median of the set of data is the center of that data, i.e., the exact middle. The mode of a set of data is the most frequently occurring element. The standard deviation shows the spread of the distribution. It is a function of the average of the distance from the mean. The x percentile is a number that divides the lower x percent of the values of a distribution from the upper 100-x percent. If you score in the 90th percentile on a test, it means that your grade was as least as good as that of 90% of the others who took the test and no better than the scores of the remaining 10%. The median is the 50th percentile. One of the most important distributions is the normal distribution, or bell curve, because it approximates numerous real world data. The center of the distribution is the mean, µ; the standard deviation, σ, determines how spread out the curve is.

Properties of the normal distribution It is symmetric around the mean:

0

Approximately 68% of the measurements lie within one standard deviation of the mean:

−1 µ−σ

100

0 µ

1 µ+σ


Approximately 95% of the measurements lie within two standard deviations of the mean:

−2 µ − 2σ

0 µ

2 µ + 2σ

Almost all of the measurements lie within three standard deviations of the mean. The area under the curve is equal to 1.

Statistics Flagrant abuse of statistics abounds in our society. Most of the abuses occur when statistics are manipulated to one’s advantage. You often hear statements such as “seven out of ten dentists recommend product X.” Does it mean that only ten dentists were surveyed? How were they chosen? In designing surveys, it is very important to consider a number of questions such as: was the sample random? How were the individuals who participated in the survey selected? What percent of the individuals who were asked to participate actually responded? How was the question formulated? Often, the wordings are convoluted when a sample is taken. If the sample is too small or the sample mean is reported without a margin of error, any conclusion is suspect. Equally important is how the data is interpreted. For example, suppose you design a survey to determine the income of inhabitants in a poor section of a city. You would add the income of those surveyed, compute the average, and then make the statement that the average income of a resident in that section is x dollars. But what if a multibillionaire lived in that section? The average income does not then represent a true picture, despite the fact that you had a large random sample, asked the proper questions, etc.

Data Analysis in Decision Making Statements based on statistical data need careful analysis. Making decisions using the normal distribution, for example, on data that is not normally distributed, is wrong, just as erroneous as making decisions based on averages without considering dispersion. Consider the example of the average temperature of a city: 70 degrees Fahrenheit, an enticing statistic that at first makes it attractive to live there, but this city could be extremely hot in the summer and extremely cold in the winter, making a decision based on the average temperature regretful.

Review Questions 1. What is the probability of rolling a sum of 9 on two dice? A. B. C. D.

7 36 5 36 1 9 9 36

The correct answer is C. There are only four possibilities for rolling a sum of 9: (3,6), (6,3), (4.5), and (5,4). The probability of that event is 4 = 1 . 36 9

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2. What is the probability of rolling the sum of 7 or 11 on two dice? A. B. C. D.

2 9 1 6 9 36 7 36

The correct answer is A. There are two ways of getting a sum of 11: (5,6) and (6,5), and six ways of rolling a sum of 7: (3,4), (4,3), (2,5), (5,2), (1,6), (6,1). All together, there are 8 of 36 outcomes, giving a probability of 8 , or 2 . 9 36 3. Some individuals order license plates that correspond to their initials followed by a sequence of numbers. Suppose a plate has a format of two letters followed by four numbers. How many different license plates can be made? A. B. C. D.

26 × 25 × 10 26 × 26 × 10 × 10 × 10 × 10 26 × 26 × 10 26 × 25 × 10 × 10 × 10 × 10

The correct answer is B. There are 26 possible letters for the first initial and 26 letters for the second initials. There are ten possibilities for the first number, ten for the second, ten for the third, and ten for the fourth. All together then, there are 26 × 26 × 10 × 10 × 10 × 10 = 6,760,000 4. Two players alternate by spinning two spinners. Each spinner is divided in three equal parts with the parts for the first spinner labeled 8, 3, and 4, and the second labeled 0, 1, and 4. If the sum of the two numbers is odd, A wins; if the sum of the two numbers is even, B wins. Who has a better chance of winning? A. B. C. D.

Both have equal chances A B Unable to determine from the data

The correct answer is C. There are five ways for the sum to be even: 8 + 0, 8 + 4, 3 + 1, 4 + 0, and 4 + 4, and only four ways for the sum to be odd: 8 + 1, 3 + 0, 3 + 4, and 4+1. 5. The U.S. Bureau of Census reports the ages of women who bore a child in a given year were normally distributed with mean of 28 years old and a standard deviation of 6 years. What percent of the women who bore a child in that year were between the ages of 22 and 34? A. B. C. D.

34% 95% 45% 68%

The correct answer is D. The ages are between 28 – 6 = 22 and 28 + 6= 34, which correspond to the area within one standard deviation of the mean = 68%, or 34% to the right of the mean and 34% to the left of the mean. Thus, the answer is 68%.

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To calculate the percent of women who are 16 and 40 years old, note that 28 – 2 × 6 = 16 and 28 + 2 × 6 = 40. The area between 16 and 40 is equal to .95; therefore, 95% of the women who bore a child in a given year were between the ages of 16 and 40. 6. Consider the experiment of tossing three coins. The expected number of heads equals A. B. C. D.

3 2 1 2 1 3

The correct answer is A. The sample space for this experiment is TTT THT TTH THH HHH HHT HTH HTT From this, we construct the following table for the number of heads with the corresponding probabilities. The number of heads

Probability

No. heads times probability

0

1 8

0× 1 =0 8

1

3 8

1× 3 = 3 8 8

2

3 8

2× 3 = 6 8 8

3

1 8

3× 1 = 3 8 8

Expected value = 0 + 3 + 6 + 3 = 12 = 3 heads. 8 8 8 8 2 7. Suppose a couple decide to have three children but want to know the probability that two will be girls. Assuming that it is biologically equally likely for a child to be a boy or a girl, the probability is A. B. C. D.

1 8 2 8 3 8 1 2

The correct answer is C. We use the tree diagram below to calculate the probability that the couple will have exactly two girls.

103


G B G

B

G

G

B

B

G

G

B

B G B

The only way this could happen is GGB, GBG, and BGG, giving the probability of 3 . 8

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Subarea III: Science and Technology Objective 0016 Understands and applies the principles and processes of scientific inquiry and investigation. For example: ■ ■ ■

■ ■ ■

Formulating hypotheses based on reasoning and preliminary results or information Evaluating the soundness and feasibility of a proposed scientific investigation Applying mathematical rules or formulas (including basic statistics) to analyze given experimental or observational data Interpreting data presented in one or more graphs, charts, or tables to determine patterns or relationships Evaluating the validity of a scientific conclusion in a given situation Applying procedures for the safe and appropriate use of equipment and the care and humane treatment of animals in the laboratory

Scientific Method Scientific inquiry, the instructional process of acquiring information and learning through asking questions, is embodied within the cyclical process of the scientific method (see Figure 3-1). Observation and experiment, data analysis, hypothesis, and prediction are widely accepted components of the scientific method. A scientist may enter this cyclical process at any point and continue from there. The scientific method is also often described as a series of steps with feedback loops that a scientist undertakes to answer a question and acquire knowledge about nature. Scientific views differ on the number and sequence of steps involved, but all sequences involve the four essential components in Figure 3-1.

Scientific Method Data analysis

Observation & experiment

Hypothesis

Prediction

Figure 3-1 The student may begin by making an observation and then asking the question: why or how did the observed event occur? The question may be why a process occurs or how a specific variable influences the process. Questions the teacher may ask to guide the student include the following:

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■

■

What variables affect or may affect the observed event (for example, temperature, light, concentration, time, and/or gravity to name a few)? Which one of these variables is most likely to be a significant factor—that is, which one do you want to test first?

Formulating and Testing a Hypothesis The student then formulates a plausible hypothesis. A hypothesis is an answer to the question of why or how the observed event occurred. It is a scientifically educated guess (chance favors the prepared mind—Louis Pasteur). It is important for the teacher to emphasize to the student that a hypothesis is not a pie-in-the-sky guess but is based on previous work concerning similar or analogous events, critical analysis of all the student’s initial observations, inferences thereof, and testable predictions. Instructing the student to formulate a hypothesis requires the student to use in-depth thought and reasoning skills necessary to truly understand the scientific principles involved in the initial observation. As the student refines a hypothesis, questions the teacher may ask to guide the student include the following: ■ ■ ■ ■ ■

What evidence or experimental result would support your hypothesis? What experiment do you need to do to obtain supporting data? What evidence/experimental result would not support your hypothesis? What experiment do you need to do to obtain nonsupporting data? Are these experiments different and, if so, do you need to do both?

The student must now create a plan to explore his hypothesis and design an experiment to test his hypothesis. This is the most important and involved step of the scientific method. The student must lay the framework on how to answer the question—why or how did the observed event occur? At this point, the student must decide the following: ■ ■

■ ■ ■ ■

What will be the independent variable, and what will be the dependent variable? How will the other variables be held constant, so that any trends or relationships between the two variables of interest are not subject to bias or error from other variables? How will the independent variable be changed and measured? How will the dependent variable be measured? What procedures, methodology, and techniques are involved in the experiment? What equipment and materials are required for the experiment?

As the student designs an experiment, questions the teacher may ask to guide the student include the following: ■ ■

What is the simplest—that is, least encumbered—experiment that can be done to obtain ball park data? How can this experiment be further refined to obtain more accurate quantitative data?

Quantitative and Qualitative Data As the student conducts the experiment, he may obtain quantitative data and/or qualitative data. Quantitative data is numerical data presented in tables and/or graphically. Qualitative data is descriptive data or further observations recorded in the student’s research notebook. Both forms of data are important in the scientific method. However, the teacher should emphasize to the student that quantitative data that can be fitted to an equation provides the more powerful support for a hypothesis. The teacher should also emphasize to the student that graphical representation of data is the most concise, succinct, and powerful way to convey the big picture. The data that the student collects depends on the variable of interest, the measuring instrument, and the unit associated with the measured values. If the experiment involves the measurement of length or distance, the student must use an instrument that provides length data such as a meter stick metric ruler, vernier caliper, or micrometer. Each length measurement should be recorded as accurately as possible and with the appropriate units (millimeter, centimeter, meter). If the student is involved in an experiment requiring the amount of heat to be varied, the student may use a thermometer to make temperature measurements in units of Celsius. Regardless of the variable or the measurement, the teacher should instruct the student to organize the data collected from an experiment in a table with properly labeled columns.

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Subarea III: Science and Technology

As the student observes and collects data, questions the teacher may ask to guide the student include the following: ■ ■ ■ ■

Do you have a base line, blank, or control measurement? Have you reported your measurements with the correct number of significant figures and correct units? Have you carefully recorded exactly how you made the measurements? Have you used the most appropriate instrument to make the measurements? Is there another way to make the measurements that might independently corroborate your results?

Graphing Data In order for the data collected to be useful, the data must be graphed. Graphs visualize the data. This allows the student an opportunity to literally see trends and patterns between the dependent and independent variables. A graph is a mathematical way of demonstrating a scientific relationship. The three most common types of graphs used to illustrate scientific information are line graphs, bar graphs, and pie graphs.

Line Graphs Line graphs are best for continuous changes. A line graph may be used to demonstrate the change in a variable with regard to other variables such as time, temperature, or force. Consider an experiment in which the student would like to investigate the elasticity of a rubber band. The student will determine the force required to stretch three rubber bands of the same type (same circumference, width, thickness, and composition). The student will use a metric ruler or meter stick to measure the change in length of the rubber band after each application of weights of increasing mass in a vertical arrangement. Because of the circumference of the rubber band, the most appropriate unit for length measurement would be in centimeters. The result of this experiment is displayed in the following graph (see Figure 3-2).

Force (N)

Force Required to Stretch a Rubber Band 12 10 8 6 4 2 0

2.10

7.10

11.20

Length (cm) Figure 3-2 Note that the line graph has the descriptive title of the data presented in the line graph (force required to stretch a rubber band), a properly labeled x-axis (force in newtons), and a properly labeled y-axis (rubber band length in cm). The data points in the graph represent the average of measurements for three different rubber bands.

Bar Graphs Bar graphs are best for data that has specific values for different events or items. A bar graph may be used to compare variables in an experiment. Following from the same experiment, the student can now use a bar graph to show the rate of increase in the length of the rubber band as a function of force. The length recorded after the addition of each weight of increasing mass is represented by a bar associated with that particular force. The results of this graphical analysis are displayed in Figure 3-3.

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Force Required to Stretch a Rubber Band

Length (cm)

15

10

5

0 1.9

4.9

9.8

Force (N)

Figure 3-3 Notice that the bar graph has the descriptive title of the data presented in the bar graph (force required to stretch a rubber band), a properly labeled x-axis (force in newtons), and a labeled y-axis (rubber band length). Each bar represents the average of measurements for three different rubber bands.

Pie Charts Pie charts are best for showing the parts of a whole. A possible application of a pie chart related to the same experiment would be the elemental composition (percent composition) of the rubber band. The question could then be asked, how does varying the composition of the rubber band affect elasticity? The percent composition of the type of rubber band used in the elasticity experiment is shown in the following pie chart (see Figure 3-4).

Percent Composition of a Rubber Band 4% 10%

Carbon Hydrogen Sulfur 86%

Figure 3-4 Notice that the pie chart has the descriptive title of the data presented in the table (percent composition of a rubber band) and a legend that identifies each piece of the pie and its representative color or shade in the pie chart. These graphs can be easily created on most scientific spreadsheet applications (for example, Microsoft Excel), but care must be taken to be sure that the graphs are properly labeled. As the student analyzes data, questions the teacher may ask to guide the student include the following: ■ ■ ■ ■

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Have you selected the proper range for both the x-axis and the y-axis? Is your scale for the x-axis consistent over the entire x range? Is your scale for the y-axis consistent over the entire y range? How precise are your individual measurements?


Interpreting Data After the experiment has been completed and all of the data (tables, graphs, and observations) has been recorded, a student must now determine what all of the data means. As the student analyzes the data, he must review all of the types of data recorded from the experiment and begin to look for substantive meaning from this information. For each type of data, questions and issues should be raised according to the type of data. For data listed in tables: ■ ■ ■

Is there a sufficient number of data points recorded from the experiment? Are there any trends or patterns in the variables of interest? What is the relationship between the dependent and independent variables?

For data provided in graphs: ■ ■

Was the appropriate graph used to display the data? Was the appropriate scale used to display the data?

For data noted by observation: ■ ■

Did the observations follow a trend as the experiment progressed? Did the observations note a potential error in the experiment or identify another factor that may potentially influence the results of the experiment?

Evaluating the Conclusion’s Validity After the experiment is completed, the student can now develop a conclusion based on his data analysis and available information in the scientific literature. The student can determine the answer to his question posed in the beginning of this scientific investigation and, more importantly, determine whether the reasoning used to generate the hypothesis was correct. If the hypothesis was correctly formulated, the student clearly reasoned through the process involved in the original observed event and developed an experiment that successfully added to the student’s knowledge of that phenomenon. The important thing to emphasize to the student is that, even if the hypothesis was not correct, the scientific method still constructively added to the student’s knowledge about the event of interest. As the student develops conclusions, questions the teacher may ask to guide the student include the following: ■ ■ ■ ■

Did my experimental results support my hypothesis? What further questions do my experimental results raise? What experiments can be done to answer these questions? Which of these new unanswered questions should be tested first?

Laboratory Safety The student should be supervised at all times while conducting experiments. The teacher should emphasize to the student the importance of conducting scientific experiments safely and responsibly. In general the teacher should make the student keenly aware of the following: ■ ■

■ ■

■

All levels (federal, state, district, school) of rules, regulations, and requirements regarding laboratory safety The top four safety rules: wear safety goggles at all times; no food or drink in the laboratory; no horseplay allowed; and never taste, touch (wear gloves), or smell a laboratory chemical The laboratory safety contract and the necessity to obtain parental/guardian signatures The location of safety devices (eye wash, safety shower, fire blanket, UV cabinet for safety goggles) within the laboratory and their proper use The location of the first aid kit (for minor emergencies) and the necessity of notifying the nurse and the parent/guardian in the event of any emergency and 911 in the event of a major emergency

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■ ■ ■

The necessity of a safety inspection, by the teacher, of apparatus, procedure, and materials prior to the experiment Animals must be cared for properly (proper food, water, and clean housing) and treated humanely The necessity of cleaning up the work area at the end of the experiment

Review Questions 1. Which of the following statements most closely describes important aspects of the scientific method? A. B. C. D.

The scientific method is a linear process starting with observation and following several other rigidly defined steps. A scientist may ethically discard the results of an experiment that does not fit the hypothesis of the experimenter. The scientific method is a creative, continuous, and cyclical process by which scientists learn about the physical and living universe. The scientific method has no connection with the way most people conduct their lives every day.

The correct answer is C. The scientific method is not a rigid process (A), but a dynamic cyclical process. A scientist should not discard experimental data but should analyze and interpret it even if it does not fit the original hypothesis (B). The scientific method has many connections to every day life and can be used for problem solving in every day life. 2. The composition of the mixture of gases that makes up our air is best represented by what type of graph? A. B. C. D.

pie chart bar graph line graph variable graph

The correct answer is A. A pie chart is best for showing the parts of a whole such as chemical composition. Variable graph D has no meaning. 3. Making sure that an experiment gives the result you expect is an example of A. B. C. D.

the scientific method. critical thinking. unscientific thinking. objective observation.

The correct answer is C. An experiment yields a result based on the driving forces in effect during the experiment. This may or may not be what the experimenter expects or would like (A). Objective observation refers to the scientist's records of what actually happens and is not biased by what he/she would like to happen. Objective observation is part of the scientific method (D). Critical thinking is also part of the scientific method (B). 4. An hypothesis is A. B. C. D.

a pie-in-the-sky guess. a scientifically educated guess. a wild guess. an estimate.

The correct answer is B. A hypothesis is based on experimental data, published work, and what is general knowledge about a topic or area. Pie-in-the-sky and wild guesses are about the same—both stabs in the dark (A and C). An estimate refers to a numerical computation (D).

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Objective 0017 Understands and applies concepts, principles, and theories pertaining to the physical setting (including Earth science, chemistry, and physics) For example: ■ ■ ■

■ ■ ■

Analyzing interactions among the Earth, the moon, and the sun (e.g. seasonal changes, phases of the moon) Analyzing the effects of interactions among components of air, water and land (e.g. weather, volcanism, erosion) Distinguishing between physical and chemical properties of matter and between physical and chemical changes in matter Distinguishing among forms of energy and identifying the transformations of energy observed in everyday life Analyzing the effects of forces on objects in a given situation Inferring the physical science principle (e.g. effects of common forces, conservation of energy) illustrated in a given situation

The Earth-Moon-Sun System The Earth, moon, and sun constitute a dynamic subsystem within our solar system, which is located in the Milky Way Galaxy. Earth-moon-sun interactions are due to the force of gravity. Newton’s Law of Universal Gravitation states that every mass in the universe exerts a gravitational attraction on every other mass in the universe that is directly proportional to their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them. This means the greater the mass (one or both masses), the greater the force of gravitational attraction, and the greater the distance, the smaller the force of gravitational attraction. Newton’s Law of Universal Gravitation stated in mathematical form is as follows: F = G(M1M2/D2) F = force in Newtons (N) M = mass in kilograms (kg) D = distance in meters (m) G = 6.67 × 10–11 N–m2/kg2 G is the universal gravitational constant.

The Earth The Earth is the third planet from the sun and the fifth largest. It’s located 149,600,000 km, that is 1.00 astronomical unit (AU), from the sun. It’s approximately spherical in shape with a diameter of 13,000 kilometers. The age of the Earth is estimated to be 4.5 billion years. As shown in the cross-sectional view in Figure 3-5, the Earth is composed of four main layers: ■ ■ ■ ■

crust mantle outer core inner core

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Atmosphere Crust Mantle Outer core Inner core

Figure 3-5 The core is at the center of the Earth with a radius of 3400 kilometers. The core is composed primarily of iron and nickel metals. The inner core is solid, and the outer core is liquid. Temperatures at the center of the core may be as high as 7500 K, hotter than the surface of the sun. The metal core is overlain by a thick layer, the mantle, that is rich in the elements oxygen, silicon, magnesium, and iron. The mantle is 2900 kilometers thick. The very outer layer is the crust, which is made of the less heavy nonmetals silicon and oxygen. The crust varies considerably in thickness. It is thinner under the oceans and thicker under the continents. The crust has an average thickness of only 8.7 kilometers. The various layers are separated by discontinuities—structural breaks in rock. The best known of these is the Mohorovicic discontinuity between the crust and upper mantle. These discontinuities can be detected by seismic measurements. The Earth is surrounded by an atmosphere of gases containing mostly nitrogen (80 percent) and oxygen (20 percent) with traces of argon, carbon dioxide, and water. The tiny amount of carbon dioxide present in the atmosphere at any time is extremely important to the maintenance of the Earth’s surface temperature via the greenhouse effect. The greenhouse effect raises the average surface temperature about 35 degrees C above what it would otherwise be (from a frigid –21° C to a comfortable +14° C); without it, oceans would freeze, and life as we know it would not exist. The total mass of the Earth is 6.0 × 1024 kg. Most of the mass of the Earth is in the mantle; most of the rest is in the core. The part we inhabit, the crust, is a tiny fraction of the whole. The Earth is the densest major body in the solar system with a mean density of 5.5g/cc. Taken as a whole, the Earth’s chemical composition by mass is as follows: 34.6% 29.5% 15.2% 12.7% 2.4% 1.9%

Iron Oxygen Silicon Magnesium Nickel Sulfur

Seventy-one percent of the Earth’s surface is covered with water. The heat capacity of water—that is, the oceans and all other surface water—is also very important in keeping the Earth’s temperature relatively stable. The Earth has a

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modest magnetic field (magnetosphere), which is generated by electric currents flowing in the outer molten core. The entire Earth can be viewed as a giant bar magnet. The geomagnetic north pole is currently located in northern Canada. The geomagnetic south pole is the position on the Earth’s surface directly below the geomagnetic north pole. Irregularities in the Earth’s upper atmosphere, the solar wind, and the Earth’s magnetic field can cause the geomagnetic poles to move and even reverse relative to the surface. When the magnetosphere interacts with the solar wind, colored lights known as the aurora borealis (northern lights) are formed. The Earth’s magnetic field and its interaction with the solar wind also produce the Van Allen radiation belts, a pair of doughnut shaped rings of ionized gas (plasma) trapped in orbit around the Earth. The outer belt stretches from 19,000 km in altitude to 41,000 km; the inner belt lies between 13,000 km and 7,600 km in altitude. The combined effect of the Earth’s annual rotation around the sun and the tilt of its axis causes the seasons (see Figure 3-6). In summer the Earth is tipped toward the sun; in winter, the Earth is tipped away from the sun. When it is summer in the northern hemisphere, it is winter in the southern hemisphere, and vice versa. The length of time the sun is above the horizon (daylight) is less in winter and greater in summer. The noontime altitude of the sun also changes from winter to summer. The altitude is higher in winter. This causes the area over which the sun’s rays are spread to be greater in winter. Winter (Northern Hemisphere tilts away from sun) December 22 Winter Solstice

Spring (sun aims directly at equator) March 21 Vernal Equinox

23.5°

Summer (Northern Hemisphere tilts toward sun) June 22 Summer Solstice Fall (sun aims directly at equator) September 23 Autumn Equinox

Figure 3-6

The Moon The moon is the Earth’s only natural satellite. The moon is believed to have been formed from the Earth by an impact known as the “big splash.” The “big splash” is also known as the giant impact hypothesis. According to this hypothesis, the moon was formed when a Mars-sized body hit the Earth and ejected a significant portion of the Earth’s mantle into space. This occurred when the Earth was only 34 million years old. It is the second brightest object in the sky after the sun. The moon is 384,400 km from the Earth and 149,200,000 km from the sun. It has a diameter of 3476 km and a mass of 7.4 × 1022 kg. The moon’s crust averages 68 km thick and varies in thickness from 0 to 107 km. The crust is thinner on the near side. Below the crust is a mantle and probably a small core (roughly 340 km radius and 2 percent of the moon’s mass). Unlike the Earth, the moon’s interior is no longer geologically active. The moon has two primary types of terrain: the heavily cratered and very old highlands and the relatively smooth and younger maria. The maria (which comprise about 16 percent of the moon’s surface) are huge impact craters that were

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later flooded by molten lava. Most of the surface is covered with regolith, a mixture of fine dust and rocky debris produced by meteor impacts. The maria are concentrated on the near side. The moon has no atmosphere and no magnetic field. However, some of its surface rocks exhibit remnant magnetism indicating that it may have once had a global magnetic field. With no atmosphere and no magnetic field, the moon’s surface is exposed directly to the solar wind. Over its 4 billion year life many ions from the solar wind have become embedded in the moon’s regolith. The gravitational forces between the Earth and the moon cause the tides on Earth. The moon’s gravitational attraction is stronger on the side of the Earth nearest to the moon and weaker on the opposite side (Newton’s Law of Universal Gravitation). Since the Earth, and particularly the oceans, are not perfectly rigid, the mass of the Earth is stretched out along a line at the equator from the center of the Earth toward the center of the moon. From the perspective of the Earth’s surface, two small equatorial bulges are seen—one in the direction of the moon and one directly opposite. The effect is much stronger in the ocean water than in the solid crust so the water bulges are higher. Since the Earth rotates much more quickly than the moon moves in its orbit, the bulges move around the Earth about once a day, giving two high tides per day. The gravitational interaction of the Earth and the moon also causes a net transfer of rotational energy from the Earth to the moon. This slows the Earth’s rotation by about 1.5 milliseconds per century and raises the moon into a higher orbit by about 3.8 centimeters per year. The asymmetric nature of the Earth-moon gravitational interaction is also responsible for the fact that the moon rotates synchronously—that is, it is locked in phase with its orbit so that the same side is always facing toward the Earth. The moon’s rotation rate on its own axis matches its orbital period around the Earth. There is no “dark side” of the moon; all parts of the moon, except for a few deep craters near the poles, get sunlight half the time. As the moon orbits around the Earth once per month, the angle between the Earth, the moon, and the sun changes. Consequently, more or less of the illuminated half of the moon is seen from Earth. These changes in the moon’s appearance are known as the phases of the moon (see Figure 3-7). The time between successive new moons is 29.5 days. During each lunar orbit (lunar month), the moon’s appearance changes from not visibly illuminated to fully illuminated and then back to partially illuminated to not illuminated again. There are eight distinct phases to this continuous cyclical process. The names of the phases designate both the degree to which the moon is illuminated and the geometric appearance of the illuminated part. The phases of the moon starting from new moon and in sequence of their occurrence are described as follows: New Moon: The moon’s unilluminated side is facing the Earth. The moon is not visible except during a solar eclipse. Waxing crescent: The moon appears to be partly but less than one-half illuminated by direct sunlight. The fraction of the moon’s disk that is illuminated is increasing. First quarter: One-half of the moon appears to be illuminated by direct sunlight. The fraction of the moon’s disk that is illuminated is increasing. Waxing gibbous: The moon appears to be more than one-half but not fully illuminated by direct sunlight. The fraction of the moon’s disk that is illuminated is increasing. Full moon: The moon’s illuminated side is facing the Earth. The moon appears to be completely illuminated by direct sunlight. Waning gibbous: The moon appears to be more than one-half but not fully illuminated by direct sunlight. The fraction of the moon’s disk that is illuminated is decreasing. Last quarter: One-half of the moon appears to be illuminated by direct sunlight. The fraction of the moon’s disk that is illuminated is decreasing. Waning crescent: The moon appears to be partly but less than one-half illuminated by direct sunlight. The fraction of the moon’s disk that is illuminated is decreasing.

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PHASES OF THE MOON waxing

New

Crescent

Quarter

Gibbous

Full

waning

Figure 3-7

The Sun The sun is the largest object in the solar system. It contains more than 99.8 percent of the total mass of the solar system. The sun is a normal sequence G2 star, one of more than 100 billion stars in our galaxy. It has a diameter of 1,390,00 km and a mass of 2.0 × 1030 kg. The sun is often called an “ordinary star.” This is true in the sense that there are many others similar to it. However, the sun is in the top 10 percent of stars by mass. The sun’s mass is approximately 333,000 times that of the Earth’s. Because of its enormous mass, all planets orbit the sun (Newton’s Law of Universal Gravitation).

The Sun’s Layers The sun is entirely gaseous with a layered structure (see Figure 3-8). The layers of the sun from the center outward are ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■

core radiative zone convective zone photosphere chromosphere corona

The core is the inner 25 percent of its radius and 10 percent of its mass. The temperature is 15.6 million K, and the pressure is 250 billion atmospheres. At the center of the core, the density is 150 times that of liquid water on Earth. At this temperature and pressure, nuclear fusion occurs, turning four hydrogen nuclei into a single helium nucleus plus an immense amount of energy in the form of gamma rays (high-energy photons) and neutrinos (particles with no charge and almost no mass). This nuclear fusion is often referred to as hydrogen burning. The radiative zone includes the inner 85 percent of the sun’s radius. In this layer energy from the hotter core is transported to the outer colder regions radiatively—that is, energy is transported via photons. The temperature here ranges from 15 million K to one million K. It may take photons millions of years to pass through this zone. The convective zone is the next layer. Here photons continue to move outward via convection. Convection is the bulk motion of matter—that is, the rising and falling of gas. Movement is toward lower temperature and lower pressure. Temperature in the convective zone ranges from one million K to 6000 K.

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Sun Structure Chromosphere Convective Zone

Photosphere Corona

Radiactive Zone

Core Convection Cell

Prominence Flare

Granules

Filament

Spicule Sunspot

Macrospicule

Figure 3-8 The surface of the sun, the photosphere, is the lower atmosphere of the sun. This is the part of the sun that we see. This layer is about 500 km thick with a temperature of 5500 K. At the outermost region of the photosphere, photons, including visible light, escape into space. Sunspots are small dark regions on the surface of the photosphere. Since sunspots are 1000 to 1500 K cooler than the rest of the surface, they do not emit as much light as the rest of the surface and, thus, appear darker. Sunspots can last from a few days to a few months. Temperature and density of the sun decrease outward from the core through to the photosphere. This trend in density continues into the corona. However, temperature increases above the photosphere. The reasons for this are not clearly understood. Hypotheses to account for this include sonic waves or magnetic waves to heat the atmosphere. The chromosphere lies above the photosphere and is an area of rising temperatures. This is a reddish layer with temperatures ranging from 6000 K at lower altitudes to 50,000 K at higher altitudes. This layer is only 2000 to 3000 km thick. It appears red due to emission from hydrogen atoms in an excited state. The chromosphere is only visible during a solar eclipse. The highly rarefied region above the chromosphere is the corona. The corona extends millions of kilometers into space. Temperatures in the corona are greater than 1,000,000 K. The chromosphere is only visible during a total solar eclipse. During the eclipse, it appears pearly white. At present, the chemical composition of the sun is 70 percent hydrogen and 28 percent helium. This composition will change slowly over time as the sun converts hydrogen to helium in its core. The sun has a strong magnetic field. The sun’s magnetosphere is known as the heliosphere and extends well beyond Pluto. The sun emits heat, light, and a low-density stream of particles (electrons and protons) known as the solar wind. The solar wind moves at about 450 km/sec. The solar wind can have dramatic effects on Earth such as the aurora, power line surges, and radio interference. The solar wind also has large effects on the tails of comets. The sun is about 4.5 billion years old. Since its birth, it has used up about half of the hydrogen in its core. It will continue to radiate for another 5 billion years.

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The Earth and Its Cycles The land masses, oceans, and atmosphere of the Earth are interconnected via the cycles of simple compounds such as water and carbon dioxide and the biogeochemical cycles of the elements. The theory of plate tectonics explains the geological activity of the Earth. The rock cycle, volcanoes, and earthquakes are the result of the geological activity of the Earth. The global air currents and the great ocean currents, both due to differential heating by the sun, explain Earth’s climates and weather. Earth’s cycles are continuously and constantly ongoing. Every moment, everyone on Earth is affected by Earth’s cycles. Two basic principles of the nature of Earth’s cycles are ■ ■

Earth’s materials (air, land, and water) move in cycles. A change in one cycle affects the others (that is, the cycles are interdependent).

Water Cycle Water cycles through the Earth’s geosphere as precipitation—snow and rain; in rivers, lakes, and oceans; in underground aquifers (groundwater)—and is stored in polar ice caps and glaciers. The hydrologic cycle (see Figure 3-9) depicts the movement of water among these various repositories as it cycles through the land, water, and air masses of the Earth. Ninety-six percent of the Earth’s water is in the oceans. Only 0.009 percent of the Earth’s water is fresh water. Of that 0.009 percent, 98 percent is stored as groundwater. Earth’s water is in constant motion both within and between reservoirs.

The Hydrologic Cycle

CLOUDS

RIVERS AND LAKES GROUNDWATER

OCEAN

Figure 3-9 There is a short term transfer of water between the land and ocean. Water evaporates from the surface of the oceans, forms cloud, and is precipitated over land as rain or snow, which runs into rivers and lakes that return it to the ocean. Drilling wells taps into deep aquifers that are not renewable resources. Water also cycles through the Earth’s biosphere, as the fluids of life—blood and cytoplasm are mainly water. Upon the consumption and removal of water by living systems, the geosphere and the biosphere become connected. Much of the movement of the Earth’s water occurs within the oceans via the great ocean currents, as shown in Figure 3-10. Some currents carry warm water from the equator toward the poles while others carry cold water from the poles toward the equator. These currents are like rivers of moving water within the larger ocean. They redistribute heat over the surface of the planet and, thus, determine climate. As these currents flow past the land, they also affect the weather. England, for example, is much warmer than expected for its latitude due to the Gulf Stream.

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Warm - Sha

Atlantic Ocean

Co ld -D ee llow p


Pacific Indian

Ocean -S Warm

Cold - D

hall

ow

e ep

Figure 3-10 The saltiness of the ocean is primarily due to sodium and chloride ions. The average time (residence time) that a sodium atom will stay in ocean water is 260 million years. After incorporation into clay and mud on the ocean floor, the sodium atom might be uplifted by plate tectonics and then eroded by wind and surface water as limestone.

Atmospheric Cycle Earth’s atmosphere redistributes heat across the surface and, thus, determines weather and climate as the oceans do. Weather is the state of the atmosphere at any moment at any location. Climate is the long-term average of weather for a given region. The atmosphere of the Earth can be divided into “air masses.” Each air mass is a separate reservoir of air with distinct physical properties. Air masses affect the weather and climate of the Earth via their chemical and physical nature. Five variables define the state of the atmosphere: ■ ■ ■ ■ ■

Temperature Air pressure Humidity Cloudiness Prevailing winds

Temperature refers to ground-level temperature. Temperature varies with altitude and defines the layers of the atmosphere. Air pressure decreases with increasing altitude. For example, at 5.5 km, the air pressure is half the value at sea level. Pressure also varies laterally. The jet stream is a high-speed air current moving west to east across the United States. It is the result of air pressure differences between layers high in the atmosphere. Humidity is a measure of the water content of the atmosphere. At higher temperature, the air can hold more water vapor. The amount of humidity, thus, varies with the temperature. Cloudiness is closely related to humidity. Clouds are a concentration of tiny water droplets or crystals. Clouds form when air becomes saturated with water. This process often occurs when an air mass rises and cools.

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Winds are a consequence of atmospheric convection. The direction and strength of winds affects weather and climate. An ocean breeze illustrates how winds can occur. During the day, the land heats up more than the water so warm air rises over the land, and cool air moves in from over the ocean, producing a breeze. In the evening, the breeze is reversed. The atmosphere circulates in “rivers” of air that cover the globe from the equator to the poles. These prevailing winds are powered by the energy of the sun and arise due to convection on a global scale. The movement of the Earth’s atmosphere results from the fact that the Earth rotates. From the north pole to the south pole the atmospheric convection cells are prevailing westerlies → northeast trade winds→ southeast trade winds → prevailing westerlies.

Rock Cycle The rock cycle is shown in Figure 3-11. The rock cycle is a cycle of internal and external geological processes by which rock is created, destroyed, and altered. Rock formations, which are bodies of continuous rock, are the “reservoirs” of the rock cycle. The nonaqueous and nonatmospheric matter of the Earth is cycled among three kinds of rock: ■ ■ ■

Igneous Sedimentary Metamorphic

Co

n o li

the e r o r in g si o a n

Heat

and

pres sure

e lt

Igneous rock

in g

nd

M

We a

g

Magma

ing elt M

g erin ath

e and

We

on

i ros

Sediment Weathering and erosion Compaction and cementation

Heat and pressure

Metamorphic rock

Sedimentary rock

Figure 3-11 Igneous rocks are solidified from hot liquid such as molten magma and lava. Basalt, pumice, and granite are igneous rocks.

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Weathering of igneous rocks forms sediments. The effect of pressure, heat, and mineral containing water on the sediments results in the formation of sedimentary rock. Sedimentary rock is, thus, composed of grains of material worn off other rocks. Sedimentary rock has a distinct layered appearance. Sandstone, limestone, shale, and mudstone are sedimentary rock. Sedimentary rock that becomes buried deep within the Earth (due to plate tectonics) is subjected to intense heat and pressure. This results in the formation of metamorphic rock. Slate and marble are examples of metamorphic rock. The theory of plate tectonics states that the surface of the Earth is broken up into a dozen large pieces or tectonic plates. Each plate is a rigid moving sheet of rock up to 100 km thick composed of crust and part of the upper mantle. Oceanic plates have an average 8 to 10 km thickness of dense basalt on top of mantle rock. Continental plates have an average 35 km of lower density granite on top of the basalt. Tectonic plate boundaries are not the same as those of the continents and oceans. Some plates are covered by ocean, and some plates have continents on all or part of their surfaces. Most of the North American continent rests on the North American plate. The North American plate extends from the middle of the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific plate on the west coast. These tectonic plates shift on the Earth’s surface, rubbing and scraping past one another at their boundaries. The process driving this movement is believed to be mantle convection. Mantle convection in turn is believed to be driven by the decay of radioactive nuclei releasing heat deep within the Earth. Heat energy once generated must move to cooler regions. This creates convection currents within the Earth’s mantle shown schematically in Figure 3-12. The stress at plate boundaries due to plate movement results in earthquakes and volcanoes. Volcanoes typically occur at plate boundaries or at hot spots that originate from deep within the mantle. The volcanic “ring of fire” around the Pacific rim follows plate tectonic boundaries. Earthquakes also typically occur at or near plate boundaries. Two types of seismic waves, S and P waves, are associated with earthquakes. P waves are compressional or longitudinal waves like sound. S waves or shear waves are transverse waves like water. Both waves move through solid earth. Over millions of years, the global cycle of plate tectonics controls the distributions of the Earth’s mountains and oceans and, thus, influences all the other cycles

Gorda plate

Eurasian plate Japan trench

Cocos plate

n dia

e ris

AustraliaIndian Plate So uth

Pacific plate

e a st I n dian rise c Pa

t -An ific

East Pacific

-In

African plate

tic Atlan

Caribbean plate

San Philippine Andreas fault plate

Arabian plate

Eurasian plate

North American plate

Nazea plate

r is e

i arctic r

Mid Atlantic ridge

South American plate

se

Antarctic plate

Figure 3-12

Physical Changes and Physical Properties A physical change in matter is a change that does not alter the chemical composition of matter. In a physical change, the form or state of matter is changed.

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For example, cutting a piece of aluminum (Al) ribbon with a pair of scissors results in smaller pieces of aluminum ribbon with the same chemical composition (Al) as the original piece. Pulverizing a large lump of glucose with a mortar and pestle results in granular glucose. The chemical composition (C6H12O6) of the glucose has not changed, only the macroscopic form has changed. Heating an ice cube [H2O(s)] results in liquid water [H2O(l)]. Heating the liquid water to boiling results in the formation of steam [H2O(g)]. Water has changed its state from solid to liquid to gas. All three forms, ice, liquid water, and steam, have the same chemical formula (H2O) and chemical composition but differ in their heat content: The heat of fusion characterizes the change from solid to liquid. The heat of vaporization characterizes the change from liquid to gas. The heat of sublimation characterizes the change directly from solid to gas without going through the liquid state. Physical properties are the numerical constants associated with physical changes. In the water example just cited that would be a normal freezing point/melting point of 0° C and a normal boiling point/condensation point of 100° C at one atmosphere of pressure. The term normal specifies one atmosphere of pressure. The heat of fusion of water is 80 cal/g and the heat of vaporization is 540 cal/g at one atmosphere of pressure. A change in the state of matter can be induced by changing the temperature and/or pressure. Common physical properties include heat capacity, density, and solubility. Heat capacity is defined as the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1.0 g of solid 1.0 C. Solubility is generally expressed as grams of solute per 100 g of solvent or per 100 mL of solvent. Water is often referred to as the universal solvent because it dissolves a wide variety of materials from ionic to covalent. The solubility of most solutes (for example, potassium nitrate) increases with temperature. However the solubility of a few solutes such as lithium sulfate decreases with temperature. Some solutes dissolve with positive heats of solution (exothermic)—that is, the solution becomes warmer upon dissolution of the solute— whereas other solutes dissolve with negative heats of solution (endothermic); for example, the solution becomes colder upon dissolution of the solute. Density is defined as mass per unit volume as shown in the following equation: D = M/V Units of density for solids and liquids are generally g/cc and g/mL. The unit of density for gases is generally g/L or kg/L. Other common physical properties include color, viscosity, electrical conductivity, thermal conductivity, metallicity, and optical and magnetic properties.

Chemical Changes and Chemical Properties A chemical change in matter occurs when the chemical composition of matter is altered. For a chemical change to occur a chemical reaction must occur. Common examples of chemical reactions include rusting, tarnishing of silver, and loss of color due to the application of commercial laundry bleaches. In each of these reactions a new chemical compound is formed. Rusting forms iron oxide; tarnishing forms silver sulfide; and bleaching forms oxidized organics. Signs that a chemical reaction may have occurred include evolution of a gas, color change, pH change, temperature change, formation of a precipitate, disappearance of a solid, and/or formation of an insoluble liquid layer. Chemical properties reflect chemical reactivity. Typical chemical properties include the following: ■ ■ ■ ■ ■

Flammability Combustibility Explosiveness Sensitivity to oxygen (in the air) Sensitivity to water vapor (in the air)

■ ■ ■ ■ ■

Hygroscopicity (absorbs water, forms hydrate) Acidity (in the pH scale) Basicity (in the pH scale) Oxidizing power Reducing power

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The basic types of chemical reactions include the following: ■ ■ ■ ■

Synthesis Decomposition Single displacement Double displacement (results in precipitation)

More specific types of reactions include the following: ■ ■ ■ ■

Acid-base reactions Combustion (combination with oxygen) Reduction (combination with hydrogen) Metal oxidation-reduction (redox) reactions

Energy and Its Transformations The first law of thermodynamics or the law of conservation of energy states that (non-nuclear) energy can be transformed but not created or destroyed. The energy of any closed system (for example, the Earth and the sun) is a constant—that is, ∆E = 0. Another way of stating the first law is that the energy of the system and its surroundings is a constant. For example, the system could be an ice cube melting in a glass of water; then the surroundings would be the atmosphere in the immediate vicinity of the glass. The ice cube in the glass is gaining energy (heat content), and the atmosphere is losing heat content. However, for the glass and the atmosphere taken together, the total energy (heat content) is a constant. Heat or thermal energy can be transferred via convection, conduction, or radiation. Convection is the bulk motion of matter. Conduction is the motion of matter at the atomic-molecular level. Radiation is transfer via electromagnetic radiation not involving direct contact of matter. Energy is classified into two major types—kinetic energy and potential energy. Kinetic energy is the energy due to motion. This includes the energy of moving objects such as a speeding car or a thrown baseball and the energy of wave motion through a medium such as sound and seismic waves. The kinetic energy (KE) of objects is directly proportional to the square of the velocity as shown in the following equation: KE = 1/2 mv2 KE = kinetic energy m = mass v = velocity Potential energy is stored energy. Potential energy may be due to position or content. Gravitational potential energy (PEg) is directly related to height as shown in the following formula: PEg = mgh PE = potential energy m = mass g = acceleration due to gravity (9.80m/s2) h = height Thus, a book placed on top of a standard four-drawer file cabinet would possess more gravitational potential energy than the same book placed on a desk top. Potential and kinetic energy are constantly being interchanged. The diagram in Figure 3-13 illustrates a vehicle at the top of a ramp for an amusement park ride. At the top of the ramp, the velocity is zero and, therefore, the kinetic energy

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is zero. At the top of the ramp, the vehicle possesses only gravitational potential energy due to its height. As the vehicle moves down the ramp, potential energy is converted (loss of height) to kinetic energy (increasing velocity). At the bottom of the ramp when the vehicle has reached maximum velocity, all the potential energy has been converted (height is zero) to kinetic energy. KE

PE

E = KE + PE

0

600 000 J

600 000 J

200 000 J

400 000 J

600 000 J

400 000 J

200 000 J

600 000 J

600 000 J

0

600 000 J

Figure 3-13 Other forms of potential energy include elastic, chemical, and electromagnetic energies. An example of elastic potential energy would be a stretched rubber band that can be used to launch a sling shot. The food you eat everyday contains chemical potential energy. During digestion the chemical potential energy is released to power your body—that is, muscle movement. Electromagnetic energy is the energy of radiation such as visible light. Transformations among these types of energy are constantly occurring on a daily basis in your life. For example, when you turn on a light switch, you are converting electrical energy to light energy, and when you start your car you are converting chemical energy to mechanical energy. Alternative environmentally friendly (green) forms of energy for society include hydroelectric, solar, wind, geothermal, tidal, and ocean energies.

Forces and Newton’s Laws of Motion Newton’s first, second, and third laws of motion together with his Law of Universal Gravitation describe the motion of objects on Earth and in the universe. The first law of motion states: A moving object will continue moving in a straight line at a constant speed, and a stationary object will remain at rest, unless acted on by an unbalanced force. This law seems to state the obvious. A force on an object is a push or pull on an object by another object. In the case of friction, the other object would be the molecules of air or molecules of the surface material on which the object is traveling. In the absence of friction, all objects on Earth and in the universe would continue moving indefinitely. Friction is the unbalanced force in the first law. The first law describes uniform motion—that is, motion at a constant velocity (including zero). The second law of motion states: The acceleration produced on a body by a force is proportional to the magnitude of the force and inversely proportional to its mass.

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This statement describes accelerated motion and is more concisely stated by the equation: F = ma F = NET force in Newtons m = mass in kg a = acceleration in m/s2 The direction of the net force is the direction of the motion. The net force is an unbalanced force—that is, a force not cancelled by opposing forces acting on the object. To obtain the net force on an object all the forces acting on the object must be added using vector addition. This equation can be rearranged to coincide with the wording in the statement above by solving for a: a = F/m The indirect and direct proportionalities are now more obvious. Thus, if an object is being accelerated or decelerated, a net force must be acting on it. If the acceleration is constant, the motion is uniformly accelerated. If the acceleration varies, the motion is nonuniformly accelerated. Motion can now be described as nonaccelerated or uniform motion, uniformly accelerated motion, and nonuniformly accelerated motion according to the criteria in the following table: Type of Motion

Criteria

Non-accelerated or uniform

a = 0 and v ≥ 0 and is constant.

Uniformly accelerated

a ≠ 0 and v > 0 and varies uniformly.

Non-uniformly accelerated

a ≠ 0 and a varies and v > 0 and varies uniformly.

v = speed v = speed v = speed

The first law can now be seen as a special case of the second law. The first and second law together classify the motion of all macroscopic objects in the universe. The third law of motion states the less obvious: For every action there is an equal and opposite reaction. Stated another way, forces come in pairs. The third law is demonstrated when two skaters push off of one another or when you press your hand on a table and you feel the pressure of the table (the table pushing on you). Another example of the third law is a rocket launched by the force of the exhaust gases pushing the rocket up.

Speed and Velocity Speed and velocity are defined by the equations: s = d/t s = speed d = distance t = time

v = x/t v = velocity x = displacement t = time

Speed is a scalar quantity, which means it has no direction. Velocity is a vector quantity, which means the quantity includes direction. Distance is a scalar quantity, and displacement is a vector quantity. Speed is, thus, the magnitude of velocity. Since acceleration is defined as a change in velocity, either in its magnitude or direction, acceleration is also a vector quantity.

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Linear Kinematics The equations for linear kinematics (one-dimensional motion) describe the relationships among velocity (v), distance (d), acceleration (a), and time (t). When motion starts from rest (initial velocity equals zero) on a horizontal plane, the following equations apply: v = at d = 1/2 at2 More generally, for any starting velocity, acceleration can be defined by the equation: a = (vi – vf)/t where vi = initial velocity and vf = final velocity When motion starts from rest in a vertical direction, this is known as free fall and a = g. The linear kinematic equations in a vertical direction then become v = gt d = 1/2 gt2 The equation for distance in the vertical direction can be solved for time as follows: t = 2d/g This means time can be obtained by measuring vertical distance since g is a constant. When motion is in the vertical direction and the force is the force of gravity, Newton’s second law becomes the following: W = mg W = weight in Newtons (N) m = mass in kg g = 9.80m/s2 on Earth or the value for the celestial object of interest for example, gmoon = 1.67m/s2 and gmars = 3.37m/s2 This equation defines weight as a force and allows the calculation of weight anywhere in the universe.

Inferring Physical Science Principles The beginning teacher understands how the systems model can be used as a conceptual framework to organize, unify, and connect the common themes of physical science to the other sciences. The systems approach can be used to explain how the themes of physical science (physics and chemistry) apply to the biological, earth, and space sciences and how deeply physical science is interrelated to the other sciences. The common themes of physical science include the following: ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■

Law of universal gravitation First, second, and third laws of motion Gravitational, mechanical, electrical, and magnetic forces Conservation of energy, mass, and momentum First and second laws of thermodynamics Transformations of energy Wave model and wave properties Atomic theory Kinetic-molecular theory Chemical bond formation and chemical reactions Principles of stoichiometry

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The five features of the systems approach are ■ ■ ■ ■ ■

Constancy Change Cycles Structure Processes

These five features can be used to analyze and describe any phenomenon in the physical, biological, earth, and space sciences. For example, suppose that a mass is attached to a spring and suspended horizontally on a level plane. When the spring is stretched and released, the mass will vibrate back and forth as long as the elastic limit of the spring was not exceeded during the stretch. This mass-on-spring can be analyzed using the systems approach.

Constancy When the mass is stretched a certain distance from its equilibrium position, the mass has all elastic potential energy. When the mass is released, the mass gains speed as it approaches the equilibrium. At the equilibrium position, the speed is maximum, and all the potential energy has been converted to kinetic energy. In moving from maximum extension to equilibrium, potential energy is being converted to kinetic energy. As the mass moves through the equilibrium position, it begins to compress the spring and lose speed. During compression, kinetic energy is being converted to potential energy. Compression continues until all the kinetic energy has been converted to potential energy at maximum compression. The mass then begins to decompress the spring and gain speed again as it moves back toward the equilibrium position. In the absence of friction, this back-and-forth motion would continue indefinitely as a result of the conservation of energy. If the elastic limit of the spring is exceeded on the initial stretch, the spring enters the plastic region and may not return to its equilibrium position.

Change During the cyclical motion—known as simple harmonic motion—of the mass-on-spring, the mass has both a changing speed and a change in the direction of motion. These changes indicate that the mass is being accelerated. If the mass is being accelerated, a net force must be acting on it. On an ideal frictionless surface, the net force is the elastic restoring force of the spring.

Cycles The motion of the mass-on-spring is cyclical or periodic in nature. Two characteristics of periodic motion, in this case simple harmonic motion, are period and frequency. Period is the time for the mass to complete one cycle or one round trip. Frequency is the number of cycles or round trips that the mass makes per unit time. Period and frequency are the reciprocals of one another.

Structures The structure of the mass-on-spring consists of a mass of any size, shape, or material, and the spring can be of any material, coil type, or length that will support the mass selected. Springs are characterized by a spring constant k, defined by Hook’s Law (F = –kx) where F is the restoring force of the spring and x is the displacement of the spring from its equilibrium position.

Processes This feature of describing the mass-on-spring refers to the process by which a component of the mass-on-spring interacts with other components of the mass-on-spring. These components would include the mass, the spring, the surface over which the mass-on-spring moves, the initial extension of the spring, and how the spring is anchored. To investigate the nature of these processes would require laboratory experiments to investigate the effect of, for example, changing the physical properties of the spring or changing the surface material on the motion of the mass-on-spring.

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Review Questions Select the best response. There is only one best response. 1. Newton’s Law of Universal Gravitation explains all of the following Earth-moon-sun phenomena except for A. B. C. D.

tides on Earth. rotation of the Earth around the sun. temperature decrease in the sun from the photosphere to the chromosphere. rotation of the moon around the Earth.

The correct answer is C. Newton’s Law of Universal Gravitation summarizes the relation between mass and gravity. Temperature change is not related to gravity. 2. The monthly cycles of phases of the moon results primarily from A. B. C. D.

changes in lunar orbital velocity. changes in the angle between the Earth, moon, and sun. changes in the lunar orbital radius. changes in the angle of lunar illumination by the sun.

The correct answer is B. The sun always illuminates one-half of the moon. Change in the angle between the Earth, moon, and sun causes the illuminated image of the moon, as seen from the Earth, to vary. This will occur no matter what the orbital velocity or orbital radius. 3. Seasons on Earth are primarily due to A. B. C. D.

tilt of the Earth’s axis. changing distance from the sun. changing altitude of the sun at noon. phases of the moon.

The correct answer is A. The Earth is actually closer to the sun in winter but is tilted away. The higher altitude of the sun at noon is a result of this tilt. Phases of the moon are the same winter and summer. 4. Energy is transferred from the core of the sun into space via A. B. C. D.

radiation and convection. radiation only. convection only. diffusion.

The correct answer is A. Energy form the sun’s core is transferred outward via radiation in the radiative zone and convection in the convective zone. Both of these processes play a role in energy transfer outward. Diffusion applies to matter, not energy. 5. In order for an element to cycle through the Earth’s atmosphere it must exist in a form that is a A. B. C. D.

solid. liquid. gas. particulate.

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The correct answer is C. The atmosphere itself is gaseous. Particulate matter may be suspended in the atmosphere but is generally only a minor component. Solids and liquids due to their state of matter cannot enter the atmosphere directly. Gases once in the atmosphere may condense to liquid droplets. 6. The percent of the Earth’s water that is available for human consumption is A. B. C. D.

.009% .009% × 2% 2% 96%

The correct answer is B. Only 0.009 percent of the Earth’s water is fresh water, and of that 0.009 percent only 2 percent is surface water. Groundwater stored in underground aquifers is not readily available. 96% is salt water stored in the oceans. This water must desalinized to be consumed. 7. Which one of the following is required for cloud formation? A. B. C. D.

nitrogen in the air water vapor in the air carbon dioxide in the air ozone in the air

The correct answer is B. Clouds are concentrations of tiny water droplets or crystals. Air must be saturated with water vapor for clouds to form. Therefore, water vapor is the key ingredient. The other gases could only affect cloud formation via an effect on the amount of water vapor the atmosphere can hold. 8. Metamorphic rocks are formed as a result of A. B. C. D.

heat and erosion by water. heat and pressure. heat and erosion by wind. erosion by water and wind.

The correct answer is B. Metamorphic rock is formed deep within the Earth. Water and wind erosion are surface processes. Intense pressure and heat within the Earth form metamorphic rock. 9. Which one of the following is a chemical change? A. B. C. D.

transformation of graphite into diamond magnetization of an iron needle corrosion of a copper penny sublimation of iodine

The correct answer is C. Corrosion of copper involves the formation of a new compound copper carbonate. The transformation of graphite to diamond is an allotropic change for carbon. The way the carbon atoms are bonded changes, but the elemental composition does not change (100 percent carbon to 100 percent carbon). Magnetization of an iron needle involves changes in the orientation of magnetic domains at the atomic level. Sublimation of iodine is a change of state (physical change) from the solid directly to the gas.

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10. Which one of the following is physical change? A. B. C. D.

fizzing of a soda pop bottle when the cap is removed fizzing of an Alka Seltzer tablet red litmus turns blue photosynthesis

The correct answer is A. Carbon dioxide is dissolved in aqueous soda pop under pressure. When the pressure is released (reduced), the solubility of the carbon dioxide in the aqueous layer decreases, and the carbon dioxide returns to the gas state (fizzing). Fizzing in an Alka Seltzer tablet involves the decomposition of a carbonate to form carbon dioxide. Litmus contains an organic indicator that undergoes an acid-base reaction. Photosynthesis is a complex series of chemical reactions. 11. Which one of the following involves chemical reactivity? A. B. C. D.

conducting an electrical current to ring a bell conducting an electrical current with the evolution of gases (electrolysis) conducting heat to boil water separation of the components of a mixture based on density differences

The correct answer is B. New gases are formed. The term electrolysis implies a chemical reaction induced by an electrical current. A and C involve conductivity only. Conductivity is a physical property. D involves density, a physical property. 12. Which one of the following physical properties accounts for the layering of solid copper over liquid mercury? A. B. C. D.

viscosity mass density compressibility

The correct answer is C. Layering is due to density differences. The more dense material is the lower layer, and the less dense material is the upper layer. Liquid mercury is more dense than solid copper. Increasing the masses of the copper or mercury will not invert the layering. Compressing the layers will not invert the layering. Viscosity is the resistance of a fluid to flow. More viscous materials may be more dense so that viscosity may be an apparent reason. The fundamental reason, however, is density. 13. Which one of the following is an example of the transformation of kinetic energy to gravitational potential energy? A. B. C. D.

space shuttle orbiting the Earth at a constant altitude vehicle moving down a ramp vehicle moving up a ramp merry-go-round turning

The correct answer is C. The vehicle is increasing in height and gaining potential energy. The space shuttle is at a constant altitude. Therefore, there is no change in gravitational potential energy. A merry-go-round turns on level ground, so there’s no change in potential energy. The vehicle moving down the ramp is decreasing in height and losing potential energy.

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14. Which one of the following is an example of the transformation of gravitational potential energy into kinetic energy? A. B. C. D.

space shuttle descending toward Earth space shuttle orbiting the Earth at a constant altitude mountain climber moving up a mountain pushing a box up an incline

The correct answer is A. The space shuttle is descending toward the Earth, losing altitude (gravitational potential energy), and gaining kinetic energy (increased velocity). The space shuttle orbiting the Earth has no change in altitude and, therefore, no change in gravitational potential energy. The mountain climber moving up and the box moving up are both gaining height and, therefore, increasing gravitational potential energy. 15. Which one of the following illustrates the first law of thermodynamics? A. B. C. D.

a log burning in the fireplace loses mass energy flows through the Earth the chromosphere of the sun is hotter than the photosphere a helium-filled balloon rising

The correct answer is B. Energy flowing through the Earth involves energy transformations. The description in A involves mass, not energy. Although temperature reflects heat content, the description in C involves an anomalous temperature difference for the sun. The helium-filled balloon is rising due to a net buoyant force, not energy. 16. Campfires transfer energy as heat to their surroundings by the methods of A. B. C. D.

convection and conduction. convection and radiation. conduction and radiation. convection, conduction and radiation.

The correct answer is D. The campfire is transferring heat energy by all three methods. The other choices all involve only two methods. The visible flame of the campfire is transferring heat via radiation; the flame is heating nearby air molecules, which are transferring heat via conduction. Convection cells are also created in the air above the campfire just like convection cells in a pot of boiling water. 17. Which one of the following forces is responsible for mechanical motion on Earth? A. B. C. D.

gravity friction weight buoyant force

The correct answer is B. Friction is involved in all motion on Earth since objects in motion are passing through media (air and water) and on surfaces (concrete, grass, asphalt, and so on). Gravity and weight only apply in the vertical direction. Friction applies to both the horizontal and vertical directions. Buoyant force is a force due to the difference in densities, which allows an object to float or move up in a medium. This only applies to lighter than air and lighter than water objects.

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18. If the force on an object is tripled and the mass of the object is tripled, the acceleration on the object will be A. B. C. D.

tripled. one-third. unchanged. cubed.

The correct answer is C. Tripling the mass and tripling the force will give the equation a = 3F/3m. The 3 in the denominator cancels the 3 in the numerator. The result is that the acceleration is the same. 19. Which one of the following objects is not being accelerated? A. B. C. D.

ball being juggled person walking at 2.5 m/s along a straight line braking cyclist apple falling to the Earth

The correct answer is B. The person is walking at constant velocity. Therefore, by definition, acceleration is zero if ∆v is zero. The juggled ball and the apple have a = g = 9.80m/s2. The braking cyclist is decelerating. Deceleration is negative acceleration. 20. The winner of the shot-put event in the Olympics is the person who best uses A. B. C. D.

Newton’s first law. Newton’s second law. Newton’s law of universal gravitation. Newton’s third law.

The correct answer is B. How far the shot-put travels depends on its initial acceleration since the motion will be slowed by air resistance. The greater the force, the greater the acceleration, the further the distance. Newton’s first law does not apply since a force must be imparted to the shot-put to set it in motion. Newton’s third law also does not apply. The force the shot-put exerts on the athlete’s hand does not propel it forward. The force in Newton’s law of universal gravitation is an attractive force, not a repelling force. The equation for the frequency (f) of a mass-on-spring is f = 1/2π ^ k/m h where m = mass of spring k = spring constant Use this equation to answer Questions 21 and 22.

21. If the number of grams in the mass is increased, the mass will vibrate A. B. C. D.

more quickly. more slowly. at the same speed. can’t determine from the information provided.

The correct answer is B. The equation for frequency gives the relation between frequency and mass. The frequency is directly proportional to1/ 1/m so if the mass increases, 1/m will decrease and so will the frequency.

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22. If a stiffer (larger k) spring is used, the mass will vibrate A. B. C. D.

more slowly. more quickly. at the same speed. can’t determine from the information provided

The correct answer is B. The equation for frequency gives the relation between frequency and spring constant. The frequency is directly proportional to k so if k increases, the k increases and so will the frequency. 23. If you replace a smooth surface with a rough surface, the spring will move A. B. C. D.

more slowly. more quickly. at the same rate. can’t determine from the information provided

The correct answer is A. A rough surface provides more friction, which acts as a retarding force on the motion. The net force (Fnet) is now F(Hook’s Law) – F (friction). 24. If the elastic limit of the spring is slightly exceeded in the initial extension, the spring A. B. C. D.

stops moving. can still return to its equilibrium position. immediately breaks. enters the plastic region.

The correct answer is D. If a spring slightly exceeds the elastic limit, it goes into the plastic region. The spring only breaks if it goes beyond the plastic region. The spring only stops moving if it breaks. The spring may or may not pass through the equilibrium position.

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Objective 0018 Understands and applies the concepts, principles, and theories pertaining to the living environment. For example: ■ ■

■ ■

■

■

Recognizing the characteristics of living things and common life processes Analyzing processes that contribute to the continuity of life (e.g., reproduction and development, inheritance of genetic information) Analyzing factors that contribute to change in organisms and species over time Comparing the ways a variety of organisms carry out basic life functions and maintain dynamic equilibrium (e.g., obtaining nutrients, maintaining water balance) Analyzing the effects of environmental conditions (e.g., temperature, availability of water, and sunlight) on living organisms and the relationships between plants and animals within a community Inferring the life science principle (e.g., adaptation, homeostasis) illustrated in a given situation

Characteristics of Living Systems Life can be defined in terms of the characteristics of living organisms. In order to be classified as living, an individual entity must exhibit all of the following characteristics in a given interval of time: ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■

Be composed of cells, the basic unit of life Grow and develop Metabolize Move Respond to stimuli Reproduce Have a limited life span

The cell theory states that all living organisms are composed of basic structural units called cells. Life forms vary from unicellular to highly complex multicellular organisms composed of many different types of multicellular tissues. There are two basic types of cells: prokaryotic cells and eukaryotic cells.. Prokaryotic cells have a simpler structure than eukaryotic cells. Prokaryotic cells do not have a nuclear membrane, but they do contain ribosomes. They’re generally much smaller than eukaryotic cells, and typically they locomote by means of flagella. Bacterial cells are prokaryotic cells. Eukaryotic cells possess a true nucleus with a nuclear membrane. In general eukaryotic cells are characterized by the presence of specialized membrane-bound organelles such as the mitochondrion and endoplasmic reticulum. Eukaryotic cells may be subdivided into two types: animal cells and plant cells. Compare the plant cell illustrated in Figure 3-14 with the animal cell illustrated in Figure 3-15. This comparison shows that plant cells have cell walls and chloroplasts; animal cells do not have these structures. Eukaryotic unicellular life forms may locomote by means of flagella, cilia, or amoeboid movement.

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A Plant Cell Microtubles

Mitochondrion

Ribosomes

Primary Cell Wall

Endoplasmic Reticulum

Plasmalemma Middle Lamella

Golgi Apparatus

Chloroplast Microbody

Nucleus Vacuole

Nucleolus

Figure 3-14 nuclear envelope nucleus

smooth endoplasmic reticulum

nucleolus chromatin

lysosome

cytoplasm

microtubule

centrioles

microfilament Golgi apparatus

mitochondrium peroxisome

vesicle

plasma membrane

basal body

exocytic or endocytic vesicle

cilia or flagella rough endoplasmic reticulum

ribosomes

An Animal Cell Figure 3-15

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Some nonliving things appear to grow. For example, salt crystals form and become larger in a saturated salt solution. However, this is not biological growth. Biological growth is an increase in the size of individual cells and/or in the number of cells. Trees continue to grow throughout their lifetimes. In contrast most animals have defined growth periods that terminate when a characteristic adult size is reached. Metabolism is the sum total of the chemical activities of an organism. Metabolism includes all the chemical reactions, both enzymatic and nonenzymatic and energy transformations that occur within a living organism. Metabolic processes are continually occurring in all living cells. Metabolic processes may be catabolic or anabolic. Catabolism refers to the biochemical pathways by which larger molecules are broken down to smaller molecules. Cellular respiration is an example of catabolism. Glucose is broken down into carbon dioxide and water with energy released and stored as ATP (adenosine triphosphate). Anabolism refers to the biochemical pathways by which smaller molecules are used to synthesize larger molecules. Photosynthesis is an example of anabolism. Six inorganic carbon dioxide molecules are converted to one six carbon organic molecule glucose. Biochemical reactions within the cell may be exothermic (energy-releasing) or endothermic (energy-consuming) reactions. Cells drive endothermic reactions by coupling them to exothermic reactions. The cell regulates metabolic processes to maintain homeostasis, a balanced internal state. Cellular processes are turned on and turned off by sensitive and effective homeostatic mechanisms. Homeostatic mechanisms are self–regulating control systems. Many homeostatic mechanisms work using the concept of negative biofeedback. The regulation of blood sugar level is an example of homeostasis by negative biofeedback. When you wake up in the morning, your blood sugar level (glucose) is about 90 mg of glucose per 100 mL of blood. The starches and sugars in your breakfast are converted into glucose. Your blood sugar level rises. This stimulates the pancreas to release the hormone insulin. Insulin causes the body cells to take up glucose from the blood stream and stimulates the liver and muscle cells to store glucose as glycogen. As a result, the glucose level in the blood decreases to the normal level of 90 mg/100 mL. Organisms move as they locomote within the environment, and the cytoplasm within the cell is in continuous movement in cytoplasmic streaming. ATP is the immediate source of energy for movement in living systems. In organisms containing muscle tissue, muscle contraction occurs when actin and mysoin protein filaments slide past one another. This is known as the sliding filament model. The cilia and flagella of unicellular organisms contain microtubules, which slide past one another causing the cilia to beat and the flagella to whip. This sliding requires the energy stored in ATP. In this process ATP is converted to ADP (adenosine diphosphate) and inorganic phosphate. All forms of life respond to physical and chemical stimuli from the external environment and from within their own living systems. Stimuli that evoke a response in most organisms include changes in color, intensity, or direction of light, changes in temperature, pressure or sound, and changes in the chemical composition of the surrounding soil, air, or water. Locomotion occurs in response to external or internal stimuli. Phototaxis is the response of plants to sunlight. The plant bends in the direction of the incoming sunlight. Gravitaxis is the response of plants to gravity when the roots grow down, even though the bulb is planted upside-down in the pot, or the pot is turned on its side. Animals are generally thought of as being highly mobile while plants are generally thought of as having limited mobility. However, some animals such as sponges, corals, and clams are sessile (stationary) as adults. The venus flytrap, a plant, undergoes dramatic locomotion in capturing its prey. Trigger hairs on the leaf detect the arrival of an insect and stimulate the leaf to fold. Living organisms come only from pre-existing living organisms. All living systems reproduce either asexually or sexually. Asexual reproduction is reproduction without the fusion of egg and sperm. Cell division by mitosis and yeast budding are examples of asexual reproduction. Each new cell is genetically identical to the parent cell. The only way genetic variation can occur is by mutation. Sexual reproduction involves the fusion of egg and sperm. The new organism develops from the fertilized egg. The different genetic contributions of the male and female parents provide for genetic variation, which is the raw material for adaptation and evolution. All living organisms have a limited life span. Protozoan lifespan in a culture flask is represented by a sigmoidal curve, which has a time scale of hours. Average lifespan is characteristic of the species. Some insects have a life span of a few hours, but redwood tress can live thousands of years. The average human lifespan in the United States is now approximately 75 years.

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Continuity of Life: Genetics and Development DNA is the biological molecule which ensures the continutity of life. DNA provides continuity from cell-to-cell within an organism and from generation to generation for multicellular organisms. The reproductive process provides for constancy of the species chromosome number. During cell differentiation, genes (lengths of DNA) are turned on and off as the germ layers form specialized tissues. DNA thus guarantees the proper development of the organism. All living organisms use the same three-base genetic code.

Genetics and Reproduction The major structural unit carrying genetic information in eukaryotic cells is the chromosome. Species have characteristic but not necessarily unique chromosome numbers. Humans are not unique in having 46 chromosomes (diploid number; the number of chromosomes in the somatic [non-sex] cells of the body). Some other species of animals and plants have 46 chromosomes. One species of roundworm C. elegans has only two chromosomes in its cells; some crabs have more than 200; and some ferns have more than 1000. However, most plant and animal species have from 10 to 50 chromosomes. For sexual reproduction to result in continuity of the species, the usual diploid chromosome number of somatic cells must be reduced to half (haploid number) in the gametes (egg and sperm). This is accomplished by the process of meiosis during gamete formation. Meiosis consists of several stages including prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase. The arrangement of the chromosomes in each of these phases is depicted in Figure 3-16. Meiosis produces haploid cells with unique gene combinations. When the gametes fuse, the usual species–characteristic diploid chromosome number is re-established. Genes that carry specific information for specific traits are located on the chromosomes. The basic principles of inheritance were elucidated in the nineteenth century by Gregor Mendel. These basic principles are as follows: ■ ■ ■

■

Physical traits are passed from parent to offspring by some unknown mechanism (now known as genes). Each offspring has two genes (Mendel called them units of inheritance) for each trait, one gene from each parent. Some genes are dominant and some are recessive. When present together, the trait of the dominant gene will be expressed in preference to the recessive gene. A corollary to this is, if two recessive genes are present, the recessive trait will be expressed. The members of any gene pair segregate from one another independently of the members of the other gene pairs. This is known as the principle of independent assortment.

The information carried in the genes is the individual’s genotype. The traits actually expressed are the individual’s phenotype. For example, suppose that brown eyes are dominant over blue eyes in humans. If a child inherits one blueeyed gene from one parent and a brown-eyed gene from another parent, the child’s phenotype would be brown eyes, but its genotype will be a carrier for blue eyes. This child is heterozygous for eye color; heterozygous means carrying two different genes for a trait. Only a child with a genotype of two blue-eyed genes would have a phenotype of blue eyes. This child is homozygous for eye color; homozygous means carrying two identical genes for a trait. (Eye color inheritance in humans is more complex than this.) Additional rules of inheritance include ■

■ ■

■

■

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Sex is determined by special sex chromosomes X and Y. The Y chromosome determines the male sex in most species of mammals. Linked genes (genes on the same chromosome) do not sort independently. Sex-linked genes (genes on the X or Y chromosome) have unusual patterns of inheritance (for example, color blindness). Dominance is not always complete. Incomplete dominance can occur. For example, four o’clock plants may have red flowers or white flowers. Offspring of a red-flowering and a white-flowering plant have pink flowers. Another phenomenon that can occur is codominance. For example, in horses, a reddish coat color is not completely dominant over white coat color. Heterozygous offspring of red and white coated parents are called roan. Their coats are a mixture of reddish and white colored hairs. Multiple alleles for a gene may exist in a population. Alleles are different forms of the same gene in a population, e.g., eye color and hair color. For example, for human eye color, there may be genes for hazel, green, and gray eyes in the population.


chromosomes

nuclear envelope nucleolus chromatin centrioles plasma membrane

spindle fibers prophase I

interphase I 4 haploid daughter cells

telophase II homologous metaphase I pair of chromosomes

anaphase II

sister chromatids metaphase II anaphase I

prophase II

telophase I

Meiosis in an Animal Cell Figure 3-16 Chromosomes are made of chromatin. Chromatin is composed of protein (histones) and DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid). The carrier of genetic information in all forms of life at the molecular level is DNA. Genes, which are units of varying lengths of DNA, carry the information for specific inherited traits. DNA is a biopolymer (biological polymer) and has a double-helix structure. The monomeric unit, or building block, of DNA is the nucleotide. Each nucleotide is composed of one base, one sugar, and one phosphate group. These groups are all covalently bound. In DNA, the sugar is deoxyribose. The bases are adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), and thymine (T). The structural formulas for these components are given in Figure 3-17. DNA is a polynucleotide—that is, it is composed of many nucleotides all chemically linked via their phosphate groups. Two polynucleotide strands pair to form the DNA molecule. The bases on opposite strands pair by hydrogen bonding. A to T is paired by two hydrogen bonds and G to C is paired by three hydrogen bonds. These hydrogen-bonded pairs form the steps of the DNA ladder. The genetic code of life is a three-base pair code termed the codon. DNA is negatively charged—that is, it is an acid that has lost its protons. This structure of DNA allows it to carry information and to be duplicated relatively error-free.

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Nucleic Acid Bases

NH2

Structures of the common nucleobases. Structures of pyrimidine and purine are shown for comparison.

O C

C O

O

N

CH

C

CH

C

HN O

C

CH3

C

CH N H Thymine

N H Cytosine NH2

O

HN

CH

C

CH

N H Uracil O

C

N

N

C

HC

C

C

N

HN

C

C

C

CH

CH H2N

N N H H Adenine

N

N H

Guanine

H C

H C

N

N

CH

N

C

HC

CH

HC

C

CH N

N

Pyrimidine

N H

Purine

Figure 3-17 DNA replication occurs in all cells before cell division during both mitosis and meiosis. DNA replication transfers genetic information from one generation to the next and allows the transfer of genetic information to new cells of multicellular organisms within the same generation. DNA replication is basically a chemical process involving enzymes, cofactors, bond breaking, and bond forming. DNA replication is a complex process that includes the following sequence of events: 1. The strands of the DNA double-helix are separated in an unzippering or unwinding process. The hydrogen bonds between base pairs are broken by the enzyme helicase. DNA unwinds from a specific point called the origin of replication (Ori). 2. The unwound DNA strand is protected from the action of nucleases (enzymes that degrade single-stranded DNA) by DNA-binding protein. 3. A new strand of DNA is synthesized using the old unwound single-stranded DNA as a template. 4. Errors (mismatched base pairs) during synthesis are enzymatically corrected. DNA replication results in the production of two new genetically identical DNA molecules. Each new DNA molecule contains one strand from the original DNA and one new strand as shown in Figure 3-18. This situation is termed semiconservative replication. The details of DNA replication differ in prokaryotes and eukaryotes, but the semiconservative nature is observed in all organisms. DNA replication is also, with the exception of a few viruses, bidirectional—that is, for each Ori there are two points (replicating forks) at which new polynucleotide chains are formed. One replicating fork is termed the leading strand, and the other replicating fork is termed the lagging strand. On the leading strand, the DNA is synthesized continuously and antiparallel to the template strand. On the lagging strand, the DNA is synthesized discontinuously and also antiparallel to the template strand in fragments called Okazaki fragments. The fragments are then joined by the enzyme DNA ligase. On both the leading and lagging strands, synthesis occurs in the 5' to 3' direction. DNA polymerase catalyzes the successive addition of each nucleotide to the growing DNA chain. A new phophodiester

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(a phosphate group linking the sugars) bond is formed, and pyrophosphate (inorganic phosphate) is eliminated as shown in the following equation: dTTP, dATP, dGTP, dCTP DNA nucleotides

DNA-dependent DNA polymerase

DNA (polymer) + PPi

The DNA polymerase reaction requires all four deoxyribonucleotide triphosphates, Mg+2, DNA itself, and an RNA (riboncleic acid) primer. The primer is a short strand of RNA that hydrogen bonds to the template DNA. The new DNA strand begins to grow by forming a covalent bond to a free hydroxy (OH) group of the primer. The purine and pyrimidine bases of the new DNA strand hydrogen bond with the bases of the template strand—only A to T and only G to C. 5'

5'

3'

3'

DNA replicates

lagging strand

leading strand

3'

th ow gr 5'

Okazaki fragments

of

DNA polymerase

lea

3' 5'

se tiv

ac

d an str

era

lym

g din

po

DNA ligase

ity

RNA primer 3'

RNA primer replaced by DNA nucleotides

5' single-stranded binding proteins

growing Okazaki fragment

helicase RNA primase

replication fork

topoisomerase overall direction of DNA polymerase activity and DNA replication

3'

5'

Parental DNA (DNA template)

DNA Replication Figure 3-18

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DNA polymerases with exonuclease activity both proofread and repair DNA during the process of replication. Exonucleases interrupt replication and remove any errors (incorrect nucleotides) immediately after they are added to the growing chain. Replication resumes when the correct nucleotide is added. The specificity of hydrogen-bonded base pairing accounts for one error in every 104 to 106 base pairs. The proofreading function of exonucleases improves the fidelity of replication to one error in every 109 to 1010 base pairs. In addition to experiencing spontaneous mutations caused by misreading of the genetic code, organisms may be exposed to mutagens (agents that produce mutations). Common mutagens include ultraviolet light, radioactivity, and mutagenic chemicals. Mutagens cause changes in DNA beyond those produced by spontaneous mutation. In these situations, existing DNA is enzymatically repaired by a cut-and-patch process known as excision-repair. Thymine dimers, produced by UV light, are an example of this type of damage. The general features of DNA replication in prokaryotes and eukaryotes are similar. However, prokaryotic DNA is naked—that is, uncomplexed—whereas eukaryotic DNA is complexed to histones. In eukaryotes, histone biosynthesis occurs at the same time as DNA replication, and histones are associated with DNA as it is formed. Another difference is that eukaryotic DNA polymerases do not possess exonuclease activity. Separate exonucleolytic enzymes perform this function in eukaryotic cells. Not only does DNA carry the information for inherited traits, but it also carries the information to run the biochemical machinery of the cells, tissues, and organ systems. Implementation of the code carried by DNA requires RNA. The information coded in DNA is transferred to messenger RNA (mRNA) by a process called transcription (see Figure 3-19). Messenger RNA is synthesized on a DNA template. The base sequence of DNA is reflected in the base sequence of mRNA. RNA is different from DNA in three aspects—it is single-stranded; it contains ribose instead of deoxyribose; and it contains uracil instead of thymine. Except for RNA viruses, the following general features of RNA transcription are found in all organisms: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

RNA is synthesized on a DNA template. DNA is partially unzipped. RNA synthesis is catalyzed by DNA-dependent RNA polymerases. All four ribonucleotide triphosphates (ATP, GTP, CTP, UTP) and Mg+2 are required. A primer is not required. Synthesis is from the 5' to the 3' end. Adenine (A) hydrogen bonds to uracil (U), and guanine (G) hydrogen bonds to thymine (T). The DNA template is unchanged.

DNA-dependent RNA polymerase uses one strand of DNA (the sense strand) as the template for RNA synthesis. The base sequence for DNA contains signals for initiation (start codon) and termination (stop codon) of RNA synthesis. The enzyme binds to the sense strand and moves along it in the 3' to 5' direction. In eukaryotic cells, the newly synthesized mRNA moves out of the nucleus through nuclear pores into the cytoplasm. The sequence of base pairs on mRNA carries a coded message containing the chemical instruction for the production of protein. The synthesis of proteins from mRNA is called translation and is depicted schematically in Figure 3-19. Protein synthesis requires three types of RNA—mRNA, tRNA (transfer RNA), and rRNA (ribosomal RNA). Protein synthesis takes place on the ribosomes. Ribosomes are organelles composed of protein and rRNA. Translation is a complex process. However, the following basic steps including amino acid activation, chain initiation, chain elongation, and chain termination can be delineated: 1. mRNA strand fits into a groove on a ribosome or polyribosome. 2. An amino acid is activated via ATP and covalently bound to tRNA as aminoacyl-tRNA. This reaction is catalyzed by aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase. 3. tRNA brings an amino acid to mRNA. tRNAs are amino acid specific. 4. tRNA binds to mRNA via its three base pair anticodon, which hydrogen bonds with the mRNA codon. The anticodon is antiparallel and complementary to the tRNA codon. This is chain initiation. Chain initiation requires a start codon. 5. A second tRNA carrying an amino acid attaches to the ribosome close to the first tRNA. 6. The two amino acids are enzymatically linked via a peptide bond. This is chain elongation. 7. The ribosome shifts along the mRNA attracting additional amino acid-carrying RNAs. The chain elongation steps repeat.

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8. The tRNA holding the peptide chain occupies the P site by the ribosomes. The tRNA delivering the next amino acid in the sequence binds at the A site. 9. The process of peptide bond formation continues until the entire “message” of mRNA is read. At this point a complete protein has been synthesized. Chain termination requires a stop codon. The genetic code has been transferred from a DNA base sequence to an RNA base sequence to a protein amino acid sequence. This amino acid sequence is the primary structure of proteins. Primary structure determines secondary, tertiary, and quaternary structure, and, thus, the overall structure and function of proteins.

Nucleus 5'

3'

transcription G C

3' 5'

tRNA 3' 5'

RNA polymerase

U A

U A G

C G small and large ribosome subunits

A

T

DNA

1

mRNA

3

his

5'

te Psi

A A A

A U G

e

it As

val

glu

mRNA

2 me

A growing polypeptide Psite

A C

sn

7 C A C

U

cys

pro

G

-a

3'

Asite

6

m

U A

tio

n

G C

A C A G G U U G U C C A

small rRNA subunit

G

ns

A

la

U

A

5'

et

9

8 arg

4 5

U

A

la t ion

G

C

G

larger RNA subunit

U

U

U

ser

G U U

met

t

C U A A

A

C

tra

ns

G A G

ala

tra

Protein Synthesis Figure 3-19

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Development After egg and sperm have fused in sexual reproduction to form the zygote, the development of an organism begins. In the early stages of development the organism is called an embryo, and the study of its development is called embryology. The basic processes involved in embryonic development include ■ ■ ■

Cleavage Growth Differentiation

After fertilization the zygote begins a series of cell divisions called cleavage, as shown in Figure 3-20. The zygote divides by mitosis into two cells. These two cells divide by mitosis producing four cells and so on. During cleavage, the cells do not grow, so with each division, the cells decrease in size. The eggs of most species are many times larger than the average cell of the adult. Cleavage continues until the size of the cells of the developing embryo have been reduced to the size of the cells of the adult organism. Cleavage converts a single large fertilized egg into many small cells. The early divisions of cleavage result in the formation of a solid ball of cells. As cleavage continues, the cells rearrange forming a hollow sphere (called the blastula) with a fluid-filled cavity. In the blastula stage, the cells begin to grow before dividing. Also, various movements of the cells occur that will establish the shape of the embryo. When the blastula reaches several hundred cells, gastrulation occurs. The cells on one side of the blastula push in and form a two-layered embryo called the gastrula. The opening created by gastrulation later becomes an opening to the digestive tract in the adult organism. The outer layer of cells in the gastrula is called the ectoderm. The inner layer is called the endoderm. The cavity within the gastrula is called the primitive gut and later becomes the digestive system. Eventually, the cavity breaks through to the opposite end of the gastrula forming the second opening of the digestive tract. A third cell layer, the mesoderm, forms between the ectoderm and endoderm. These three cell layers are termed the germ layers. The embryonic stages from the zygote through to the gastrula are shown in Figure 3-20.

fertilized cell

first division (2 cells)

second division (4 cells)

third division (8 cells)

ectoderm mesoderm

ectoderm the blastula

endoderm

endoderm

early gastrula

late gastrula

Figure 3-20 Organs and systems that develop from the three germ layers are shown in the following table. The cells of the gastrula are all very much alike. Differentiation is the process that transforms unspecialized embryonic cells into specialized cells, tissues, and organs.

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Ectoderm

Mesoderm

Endoderm

Nervous system including brain, spinal cord, nerves

Bones and muscles

Lining of digestive tract

Lining of mouth, nostrils, and anus

Blood and blood vessels

Lining of trachea, bronchi, and lungs

Epidermis of skin, sweat glands, hair, and nails

Inner layer (dermis) of skin

Liver and pancreas Thyroid, parathyroid, and thymus Urinary bladder

Evolution: Diversity of Life According to Darwinian evolution, the biological diversity represented by the millions of species currently living on our planet evolved from a single ancestor. Organisms that appear very different, such as a hyacinth and a hamster, are distantly related to one another and are linked through intermediate ancestors to a single common ancestor. Darwin’s theory of evolution says that all species that exist today, as well as extinct species, arose from earlier ones by a process of gradual change or evolution. Evolution can be defined as the accumulation of heritable traits in a population over time. Heritable traits are traits that can be passed genetically from one generation to the next. A population is a group of individuals of one species that live in the same geographical area at the same time. Members of a species are capable of interbreeding with one another and producing fertile offspring. Members of a species do not breed with other species. A species may be comprised of one or more populations. Evolution refers to changes in the characteristics of populations over many generations. Two populations may, in time, diverge to form separate species. Evidence supporting the theory of evolution includes the following: ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■

Fossil records Homologous features Homoplastic features Vestigial structures Vertebrate embryology Genetic code Protein amino acid sequences Immunological testing

Fossils are the remains or traces of previously living organisms. Fossils may be preserved in sedimentary rock, amber, tar, ice, and bogs. The remains of a woolly mammoth deep-frozen in Siberia for 25,000 years were preserved well enough that its DNA could be analyzed. This finding linked evidence from paleontology with evidence from molecular biology. Fossils provide direct evidence for the origin of new species from existing species. Fossils can be dated using radioactive techniques such as radio-carbon dating. Structural features derived from the same structure in a common ancestor are termed homologous features. For example, compare a human arm, a dog forelimb, a whale front flipper, and a bat wing. These are all quite different in appearance but have similar arrangements of bone, muscles, and nerves. Leaves are an example of a homologous feature in plants. A cactus pine and a pea tendril are homologous because both are modified leaves. Structural features that are not homologous but have similar function are termed homoplastic features. Insect wings and bird wings are homoplastic features that have evolved over time to meet the same function. Spines, which are modified leaves, and thorns, which are modified stems, illustrate homoplasy in plants. Independent evolution of similar structures is termed convergent evolution.

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Vestigial structures are nonfunctional. They are remnants of a more developed functional structure in an ancestral organism. Examples of vestigial structures in humans include the appendix, wisdom teeth, and the muscles that move the ears. All vertebrates have similar patterns of embryological development. The early stages of embryonic development are almost identical in different vertebrate species. For example, gill pouches are present in reptile, bird, pig, and human embryos. All organisms use the same genetic code. The three-base pair code or codon leads to a specific amino acid. A sequence of amino acids leads to a protein. The sequence of amino acids in proteins with the same function in different species is similar. Thus, DNA itself contains a record of evolutionary change. A phylogenetic tree is a diagram showing lines of descent based on DNA. The Nuttall test is based on an antigen-antibody reaction. The greater the amount of precipitate, the more closely related the two organisms. For example, a human-chimpanzee test would yield more precipitate than a human-rabbit test. Natural selection is the mechanism by which evolution occurs. Inherited traits favorable to survival tend to be passed to the next generation. Inherited traits unfavorable to survival tend to be eliminated. This results in an adaptation—an evolutionary modification that improves the chances of survival and reproductive success of populations. In order for inherited traits to reach the next generation, the organism must survive to the reproductive age. In the process of natural selection, the environment (physical and biological) “selects” the traits favorable to survival. Darwin’s theory of evolution by natural selection contains four major points about the natural world: ■ ■ ■ ■

Overproduction Variation Limits on population growth Differential reproductive success

Overproduction refers to the fact that each species has the capacity to produce more offspring than will survive in nature. Variation refers to individual variation within a population. For example, height, coat color, or tolerance to cold could vary among the individual members of a population. Limits on population growth are due to limited supplies of food, water, light, and/or growing space. Differential reproductive success (survival of the fittest) refers to the likelihood that those individuals that survive to reproductive age will be the ones with the most favorable (to survive in the environment) combinations of inherited traits. The combination of the principles of genetics with Darwin’s theory of natural selection is known as neo-Darwinism or the synthetic theory of evolution. The synthetic theory of evolution explains Darwin’s observation of variation in terms of mutations. Mutations are changes in DNA structure such as nucleotide substitution—that is, mismatched base pairs. Mutations provide the genetic variability on which natural selection acts during the evolution of populations. Each population possesses a gene pool, which is the total genetic material of all the individuals that make up that population and includes all alleles for all the genes present in the population. Alleles are alternative forms of the same gene. The allele frequency is the percentage of a specific allele in the population. A sexually reproducing population is said to be in genetic equilibrium if the allele frequencies remain constant from generation to generation. A population in genetic equilibrium is not undergoing evolution. The Hardy-Weinberg principle explains mathematically why the process of inheritance by itself does not cause changes in allele frequencies in large populations. Assume allele A (dominant) and allele a (recessive) are genes for a trait following simple Mendelian inheritance. Let p = frequency of A and q = frequency of a; then the frequency of alleles in the population is p2 + 2pq + q2 = 1 and p + q = 1 p2 is the frequency of AA, 2pq is the frequency of Aa, and q2 is the frequency of aa. The frequency of alleles A and a in succeeding generations will remain constant provided the five following conditions are met: ■ ■

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Random mating No net mutations


■ ■ ■

Large population size No migration No natural selection

In random mating, each individual in a population has an equal chance of mating with any individual of the opposite sex. There must be no mutations that convert A into a and vice versa. In large populations, random fluctuation is negligible. Genetic drift is random fluctuation. No migration means no exchange of genes with other populations that might have different allele frequencies. In natural selection one phenotype (and therefore genotype) is selected over another. Microevolution occurs when a population’s allele or genotypic frequencies change. Microevolution is a generation-togeneration change within a population. Nonrandom mating, mutation, genetic drift, gene flow, and natural selection singly or in combination lead to microevolution. There are two types of nonrandom mating: inbreeding and assortative mating. The mating of genetically similar individuals is known as inbreeding. Selecting a mate on the basis of phenotype is known as assortative mating. Mutations increase the genetic variability that can be acted on by natural selection so there is a potential for new adaptation. The production of random evolutionary changes in small breeding populations is known as genetic drift. Genetic drift results in allele frequency changes. The migration of breeding individuals between populations causes a corresponding movement of alleles termed gene flow. Gene flow generally increases variation within a population. Natural selection changes allele frequencies in a way that increases adaptation to the environment. Natural selection acts on the heritable components of the phenotype, which is an expression of the genotype. Speciation is the evolution of a new species. Speciation occurs when a population becomes reproductively isolated from other members of the species. When the gene pool of the separated population diverges sufficiently in genetic composition such that mating can no longer occur with the original population, speciation has occurred. According to the punctuated equilibrium model of evolution, evolutionary changes can occur rapidly. This model views the evolution of a species as a long period of stasis (no evolutionary change) punctuated or interrupted by short periods of rapid speciation. Thus, speciation occurs in “bursts,” possibly due to environmental changes. The “burst” may be a 100,000 years; the stasis, 2 million years. In contrast, the model of gradualism depicts evolution as occurring continuously over long periods of time. Adaptive radiation is the diversification of one or a few ancestral species into many species. Adaptive zones are new ecological opportunities that were not utilized by the ancestral species. An adaptive zone is one or more similar ecological niches (functional role of species within a community). When many adaptive zones are empty, available species diversify and fill them. Generally, islands have fewer species than the mainland areas of similar size so vacant adaptive zones are more prevalent on islands. The evolution of 13 species of Darwin’s finches on the Galapagos Islands is an example of adaptive radiation. Macroevolution is the large-scale phenotypic changes that allow the evolution of taxonomic groups above the species level—genus, family, order, class, and phyla. An example of macroevolution would be the evolution of birds from reptiles. Extinction occurs when the last individual of a species dies. After a species is extinct, it can never reappear. Extinctions have occurred continuously throughout evolutionary history. The continuous low-level extinction of species is termed background extinction. Mass extinctions of numerous species have occurred five to six times during evolutionary history. Life on Earth must have originated at least once from non-life. Chemical evolution is believed to have preceded biological evolution. Conditions on the early Earth were conducive to the formation of organic molecules and biopolymers from simple inorganic molecules as demonstrated by the Miller-Urey experiment. This “organic soup” led to precells. Molecular reproduction evolved within precells. According to the RNA world hypothesis, self-replicating RNA molecules evolved before DNA. RNA functioned as both a substrate and an enzyme for its own replication. Catalytic RNAs are called ribozymes. In the RNA world, ribozymes catalyzed protein synthesis. Precells in turn led to the formation of the first primitive cell, which was most likely anaerobic, heterotrophic, and prokaryotic. According to the endosymbiont theory, eukaryotes evolved from prokaryotes. Organelles such as mitochondria and chloroplast originated from a mutualistic symbiosis between two prokaryotic organisms. Chloroplasts probably evolved from photosynthetic bacteria—that is, cyanobacteria; mitochondria probably evolved from aerobic bacteria—for example, purple bacteria, both living within a larger heterotropic cell. When photosynthesis evolved, oxygen was added to the Earth’s atmosphere. This was the beginning of aerobic metabolism as we know it today.

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Basic Life Processes The basic life functions include obtaining nutrients, obtaining energy from nutrients (metabolism), sensing the environment, locomotion, reproduction, and excretion (removal of unmetabolized nutrients and excess water). These basic life functions require living systems to maintain an internal dynamic equilibrium—for example, water balance and a narrow pH range. The classification of living organisms is called taxonomy. Linnaean classification groups all living organisms according to shared characteristics so that each organism is as close as possible to those organisms that it resembles and as far as possible from those that it does not resemble. Resemble in this sense refers to all characteristics of an organism, not just macroscopic physical characteristics. The basic unit of Linnaean classification is the species. Binomial nomenclature is used to designate a species. The species name is preceded by the genus name (for example, homo sapiens for humans). The main categories of classification from widest to narrowest are kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus, and species. The five kingdoms are ■ ■ ■ ■ ■

Monera: unicellular, no cell nucleus—that is, prokaryotic Protista: mainly unicellular with a cell nucleus—that is, eukaryotic and a few very simple multicellular organisms Fungi: multicellular organisms that obtain nutrients by absorption from the environment Plants: multicellular organisms that obtain their energy directly from the sun by photosynthesis Animals: multicellular organisms that obtain their nutrients by ingesting other organisms (plants and/or animals)

The total number of species currently living is in excess of 1.4 million. The distribution of species among different kinds of living organisms is shown in Figure 3-21. Insects account for more than half of all known species. All species have structures, mechanisms, and processes for dealing with the basic life functions. Some of these modes of dealing with the basic life processes are very different due to divergent evolution; and some are very similar due to convergent evolution or close proximity taxonomically. Total number of living species (Organisms currently known) 1,413,000

Insects 53%

Protozoa 2.2%

Other animals 20%

Higher plants 17.6%

Algae 1.9%

Viruses 0.1% Monera Fungi (e.g., bacteria) 4.9% 0.3%

Figure 3-21 Living organisms obtain nutrients and/or energy in three basic ways. The three modes of nutrition are: ■ ■ ■

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Photrophic Chemotrophic Heterotrophic


Phototrophic nutrition is any process by which an organism synthesizes its own organic nutrients from simple inorganic compounds using sunlight. Organisms capable of phototrophic nutrition are called phototrophs. Green plants, all algae, some bacteria, and some protozoa are phototrophic. The process of photosynthesis extracts energy from sunlight. In the most common type of photosynthesis, the inorganic compounds carbon dioxide and water are converted into the organic compound glucose. Photosynthesis is the major type of autotrophic nutrition. The process of chemosynthesis extracts energy from a chemical reaction(s) not involving sunlight. Again simple inorganic compounds are converted into organic compounds. Organisms that obtain their nutrients chemosynthetically are called chemotrophs and use chemotrophic nutrition. Sulfur bacteria and nitrifying bacteria are chemotrophs. Phototrophs and chemotrophs grouped together are called autotrophs. Heterotrophic nutrition is any process by which an organism obtains its nutrients from other organisms (living or dead) or their products. Already synthesized organic nutrients must be obtained from outside the organism. Organisms capable of heterotrophic nutrition are called heterotrophs. Heterotrophs cannot synthesize their own organic nutrients. All animals, saprophytic and parasitic plants, most bacteria, most protozoa, and all fungi are heterotrophs.

Phototrophic Nutrition Multicellular green plants have a specialized intracellular organelle, the chloroplast, shown in Figure 3-22 for photosynthesis and a specialized organ, the leaf, for photosynthesis. stroma thylakoid granum

Chloroplast Figure 3-22 Chlorophyll is the organic pigment that gives plants their green color. Plants that have red, blue, or gray leaves still contain chlorophyll. The color is just masked by the other pigments. At the molecular level, the overall process of photosynthesis can be summarized by the following chemical reaction: 6CO2 + 6H20 → C6H12O6 + 6O2 This reaction requires light and chlorophyll. This reaction occurs stepwise in many steps within the living cell. Photosynthesis occurs in two parts: the light reaction and the dark reaction, as shown in Figure 3-23. In the light reaction, chlorophyll absorbs the energy of sunlight (electromagnetic radiation). The chlorophyll then possesses excess energy and is in an excited state. Part of this excess energy is transferred into the high-energy phosphate bond of ATP. This ATP is used to drive the dark reaction. Another part of chlorophyll’s excess energy is used to split a molecule of water into hydrogen and oxygen as shown in the photolysis reaction that follows: H2O → 2H+ + 1/2 O2 + 2e– (high energy)

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The oxygen is released to the environment. All the oxygen released during photosynthesis comes from this photolysis. The hydrogen is transferred to the hydrogen acceptor NADP (nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate). This produces NADPH as shown in the reaction that follows: NADP+ + H+ + 2e– (high energy) → NADPH Most of the energy released from splitting the water molecule is transferred to NADPH. NADPH is also used to drive the dark reaction. The chlorophyll, other accessory pigments, and enzymes required for the light reaction are located in the grana (stacks of thylakoids) of the chloroplast. Chlorophyll molecules and accessory pigment molecules are organized in the thylakoid membrane in units called antenna complexes. The pigment molecules are arranged as highly ordered groups of 200 to 300 molecules associated with specific enzymes and other proteins. Each antenna traps light and transfers the energy to a reaction center, a complex of chlorophyll and protein that participates directly in photosynthesis. Two types of photosynthetic units designated Photosystem I and Photosystem II are involved in photosynthesis. The reaction centers of Photosystem I have an absorption maximum at 700 nm and are designated P700. The reaction centers of Photosystem II have an absorption maximum at 680 nm and are designated P680. The term photolysis of water is somewhat of a misnomer. Light does not directly split the water molecule. Light splits water indirectly by first oxidizing P680, which then causes the splitting of water. In the dark reaction, carbon dioxide is converted into carbohydrate. This process is called carbon fixation. The dark reaction does not require light. It can proceed in either light or dark. However, ATP and NADPH produced by the light reaction are required. The dark reactions take place in the stroma of the chloroplast. The dark reaction is a sequence of reactions known as the Calvin cycle shown in Figure 3-23. The cycle begins when a carbon dioxide molecule combines with a fivecarbon sugar ribulose bisphosphate (RuBP). This reaction is catalyzed by the enzyme ribulose bisphosphate carboxylase known as Rubisco. The resultant six-carbon product is unstable and immediately breaks apart into two three-carbon molecules called phosphoglycerate (PGA). At this point, the carbon in CO2 has been “fixed” into the carbon skeleton of an organic molecule. ATP and NADPH from the light reaction then transfer energy into PGA to form phosphoglyceraldehyde (PGAL). PGAL is phosphorylated by ATP and reduced by NADPH. Most of the PGAL formed in the Calvin cycle is converted to RuBP and repeats the cycle. Some of the PGAL is released to form glucose. It takes two three-carbon PGALs to form one six-carbon glucose molecule. It takes six turns of the Calvin cycle to use six molecules of CO2. Leaves are the major site of photosynthesis in plants. The cross-section of a leaf in Figure 3-24 illustrates that the mesophyll is the layer between the upper and lower epidermis. The mesophyll is the photosynthetic tissue. The upper portion of the mesophyll is called the palisade layer and is one or two cells in thickness. The cells of the palisade layer have a rich supply of chloroplasts. This is where most photosynthesis occurs. Below the palisade layer is the spongy layer. This layer consists of irregularly shaped cells separated by large air spaces. The stomata opening of the lower epidermis are continuous with these intercellular air spaces. The cells of the spongy layer contain fewer chloroplasts than the cells of the palisade layer. The cell surfaces of the spongy layer are moist, a condition that enhances the diffusion of gases. After glucose is photosynthesized by phototrophic green plants, it is then used by the plants just as ingested glucose is used by heterotrophic organisms.

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PHOTOPHOSPHORYLATION (lightreactions)

primary electron acceptor

2e -

ele

CYCLIC

2e NONCYCLIC

ctr o

n

tra

ns

2e -

primary electron acceptor

p

ADP

NADP + + H+ + 2e -

or

2e -

tc ha

light

in

ATP

light

NADPH

2e -

Photosystem I with P 700 Photosystem II with P 680 light

H2O

PHOTOLYSIS 2e- + H + + H + + O 2

2e -

CALVIN CYCLE ( C 3 dark reactions)

12 ATP 12 PGA rubisco 6 CO2

12 ADP 12 NADPH 12 NADP

6 RuBP

+

12 PGAL 6 ADP 10 PGAL

2 PGAL

1 glucose

6 ATP

Figure 3-23

149


cuticle upper epidermis

palisade mesophyll spongy mesophyll

lower epidermis vascular bundle (vein)

cuticle

xylem phloem

stoma guard cell

bundle sheath cell

Structure of a Leaf Figure 3-24

Chemotrophic Nutrition The sulfur bacteria of deep hydrothermal vents are chemotrophic organisms. Light does not reach the ocean at the depth of hydrothermal vents. This undersea volcanic activity releases hydrogen sulfide. Chemotrophic bacteria near the vents use the H2S as an energy source. The Thiovulum/Riftia symbiosis (Thiovulum is a bacterium and Riftia is a tube worm about 2 meters long) is found near thermal vents in the deep sea. Riftia contains an organ called a trophosome that harbors Thiovolum and several other prokaryotic genera. The worm contains a unique hemoglobin that binds the hydrogen sulfide generated by volcanic activity and delivers it to the bacterial symbiont. Bacterial oxidation of the hydrogen sulfide generates the energy that is required to fix carbon. The worm receives the fixed carbon from the bacteria. Another example of chemotrophic nutritition is the bacterium Thiobacillus. Thiobacillus is an obligate acidophile (requires low pH) that also oxidizes hydrogen sulfide. In addition, this bacterium can utilize the oxidation of iron to obtain energy to fix carbon. Thiobacillus extracts iron from solid pyrite (FeS2) in a two-step process in which sulfur atoms are oxidized. First, the organism catalyzes the oxidation of ferrous iron, generating ferric iron: Fe2++ 1/2 O2 + 2 H+ → Fe3++ H2O Secondly, the ferric iron produced spontaneously reacts with pyrite: FeS2 + 14 Fe3+ + 8 H2O → 15 Fe2+ + 2 SO42– + 16 H+ These reactions are cyclic, since the ferrous iron produced in the second reaction is a reactant in the first reaction. These reactions will continue until all of the pyrite is exhausted.

Heterotrophic Nutrition For heterotrophic organisms, the problem of obtaining organic nutrients is one of ingestion or decomposition/ingestion. Most fungi are saprophytes. Saprophytes obtain their nutrients from dead animal and/or plant matter. Fungi secrete digestive enzymes onto their food source and then absorb the decomposed matter. Bread mold is a fungus that grows on the surface of bread as a cotton-like mass of filaments (hyphae). Root-like hyphae called rhizoids anchor the fungus, secrete digestive enzymes, and absorb nutrients. Some plants have developed heterotrophic methods of nutrition in addition to or in place of photosynthesis. The Indian pipe is a saprophytic plant that completely lacks chlorophyll. Its roots contain filaments of a fungus. The fungus obtains nutrients from decaying organic matter in the soil. The Indian pipe is completely dependent on the fungus for nutrients and water. Dodder is a parasitic plant. It appears as a leafless coffee-colored vine wrapped around green plants. The roots of the Dodder are modified to enter the tissue of its host (a green plant) from which it draws nutrients and water.

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Heterotrophic protozoa obtain their food in a variety of ways. Parameciae sweep food into their oral groove by the beating of their cilia. Amoebae engulf their food in a process of phagocytosis. The hydra, a simple multicellular organism, captures and paralyzes its food with stinging tentacles as shown in Figure 3-25. The tentacles that surround the mouth contain stinging cells called nematoblasts. Within each nematoblast is a capsule called the nematocyst, which contains a coiled hollow thread. When a small animal comes in contact with a tentacle, the nematocysts discharge their long threads. Some of the threads wind around the prey while others inject a paralyzing poison. By movement of the tentacles, the food is stuffed into the mouth. mouth

ectoderm endoderm tentacle

Structure of the hydra

endoderm

ectoderm nematocyst

stinging cell A nematocyst

Figure 3-25 Earthworms ingest food by the sucking action of their pharynx. Grasshoppers break food down mechanically by the action of their mouth parts.

Water Regulation in Animals The ocean is a stable environment since its salt concentration does not change much. The body fluids of most marine invertebrate organisms are in osmotic equilibrium with the surrounding water. Terrestial animals, however, have a continuous need to conserve water because of its evaporation from body surfaces and respiratory surfaces and loss due to excretion. Two processes regulate water balance in animals—osmoregulation and excretion. Osmoregulation is the active regulation of the osmotic pressure of body fluids to keep them from becoming too diluted or too concentrated. Osmosis is the diffusion of water through a semipermeable membrane from a region of high concentration of water

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(low solute concentration) to a region of low concentration of water (high solute concentration). The pressure resulting from osmosis is osmotic pressure (π). Osmotic pressure is the pressure necessary to reverse osmosis and is defined by the following equation: π i π M R T

= = = = = =

iMRT, where number of ions or particles resulting from each formula unit osmotic pressure (not 3.14) molarity (moles/L) universal gas constant (.0821 L–atm/mole–°K) temperature on the Kelvin scale

Osmotic pressure is a colligative property—that is, it depends on the number of particles in solution. Osmotic pressure causes sap to rise in a tree. Living cells can be in one of three situations with regard to osmosis. Cells may be in isotonic, hypertonic, or hypotonic solutions (extracellular fluid, salt water, fresh water). In an isotonic situation, the osmotic pressure of the cell is equal to the osmotic pressure of the extracellular fluid. No net movement of water occurs. In a hypotonic situation, the water concentration is greater in the extracellular fluid (osmotic pressure greater outside the cell). Water diffuses into the cell by osmosis. The cell swells and can burst. In a hypertonic situation, the intracellular water concentration is greater than the water concentration of the extracellular fluid. Water diffuses out of the cell by osmosis. The cell becomes dehydrated and shrinks. Excretion is the process of ridding the organism of excess water and other wastes. In the earthworm excretory organs called nephridia excrete water. These structures are found in pairs on each side of the body in most of the segments of the earthworm’s body. Malpighian tubules are adaptations in spiders and insects for conserving water. Two hundred to several hundred tubules may be present depending on the species. Malpighian tubules are slender extensions of the gut wall. Their blind ends lie in the hemocoel (blood cavity) and are bathed in hemolymph. Water can diffuse through cells of the tubule wall. The Malpighian tubules empty into the gut. The kidney is the vertebrate organ for osmoregulation and excretion. The nephron is the structural unit of the kidney in osmoregulation and excretion in mammals. A human kidney is shown in Figure 3-26. Osmoregulation occurs differently in fishes. Freshwater fishes live in a hypotonic medium, so water continuously enters the organism by osmosis, and salt diffuses out. These fishes excrete large quantities of dilute urine and actively absorb salt through the gills. Marine fishes live in a hypertonic medium and, therefore, lose water by osmosis. They gain salts from the water they drink and by diffusion. To compensate, the fish drinks water, excretes salt, and produces a small volume of urine. In contrast to other marine fishes, the shark accumulates urea in high enough concentration that its tissues become hypertonic to the surrounding ocean. As a result, water enters the body by osmosis. Sharks thus excrete a large quantity of dilute urine. Intracellular pumps are also utilized by organisms to maintain water balance. In the mammalian eye, cells of the cornea have a more concentrated optical fluid than the aqueous humor, a fluid just behind the cornea. To prevent corneal cells from retaining excess water and swelling, cells that pump water are located in the corneal tissue adjacent to the aqueous humor. In freshwater protozoa, water continually enters the cell by osmosis. Contractile vacuoles pump excess water out of the cell against a concentration gradient in an active transport process. In plants, water is continuously loss by transpiration in the form of water vapor. The rate of transpiration is regulated by the opening and closing of the stomata of the leaves. The stomata are generally closed when there is a shortage of water in the leaves, when the temperature is low, or when there is little light. They are open only when there is adequate water and when an exchange of gases with the environment is necessary as during photosynthesis.

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kidneys

renal cortex rena lmedulla

renal vein renal artery ureter

renal pelvis

bladder

ureter

urethra

artery branch

Human Excretory System

Kidney

distal convoluted tubule proximal convoluted tubule

efferent arteriole

Bowman's capsule

afferent arteriole

glomerulus

collecting duct

peritubular capillaries loop of Henle descending limb ascending limb

cortex

branch of renal artery branch of renal vein

medulla to renal pelvis

Nephron Figure 3-26

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Ecology and the Interdependence of Life The study of connectivity among plants, animals, and the geosphere is called ecology. Ecology comes from the Greek words oikos, “house” or “place to live,” and logos “study of.” Populations of different species occupying a particular place make up a biological community. This community is a complex interacting network of plants, animals, and microorganisms. An ecosystem is a community (or communities) interacting with the geosphere. The geosphere is subdivided into the atmosphere, the hydrosphere (liquid and frozen water), and the lithosphere (crust and upper mantle). Ecosystems can range in size from a puddle of water to an entire forest. Ecosystems may be natural or man-made. Examples of man-made ecosystems include reservoirs and crop fields. All the Earth’s ecosystems together make up the biosphere. The biosphere is sustained by the one way flow of energy on Earth (second law of thermodynamics), the cycling of matter (biogeochemical cycles), and gravity (allows Earth to hold on to its atmosphere and causes the downward flow of matter). The abiotic or nonliving components of an ecosystem are the physical and chemical factors that influence living organisms. For terrestrial ecosystems these factors would include the following: ■ ■ ■ ■

Sunlight Temperature Precipitation Wind

■ ■ ■

Latitude Altitude Soil type

For aquatic ecosystems, these factors would include the following: ■ ■ ■ ■

Sunlight penetration Water currents Dissolved oxygen concentration Dissolved organic and inorganic nutrients

■ ■ ■

pH Salinity Temperature

Different species thrive under different abiotic conditions. Some species thrive in bright sunlight, while others thrive in shade. Some species thrive in marshy soil, while others thrive in desert soil. Each population in an ecosystem has a range of tolerance to variations in its physical and chemical environment. Individual organisms within a population may have slightly different tolerance ranges for temperature or other factors because of small differences in genotype, health, and age. Thus, although a population may do best at a certain pH or temperature (optimum level) or within a narrow range of pH or temperature (optimum range), a few individuals may survive above and below these values. Tolerance, however, has limits beyond which none of the members of a population can survive. These observations are summarized in the law of tolerance: The existence, abundance, and distribution of a species in an ecosystem are determined by whether levels of one or more physical and/or chemical factors fall within the range tolerated by that species. Most organisms are least tolerant during developmental or reproductive stages of their life cycles. Highly tolerant species can live in a variety of habitats with different conditions whereas species with low tolerance can only live in restricted habitats. Limiting factors are more important in regulating population growth than other factors. In terrestrial ecosystems, soil nutrients can be limiting factors. Corn planted in a phosphorus-poor soil will stop growing when it uses up the available supply of phosphorus even if there is enough sunlight, water, nitrogen and potassium. This observation can be summarized in the limiting factor principle: Too much or too little of any abiotic factor can limit or prevent growth of a population, even if all the other factors are at or near the optimum range of tolerance. The biotic or living part of an ecosystem is its communities. All the living organisms in the communities of an ecosystem are classified as either producers or consumers. Producers make their own food from resources obtained from their

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environment—that is, they are autotrophic. Consumers obtain their food directly or indirectly from producers—that is, they are heterotrophic. Based on their primary source of food consumers are classified as ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■

■

■

Herbivores: plant eaters or primary consumers that feed directly on producers Carnivores: meat eaters that feed on other consumers Secondary consumers: carnivores that feed only on primary consumers Tertiary (higher level) consumers: carnivores that feed on other carnivores Omnivores: feed on plants and animals—for example, humans Scavengers: feed on dead organisms—for example, vultures, flies, and hyenas Detritivores (detritus feeders and decomposers): feed on detritus or parts of dead organisms and wastes of living organisms Detritus feeders: extract nutrients from partly decomposed organic matter in leaf litter, plant debris, and animal dung—for example, crabs, carpenter ants, termites, and earthworms Decomposers: recycle organic matter in ecosystems by biodegrading dead organic matter (detritus) and releasing the resulting inorganic components into the soil and water—for example, fungi and certain types of bacteria

The sequence of organisms, each of which is a source of food for the next, is called a food chain. The food chain determines how energy and nutrients move through the ecosystem. For example, a green leaf produces glucose (an organic nutrient, that is food) through photosynthesis. A caterpillar eats the leaf. A robin eats the caterpillar, and a hawk (top carnivore) eats the robin. Each organism in an ecosystem is assigned a feeding level or trophic level. Producers belong to the first trophic level. Primary consumers belong to the second trophic level. Secondary consumers belong to the third trophic level, and so on. The highest trophic level is the top carnivore. Detritivores process detritus from all levels. Most species participate in more than one food chain. The organisms in most ecosystems, therefore, form a network of interconnected food chains called food webs. Trophic levels are assigned to a food web just as in food chains. Each trophic level in a food chain or food web contains a certain amount of biomass. Biomass is the dry weight of all organic matter contained in its organisms. In a food chain or food web, chemical energy stored in biomass is transferred from one level to another. The percentage of usable energy transferred as biomass from one trophic level to the next is called ecological efficiency. It ranges from 5 to 20 percent depending on the species and the ecosystem. Ten percent is typical. The pyramid of energy shown in Figure 3-27 illustrates the energy loss for a simple food chain assuming 90 percent loss at each level (10 percent transfer). Energy flow pyramids explain why the Earth can support more people if they eat at lower trophic levels. There’s more energy at lower levels. Energy flow pyramids also explain why food chains or food webs rarely have more than four or five levels and why there are few top carnivores. There’s just not enough energy at higher levels for continued levels or to support many top carnivores. A species way of life or functional role in an ecosystem is called its ecological niche. This includes its range of tolerance for physical and chemical conditions, the type and amounts of resources it uses, how it interacts with other species and abiotic components of the ecosystem, and its role in energy flow and matter recycling within the ecosystem. A species’ ecological niche represents the adaptations its members have acquired through microevolution. The habitat of a species is where it lives, its physical location. An ecological niche is like a species’ occupation, and its habitat is like its address. Species can either be generalists or specialists with regard to niches. Generalist species have broad niches. They can live in many different places, eat a variety of foods, and tolerate a wide range of environmental conditions. Flies, white-tailed deer, coyotes, catfish, and humans are generalist species. Specialist species have narrow niches. They may be able to live in only one type of habitat, use only one or a few types of food, and tolerate only a narrow range of environmental conditions. This makes specialist species more prone to extinction when environmental conditions change. Giant pandas, feeding exclusively on bamboo, are a specialist species. In a tropical rainforest, a diverse array of species survives by occupying specialized ecological niches in various layers of vegetation exposed to different levels of light.

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Ecological Pyramid Energy of tertiary consumers (10J) 0.1% energy 1% energy

Energy of secondary consumers (100J)

10% energy Energy of primary consumers (1,000J)

Energy of producers (10,000J) 100% energy

Figure 3-27 The capacity of a population to grow is called its biotic potential (r). Populations of different species vary in their biotic potential. This intrinsic rate of increase is the rate at which a population would grow if it had unlimited resources. Populations with large values of r generally reproduce early in life, have short generation times, can reproduce many times (have a long reproductive life), and have many different offspring each time they reproduce. Generally, the largest species—for example, whales and elephants—have the smallest biotic potential whereas the smallest species—for example, microbes—have the largest biotic potential. In the living world, populations cannot grow unchecked. Growing populations reach a size limit imposed by a shortage of one or more limiting factors—for example, light, water, nutrients, or space—and/or too many competitors or predators. Environmental resistance consists of all the factors acting jointly to limit the growth of a population. Biotic potential and environmental resistance together determine carrying capacity (K). Carrying capacity is the number of individuals of a given species that can be sustained indefinitely in a given space, area, or volume. A population with unlimited access to resources would grow exponentially. Its growth curve would be J-shaped. The equation for exponential growth is Growth rate = rN, where r = biotic potential N = number of individuals of the species If an exponentially growing population encounters environmental resistance and approaches the carrying capacity, its growth curve will be S-shaped or sigmoidal as shown in Figure 3-28. This is called logistic growth. The equation for logistic growth is N m , where Growth rate = rN c1 - K r = biotic potential N = number of individuals of the species K = carrying capacity

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Population size ( N )


carrying capacity

Time Figure 3-28 Ultimately, the availability of suitable habitats and suitable ecological niches for individuals of a population in a particular area determines the population size. Different species within an ecosystem interact when they have activities or resource needs in common. There are five basic types of interaction between species: ■ ■ ■ ■ ■

Interspecific competition Predation Parasitism Mutualism Commensalism

Most species face competition from other species for one or more limited resources—for example, food, water, nest sites, and good places to hide. This competition between species for resources is called interspecific competition. When interspecific competition becomes intense, one of the competing species must migrate, shift its feeding habits or behavior through microevolution, suffer a sharp population decline, or become extinct. Resource partitioning is an evolutionary adaptation that allows two different species to access the same resource in different ways. For example, hawks and owls feed on smaller prey. Hawks hunt during the day, and owls hunt at night. In predation, members of one species (the predator) feed directly on all or part of the living organism of another species (the prey). For example, lions are the predator (the hunter), and zebras are the prey (the food). Together the lion and zebra have a predator-prey relationship. Parasitism occurs when one species (the parasite) feeds on part of another organism (the host) by living on or in the host. In this relationship, the parasite benefits and the host is harmed. The fungus that causes athlete’s foot is a parasite. In mutualism two species interact in ways that benefit both. Honeybees and flowers have a mutualistic relationship. Honeybees feed on flower nectar, pick up pollen in the process, and then pollinate female flowers when they feed on them. Commensalism is an interaction that benefits one species but neither harms nor helps the other species. For example, the relationship between trees and epiphytes (orchids and bromeliads) that attach themselves to the trunks or branches of trees in tropical forests is commensalistic The epiphytes benefit by having a solid base on which to grow and by living in an elevated spot that gives them better access to sunlight, water, and nutrients. This apparently does not harm the tree.

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Indicator species are species that serve as an early warning signal of damage to a community or an ecosystem. Birds are often indicator species. Keystone species are species that have roles in the ecosystem that are more important than their numbers suggest. For example, top carnivores in the role of top predators may be keystone species. Top predators exert a stabilizing influence on their ecosystem by feeding on and controlling populations of certain species. The loss of a keystone species can lead to severe reductions in population size (population crash) and even to extinction of species that depend on it for certain services. With the loss of the keystone species, a ripple or domino effect spreads throughout the ecosystem. Ecological succession is the gradual change in the species composition of a given area over time in response to changing environmental conditions. There are two types of ecological succession—primary succession and secondary succession. Primary succession involves the gradual establishment of biological communities on lifeless ground—for example, when a new island forms due to volcanic activity—or in aqueous environments with no bottom sediment—for example, a newly created shallow pond. Secondary succession involves the establishment of a biological community in an area where some type of biological community previously existed so that soil or bottom sediment is present. A forest after a forest fire would undergo secondary succession.

Inferring Biological Principles The beginning teacher understands how the systems model can be used as a conceptual framework to organize, unify, and connect the common themes of biological science to the other sciences. The systems approach can be used to explain how the themes of biological science apply to the physical, earth, and space sciences and how deeply biological science is interrelated to the other sciences. The common themes of biological science include the following: The cell is the basic unit of life. Living organisms maintain homeostasis. Living organisms reproduce. DNA is the carrier of genetic information. Species evolve through adaptation. All life is interdependent. Energy flows through the biosphere from low trophic levels to high trophic levels. The five features of the systems approach are ■

Constancy

■

Change Cycles Structure Processes

■ ■ ■

These five features can be used to analyze and describe any phenomenon in the biological sciences. For example, you can analyze the the process of food passing through the human digestive tract by means of the systems approach.

Constancy In order for a human being to survive, the cells of the body must receive a constant supply of organic carbon in the form of glucose and essential amino acids. Glucose is metabolized in cellular respiration. The chemical energy from glucose is transferred into the high energy phosphate bond of ATP. The cells must have a constant supply of ATP for all energyrequiring reactions. Essential amino acids are used by the cell for the biosynthesis of protein.

Change As food passes through the digestive tract by peristalsis (wavelike motion of muscles in the walls of the digestive tract), its form changes due to mechanical digestion in the mouth and chemical digestion in the mouth, stomach, and small intestine. The food enters the esophagus as a bolus or round ball. In the stomach, the food is changed into a paste-like

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substance called chyme. Food remains in the stomach for two to three hours. When chemical digestion is completed in the small intestine, individual solute molecules (glucose, amino acids, glycerol, and fatty acids) are absorbed into the blood through microvilli in the small intestine. Undigested fiber passes into the large intestine.

Cycles Even though the digestive tract is essentially a tube open on both ends, the process of digestion is repeated on a periodic basis daily due to feedback loops regulating appetite. Ghrelin is a hormone produced in the stomach and upper intestine in the absence of food in the digestive tract. It stimulates appetite, which generally results in the ingestion of food and starts the process of digestion all over again. Peptide YY is a hormone produced in the digestive tract in response to a full meal. Peptide YY inhibits appetite.

Structure The structure of the digestive system consists of mouth, salivary glands, teeth, tongue, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, pancreas, liver, gall bladder, small intestine, large intestine, and anus. The salivary glands secret amylase, which breaks starch down to the disaccharide maltose. The pancreas secrets digestive enzymes for carbohydrate, protein, and fat digestion into the small intestine. The pancreatic fluid also contains sodium bicarbonate, which changes the pH of the digested food to basic. The liver secretes bile, which is stored in the gall bladder until its release into the small intestine. The bile solubilizes fats just as detergents dissolve oils in cooking pans. After they are solubilized, the fats are then enzymatically digested.

Processes This feature of describing the digestive system refers to processes by which the components of the system interact with one another. These processes allow for interesting laboratory investigations. The digestive glands in the stomach lining produce stomach acid (3M HCl) and a proteolytic enzyme pepsin. One of the unsolved puzzles of the digestive system is why the acidic juice of the stomach does not dissolve the tissue of the stomach itself. In most people, the stomach mucosa is able to resist the acid, although food and other tissues of the body cannot. A study of the effect of pH and enzyme concentration on carbohydrate, fat, and protein breakdown would investigate how these selected components of the digestive system interact.

Review Questions Select the best response. There is only one best response. 1. The use of energy by living organisms is related to which one of the following characteristics of life? A. B. C. D.

cell as the basic unit of structure limited life span locomotion presence of cell walls in plant cells

The correct answer is C. Locomotion requires the use of ATP. Cells and cell walls are structures. Although organisms use energy during their life, lifespan is defined by time, not energy as locomotion is. 2. Which one of the following is not an example of movement in a living system? A. B. C. D.

phototaxis homeostasis cytoplasmic streaming beating cilia

The correct answer is B. Homeostasis is the internal metabolic balance of a living system. The other three choices all involve motion.

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3. Which one of the following is not involved in muscle contraction? A. B. C. D.

flagella ATP actin myosin

The correct answer is A. Flagella are not involved in muscle contraction. Muscle contraction occurs according to the sliding filament model which involves actin, myosin, and ATP. 4. The sigmoidal curve for microbial growth in a culture flask with a sterile cotton plug levels off due to A. B. C. D.

accumulation of toxic metabolic products. depletion of nutrients. depletion of oxygen. A and B

The correct answer is D. Both depletion of nutrients and accumulation of toxic products will contribute to the death of the culture. As the cells multiply in the logarithmic phase, nutrients are depleted and toxic products accumulate. With a cotton plug, oxygen from the air will continue to saturate the culture and will be replenished. 5. Humans are human because of A. B. C. D.

46 chromosomes. 23 chromosomes. human traits carried by genes. histone combining with DNA.

The correct answer is C. Other species have diploid numbers of 46 and haploid numbers of 23. Histones are proteins and do not code genetic information. 6. In humans, suppose that the gene for tallness is dominant over the gene for shortness. A child inherits a tall gene from one parent and a short gene from the other parent. The child’s phenotype would be A. B. C. D.

tall short intermediate height dwarf height

The correct answer is A. The child’s phenotype will be tall since dominant genes are expressed in a heterozygous situation while recessive genes are not. 7. Which one of the following is not characteristic of DNA replication? A. B. C. D.

bidirectional semiconservative non-catalytic antiparallel

The correct answer is C. DNA replication requires enzymes or catalysts and is, therefore, a catalytic process. DNA replication is also semiconservative, bidirectional, and antiparallel.

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8. Which enzyme is required for amino acid activation? A. B. C. D.

exonuclease aminoacyl t-RNA synthetase ligase peroxidase

The correct answer is B. Exonuclease and ligase are enzymes involved in DNA replication, not translation. Amino acid activation occurs during translation. Peroxidase is an enzyme involved in the cellular metabolism of hydrogen peroxide. 9. A butterfly wing and a bird wing are an example of A. B. C. D.

homologous structures. vestigial structures. homoplastic structures. vertebrate structures.

The correct answer is C. The butterfly wing and the bird wing both have the function of flight, but are not derived from the same structure in a common ancestor as homologous structures are. There is no common ancestor other than early cell life. Vestigial structures are nonfunctional. A butterfly is not a vertebrate. 10. Which one of the following would result in a generation-to-generation change in allele frequency? A. B. C. D.

random mating mutations large population size constant biological and physical environment

The correct answer is B. Mutations are chemical changes in DNA that result in a genetic code change that is heritable if the mutation is not lethal. Mutations provide the genetic variability on which natural selection acts. Mutations would likely lead to changes in allele frequency. Random mating and large population size both tend to keep allele frequencies constant according to the Hardy-Weinberg principle. If the physical and biological environments are constant (this won’t happen in the real world), natural selection could not occur. The absence of natural selection would keep the allele frequencies constant. 11. Which one of the following is an example of macroevolution? A. B. C. D.

emergence of mammals from reptiles 13 species of finches on the Galapagos Islands 31 species of the bird known as the Hawaiian honeycreeper polar bear, grizzly bear, black bear, brown bear

The correct answer is A. Macroevolution occurs above the species level. The only example above the species level is mammals from reptiles. B, C, and D are all at the species level. 12. According to the endosymbiont theory A. B. C. D.

chloroplasts developed from mitochondria. mitochondria developed from chloroplasts. prokaryotes developed from eukaryotes. eukaryotes developed from prokaryotes.

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The correct answer is D. According to the endosymbiont theory, chloroplasts evolved from photosynthetic bacteria, and mitochondria evolved from aerobic bacteria. The endosymbiont theory hypothesizes that eukaryotes developed from prokaryotes via mutualistic symbiosis. 13. Most photosynthetic light reactions occur in the A. B. C. D.

mesophyll, palisade layer, chloroplast, grana. mesophyll, spongy layer, chloroplast, grana. mesophyll, palisade layer, chloroplast, stroma. mesophyll, spongy layer, chloroplast, stroma.

The correct answer is A. The mesophyll is the leaf tissue where photosynthesis occurs. The chloroplast is the cell organelle where photosynthesis occurs. Although the palisade and spongy layers are both located in the mesophyll, the palisade layer has more chloroplasts than the spongy layer. So most light reactions occur in the palisade layer, not the spongy layer (B). The light reaction occurs exclusively in the grana of the chloroplast. So the sequence “mesophyll, palisade layer, chloroplast, grana” is the correct one. The light reaction does not occur in the stroma (C and D). 14. An organism that obtains its nutrition by a photochemical reaction not involving chlorophyll and carbon dioxide would be classified nutritionally most specifically as a A. B. C. D.

chemotroph. phototroph. autotroph. heterotroph.

The correct answer is B. A phototroph obtains its energy by any chemical reaction involving light. The use of chlorophyll and CO2 is not required to be a phototroph. Autotrophs may be phototrophs, but phototroph is the more specific (more narrow) term. Heterotrophs cannot synthesize their own organic nutrients. 15. Which one of the following applies to the dark reaction of photosynthesis? A. B. C. D.

occurs only in the dark “fixes” carbon requires light splits the water molecule

The correct answer is B. The dark reaction may occur in the dark or light (A and C). Thus, the dark reaction requires neither darkness nor light. Splitting of the water molecule occurs in the light reaction. 16. Which one of the following structures is not used for water balance? A. B. C. D.

nematocysts Malpighian tubules contractile vacuole nephron

The correct answer is A. Nematocysts are used by hydra to capture their prey. All the other structures (B, C, and D) are used by organisms to maintain water balance.

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17. Birds riding on the backs of elephants and eating parasites in the skin of the elephant are an example of A. B. C. D.

commensalism. mutualism. parasitism. predation.

The correct answer is B. Both species are benefiting from the relationship. The bird is obtaining food, and the elephant is rid of a disease-causing and/or resource-depleting parasite. 18. A population of reindeer that exceeds the carrying capacity of its island environment will then A. B. C. D.

definitely become extinct. undergo a population crash. migrate. become carnivorous.

The correct answer is B. The population cannot migrate because it is on an island (C). Becoming carnivorous requires an evolutionary adaptation that is not going to occur in the lifetime of the current generation (D). The species may become extinct (A), but that would only happen after a population crash. 19. Pigs at a trough are an example of A. B. C. D.

commensalism. interspecific competition. nonspecific competition. resource partitioning.

The correct answer is B. Pigs at a trough are all competing for the same resource—food or water. Resource partitioning (D) does not apply because the pigs are all accessing the same resource in the same way. Commensalism (A) requires that one species live on or in another species or acquire products of another species. Nonspecific competition (C) has no meaning. 20. Five species of insect-eating warblers live in the spruce forests of Maine. Each species spends half its feeding time in a distinct portion of the spruce tree. This is an example of A. B. C. D.

commensalism. interspecific competition. nonspecific competition. resource partitioning.

The correct answer is D. The warblers are all accessing the same source of food (the insect population of spruce trees) in different ways. Commensalism (A) requires that one species live on or in another species or acquires products of another species. Nonspecific competition (C) has no meaning. Interspecific competition (B) requires accessing the same resource in the same way. 21. Food is chemically digested in the A. B. C. D.

mouth only. mouth and stomach. small intestine only. mouth, stomach and small intestine.

The correct answer is D. Enzymes in the mouth, stomach, and small intestine all catalyze the chemical digestion of food.

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22. Appetite is hormonally controlled by A. B. C. D.

HCl and sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3). pepsin and amylase. ghrelin and peptide YY. glycerol and fatty acids.

The correct answer is C. HCl is an acid and sodium bicarbonate is a base; both have no hormonal activity (A). Pepsin and amylase are enzymes that catalyze the chemical digestion of food; both have no hormonal activity (B). Glycerol is a carbohydrate, and fatty acids are fats; both have no hormonal activity (D). 23. Food passes through the digestive tract by A. B. C. D.

mechanical motion of mouth parts. peristalsis. swallowing air. churning in the stomach.

The correct answer is B. Mechanical motion of mouth parts forms food into a bolus (A). Swallowing air has no effect on the movement of food (C). Churning in the stomach only mixes the contents in the stomach. (D). 24. Which component of the digestive system is also a component of the respiratory system? A. B. C. D.

esophagus large intestine pharynx pancreas

The correct answer is C. The pharynx is a passageway shared by both the digestive and respiratory systems. The epiglottis prevents food from entering the trachea. The pancreas, large intestine, and stomach are all components of the digestive tract.

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Objective 0019 Applies knowledge of technology and the concepts and principles of engineering design. For example: ■

■ ■ ■

■ ■

Demonstrating an understanding of technological systems (e.g., transportation system) and the principles on which technological systems are constructed (e.g., the use of component subsystems) Analyzing the roles of modeling and optimization in the engineering design process Evaluating a proposed technological solution to a given problem or need Applying criteria for selecting tools, materials, and other resources to design and constructing a technological product or service Recognizing appropriate tests of a given technological solution Analyzing the positive and negative effects of technology on individuals, society, and the environment (engineering systems on a societal/global scale)

The Engineering Method Regardless of where engineering is developed and applied, there is a common theme, a unified approach, and fundamental knowledge that constitutes what engineering is. This is the engineering method. Some of the common elements or themes of this engineering method are as follows: ■

■

■

An integrated, interdisciplinary view of problem solving. This approach permits the analysis, modeling, and solution of technical problems. The goal is always toward useful solutions. Concept of abstraction. Complex technical problems are simplified by breaking them down into manageable components. Important and/or essential ingredients must be separated from those that are not. Conceptual examples include the input-output “blackbox” or “control volume.” Realistic examples include computer “subroutines” and chemical reactors. Design and synthesis as fundamental to the engineering design process. Designs, devices, or systems are developed with regard to individual human users, organizations, or society. Synthesis is accomplished by building on one model or different models and levels of models using a successively refining, iterative process.

The engineering method thus consists of a unique way of solving technical problems that involves strategies for both analysis and synthesis—divide and conquer to reduce the complexity; successive levels of integration to build larger systems; and a synthetic approach to obtain useful designs. The engineering method has fundamentally transformed society.

Technological Systems A technological system is a set of interrelated components that interact with one another in an organized fashion to achieve a stated need or objective. The system may consist of products, processes, and people or any combination of two of these. The results produced by the system cannot be achieved by the system components individually—that is, the whole is greater than the sum of its parts. Components may be subsystems—systems within systems. Subsystems may be components of more than one system. Every system has a life cycle that consists sequentially of concept, design, development, testing, production, operation, and disposal as shown in Figure 3-29. Every system has an input and an output.

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System Engineering - Life Cycle

Concept Disposal Design

Operation Development

Production Testing

Figure 3-29 More specifically, if the system is your car’s engine as shown in Figure 3-30, then the inputs would be throttle, chemical energy, and petroleum/air. The corresponding outputs would then be temperature/revolutions per minute (rpm), mechanical energy, and exhaust gases. A cause-effect relationship moves the system from input to output. Selected subsystems within the system are generally connected by feedback loops. Temperature RPM

Throttle

Chemical Energy

Mechanical Energy

Piston Engine

Exhaustion fumes

Petrol Air

Figure 3-30 This loop steers the system toward the desired output. Feedback is the way the system regulates itself. It controls the system and prevents unpredictable variables from impacting the system. A feedback loop in a home heating system is shown in Figure 3-31.

Desired temperature (set manually)

Thermostat

Electric on-off signal

Furnace

Actual temperature

Figure 3-31

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Heat flow to house

Thermal characteristics of house

Actual temperature


The input is the temperature set on the thermostat. The output is the room temperature. The error is the difference between the thermostat setting and the room temperature. This error depends on the output and is known as feedback. The feedback loop is a loop of cause-effect relations: the error changes the output; the changing output changes the error; and the error changes the output; and so on. If the room temperature is too high, the feedback loop switches off the furnace. If the temperature then becomes too low, the feedback loop switches on the furnace. Examples of types of technological systems include transportation, communication, manufacturing, security, safety, reliability, and defense systems. The system may also be a device or artifact. A system may be small and local such as the bus transportation for a college or university, or it may be global such as international air travel. Other transportation systems could be your personal car or the Mars rover. A communications system could be your own personal communication system or global in scale such as satellite communications systems. With a device about the size of a cellular telephone, anyone can determine their position on Earth within a few dozen feet. The global positioning system (GPS) consists of three subsystems: satellite, ground control, and users (that is, navigating vehicles such airplane, boat, or car). A constellation of 24 orbiting satellites 12,000 miles above the Earth is the heart of GPS. Each solar-powered satellite weighs 2000 pounds, circles the earth twice a day, and emits radio signals on two different frequencies. The signal provides the satellite’s position and velocity within the constellation as well as a time stamp and its identity. GPS functions by triangulation. The GPS unit compares the time a radio signal was sent from a satellite to the time it was intercepted by the GPS receiver. The travel time indicates the GPS unit’s distance from the satellite. Distance is calculated by multiplying the speed of light (c) by the travel time of the radio signal. With distance measurements from additional satellites, the receiving unit can pinpoint a location’s latitude and longitude. The location can then be displayed on the unit’s electronic map. Although three satellite ranges can provide a rough position, the system requires four satellite ranges to determine an exact position. This fourth measurement allows the GPS receiver’s computer to compensate for timing inaccuracies and delays as the radio signals pass through the Earth’s atmosphere. OnStar is an in-vehicle safety, security, and information service that uses the GPS satellite network and cellular technology to link vehicle and driver to the OnStar Center.

Engineering Design Process: Modeling and Optimization One view of the engineering design process is that it consists of the following seven tasks: state the problem or need, investigate alternatives, model the system, integrate, launch the system, assess performance, and re-evaluate. These tasks are captured in the acronym SIMILAR: ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■

State Investigate Model Integrate Launch Assess Re-evaluate

The SIMILAR process is shown in Figure 3-32. Customer Needs

State the Problem

Investigate Alternatives

Model the System

Integrate

Launch the System

Assess Performance

Re-evaluate

Re-evaluate

Re-evaluate

Re-evaluate

Re-evaluate

Re-evaluate

Output

Figure 3-32

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The linearity of the tasks depicted does not represent sequential performance of tasks. Tasks are performed in parallel and repetitively as additional information on the system becomes available in any task area. This is termed concurrent engineering and is possible due to computer-aided design (CAD). One of the most important design techniques is redundancy. This means that if one part of the system fails, there is an alternate success path, such as a backup system. A car brake light might use two light bulbs. If one bulb fails, the brake light still operates using the other bulb. Redundancy increases system reliability. Since redundancy is expensive, it is generally limited to critical parts of the system. Another design technique, physics of failure, relies on understanding the physical processes of stress, strength, and failure at a very detailed level. The material or component can then be redesigned. Another common design technique is derating. Selected components whose tolerance significantly exceeds the expected stress are chosen (for exmaple, using heavier gauge wire that exceeds the specification for the expected electrical current). The engineering design process is a decision-making process. There are four elements to this process: ■ ■ ■ ■

Model Criteria Constraints Optimization

Models are ideas about the structure and nature of the problem or stated need and are based on information or data from the real world. The model is the mathematical or quantitative description of the need or problem. This quantitation allows for a precise solution. Models may be graphs, equations, diagrams, sketches, three-dimensional or computer models. Models evolve and generally go through successive refinements to obtain the most suitable model. The modelmaking portion of the design process is shown in the block diagram in Figure 3-33. Acceptable model

Real world

Measurements

Model

Measurements

Test Unsatisfactory

Refine

Figure 3-33 The criteria are the goals or objectives of the decision-making problem or need (that is, what is really wanted). If there are several incompatible criteria, a criterion is selected, which is a compromise among them. Constraints are added factors that must be considered in the solution of the decision-making problem or need—that is, what is permissible. The solution must satisfy the constraints. Optimization is finding the best or optimum solution. As an analogy to the engineering design process consider a driver at a fork in the road as shown in Figure 3-34.

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CITY CENTER 14 MILES

CITY CENTER 12 MILES

Figure 3-34 Center city can be reached by either route. The driver has to make a decision: right or left. The only criterion is to reach city center as quickly as possible. If the speed limit is the same on both roads and there is no traffic, the decision is readily made. However, the driver knows from experience that traffic is usually heavier on the shorter route. Also, any accident ahead on either road is likely to cause a long delay. If there is an accident, where is the accident? What is the speed of the traffic five miles ahead on the road? An informed decision requires a model. A possible model of traffic flow could be constructed by monitoring the traffic speed at regular intervals along the two forks and relaying this information back to the driver’s decision point. There would then be a model on which to base a decision. However, in order to be useful, the model would have to take into account the probable behavior of drivers approaching the decision point—that is, all the drivers going right or all the drivers going left depending on which direction has the lowest average speed. Also, there will be some drivers that won’t follow the lowest average speed for whatever reason. If the additional criterion of maximizing gas mileage and the constraints of minimum and maximum speeds are included, it is clear that a compromise must be made. Models are used to evaluate and predict the behavior of systems. As an example, severe storms are of four general types: tornadoes, thunderstorms, hurricanes, and cyclones. The larger the storm, the longer it lasts. This relationship can be expressed mathematically as D3 = 216T2, where D = diameter of the storm T = duration of the storm in hours This model is based on the observation of many storms. It can be used to answer questions concerning the size and duration of future storms. Optimization is the process of optimizing the model. As an analogy to the optimization process consider optimizing the manpower required to complete a job. The input is the number of men working, and the output is the time required to complete the job as shown in the block diagram in Figure 3-35. N Number of men working

Job or task

T Time required to complete job

Figure 3-35

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The “system” in this example is the job or task to be completed. The graphical model Figure 3-36 is an N-T curve familiar to work planners.

T

To

N

No (b) Relationship between input N and output T

Figure 3-36 N is the number of men and T is the time required to complete the job. For example, in building a house the total time can be reduced by putting more men on the job. However, this speeding up has limitations. Eventually a point (N0,T0) is reached at which the addition of more men slows down the home building. This slow down could occur for many reasons. The men may be in each other’s way. The men may be spending time socializing with one another. The job may be divided into parts so small that the men spend large amounts of time standing around waiting to do their part. The point N0, T0 is, thus, the optimum point for building the house. To further illustrate optimization, a type of problem called queuing will be considered. A queue is a waiting line. An example of a queue would be movie goers at the box office just before show time. In more general terms customers are arriving at a location. The customers may be people—for example, shoppers arriving at the checkout—or machines— for example, airplanes arriving at the airport or cars arriving at a toll booth. The service facility—that is, the “system”— then processes the customers. The customers then leave the system. In real life queuing problems, arrival times and service times are random. An experiment can be run to observe how queue length (q) changes with time. The criterion is to minimize the queue length. Graphical results for such an experiment are shown in Figure 3-37.

10

Queue length

8

6

4

2

0

t1 t2

ta

t3 Time

170

Figure 3-37

t4

t


From t1 to t2 and t3 to t4 there is no queue at all. The service channel is not used. Immediately after t2, customers arrive rapidly. By ta the queue length is 10. The service channel is unused 50 percent of the time, but the customers who arrive at ta will have longer service times. The question then is, can the service facility handle the arriving customers? This question can be answered by use of the β ratio defined as follows: β = taver/tinter taver = average servicing time tinter = average time between arrivals β is called the utilization factor. The utilization factor is a measure of the fraction of time the service facility is used. If β is less than one, the service facility can process the customers. However, if β is greater than one, the system will not work. On average the service facility must be able to process the customers faster than they arrive on average. The length of the queue can be described mathematically using β. For random service times q = β/(1 – β)

Evaluating and Testing Technological Solutions Evaluation or analysis of a proposed technological solution—that is, an optimized model—can take several forms. Common evaluation techniques include ■ ■ ■

Fault tree analysis Failure modes and effects analysis (FMEA) Event trees

These techniques are just ways of finding problems and of making plans to cope with failures. The fault tree is usually written out using conventional logic-gate symbols as shown in Figure 3-38. The route through a tree between an event (fault) and an initiator (initiating event) in the tree is called a cutset. The shortest credible way through the tree from fault to initiating event is called a minimal cutset. An undesired effect is taken as the root or “top event” of the logic tree. Then each situation that could cause that effect is added to the tree as a series of logic expressions. When fault trees are labeled with actual numbers about failure probabilities, computer programs can calculate failure probabilities from fault trees. Subsystem A

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

Figure 3-38

8

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In FMEA an engineer starts with a block diagram of a system. The safety engineer then considers what happens if each block of the diagram fails. The engineer then draws up a table in which failures are paired with their effects and an evaluation of the effects. The design of the system is then corrected, and the table adjusted until the system is not known to have unacceptable problems. An event tree starts from an undesired initiator—for example, loss of critical supply and component failure—and follows possible further system events through to a series of final consequences. As each new event is considered, a new node on the tree is added with a split of probabilities for each branch. The probabilities of a range of “top events” arising from the initial event can then be calculated. Evaluations can also be done using an optimization matrix as shown in Figure 3-39.

ANALYTICAL HIERARCHY MATRIX

A Alternative A

Row Sum

Rank

0

0

4th

1

2

2nd

1

3

1st

1

3rd

Alternatives B C

D

0

0

0

Alternative B

1

Alternative C

1

1

Alternative D

1

0

0

Figure 3-39 This is a multivariable analysis that uses a spreadsheet format. Alternate designs are listed in a vertical column, and criteria are listed in a horizontal row. Data is collected and scaled for each criteria and model. The criteria are rank ordered and assigned points. The percentage of total points (weight) is calculated for each criteria. The weighted ratings for each model are then calculated and compared. Computer software is also used to evaluate systems. CAFTA software, which is used by most nuclear power plants in the United States and by aerospace manufacturers, and SAPHIRE software, used by the U.S. government, evaluate the safety and reliability of nuclear reactors, the space shuttle and the international space station (ISS). The system model representing the overall design of the system must be tested against the requirements of the system. Testing can be done by building a prototype and performing an experiment. A prototype is the first fully operational product of a complete design solution. Prototype testing is done under real conditions or simulated real conditions. For example, a new aircraft design is first tested with a model aircraft (prototype) in a wind tunnel. Testing could also be done with computer models in virtual environments. Another type of testing is built-in testing (BIT). Built-in test tools automatically monitor, isolate, and identify system problems without manual troubleshooting. Systems and subsystems are also tested for reliability and safety. This would include environmental stress screening tests.

Technological Impact Technological progress is one of the primary factors driving the development of human civilization. Several ways of measuring this progress have been proposed. One social concept expressed by Lewis H. Morgan, a ninteenth-century

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American anthropoligist, delineates three major stages in the development of civilization and connects them directly to inventions. ■ ■ ■

The earliest era is fire, bow, and pottery. The next era is domestication of animals, agriculture, and metalworking. The latest era is the alphabet and writing.

Leslie White, a twentieth-century American anthropologist who created the Department of Anthropology at the University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, expressed another concept. He measured the evolution of human culture with energy. This approach states that “the primary function of culture” is to “harness and control energy.” Five stages of human development are differentiated. ■ ■ ■ ■ ■

In the first, people use the energy of their own muscles. In the second, people use the energy of domesticated animals. In the third, people use the energy of plants (agricultural revolution). In the fourth, people use the energy of natural resources—coal, oil, and gas. In the fifth, people use nuclear energy.

In the words of sociologist White, “culture evolves as the amount of energy harnessed per capita per year is increased or as the efficiency of the instrumental means of putting energy to work is increased.” White’s formula for technological progress (P) is P = ET where E is energy consumed and T is a measure of the efficiency of technical factors. Another concept expressed by Lenski focuses on information. The more information and knowledge a society has, the more advanced it is. Lenski identifies four stages of human development based on advances in the history of communication. ■ ■ ■ ■

In the first stage, information is passed by genes. In the second, people can learn and pass information through experience. In the third, people use signs and logic to communicate. In the fourth, people create symbols and develop language and writing.

Advancements in technology translate into advancements in the economic system (distribution of goods and services), the political system, and all spheres of social life. Science and engineering have provided some of the greatest technological achievements of the twentieth century such as the automobile, airplane, radio and television, telephone, air conditioning, refrigeration, and computers. On the other hand, scientific and engineering failures have also been at the root of technological disasters such as the Challenger explosion, the Bhopal chemical leak, the World Trade Center collapse, the northeastern U.S./Ontario blackout in 2003, the design flaw in the Ford pinto in the 1960s, the Tacoma Narrows Bridge collapse. and Chernobyl, to name a few. Technology is, thus, a double-edged sword—it has both positive and negative effects. The automobile is a prime example of this dual nature of technology on individuals, society, and the environment. The first automobile produced and sold for the masses in the United States was the three-horsepower, curved-dash Oldsmobile in 1901—425 were sold. The Ford Motor Company sold its first car in 1903. Henry Ford produced the Model T to be an economical car for the average American. By 1920 Ford sold more than a million cars. At the beginning of the twentieth century, the automobile entered the transportation market as a toy for the rich. However, it became increasingly popular with the average American, because it gave travelers the freedom to travel where they wanted when they wanted. As a result the automobile became cheaper and more accessible. This was facilitated by Henry Ford who did two things. First, he priced his cars to be as affordable as possible, and second, he paid his workers enough to be able to buy the cars they were manufacturing. The convenience of the automobile freed people from the need to live near rail lines or rail stations. They could choose locations anywhere in an urban area as long as roads were available to go places. The automobile freed people from the

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limitations of their geography. It created mobility on an unprecedented scale. Motor vehicles and paved roads narrowed the gap between rural and urban life. Farmers could ship easily and economically by truck and drive into town when it was convenient. Also regional schools and hospitals were more accessible by bus and car. The automobile radically changed city life by accelerating the outward expansion of the population into the suburbs. Highway transportation encouraged business and industry to move outward where land was cheaper and space was available. Before the automobile, people lived in the city and worked in the city or lived in the country and worked in the country. Because of the automobile, people could now live on the outskirts of the city and work in the city by commuting. New businesses and new jobs due to the impact of the automobile were created such as fast food, city/highway construction, state highway patrol, convenience stores, gas stations, and auto repair shops. The total effect of the automobile on the living habits and social customs is virtually endless. The automobile, however, had unforeseen direct effects on the environment. These environmental effects include the following: Exhaust fumes contribute to smog. Exhaust fumes contribute to acid rain. Exhaust fumes contribute to global warming. Gasoline has contributed to the depletion of world oil reserves. Junked cars have added to the amount of solid waste disposal. Automotive sounds contribute to noise pollution. Ease of transportation contributes to urban sprawl. Motor vehicles are the largest source of air pollution. Their exhaust fumes include carbon dioxide (CO2), carbon monoxide (CO), nitrogen oxide (NO), nitrogen dioxide (NO2), and volatile organic compounds (VOCs). Auto exhaust fumes represent 23 percent of global CO2 emissions. Carbon dioxide is a greenhouse gas—that is, it absorbs infrared radiation and contributes to the natural greenhouse effect. This greenhouse effect warms the Earth and makes it just right for life. Over the past century, the average temperature of the lower atmosphere of the Earth has risen 0.6° C. This trend is termed global warming and has been attributed to increasing levels of CO2 in the atmosphere. If global warming continues unabated, the Earth could eventually become uninhabitable for life. Nitrogen oxide reacts with oxygen in the air to form nitrogen dioxide. Nitrogen dioxide reacts with water vapor in the air to form nitric acid, a strong mineral acid. These chemical reactions are as follows: 2 NO + O2 → 2 NO2 NO2 + H2O → HNO3 Nitric acid then rains down on the Earth as acid rain, destroying plant life and reacting with limestone and marble. Carbon monoxide is toxic to humans if inhaled because it irreversibly combines with the iron of the heme group in hemoglobin thereby preventing the transport of oxygen through the bloodstream as shown in the following reaction: Heme-Fe+2–O2 + CO → Heme-Fe+2 –CO + O2 Hemoglobin’s binding affinity for CO is 200 times greater than its binding affinity for O2. Volatile organic compounds (hydrocarbons) and nitrogen oxides NOx (x = an integer) known as NOX react with oxygen (O2) in the presence of sunlight to produce ground level ozone (O3) known as bad ozone. This bad ozone is very caustic to the human respiratory systems and is a component of photochemical smog. The brown color of the smog is due to NO2. World oil supplies are projected to be 80 percent depleted in 40 to 100 years. Gas guzzling cars and especially SUVs are hastening this depletion. Old discarded cars and wrecked cars pose a solid waste disposal problem. In 2000, 19 percent of landfill material was metal and plastic (9 percent each) and 7 percent was glass, all materials found in automobiles.

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Noise pollution is human created noise harmful to health or welfare. Transportation vehicles including cars, trucks, and buses are the worst offenders. Noise intensity is measured in decibel units. The decibel scale is logarithmic. Each 10-decibel increase represents a tenfold increase in noise intensity. Human perception also conforms to a logarithmic scale. A 10-decibel increase is perceived as roughly a doubling of loudness. Moderate auto traffic at a distance of 30 m rates about 50 decibels. To a driver with the window open or a pedestrian on the sidewalk, the same traffic rates about 70 decibels. Inability to sleep starts at 45 decibels and hearing damage starts at 85 decibels. Noise pollution causes stress, insomnia, ulcers, hearing damage, and high blood pressure. By making long commutes and shopping trips possible, automobiles and highways have helped create urban sprawl and have reduced the use of more energy efficient forms of transportation. Worldwide one-third of urban land is used for roads, parking lots, gasoline stations, and other automobile-related uses. In the United States 50 percent of urban land is used for cars. An urban/suburban area with sustainable living takes no more renewable resources from the natural world than can be replenished naturally, does not exceed the environment’s ability to absorb human-created damage, and does note overload the capacity of the environment to renew itself by natural processes—that is, it does not exceed the carrying capacity of the environment. A sustainable society does not waste high-quality energy, it recycles and reuses matter, and it implements pollution control and pollution prevention measures. According to the Three Factor Model, the environmental impact of technology is related to the size and affluence of the population as given in the following equation: (P) (A)(T) = I, where P = population A = affluence (consumption per person) T = technological impact per person I = environmental impact of population Polluting motor vehicles increase environmental impact by raising the T factor. Pollution control technology such as the automobile catalytic converter decreases environmental impact by decreasing the T factor. These interactions are complex and are not completely understood. The positive aspect of the automobile is, thus, the freedom and mobility it provides individuals. The negative aspect of the automobile is its potentially damaging impact on the environment and human health and well-being. Major components of the interaction within and between Earth’s lifesupport system—that is, the environment and the human sociocultural system (culturesphere) are shown in Figure 3-40. Human Culture Sphere

Earth’s Life-Support System

Air (atmosphere)

Water (hydrosphere)

Population

Technology

Soil and rocks (lithosphere)

Life (biosphere)

Economics

Politics

Figure 3-40

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Review Questions 1. Which one of the following is not a feature of systems in an engineering sense? A. B. C. D.

feedback cause-effect infinite lifetime input-output

The correct answer is C. Engineering systems have a finite lifetime. The other choices are all characteristics of engineering systems. 2. In a home central heating system, the input-output is the A. B. C. D.

furnace-air conditioner. thermostat setting-room temperature. basement-attic. fireplace-chimney.

The correct answer is B. Thermostat setting and room temperature are connected by a feedback loop. The other choices are not connected by a feedback loop. 3. The ultimate goal of the engineering method is A. B. C. D.

useful solutions for individuals, organizations, or society. abstract design of new systems. analysis of feedback loops. determination of cause and effect.

The correct answer is A. The ultimate goal of the engineering method is the creative application of knowledge for the use of society and individuals. Choices B, C, and D are involved in engineering design but are not the ultimate goal. 4. The Global Positioning System (GPS) consists of A. B. C. D.

12 satellite subsystems. car, airplane, and boat subsystems. ground receiver and radio signal subsystems. satellite, ground receiver, and user subsystems.

The correct answer is D. The radio signal is a means of transferring information between subsystems. The 12 satellites are one subsystem. Car, airplane, and boat are part of the user subsystem. 5. The four elements in the engineering design process are A. B. C. D.

model, criteria, constraints, optimization. quantitation, criteria, constraints, optimization. model, criteria, constraints, minimization. quantization, criteria, constraints, minimization.

The correct answer is A. Quantization and minimization are not elements of the engineering design process.

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6. Precise solutions can be obtained from models that are A. B. C. D.

qualitative. quantitative. three-dimensional. computer-generated diagrams.

The correct answer is B. Models must be quantitative to obtain precise solutions. Qualitative models are only descriptive and cannot be used for calculations. Computer models may or may not be quantitative (D). 7. Optimization of a queuing problems results in A. B. C. D.

minimum queue length. maximum queue length. minimum service time. maximum service time.

The correct answer is A. The criteria of the queuing problem is to minimize queue length. The other choices are not criteria. 8. The engineering design process A. B. C. D.

is a decision making process. includes feedback loops. is sequential. A and B

The correct answer is D. The engineering process is a decision-making process, and it includes feedback loops. It is a cyclical process, not a sequential process. 9. Fault tree symbolism is A. B. C. D.

geometric. chemical. logic-gate. algebraic.

The correct answer is C. Fault tree symbolism, as shown in Figure 3-38, is a logic gate. Algebraic, chemical, or geometric symbols are not used in fault trees. 10. An acronym for testing technological systems is A. B. C. D.

SIMILAR. BIT. FMEA. CAFTA.

The correct answer is B. BIT is an acronym for built-in testing. CAFTA and CAD are computer software. FMEA is an analysis method.

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11. Fault tree diagrams can be used to calculate A. B. C. D.

probabilities. utilization factors. queue lengths. storm diameters.

The correct answer is A. Utilization factors, queue lengths, and storm diameters are calculated using equations, not fault trees. 12. Computer testing in virtual environments can be done because of A. B. C. D.

SIMILAR. CAFTA. CAD. FMEA.

The correct answer is C. CAD is the acronym for computer aided design. CAD allows the design of computer models to be tested in virtual environments. SIMILAR is an acronym for the engineering design process. FMEA is an analysis method, and CAFTA is computer software for evaluating nuclear power plant safety. 13. The decibel scale is A. B. C. D.

exponential. linear. logarithmic. sigmoidal.

The correct answer is C. Each 10 decibel increase represents a tenfold increase in intensity. A 10 unit increase on a linear scale would be an addition of 10. A 10 unit increase on an exponential scale could be much greater than tenfold. The effect of a 10 unit increase on a sigmoidal scale would depend where on the curve it occurs. 14. Technological progress has been measured in terms of A. B. C. D.

discoveries, energy source, communication of information. inventions, energy source, communication of information. discoveries, energy source, amount of solid waste produced. inventions, energy source, amount of solid waste produced.

The correct answer is B. To measure technological progress, Morgan suggested inventions; White suggested energy source; and Lenski suggested communication of information. Discoveries and the amount of solid waste have not been used to measure technological progress. 15. Which one of the following is not a form of air pollution due to the automobile? A. B. C. D.

chlorofluorocarbons carbon monoxide poisoning acid rain photochemical smog

The correct answer is A. Chlorofluorocarbons are used in aerosol sprays and as solvents and refrigerants. Choices B, C, and D can all be caused by automobile exhaust gases.

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16. Global warming is A. B. C. D.

rising ocean temperatures. rising temperatures in the lower atmosphere. rising temperatures at the polar caps. rising temperature’s in the earth’s core.

The correct answer is B. Surface air temperature of the Earth is monitored in the lower atmosphere, not in the polar caps or in the ocean. The temperature of the Earth’s core is estimated at about 4000° C so that an increase of 0.6° C would be inconsequential.

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Objective 0020 Understands the relationships among and common themes that connect mathematics, science, and technology and the application of knowledge and skills in these disciplines to other areas of learning. For example ■

■

■

■

■

Making connections among the common themes of mathematics, science and technology (e.g., systems, models, magnitude and scale, equilibrium and stability, patterns of change) Applying principles of mathematics, science and technology to model a given situation (e.g., the movement of energy and nutrients between the food chain and the physical environment) Applying principles of mathematics, science and technology to explore phenomena from other areas of learning (e.g., applying statistical methodologies to examine census data) Designing solutions to problems in the physical and social worlds using mathematical, scientific and technological reasoning and procedures Analyzing the effects of human activities (e.g., burning fossil fuels, clear-cutting forests) on the environment and evaluating the use of science and technology in solving problems related to these effects

Common Themes The common themes of mathematics, science, and technology as delineated by Science for all Americans and other sources include the following: ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■

Systems Models and evidence Magnitude and scale Energy Equilibrium/homeostasis Patterns of change/time/kinetics Cycles Structure and function Order and levels of organization Symmetry History of science, mathematics, technology

Selected examples of some of these common themes in biology, chemistry, physics/engineering, earth science, mathematics, and technology are given in the following table:

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COMMON THEMES

CONTENT AREA

BIOLOGY

CHEMISTRY

PHYSICS ENGINEERING

EARTH SCIENCE

MATH

TECH

MODELS

Fluid mosaic model of the cell membrane

Bohr model of the atom

Input-Output Box system model

Bar magnet model of Earth’s magnetosphere

Number line

Computer models

ENERGY

ATP mitochondrion

Exergonic Endergonic reactions

First Law of thermodynamics/ one way flow of energy

Mantle convection

E = mc2

Calorimetry

EQUILIBRIUM

HardyWeinberg

Chemical equilibrium

Newton’s Second Law/object not moving

Greenhouse effect

Fnet = 0

Spectrophotometry

CHANGE

Darwinian evolution

Irreversible chemical reaction

Radioactive decay

Severe weather

Time on the x-axis

Doppler radar

CYCLES

Life cycle of an organism

Oscillating chemical reaction

Periodic motion

Rock cycle

t1/2 = ln2/k

Radioisotope dating

LEVELS

Subcellular → Whole body

Protein structure 1°→ 4°

Particle physics → whole atom

Planet → universe

Van Hiele levels of geometric thinking

Atomic force Microscopy → astronomical telescope

SCALES

pH UV Index

Pauling electronegativity scale pH

Decibel

Richter

pH = –log[H+]

Digital pH meter

These common themes provide middle to secondary students with a framework for organizing—that is, mind-mapping large amounts of information. Using these common themes in K–12 and beyond, will help students gain a more indepth connected understanding of the sciences, mathematics, and technology. Scales will be used to illustrate how common themes are cross-disciplinary. Scales may be linear and empirical or logarithmic and exact. The electronegativity scale is an example of a linear scale. The pH, decibel, and Richter scales are examples of base 10 logarithmic scales. The numerical ratings on these four scales are all dimensionless. Scales are used to compare the degree, intensity, or magnitude of a property or phenomenon. For example, the pH scale indicates how acidic or how basic an aqueous solution is. It is a logarithmic scale, which is based on the autoionization of pure water as shown in the following reaction: H2O(l) + H2O(l) → H3O+(aq) + OH– (aq) Kw = 10–14

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The equilibrium constant for this reaction, called the water ionization constant, is defined by the following equation: Kw = [H3O+] [OH–] = 10–14 pH is defined by this equation: pH = –log[H3O+] A pH of 3, thus means [H3O+] is 10–3 M (M = molarity). In pure water [H3O+] = [OH–] = 10–7. This is a neutral solution with a pH = 7. In aqueous solutions, H3O+ (hydronium ion) is the acidic species, and OH– (hydroxide ion) is the basic species. The range of the pH scale is 0 to 14. When the [H3O+] is greater than the [OH–], the pH is less than 7, and the solution is acidic. When the [H3O+] is less than [OH–], the pH is greater than 7, and the solution is basic. The pH scale thus indicates whether a solution is acidic, basic, or neutral and provides the exact concentration of H3O+ ions. The concentration of OH– can then be calculated from the preceding equation for Kw. Each 1.0 unit change on the pH scale represents a tenfold change in [H3O+]. With the exception of extremophiles (organisms that live under extreme conditions), living systems can only exist in a narrow pH range around 7. This is in part due to the fact that enzymes have pH optima near 7. A non-optimum pH will inactivate an enzyme—that is, it will become biologically nonfunctional. Electronegativity is a measure of the ability of a chemically bonded atom to attract the electron pair shared in bonding. The Pauling electronegativity scale was devised in 1932 by Linus Pauling. On this scale, fluorine with an electronegativity of 4.0 is the most electronegative element as shown in the periodic chart in Figure 3-41. Francium with an electronegativity of 0.7 is the least electronegative element. Hydrogen is assigned a value of 2.1. Electronegativity increases from left to right in a period and from bottom to top in a family. The difference in electronegativity (∆EN) determines what type of bond is formed. If ∆EN is less than 1.7, the bond is polar. Polar bonds are either nonpolar covalent (equal sharing of the electron pair) or polar covalent (unequal sharing of the electron pair). If the ∆EN is close to zero (∆EN < 0.4), the bond is nonpolar covalent. This occurs when the two atoms forming the bond are identical or have similar electronegativities. If the 0.4 < ∆EN < 1.7, the bond is polar covalent. If the ∆EN is greater than 1.7, the bond is ionic. In the case of ionic bonding, there is complete electron transfer rather than unequal sharing since the ∆EN is so great. In actual practice, numbers close to 1.7 are fuzzy and whether the bond is nonpolar covalent or ionic must be determined experimentally. Nevertheless the number line in Figure 3-42 is a useful guideline and illustrates continuity in chemical bonding.

182

21 Sc

22 Ti

56 Ba

Barium 137.34

88 Ra

Radium

(226)

55 Cs

Cesium 132.905

87 Fr

Francium

(223)

25 Mn 43 Tc

54.9380

44 Ru

Iron 55.847

186.2

Rhenium

75 Re

(99)

190.2

Osmium

76 Os

101.07

61 Pm

62 Sm

(269)

91 Pa

90 Th

92 U

144.24

94 Pu

150.35

(237)

(242)

48 Cd

Zinc 65.37

30 Zn

111 Uuu

Gold 196.967

79 Au

112 Uub

200.59

Mercury

80 Hg

Cadmium Silver 107.868 112.40

64 Gd

(269)

65 Tb

(272)

95 Am

151.96

(243)

(247)

Curium

96 Cm

157.25

(247)

(251)

98 Cf

162.50

(254)

99 Es

164.930

67 Ho

§

Dysprosium Holmium

66 Dy

(277)

113 Uut

204.37

Thallium

81 Tl

Indium 114.82

(257)

100 Fm

Erbium 167.26

68 Er

(285)

Ununquadium

114 Uuq

Lead 207.19

82 Pb

Tin 118.69

50 Sn

72.59

69.72

49 In

Germanium

Gallium

31 Ga

32 Ge

Silicon 28.086

Aluminum

26.9815

14 Si

13 Al

(258)

101 Md

Thulium 168.934

69 Tm

§

115 Uup

Bismuth 208.980

83 Bi

121.75

Antimony

51 Sb

Arsenic 74.9216

33 As

30.9738

Phosphorus

15 P

(259)

102 No

173.04

Ytterbium

70 Yb

(289)

Ununhexium

116 Uuh

(210)

Polonium

84 Po

127.60

Tellurium

52 Te

78.96

Selenium

34 Se

Sulfur 32.064

16 S

(260)

103 Lr

174.97

Lutetium

71 Lu

§

117 Uus

(210)

Astatine

85 At

Iodine 126.9044

53 I

79.904

Bromine

35 Br

35.453

Chlorine

17 Cl

Berkelium Californium Einsteinium Fermium Mendelevium Nobelium Lawrencium

97 Bk

158.924

Europium Gadolinium Terbium

63 Eu

(268)

Neptunium Plutonium Americium

93 Np

(145)

110 Uun

195.09

Platinum

78 Pt

106.4

Palladium

47 Ag

Copper 63.546

29 Cu

Meitnerium Ununnilium Unununium Ununbium

109 Mt

192.2

Iridium

77 Ir

102.905

46 Pd

Nickel 58.71

28 Ni

Flourine 18.9984

§ Note: Elements 113, 115, and 117 are not known at this time, but are included in the table to show their expected positions.

Thorium Protactinium Uranium 232.038 (231) 238.03

140.907

Cerium 140.12

Praseodymium Neodymium Promethium Samarium

60 Nd

(264)

Hassium

(266)

106 Sg

183.85

Tungsten

74 W

95.94

Actinium Rutherfordium Dubnium Seaborgium Bohrium

105 Db

Tantalum 180.948

73 Ta

92.906

108 Hs

Actinide Series

45 Rh

Cobalt 58.9332

27 Co

Niobium Molybdenum Technetium Ruthenium Rhodium

42 Mo

51.996

26 Fe

107 Bh

104 Rf

179.49

89 Ac

Hafnium

138.91

72 Hf

91.22

Zirconium

Lanthanum

57 La

Yttrium 88.905

41 Nb

50.942

59 Pr

87.62

85.47

40 Zr

24 Cr

Vanadium Chromium Manganese

58 Ce

Strontium

Rubidium

39 Y

47.90

Titanium

Lanthanide Series

38 Sr

37 Rb

44.956

Scandium

(262)

40.08

39.102

(261)

Calcium

Potassium

(227)

20 Ca

19 K

Sodium Magnesium 22.9898 24.312

23 V

Oxygen 15.9994

(293)

Ununoctium

118 Uuo

(222)

Radon

86 Rn

Xenon 131.30

54 Xe

83.80

Krypton

36 Kr

Argon 39.948

18 Ar

Neon 20.183

12 Mg

Carbon Nitrogen 12.01115 14.0067

11 Na

Boron 10.811

9.0122

9 F

Beryllium

8 O

6.939

7 N

Lithium

6 C

10 Ne

5 B

4 Be

1.00797

3 Li

2 He

Helium 4.0026

PERIODIC TABLE OF THE ELEMENTS

Hydrogen

1 H


Figure 3-41

183


0

1.00

1.67

2.00

Mainly covalent bonding

3.00 Mainly ionic bonding + −

Figure 3-42 The decibel (dB) is a measure of the loudness of sound. The decibel scale is logarithmic with a range from 0 dB; the threshold of sound (TOH) for the human ear to 160 dB, instant perforation of the eardrum. The perceived loudness of sound depends logarithmically on sound intensity as measured in watts per meter squared (W/m2). At all levels of loudness increasing the decibel level by the same amount creates approximately the same increase in perceived loudness. For example, humans perceive the increase from 20 dB to 25 dB as about the same as an increase from 90 dB to 95 dB. This is known as Stevens’ power law. The threshold of hearing at 0 dB is the faintest sound the human ear can detect and corresponds to a sound intensity of 1 × 10–12 W/m2. A sound 10 times more intense would have a decibel value of 20; a sound 100 times more intense a decibel value of 30, and so on. Although the intensity of a sound is a very objective quantity that can be measured with sensitive instrumentation, the loudness of a sound is more of a subjective quantity that varies with a number of factors. The same sound will not be perceived to have the same loudness to all individuals. Age effects the human ear’s response to a sound. Also, two sounds with the same intensity but different frequencies will not be perceived to have the same loudness. Since the human ear has a tendency to amplify sounds having frequencies in the range from 1000 Hz to 5000 Hz, sounds with these frequencies seem louder to the human ear. Despite the distinction between intensity and loudness, it is safe to say that more intense sounds will be perceived to be the louder sounds. The magnitude of earthquakes is measured on the Richter scale, invented by Charles Richter in 1934. The Richter magnitude is obtained by calculating the logarithm of the horizontal amplitude of the largest displacement from zero for a seismometer recording (largest seismic wave recorded for an earthquake). The Richter scale ranges from 0 to 9. For example, an earthquake of magnitude 5 has 10 times greater displacement than one of magnitude 4, and one of magnitude 8 has 10(8 – 4) or 10,000 times greater horizontal amplitude than one of magnitude 4. Since the energy of an earthquake is proportional to the square root of the cube of the amplitude, each step of the Richter scale has an energy 103/2 (≈ 31.6) times that of the previous step. So while a magnitude 9 has 10,000 times the amplitude of a magnitude 5 earthquake (10,000 times more ground shaking), it has a million times more energy. A magnitude 1 seismic wave releases as much energy as blowing up 6 ounces of TNT. A magnitude 8 earthquake releases as much energy as detonating 6 million tons of TNT. Although two earthquakes may have the same magnitude, their effects will vary greatly according to distance, ground conditions, construction standards, and other factors.

Modeling Molecules and ions are constantly and continuously being transported into and out of cells through the selectively permeable or semipermeable cellular membrane. A model of the cellular membrane called the fluid mosaic model, first proposed by S. J. Singer in 1971, is depicted in Figure 3-43.

184


polysaccharide chain

phospholipid bilayer

hydrophobic tails

channel protein

hydrophilic heads

cholesterol

recognition protein

transport protein

The Plasma Membrane Figure 3-43 This model describes the cellular membrane as a bilayer of phospholipids. The hydrophilic phospholipid “head” groups are adjacent to either the intracellular or extracellular aqueous fluids. The interior of the cellular membrane is composed of the hydrophobic “fatty tails” of the phospholipids as shown in Figure 3-43. The membrane is then studded with proteins creating a living biological mosaic. Proteins may be located transmembrane (across the membrane), intramembrane (within the membrane), or mainly on the intracellular side or extracellular side of the membrane. According to this model, proteins may move laterally in the membrane—that is, the membrane is fluid—and proteins also may flipflop from one side to the other. Carbohydrates are associated with the membrane by covalent bonding to the extracellular portion of membrane proteins forming glycoproteins. Transport through the membrane can involve the lipid bilayer or the protein components. The most important question about membrane transport is whether or not the process requires energy. Passive transport such as simple diffusion and facilitated diffusion do not require energy. In passive transport, molecules and ions are spontaneously diffusing from high concentration to low concentration. In active transport, molecules and ions are being transported from low concentration to high concentration against a concentration gradient. This nonspontaneous process is analogous to pumping water uphill and requires energy. The spontaneity or nonspontaneity of cellular transport can be described for a substance moving from area 1 across a membrane to area 2 by the following equation: ∆G = 2.303RTlog(C2/C1) ∆G = free energy change for transport R = 8.31 J/mol–K, universal gas constant T = temperature in K C1 = concentration in area 1 C2 = concentration in area 2 If ∆G is negative, transport is spontaneous and does not require energy. If ∆G is positive, transport is nonspontaneous and requires energy. If ∆G is zero, the system is at equilibrium. The lipid bilayer is permeable to small molecules such as H2O, CO2, and O2. These molecules can move through the membrane in the direction of the concentration gradient by simple diffusion. However, the lipid bilayer is not permeable to ions such as K+, Na+, and Cl–. These ions move through the membrane in the direction of the concentration gradient by facilitated diffusion. In facilitated diffusion, transmembrane proteins form a water-filled channel through which the ion can pass down its concentration gradient. If transport through the cellular membrane is against the concentration gradient, then transmembrane proteins, called transporters, use the energy of ATP to force ions or small molecules through the membrane. A well-studied example of active transport is the sodium-potassium pump.

185


Under usual conditions, the concentration of K+ is higher inside the cell than outside the cell, and the concentration of Na+ is lower inside the cell than outside the cell. Pumping of K+ into the cell and Na+ out of the cell involves the binding of the K+ and Na+ ions to a binding site on the transporter protein. The transporter protein is called Na+/K+ ATPase. This binding is then followed by a conformational change in the transporter protein, which releases the ion to the opposite side of the cell membrane. The conformational changes in Na+/K+ ATPase are induced by phosphorylation of an aspartate side chain in the protein. The net result is that 3 Na+ are pumped out for every 2 K+ pumped in. The Na+/K+ pump maintains the resting potential of the cell and its osmotic balance.

Mathematical Analysis Many decisions in areas outside of mathematics, science, and technology—for example, finance, economics, and sociocultural areas— require the use of the scientific method, the engineering method, and/or mathematical analysis— especially statistical analysis. Most decisions in these other areas are based on incomplete information and often involve complicated factors. Statistical methods allow the best “educated decision” to be made. Two important concepts in descriptive statistics are the median of a data set and the range of a data set. The median is the central value of an ordered (from lowest to highest) data set. For an odd number of data value in the distribution, the median is the middle data value. For an even number of data values in the distribution, the median is the sum of the middle two values divided by two. The range of a data set is the lowest value to the highest value. The median is a measure of central tendency, and the range is a measure of variation. Pictorial box-and-whisker plots provide a very useful five number summary of the central tendency and variation in a data set as shown in Figure 3-44. Quartiles

25% Lowest

25% Q1

25% Q2

25% Q3

Highest

Median 50th percentile

Figure 3-44 The five number summary includes the lowest value, quartile one (Q1), quartile two (Q2), quartile three (Q3), and the highest value. Quartiles are percentiles that divide the data into fourths. The first quartile, Q1, is the 25th percentile; the second quartile, Q2, is the median or 50th percentile; and the third quartile, Q3, is the 75th percentile. In other words, 25 percent of data values fall below Q1; 50 percent of data values fall below Q2; and 75 percent of data values fall below Q3. The first quartile is the median of the lower half of the data. The third quartile is the median of the upper half of the data. Quartiles thus provide a comparison of the relative position of data. The interquartile range (IQR) is the difference between the third and first quartiles: IQR = Q3 – Q1 The interquartile range provides a measure of the spread of the middle half of the data. The format for a box-andwhisker plot or boxplot is given in Figure 3-45. Box Whisker Lowest Observation

Whisker

Lower Quartile, Q1

Median, Q2

Figure 3-45

186

Upper Quartile, Q3

Highest Observation


The upper whisker represents the top 25 percent of the data, and the lower whisker represent the bottom 25 percent of the data. Box plots are convenient when the set of data points contains hundreds or thousands of data points. The boxplot readily indicates whether the data is skewed and identifies potential outliers. Outliers are data values that are so high or so low that they seem to stand apart from the rest of the data. Outliers may be data collection errors, data entry errors, or valid but unusual data values. Boxplots are useful in comparing different sets of data that are related—for example, stock prices for different companies, different brands of the same product, insurance premiums in different states, and so on.

Designing Solutions to Environmental Problems Global warming is a whole Earth environmental problem. Greenhouse gases (CO2, CH4, and N2O) are accumulating in the Earth’s atmosphere as a result of human activities. These increased concentrations of greenhouse gases in the troposphere are coming from burning fossil fuels, deforestation, and agriculture. Possible adverse effects of global warming include weather extremes, climate shifts, rising sea levels, and decreased biodiversity. For each 1 C rise in the Earth’s average temperature, climate belts in middle latitude regions would shift toward the Earth’s poles by 100 to 150 kilometers or upward 150 meters in altitude. Such shifts could change areas where crops could be grown and affect the makeup and location of one-third of the world’s forests. Preventive measures include cutting fossil fuel use (especially coal), shifting from coal to natural gas, shifting to renewable energy technologies, improving energy efficiency, reducing deforestation, using more sustainable agriculture, reducing urban sprawl, and slowing population growth. Renewable alternative or green energy sources—that is, environmentally friendly and environmentally benign energy technologies—include wind, solar, OTEC (ocean thermal energy conversion), geothermal, and hydroelectric energies. OTEC uses the ocean’s natural thermal gradient—the ocean’s layers of water have different temperatures—to drive an electric power-producing cycle. To produce a significant amount of electricity, a temperature difference of at least 20 degrees is required. Clean up measures include removing CO2 from smokestack and motor vehicle emissions, sequestering CO2 by planting trees, sequestering CO2 in soil by using no-till cultivation, and sequestering CO2 in the deep ocean. The catalytic converter is one technological “clean up” solution for reducing greenhouse gas emissions from motor vehicles using the internal combustion engine. One of the most important pollution control devices invented, the three-way catalytic converter (TWC), is now a key component of every car manufactured in the United States. “Three-way” refers to the three regulated emissions—carbon monoxide, volatile organic hydrocarbons (VOC), and nitrogen oxides (NOx). Without these converters, the air in metropolitan areas would become highly polluted, negatively impacting the health of millions of people. Since its commercialization in 1976 to 2001, the TWC catalytic converter has destroyed an estimated three billion tons of hydrocarbons, three billion tons of oxides of nitrogen, and 30 billion tons of carbon monoxide before these gases could reach the atmosphere. This technology was the major innovation necessary to achieve the goal of a 90 percent reduction in automobile emissions called for in the U.S. Clean Air Act Amendments of 1970. The TWC catalytic converter is also directly associated with the elimination of atmospheric lead, a pervasive air pollutant negatively affecting children’s mental health. The converter uses two different types of catalysts, a reduction catalyst and an oxidation catalyst. Both types consist of a ceramic substrate coated with the metal catalyst. The metal is usually platinum, rhodium, and/or palladium. The ceramic is highly porous with a honeycomb structure. This ceramic-metal structure exposes the maximum surface area of the catalyst to the exhaust stream while minimizing the amount of expensive metal required. The reduction catalyst is the first stage of the catalytic converter. Platinum and rhodium catalyze the conversion of NOX to nitrogen and oxygen as shown in the following equation: 2NO → N2 + O2 2NO2 → N2 + 2O The oxidation catalyst is the second stage of the catalytic converter. Platinum and palladium catalyze the conversion of carbon monoxide to carbon dioxide as shown in the following equation: 2CO + O2 → 2CO2

187


Platinum and palladium also catalyze the conversion of hydrocarbon to carbon dioxide and water as shown for the representative hydrocarbon, methane, in the following equation: CH4 + 2O2 → CO2 + 2 H2O In an October 1997 report to the U. S. Congress, the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) largely credited the catalytic converter with cutting nationwide NOx emissions by 30 percent, volatile organic compounds such as hydrocarbons by 45 percent, and carbon monoxide emissions by 50 percent between 1970 and 1990. The report notes that these reductions were achieved during a period in which the U.S. population grew by 22.3 percent, the national economy grew by 70 percent, and the number of vehicle miles traveled increased by 120 percent. The EPA concluded that these and other improvements in air quality saved more than 100,000 lives and prevented hundreds of thousands of occurrences of a variety of respiratory ailments. The invention of the catalytic converter introduced catalytic chemical processing to every-day life. More than 500 million catalytic converters have been produced since 1975. Increasingly, the scientific community is urging that decisions to protect the Earth’s life support system be based on the precautionary principle. This principle says that when evidence indicates that a human activity can seriously harm the environment, precautionary measures should be taken to prevent or reduce the harm even if some of the cause-and-effect relations have not been fully established scientifically.

Review Questions 1. The range of the pH scale is A. B. C. D.

0 to 7. 0 to 14. 0 to 160. 0 to 9.

The correct answer is B. The range of the pH scale is 0 to 14. This scale is logarithmic and is based on the water ionization constant (Kw) of 10–14. Zero to 7 is only the acidic side of the pH scale, not the full scale. Zero to 9 is the range for the Richter scale, and 0 to 160 is the range for the decibel scale. 2. Which one of the following scales is not logarithmic? A. B. C. D.

pH electronegativity scale decibel scale Richter scale

The correct answer is B. The electronegativity scale is linear. The other three scales—pH, decibel, and Richter—are all logarithmic. 3. The units of the pH scale are A. B. C. D.

moles of acid. moles of base. millimolarity. the pH scale is dimensionless.

The correct answer is D. The pH scale has no units. By definition pH = –log[H+]. Therefore, pH is purely a numerical quantity. Moles is a measure of the number of molecules or ions in terms of Avogadro’s number (6.02 × 10–23). Millimolarity is a measure of concentration in solution.

188


4. The Richter scale is based on measurements made with a A. B. C. D.

seismometer. thermometer. spectrophotometer. osmometer.

The correct answer is A. Seismometers record the amplitude and frequency of seismic waves. Thermometers measure temperature. Spectrophotometers measure light absorbance or transmission. Osmometers measure osmolality. 5. If the concentration of a substance outside the cell C2 is greater than the concentration of a substance inside the cell C1, transport out of the cell will be A. B. C. D.

spontaneous and energy-requiring. nonspontaneous and energy-requiring. spontaneous and not requiring energy. nonspontaneous and not requiring energy.

The correct answer is B. Transport out of the cell in this situation is against the concentration gradient—that is, from low concentration to high concentration. Moving substances against the concentration gradient is a nonspontaneous process and requires energy. Also, since C2 > C1, log C2/C1 is positive and, therefore, ∆G is positive. 6. According to the fluid mosaic model, the cellular membrane has all of the following features except A. B. C. D.

trilayer. fluidity. biochemical mosaic. selective permeability.

The correct answer is A. The fluid mosaic model describes the cellular membrane as a bilayer, not a trilayer. The model explains the fluidity, selective permeability, and mosaic nature of the cellular membrane. 7. The sodium-potassium pump is analogous to A. B. C. D.

moving water downhill. moving water uphill. moving water laterally. an equilibrium.

The correct answer is B. Moving water uphill is against the force of gravity, is nonspontaneous, and requires energy just as the active transport of the Na+/K+ pump is against the concentration gradient, is nonspontaneous, and requires energy. Water flows spontaneously downhill; water moving laterally is not moving against the force of gravity. Equilibrium is not net movement. 8. Operation of the Na+/K+ pump requires A. B. C. D.

ADP. ATP. AMP. inorganic phosphate.

189


The correct answer is B. ATP contains high-energy phosphate bonds. Hydrolysis of ATP releases this energy for use by the cell in energy-requiring processes such as the Na+/K+ pump. The products of hydrolysis are ADP and inorganic phosphate. AMP is the hydrolysis product of ADP. 9. Which one of the following is not a measure of variation in a data set? A. B. C. D.

Q1 – Q3 Length of upper whisker Lowest value Length of lower whisker

The correct answer is C. The lowest value represents only one data value. The other choices all represent a range of data values. Q1 – Q3 represents the range of the middle half of the data. The length of the upper whisker represents the range of the top 25 percent of the data. The length of the lower whisker represents the range of the bottom 25 percent of the data. 10. The median is A. B. C. D.

the same as the arithmetic mean. the middle value of the lower half of a ranked data set. the same as the mode. the 50th percentile.

The correct answer is D. The median is the middle value of an entire ranked set of data, not just the lower half. The median of the lower half is Q1, the 25th percentile. The mode is the most frequently occurring data value. The arithmetic mean is the summation of all data values divided by the number of data values. 11. An outlier is the A. B. C. D.

lowest value. highest value. stands apart from the rest of the data set. outside the range of x values on the x-axis and y values on the y-axis.

The correct answer is C. An outlier stands alone, which may be the highest value, or it may be the lowest value. An outlier will not be outside the x range on the x-axis or the y range on the y-axis. Since the outlier was part of the data set, its value would be taken into account when scaling the axes. 12. Box-and-whisker plots are A. B. C. D.

always symmetric. sometimes skewed. may represent thousands of data values. B and C.

The correct answer is D. Two useful features of a box-and-whisker plot are that it may represent a lot of data, and it will illustrate the skewness of the data. Only if the data is not skewed will the boxplot be symmetric. 13. Green energy technologies A. B. C. D.

190

use greenhouse gases as fuel. are environmentally benign. include fossil fuel based technologies. are nonrenewable.


The correct answer is B. The term green when applied to energy resources or energy technology implies environmentally benign, environmentally friendly, and renewable. Consequently, green energy technologies are not based on fossil fuels that are non-renewable. So far, greenhouse gases are not used as a fuel source for green energy technologies. 14. The driving force for OTEC production of electricity from deep layers of the ocean is A. B. C. D.

salinity difference. pressure difference. temperature difference. light intensity difference.

The correct answer is C. OTEC produces electricity based on a temperature difference of at least 20° C between surface and deep layers of the ocean. Although surface versus deep layers of the ocean will vary in pressure, salinity, and light intensity, these properties are not used to generate electricity.

191

Subarea IV: Social Studies Objective 0021 Understands major ideas, eras, themes, developments, and turning points in the history of New York State, the United States, and the world. Uses social science knowledge and skills to plan, organize, and implement instruction and assess learning. The following topics are covered under the subject area of Objective 0021: ■

■

■

■

■

■

Defining important conceptual terms (e.g., racism, nation-state, nationalism, feudalism) and using them to analyze general historical phenomena and specific historical events Analyzing the social effects of major developments in human history (e.g., the agricultural revolution, the scientific revolution, the industrial revolution, the information revolution) Understanding major political, social, economic, and geographic characteristics of ancient civilizations and the connections and interactions among these civilizations Examining reasons for organizing periods of history in different ways and comparing alternative interpretations of key events and issues in New York State, the United States, and world history Analyzing the effects of European contact with indigenous cultures and the effects of European settlement on New York State and the Northeast Analyzing how the roles and contributions of individuals and groups helped shape the United States’ social, political, economic, cultural, and religious life

Concept Definitions The multi-subject teacher should be able to define and use various concepts drawn from political science, history, and economics in the analysis of historical phenomena and events. Following are some of the terms the teacher should know. (Other terms are described under Objectives 0024 and 0025.) Capitalism An economic system in which the means of production, distribution, and exchange are privately controlled, so that individual profit is obtainable through labor and capital investment. Civil rights The nonpolitical rights of citizens, such as liberty and equality. Civilization A complex society that possesses a degree of historical and cultural unity. Common good Benefits, or beneficial conditions, for all members of a group. Communism Classless political system in which citizens gain control over the means of production, and goods are available to all as needed, so that wealth becomes relatively evenly distributed. Culture Knowledge, beliefs, practices, and values shared by a society at a particular time. Democracy Political system based on self-rule, in which government consists of representatives freely elected by citizens. Federalism Political system in which authority is both central and localized—for example, the United States system in which both federal and state governments have partially independent authority. Feudalism Social organization during the Middle Ages based on reciprocal obligations among lords, vassals, and fiefs. Mercantilism Dominant approach to economics in Europe during the sixteenth through eighteenth centuries, which assumed that the government should tightly control national economy by increasing exports, restricting imports, and acquiring capital.

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Monarchy Political system that reflects the absolute sovereignty of a single individual. Monarchical systems both overlap with and can be distinguished from aristocracies, dictatorships, oligarchies, and plutocracies. Nation Group of people distinguished by common identity and government. Nation-state State that provides a sovereign territory for a single nation. Nationalism The belief that the activities and obligations of citizens should be defined in terms of a single national identity. Natural rights Rights that are universal and automatic for all humans and that precede all other rights. Power Ability to influence the behavior of others. Prejudice Negative attitudes toward members of a group, resulting from mere membership in the group. Types of prejudice include racism, sexism, and ageism. Prejudice can be distinguished from discrimination, or harmful actions against members of a group that result from prejudicial attitudes. Socialism Political system that reflects collective ownership of the means of production and the distribution of goods, resulting in a relatively even distribution of wealth. Society Group of people who reside in a particular territory. A society may have its own culture and may or may not be part of a civilization. Unitary state Political system, also known as a non-federal system, in which authority is centralized. Authority may be transferred to lower levels, but these levels do not maintain independent authority.

Developments in Human History The multi-subject teacher should be able to analyze the causes and effects of major developments in human history and to recognize different approaches to the classification of historical periods. For example, a broad but useful approach to the classification of historical periods focuses on technological advances and their effects on culture. Between 10,000 and 12,000 years ago, agriculture began to replace hunting and gathering as a mode of existence. The importance of the agricultural revolution is that it fostered the development of sedentary communities. The social effects of the agricultural revolution include the creation of cities and other stable communities, the development of new kinds of labor closely dependent on changes in season and weather, and the creation of cultural artifacts such as non-portable shelters and tools. Historians refer to the scientific revolution as a time of important advances in scientific knowledge that were closely linked to fundamental changes in assumptions about what constitutes knowledge. Through the scientific revolution, empirical observation gradually replaced tradition as the primary source of knowledge. The scientific revolution is sometimes said to begin in the sixteenth century, with the Copernican view of a heliocentric universe, but there are earlier precursors. The social effects of the scientific revolution over the past several centuries include an explosion of scientific knowledge, as well as profound changes in the practice of medicine, warfare, communications, and so on. In the late eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, technological innovations arising from the scientific revolution, as well as other factors, resulted in the industrial revolution. The industrial revolution reflects a shift from an economy based on agriculture to one dominated by factories and industrial machinery. Broadly, the social effects of the industrial revolution include radical changes in the production and quality of material goods, in the types and conditions of employment, and in general quality of life. Some of the more specific effects include the rise of labor unions, the rapid development of communications and transportation infrastructures, the need for an educated workforce, and changes in gender roles and family structure resulting from increasing numbers of men working outside the home. During the second half of the twentieth century, the development of the integrated circuit and other aspects of computer technology created what is sometimes called the information revolution. The information revolution has profoundly altered the production and consumption of goods and services, the extent and types of specialization in the workforce, the forms and quantity of information available to individuals and institutions, and the power and efficiency of technologies that affect virtually all aspects of our lives.

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Subarea IV: Social Studies

Ancient Civilizations The multi-subject teacher should understand the characteristics of ancient civilizations as well as their interrelationships. One way to classify ancient civilizations is by geographic region. Through this approach, distinctions can be made among ancient civilizations in regions such as Africa, Asia, Europe, and Mesoamerica. For instance, ancient Mesoamerican civilizations include the Aztec, Maya, Mixtec, Toltec, and Zapotec. The ancient Maya, for example, developed mainly in the Yucatan Peninsula and occupied a vast area that includes parts of modern Mexico, Honduras, and El Salvador, as well as most of Guatemala and Belize. The Mayans were an advanced, powerful society from the third through the ninth centuries A.D. During this time, the Mayans developed a hieroglyphic language, a unique mathematical system, and a unique, complex, highly accurate system of calendars. The archeological record includes evidence of these accomplishments, as well as pyramids, temples, and other buildings; various artworks and artifacts such as tools, pottery, and looms; and the physical remains of Mayan people. Mayan society was divided into more or less independent city-states ruled by a single individual, typically a king who was succeeded by his son. A polytheistic religion played a central role in public life. The Mayan lowlands were a primary source of maize, as well as other crops such as squash, beans, and manioc. The highland areas were a source of precious metals used for trade. Through trade, warfare, and other means, the Mayans influenced, and were influenced by, other cultures. For example, the Mayan religion incorporated the Toltec cult of Quetzlcoatl, and the Toltecs and others adapted the Mayan calendar for their own use.

Organization of Historical Periods The multi-subject teacher should be able to analyze different approaches to the classification of historical periods, and to analyze different interpretations of historical events and issues. For example, the history of New York State can be divided into chronological periods on the basis of political sovereignty. Originally, New York was inhabited by two groups of Native American tribes, the Algonquian and the Iroquois. In the seventeenth century, the Dutch established a settlement in New York that was later seized by the British. New York declared independence from Britain in 1776, and then, in 1788, it became the eleventh American state. Thus, the history of New York could be organized around Native American, Dutch, British, and then United States sovereignty. Alternatively, the history of New York could be analyzed from an economic perspective. Following the colonial period, the agricultural foundation of New York’s economy was gradually replaced by business and industry. The development of textile mills in the late eighteenth century, the completion of the Erie Canal in 1825, the growth of the port of New York, the construction of railroad lines during the nineteenth century, and extensive immigration in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries are among the factors that helped make the state a major commercial center and contributed to its becoming the financial capital of the nation. The history of New York could also be recounted from a demographic perspective, as the Native American, Dutch, and British inhabitants were supplanted or joined by large numbers of immigrants from Ireland, Italy, and Eastern Europe, as well as many other areas. Alternatively, the history of New York could be told from the perspective of individuals, including Native Americans, colonists, immigrants, industrial laborers, and so on. Successive waves of immigration, as well as the lives of individual New Yorkers, each provide a lens through which the history of the state can be observed.

Effects of European Contact and Settlement The fifteenth and sixteenth centuries are often referred to as the Age of Exploration. Although this is not the only time that European countries engaged in exploration and colonization, for many countries, it was a period of intense and more or less sustained exploratory activity in the Western Hemisphere. For example, the Spanish established colonies in South America, Mexico, Texas, and Florida; the French established colonies in Canada and along the Mississippi River; and the English colonized the east coast of the United States. The motivation for exploration and colonization varied from country to country and time to time.

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The effects of European exploration and settlement can be clearly seen in New York State. In 1524, when the Italian explorer Verrazano became the first European to discover the New York area, the residents of the area were Native American groups. These groups are referred to in aggregate as the Algonquian and the Iroquois. The sovereignty of these Native American groups was gradually eroded by war, disease, broken treaties, the creation of the United Sates–Canada boundary, and other actions, both intentional and unintentional, on the part of European, British, and American settlers. The current status of Native American groups in New York State and surrounding regions is a reflection, in part, of the effects of European settlement in preceding centuries.

Contributions of Individuals and Groups Individuals and groups have influenced American society and culture in various ways. The multi-subject teacher should be able to analyze how these individuals and groups changed the broader society in which they lived. Native New Yorkers, for example, have had a profound impact on American society and culture. U.S. presidents born in New York include Martin Van Buren (1782–1862) Millard Fillmore (1800–1874) Theodore Roosevelt (1858–1919) Franklin Delano Roosevelt (1882–1945) Other significant political figures among New York natives include Elizabeth Cady Stanton (1815–1902) Eleanor Roosevelt (1884–1962) George Meany (1894–1980) Famous writers born in New York include Herman Melville (1819–1891) Walt Whitman (1819–1892) Henry James (1843–1916) Eugene O’Neill (1888–1953) James Baldwin (1924–1987) Famous artists from New York include Frederic Remington (1861–1909) Edward Hopper (1882–1967) Famous entertainers from New York include Groucho Marx (1890–1977) George Gershwin (1898–1937) Cab Calloway (1907–1994) Lucille Ball (1911–1989) Pete Seeger (b.1919) Maria Callas (1923–1977) Beverly Sills (b. 1929) Barbra Streisand (b.1942)

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Nobel prize-winning scientists born in New York include Jonas Salk (1914–1995) Richard Feynman (1918–1988) Murray Gell-Mann (b.1929)

Review Questions 1. Which of the following is most likely to be a unitary state? A. B. C. D.

Democracy Socialist state Federalist state Monarchy

The correct answer is D. In a unitary state, authority is centralized, and lower levels of government do not have authority independent of the central government. This is consistent with a monarchical political system, and, thus, D is the correct answer. 2. Which of the following describes one effect of the industrial revolution on families? A. B. C. D.

Increasing mechanization allowed parents to spend more time with their children. The relative speed and efficiency of production in factories resulted in more manpower available for agricultural work. The rise of textile mills and other industries resulted in more men working outside the home. The industrial revolution did not have a significant impact on families.

The correct answer is C. The industrial revolution resulted in mills, factories, and other forms of industry that eventually made industrial work more common than agricultural work. 3. Which of the following is an incorrect statement? A. B. C. D.

New York declared independence from Britain in 1776. The Spanish were the first Europeans to settle in New York. New York was the eleventh state to join the union. The Iroquois were among the groups of tribes that resided in New York prior to European settlements.

Options A, C, and D are factually correct statements, but option B is inaccurate, because the Spanish did not establish settlements in New York. Thus, B is the correct answer.

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Objective 0022 Understands geographic concepts and phenomena and can analyze the interrelationships of geography, society, and culture in the development of New York State, the United States, and the world. The following topics are covered under the subject area of Objective 0022: ■

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Defining important geographic terms and concepts (e.g., habitat, resource, cultural diffusion, ecology) and using them to analyze various geographic issues, problems, and phenomena Demonstrating an understanding of the six essential elements of geography: the world in spatial terms, places and regions, physical settings, human systems, environment and society, and the use of geography Recognizing physical characteristics of the Earth’s surface and the continual reshaping of it by physical processes (e.g., how weather, climate, and the water cycle influence different regions) Analyzing the development and interaction of social, political, cultural, and religious systems in different regions of New York State, the United States, and the world Examining ways in which economic, environmental, and cultural factors influence demographic change and interpreting geographic relationships, such as population density and spatial distribution patterns Analyzing the impact of human activity on the physical environment (e.g., industrial development, population growth, deforestation)

Geographic Terms and Concepts Geography is the study of the earth and its inhabitants. There are two types of geography: ■ ■

Physical geography concerns the physical environments of the earth. Cultural geography focuses on the relationships between people and their physical environments.

Thus, physical geography incorporates information from fields such as geology and meteorology, but cultural geography includes information from sociology, anthropology, and other social sciences. The multi-subject teacher should understand and be able to apply terms and concepts that are widely used in the study of physical and cultural geography. For example, ecology refers to the relationship between organisms and their habitats (areas where organisms typically live). The multi-subject teacher should also be familiar with terms and concepts that are used both generally and in specific fields of geographic study. For example, meteorology is the branch of earth science that concerns climate (average weather conditions over relatively long periods of time), weather (atmospheric conditions over a short period of time), and the earth’s atmosphere more generally. The atmosphere is the layer of gases that surrounds the earth and is held in place by gravity. The atmosphere is composed primarily of nitrogen (78 percent), oxygen (21 percent), and argon (1 percent), and consists of five main layers: Troposphere The troposphere extends from the surface of the Earth to about 5 to 9 miles above the surface. This is the most dense layer of the atmosphere, and it is the location of almost all weather. Stratosphere The stratosphere extends from just above the troposphere to about 31 miles above the Earth’s surface. This layer, which is drier, hotter, and less dense than the troposphere, contains the ozone layer. (Ozone is a form of oxygen that absorbs harmful ultraviolet radiation from the sun.) Mesosphere The mesosphere extends from just above the stratosphere to about 53 miles above the Earth. Although the troposphere and stratosphere are referred to jointly as the lower atmosphere, the mesosphere is sometimes called the middle atmosphere.

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Thermosphere The thermosphere extends from just above the mesosphere to about 372 miles above the Earth’s surface. Auroras are found in this layer. Owing to the energy of the sun, the temperatures here can exceed 400 degrees Fahrenheit. Exosphere The exosphere is the thinnest and most remote layer of the atmosphere, extending from just above the thermosphere to about 40,000 miles above the Earth. Together, the thermosphere and exosphere are referred to as the outer atmosphere. Since no landform on earth is higher than the troposphere, most human activity takes place in that level of the atmosphere. One exception is commercial air traffic, much of which occurs in the lower part of the stratosphere. Other exceptions include weather balloons, which may travel into the stratosphere; satellites, which are found at more than one level; and the space shuttle, which orbits in the thermosphere.

Geography’s Six Essential Elements The National Council for Geographic Education identifies six essential elements of geography: 1. The world in spatial terms refers to spatial concepts such as distance and direction, as well as to geographic representations such as globes and maps. 2. Places and regions refers to physical and social characteristics of geographic areas, as well as to systems of classifying areas, and perceptions of different areas. 3. Physical systems refers to processes that shape the earth, as well as to the characteristics and distribution of various ecosystems. 4. Human systems refers to characteristics and changes in social and cultural groups, as well as to relationships among groups that reflect conflict, cooperation, and interdependence. 5. Environment and society refers to the effects of human activity on the environment, and vice versa, as well as to the management and use of resources. 6. The use of geography refers to the application of geography in interpreting the past, understanding the present, and planning the future. The multi-subject teacher should be familiar with the content represented by each of these six elements.

Characteristics of the Earth’s Surface The multi-subject teacher should recognize different approaches to the characterization of the Earth’s surface. For example, the physical geography of the world can be categorized by oceans, continents, countries, or hemispheres. Geographic areas can be classified more broadly in terms of the atmosphere (air), the lithosphere (rock), the hydrosphere (water), and the biosphere (life). Some systems of classification also reflect relationships between organisms and environments. An example would be the study of biomes, or bioclimatic zones. There are many ways to categorize biomes. A simple approach is represented by the distinction between marine, desert, forest, grassland, and tundra environments. A more elaborated approach includes the following regions: Tropical rainforest Tropical rainforests are characterized by year-round high temperatures, relatively great precipitation, and highly diverse plant and animal life. Tropical dry forest Tropical dry forests are characterized by year-round high temperatures, a dry season, and more deciduous tress than found in tropical rainforests. Savanna Savannas (or savannahs) are characterized by year-round high temperatures, highly seasonal rainfall, and mostly tropical grasslands with scattered trees. Desert Deserts are characterized by generally high temperatures (although they may be cold during nights and winters), low precipitation, and many adaptations to drought conditions.

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Steppe Steppes are characterized by temperate environments, seasonal variation in precipitation, vegetation dominated by grasslands, and relatively little diversity in plant and animal life. Temperate forest Temperate forests are characterized by temperate environments with seasonal variation in precipitation, rich soils, and primarily deciduous trees. Taiga Taigas are characterized by cold winters with considerable snow, less diversity in plant and animal life than other forested areas, and primarily coniferous trees. Tundra Tundras are characterized by long winters, severe winds, limited sun, permanently frozen ground, poor soils, and relatively little diversity in plant and animal life. The multi-subject teacher should also recognize processes that affect biomes and reshape the Earth’s surface. For example, tectonics is the branch of geology that concerns the structure of the Earth’s crust, as well as changes that take place in the crust over time as a result of folding and faulting. The theory of plate tectonics holds that the Earth’s crust consists of about 20 plates that drift, collide, and separate over long periods of time. The edges where plates meet experience intense geological activity, including mountain building and earthquakes. The theory of plate tectonics accounts for continental drift (change in the positions of continents over long periods of time) as well as sea-floor spreading (the creation and movement of new oceanic crust at mid-ocean ridges). To a great extent, the topography of a place reflects tectonic processes. Weathering and erosion are also responsible for a variety of topographic features. Weathering is the breaking down of physical material. Erosion is the breaking down and removal of physical material. Sources of erosion include wind, water, ice, and gravity. Erosion can result from solution (as when water dissolves minerals in rock), hydraulic forces (as when wind beats against a cliff), abrasion (as when ice scrapes against a rock), attrition (as when a river drives pebbles into its bank), and other agents. Erosion that results from human activity is referred to as accelerated erosion and constitutes a major source of topographic change.

Functions of Systems in Different Settings The multi-subject teacher should understand the functioning of social, political, cultural, and religious systems in local, national, and international settings. (Further details are discussed under Objective 0021, 0024, and 0025.)

Demographic Change and Population Density Demographics refers to characteristics of human populations. Demographic information includes characteristics of entire groups, such as average income, spatial location, size, and so on. Demographic information also captures variability within groups, such as the distribution of people in a group who reflect different genders, ethnicities, and ages. The multi-subject teacher should understand the various factors that influence demographics and demographic change over time. For example, population density, or the number of people per square mile/kilometer, varies widely across regions, within regions, and over time. The population density of a region is influenced by the size and physical geography of the region, the standard of living of inhabitants, the interactions that occur with inhabitants of neighboring regions, and a variety of other factors that influence birth rate, death rate, and patterns of migration into as well as out of the region over time.

Human Impact on the Physical Environment The multi-subject teacher should understand the various positive and negative influences that human activity has on our physical environment. Humans depend on their immediate physical surroundings for air, water, food, and mineral resources. We alter the environment through the construction of houses and commercial buildings, through irrigation and the planting of crops, through the building of roads, bridges, and tunnels, through the use of fossil fuels, and through many other cultural

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practices. In the process of meeting our basic needs, we damage the environment in many ways—and we take steps to heal the damage we create. Reforestation, environmental clean-up efforts, conservation of animal and plant life, responsible agricultural practices, and governmental regulations on emissions are just a few of the ways we attempt to reverse some of the damage the environment has sustained. As noted earlier, the characteristics of the particular environment in which we live influence our interactions with the environment as well as the specific ways we meet our basic needs. Cross-cultural comparisons, analyses of migration, and other anthropological methods can reveal how human activities and settlement patterns are influenced by the physical geography of specific environments.

Review Questions 1. Which of the following fields tells us the most about changes in the Earth’s crust over time? A. B. C. D.

Meteorology Cultural geography Tectonics Demographics

The correct answer is C. Tectonics is the branch of geology that concerns the structure of the Earth’s crust. 2. Which of the following descriptions best characterizes a steppe? A. B. C. D.

Temperate weather, seasonal variation in precipitation, vegetation dominated by grasslands Year-round high temperatures, highly seasonal rainfall, and mostly tropical grasslands with scattered trees Cold winters with considerable snow, little plant and animal life other than coniferous trees Long winters, severe winds, limited sun, permanently frozen ground, and poor soils

The correct answer is A. Temperate weather, variable precipitation, and grasslands are among the characteristics of a steppe. 3. Damage resulting from strip mining would illustrate which of the following? A. B. C. D.

Weathering Abrasion Attrition Accelerated erosion

The correct answer is D. The type of erosion that results from human activity is accelerated erosion.

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Objective 0023 Understands concepts and phenomena related to human development and interactions (including anthropological, psychological, and sociological concepts). The following topics are covered under the subject area of Objective 0023: ■

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Using concepts, theories, and modes of inquiry drawn from anthropology, psychology, and sociology to examine general social phenomena and issues related to intercultural understanding Evaluating factors that contribute to personal identity (e.g., family, group affiliations, socialization processes) Recognizing how language, literature, the arts, media, architecture, traditions, beliefs, values, and behaviors influence and/or reflect the development and transmission of culture Analyzing the roles and functions of social groups and institutions in the United States (e.g., ethnic groups, schools, religions) and their influence on individual and group interactions Analyzing why individuals and groups hold different or competing points of view on issues, events, or historical developments Understanding the processes of social and cultural change

Concepts Related to Human Development Intercultural understanding can be defined as the ability to see things from different cultural perspectives and to value each unique perspective. Intercultural understanding can be thought of as the opposite of ethnocentrism, or the tendency to view the world from one’s own cultural perspective (and to assume one’s own perspective is superior). The multi-subject teacher should be familiar with the different social sciences and their approaches to the study of social phenomena and intercultural understanding. Anthropology, sociology, and psychology are three social sciences of particular relevance to these topics. Anthropology The study of humanity and human cultures, both past and present. The field of anthropology is considered a holistic, or universal social science, in the sense that the focus is on all aspects of society and culture. Some of the methods distinct to anthropological inquiry include the field study, in which anthropologists live among the people they observe, and the ethnography, which is a detailed description of another culture. Sociology The study of human groups and group interactions. The focus of sociology is on both social institutions as well as social relationships and group behaviors. As with other social sciences, sociological inquiry is based on a variety of methods, including survey research, field observation, and the analysis of stored materials such as census records and historical documents. Psychology The study of mind, brain, and behavior. The scope of psychology ranges from specific genetic and neurological processes to the broad analyses of culture and social groups. Like other social sciences, psychology is based on an interdisciplinary mix of empirical research and theoretical perspectives. The field of social psychology, for example, both informs and is informed by research and theory in sociology and anthropology. Each of these social sciences contributes to our understanding of humans and human culture, and each attempts to surmount ethnocentrism through their particular empirical and theoretical approaches. The multi-subject teacher should recognize the contribution of each social science to the understanding of intercultural phenomena and be able to evaluate social and cultural phenomena from the perspective of each.

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Personal Identity The multi-subject teacher should be able to distinguish among the many contributions to personal identity. Identity is influenced by physical characteristics, such as gender, race, and appearance, as well as by ongoing interactions with family, community, and culture. Initially, children are not aware of how their identities reflect various levels of social influence. With age comes growing recognition of the factors that influence identity and an appreciation of how personal identity reflects a social and cultural context. Conscious reflection about the self and interest in exploring alternative selves characterize the experience of some adolescents and can be added to the list of factors that influence identity development. The multi-subject teacher should be able to evaluate how identity is shaped by interactions with individuals, groups, institutions, and ideas and to understand the role of emerging self-consciousness in the development of identity.

Cultural Diffusion, Acculturation, and Assimilation The multi-subject teacher should understand how various aspects of culture can change and can influence and/or be influenced by other cultures. Cultural diffusion is the transmission of objects, ideas, and behaviors from one society to another. The effects of diffusion can be seen in virtually any aspect of society, including language, architecture, clothing, cuisine, beliefs, values, and so on. Cultural diffusion can result from many different kinds of interactions between cultures, including migration, trade, visitation, cross-cultural marriages, and written communication. In some cases, diffusion is highly specific. The adoption and widespread use of a foreign word would be an example of a highly specific cultural diffusion. In other cases, a more general set of beliefs, skills, or practices is transmitted. For example, writing, agriculture, the smelting of iron, and computer technology are among the most important forms of cultural diffusion in the history of human civilization. Cultural diffusion can be distinguished from acculturation, in which one society adopts a great deal of another society’s culture. The difference between diffusion and acculturation is largely a matter of degree. The relationship between the cultures of England and France, for instance, or the cultures of China and Japan, reflects processes of cultural diffusion, because each culture has incorporated elements from the other one while maintaining a separate identity. In contrast, some Native American groups have experienced acculturation, as a result of being forced to give up their land, language, and cultural practices. As the Native American example illustrates, one cause of acculturation is political or military dominance. However, it is not always the case that the dominant society imposes its culture on a society that it has overpowered. In some cases, the dominant society becomes acculturated. For example, after the Mongols occupied China in the thirteenth century A.D., they quickly adopted many aspects of Chinese culture. Diffusion and acculturation typically refer to changes in entire groups or cultures. The term acculturation is sometimes also used to describe how children acquire the cultural beliefs and practices of their own cultures. In contrast, assimilation refers to the integration of an individual into another culture, as can be observed sometimes among immigrants and their descendants.

Social Groups and Institutions The interdependence of society requires ongoing interactions among individuals, social groups, and institutions. The multi-subject teacher should be able to analyze the roles, functions, and influences of various U.S. groups and institutions. For example, the multi-subject teacher should understand the following: ■

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The role of educational institutions in the transmission of culture, and the influence of education on the socialization of children The formation and impact of political groups and institutions, both formal and informal

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The formation and impact of groups and institutions based on ethnic and/or cultural identity. (The teacher should understand concepts associated with multiculturalism, or the assumption that different cultural groups can co-exist within a single society.) The role of economic organizations in helping people meet their material needs The role of religious groups and institutions such as churches in meeting spiritual needs, and the influence of these groups and institutions on individuals of all ages

Differences in Perspective The multi-subject teacher should recognize the existence of competing views of issues, events, and historical change, and should understand some of the underlying sources of individual and group perspectives. For example, the teacher should recognize that differences in point of view can be interpreted in light of social stratification, the hierarchical structure of groups that exist in a society. Individuals as well as groups differ in physical characteristics such as age, gender, and race, as well as in ethnicity, occupation, class, and power. The point of view held by each individual or group is a reflection, to some extent, of their particular place in the social hierarchy. To some extent, differences in point of view also reflect differences in self-interest. The point of view held by a particular individual or group is influenced by the needs of that particular individual or group. Differences in point of view can also be attributed to differences in belief systems, which are in turn influenced by differential access to various sources of information. For example, the oral and written traditions of certain cultures explain their geographic origins in ways that differ from anthropological evidence about earlier patterns of migration. To take a very different example, citizens of various countries may have different views of the same historical event owing in part to differences in the kinds of information they have been exposed to in school and through the media.

Processes of Social and Cultural Change The examples of cultural diffusion and acculturation (described previously) pertain to the transmission of objects, ideas, and behaviors across cultures. The multi-subject teacher should also understand the ongoing, interrelated processes of social and cultural change that occur within cultures. For example, at the turn of the nineteenth century, the majority of Americans lived in rural areas and worked the land with their families. School was not compulsory at that time, and, as a result, most children joined their parents in agricultural work as soon as they were able. In the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, industrialization resulted in the rapid expansion of cities as well as shifts in the roles of family members. The majority of men began to work outside the home in factories, businesses, and other organizations. Public education became compulsory, so that the majority of children began to be educated outside the home. However, women were rarely employed during this time, and consequently their primary role became the maintenance of a domestic life for their families. During the past half-century, the majority of men continued to work outside the home, and the majority of children continued to be educated in public schools. At the same time, the roles of women became more diverse as a result of their entering the workforce in increasing numbers, along with other factors such as changes in their legal and social status, the increasing incidence of single motherhood, and so on. This example in workforce changes illustrates profound social and cultural changes over the past two centuries that have affected family structure, economic trends, social practices, and cultural beliefs.

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Review Questions 1. Which of the following social scientists is most likely to create an ethnography? A. B. C. D.

Psychologist Sociologist Anthropologist Economist

The correct answer is C. Ethnographies are detailed descriptions of other cultures created by anthropologists. 2. The emergence and spread of computer technology in the twentieth century reflects which of the following processes? A. B. C. D.

Cultural diffusion Acculturation Stratification Modification

The correct answer is A. Although the acquisition of computer technology may enable other kinds of cultural change, the spread of computer technology per se is a form of cultural diffusion. 3. Which of the following tends to reduce cultural diversity? A. B. C. D.

Multiculturalism Assimilation Intercultural understanding Social stratification

The correct answer is B. Multiculturalism, intercultural understanding, and social stratification each contribute in different ways to cultural diversity, whereas assimilation will tend to reduce diversity at the individual level.

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Objective 0024 Understand economic and political principles, concepts, and systems and relate this knowledge to historical and contemporary developments in New York State, the United States, and the world. The following topics are covered under the subject area of Objective 0024: ■

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Defining important economic and political terms and concepts (e.g., scarcity, opportunity cost, supply and demand, productivity, power, natural rights, checks and balances) and using them to analyze general phenomena and specific issues Analyzing the basic structure, fundamental ideas, accomplishments, and problems of the United States economic system Recognizing and comparing basic characteristics of major models of economic organization (e.g., traditional, market, command) and various governmental systems (e.g., democratic, authoritarian) Analyzing values, principles, concepts, and key features of American constitutional democracy (e.g., individual freedom, separation of powers, due process, federalism) Comparing different perspectives regarding economic and political issues and policies in New York State and the United States (e.g., taxing and spending decisions) Analyzing ways in which the United States has influenced other nations (e.g., in the development of democratic principles and human rights) and how other nations have influenced United States’ politics and culture

Economic and Political Terms and Concepts Economics is the study of how people produce, distribute, and use resources to satisfy their wants and needs. Politics is the study of how people govern and regulate nations, states, and other groups. Following are some of the basic economic concepts that would be important for a multi-subject teacher to understand and readily apply. (Key political concepts are defined and discussed under Objectives 0021 and 0025.) Barter Direct exchange of goods and services without use of money. Business An activity through which goods and services are exchanged for profit. A business may be a sole proprietorship (owned by a single person), a partnership (owned by two or more people), or a corporation (licensed by the government and owned by stockholders). A corporation that owns many businesses is a conglomerate. Capital Wealth that can be used to generate more wealth. Capital can be material objects, such as tools, or money itself, which can generate more wealth through investment. Choice What occurs when someone is faced with two or more alternative uses for a resource. The second best alternative that is given up when a choice is made is called opportunity cost. Circular flow The model of an economy that shows how consumers and businesses interact in the context of a market. Consumption The use of goods or services. A consumer is the person whose wants and needs are met through use of goods and services. The reliance of a consumer, business, or government on others for at least some goods and services is called interdependence. Demand Extent of interest in purchasing a particular good or service. Demand may be elastic (greatly increased when the price falls) or inelastic (not strongly influenced by price). Division of labor few tasks. Distribution

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The process through which each worker or group of workers performs only a single task or a

The way that goods or services are made available to consumers.


Embargo

A ban on trade with other countries.

Economic system The way the production, consumption, and distribution of goods and services is organized in a society. Major types of economic systems include capitalism, socialism, and communism. Exchange The movement of goods or services between producer and consumer. Exchange may take place by means of money, bartering, or some other medium. Goods

Physical objects that can satisfy wants or needs.

Labor

Any human activity that produces goods or services.

Market

Any setting in which buyers and sellers exchange goods, services, currencies, and other resources.

Market economy An economic system in which goods and services are typically exchanged in private markets and in which prices tend to be determined by buyers and sellers. Money

A physical medium of exchange that can be used to buy goods and services.

Price The value of a good or service in monetary terms. The price at which consumers will purchase exactly the amount of goods or services supplied by a producer is the equilibrium point. A general increase in prices is referred to as inflation. Production The creation of goods or services. Overproduction creates a surplus, while underproduction results in a shortage. Scarcity occurs when individuals do not have all the goods and services they desire. Productivity The ratio of the quantity or quality of goods and services to the input required to create them. Public goods

Goods and services provided by the government.

Resources Aids to the production of goods and services. Resources can be natural, human, or capital. Services Activities that can satisfy wants or needs. Specialization A situation in which the goods and services that people produce is narrower than what they consume. Standard of living Overall financial health of a society, which may be measured by indicators such as the Gross National Product, Gross Domestic Product, Gross National Income, and/or Consumer Price Index. Supply

Quantity of available goods or services.

Tariffs

Taxes on foreign goods that encourage the consumption of domestic products.

The United States Economic System The multi-subject teacher should understand and be able to analyze the characteristics of our capitalist economy. Capitalism is an economic system in which the means of production, distribution, and exchange are privately controlled and in which personal profit can be obtained through labor and capital investment. Capitalism is based on the concept of free enterprise, which holds that the interests of society are best served by free markets that are based on supply and demand, with minimal intervention from the government and from private coercion. The industrial revolution, and the philosophy of Adam Smith, are two important influences on the development of modern free enterprise systems that began in the late eighteenth century in the United States and in other western nations. The free-enterprise system in the United States is not completely free, in the sense of reflecting no governmental influence whatsoever. Examples of governmental involvement include the following: ■ ■ ■

The government owns and operates significant enterprises, including the Postal Service and public schools. The government regulates a variety of industries, in order to prevent fraud, monopolies, and other abuses. The government influences the economy through monetary policy. For example, the Federal Reserve System is a regulatory agency that can adjust the supply of money as well as the interest rates, thereby influencing the availability of money for loans to individuals and businesses.

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The government may impose embargos, tariffs, and other restrictions on economic exchange with foreign countries, in order to protect and stimulate the national economy. The government provides subsidies, tax credits, incentives, and otherwise exerts a variety of other influences on individuals and businesses.

Although federal and state governments influence American businesses on a variety of levels, free enterprise characterizes the economic system of the United States in many important respects. Individuals are free to choose the types of business they go into. Individuals are free to own private property. Individuals are free to make a profit from their businesses and to compete with others for profit. And individual consumers are generally free to patronize whatever businesses they choose. The multi-subject teacher should understand these and other characteristics of our economy and be able to analyze both the accomplishments as well as the problems that have arisen from this particular economic system.

Economic and Governmental Models The multi-subject teacher should be familiar with the similarities and differences between various models of economic organization. For example, in terms of how goods and services are produced, allocated, and consumed, a distinction can be made between traditional, market, and command economies. Traditional economies are based on cultural beliefs and customs; market economies are driven by relatively unguided market forces; and command economies (also called planned economies) rely more on advance planning. A distinction can also be made between capitalism, socialism, and communism. The teacher should understand the conceptual associations among capitalism, free enterprise, and market economies, as well as among planned economies and both socialism and communism. However, the teacher should recognize that actual economic systems tend to be mixed rather than reflecting any one pure type. The multi-subject teacher should also be familiar with similarities and differences between various governmental systems, which may or may not correspond to different types of economic organization. For example, democratic systems, in which people rule themselves through governmental representation, contrast most sharply with authoritarian systems such as dictatorships and totalitarian regimes, in which strict obedience to the authority of the state is considered desirable. The teacher should be familiar with other, more specific characterizations of governmental systems and be able to analyze the connections between governmental and economic systems (e.g., between authoritarian systems and planned economies).

The Constitution of the United States The multi-subject teacher should understand and be able to analyze the characteristics of American constitutional democracy, as established by the Constitution of the United States as well as other key documents and legislation. The basic laws of the United States are contained in the Constitution, which establishes the structure of government and outlines the rights and freedoms of American citizens. The Constitution, thus, embodies our most fundamental democratic values and principles. For example, the Constitution provides for a democratic system based on representative government, in which citizens elect leaders to represent and protect their basic rights and freedoms, including, in broadest terms, life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness. The Constitution guarantees that these rights and freedoms cannot be taken away without due process. The Constitution outlines democratic procedures for the creation of new laws and the modification of existing ones. The Constitution provides for civilian control of the military. In terms of governmental structure, the Constitution provides for a separation of powers, through which each branch of government can limit the influence of the other two and thereby preserve a balance of power among them. The Constitution also provides for a federalist structure, in that both federal and state governments maintain somewhat independent authority. (See Objective 0025 for further discussion of the Constitution of the United States.)

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Issue Perspectives The multi-subject teacher should be able to compare different perspectives on economic and political issues and policies, both in New York State and at the federal level. The teacher should be aware of, and be able to discuss, different perspectives on both historical as well as contemporary issues and policies. A contemporary example would be the differing perspectives on the need for tax reform in New York. Currently, when property tax, sales tax, and other kinds of state and local taxation are jointly examined, New Yorkers experience one of the highest tax burdens. (Tax burden can be defined as the proportion of total income used for taxes over a period of time.) It is widely believed that states with high tax burdens have poorer economic prognoses than states with low tax burdens. Thus, the high tax burden experienced by individuals as well as corporations in New York is considered problematic for the state’s economy. There are numerous differences in perspective about which aspects of the current system of taxation need to be reformed and about what kinds of reform are needed. For example, in 2006, Governor Pataki’s Commission on Tax Reform and Simplification made several recommendations, including reductions in personal and corporate income tax, a reduction in the number of tax brackets, and elimination of taxes on capital gains and dividends.

Political and Cultural Influences The multi-subject teacher should understand how the political and cultural climate of the United States has both influenced and been influenced by other nations. For example, the democratic principles embodied in the Constitution of the United States of America were influenced by the French philosophers Baron de Montesquieu and Jean-Jacques Rousseau, by the British philosopher John Locke, and by the writings and practices of a variety of nations ranging from the ancient Greeks and Romans to the eighteenth-century Iroquois. Key events, such as the experiences of the American colonies under British rule, and the French Revolution, also influenced the principles on which our constitutional system was founded. Just as our politics and culture have been influenced by other nations throughout our history, so we have influenced other nations. The United States’ civil rights movement is an example of a political and cultural movement whose origins as well as its effects can be observed at many levels. The American civil rights movement was influenced by the documents of greatest importance to our constitutional democracy, the Declaration of Independence, and the Constitution of the United States of America, and the effects of the civil rights movement can be seen in the formulation of important documents such as the United Nations’ Universal Declaration of Human Rights. At the same time, the civil rights movement was influenced by international events such as World War II, as well as by pressure from the international community, and our civil rights movement in turn has had a substantial impact on international human rights practices in countries such as South Africa.

Review Questions 1. What is the price at which consumers will purchase exactly the amount of goods supplied by a manufacturer? A. B. C. D.

Set point Balance point Equilibrium point Homeostatic point

The correct answer is C. The price at which consumers will purchase exactly the amount of goods or services supplied by a producer is the equilibrium point.

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2. Which of the following illustrates a federalist system of governance? A. B. C. D.

State governments have no authority independent of national government. The authority of national government rarely supersedes that of state governments. The authority of national government always supersedes that of state governments. State governments have some authority independent of national government.

The correct answer is D. In a federalist system, national and state governments each have somewhat independent authority, and the authority of the national government supersedes that of state governments only in certain situations. 3. What kind of economy is most closely associated with free enterprise? A. B. C. D.

Traditional economy Market economy Command economy Commercial economy

The correct answer is B. Free enterprise assumes that the common good is best served by markets that are driven by supply and demand with minimal intervention from the government.

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Objective 0025 Understands the roles, rights, and responsibilities of citizenship in the United States and the skills, knowledge, and attitudes necessary for successful participation in civic life. The following topics are covered under the subject area of Objective 0025: ■

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Analyzing the personal and political rights guaranteed in the Declaration of Independence, the Constitution of the United States of America, the Constitution of the State of New York, and major civil rights legislation Recognizing the core values of the United States’ democratic system (e.g., justice, honesty, the rule of law, selfdiscipline, due process, equality, majority rule, respect for minority rights) Demonstrating an understanding of the United States’ election process and the roles of political parties, pressure groups, and special interests in the United States’ political system Explaining what citizenship means in a democratic society and analyzing the ways in which citizens participate in and influence the political process in the United States (e.g., the role of public opinion and citizen action groups in shaping public policy) Examining the rights, responsibilities, and privileges of individuals in relation to family, social group, career, community, and nation Analyzing factors that have expanded or limited the role of the individual in United States political life during the twentieth century (e.g., female suffrage, Jim Crow laws, growth of presidential primaries, role of the media in political elections)

Important United States Documents The multi-subject teacher should be familiar with a number of important documents that guarantee the personal and political rights of U.S. citizens.

The Declaration of Independence The Declaration of Independence consists of four parts: Introduction, preamble, body, and conclusion. The introduction states the necessity for the American colonies to break from the British Empire. The preamble describes self-evident principles of democracy. The first part of the body describes the “abuses and usurpations” perpetrated on the colonists by King George III, while the second part of the body indicates that the colonists had previously appealed in vain to the British for relief. Finally, the conclusion states that the colonies are free and independent, with no further political connection to Britain.

The Constitution of the United States of America The Constitution of the United States of America contains our nation’s fundamental laws. The Constitution establishes the structure of our government and describes the rights and liberties of the American citizens. The precursor to the Constitution was the Articles of Confederation, which was ratified by all states in 1781. This document, our first national constitution, made provisions for a federal government and formally changed the designation of the colonies to states. In terms of providing a foundation for a national government, the Articles of Confederation were incomplete, and otherwise problematic on various points of procedure as well as practice. As a result, the Constitutional Convention gathered in 1787 to create a more adequate and permanent constitution. The Constitution of the United States of America was created in 1787 and took effect in 1789. The Constitution consists of seven articles and 27 amendments. The first three articles of the Constitution establish the separation of powers— the system of checks and balances—that prevents any single branch of the government from becoming too powerful. The three main branches of government defined in the Constitution are the legislative,

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executive, and judicial branches, which are represented by the Congress, the President, and the Supreme Court, respectively. The first three articles outline the rules, responsibilities, and rights associated with each branch of government and provide mechanisms by which each branch can check the power of the other two. The fourth article of the Constitution describes the relationship between states and between individual states and the federal government. The fifth article identifies the procedure by which the Constitution can be amended. The sixth article promises to honor debts and obligations made by the United States prior to the adoption of the Constitution. The sixth article also establishes the primacy of the Constitution by stating that all laws must be consistent with it, that all federal and state officials should give allegiance to it, and that it is superior to state laws in the event of a conflict. The seventh article states that ratification by nine states would be sufficient for the establishment of the Constitution. The first 10 amendments to the Constitution are referred to as the Bill of Rights, because they describe the rights and other protections granted to individual citizens. Following the Bill of Rights are 17 additional amendments, the most recent being the twenty-seventh Amendment, ratified in 1992, which prevents Congress from passing salary increases for itself until after the next congressional election.

The Constitution of the State of New York The Constitution of the State of New York was drafted by John Jay and first adopted in 1777 without approval by popular vote. This document declared the independence of New York from Great Britain and established constitutional law in the state. Provisions were made for the judicial and legislative branches of state government. Originally, the executive branch was especially strong. The legislative branch was divided into two houses: the Senate (consisting of 24 senators elected every four years from four districts) and the Assembly (containing 70 assemblymen elected annually from fourteen districts). Substantial property ownership was originally required in order to vote. The present New York State Constitution, ratified in 1894 by popular vote, provides for a governor who is elected to a four-year term. The 61-member senate and the 150-member assembly are composed of individuals who serve two-year terms. Numerous amendments have been adopted, including those made on eight different occasions between 1801 and 1967 by means of Constitutional Conventions. The 1938 Constitutional Convention was particularly important for introducing amendments that expanded the state government’s role in social welfare programs.

Other Legislation Major civil rights legislation, such as the Civil Rights Act of 1964, is contained in federal and state government documents. In addition, the personal and political rights of citizens are protected by a variety of additional civil rights legislation, such as Brown v. Board of Education and other highly influential Supreme Court decisions. Multi-subject teachers should be able to trace various personal and political rights to the document or documents that provide for them and to be able to evaluate how the language of these documents can be applied to specific situations.

Democratic Values The teaching of democratic values is central to social studies instruction. Students are taught the characteristics and importance of values such as patriotism, equality, tolerance for diversity, the rule of law, and the right to vote. Ultimately, the goal of social studies instruction is to instill good citizenship—that is, to create students who are informed, engaged, active participants in the democratic process. Civics is the study of how society maintains order through government institutions and the political process. Civics focuses on the structure and function of government, the nature and importance of democratic values, and the meaning of citizenship. Civics includes an understanding of laws, rules, rights, and responsibilities, which define appropriate and desirable behavior from the perspective of the local community, the state, and the nation. The fundamental rights of United States citizens are guaranteed in the Bill of Rights and subsequent amendments to the Constitution. At the same time, the Ninth Amendment holds that the Constitution does not contain all fundamental rights. The Ninth Amendment is based on the practical consideration that not all rights could be explicitly described in a single

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document, even though provisions for those rights might be made elsewhere. The purpose of the Ninth Amendment is to prevent certain rights from being violated simply because they are not explicitly mentioned in the Constitution. Broadly, our rights as citizens reflect the rule of law. The rule of law is fundamental to a democratic society. In contrast to the rule of men, the rule of law embodies the idea that all people should receive fair, equal, and consistent treatment under the law. According to this idea, individuals should answer primarily to a set of laws rather than the desires of one or more authority figures. The rule of law reflects a variety of interrelated principles, including the need for an independent judiciary and a transparent judicial process, among other things. One consequence of the rule of law is a foundation for protecting the rights of any minority in a political system characterized by majority rule. Under the rule of law in the United States, the Fifth and Fourteenth Amendments of the federal Constitution provide for due process, in that the government cannot deprive an individual of “life, liberty, or property” arbitrarily, without giving the individual an opportunity to seek legal recourse. Due process includes the individual’s right to be notified of charges against him or her, to respond to those charges, and to be protected from cruel and unusual punishment.

Election Processes The multi-subject teacher should have some grasp of the complexity of the various U.S. election processes. For example, the presidential election begins in February of an election year with primaries, or primary elections, in which each party’s candidate for president is chosen, along with caucuses, or statewide meetings of the supporters of each political party in which delegates are chosen to represent the presidential candidate preferred by the party. The Constitution of the United States of America requires that candidates be at least 35 years of age, natural born citizens of the United States, and residents of the United States for at least 14 years. Other legislation, such as the Federal Election Campaign Act, determines additional requirements for candidates and their campaigns. At the end of the primaries and caucuses, each party holds a national convention to finalize the selection of one presidential candidate. After delegates have voted and a presidential candidate is chosen, the candidate selects a running mate, and the two individuals are officially nominated by their party. Following their nominations, the candidates campaign intensely until the November election, when every citizen of legal age has the opportunity to vote. However, the results of the election are not determined by popular vote, but by a Constitutionally-required process known as the Electoral College. Voters in each state actually vote for a block, or group of electors, who promise to choose a particular candidate. The number of electors in each state is equal to the number of congressional representatives from that state. New York, for example, has, in addition to its two Senators, 15 representatives in the House of Representatives. In most states, the candidate who wins the popular vote in that state receives all of its electors. A candidate must win a simple majority of 270 out of 538 total possible electoral votes in order to become president. The electoral votes are counted on January 6, and if no majority is identified, the House of Representatives chooses the next president, and the Senate chooses the next vice president. The president and vice president then take the oath of office and are inaugurated on January 20. The election procedures for Congress and other elected offices differ to a great extent from the presidential elections. However, one characteristic shared by all is that the actions of political candidates, from the earliest stages of their campaigns to their decisions once elected, are influenced to a greater or lesser extent by their parties and by special interest groups. The multi-subject teacher should understand the various roles of these groups in our political system.

Civic Participation in Politics In a sense, all social studies instruction is intended to foster good citizenship. The teaching of factual information, principles, critical thinking, and decision-making skills all foster good citizenship by giving students a basis for making informed decisions about political, social, and family issues. Citizens in a democracy are not required to participate in the political process, but their participation makes democracy stronger. Citizens participate by voting, by influencing public opinion through discussion of political issues and the expression of personal views, and by joining political groups such as parties. The multi-subject teacher should be aware

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of the many kinds of groups through which citizens can influence the political process. For example, there are two kinds of interest groups, or lobbies, that pressure government representatives on specific issues. Private interest groups, such as labor unions, lobby for their own economic interests, while public interest groups lobby for what they perceive to be the public good.

Good Citizenship The multi-subject teacher should be aware of specific instructional approaches and strategies that can be used to foster good citizenship in the classroom and to promote critical examination of the rights, responsibilities, and privileges of individual citizens in groups ranging from family to nation. Good classroom management naturally promotes good citizenship. Teaching children appropriate conflict resolution strategies, as well as the importance of taking turns, sharing, and being polite can make children better classroom citizens. Being a better classroom citizen in turn provides the foundation for being a good citizen generally. Concepts such as compromise, cooperation, and tolerance are best introduced to children in the context of classroom interactions. Through role-play and other activities, parallels can be drawn between interactions among children in the classroom, and interactions among individuals, groups, communities, and nations in other places and times. Teachers can also convey good classroom citizenship through modeling, explicit discussion, and other activities. Teachers can also promote good citizenship at home and in the local community. Encouraging students to give away things that they do not use, to be kind to neighbors, to conserve water, to keep a trash bag in a parent’s car, or to do a good deed are just a few examples. Generally, the older the student, the more readily the teacher can engage in explicit discussion of the concept of citizenship. Older students will have facility with abstract concepts related to citizenship, such as equality, justice, rights, and responsibility.

Civil Rights The multi-subject teacher should realize that the rights and responsibilities of U.S. citizens were not fixed with the establishment of the Constitution, but have continuously evolved. There are numerous sources of change, ranging from specific acts of legislation to general shifts in attitudes. For example, the civil rights movement in the United States was responsible for changes in the treatment of African-Americans throughout the twentieth century. Following the Civil War, most southern states passed laws that discriminated against African Americans by barring them from schools, restaurants, buses, and other public places occupied by whites. These Jim Crow laws were reinforced by the Supreme Court’s 1896 Plessy v. Ferguson ruling that provided for “separate but equal” segregation of the races. During the twentieth century, a variety of different factors were responsible for the abolition of Jim Crow laws and a shift away from legally-mandated segregation. For example, in 1954 the Supreme Court ruled in Brown v. Board of Education that segregation in public schools is unconstitutional. This decision, based in part on the assumption that separate educational environments are inherently unequal, overturned the Plessy v. Ferguson ruling. In the 1950s and early 1960s, organizations such as the NAACP and CORE focused on ending segregation in public places such as buses and trains. Individual acts, such as Rosa Park’s refusal to relinquish her seat on a bus to a white person in 1955, as well as the speeches and organized activities of civil rights leaders such as Martin Luther King and Malcolm X, contributed in both specific and general ways to changes in attitudes and laws that had sustained segregation and unequal treatment. In 1964, the Civil Rights Act made racial discrimination in public places illegal and required employers to provide equal employment opportunities to all races. The Civil Rights Act, and a variety of related legislation such as the Civil Rights Restoration Act, continue to influence our society through affirmative action programs and other sources of institutional and social change. The multi-subject teacher should be sensitive to current controversies, such as the role of affirmative action policies in higher education, which illustrate that the rights and responsibilities of citizens are still evolving.

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Review Questions 1. Which of the following ideas is most clearly associated with the rule of law? A. B. C. D.

Monarchy is a flawed but preferable form of government. Each member of society must be treated equally and consistently under the law. The wisest and most tolerant individuals should create the laws of a society. The judiciary should answer to the executive branch of government.

The correct answer is B. The rule of law is the idea that each individual in a society should receive fair and equal treatment under the law. 2. What is the focus of the first three articles of the Constitution of the United States of America? A. B. C. D.

Outlining the rationale for the Constitution and the mechanisms by which it can be ratified and amended Describing some of the basic rights of U.S. citizens Defining the relationship between the powers of the federal government and the powers of the individual states Distinguishing the three main branches of the federal government and establishing their separate powers

The correct answer is D. The first three articles of the Constitution distinguish among the powers of the executive, legislative, and judicial branches of government. 3. Labor unions exemplify which of the following groups? A. B. C. D.

Political action committee Public interest group Private interest group Caucus

The correct answer is C. Although labor unions intend to contribute to public interest, and although their members may participate in caucuses, the unions are intended to serve the interests of their members.

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Objective 0026 Understands and applies skills related to social studies, including gathering, organizing, mapping, evaluating, interpreting, and displaying information. The following topics are covered under the subject area of Objective 0026: ■

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Evaluating the appropriateness of various resources and research methods for meeting specified information needs (e.g., atlas, bibliography, almanac, database, survey, poll) and applying procedures for retrieving information using traditional resources and current technologies (e.g., CD-ROM, the Internet) Demonstrating an understanding of concepts, tools, and technologies for mapping information about the spatial distribution of people, places, and environments (e.g., mapping grids, latitude and longitude, the advantages and limitations of different types of maps and map projections) Analyzing information in social studies materials (e.g., identifying central themes in important historical speeches or documents, distinguishing fact from opinion, evaluating multiple points of view in policy debates) Interpreting information presented in one or more graphic representations (e.g., graph, table, map) and translating written or graphic information from one form to the other Summarizing the purpose or point of view of an historical narrative

Resources and Research Methods Social studies instruction is based on a variety of sources and methods: ■

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Primary sources of information consist of actual records and first-hand accounts of places, events, and experiences. For example, primary sources of information about the creation of the Declaration of Independence include letters written by Thomas Jefferson and other members of the Continental Congress, Jefferson’s autobiography, eyewitness accounts of exchanges between key delegates, and the actual Declaration itself. Other examples of primary sources include atlases, almanacs, and databases. Secondary sources of information consist of descriptions and explanations that are based on primary sources. Secondary sources of information about the creation of the Declaration of Independence, for example, would include history textbooks currently in use, scholarly analyses of how the Declaration of Independence evolved, and other sources created after the fact. Other examples of secondary sources include magazine articles, opinion polls, and book reviews.

The classification of a source of information as primary or secondary depends on how the information is used. A passage about immigration in a textbook, for example, ordinarily serves as a secondary source. However, if one examines several current textbooks in order to characterize contemporary attitudes toward immigration, the textbooks are being treated as primary sources about authorial attitudes. A distinct advantage of primary sources is the way they bring topics to life. Primary historical sources, for example, include real objects and records, as well as the personal accounts of historical figures. Through primary historical sources students can encounter the lives of significant individuals, including their manner of speaking, attitudes, dilemmas, social relationships, and responses to the events and situations that are summarized in textbooks and other secondary sources. Some primary sources consist of written materials that can help students appreciate differences in point of view, bias, rhetorical intent, and frame of reference. In fields such as anthropology and geography, physical objects such as artifacts, landscapes, and photographs serve as primary sources. Secondary sources of information rely on primary sources. A key advantage of secondary sources is that authors can often present a more complete description of people, places, and events than that provided in primary sources. Secondary sources can present background information, commentary, and analysis that are indispensable to an understanding of primary sources. In addition, secondary sources can sometimes provide a more balanced or diversified set of perspectives than could be found in a primary source, since authors of secondary sources often attempt to be as impartial and/or inclusive as possible.

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The multi-subject teacher should be familiar with a variety of traditional and contemporary approaches to obtaining information through primary and secondary sources. Sources of information include the following: ■ ■ ■

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Scientific books, journals, technical reports, and Web sites News reports, editorials, political cartoons, satires, and surveys Reference materials such as encyclopedias, almanacs, bibliographies, atlases, maps, and other sources that are available in print, on the Internet, and on CD-ROMs Publications and Web sites sponsored by U.S. government agencies such as the Department of Education and the National Institute of Health Documents, databases, and statistics made available by U.S. government organizations such as the Federal Reserve Bank Publications and Web sites sponsored by international agencies such as the United Nations and the World Bank

Technology plays a dual role in social studies instruction. Technology provides tools that contribute to the learning of social studies. In addition, the development of technology and its impact on human cultures are among the topics covered in social studies lessons. Currently, a variety of computer-related technologies are available for communicating social studies content. Interactive software actively engages students in both instruction as well as in problem-solving and decision-making activities. Tutorial programs function like interactive textbooks and can be used to learn a variety of different kinds of content and skills. Problem-solving programs encourage students to make use of problem-solving and other analytical skills (e.g., for locating a missing person) in the context of social studies content such as map-reading. Simulation programs create—or allow students to create—situations that are as realistic as possible. Students make choices in these situations and observe the practical consequences of their decisions. Word processing and related software allow students to generate reports, presentations, spreadsheets, and other products. Database software helps students organize data and generate calculations. Internet access opens the door to a variety of resources, including news reports, archival materials, databases, maps, videos, virtual tours, educational games, newsgroups, listervs, and blogs, as well as email. A number of Internet sites for children focus exclusively on social studies. Teachers should make use of a variety of technologies when teaching social studies content. The particular technologies used should be appropriate to each child’s level and should be accompanied by technological support when needed.

Maps The multi-subject teacher should be able to understand, create, and explain how to interpret maps of different types. With respect to the teaching of physical geography, four types of maps are especially useful: ■ ■ ■ ■

Outline maps contain outlines of geographic regions, such as states, without additional detail. Relief maps contain raised features representing the topography of a region. Topographic maps use different colors and symbols to represent various geographic characteristics. Puzzle maps can be cut into shapes for students to reassemble.

In order to effectively incorporate maps into discussions of physical geography, the multi-subject teacher should be able to identify key geographic features and compass directions on maps and to use latitude and longitude for identifying location. The teacher should be able to create grids as well as mappings that preserve scale. In addition, the teacher should be familiar with different types of coordinate systems and to recognize systematic distortions on different types of maps and globes. Two common examples are the universal transverse mercator system, which preserves the shapes of land masses at the expense of distortions in size at the periphery of the map, and geographic coordinate systems, which use degrees of latitude and longitude to describe location and thereby introduce other kinds of distortions.

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In order to incorporate maps into discussions of history and culture, the teacher needs to understand how to use, evaluate, and create maps that provide information about migratory patterns, population growth, cultural diffusion, and other sources of cultural change.

Interpreting Materials The multi-subject teacher must be able to use a variety of evaluative, problem-solving, and decision-making skills in the analysis and teaching of social studies content. Following are some examples: ■

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The teacher evaluates written materials on dimensions such as completeness, coherence, authenticity, authority, and credibility. The teacher evaluates the values, motives, perspectives, and positions of historical figures; analyzes the problems and situations they faced as well as their responses; and considers the alternative courses of action that were available to them. The teacher distinguishes between relevant and irrelevant antecedents to an idea, event, or physical process, considers multiple causes, and traces the influence of the idea, event, or physical process forward in time. The teacher distinguishes among fact, inference, interpretation, and opinion; addresses debates and other differences of opinion; and identifies levels of confidence in conclusions drawn from both primary and secondary materials.

Interpreting Graphics Basic graphic skills are needed in order for the multi-subject teacher to understand and make effective use of tally sheets, bar graphs, pie charts, tables, diagrams, maps, and other visual representations. The teacher should be able to understand, create, and explain diagrams of physical processes, such as the hydrologic cycle, as well as cultural processes such as migratory patterns. Representational skills are needed to interpret and create symbols. In addition, the teacher should be comfortable with the use of specialized representations such as satellite images, seismographs, and other sources of graphic information about elements of natural and human environments. The teacher should also be able to translate information across written and graphic formats. The teacher should be able to create visual representations of numerical data, as well as compute numerical data from figures and other visual aids.

Identifying Point of View Because the examination, evaluation, and teaching of values is central to social studies, it is essential for teachers to be able to identify the point of view, rhetorical intent, purpose, and other characteristics of historical narratives. This requires a careful, critical approach to the reading and interpretation of narratives.

Review Questions 1. What is one of the main advantages of using primary sources in teaching history? A. B. C. D.

Primary sources tend to be more accurate than secondary sources. Primary sources tend to be highly engaging, given that they represent personal views on historical events and situations. Primary sources tend to be more comprehensive and complete than secondary sources. Primary sources tend to present multiple points of view on a particular historical event or situation.

The correct answer is B. Primary historical sources often provide first-hand accounts of historical events. However, they are not generally more accurate, more comprehensive, or more diverse in point of view than secondary sources.

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2. What kind of map should be consulted to identify the latitude and longitude of a particular city? A. B. C. D.

Geographic coordinate system Relief map Universal transverse mercator system Meridian map

The correct answer is A. Geographic coordinate systems contain information about latitude and longitude. 3. Patrick Henry concluded a 1775 speech by saying “I know not what course others may take; but as for me, give me liberty or give me death!” In the context of the speech, which of the following opinions is most clearly implied by this concluding remark? A. B. C. D.

A life without freedom is not worth living. Acceptance of British rule is essential to liberate the colonists from current political tensions. Independence from the British is worth fighting—and dying—for. All of the above.

The correct answer is C. Henry’s speech to the Second Virginia Convention was intended to persuade his colleagues that further conciliatory measures toward the British would be hopeless and that a fight for liberation was the only acceptable alternative.

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Subarea V: The Fine Arts Objective 0027: Art Understands the concepts, techniques, and materials of the visual arts; can analyze works of visual art; and understands the cultural dimensions and contributions of the visual arts. The following topics are covered under the subject area of Objective 0027: ■

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Identifying basic elements (for example, line, color) and principles (for example, unity, balance) of art and recognizing how they are used to communicate meaning in works of art Analyzing two-dimensional and three-dimensional works of art in terms of their visual and sensory characteristics. Applying knowledge of the characteristics of various art media (for example, two-dimensional, three-dimensional, electronic) to select a medium appropriate for a given artistic purpose or intent Applying knowledge of basic tools and techniques for working with various materials (for example, clay, textiles, wood) Analyzing how works of art reflect the cultures in which they were produced (for example, materials or techniques used, subject matter, style) Comparing works of art of different cultures, eras, and artists in terms of characteristics such as theme, imagery, and style

The term concepts has several meanings in the arts. For the Greek period, antiquity, the middle ages, and the beginning of the Renaissance, the concept of art revolved around skill. Skill was defined as knowledge of a set of rules that varied according to the method (painting, sculpture, and so on). Overall, the concept of art included not making distinctions among art, craft, and science (thus, Leonardo daVinci’s Notebooks in which he explored art, craft, and science, were to him all the same areas of concern). Around 1750, with the Industrial, French and American Revolutions, the concept of art evolved to encompass not only the art itself, but the social and theoretical system surrounding it. The basic methods did not change, but the way art was considered did, reflecting a modified view of the role of art in society. Art produced by individual artists was recognized, and the meaning of the art object and the communication it lent further defined art’s prior role. Although, today, society’s conception of art revolves around the individual artist, most art schools still base their teaching on developing a specific level of skill sets. The concepts of art can also be considered as the things that artists value as important to the communication of meaning independent of how society might appreciate their art. Some of the concepts that artists use are the following: ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■

time constants and variables nature of creativity creation of new forces and forms that cause change order and disorder reality presence of the past signs and symbols dealing with reality

The concept of time involves trying to capture a moment in time in a continually changing world. The constants of life involve the continuing nature of man while man is continually inventing, thus creating a set of continuing variables. The

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concept of creativity involves making new forms and deciding how these forms effect change. Order and disorder is a similar concept in which the artist chooses his own order and creates disorder out of the order by choosing the elements of his art.

Basic Elements of Art The elements of art include the following: line A mark made by an art tool drawn across a surface that leaves a trail that is visible. texture The quality of the surface of the art object, whether it is smooth, rough, striated, or a combination of tactile feelings. shape Shape is described in two dimensions as the objects described on a two-dimensional surface. Shape can be negative or positive describing an object or the space around the object or objects. For a three-dimensional object, shape involves the area around the object that describes its limits and boundaries. color The light reflected from the object or pigment used on the surface to create a range of colors. value The range of light to dark of the color of the object. (Tint involves the amount of white in the color, and shade is the amount of black mixed with the color.) space Space is described two dimensionally as the area surrounding the objects (negative and positive) and three dimensionally as the area around the objects or the amount of space an object occupies. form The types of descriptors used in an art work. Form involves the use of circles, squares, spheres, columns, and amorphous shapes. The elements of design involve the following: unity Unity in design involves creating a design or composition in which the elements reflect a wholeness and an appearance of belonging together in harmony. variety Variety involves using elements that are different to add an element of surprise and change to the composition. balance Balance suggests how the whole is held together. Balance that appears even is called symmetrical; in other words, one side appears to look like the other. Balance can also be asymmetrical so that one side is more dominant that the other either in size or weight. emphasis and subordination Artists use emphasis to draw the eye to certain areas of a composition. Subordination is the area around the emphasis points in a composition or sculpture; these areas provide transition rest for the eyes to the next emphasis area. directional forces Directional forces in a drawing or painting show the way for the eyes to follow the movement in a work of art. Artists use a combination of vertical, horizontal, and diagonal lines to direct us to the important parts, also using light and dark to aid the composition. contrast Contrast is the use of light and dark areas opposing each other to accentuate areas. repetition and rhythm Repetition, the use of repeating elements of similar or the exact size and dimension to reinforce the strength of the composition. Rhythm can be thought of as a repeating pattern of similar designs with slight variations, similar to the rhythmic feeling of music. scale and proportion Scale and proportion often go hand in hand. Scale is the size of one object in relationship to another. We think of the size of a painting in terms of its scale: Is it large or very small in relation to other paintings or other objects? Proportion is the size of the objects in relation to the other objects in the whole. Paintings reproduced in books are often reduced in proportion to the original size to fit within the size (the whole) of the printed page. Although the whole painting stays in its original whole, its overall size has been reduced to correspond to the size of the printed page. Artists use the basic elements of art and design singly or in combination with each other to communicate ideas in their art works. Typically, the modern understanding of art begins with defining the elements of art and design and learning how to apply them to create works of art. The use of design helps artists to create works of art that can communicate ideas, emotions, time, and feelings. By asking what is real, artists are trying to ask us to consider the meaning of reality: Is what we see real? How is reality composed?

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Subarea V: The Fine Arts

The presence of the past affects artists in the media and methods they use to make their art works. All the processes available to artists allow them to pursue new combinations and create new combinations of methods and art. For example, signs and symbols were used by primitive societies to interpret their worlds; when modern artists discover these methods, they incorporate them into their art works. The composition (how the elements are combined and displayed) can be successful when the end result achieves the result the artists intended. Artists learn to combine elements to stress their ideas. If the idea needs a strong center, then using an element that occupies a central or large space will dominate the composition. Using the object in the center will create a balanced composition and send the message successfully.

Analyzing Art Works Art historians study the careers of artists and their art and develop theories about that art. Artists form into groups to reflect similar goals of communication through their art. In school, artists are taught a range of skills, techniques, methods, and theories; they then use the skills they learned to create their own forms of art. Drawn by their own interests into certain areas, not all artists study the same set of skills and art history. Artists learn how to look at works of art and understand, by a structured breakdown, the methods, materials, and the history of the artist who made the art and how that artist or group of artists came to value the various elements and design used in their art works. With a natural inclination in the arts, artists can learn to extract the meaning from works and learn to realize elements, design, compositions, color, ideas, and theories that will apply to their own development of art. Analyzing works of visual art assists artists in determining their own artistic paths and the role they see themselves playing in the history of art. Analyzing works of art involves studying a work of art from all of its aspects—a physical description (how big is it, what is it made of). Going into detail on the physical description makes the observer aware of all of the elements of the work. Next, describe the colors and shapes that are used and talk about the subject of the object: Is it representational? Abstract? Is it historical? The observer can speak of how the work was made, what process went into its making, its rhythm, balance, and so on. The observer also can analyze the work by going through all of the elements and design aspects. If the work is representative of a different culture, learning about the influence of that culture and its history will be helpful. If the work is old or ancient, learning about the peoples and history of the time will yield insight into why the piece reflects both the artist and the time in which it was made. Art critics study art history, visit art openings, and tour galleries and museums to write articles on art works. Often they work for a newspaper or magazine, serve as curators in museums, or write art history books or current criticism books. Critiquing and analyzing art works by using all the elements of visual art and the elements of design; physically describing the work; listing and talking about the specific elements in a work; and describing the realistic, abstract, or nonrepresentational aspects of the work help the curator, critic, art historian, or gallery viewer understand the meaning the artist is trying to communicate. Studying other artists that the artist admires and the skills he or she has acquired aids in understanding how the artist makes decisions and choices in materials, arranges a composition or separate parts of a sculpture, and successfully or unsuccessfully conveys the meaning implied.

Characteristics of Art Media Both artists who have attended art school and self-taught artists teach themselves skills that they need in order to accomplish the communication they wish to seek and promote. Knowing a set of skills, how the materials work, and the types of ideas they can express give artists ways to select materials and processes that are appropriate for their art. Artists see works made in various ways and see that certain methods and materials work better to communicate certain ideas. With the advent of technology, artists can use computers, digital cameras, and printers to project how an art work can be made. Various methods can be worked out on a computer, and trial and error (not necessarily the expending of materials) can assist the artist in finding the most appropriate means and methods for his or her art. The techniques and materials of the visual arts have varied greatly as artists seek to combine old techniques and create new techniques borrowed from the other sciences. The traditional techniques of the visual arts include drawing, painting, printmaking, sculpture, photography and film, and ceramics. Present-day techniques draw upon the new resources and technologies available to artists including computer, digital imaging, film, and video.

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Drawing Drawing techniques involve sketching, freehand, outline, blind outline, long sketch, timed drawing, portrait, rendering, and automatic drawing, to name a few of the choices. In drawing, an implement that leaves a trace is used to push the medium of the implement into the surface (usually paper) to create an image. Typically, drawings are done with the following implements: ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■

pencil conte crayon wash pen and ink rollerball pen felt tip pen paint brush charcoal mechanical pencil mechanical pen drawing pencils

Drawing pencils range in darkness from 6H (H designating hardness and therefore a light line) through HB (the halfway point in the scale) to 8B (B designating blackness and the softest grade and, therefore, the darkest type). Drawings can be considered as finished works of art or as a means of working out a problem to create a finished work of art in another medium. For example, painters often sketch a work on canvas before painting over the sketch; sculptors often sketch a sculpture on paper and use that sketch as a guide when working in the final medium. In the past, artists also used solid silver to create silverpoint drawings. The silver left a range of light marks on the paper coated with gesso or China white paint to create a “tooth” or a textured surface on the paper that could receive the particles of silver. As the silver tarnished, the drawing would move to a darker image. Charcoal from fires, created from burning sticks and twigs, were used in the cave drawings to create carbon drawings on surfaces.

Painting Painting (after drawing) has long been a preferred method of communicating ideas in art. Painting techniques include the following: ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■

washes layer over layer oil painting fresco egg tempera and fine line tempera painting portrait painting abstract painting nonrepresentational painting collages combines paintings including the newer techniques

Washes are defined as a thin layer of paint (thinned with water, turpentine, mineral spirits, and so on) and applied to the surface with a brush or knife. Often washes are layered over each other to create a depth of color. In watercolor painting, washes are done quickly and show the background white of the paper. Washes can be combined with resist, a removable substance applied to an area of a painting that will resist or not absorb the pigment of the paint that passes

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over it in the wash. The resist is then removed (often by rubbing) and the clean area can be painted or left white. Acrylic paintings use washes and a geometric grid method to create areas of color with depth. Artists tape off an area with masking tape where they want to isolate color and then lightly paint in the area with a clear acrylic coat. They then paint the area with the wash or washes and when dry, remove the tape, leaving a crisp edge. Washes can be done with conte crayon by marking strongly on the paper and then applying a wet brush to spread the particles of pigment. Layer over layer oil painting (fat over lean) refers to the tendency of oil to take a long time to dry completely. Since layers that are thinly painted dry more quickly, the artist paints thicker layers of paint as he progresses through the painting. Thinned with turpentine, the lean layers can dry in a week. Fat layers can dry reasonably in a month, but it takes a full year for an oil painting to dry completely. Painting brushes have evolved, too, and include brushes for every need: mop brushes to lay on a large amount of paint, fan blenders to blend one area of color into another, fine camel hair brushes beginning with 000 and ranging up to 72 for detail and large strokes, chiseled angle brushes to paint fine lines, rounds, flats, brights and filberts. As oil painting developed, so did the techniques involved. A painting began with a fine black/white/gray underpainting (or first layer) of tempera; it was then covered with layers of oil paint and coats of colored varnish for see-through glowing colors for clothing and faces. Varnish layers and underpainting gave way to oil paintings using initial sketches in pencil or charcoal and coats of oil paint over them. Artists began to add sand (to create texture) and mica (for reflections and pearl-like appearances) to the paint. Eventually artists experimented with using commercial paints (enamels, house paints) to be able to paint less expensively and enlarge scale. Commercial artists moving into the fine arts field expanded the range of types of paint used but also increased dramatically the scale of paintings created. Artists used to creating billboards adapted an outsize scale for their gallery works. Fresco painting evolved as a way to paint the interiors of large architectural structures, specifically churches. Plaster was used on the walls, and it was found that small sections could be painted while the plaster was still drying. Drawings for these large-scale works had to be modified and broken into small paintable sections because the paint needed to be applied only once and not blended. Prior to the age of copies and projection machines, artists made cartoons (drawings to scale) for each area and then punctured the edges of the drawing areas with holes. Filling a soft bag with pigment, the artist held the cartoon on the wall and punched the pigment through the holes and left a tracing on the wall. Frescos progressed in small areas in order to fill the space. Egg tempera and tempera (casein or milk paint also) has been used as a very durable paint medium. The fresh egg (either white only or yolk) is combined with pigment and water and painted on the surface. The egg acts as a binder holding the pigment together and sealing it onto the surface. Without the binder, the pigment would not stay in place, which is the same reason that chalk drawings need to be sprayed when finished (the chalk particles simply rest on the surface, and a varnish spray binds them to the surface). Paintings made with tempera have a fine texture and unique sheen. Because tempera dries rapidly, overpainting can be accomplished quickly. Artists usually combine different shades of colors and strokes in many directions to create optical effects. Portrait painting developed as rich patrons and royal families sought to have paintings made to remember their likeness and to portray themselves in specific roles of importance and stature. Portrait painting involved finding a painter whose style you admired and then commissioning the artist to paint a painting along your chosen parameters. Artists in high demand were paid large sums. Abstract and nonrepresentational paintings are often described the same way although they began with different meanings. Abstract originally was used to refer to a painting created with recognizable shapes and forms but changed in quality. Nonrepresentational paintings refer to paintings in which there are no recognizable subjects or objects. Nonrepresentational art mostly indicates art from the 1930s and 1940s in which the objective was to communicate an idea without using literal objects. Automatic paintings and drawings evolved as a source of communication to the world from the subconscious mind. Later the term abstract came to embody both of these terms, and today abstract refers to any painting that is not strictly representational in appearance. Abstract works tend to relate to artists’ feeling and emotions and the desire to convey these in an art form, such as painting, sculpture, or printmaking. Collage was developed as a means to layer and include objects (usually made of paper, but also found objects, cloth, newspaper, and so on) into an overall art work. Collage is usually placed in the painting category if it also involves the application of paint or varnish.

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Combines are an offshoot of collage in which the artist combines found objects, household objects, and objects not necessarily defined as art objects into a work of art. Robert Rauschenberg is widely known for his combine paintings in which he uses cardboard boxes, wires, light bulbs, stuffed goats, tires, old quilts, and so on. Painting using new techniques includes combining old techniques with new; for example, combining types of oil painting with acrylic or using oil techniques with acrylic paint, including print materials, using shaped canvases, and painting with no stretcher frame. Other examples include paintings that hang in space and paintings that conceive of space in a new form, with holes or appendages attached to them. Often objects such as mannequins have been painted, or painted objects have been split and recombined to make a new painting. New technologies involving digital printing now enable artists to project images onto canvases and create photographically correct images or to use multiple imaging capabilities to place multiple images on canvases. Technology has been used literally to assist disabled painters like Chuck Close, whose outsized canvasses require lifting and turning automated mechanisms to move the sections of a painting within his reach. Technologies also enable him to chart off all the sections of a painting and to project images from which to work.

Printmaking Printmaking techniques and materials have also evolved over hundreds of years. Printmaking involves creating an image on one surface and transferring that image to another surface with the use of ink or paint. In so doing, the image is naturally reversed. In order to transfer an image, the artist needs to take into consideration a number of issues: Making a set of prints is an economical way to reproduce images for a mass market (as opposed to a single painting); images in prints need to be reversed if the image is to be viewed in an original work; or if the print is to be the original, then a decision must be made in which direction the image looks right to the artist. If writing or numbers are used, they need to be reversed. Printmaking is based mostly on the resist process, in which oil and water resist each other, to handle volume printing: 1. 2. 3. 4.

A flat sheet or plate of metal, copper, zinc, or tin is etched or engraved with an image. The plate is inked, and the ink fills the areas removed in the etching or engraving process. The ink on the surface of the plate is wiped clean. The paper is dampened to make it pliable (bendable) and placed facedown on the bed (flat surface) of a printing press over the plate that has been inked. Since the paper is damp, it can mold itself into the areas taken away on the plate and receive the ink. 5. The paper is covered with felt blankets and run through the press (a large roller runs over the plate and paper forcing the ink into the paper). This process is repeated until the plate wears down and the image does not reproduce well any longer. 6. The wet paper is laid out to dry, numbered as a part of a run, and then signed by the artist. Both engraving and etching remove materials from the surface of the plate but in a different process. Engraving uses steel tools to push the metal aside, creating a groove for the ink to fill; etching involves painting an acid-resistant coating on the areas of the plate that the artist wishes to remain untouched. The plate is dipped successively into the acid until the desired depth and quality of etch is achieved. The etch resist is removed, and the plate is ready to print. A similar typographical process is used for printing newspapers with each page of the paper laid out on a single sheet of metal. A third method involving the resist method directly is the oil drawing method also called lithography. On a stone plate, the artist draws with grease pencils of varying degrees of oiliness to complete the image. The stone is wiped with water to wet it and then rolled with ink; the ink only sticks to the oily image and resists staying on the stone where it is wet. The stone is re-inked and printed as needed. Printing has been transferred to computers now and uses either carbon or laser printing of images. Digital images can be printed, and the use of stone and plates has by and large been replaced except for their use in college art departments to help students acquire printing skills.

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Sculpture Sculpture techniques and materials are more various than those used in drawing, painting, and printing. Since sculpture uses a wider source of materials; the field is continually evolving to include new materials from which to create new works of art. Sculpture made with metal requires the use of harder tools to bend and shape the metal. Often the metal must be heated to cause it to bend; metal can be heated and hammered into almost any shape. Sometimes metal is turned into a molten state and poured into a ready cast. It can be pierced and joined by welding, soldering, or with rivets and hammering. Metal can be shaped using a combination of techniques in a sequence, and its surface can be changed by etching, hammering, embossing, or indenting to create new shapes. Sculpture with glass requires heat and heavy equipment to handle. Objects made of glass are then allowed to cool in a kiln that slowly cools the piece and prevents cracking and breaking. Initially the glass is melted in a glory hole heated by gas burners underneath the glass containers. Because the glass is so hot, artists wear leather clothing and cover up to prevent burning their skin. Artists dip a rod in the melted glass and blow a small hole. They then form the outer shape of the glass using tools made of wood continually soaked in water and metal tools. The glass can be rolled smooth on a steel plate. As the piece progresses, the artist adds more layers of glass and then blows the form to put more air space inside. Sitting in a chair, the artist rolls the piece back and forth to shape the globe; then cuts off the rod and places the globe on another rod, so the inside can be worked. Artists can roll bits of glass and chemical elements into their pieces. Glass artists also work with forms, pouring the molten glass into a form and pressing the glass into the shape. The piece must also be cooled slowly like the formed pieces. Sculpture made with plastic can be formed, molded, cut, sawed, and glued into forms. Sheet plastic can be cut or sawed and glued together with other pieces and then sanded to smooth out rough edges and make the seams nearly invisible. Cast plastic is popular but toxic, and must usually be done in a very ventilated area. The plastic is combined with a catalyst to make it form into a mold until it hardens. The plastic is removed from the cast and joined with other pieces and then sanded to a smooth finish. Color can be added to the acrylic when the catalyst is added, and the colored acrylic can be cast in layers.

Photography Photography/film techniques and materials date back to the early 1800s with the discovery of a method to capture images on film. The camera obscura (a focusing box) was used by Vermeer to view his compositions. In the early years of photography, the length of time needed to expose the film limited the number and types of photographs that could be taken. Film was developed in a similar fashion, which led to silent movies, then talkies, and finally color movies. For a period of time, photography was not considered an art form because it was viewed as merely capturing images. During the progress of the history of the camera and film, different methods of developing and processing were invented. In art schools, students have studied methods and experimented with techniques. Film and photography now allow for the exploration of ideas in an easy-to-use and quick medium.

Basic Tools and Techniques Ceramics techniques and materials have changed over the years, but the basic material and the basic technique still involve the same process. Clay is earth that can be formed and fired in an enclosed area until the earth has hardened and become waterproof. Today, clay is typically fired in a kiln under controlled conditions to ensure an even firing and predictable results. Artists add powders and other clay to create a range of clay bodies with pigments to color the clay. Powdered glass with pigment (called a bisque) is used after the first firing to coat the piece and then the piece is refired to fuse the glass coating to the ceramic. Various methods have been created to vary this process, including raku, adding sawdust to the final firing to cause a range of colors to form. The initial clay can be molded, shaped, rolled, cut, formed, stretched, pulled, and turned on a wheel to form any object. Parts can be joined together with a set of incised lines and slip (a thinned clay mixture painted on the joining). Clay can be slip cast by pouring clay into a plaster mold and allowing it to set until the clay reaches a desired thickness; then pouring the remaining clay out, and allowing the cast to dry. When the clay is leather hard (meaning most of the water has evaporated from the form), the object can be formed with tools and carved. Clay is also used to create freeform sculpture and for modeling the figure. Clay is often used to prepare preparatory sculptures that are then cast into metal.

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Textiles Wood is easy to work with and can be shaped using hammers and chisels, saws, and any cutting tool. Wood can be shaved, cut into sections, trimmed, and joined; being a porous substance, it is easily joined with glue because the glue soaks into the surrounding pores. Wood also can be painted, stained, or combined with other materials such as metal, paper, plastic, rubber, or glass. It can be turned on a lathe, creating rounded forms. It can also be layered to create strength and versatility and layered into patterns to create interest. Wood is one of the most widely used materials for sculpture largely due to its ready availability. Throughout history, wood has been used as well for utilitarian purposes. Because its nature is to deteriorate, wood has not survived in works of art as well as other media.

Art as a Reflection of Culture Over the years painting has come to incorporate a variety of materials and combinations. The Dutch are credited for inventing the oil painting with which we are familiar. Essentially, the process involved grinding pigments into a fine powder and then blending that powder with oil to create a paste that could be spread with knives or brushes. Oil paint is usually thinned with turpentine made from a softwood tree. In time, oil paints developed and improved into paints available in tubes and jars. During the period of the Impressionists, the repertoire of oil paint colors was added to with the use of synthetic chemicals and dyes. Some of these colors proved to be fugitive (meaning to flee, the colors would fade from the paint mixtures). Thus, was born a method of paint identification that determined whether the paint would be permanent, semi-permanent, or fugitive, and at the same time identified paint types as opaque, transparent, or semi-transparent. Previous to the invention of oil paint, the pigment was bound with either egg white for light colors or egg yolk for darker colors to create a paint with a permanent surface. This paint could be diluted with water to thin its consistency but when dry was no longer dissolvable. Over the years new paint types have developed, pigments mixed with plastics from oils (acrylics), and pigments mixed with resins making a permanent but less toxic paint than oil. Gesso was created to preserve oil paintings; it served as a barrier between the paint surface and the surface to which the paint was applied. This barrier was needed because the oil paint eventually would begin to eat away at the textile of the canvas or sink into the wood of a panel. Gesso was originally made of boiled rabbit skin glue applied hot to the surface of the wood or canvas. The glue sealed the holes of the fabric and the wood, preventing paint from seeping. A mixture of finely ground marble or calcimined carbonate was mixed with a binder and applied over the glue mixture. A layer of white oil paint was sometimes substituted for the gesso. Newer gesso mixtures are made of calcium carbonate and an acrylic medium plus titanium pigment (white) for coverage. Paintings made with acrylic paint today do not require the gesso layer as the pigment is surrounded by plastic, is not combined with oil, and will, therefore, not eat the canvas. When the oil painting process was in development, the Dutch were involved in a religious war—Catholics versus Protestants. The overreaching effects made their way into the art of the time, in which artists stressed home life and wanted direct representations of interior scenes. Vermeer and other painters developed a method of portraying interior scenes in great detail. The new paint allowed them a range of depth of illusion not seen in painting previously. The Dutch, as all cultures do, were telling us how they lived their lives and what was important to them. We learn about the vegetation, landscapes, weather, and the general health of the population. This specific style of immaculate detail and layers over layers of glazes created a wealth of teaching materials for artists and their followers. This detailed, painstaking style is still popular today. The Dutch learned to really see what was going on with their subjects, since they spent so much time in painting the underglaze layers and then the glaze layers. Without our quick-drying methods for paint, painters had to wait for the glazes to actually dry before applying another layer. The layers were built up slowly. Artists could work on a number of paintings at once while others were drying.

Art from Different Cultures Understanding the cultural dimensions and contributions of the visual arts can be a most enjoyable addition to understanding life in its wider scheme. The visual arts have always been valued as a means of communication, whether to convey important information or to express thoughts and ideas. Early cave drawings not only show us exactly how the animals appeared in that time but also how the people felt about the animals, all through a visual means without speech or writing. The drawings incorporated color from ground pigments and were drawn with charcoal from the burnt wood of the fire. It is not known whether the art we see today was intended as art or as a means of record keeping or lessons, and so on, but the more we learn of a culture, the more we are able to understand what the drawings meant to the cave dwellers.

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Today, studying other cultures can show us that other cultures hold different values, items, and ideas in esteem. Understanding the basis of a culture and history lends understanding and insight into the methods, techniques, and materials of that culture’s works, and enables us then to understand why a culture may include certain elements of design and eliminate others—why it values geometric design, for example, and forbids the illustration of religious figures. This knowledge also helps us understand the implements a culture uses in its daily life: pots, clothing, and architecture. Often cultures very distant from each other develop similar styles based on the climate, surroundings, and materials available to them. Most of the South American countries use a form of pyramid with steps in their architecture. While the Egyptians built pyramids with smooth surfaces, the South American Indians found that building the basic pyramid form that including a stepped formation around the base and sometimes up the sides served their purposes better in a forest climate. The plain walls served the Egyptians well in a desert climate that was combined with spring floods. The Italian Renaissance paintings include a different set of trees from the paintings of northern Europe, and paintings from Egypt include palm trees. Van Gogh was fond of the cypress tree, and it figured largely in his heavily painted landscapes. The colors available in earth pigments, ground stones, and oil determined the colors available to painters. Technology contributes to the type of art made; clay articles made with modern technology can be more diverse in concept and inclusion than clay artifacts that were made by primitive societies in the desert with limited sources of clay. We need to realize that art reflects our surroundings and history; artists include historical events in what they choose to communicate; also, artists build on the ideas of culture and other artists. In deciding what imagery to use in their art, artists draw on the traditions and history of their predecessors. Thus, Oceanic art has developed wood carvings that use specific rounded shapes not familiar to western eyes. Picasso was fascinated with the African art he came in contact with. It reflected a culture completely foreign to him, but at the same time he was able to see the similiarities in translating life experiences. The more artists are aware of the differences and similarities of art from cultures around the world, the more artists can speak with their own true voice; artists often discover a method used in another country expresses an idea that they can easily translate into another medium. One can think about theme as a prevailing idea running through a work or a set or series of works. In music, the theory of theme and variation describes how a single idea or melody is developed in a piece of music, giving it richness and making the experience for the listener more enjoyable. So, also, the artist develops themes and variations of the themes in his work. The artist may make a series of works all related to a single direction of a theme or may make a number of works that develop over a longer period of time and show progression of the theme through its changes and complexity. Many cultures of the world use this method when developing themes for their specific culture. One learns to recognize certain styles, ideas, imagery, and themes as belonging to a specific culture relating that culture’s history and current conditions.

Review Questions 1. As a sculptor, Henry Moore followed the idea of “truth to the material” expressed by Mexico’s pre-Columbian art. By this statement, Moore was describing A. B. C. D.

the idea expressed by many artists that using the right material can best reflect specific ideas. the idea that pre-Columbian art was a true art. the idea that Moore found only truth in the material the idea that only material could reveal the truth.

The correct answer is A. Moore admired Mexico’s pre-Columbian art and believed that keeping true to the material and using it to express an idea that relates to the material was the most honest way of using a specific material. Using any material to express an idea would not be as effective as using a material that directly conveyed the idea.

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2. Vincent van Gogh used pen and ink in his drawings of Dutch landscapes. What would a limited use of materials suggest? A. B. C. D.

van Gogh had only pen and ink at his ready disposal in a damp climate. van Gogh realized that a limited use of materials could be very successful in conveying the true nature of the landscape. van Gogh found pen and ink the only medium that expressed his ideas. van Gogh found that limited-range ideas are best expressed in a limited medium.

The correct answer is B. Van Gogh was familiar with a range of art materials but realized that, for some subjects, in order to convey the simplicity of the composition and the strength of the elements using just pen and ink could best meet his needs. 3. Mrs. Smith’s sixth grade class has been learning about different types of drawing materials. One method they would like to try is one described as popular during the Renaissance. Mrs. Smith has outlined the method used. The artist first painted his paper with Chinese White watercolor paint and then drew with this material. What material is described? A. B. C. D.

water-soluble pencil silver point oil pastel graphite pencil

The correct answer is B. Mrs. Smith’s class had learned the method of silver point that uses wire silver in a holder to draw like a pencil. This method preceded oil pastels, water-soluble pencils, and graphite, that later made drawings less expensive. 4. OSHA regulations have limited the use of some art materials in the classroom due to safety hazards. All materials to be used in the classroom must be labeled with OSHA clearance. Considering the elements that have been described, which are most likely to be banned by OSHA? A. B. C. D.

colors containing lead, barium, and cadmium colors containing acrylic colors containing oil colors containing distilled water

The correct answer is A. Lead is a heavy metal and is a known poisonous agent. Barium and cadmium are also heavy metals and are now on the list of dangerous chemicals. Acrylic is used as a binder for paint; oil is an ingredient in oil paint; and distilled water can be used as a way to rinse painting brushes. 5. A sculptor wanting to learn a new method for figure modeling would find which of the following the easiest to work with, lending itself to a variety of expressions? A. B. C. D.

glass clay metal marble

The correct answer is B. Working with clay would allow the artist to explore new figure possibilities. The artist would not necessarily need to fire the clay to use it. Glass would require the use of a kiln (expensive), torches, and leather wear; metal and marble are both difficult to work with, needing torches and hammers and chisels.

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Objective 0028: Music Understands concepts, techniques, and materials for producing, listening to, and responding to music; can analyze works of music; and understands the cultural dimensions and contributions of music. The following topics are covered under the subject area of Objective 0028: ■

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Comparing various types of instruments (for example, strings, percussion, woodwinds, brass, electronic) in terms of the sounds they produce Defining and applying common musical terms (for example, pitch, tempo) Using basic scientific concepts to explain how music-related sound is produced, transmitted through air, and received by listeners Relating characteristics of music (for example, rhythm, beat) to music effects produced Recognizing basic technical skills that musicians must develop to produce an aesthetically acceptable performance (for example, manual dexterity, breathing techniques, and knowledge of musical notation) Analyzing how different cultures have created music reflective of their histories and societies (for example, call-and-response songs, ballads, work songs, folk songs)

Multi-subject educators should be able to create interdisciplinary lessons using music and the other fine arts. To create developmentally appropriate lessons requires knowledge of how to create music and produce musical sounds so that children can actively participate in their exploration of musical sounds and their subsequent creation of musical compositions. Because music can be easily integrated into mathematics, science, and language arts, to name a few, multisubject educators should be familiar with inter-disciplinary connections.

Types of Musical Instruments Every instrument is part of one of the following categories developed in the early twentieth century by German musicologists Erich Hornbostel and Kurt Sachs: idiophones, membranophones, aerophones, chordophones, and electrophones. ■

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Idiophones are made of material that does not require tension to effect pitch (that is, the high or low quality of the sound). Examples of idiophones include gourds, mallet percussion instruments (for example, xylophones, marimba), and shakers. The sounds of this group of instruments are produced by striking the instrument with the hand or a mallet. Membranophones are made of an animal hide stretched over a frame. Common examples of this group include snare drums, tympani, and bass drums. As with the idiophones, the sounds of this group of instruments are produced by striking the instrument with the hand or a mallet. Aerophones are instruments that require the player to blow air to produce a sound. All wind instruments (for example, flute, clarinet, trumpet, and tuba) are aerophones. In general, sounds are produced by 1. Blowing between a cane reed and the instrument itself (for example clarinets and saxophones), or between two cane reeds bound together (for example, oboes and bassoons). 2. Blowing air across an opening (for example, flute). 3. Buzzing (vibrating) the lips while blowing air through a mouthpiece (for example, trumpet, French horn, baritone/euphonium, and tuba). Chordophones are instruments that can produce more than one pitch or note. Most often these are stringed instruments such as the violin, piano, guitar, autoharp, and ukulele. Electrophones, as the name implies, are instruments that produce sounds generated electronically. Common examples of instruments in this category are synthesizers and keyboards.

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The Elements of Music Music is created by manipulating the elements of music (for example, pitch, rhythm, melody, instrumentation, and form) and combining them with other musical variables (for example, tempo and dynamics). Children need to understand these elements so that they can create their own music. They probably have experienced each of these but possibly do not know the technical terms for each. Beat Most music has a steady beat, something that you can dance to. After a steady beat or pulse has been established rhythms can be added. When we listen to pop music and say, “I like the beat,” what we really mean is that “I like the rhythms in the music.” A good example of steady beat is found on the streets where you live. When individuals play their pop music at very high decibel levels you can hear, and feel, the bass line as they drive by. The sounds you hear are not the rhythms of speech but reoccurring steady beats. Where there is music, there is steady beat. The beat keeps all members of the musical ensemble together. Meter In mathematics we often group objects together so that it is easier to see an entire pattern. We try to help children group things together so that they can learn to manipulate more information more easily. In music, steady beats are grouped together so that there are aurally identifiable patterns. The time (meter) signature of any piece of music communicates how many steady beats are grouped together. The most common groupings of steady beats are sets of 2s, 4s, and 3s. Each group of steady beats is called a measure. Most melodies that we sing with on the radio are 8 measures long and are in a meter of 4. Following are examples of meter signatures. The top number indicates whether the meter is a duple meter (that is, 2 or 4) or a triple meter (that is, 3 or 6).

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Dynamics How loud or soft music is played or sung. Common dynamic markings are f = forte = loud and p = piano = soft. Dynamic markings are found throughout musical compositions. Tempo How fast or slow music is played or sung. Common tempo markings are Andante = walking, Allegro = fast, Adagio = slow. Tempo markings will most often appear at the beginning of a composition or song. Melody The tune of a song or piece. A sequence of notes that can move up or down, or repeat. This up and down movement is called contour. In a pop song, melodies are usually sung. As you raise and lower the pitch of your voice, you alter the notes you sing. These different notes create melody. Pitch This relates to the exact placement of a note on the staff. The higher the note (ball at the end of the stick) the higher its corresponding pitch. Looking at standard notation the pitch is indicated by the circle or ball at the end of the sticks.

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q qq q Pitch. This example has five pitches.

Key Signature The key signature tells the performer what “black notes on the piano” to play or sing. Key signatures can have flats (%) or sharps (#).

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Key Signature: Sharps

Key Signature: Flats

Harmony The accompaniment of a song. In a pop song, harmonies are often played by the guitar or keyboard. The types of chords used can add to the dramatic effect of a piece. When instrumentalists or vocalists support a melody by adding other pitches, this creates harmony.

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Timbre and instrumentation Different styles of music (for example, jazz, pop, classical, and so on) can be recognized by the types of instruments used by the composer. Depending on what is desired, a composer can choose from a wide variety of instruments to communicate to the audience a specific emotion or feeling. Instrumentation can also be called timbre. Each instrument has a different quality of sound. Similarly, every person has a different quality of vocal sound. Clef Music is usually written in either the treble clef or the bass clef. Men sing in the bass clef, which denotes lower sounding pitches and women sing in the treble clef, which denotes higher sounding pitches. The example that follows illustrates both of these clefs.

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Treble Clef: Higher Pitches

Bass Clef: Lower Pitches

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Rhythm Rhythm is analogous to how the syllables in a sentence sound: the long and short sounds of the words. Think of speaking to your class. When you want to drive your point home you will probably make the most important word or words of a sentence longer, and possibly louder (for example, dynamics). When you speak you will naturally slow down at the end of a sentence. This tempo change will also affect the rhythm of the words you speak. An example from pop music will help your understanding of rhythm. Hip-hop and rap artists speak their lyrics; they artificially create very rhythmic word combinations to add contrast to a largely constant bass and drum accompaniment. Composers can choose fast or slow rhythms to communicate to their audience. If you clap the syllables of any word or sentence you are clapping rhythm. Rhythmic clapping equals clapping syllables.

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Rhythm. The “sticks” of printed notation identify the rhythm of a song.

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If you clap the words and syllables of Twinkle, Twinkle Little Star and the Alphabet Song you will notice that they both have the same number of short and long claps. Similarly, if you clap the words and syllables of Happy Birthday and the Star Spangled Banner, you will notice that they sound the same and have the same number of short and long claps. This is because they have the same rhythms. In the second example, the rhythms are identical but the tunes are different. Form The big pieces of a song or work. In a pop song, the chorus is the first part of the song we sing because it is often repeated, several times. If we wanted to diagram a pop song, we would use letters to represent the different sections. Therefore, the chorus would get one letter, and the verses would get a different letter. You might want to think about form in this way: Suppose that you had two melodies and you were asked to use all of them to make up a longer song. Each melody is different so it would be assigned a different letter. In diagramming your finished song you would write down the letter representing each melody every time it was sung or played. For example, a song with a form of ABA has two melodies and the first melody is heard twice. Songs that have an ABA form include Bingo and Old MacDonald. Music is a constant in all our lives. Everyday we hear catchy commercial jingles, music, and songs. These musical examples highlight identifiable musical patterns, patterns that relate to patterns and sequences in mathematics. Our classrooms are also filled with poetry, chants, and rhymes, all of which are grounded on the natural rhythms and rhymes of oral language traditions. Realizing the richness of music and recognizing the presence of musical sounds in our world can help multi-subject educators capitalize on the concrete musical experiences of their students.

The Physics of Music The music we love to sing to on the radio is transmitted to our brains via sound waves. When we try to explain this to children we usually create a transverse wave because it clearly shows several important features of sound. In the example that follows you can see that this transverse wave shows amplitude (for example, the loudness of a sound) and frequency (for example, the relative pitch of a sound). Basically, shorter instruments or strings will create higher sounds; longer instruments or strings will create lower sounds. One Cycle

Time = 1 second

Fewer cycles per second = lower pitch

More cycles per second = higher pitch

The amplitude is the distance from the center point to the top of the wave. As the amplitude of a wave increases so does the dynamic level or loudness or the sound. Frequency can be thought of as how many individual waves occur within a specified period of time (for example, cycles per second). As the individual waves move closer together, the relative pitch becomes higher; conversely, as the individual waves move farther apart, the relative pitch becomes lower.

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Greater amplitude = louder

Smaller amplitude = softer

Sound waves are actually longitudinal waves, not transverse. Think of dropping a rock in a calm body of water. The waves travel out from where the rock entered the water. What you’re watching is not the water moving but the energy created by the rock displacing a small amount of water. In music, the sound waves travel in all directions from the source of the sound. Much like the example of the rock entering a pond, the sounds you hear are created by molecules of air bumping into one another from the source producing the sound, be that a radio or a musical instrument. Another important difference between transverse and longitudinal waves is that they do not travel up and down but travel back and forth from the sound source. Think of a slinky evenly stretched between two points. If you strike the end of the slinky with an object, the coils will compress. It will appear that the compression of the coils travels up and down the slinky. Again, it is not the coils moving per se, but the energy caused by striking the end of the slinky. The coils of a slinky at equilibrium.

Strike point for coils.

Compression moves along coil from left to right.

Technical Skills Involved in Making Music Although music is created in the mind, performers must master psychomotor and cognitive skills in order to present an acceptable performance. One way to view this is to compare musicians to athletes. For example, consider a football quarterback. Not only must he be strong enough to finish a game that lasts three hours, he must be an accurate passer to deliver the ball 40 yards down the field. To accomplish this, he must spend years practicing his skills. Aside from the

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physical demands of the game, the quarterback must be able to react to complex defensive schemes, quickly. His mind must be agile. This mental aspect of the game requires hours of studying video tapes of the opposing team. In short, to excel as a quarterback, the young man must develop both his physical skills and his mental skills. Although musicians are not required to use gross motor skills as they perfect their art, they must practice and refine their fine motor skills. Mastering the fine motor technique required to perform fast musical passages requires the same dedication as any other athlete. Like sports athletes, musicians cannot think about the skills involved during a performance. They must focus on the musical performance, not their technique in executing the music. To help you understand the skills required in a musical performance, a short list of psychomotor and cognitive skills necessary for optimal musical performance is noted here. Breath control Musicians must use diaphragmatic breathing. When we breathe using shallow breaths, we raise and lower our upper chest and shoulders. Breathing this way limits the amount of air our lungs can hold, thereby limiting how long we can sustain a note while singing or playing a wind instrument. Musicians breathe deeply using their diaphragms. Fine motor skills As with all athletes, optimal performance is based on muscle memory. When the quarterback throws that perfect pass he does not think about it as it happens. His body, having practiced the pass hundreds of times before, automatically knows exactly how to execute the pass. Similarly, musicians practice scales and arpeggios (that is, broken chords) so that when they encounter them in music, they do not have to think about how best to play them. Written notation Reading musical notation is much like reading a foreign language. Although not as complicated as mastering Spanish, for example, reading music requires that the individual understand the durational and spatial relations between and among the notes represented on a staff. Style and interpretation Every kind of music has a specific musical style. Because music is influenced by social, cultural, political, and regional differences, each style and genre of music must be performed in a manner that respects its traditions. Musicians must be well-versed in specific performance practice theories so that their performances are credible.

Music of Different Cultures Music is an important part of every society and every culture. Because there is diversity in the peoples of the world, we might also expect that there would be diversity in their music as well. In some cultures, music and dance bring people together for celebrations and rituals. In other cultures, music is used for political purposes or as a commentary on current social events. In general, social and political issues along with where people live in the world will influence what they create musically and with what they can make music. It is difficult in a short review to cover all the music types of the world. However, following are a few examples of how music is used in several different cultures. Location, location, location This real estate mantra also applies to musical instruments. A region’s natural resources will dictate what can be made into musical instruments. For example, it would be difficult for Native Americans who lived at the beginning of the nineteenth century on the plains of North America to build and create music on a rosewood xylophone. Obviously, they didn’t have access to rosewood, because it is not native to that area of North America. Additionally, rosewood is rather heavy. Nomadic peoples who followed the animals they needed to survive would most likely not make things that were unduly heavy. Another example might be that the same people would not have used whale skins to make drums. When answering any question related to culture and society, you should always think about the “times” and the “place” and rule out answer choices that are obviously wrong. Sacred music In many cultures, music is tied to religious rituals. This is true of both traditional “main line” churches in Western cultures and the religious practices of polytheistic cultures. Secular music (that is, folk songs) Secular music has also served as a vehicle for social commentary. Regardless of when they were written, popular songs reflect the times in which they were written. For example, the lyrics of one pop song written during the Great Depression used “Buddy can you spare a dime?” as its refrain. More recent instances of social commentary or protest songs include music of the Civil Rights movement, Viet Nam protests, and the anti-apartheid movement in South Africa.

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The following are types of secular songs: Ballads (that is, songs that tell a story) Ballads serve as a means of passing down oral histories through music. Common examples of ballads from the United States include John Henry, Johnny Appleseed, and My Darling Clementine. Each of these tells the story of the main character’s life. Work songs These songs are another important musical genre. Throughout most of recorded human history, societies were largely agrarian. Large numbers of people were required to work together to harvest crops. Work songs assisted this activity by emotionally making hard labor more enjoyable and keeping those workers engaged in the same task together. Call and response songs These songs, in which one person sings a line (called lining out) and other people sing a response to it, have been used throughout history as either ritual/community music, work songs, or in children’s games. Because this type of music is one of the earliest forms of music known, its form has influenced many other styles of music.

Review Questions 1. A fifth grade teacher is beginning a unit on science and musical sounds. She has had her students explore making sounds by buzzing their lips in various lengths of tubing. The children have discovered that the longer a tube is, the lower the sound that it will produce. The children graph their findings on the board and discuss what they observed. Since the teacher wants to connect this experience with instruments found in bands, which family of instruments would she introduce, most likely? A. B. C. D.

Strings Percussion Brass Woodwinds

The correct answer is C. Since the children are buzzing their lips to create a sound in different lengths of tubing, this is most like a brass instrument. Brass instruments are all different lengths of tubing in which a player buzzes her/his lips into a mouthpiece. 2. A sixth grade teacher wants to have children build an instrument that does not require them to use blown air to produce a sound. Which of the following might she have them create? A. B. C. D.

Strings and brass Brass and percussion Percussion and woodwinds Strings and percussion

The correct answer is D. The string family and the percussion family do not require blown air to produce a sound.

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3. In the following example, what element of music is represented by the higher and lower notation? Slowly FMAJ7 Voice

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EMIN7

DMIN7

CMAJ7

DMIN7

FMAJ7

EMIN7

˙ ˚ Like the dawn of

A. B. C. D.

EMIN7

a new day your eyes are so bright.

Harmony Steady beat Melody Rhythm

The correct answer is C. This question assesses your knowledge of musical notation and music. In the example, you will note that there are chord symbols above the printed notation (for example, Fmaj7). These symbols specify to the performer what chords should be played to accompany the melody. As you recall, accompaniment pertains to harmony, not melody. The question specifically asks about “higher and lower notation,” which in this example means the printed music or notes to be played and sung. The chord symbols are related to the music but are not the notation. 4. A fourth grade class is reciting a long poem together. The classroom professional wants to make sure that they begin and end at the same time and that they say all the words at the same time with an unchanging tempo. For this to happen, which of the following must remain constant? A. B. C. D.

Words Rhythm Syllables Beat

The correct answer is D. This question assesses your knowledge of music. Specifically, the idea that if children say any poem or chant at the same time without speeding up or slowing down (that is, “remain constant” in tempo), they must have a constant steady beat. The other choices all relate to the rhythm of the poem. Children can say any poem together, but the rate at which they say the words may vary. They may speed up or slow down. It is the beat, the underlying pulse, that keeps chants and poems from speeding up or slowing down. 5. Which of the following shows the relation between frequency and sound? A. B. C. D.

Playing several trumpets at louder and softer dynamic levels Playing several different types of brass instruments Playing similar hand drums Playing sine waves and square waves

The correct answer is B. Each brass instrument will be a different size and a different length; therefore, the sounds produced will change in relation to size.

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6. Which of the following demonstrates a longitudinal wave? A.

B.

C.

D.

The correct answer is A. A longitudinal wave does not move up and down. They move away from their point of attack, much like waves moving away from their point of origin. 7. When someone snaps their fingers as they listen to a popular song, they are snapping to A. B. C. D.

the words. the music. the rhythm. the beat.

The correct answer is D. Most often, people will snap to the steady beat of a song. It is difficult to snap to the rhythms and words because they are much faster than the beat. 8. Clapping the words and syllables of a song will highlight which of the following? A. B. C. D.

Words Rhythms Beat Form

The correct answer is B. The words and syllables of a song make up its rhythm. The rhythmic motion of a song is much faster, generally, than the steady beat.

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9. A singer must sustain a long note from 30 seconds. In order to accomplish this, she must use A. B. C. D.

shallow breathing. support. diaphragmatic breathing. low breathing.

The correct answer is C. To support long notes, singers must breathe deeply and use diaphragmatic breathing. 10. In order for musicians to perform in large ensembles, they must be able to read A. B. C. D.

standard music notation. musical icons. musical scores. invented musical notation.

The correct answer is A. All musicians must be able to read standard musical notation in order to perform in large ensembles. 11. A fourth grade class is studying twentieth century history. The teacher brings to class several recordings of music written during the 1950s. The recordings feature novel sound sources for their time (for example, electronically produced sounds, synthesizers, sine waves, square waves, and so on). What might the professional have the students understand about this music in relation to science and technology? A. B. C. D.

Music was created to reflect the influences of the 1950s. Music created during this decade was influenced by technological advances made in science and physics. Composers used many novel sounds while composing in the 1950s and enjoyed pushing musical boundaries. Science and technology influenced music of the 1950s.

The correct answer is B. The question assesses your ability to recognize how areas outside of music influence compositions. The answer choices A and C restate information presented in the stem. The last choice is a good choice, but not the best. If you compare B and D, you will note that the correct answer provides more information related to connecting music and technology. 12. A third grade professional shows his class a DVD with several selections of music on it. One selection is a concert performance of a popular song off the radio; one selection is music performed for a wedding celebration by a community from a small remote village in Western Africa; and one selection features a community singing announcing the birth of an infant from a village on a small island in the Pacific Ocean. The professional asks the children to compare and contrast the three examples and to compare them to music in their own lives. What might the professional want his students to understand about the three different performances? A. B. C. D.

That music in many non-Western cultures is performed by everyone in a community. That there are performers in each of the musical examples. That music in our culture tends to have fewer performers and focuses on entertainment. That all cultures enjoy music and that music is an important part of all cultures and societies.

The correct answer is C. One of the challenging things about the exam is that most of the answer choices are plausible, and you are to look for the “best” choice. In this question each answer is viable; they all make sense in the context of the question. Another important thing to recognize is that although question stems may be very long, there will be one sentence or a part of a sentence that provides key information about how to select the best answer. In this question the important sentence is “compare and contrast the three examples and compare them to music in their own lives.” Only answer Choice C relates the music of the DVD examples to the music of the children’s world. The remaining choices are correct, but not specific to what the question asked.

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Objective 0029: Theater and Dance Understands concepts, techniques, and materials related to theater and dance; can analyze works of drama and dance; and understand the cultural dimensions and contributions of drama and dance. The following topics are covered under the subject area of Objective 0029: ■ ■

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Comparing dramatic and theatrical forms and their characteristics (for example, pantomime, improvisation) Relating types of dance (for example, ballet, folk, modern) to their characteristic forms of movement, expressive qualities, and cultural origins Analyzing how technical aspects of performance (for example, costumes, props, lighting) affect the message or overall impression created by a performance Recognizing how language, voice, gesture, and movement are used to develop character and create interaction among performers in theatrical productions Analyzing ways in which different cultures have used drama and dance (for example, to teach moral lessons, to preserve cultural traditions, to affirm the sense of community, and to entertain)

Dramatic and Theatrical Forms The following are some selected dramatic/theatrical forms and characteristics: Comedy Comes from the Greek word komos which means to celebrate or to make merry. It denotes a focus on a problem or situation that leads to crisis, but resolves into a happy ending. Dark comedy A comedic form that usually crosses or toys with the line of good taste and decency. It finds humor in placing something funny in a morbid situation. Tragedy A type of drama that explores the story of a protagonist as he or she comes up against a difficult situation which leads to a sorrowful end. Farce A form of comedy that relies on stereotyped characters, improbable situations, and usually lots of doors. Melodrama A theatrical form that is chiefly characterized by a consistent musical underscoring that sets the tone of the show. This genre uses stock villains attempting to exploit a stock victim that is rescued by a stock hero who sees that the villain gets his comeuppance. Commedia dell’arte An ancient theatrical genre of Italian origin that was based on specific, titled, stock characters in situations that were outlined but improvised. Opera A theatrical genre that is fully sung throughout. The themes of the stories tend to be very large and emotional. The quality of the music and the voice is the most important aspect of this art form. Musical theatre A theatrical genre created in the United States in which the story is conveyed not only via the spoken word but also via music, song, and dance. Pantomime Characterized by performers who make no verbal sound, this discipline uses body language and physical movement to tell the story. Improvisation The process of creating a story on the spot with only the smallest amount of direction or parameters. It depends entirely on the creativity of the performers and the product of their interaction.

Types of Dance Man has a natural inclination to dance; therefore, dance has always maintained a place in social and cultural history. The story of dance in theatre includes ballet, modern, ethnic, jazz, and tap dance.

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Ballet, though born in the Italian Renaissance courts, has always been a mainstay of American theatrical dance. For instance, the ladies dance en pointe—that is the ladies dance in special shoes that allows them to dance on the tips of their toes. A Russian American named George Balanchine was the founder of the New York City Ballet. He appreciated long lines and fluid movements. Prior to his work in the musical On Your Toes in 1937, dance in theatre was handled by dance directors who created and oversaw dance routines on stage. George Balanchine insisted that he be called a choreographer for that show, and the term has been used since. A direct lineage from George Balanchine can be seen in the progression of musical theatre dance from choreographers Jerome Robbins (West Side Story, On the Town, Pajama Game), to Michael Bennett (A Chorus Line, Dream Girls, Seesaw), to Tommy Tune (My One and Only; Grand Hotel, the Musical), to current-day choreographers. All the mentioned choreographers either studied or performed under each other prior to becoming choreographers themselves. The beautiful straight lines of ballet, the outstretched arms, the raised chests, and straight sternums can be seen in their continued style of dance. The mother of modern dance was Isadora Duncan. She danced barefoot and in ancient Greek dress. Following Isadora Duncan was Martha Graham. Rebelling against ballet, Ms. Graham, whose dance was rooted in muscle tension and relaxation, taught her dancers to be more grounded to the earth. Flat feet, bent elbows and knees, are characteristics of modern dance. A student of modern dance was Agnes DeMille. In 1943 Agnes choreographed the musical that was to usher in the Golden Age of Musicals—OKLAHOMA! Her dances allowed audiences to understand the inner feelings of the characters on stage; the dances communicated the emotion and motivation of the characters. A contemporary of Isadora Duncan was Ruth St. Denis who, though she is considered a modern dancer, was enthralled with the dance and drama of Eastern culture. In her performances she chose to portray divinity figures from varied cultures including Japan, Egypt, and India. Although Martha Graham, who continued the evolution of modern dance, was a student of Ruth St. Denis, it was St. Denis’ multicultural dance that can be considered the beginning of ethnic dance. Ruth St. Denis and her husband, Ted Shawn, created a dance school called Denishawn. A student of this school, Jack Cole (Man of La Mancha, Kismet) would become known as the father of theatrical jazz dance. Mr. Cole developed his own style of jazz-ethnic-ballet, which is the primary technique of musical theatre dance today. The man who wrote his own vocabulary of theatre dance was Bob Fosse (Pippin, Cabaret). Bob Fosse’s dance style leaned heavily into jazz, and it is said he got his “wicked sense of humor” from Jack Cole. Mr. Fosse turned the dancers’ movements inward with short bursts of energy and specific small movements such as a hip thrust or a bowler hat dip. He gave musical theatre a style of dance that was unique to that art form and that was steeped in the jazz tradition. Dance and theatre cannot be complete without reference to tap dance. Tap, like musical theatre, is a true American art form. Tap was born out of the serendipitous confluence of the three particular cultural dance styles of Irish clogging, African rhythms, and the English hornpipe in the Five Point’s district of New York. The Irish clogging gave tap its heavy footwork, the English hornpipe gave tap its bell kicks and upper body movement, all set to the syncopated rhythms of the African drums. Famous tap dancers include Fred Astaire, Gregory Hines, Bill “Bojangles” Robinson, and Shirley Temple. The basic idea of tap echoing the sounds of our environment, whether natural or manmade, continues to be theatrically interpreted today through such events as Stomp; Bring in the Noise, Bring in the Funk; Tap Dogs; and Gum Shoes. These modern day blockbusters capture the imagination of the public, young and old alike. These productions rely heavily on “found sound” translated into foot taps, slides, stomps, flaps, and shuffles, then actually bringing the found sounds onto the stage (that is, clashing trash can lids, the whining spray of a hand grinder against metal, the brush of a broom).

Aspects of Theater Performance Theatre is a collaborative art form encompassing all technical as well as creative fields within the discipline. The blending of props, costumes, make-up, hair, sets, sound, and lighting create what Aristotle called in his classical treatise The Poetics, spectacle. Spectacle is the overall image of a theatrical production. Technical areas of theatre are actual areas of study and are jobs held by individuals referred to as designers (that is, costume designer, lighting designer, scenic designer, sound designer, and prop designer, who is normally called the prop master). These designers with their staffs work collaboratively with the director to realize the director’s vision for the play. By using these technical elements to enhance the production, the story being told can be more readily understood, and the theme more apparent to the audience.

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Costumes Historically, costumes, which include make-up and hair, were used for ceremonial occasions and events. In the past, the rituals of shamans, Native American annual dances, and commedia dell-arte plays were reasons for performers to don costumes. Today, liturgical robes, weddings, and college graduations still reflect the need for ceremonial costumes. Costume, make-up, and hair are not only ceremonial in nature but can denote the actor’s character. Costumes allow audiences a means to enter into the world created by the characters on stage. Costumes can reflect the character’s rank in society, economic status, and emotional disposition. Costumes also reflect the world of the show. For example, bright colors and eccentric patterns can reflect the vibrancy of a musical comedy, and dingy, torn, and dark costumes can set the tone of a dark Chekhovian drama. Props All elements of the production that are carried on and off stage, sometimes by actors, sometimes by stage hands, are props. Props are as diverse as a walking cane, a knitting basket, a shopping cart, or a book. While costumes can be an entry way for the audience into the nature of the characters on stage, props can actually be one of the means for actors to understand their characters. As outlined in Uta Hagen’s book, Respect for Acting, actors endow their props with a narrative history that they construct based on knowledge of the play and their character analysis. The aforementioned walking cane takes on major significance if the actor who is using that particular prop does not merely pick up the cane and use it but creates a past for the cane. The cane may have belonged to the character’s well-loved grandfather, who is recently deceased and has passed the cane on to his grandson (the character). Thus, when the character picks up the prop in the production, the cane is handled with this endowed sense of history helping to realize a three-dimensional character on stage. Lighting The earliest forms of plays were more often than not performed during the day and commonly outside to capture and manipulate the light from the sun. As artificial light sources became available, plays began to move indoors and could be performed at any hour. Lighting has always been an important element of theatrical productions. The Greeks actually oriented their outdoor amphitheaters to capture the rays of light and timed productions to end climatically with fire burning against the setting sun. Early forms of light also included oil lamps, torches, and lanterns. The invention of gaslight, and eventually the development of incandescent lighting, precipitated our modern use of stage lighting. Today lighting can define space, direct the audience’s focus, imitate natural light, create atmosphere, and denote the passage of time. Most importantly, lighting can be magical: from moving lights streaming across the stage, to stars twinkling above the audience, all the way to a myriad of colored lights rhythmically shifting with the orchestra in shows like Andrew Lloyd Webber’s Joseph and the Amazing Technicolor Dreamcoat. Sets Scenery is relatively new as early theatrical productions needed only exits, entrances, acting platforms, or decorative backdrops. With the advent of indoor staging and lighting, opportunities arose for the expansion of scenic design. Scenery is usually realistic or metaphoric. Realistic scenery places the audience into the world of the play as envisioned by the director and realized by the scenic designer. Metaphoric scenery usually emphasizes a deeper connection to the theme of the play in visual images or in an abstract manner. One production of Gilbert and Sullivan’s Mikado was performed on an empty stage with a giant gold moving Asian fan as the backdrop. Realistic scenery depicts a specific time and place. Sometimes these sets can be extremely detailed. The great American play You Can’t Take it with You is normally one set in the living room of the play’s main family cluttered with set dressings, which emphasize the eccentric and eclectic mix of family members. Sets include the construction of backdrops, furniture, walls, painting, drapery, and landscaping all combined to create an appropriate representation of the world of the play, whether real or metaphoric. Sound Although the design aspect of sound is relatively new, attention to sound has been important in theatre since its beginning. Amphitheatres in Greece and Rome had megaphones built into actors’ masks to amplify their voices. Because theatre is a communicative art form, it must be heard either through actors’ voices, music, special effects, or soundscapes. Soundscapes in a play can include such sounds as crickets chirping, wind whispering through the trees, a babbling brook, a light rain fall, or musical underscoring. Sound, as used in theater, is the artificial enhancement of actors, orchestras, and real-life noises to complete the story that is being told on the stage.

Communicative Elements of Theater Theatre is a communicative art form. There needs to be an audience who can hear, see, or both, the story/events of the performance as communicated by the performers through movement/action. To enrich the experience for the audience, actors need to perfect their instruments through specific training. Their instruments are the actors themselves; their voice, body, presence, and their ability to control them. Actors receive training in diction, voice, gesture, and movement so that they might create realistic three-dimensional characters on stage.

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Language Language is what the playwright gives the actor in the text of the script. The study of that language (the script) gives to the actor clues to his or her character’s emotions, state of mind, objective, social status, relationships, economic status, mood and more. To begin the study of the playwright’s language, the actor needs to read the script three times; the first time for the pure enjoyment of the play, the second time to focus on the actor’s part and listen to what the charactor actually says, and the third time to determine what the other characters of the play say about the actor’s character. This simple reading exercise reveals what is called the “given circumstances” of the play, or, rather, the world and situation within which the character lives in the play. Through language the actor learns the who, what, when, where, and why of his or her character. The actor should pay attention to the kind of language the character uses as well. An upper-crust English gentlemen who graduated from an Ivy League university would speak differently than a poor country farmer who had no formal education past fourth grade. One of the most prominent language and voice experts of the American actor training programs was Edith Skinner (d. July, 1981) who taught at the Julliard Theater Center and Carnegie-Mellon University. Ms. Skinner’s book Speak with Distinction was the dominant text for speech training in the American professional theatre. Ms. Skinner relied upon the International Phonetic Alphabet or IPA. The basic elements of IPA are ■ ■ ■ ■

Resonators: the cavities in the nose, chest, and head that amplify sound waves Articulators: the lips, teeth, tongue, and so on, that shape the speech sounds Breath (Skinner called it The Excitor), which supports the tone of the speech Vibrators: the vocal cords, which produce smooth tone

The purpose of the study of voice is to allow the actor to be able to control a flexible voice. Whether actors follow Ms. Skinner’s approach or not, they need to find the unique voices (ones that are not hampered by their own personal habits) of the character they are playing.

Body The actor must be in control of his/her body. The actor’s body must have strength, stamina, dexterity, and coordination, as well as training in specific movement skills such as ballet, fencing, stage combat, mime, gesture, and period movement. Actors learn even more specialized body awareness by studying the Alexander Technique. Named after an Australian-born actor/educator, the technique is a system of body alignment. The result is a specific posture for actors that allows them to use their body in the most advantageous manner possible. Actors who are in control of their bodies can create more realistic characters. Being able to slink as a cat burglar, strut like a politician, or saunter like Tom Sawyer on the way to do his chores is being able to portray a feeling or emotion by means of body language. Ultimately, the goal of the actor is to have total voice-body integration and coordination. This integration of speech and movement is what makes for effective actors with fully realized characters on stage.

Cultural Uses of Drama and Dance When we study the earliest history of theatre, we quickly realize that there are no true records of early theatrical endeavors. However, we can draw inferences as to what these endeavors may have been like from what few remains we can discover archeologically (drawings on cave walls in Lascaux, France; flowers left in an early Neanderthal burial site in Shanidar Cave in Iraq) and from what we still participate in today. Our conjecture leads us to three theories: ■ ■ ■

Ritual/myth Storytelling Dance/imitation

Ritual and/or myth can be explained in the need for a summons and a response. Around spring, participants summoned the rain gods in the hopes that the heavens would open up and pour rain upon the ground in a response. They painted green stripes on their faces, and after a time of chanting and possibly smoking a communal pipe, they summoned the

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gods to bring the rain. They expected a response that would have brought plenty of rain for the village’s crops. As the years moved along, this summons and response continued by means of what we commonly refer to as a rain dance. Eventually the ceremonial aspects of the process became more important than the response. Every spring the community pulled out their best clothes (costumes), performed the same dance their ancestors did (choreography), and used the same tools and equipment in the performance as they did in previous years (props). This performance continued year after year whether they needed the rain or not. Why? Because during the ritual, the girls looked pretty, the men looked virile, and the event was what was important. Every spring, some humans continued the performance ritual although it took on different names throughout history from pagan times to modern day (May Day). It is believed that storytelling can be traced to the hunter-gatherer age. Imagine, if you will, a roaring village bonfire where the participants are cooking the spoils of their latest hunt. The hunters share long tales of adventure about the hunt while one young hunter tells his particular hunting story. The bear he speaks about is a particular size, and the hunt somewhat precarious, but the hunt is successful. Next year, after the hunt, while sitting around the fire, our young hunter is asked to again recount that story from last year. This time the story may grow in danger and the bear in size. The following year yet again our young hunter—now grown a bit older—is encouraged to tell that story about the bear during the hunt. To increase the enjoyment of the story our hunter asks a boy to play the part of the bear while he himself will portray the hunter. Each year thereafter the story is retold, acted out again and again because it is a good story; it is fun, and it gives the audience aesthetic pleasure. Theatre tells stories. This bear hunt story is no different than the story told by a weekend fisherman today about “the fish that got away.” The story has a beginning, a middle, and an end; it may include props; it may include others; and it becomes more and more elaborate in the telling. As mentioned before, man has a natural inclination to dance. Small children, babies who can barely stand—let alone walk—will bounce and sway when music is played. We have no reason to believe that early man was any different in his inclination to dance. Perhaps this early form of dance was to imitate physical behavior of animals and/or humans, donning skins as garments to represent animals and eventually adding dialogue to the human characters for a more complete theatrical event. This imitation or impersonation, which continued throughout the history of theatre, is the very foundation, in fact, the single most important aspect of theatre. Throughout its rich history, from early man unto the present, many cultures have used theatre and dance to entertain, celebrate traditions, strengthen the community, and to teach morality. Examples include the following: In London during February, 2006, a Breakin’ Convention was held. The Breakin’ Convention was an international festival of hip-hop dance theatre specifically touted to be an opportunity for artists the world over to come together and affirm a sense of community. During April, 2006, in Washington, D.C., at the John F. Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts, a new adaptation of Geoffrey Chaucer’s The Canterbury Tales offered moral lessons through colorful characters. Chinese Theatre Works of Long Island City, New York, was created in 2001 to preserve and promote traditional Chinese performing arts. For more than 75 years the Radio City Rockettes have been entertaining audiences in New York City with high kicks, sparkling sets, and beautiful costumes.

Review Questions 1. Ms. Thompson’s class goes to a park and listens closely to the sounds they encounter. They hear the sound of water dripping upon rocks, the regular slapping of a sign against a wall, and the creaking of a swing seat as it moves forward and back. They return to the class room and using found objects and their feet, they try to mimic those sounds in a rhythmic presentation. The class is experiencing what style of dance? A. B. C. D.

Modern Tap Ballet Ethnic

The correct answer is B. Tap dancing was originally based on recreating found sounds in a rhythmic way to create musical patterns of sound. The softshoe swish of the swing set with the slap of the hitting sign punctuated with the tap, tap, tap of the water could be used to create a dance. The other answers are different styles of dance.

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2. Mr. Katz’ class is divided into groups of 5 to 6 students. The class is then given Indian saris. Saris are colorful pieces of cloth with different patterns normally used as clothing in India. The students will use the saris as a prop to create a scenario with a beginning, middle, and end. The class is learning how to A. B. C. D.

study different cultures. work collaboratively to create a story. prepare for a pantomime. work with language.

The correct answer is B. Theatre tells stories. Stories have a beginning, middle, and end. The students are using the saris to help them to come up with a story collaboratively. Examples of stories would include using the red sari for a scenario about a bull fighter in the bullring with a roaring crowd; the sari would be used as the red cape. The other answers do not address the collaborative nature of theatrical story telling. 3. Mrs. Heitman’s class is presented with a trunk full of unusual objects such as a pirate dagger, a cowboy kerchief, a feather boa, and more. The students will each take an item from the trunk, and based on it, will create a character. This exercise emphasizes that characters can be created externally from which of the following? A. B. C. D.

Props Sets Lighting Make-up

The correct answer is A. Actors build characters through various external and internal processes. An actor’s choice of props informs the actor about his or her character. The other answers are different technical specialty areas of theatre.

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Subarea VI: Health and Fitness Objective 0030 Understands basic principles and practices of personal, interpersonal, and community health and safety and can apply related knowledge and skills (e.g., decision making, problem solving) to promote personal well-being. The following topics are covered under the subject area of Objective 0030: ■ ■ ■

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Identifying common health problems and explaining how they can be prevented, detected, and treated Recognizing the basic knowledge and skills necessary to support positive health choices and behaviors Applying decision-making and problem-solving skills and procedures in individual and group situations (e.g., situations related to personal well-being, self-esteem, and interpersonal relationships) Recognizing basic principles of good nutrition and using them to plan a diet that accommodates nutritional needs, activity level, and optimal weight Analyzing contemporary health-related issues (e.g., HIV, teenage pregnancy, suicide, substance abuse) in terms of their causes, effects, and significance for individuals, families, and society and evaluating strategies for their prevention Interpreting advertising claims for health-care products and services and distinguishing between valid and invalid health information Analyzing environmental conditions and their impact upon personal and community health and safety

Chronic and Communicable Diseases Chronic and communicable diseases are common health problems. Chronic diseases are diseases that are not contagious, such as diabetes, cancer and heart disease. Chronic diseases take place over long periods of time and are rarely cured. Communicable diseases are diseases that are caused by infections such as bacteria, viruses, parasites and fungi. Many communicable diseases can be cured. Communicable diseases such as the common cold, influenza, pneumonia, strep throat, and tuberculosis are examples of infectious respiratory diseases. Sexually transmitted infections such as HIV/AIDS, herpes, HPV, Chlamydia, gonorrhea, pubic lice, syphilis, viral hepatitis, and trichomoniasis are also common. Maintaining a healthy immune system is important to preventing communicable diseases. Reduce your risk of common health problems by doing the following: Washing hands often Eating a healthy, low fat diet Avoiding tobacco Exercising daily Managing stress Maintaining a healthy body fat level Getting 8 hours of sleep each night Seeing your doctor regularly

Not smoking or using tobacco Limiting your intake of alcohol Maintaining a healthy weight Practicing safer sex Having your cholesterol level and blood pressure checked Watching your cholesterol intake Keeping vaccinations up to date

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Chronic diseases include the following cardiovascular diseases: Coronary heart disease Atherosclerosis

Congestive heart failure Stroke

Reduce the risk of heart disease by watching cholesterol intake and having blood cholesterol levels checked on a regular basis in addition to the general health recommendations listed previously. Examples of other chronic diseases include the following: Diabetes Arthritis

Asthma Cancers such as breast cancer, skin cancer, and Prostate cancer

To catch breast cancer early so it can be treated, women should do self-breast checks regularly, have mammograms yearly after age 35 or at the age their doctor recommends, and have regular Pap smears to check for cancers such as cervical cancer. Men should have the appropriate cancer screenings such as for testicular and prostate cancer at the appropriate age. Use sunblock and limit your time in the sun during peak hours of the day to reduce the risk of skin cancer and have moles checked by a doctor if they change in size or shape. Visit your dentist regularly and have vision and hearing checked.

Health Goals Students must be armed with the knowledge and skills to make good decisions regarding health issues. Goal-setting skills are important to supporting positive health behaviors. Students need to learn how to set goals that are realistic and achievable. They need to learn how to write plans that include the steps and actions that one will take to reach the larger or long-term goal. They need to learn to recognize barriers to healthful actions and how to overcome these barriers. Students should learn how to identify support in reaching their goals. Assessment is also important in goal setting. Students need to define how they will evaluate their progress toward goals. Sometimes goals need to be reevaluated if for some reason they are not realistic. Students also need to learn time management skills in order to reach their goals.

Decision-Making and Problem-Solving Skills Students need to be armed with decision-making skills, and these skills need to be practiced in realistic situations. The teacher can ask the students to come up with realistic situations and then role play what they would do or say in that situation. Students should be taught decision-making and conflict-resolution steps. Examples of decision-making steps would be to identify the problem and identify people who might be able to offer advice or help in making the decision. An adult should be included in this list. Students could then brainstorm alternative actions or solutions for the situation and make a list of the positive and negative outcomes of each solution. They can then choose one of their solutions and try it out; if it does not work, students can try one of the alternative solutions. Conflict resolution skills include strategies such as the following: ■ ■ ■ ■

Cool off before confronting the situation. Set a time and a place to talk. Agree to listen to one another. Use I statements to tell the person how you feel to avoid placing blame and putting the person on the defensive.

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Use active listening strategies such as repeating what the person says to you. Take responsibility for your actions. Brainstorm solutions that will satisfy both people and leave the person on a good note.

If students cannot solve the problem, they might need to involve a person who has no stake in the problem or come back to it at a time they both agree on.

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Subarea VI: Health and Fitness

Nutrition Obesity in youth and adults has become a problem of epidemic proportions in recent years. Poor nutritional habits contribute to many preventable illnesses. Nutrition has been linked to some of the leading causes of death in the United States such as heart disease, stroke, cancer, and Type II diabetes. In order to function, the body needs carbohydrates, fats, proteins, vitamins, minerals, and water. Carbohydrates, fats, and proteins are macronutrients that contain calories (energy). Vitamins, minerals, and water are micronutrients and do not contain calories but help the body to use macronutrients. ■ ■

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Carbohydrates provide energy and contain four calories per gram. Fats provide energy, insulate the body, and help break down fat-soluble vitamins. Fats contain nine calories per gram. Proteins are the building blocks of the body and help with growth and repair of cells. Protein contains four calories per gram.

Current recommendations for the macronutrients are to take in 45–65 percent of your daily calories as carbohydrates, 10–15 percent as protein, and no more than 30 percent of your daily calories as fat. A diet should never consist of less than 1200 calories per day, and school age children should aim for 2400 calories per day. The USDA has also come out with a new food guide pyramid that includes daily activity. See www.mypyramid.gov for personal recommendations for each of the food groups.

Carbohydrates The three categories of carbohydrates are as follows: ■ ■ ■

Simple sugars (glucose, fructose, and galactose) Double sugars (sucrose, maltose, and lactose) Complex carbohydrates (starch, glycogen, and cellulose [fiber])

Simple sugars are quickly absorbed into the bloodstream and are found in foods like honey, milk, and fresh fruit. Double sugars are quickly converted to simple sugars in the body and released into the bloodstream; they are found in sugary breakfast cereals, baked goods, and ice cream. Complex carbohydrates contain more nutrients and are released into the blood much more slowly because it takes the body longer to break them down and digest them than simple and double sugars. Complex carbohydrates can be found in some breads and cereals, fruit, potatoes, rice, and vegetables. Americans should aim for a diet higher in complex carbohydrates than simple carbohydrates.

Fats There are four main types of fats: ■ ■ ■ ■

Saturated fats Monounsaturated fats Polyunsaturated fats Trans fats

Saturated fats have been linked to cardiovascular disease and cancer and should be consumed in small quantities (less than 10 percent of total fat intake). They are mostly found in animal products and some plant sources, and they are solid at room temperature. Examples of foods containing saturated fats are dairy products such as whole milk, cheese, eggs, and butter and meats and poultry. Saturated fats can also be found in some vegetable oils such as coconut oil. Monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fats are considered to be healthy fats that are found in plant sources and have been associated with decreases in blood cholesterol levels. They are both liquid at room temperature. Monounsaturated fats raise HDL (good cholesterol levels) lower LDL (bad cholesterol levels) and can be found in foods such as olive oil,

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canola oil, avocado, and nuts such as cashews, almonds, and peanuts. Polyunsaturated fats lower total cholesterol (both HDL and LDL) and can be found in foods such as sunflower seeds and fish such as fresh tuna and salmon. Trans fats have also been linked to heart disease and raising LDL (the bad cholesterol) levels. Trans fats are made when hydrogen is added to liquid oils to make it more like a solid and can be found in many processed foods and baked goods. To find out whether there are trans fats in products, look for hydrogenated oils in the ingredient list of the foods that you buy. As of January 2006, nutrition labels will change to include trans fats. Aim for 30 percent or less of your calories to come from fats with 10 percent or less of this coming from saturated and trans fats.

Proteins Proteins are formed from amino acids, and there are 20 different amino acids that the body needs. The body makes 13 amino acids, and these are called nonessential amino acids since we do not need to get these from foods. There are nine essential amino acids that we need to get from food. Foods that contain all of the essential amino acids are considered to be complete proteins. Foods that do not contain all nine essential amino acids are called incomplete proteins. Meats and animal products are complete proteins. The RDA for protein is 0.8 grams per kilogram of bodyweight. Vegetarians must take care to eat enough protein each day by eating foods or a combination of foods that include all 20 amino acids. Protein supplements are generally not recommended unless prescribed by a doctor.

Vitamins, Minerals, and Water Vitamins, minerals, and water do not provide energy. Eating a varied, healthy diet will ensure adequate vitamin and mineral intake, but some people might consider taking a daily multi-vitamin if they don’t eat a varied, healthy diet. A goal of many healthy people is to decrease the amount of sodium that they eat each day. Sodium is a mineral found in table salt, fast foods, processed foods, and many frozen foods. Most people consume more than the recommended 2400 milligrams each day. Calcium and iron are also important minerals that people must strive to include in their diet each day, and if you are not getting enough, a doctor may recommend a supplement. Recommended daily water intake is 64 ounces per day or eight 8-ounce glasses a day. More water is needed if you exercise.

Caffeine Drinks containing caffeine such as coffee, tea, and some sodas should not be consumed in place of water or milk. Too much caffeine can result in a quickened heart rate, excessive urination, anxiety, and difficulty sleeping. There is no requirement for caffeine in the diet. Moderate caffeine intake has not been associated with any health risks. The National Institutes of Health define moderate caffeine consumption as three 8-ounce cups per day. Caffeine intake can negatively affect a child’s nutrition and should be monitored. Pregnant women and people with heart disease should not have caffeine unless their doctor allows it.

Weight In order to maintain body weight, calories taken in must equal calories expended through metabolism or activity. In order to lose weight, one must either take in less calories as food, expend more calories through exercise, or use a combination of both. A combination of exercise and diet is the best way to maintain a healthy weight. Children and adults should strive to exercise for 60 minutes daily; this can be done all in one session or accumulated in ten-minute sessions throughout the day.

Contemporary Health-Related Issues HIV is a viral infection that attacks the immune system and at this time there is no cure or vaccine. HIV is contracted by the following means: ■ ■ ■ ■

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Through sex with an infected person By sharing needles with someone who is infected Through infected blood transfusions (not common in countries where blood is screened for the virus) Through childbirth or breast milk.


Good strategies to prevent infection include the following: ■ ■ ■ ■ ■

Abstaining from sex Practicing safer sex by using latex condoms Having a monogamous relationship with someone who has tested negative for the virus Not using intravenous drugs Getting tested as a part of your regular medical check-up, or if you are pregnant or nursing

Eating disorders are common among teens, and although more prevalent among teenage girls, boys can also have eating disorders. Various types of eating disorders include the following: ■

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Anorexia nervosa, in which the person affected wants to be thin and controls weight through not eating enough, excessive exercise, and regurgitating food that they eat. They often have a distorted body image and see themselves as fat. Anorexia nervosa affects more females than males although males can also develop the eating disorder. Bulemia, in which a person binge eats and then purges by throwing up the food she ate, using laxatives, or both. Body dysmorphic disorder (BDD) often accompanies anorexia nervosa but it also becoming more common in males. People affected by BDD are preoccupied with the way their body looks and in the case of anorexics they see a fat person when they look in the mirror. Teenage boys with BDD often lift weights to try to become larger, and no matter how big they get, they still see a small person in the mirror.

Teen pregnancy is a problem that must be addressed by schools and parents. Students should be taught refusal skills, but if they choose to have sex, they should also be armed with knowledge about birth control, including how to get it and use it. They should have an adult that they can trust and talk to such as a parent. They need to learn communication skills in order to be able to discuss these issues with their parents. Pregnant teens who do not seek early prenatal care usually have more problems during their pregnancies than women who do. They are at a higher risk for problems such as anemia, premature delivery, and low birth weight. They are also at risk for dropping out of high school and not finishing their education, which has an effect on their future and puts them at risk for living in poverty. Suicide is another teen issue that is preventable. Adolescents who are suicidal might show the following signs: ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■

Talking about suicide Not participating or showing interest in things they cared about in the past Giving things away Showing signs of depression or expressing feelings of hopelessness Abusing substances Engaging in risky behaviors Changing eating and or sleeping patterns

If you notice any of these behaviors, talk to the person. Ask them questions, get them to talk to someone they feel safe with, and seek professional help. An important strategy for the prevention of substance abuse and sexually transmitted infections is having refusal skills. Refusal skills are necessary and must be practiced in realistic situations. Examples of these skills are to give the person pressuring you an excuse or reason for refusing. Avoid situations in which you know you will be pressured or walk away from the person. Talk about something else or repeat the excuse or reason for saying no. Make friends who have the same values and beliefs as you so you are not alone in saying no. If you want to maintain a good relationship with this person, suggest healthy alternatives to the suggested action.

Health Information in the Media Students must learn how to evaluate health information in the media and on the Web. With regard to Web sites, they should be taught to look for signs that it is a reputable site such as those ending in .gov, .org, or .edu, rather than sites developed by ordinary people who are not experts in the area or by companies who might have an agenda or bias.

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Students should be taught to think about advertisements in terms of the product being advertised and the target audience of the advertisement. They should ask themselves questions such as, why is this product being advertised, and what does the company want people to believe? Is there any truth in this ad? Advertising strategies are used to increase a product’s appeal, such as the bandwagon technique that suggests that everyone is using or doing it, and the use of celebrities to promote the product. Humor, emotions, and sex appeal are techniques that are used often. Statistics are also used to sell products, but the statistics might be the results of only one study or of a biased study that makes the product look good. Students need to learn to evaluate these messages and look at them objectively. They need to ask questions like the following: Who is providing this message or information? What is their agenda? Is this product safe? Do I need to use this product? What are the consequences of this product or behavior? Students need to practice these skills by evaluating advertising messages and evaluating Web sites.

Health and the Environment Teach students that they can take action to protect the environment such as conserving fresh water and other natural resources, recycling, not creating so much trash, and not littering. Techniques for conservation include the following: ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■

Conserve water by shutting off the water while brushing teeth. Take shorter showers. Use more efficient appliances such as washing machines and dishwashers. Fix leaky faucets. Run dishwashers and washing machines only for a full load. Turn off lights and electronic devices when not in use. Use rechargeable batteries. Reduce the use of air conditioning and use fans in its place. Purchase a vehicle that gets better gas mileage.

Recycle products that your community recycles and reuses. Create less trash by buying products that do not contain as much waste materials or are made from recycled products. Buy beverages and other products that are packaged in recyclable packaging. Dispose of toxic liquid substances properly. Use biodegradable shampoos, soaps, and detergents. Run tap water for 30 seconds or more before drinking it to reduce the amount of lead that might be present from water standing in pipes. Reduce the use of products containing chlorofluorocarbons, which are a cause of damage to the ozone layer. To reduce air pollution, do the following: ■ ■ ■ ■ ■

Carpool Ride a bike Walk Use public transportation Don’t smoke

Don’t waste paper products and recycle those that you do use. Cell phones and cell phone batteries must be disposed of properly and should not be disposed of in the regular trash. They should be recycled or donated to a charitable organization that recycles cell phones. Buildings often have indoor air problems for many reasons and some of those buildings contain asbestos or lead. Many students have asthma, which can be triggered by dust, dirt, cleaning agents, and mold in school buildings. Schools and other buildings need to maintain a clean environment and choose healthy cleaning agents to reduce risks to students and staff.

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Review Questions 1. To reduce the risk of breast cancer women should A. B. C. D.

wash hands regularly. do monthly breast self checks. take vitamin E. take antibiotics.

The correct answer is B. Hand washing does not prevent cancer. Cancer is not caused by germs but by mutations of cells inside the body. Monthly self-checks are recommended to detect cancer early so that it can be treated appropriately before it can spread. Vitamin E is a necessary part of the diet but has not been proven to reduce the risk of breast cancer. Antibiotics fight bacterial infections that are caused by germs entering the body. Cancer is not caused by germs or bacteria. 2. Recycling is important to protect the environment, and most communities recycle plastics, paper, and some metals. Pre-cycling is buying products that create less waste. Which of the following is an example of pre-cycling? A. B. C. D.

Using paper towels and napkins Buying products that contain less packaging Buying a case of 8-oz water bottles as opposed to buying a 5-gallon water bottle All of the above

The correct answer is B. Using paper towels and napkins prevents the spread of germs but also creates a lot of unnecessary paper waste. Buying products that contain less packaging reduces the amount of waste to be thrown away as trash or recycled. Buying 24 water bottles creates more waste than buying one five-gallon plastic jug. 3. John wants to conserve natural fresh water resources. He normally takes a 10-minute shower every day and leaves the water running for two minutes when he brushes his teeth. Which of the following steps could John take to conserve water? A. B. C. D.

John could conserve water by showering every other day. John could conserver water by shutting the water off when he brushes his teeth. John could conserver water by fixing leaky faucets and pipes in his house. A, B, and C

The correct answer is D. John would use less water by eliminating a few of his showers each week. Shutting the water off rather than leaving it running for two minutes would save water. Fixing leaky faucets and pipes would conserve water by wasting less of it lost through leaks each day. Conserving water through each of the preceding steps is an easy way for one person to have an impact on natural resources. 4. Information found on a Web site should be carefully evaluated. Which of the following Web sites should be trusted to provide sound information? A. B. C. D.

www.cdc.gov, the Web site of the Center for Disease Control www.tallyfitness.com, the Web site of a fitness company promoting exercise, nutrition advice, and dietary supplement information www.Gatorgulp.com, the Web site of a soda company www.atpindiet.com, the Web site of a famous diet plan that sells books, nutrition advice, and supplements

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The correct answer is A. The Center for Disease Control provides information that you can trust, and the .gov is the key part of the Web site that tells students they can trust the information found there. The Web site of the fitness company is promoting a corporation whose main goal is to make a profit; likewise the Web site of the soda company. The information found at these sites is to further that goal. The Web site of a famous diet plan that sells books, nutrition advice, and supplements is promoting the sale of products for personal gain. The information contained on the Web site markets the product for that end. 5. One step involved in conflict resolution is to A. B. C. D.

solve the problem right when it happens. set a time and place to discuss the issue. involve others in the resolution as a first step. get all of your feelings out in the open first.

The correct answer is B. Solving a problem right when it happens rarely works because the people involved in the conflict might still have hard feelings about it, and emotions may be high. It is better to have a cooling off period before coming back to the conflict. It is important to set a time and a place that both parties feel comfortable with to discuss the problem. Involving others in the conflict resolution right away is not a good idea. People are at risk of choosing sides or having one of the parties involved believe that they are choosing sides because emotions are still high. Involving impartial parties when all else fails is a valid option but should not be a first step. Getting all of your feelings out in the open right away might seem like a personal attack on the other person.

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Objective 0031 Understands physical education concepts and practices related to the development of personal living skills. The following topics are covered under the subject area of Objective 0031: ■ ■

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Recognizing sequences and characteristics of physical development throughout the various developmental levels Demonstrating knowledge of activities that promote the development of motor skills (e.g., locomotor, manipulative, body mechanics) and perceptual awareness skills (e.g., body awareness, spatial and directional awareness) Applying safety concepts and practices associated with physical activities (e.g., doing warm-up exercises, wearing protective equipment) Understanding skills necessary for successful participation in given sports and activities (e.g., spatial orientation, eye-hand coordination, movement) Analyzing ways in which participation in individual or group sports or physical activities can promote personal living skills (e.g., self-discipline, respect for self and others, resource management) and interpersonal skills (e.g., cooperation, sportsmanship, leadership, teamwork, communication)

Physical Developmental Levels Physical development can be described as the changes that we see in one’s physical movements from infancy throughout life. Motor skills are the result of both nature (heredity) and life experiences as well as nurture (instruction). Motor skills develop sequentially from immature patterns to advanced movement patterns. Students must have developed certain skills before they are capable of others; for example, children will walk before they can run. They must be able to walk and hop before they can skip. The term sequential indicates that movement progresses from simple to complex. All students of the same age are not necessarily at the same developmental level, and teachers need to account for this when planning learning experiences. Individualization of lessons and skills by providing a choice in difficulty levels for the same skills will be helpful in teaching all students in a class. Provide choices in equipment, targets, and organizational arrangements. There are four skill levels: ■ ■ ■ ■

Pre-control Control Utilization Proficiency

At the pre-control level, students cannot replicate or consciously control a certain movement or movement pattern. At the control level, children can replicate a movement closer to the way they intend to. Movements are automatic at the utilization level, meaning that students do not have to consciously think about it and are ready to learn combination movements. When students reach the proficiency level, they are able to repeat movements exactly and use the movements in game type situations. Students in schools are categorized by grade levels and grade levels are grouped into school levels such as elementary school (usually grades PreK–5), middle school (usually grades 6–8), and high school (usually grades 9–12). At the elementary school level, students should learn fundamental movement patterns and basic skills. At the middle school levels, students should be exposed to a variety of activities that use the skills and concepts that they learned during the elementary years. At the high school level, students should be given the opportunity to choose activities that they enjoy and want to become better in that they can participate in for life.

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Motor Skills Development Fundamental motor skills are made up of non-locomotor, locomotor, and manipulative skills. Non-locomotor skills are sometimes known as non-manipulative skills, and although they involve movement, they do include moving from one place to another. Examples of nonlocomotor skills are ■ ■ ■ ■

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transferring weight jumping and landing stretching curling

Locomotor skills involve movement through space from one place to another; locomotor skills include ■ ■ ■ ■ ■

walking running hopping skipping galloping

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sliding chasing fleeing dodging

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throwing catching kicking punting

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dribbling volleying striking with racquets and long-handled implements

Movement Concepts Movement concepts describe how and where the body moves and include space awareness, effort, and relationships. ■

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Space awareness includes location in personal space and general space; directions such as up, down, forward, backward, right left, clockwise, counterclockwise; levels such as low, medium, and high; pathways such as straight, curved, diagonal, and zig-zag. Effort includes concepts such as time: fast and slow; force: strong, light, hard, and easy; and flow: bound and free. Relationships such as of body parts: round, curved, narrow, wide, and twisted; with objects or people: over, under, on, off, near, far, in front of, and behind; and with people: leading, following, matching and mirroring, alone, and in partners or groups.

Practice of these skills alone and in combination will lead to increased proficiency and success.

Safety Concepts and Practices Students must have the prerequisite skills to perform a given skill or activity. For example, you would not ask a student who lacks catching skills to be the catcher in a softball game. Teach the student the necessary skills before moving on to more difficult skills. Set ground rules for students working with implements that may be dangerous such as bats or hockey sticks, for example: working in a designated area that is away from other students, such as a marked area that is theirs to work in alone, or marking boundaries that they must stay outside or inside of depending on the skill practice. Students should practice using the implement with control such as not lifting a hockey stick off the floor or above the waist. Consequences such as a timeout should be used if a student does not use the implement safely.

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Teach students to be aware of others when moving through space and using equipment. Students also should be taught about the safety equipment necessary to participate in the activity and be required to use it correctly. Examples of safety equipment are helmets for hockey, rollerblading and cycling, goggles for hockey, shin guards for soccer, and wrist guards, knee pads and elbow pads for rollerblading. They should also be taught warm-up and cool-down activities and exercises specific to the activity they are participating in. For example, if participating in soccer, the warm-up activities might be light jogging, dribbling a soccer ball, kicking a ball, or pretending to kick a ball toward a goal, and performing leg stretches. A warm-up is important because it prepares the body for more vigorous activity by gradually increasing the blood flow to working muscles and may also prevent injuries. Cooling down at the end of an activity session is also important to return the body back to a near resting state. Cooling down can be done by gradually decreasing the intensity of the exercise until the body is almost back to its resting state. Flexibility exercises should be done near or at the end of a workout when muscles are still warm to reduce the risk of injury.

Sport-Related Skills Children must have certain basic skills necessary to successfully participate in a sport or activity. Students should be able to perform basic locomotor and non-locomotor skills as well as manipulative skills if the sport involves the manipulation of objects such as balls. Students should be at the level of control and utilization in their chosen sport in order to participate successfully in the sport. Proficiency in the sport can be attained through practice. Teachers should not involve students in game play unless they have developed their basic skills enough to be successful in game play. General fitness is a requirement for all sports as all sports include an aspect of conditioning. Skill-related fitness is necessary for participation in sport. The six components of skill-related fitness include agility, balance, coordination, power, reaction time, and speed. All of the components of skill-related fitness can be improved through practice. Skillrelated fitness is not essential for maintaining health. Health-related fitness can be incorporated into conditioning for sport and includes aerobic fitness, muscular strength and endurance, body composition, and flexibility.

Developing Personal Living Skills through Sports Individual and group sports have long been touted as teaching loyalty, teamwork, respect, acceptance, belonging, conflict resolution, and self control. We often see in professional and collegiate sports that this is not the case. Students are constantly bombarded with media images of athletes with huge egos and few of the values that sports are supposed to teach. Athletes and students should be taught that hard work, discipline, and dedication are required for success in athletics. They should be taught conflict resolution skills early on in sport experiences. They should be taught to act as leaders and role models for athletes who are younger or not as skilled as they are. Being on a team is a privilege that should be treated as such and should require behaving in appropriate ways. It is often thought that players automatically have these values just from participating in sports, but these values must be taught and modeled at all times. Fair play is important, and cheating should be frowned upon. Good behavior in sports should be rewarded and publicized. The six pillars of character should be taught and modeled: trustworthiness, respect, responsibility, citizenship, fairness, and caring.

Review Questions 1. Students progress developmentally through four skill levels: pre-control, control, utilization, and proficiency. Skills should be sequenced from less difficult to more difficult. A student playing basketball at the utilization level would be able to A. B. C. D.

bounce a ball one time and catch it. dribble and pass in a game situation. dribble while moving and pass with a partner. bounce the ball five times (dribble) without stopping and without losing control of the ball.

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The correct answer is C. The skill in option A is at the pre-control level where the goal is for students to keep the ball in their personal space. The skills in option B are at the proficiency level where students are able to dribble without thinking about it. The skills in option C are at the utilization level because they increase the complexity of the task to a more game-like situation but only require the use of two skills in combination with a partner. The skill in this option is at the control level where we want children to learn to dribble (bounce) continuously. 2. An example of a non-locomotor skill is A. B. C. D.

running. galloping. twisting. striking.

The correct answer is C. Running is a locomotor skill because it requires travel through space from one place to another. Galloping is a locomotor skill because it requires travel through space from one place to another. Twisting is a non-locomotor skill because it is a movement that can be done in place and does not require movement from one place to another. Striking is a manipulative skill because it requires the manipulation of an object such as a bat or racquet. 3. Safety is an important part of any physical activity program. A teacher can make a physical activity environment safer by teaching students safety skills. Which of the following is not a strategy to increase safety in a physical activity setting? A. B. C. D.

Having students move directly into the activity such as running sprints as soon as they enter the gym or activity area Setting ground rules for the use of equipment such as bats and hockey sticks Requiring students to use safety equipment appropriate for the activity they are participating in Requiring students to warm up prior to vigorous activity and cool down at the end of vigorous activity

The correct answer is A. Students may get hurt by not properly warming up before a vigorous activity such as running sprints. Student should gradually warm up their bodies and stretch before this activity. Setting ground rules is an important strategy for the use of dangerous equipment and should be emphasized throughout the lesson so that no one gets hurt. Students should always be taught about the appropriate safety equipment for the activity in which they are participating and should be required to use it. If it is not available the activity should not be taught. A warm up and cool down are both important parts in safely conducting an activity session and should not be neglected. 4. An effective way to individualize the skill of shooting baskets in a basketball lesson is to A. B. C. D.

have students form two lines, one in front of each basket in the gym and take one shot at the basket before moving to the end of the line. have students choose to use a regulation basketball, a foam soccer ball, or a tennis ball to shoot with have students shoot at the regulation basket, a hula hoop placed on the wall, or a hula hoop held by a partner Both B and C

The correct answer is D. There is no individualization or choice when all students are asked to line up in front of the basket and take one shot before moving to the end of the line in this drill. All students are required to perform the skill in the same way even if they are not ready for it. Allowing students to choose to participate at a level of difficulty that they feel comfortable with by letting them choose the ball to shoot with is a developmentally appropriate strategy. Allowing students to choose to participate at a level of difficulty that they feel comfortable with by letting them choose the level or height of the target is a developmentally appropriate strategy.

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5. Gradually bringing the body near or back to a resting state at the end of a workout is known as A. B. C. D.

a warm up. flexibility. a cool down. yoga.

The correct answer is C. A warm up is the segment of a workout in which you prepare the body for more strenuous activity by gradually increasing the intensity to increase the flow of blood to working muscles. Flexibility is a measure of the range of motion in a joint. Slowing down activity or decreasing the intensity to bring one’s body back to a resting state is cooling down. It is usually recommended that flexibility exercises should be done during this part of a workout while muscles are warm and there is less of a chance of injuring them. Yoga includes many poses that stretch the muscles and can be used as a part of the cool down process, but it is not a cool down in itself.

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Objective 0032 Understands health-related physical fitness concepts and practices. The following topics are covered under the subject area of Objective 0032: ■ ■

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Recognizing components, functions, and common disorders of the major body systems Demonstrating knowledge of basic components of physical fitness (e.g., strength, endurance, flexibility) and applying principles of training Applying strategies for developing a personal fitness plan based on self-assessment, goal setting, and an understanding of physiological changes that result from training Analyzing the relationship between life-long physical activity and the prevention of illness, disease, and premature death Applying knowledge of principles and activities for developing and maintaining cardiorespiratory endurance, muscular strength, flexibility, and levels of body composition that promote good health

Major Body Systems The body is made up of 11 systems: ■

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The circulatory system is the body’s transport system and carries nutrients to and wastes from body cells. The heart pumps blood through blood vessels that carry oxygen to cells and wastes from body cells. Circulatory system problems include atherosclerosis, congenital heart defects such as heart murmur, arrhythmia, high cholesterol, high blood pressure (hypertension), and cardiovascular disease (CVD) such as heart attack and stroke. The digestive system takes food in, breaks it down, and absorbs it into the body and eliminates wastes as feces. Appendicitis and acid reflux disease are common ailments. The endocrine system consists of glands that secrete hormones that regulate body processes (that is, reproduction, growth, and metabolism). Common problems include Type I and II diabetes when the pancreas does not produce enough insulin and hyper- and hypo-thyroidism in which the levels of thyroid hormone in the blood are excessively high or low, respectively. The urinary system removes nitrogenous wastes and regulates water and the electrolyte balance of the blood. Problems that can occur are kidney stones, prostatitis, urinary tract infections, and kidney failure. The lymphatic system (immune system) fights infection and disease. Lymphomas (cancers) and tonsillitis are problems of the immune system. The muscular system allows the body to move, maintains posture, and produces heat. Common injuries include muscle strains, tears, and pulls. Muscular dystrophy is a disease of the muscular system. The nervous system controls body functions and interprets messages from the outside world and from inside the body. The brain and spinal cord make up the central nervous system (CNS), and the peripheral nervous system is made up of nerves and ganglia found outside the CNS. Alzheimer’s disease is a progressive degenerative disease of the brain that results in dementia. Multiple sclerosis is another disorder of the nervous system that more commonly affects women and symptoms depend on which part of the nervous system is affected by the disease. The reproductive system (male and female) controls male and female characteristics and produces sex cells for production of offspring. Problems such as testicular, breast, and cervical cancer and sexually transmitted infections can occur. The respiratory system takes in oxygen and eliminates carbon dioxide. Problems include asthma, bronchitis, and lung cancer. The skeletal system provides shape and supports the body, protects internal organs, works with muscles to allow movement, makes blood cells, and stores materials such as calcium until they are needed. A common disorder of the skeletal system is osteoporosis, which is a weakening of the bones. Abnormal spinal curvatures such as lordosis, kyphosis, and scoliosis can occur. Common injuries include dislocations, fractures, and ligament sprains.


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Integumentary (skin, hair, and nails) protects the body, synthesizes vitamin D, location of touch receptors (such as pain), and sweat and oil glands. Common problems are athlete’s foot, acne, impetigo, skin cancer, psoriasis, and eczema.

Components of Health-Related Fitness There are five basic components of health-related physical fitness. ■

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Cardiovascular endurance, which is also known as cardiorespiratory fitness or endurance and aerobic fitness or endurance, is the ability of the cardiovascular and respiratory systems to work together to supply the body with oxygenated blood during sustained physical activity. Sustained generally means 20 minutes or more. Examples of activities that increase cardiovascular endurance are brisk walking, running or jogging, swimming, bicycling, rollerblading, and aerobics classes such as step, dance, and kickboxing. Muscular endurance is the ability of a muscle or muscle group to exert force continuously over time. Muscular endurance can be improved by engaging in strength training activities such as weight lifting using light to medium weights, body weight exercises, or resistance bands. Muscular strength is a muscle or muscle group’s ability to exert maximal force one time and can be increased by performing maximal lifts. Flexibility is the range of motion available at a joint and can be improved through participation in stretching exercises and activities such as Pilates and yoga. Awareness of body composition. Body composition is the ratio of fat to lean body mass. It is measured as a percentage of fat as compared to bone, muscle, and other tissues in the body. It can be improved through a healthy diet and exercise. Healthy body composition for males is considered to be between 10 and 25 percent fat and for women it is between 17 and 32 percent fat.

The body adapts to training, and in order to continually improve and see results one must apply the principals of training. The principals of training are overload, progression, specificity, reversibility, individuality, and regularity. ■

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Overload indicates that in order to improve and see results the body must perform at a level beyond what it is used to. Progression is a gradual increase beyond what is normal (overload) to reduce the risk of injury. Specificity is the principal that tells us that specific activities improve specific systems. For example, if you want to improve cardiovascular fitness, you must train with activities that work that system. This principal also shows us that if you want to improve a specific body part such as strength in the lower back, you must perform exercises that are designed to strengthen the lower back. The principal of individuality tells us that individuals have different goals, different genetics, and respond to training differently. Reversibility is the principal that shows us that fitness is temporary. If you do not continue to exercise, you will lose the gains in fitness that you have made. The principal of regularity tells us that exercise must be performed on a regular basis.

The FITT guidelines show us how to apply these principles. FITT stands for frequency, intensity, time, and type. ■ ■ ■ ■

Frequency is how often a person exercises. Intensity is how hard a person exercises. Time is how long a person exercises. Type is the mode of training a person chooses.

The FITT guidelines are used to apply the principles of training. For example, you can exercise more often, at a higher intensity, or for longer periods of time to manipulate overload.

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Developing a Personal Fitness Plan The physiological changes that result from training include reduced risk for the following: ■ ■ ■

Premature death from cardiovascular diseases such as heart attack and stroke Developing type II diabetes Developing some types of cancer such as colon cancer and breast cancer, developing osteoporosis

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lower blood pressure reduced body fat or weight lower cholesterol healthy muscles and bones improved mood and self esteem better performance in daily living activities such as work and recreation

The first step in developing a personal fitness plan is to assess your current level of fitness, especially in the area of your goal. If cardiovascular fitness is your goal, then assessment of cardiovascular fitness is important. It is also important to improve in all areas of health-related fitness. Establish a baseline fitness level by testing all five areas of health-related fitness. Step two is to set long-term goals with a timeline for meeting those goals. Set measurable short-term goals that are the steps you need to take to reach long-term goals. For example, if your goal is to run a marathon (26.2 miles) and you currently do not run at all, it would not be realistic to set a goal of running a marathon in three months. A realistic long-term goal would be to run a marathon in a year. Short-term goals used as steps toward meeting this long-term goal might be to run a mile without stopping in two weeks, running a 5K race in two months, running a 10K in four months, and so on. Look at the barriers you have to exercise such as lack of time or a place to exercise. Set specific, realistic, and attainable goals and put them in writing. If you do not stick to the plan, you need to reassess your goals and the activities that you have chosen. Choose activities that you enjoy and work out with a friend or exercise partner for added motivation. Evaluate your progress on a regular basis.

Physical Activity as a Preventative Participation in regular physical activity helps to prevent illness, disease, and premature death. People who exercise reduce their risk of developing hypokinetic diseases. People who are active generally recover more quickly from illness or disease than people who do not engage in regular physical activity. Regular physical activity has been shown to reduce body fat levels and obesity is a major risk factor for many diseases. Cardiovascular disease is the number one leading cause of death in the United States. Regular physical activity that increases cardiorespiratory endurance reduces the risk of developing cardiovascular diseases such as heart attack, atherosclerosis, stroke, and high blood pressure. Physical activity increases the strength of the heart. The heart is a muscle that pumps oxygenated blood to the body’s tissues. A strong heart is able to pump more blood with each contraction and, therefore, does its job more efficiently. Cancer is the second leading cause of death in the United States. Physical activity reduces the risk of some forms of cancer such as colon cancer and breast cancer. Type II diabetes is another disease in which physical activity plays a role. Physical activity can prevent the onset of this disease and plays a role in managing the disease for people who have it. Osteoporosis can be prevented by engaging in weight bearing exercise which helps to increase bone density. People who engage in regular physical activity are more likely to be able to perform daily living activities and are able to take care of themselves longer than people who do not.

Activities for Developing Strength and Endurance A warm up should be done to prepare the body for exercise. The warm up should consist of low intensity activity. This may help to reduce the chance of injury during more vigorous activity. The warm up increases blood flow to muscles and the heart and prepares the body for more vigorous activity. It is also important to cool down after an activity session

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by slowing down to return to a near resting state. Never stop at the end of an activity session and sit or lie down; instead gradually slow the activity down for three to five minutes or until the heart rate returns to normal. This is also a good time to stretch since the muscles are already warm. Activities that develop and maintain cardiovascular endurance raise the heart rate into its target range and should be done 3–6 days a week. To find your target heart rate, you can use the Karvonen Method, which is also known as the Heart Rate Reserve method. You need to know your resting heart rate (RHR), which can be found by counting your pulse for 30 seconds and multiplying the number by two. Next, you must calculate your maximum heart rate. MHR (Maximum Heart Rate) = 208 – (.7 × your age). Next you must calculate your HRR (heart rate reserve) HRR = (208 – [.7 × your age] – RHR). Target heart rate can be found by multiplying your HRR by 65 percent and 85 percent and then adding your RHR back in to find a low end and high end THR Zone. An example is shown here for a 17-yearold high school senior. All numbers are rounded to the nearest whole number. RHR = 65 MHR = 208 – (.7 × 17) = 196 HRR = 196 – 65 = 131 THRZ = (131 × .65) + 65 = 150 THRZ = (131 × .85) + 65 = 176 To maintain or improve cardiovascular fitness this 17-year-old senior should perform cardiovascular exercise in his target heart rate zone between 150–176 beats per minute. Examples of activities that raise the heart rate include active sports that require continuous play such as tennis, basketball, and soccer. Other activities include brisk walking, jump rope jogging, running, hiking, rowing, aerobics, water aerobics, bicycling, swimming, dance, rollerblading, ice skating, cross country skiing, kickboxing, boxing, racquetball, circuit training, interval training, and cardiovascular exercise machines. To develop and maintain muscular strength and endurance (muscular fitness) one should use progressive resistance training. A person with good muscular fitness is less prone to injury and can perform daily living activities. Muscular fitness is related to good posture and looking good as well as a reduced risk for lower back problems. Women are prone to developing osteoporosis, and weight- bearing exercise such as resistance training has been shown to reduce the risk of osteoporosis. Resistance training can also help to control weight. Different types of resistance training can be incorporated into a muscular fitness program such as dynamic and static exercises. Dynamic exercises are known as isotonic exercise and include two-movement phases known as concentric and eccentric contractions. The concentric contraction is the shortening phase of the movement. Eccentric contractions are the lengthening phase of the movement. Care should be taken to breathe when performing muscular fitness exercises. Exhale during the concentric contraction and inhale during the eccentric contraction. Exercises should also be slow and controlled so as not to use momentum to lift the weight and also to prevent injury. Static strength exercises are nonmoving and are known as isometric exercises. Frequency, intensity and time (FIT) can all be manipulated to produce progressive overload that is necessary to see improvements in muscular fitness. Resistance exercises should be done 1–3 days per week and adequate rest is needed between strength training sessions. When training the same muscle group at least 48 hours of rest are required between workouts. To develop and maintain flexibility, stretching exercises must be incorporated into an exercise program. Flexibility helps to prevent injury to muscles and joints and is important to improving and maintaining good posture. Flexibility exercises should be done when the body is warm, preferably after a warm up or at the end of a workout. Static (held) stretches are recommended for the general population of exercisers. Ballistic (bouncing) stretches are not recommended for the general population of exercisers but may be useful to athletes. PNF (Proprioceptive Neuromuscular Facilitation) stretching is popular and a good way to improve flexibility. PNF is characterized by lengthening the muscle to be stretched, performing an isometric contraction (tensing the muscle without movement) of the muscle, and then lengthening it again. Stretches should be done to a point of slight discomfort and held there for 15–60 seconds. Flexibility exercises should be done at least three days a week and can be done on all days of the week. To develop and maintain optimal body composition physical activity and diet are two key factors. A combination of these two factors should be used to maintain good body composition. Diet alone is not recommended as a way to reduce or maintain body composition. Many people lose or gain weight through diet alone only to gain it back, causing

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the yo-yo diet effect. Exercise is important because it burns calories. To maintain weight, calories taken in must equal calories burned through basal metabolic rate and activity. People who use diet alone to lose weight often lose muscle mass and those who use diet to gain weight often gain body fat. Adding exercise to a healthy diet can counter those effects maintaining muscle mass and minimizing fat gain. To maintain optimal body composition one should eat a low fat, high fiber diet, being sure to get enough carbohydrates and protein. Current recommendations are to take in 45–65 percent of your daily calories as carbohydrates, 10–15 percent as protein, and no more than 30 percent of your daily calories as fat. A diet should never consist of less than 1200 calories per day.

Review Questions 1. All of the following are examples of using intensity to increase overload on cardiovascular system training except: A. B. C. D.

running at a faster pace than normal for 3 minutes of a 30-minute run before returning back to a normal pace running five days a week instead of your usual four running 5 minutes longer than normal strength training for 30 minutes a day three times a week instead of running four days a week

The correct answer is A. Running faster for a few minutes increases the intensity of the run by making it harder for a few minutes before returning to your normal pace. Running more days per week manipulates the frequency of your training. Running for a longer period of time manipulates the time of your training. The use of strength training manipulates the type or mode of training used and is not specific to the cardiovascular system. Strength training is used to increase muscular fitness. 2. Which of the following goal-setting strategies are useful in developing a personal fitness plan? A. B. C. D.

Assess fitness levels. Set realistic and attainable long-term goals and measurable short term goals. Put the plan in writing. All of the above.

The correct answer is D. Assessing fitness levels, setting realistic and attainable long-term goals and measurable shortterm goals, and putting the plan in writing are all goal-setting strategies that are useful in developing a personal fitness plan. 3. The integumentary system A. B. C. D.

carries wastes away from body cells. breaks down food for absorption into the body. protects the body and is the location of touch receptors. produces sex hormones.

The correct answer is C. Carrying wastes away from body cells is a function of the circulatory system. Breaking down food for absorption into the body is a function of the digestive system. The integumentary system is made up of skin, hair, and nails and protects the body and is the location of receptors for pain and pressure. The reproductive system produces sex hormones after it is stimulated by the endocrine system.

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4. People cut calories when they want to lose weight. Cutting calories along with exercise is considered to be a healthy way to lose weight. A healthy adult diet should never consist of less than A. B. C. D.

2000 calories a day. 6000 calories a day. 800 calories a day. 1200 calories a day.

The correct answer is D. The general recommendation for weight loss is to cut calories through diet and burn calories through exercise. 1200 calories per day is the minimum amount of calories an adult should take in, although 1200 may not be enough calories for someone who is active. A doctor or dietician may put someone on a lower calorie diet. 6000 calories a day would cause just about everyone except serious endurance athletes and serious athletes such as those in training for competitive events to gain weight. You cannot sustain health and get the nutrients, vitamins, and minerals that the body needs to survive and function on 800 calories per day. 1200 calories is the least amount of calories that you can eat while still getting the nutrients, vitamins, and minerals the body needs to survive and function properly. 5. The main goal of progressive resistance training is to improve which component/s of fitness? A. B. C. D.

muscular strength and endurance cardiovascular endurance flexibility body composition and aerobic capacity

The correct answer is A. Progressive resistance training is the use of free weights, weight machines, and body weight exercises designed to increase muscular strength and endurance. Cardiovascular endurance is improved by performing sustained cardiovascular (aerobic) exercise such as running, swimming, and bicycling. Flexibility is improved through stretching exercises. Although body composition can be improved through progressive resistance training and aerobic capacity can be maintained through progressive resistance training (if done through circuit training with no rest between exercises to keep the heart rate elevated), these are not their main goals. The main goal of progressive resistance training is to improve muscular strength and endurance.

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Subarea VII: Family and Consumer Science and Career Development Objective 0033 Understands concepts and practices related to child development and care, and can apply knowledge of family and interpersonal relationships The following topics are covered under the subject area of Objective 0033: ■

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Recognizing states and characteristics of physical, cognitive, social, and emotional development during infancy, childhood, and adolescence Recognizing the types and characteristics of interpersonal relationships and analyzing decision-making processes related to interpersonal relationships Demonstrating knowledge of family structure (e.g., extended, blended, single-parent, and dual-career), roles and responsibilities of family members, and the functions of families in society Demonstrating knowledge of children’s physical, dietary, and hygienic needs (e.g., nutritional guidelines, dental care, proper washing procedures) and applying developmentally appropriate methods for promoting self-care during childhood Identifying causes of common childhood accidents and healthcare emergencies and applying physical care and safety guidelines for caregivers of infants, toddlers, and preschool and school-age children Analyzing factors that affect decisions about whether and when to have children and recognizing ways to prepare for the responsibilities of parenthood Examining social and cultural influences on interpersonal communication and analyzing factors affecting the formation of positive relationships in the family, workplace, and community

Child Development Stages and Characteristics Knowledge and skill in the principles of child development and care are essential for ensuring childrens’ successful participation in society. Young children must be aware of the basic elements of human development in the physical, cognitive, social, and emotional domains to increase their self-awareness, promote healthy growth, and improve the relationships they form with others. At the elementary level, students become aware of individual and group differences in human development and maturation, including physical growth, intellectual competence, personality, gender and cultural differences, and interpersonal relations. Teachers can help students understand developmental changes during infancy, childhood, and adolescence and are also expected to help children understand their current developmental levels and to facilitate individual growth.

Physical Development Two key terms in the domain of physical development are gross motor skills and fine motor skills. Gross, or large, motor skills focus on body movements of the trunk and limbs. Running, throwing, and climbing are examples of gross motor activities. Fine, or small, motor skills focus on more specialized movements of the fingers and, to some degree, toes. Picking up small objects, writing, and turning pages are examples of fine motor activities. Many on-line resources examine the domain of physical development. The following table outlines general physical development from birth through adolescence.

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Physical Development Milestones Age

Milestones

Comments

Birth to 12 months

* Sit without support * Crawl * Roll a ball * Walk with assistance * Pick up objects with thumb and one finger * Move objects from one hand to another

These skills are not present at birth but develop gradually over the first year. Large variation exists from child to child, with some infants achieving certain milestones well before or well after their peers.

12 to 24 months

* Walk alone * Move to music * Walk up and down stairs with hand support * Turn knobs * Hold writing utensil and scribble

Some infants are able to perform these skills at 12 months, but others take much longer to perform certain behaviors. The range of “normal” is quite broad.

2 to 3 years

* Run forward smoothly * Jump in place * Kick a ball forward * Turn single pages * Consistently use one hand in most activities * Hold writing utensil with thumb and finger instead of fist

Practice in each of these areas improves skill development. Skills at activities in which the child does not regularly participate develop much later.

4 to 5 years

* Throw ball overhead * Ride a tricycle * Catch a bounced ball * Cut on a line with scissors * Use fork and knife skillfully * Buckle and button clothing

Children at this age begin to be very independent and want to do tasks without assistance. Teachers can model skills and give children ample opportunity to practice.

6 to 8 Years

* Tie shoes * Print name * Copy shapes, letters, and numbers * Have improved balance * Have disproportionately long arms and legs

Children at this stage are quite different from one another in height and abilities.

9 to 11 years

* Increase body strength and dexterity * Improve coordination and reaction time * Begin menstruation (girls)

Fine motor skill development is a central focus in the early elementary school years. Classroom activities include learning to write and follow along with words in a book. In general, girls are ahead of boys in physical development at this stage.

*This chart has been developed based on information from Learning Disabilities OnLine (ldonline.org) and the National Network for Child Care (nncc.org).

Although New York State does not expect teachers at the elementary level to instruct children about specific theories of developmental psychology, those preparing for the multi-subject test will find a few stage theories useful in reviewing the topic of child development. Jean Piaget’s work on cognitive development and Erik Erikson’s work in socio-emotional development are considered classics.

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Subarea VII: Family and Consumer Science and Career Development

Cognitive Development Key terms associated with cognitive development, according to Piaget, include schemas, assimilation, and accommodation. Schemas are organized mental representations of the outside world. Assimilation and accommodation refer to the two processes by which new information may enter the mind. In assimilation, new information is understood in relationship to existing mental representations; in effect, new learning fits within an existing scheme. The process of accommodation requires modifying existing schemes to fit in new information that is inconsistent with the present structure. According to Piaget, all people progress through four developmental stages on their paths to cognitive maturity. The following chart illustrates these stages in relation to the typical ages at which development occurs.

Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development Age

Stage

Comments

Birth to 24 months

Sensorimotor Stage

The child is born with reflexive behaviors that slowly become mentally controlled. These reflexes facilitate the infant’s physical interactions with the world.

In this stage, infants begin to know the world through motor activities and sensory input. They have little capacity for memory. Object permanence, or the idea that objects exist when they are not in the physical presence of the child, develops at the end of this stage. 2 to 6 years

Preoperational Stage This stage is characterized by the child’s developing ability to form mental images of objects and events. Children at this level are unable to take the perspective of others. This behavior is known as egocentrism.

7 to 11 years

Concrete Operations Stage The child develops the capacity to think logically at this stage. Conservation is the characteristic behavior of this stage and refers to the understanding of certain attributes of an object remaining the same when other attributes change.

12 years through adulthood

Formal Operations Stage The older child entering this stage begins to demonstrate the ability to perform deductive reasoning and adult-like thinking.

Children in the preoperational stage take part in make-believe play, pretending to perform various activities. They are easily confused by subtle changes in the physical environment. A change in lighting, for example, may lead them to believe that the color of an object actually changed. Mathematical understanding and language comprehension develop very quickly in this stage, enabling classroom teachers to cover the typical elementary curriculum.

Teaching practices that require consideration of hypothetical possibilities and reasoning about abstract concepts are possible once students enter this stage.

Social Development Erik Erikson focused his attention on social and personal identity development. His psychosocial theory involves eight stages through which an individual must pass on the way to establishing a sense of self, identity, and satisfactory relationships with others. Each stage is characterized by a developmental crisis or conflict which the individual must resolve to move to the next stage. The table that follows describes Erikson’s theory.

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Erikson’s Theory of Psychosocial Development Age

Stage

Comments

Birth to 18 months

Basic trust vs. mistrust

Caregivers who respond to the child’s basic needs such as feeding will promote healthy resolution of this stage.

In this stage, the infant must form a trusting relationship with a primary caregiver or will develop a sense of mistrust in future relationships. 18 months to 3 years

Autonomy vs. shame and doubt This stage is characterized by the young child’s desire for control of the environment, as illustrated by the development of physical skills such as walking, running, and self-feeding. Caregivers who limit a child’s control may lead the child to develop a sense of shame or self-doubt.

3 to 6 years

Initiative vs. guilt At this stage the child becomes more assertive and seeks to be more independent. Negative reactions of caregivers to these behaviors may lead to feelings of guilt in the child.

6 to 12 years

Industry vs. inferiority This is the time when a child first compares himself to his peers as he strives to learn new skills. If a child does not view himself as measuring up, he may develop feelings of inferiority.

Adolescence

Identity vs. role confusion This stage is characterized by the teenager’s conflict with establishing a sense of self and integrating personal roles such as occupation, religion, family, and gender roles.

Young adulthood

Intimacy vs. isolation Once the individual has established an identity, a need to develop a relationship or relationships with significant others is felt. Young adults unable to build these relationships experience feelings of isolation.

Middle adulthood

Generativity vs. stagnation After becoming confident in a life position and established relationships, the adult develops a need to give back to the next generation. Those who are unable to resolve this need are left feeling dormant or stagnant.

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Toilet training is the quintessential conflict between the child and the caregiver in this stage; parents who are too pressuring may facilitate feelings of shame or doubt.

The child at this stage is attempting to explore the outside world. Caregivers who are too controlling promote feelings of guilt.

These are the child’s first years of school, while teachers are attempting to instill new skills to large groups of students. Children who view their peers as more successful may feel inferior.

Relationships with peers are the central focus in adolescence. Feedback from peers influences the identity integration that youth are trying to establish.

More intimate relationships with significant others is the goal of this stage. Typically, this may involve marriage, although other significant relationships may lead to successful resolution.

Parenting is the primary resolution of conflict in this stage, although other roles such as mentoring or volunteering may provide satisfactory resolution.


Age

Stage

Comments

Late adulthood

Ego integrity vs. despair

Late adulthood is characterized by reflection. Adults who have fond memories will feel ego integrity, but those who look back with mostly negative recollections will feel dejected.

During the final years, the adult takes a look back on life and assesses life experiences. Some adults will develop a sense of fulfillment while others will feel desolate and disparaging.

Interpersonal Relationships As a part of their social development, preschool- and elementary-age students need to acquire interpersonal skills, which will enable them to build friendships and future professional and community relationships. Students need to be able to distinguish between the various types of personal associations and understand the characteristics that form each type of relationship. Teachers must help students become aware of the social and cultural factors that impact interpersonal communication and affect the development of positive relationships. The following table identifies the four general types of interpersonal relationships and provides a brief description of the characteristics of each type.

Types of Interpersonal Relationships Type of Relationship

Characteristics

Comments

Friendship

Freely chosen associations between individuals with no specific goal or assigned purpose.

Teachers do not typically provide specific instruction on this type of relationship, although they may provide experiences or activities to promote the development of friendship relationships among peers.

Family

Associations between individuals, typically related, with the purpose of meeting individual and group needs in the home environment. Each member of the association has established roles and responsibilities based on the needs of the family unit.

The definition of family has significantly broadened over the past few decades. Teachers need to be cautious in defining the family in the stereotypical fashion as two opposite sex parents and their children.

Romantic

Partnerships defined by commitment, passion, and intimacy, commonly with a goal of reproduction.

Young children do not typically focus on romantic relationships and are not yet at the psychosocial developmental level to understand concepts like passion and intimacy.

Professional/ Workplace

Formal associations developed to fulfill a specific task or set of tasks. These relationships are focused on competence, achievement, and trust.

The elementary curriculum places a great deal of emphasis on this type of relationship. Teachers promote the skills associated with professional relationships when they establish classroom rules and utilize cooperative learning strategies.

Communication skills are essential for the development of each type of relationship. Poor communication patterns can result in family dysfunction, task failure, and unsuccessful personal relationships. Individual and group differences play an important role in this process, and many underlying assumptions are made when people communicate with one another. Because we can never enter the mind of the other individual, we can never be certain exactly how our words are being interpreted. Depending on the level of familiarity with the other individual in the relationship, a great deal of confusion and misunderstanding may exist. It is important not only for individuals to speak the same language but also to

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have the same context for meaning. The teacher may help students develop their communication skills by establishing decision-making processes and promoting quality conflict-resolution strategies. Holding regular classroom meetings is one way teachers enhance students’ interpersonal communication skills.

Family Relationships The family relationship is an important focus in the childhood level curriculum. Starting from a very young age, children become aware of the family structure in its various forms. The teacher supports this development by facilitating an understanding of the different types of families and the roles undertaken by each member of the family unit. Children learn about the social function of the family, and this study can include an examination of single parenthood, extended and blended families, housekeeping responsibilities, and so on. In addition, the childhood curriculum in New York State addresses issues of sexual/family education with a focus on the considerations made by individuals when deciding if and when to have children and on the responsibilities associated with parenthood. Teachers should be aware of a few key terms used to define families as they teach children about families and their roles.

Types of Families Type of Family

Description

Comments

Nuclear Family

Household consisting of two heterosexual, married parents and one or more (biological or adoptive) children.

The nuclear family is common in western civilizations where people are mobile. This is the stereotypical family in U.S. society.

Single-Parent Family

Household with a parent and one or more children. The parent is neither married nor cohabitating with a partner.

In the U.S., single-mother households outnumber singlefather households. Among divorced single-parent families, only about 15% are male-headed households. A common misnomer for this type of family is a “broken” home. In many cases, children in single-parent households have very successful social and educational experiences.

Extended Family

Household with a network of relatives beyond the nuclear family. This type of family may include grandparents, aunts, and uncles, among others.

Extended families are very common in many cultures, and the proportion of U.S. families of this type is growing steadily. East Asian, Pacific Islander, African, Middle Eastern, North- and South American Spanish, Pueblo Indian, and Central European Jewish families often consider the extended family the basic family unit.

Blended Family

Household formed (typically through marriage) by an adult with at least one child from a previous relationship with another adult unrelated to the child.

The term “blended” family arose based on a need to replace the negative sentiment associated with the term “step” families. Family counselors have identified a series of stages that the blended family goes through, beginning with a sort of fairy tale bliss, progressing to a level of conflict when differences are identified, and ending with reunification when the challenges and personal differences have been worked out.

Dual-Career Family

Household in which two adults, typically the mother and father, are both gainfully employed in the workforce.

Formerly, this type of family was confronted by negativity in schools and the larger society because the mother did not complete care-giving responsibilities while she was working. Today, although the debate about the impacts on the child still looms, dual-career families are about 60% of couples and are much more accepted.

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Type of Family

Description

Comments

Single-Career Family

Household in which one adult, typically the male or father, is employed in the workforce. The other adult is usually charged with homemaking and child care.

About 30% of married and unmarried couples who cohabitate would be considered single-career families.

Childhood Accidents and Safety As a member of the family unit, children often find themselves in positions of responsibility over younger or less mature family members. These children will also act as caregivers to infants, toddlers, preschool, and elementary-aged youngsters at various times in their adolescent and adult lives. The early childhood and childhood curriculum must therefore help students become aware of appropriate safety precautions. Teachers can help students understand common childhood accidents that can occur at home or in school and ensure that the students know the steps to take in an emergency situation (e.g., dialing 911). Furthermore, teachers can encourage appropriate safety guidelines such as appropriate use of household tools, proper handling of hazardous materials, and sanitary treatment of wounds. Safe Kids Worldwide (www.safekids.org) is a global network of organizations dedicated to preventing accidental childhood injuries. The U.S. division of Safe Kids provides statistics on injuries in the home and school and recommendations for improving safety. According to Safe Kids, accidental home injury deaths are most frequently caused by airway obstruction (suffocation), fire or burn, drowning, unintentional firearm discharge (shooting), choking, and poisoning. The following home safety tips are recommended by the National Safe Kids Campaign: ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■

Test smoke alarms monthly. Know two ways out of the house. Decide on a place for the family to meet after leaving the house in a fire or emergency. Keep guns unloaded and locked up. Always supervise children near water. Set hot water thermostat to 120º F or less. Install carbon monoxide detectors. Keep the National Poison Control Center hotline number (1-800-222-1222) by each phone. Keep all cleaning products, medicines, and vitamins out of children’s reach. Keep all knives and sharp utensils out of children’s reach.

Approximately 10 to 25 percent of the injuries incurred by children under the age of 14 occur in or around school. According to Safe Kids, playground equipment, organized sports, and school bus-related injuries top the accidental injuries in schools. To prevent injury and death, children need to learn about proper safety precautions at school. Teachers must be diligent in their supervision on the playground and emphasize to students the need for adult supervision in the playground area—equipment should be inspected prior to any play activity. Proper training may help alleviate sportsrelated injuries. Teachers can model stretching and warm-up activities to help students prepare for sporting activities. Schools throughout New York State are mandated to instruct children on bus safety, including proper boarding and exiting techniques for regular riding and emergency situations.

Health and Hygiene Accompanying a basic knowledge of human development is an understanding of personal health habits. To promote well-being, children must be aware of proper nutritional guidelines and practices. At the elementary level, students should be able to assist in simple food preparation and make nutritious food choices. They should also follow other basic hygiene expectations, including proper washing and dental care. It is the teacher’s responsibility to promote these habits using developmentally sensitive and appropriate methods.

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Nutrition Nutritional guidelines have changed significantly since the average classroom teacher was in elementary school. Dietary guidelines are reviewed and published every five years by the Department of Health and Human Services (HHS) and the Department of Agriculture (USDA). Formerly known as the four food groups, the 2005 iteration of the nutritional guidelines is illustrated by a pyramid with five columns stretching from the base to the peak. One section is dedicated to grains, with the average adult expected to eat 6 oz. per day. Next is the vegetable category, with a daily adult intake recommendation of 2.5 cups. The fruit category should consist of 2 cups per day, and the milk group, 3 cups per day. Finally, the meat category should contribute 5.5 oz. each day. In addition to containing these food groups, nutritional guidelines strongly recommend limiting fats, sugars, and salts and balancing food intake with physical activity. Further information can be found at MyPyramid.gov.

Personal Hygiene Elementary schools are known for the illnesses that pass rapidly through the population. Very young children are especially infectious because of their lack of personal hygiene. They freely cough or sneeze without covering their mouths and fail to properly wash their hands. The high degree of activity and personal interaction in lower elementary classrooms promotes the spread of cold and flu at epidemic proportions. All cannot be blamed on our youth, however, as it is estimated that 1 in 3 people do not wash their hands after using the restroom. These factors substantiate a need for teachers to integrate instruction on personal hygiene within the curriculum. The National Center for Infectious Diseases recommends the following process for hand washing: 1. Wet hands and apply liquid or bar soap (bar soap should be stored on a rack and allowed to drain). 2. Rub hands together and scrub all areas for 10–15 seconds. 3. Rinse thoroughly and dry. This process should be followed before, during, and after meals; after using the bathroom; after handling animals or animal waste; and whenever hands are dirty. If someone in the classroom or household is sick, handwashing should take place more frequently. Proper oral hygiene is also effective in limiting the spread of disease and is important for the health of the individual. Elementary teachers are expected to address oral health care with their students; the following guidelines from the American Dental Association may assist in this process. Good oral hygiene requires the individual to ■ ■ ■ ■

brush teeth with an ADA-accepted fluoride toothpaste at least twice a day. clean between teeth with floss or interdental cleaner at least once a day. limit between-meal snacks and eat a balanced diet. visit a dentist for cleaning and oral examinations on a regular basis.

Review Questions 1. As part of a nutritional health unit, students are required to plan a well-balanced menu for one meal. Jonathon designs a meal comprised of a hamburger with cheese, lettuce, and pickles on a whole wheat roll served with potato chips and a cola. What food group is NOT present in Jonathon’s meal? A. B. C. D.

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Milk Grain Fruit Meat


The correct answer is C. According to the food pyramid provided by the U.S. Department of Agriculture in 2005, fruits are a food group separate from vegetables. The milk group is represented by the cheese. The roll is in the grain family and is especially desirable because it is a whole-grain. The meat group is represented by the hamburger. The potato chips and cola are problematic because they contain high levels of fat or sugar. 2. Sylvia lives with her mother, father, younger sister, and grandfather. Which of the following terms characterizes her family unit? A. B. C. D.

Nuclear Single-parent Blended Extended

The correct answer is D. An extended family is made up of a network of relatives beyond the nuclear family, living in one household. This type of family is becoming more common in the United States. The nuclear family is characterized by two parents and one or more children. The single-parent family includes a parent and one or more children. The blended family is composed of a parent and at least one child living in the same household with another adult partner not related to the children of the first partner. 3. Before each cooperative learning unit, a third grade teacher has his students turn to their group mates, shake hands, and state “I don’t have to like you, but I do have to respect you and work with you on this task.” What type of interpersonal association might this teacher be attempting to establish? A. B. C. D.

Personal friendship Professional relationship Romantic relationship Family relationship

The correct answer is B. According to the New York State Learning Standards, students need to recognize the characteristics of various interpersonal relationships. The relationship the teacher is trying to establish is a professional, or workplace, relationship rather than that of personal friendship, romantic, or family relationship. Professional relationships are characterized by dedication to a common task or goal.

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Objective 0034 Understands skills and procedures related to consumer economics and personal resource management The following topics are covered under the subject area of Objective 0034: ■

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Recognizing rights and responsibilities of consumers in various purchasing situations (e.g., rights in relation to product and service warranties and guarantees) Demonstrating knowledge of types and characteristics of consumer fraud and applying procedures for seeking redress and registering consumer complaints Applying knowledge of procedures for making major purchases (e.g., comparison shopping, negotiation, or interpretation of labels or contract terminology) Analyzing considerations involved in selecting and maintaining housing and motor vehicles, obtaining credit and insurance, and making investments Examining steps and considerations involved in planning and maintaining a personal or family budget and applying money management guidelines appropriate for various situations Demonstrating knowledge of personal and family resources (e.g., time, skills, and energy) and applying decisionmaking and goal-setting procedures for managing personal and family resources in various situations

American Consumerism Based on data from Teenage Research Unlimited, a company that tracks teenage spending, youth ages 10–18 spend about $170 billion each year in the United States, 40% of which is spent on clothing. Meanwhile, according to American Consumer Credit Counseling, total U.S. credit card debt is approximately $60 billion, with the average American carrying $8,500 in credit card debt. These statistics illustrate the tremendous need to ensure that our next generation has the knowledge and skill to act as wise consumers and to manage personal resources effectively. Unfortunately, the United States has recorded a steady decrease in financial literacy among high school seniors over the past few years (JumpStart Coalition for Personal Financial Literacy, 2002), justifying New York State’s requirement for elementary-age students to meet learning standards in consumer economics and resource management.

Consumer Rights and Responsibilities Caveat emptor is a Latin phrase meaning “let the buyer beware” and illustrates the personal role individuals play in protecting themselves from fraud in the marketplace. Developing an understanding of the individual rights and responsibilities of the American consumer is one of the first steps toward financial independence. Consumer protection laws were passed by Congress in 1962 and include four consumer rights proposed by President Kennedy: ■

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The right to be informed. Consumers have the right to be given accurate information about a product so they may make appropriate choices. This right protects individuals from product misrepresentation, mislabeling, and deceitful advertising. The right to choose. Consumers have the right to reasonable access to a variety of products and services. This right protects individuals from unfair pricing due to monopolization in the marketplace. The right to safety. Consumers have the right to be protected from hazardous products and services. This right protects individuals from injury or illness as a result of using a product or service. The right to be heard. Consumers have the right to a fair hearing from business and government when they feel their rights under the law have been violated. This right gives the individual due process in the enforcement of consumer protection laws.

In addition to the rights enacted in 1962, a fifth right was added by President Ford in 1975, and a sixth was added by President Clinton in 1994:

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The right to consumer education. Consumers/Americans have the right to receive fundamental instruction about the consumer marketplace and their rights and responsibilities in that marketplace. This right provides individuals with access to education on consumer economics in their early years and throughout their lifetimes as new laws and regulations are developed. The right to service. Consumers have the right of timely access to products or services, regardless of individual or group background. This right is less well defined than the other five and is often detailed more clearly in state regulations.

Along with individual rights in the marketplace, consumers have responsibilities that they must uphold. The two core consumer responsibilities are ■

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To seek and use valid information about consumer products and services. This responsibility requires the consumer to access and utilize available information as a result of the right to be informed. To become knowledgeable and to take part as informed citizens in efforts to improve the marketplace. This responsibility requires consumers to participate in the marketplace and, when their rights have been violated, to act on their right to be heard.

Companies providing products and services most often address consumer rights and responsibilities through guarantees or warranties. A guarantee or warranty is a statement made by the provider of a product or service assuring that it will meet a certain specification in condition, quality, or accuracy. The informed consumer is responsible for reviewing a guarantee or warranty statement prior to purchase. Recalls are also used either voluntarily or as a result of court decision to ensure consumer safety. A product recall is instituted when a particular product has been identified as posing a hazard to consumers. A recall may involve replacement of specific components of a product, replacement of the total product, or financial reimbursement.

Consumer Fraud Consumer fraud is a prevalent problem in the United States. A 2004 report from the Federal Trade Commission (the government agency charged with protecting consumers against unfair, deceptive, or fraudulent practices) indicates that nearly 25 million adults in the U.S. are impacted by fraud each year. Consumer fraud occurs when the seller of a product or service knowingly makes false statements, misrepresents important facts, or omits facts that are important to the decision-making process of the consumer. In consumer fraud, the consumer believes the information provided by the seller and suffers damages as a result of relying on this information. The table below discusses types of fraud or theft identified by the Federal Trade Commission or the New York State Attorney General as most prevalent or damaging to consumers. Type of Fraud or Theft

Characteristics

Advance Fee Loan Scam

According to the FTC, this is the most frequently reported type of fraud and involves a consumer paying a fee to a seller in order to receive a loan or credit card. These fees are prohibited by the FTC, yet approximately 4.5 million consumers make these payments without receiving the promised loan or credit card each year.

Buyers’ Club Membership

This type of fraud involves a consumer being billed for a membership in a club or buyers guide publication without agreeing to join the club or pay for the publication. Approximately 4 million U.S. consumers are affected by membership club fraud each year.

Credit Card Insurance or Credit Repair

These two forms of fraud impact between 2 and 3 million consumers each year. Credit card insurance fraud involves a seller claiming that the purchaser will face grave financial risk if the credit card is stolen or misused. Federal law, however, limits consumer liability in this event, making the insurance unnecessary. Credit repair fraud involves the consumer paying the seller to remove negative information from a credit report or to establish a new credit report using information that misrepresents the consumer. These forms of credit repair are both illegal.

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Type of Fraud or Theft

Characteristics

Free Prize

Almost 2 million Americans each year are enticed to pay a fee or make a purchase to a seller to receive a “free” prize. In these cases, the prize either does not materialize or is not as promised by the seller.

Internet Services

Another 2 million Americans are billed for services over the Internet that they did not agree to purchase.

Pyramid Schemes

A pyramid scheme involves the selling of a franchise or distributorship to others. The consumer purchases the franchise, and a profit goes to prior sellers. The consumer then needs to sell multiple franchise units and hope that there are enough purchasers left in the market so that he or she may also make a future profit. This process is illegal because there is not an actual product or service being sold. Approximately 1.5 million Americans report being cheated by a pyramid scheme each year.

Long Distance Telephone Slamming

Although this type of fraud is regulated by the Federal Communications Commission, the FTC reports almost 14 million Americans experienced unauthorized changes in long distance services.

Affinity Fraud

Affinity fraud is a growing problem in New York State and across the U.S. This type of fraud is committed when a seller, who is an apparent member of a specific group (ethnic, religious, career, or community-based), attempts to gain investor trust and confidence based on this group membership. Funds are transferred to the seller, but the investment does not occur, or the consumer fails to see anticipated gains promised by the seller. This scheme may also involve a seller who is not a member of the group but sells to a few prominent members of the group and pitches the investment to new consumers, using the members’ names.

Identity Theft

Identity theft occurs when an individual uses the personal information, such as a social security number and birth date, of another person to obtain credit, make unauthorized purchases, or open bank accounts. According to the New York State Attorney General, about 40,000 people have their identities stolen each year, severely damaging their credit records and reputations.

Consumers can be educated about ways to avoid becoming victims of fraud. The following guidelines are a necessary component of consumer education, and teachers can help students understand these tips. ■ ■

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Realize that nothing is free. If it sounds too good to be true, it probably is. Be wary of sellers who contact you by telephone, Internet, or on the street. You should be the one to initiate the purchasing conversation. Be aware of the high-pressure sales pitch. You don’t need to buy NOW or make quick decisions. Never give out your personal information (credit card number, checking account number, social security number, birth date) for verification or identification purposes. Destroy receipts (ATM, credit card) so that your information cannot be obtained by someone else. Do not pay for something that is “free.” Never send cash through the mail. Keep items with personal information in a safe place. Monitor your credit card statement and credit report.

Despite their best efforts to avoid becoming victims of fraud, many individuals will fall into this trap. Too often, consumers are embarrassed about being taken advantage of and do not seek recourse for their losses. Individuals should act

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on their concerns so that others do not also fall victim to the fraud; this is one of the primary consumer responsibilities described earlier in this section. The following steps are recommended for consumers who feel they have been treated unfairly or fraudulently. 1. Contact the seller and attempt to resolve your dispute in a timely fashion. If you fail to complain within a certain time period, the company may not accept responsibility. 2. Document your complaint in a letter to the seller. Clearly identify your concern and explain how you would like the issue resolved. This lets the company know that you are serious. 3. Document your attempts to contact the seller and maintain original copies of your receipt and other information pertaining to the complaint. 4. If the seller does not respond to your satisfaction, consider contacting an organization or agency for further assistance. The Better Business Bureau, National Fraud Information Center, Federal Trade Commission, local Postal Inspector, and state Attorney General are possible sources, depending on the jurisdiction of the alleged fraud.

Major Purchase Decisions When it comes to making decisions about major purchases such as a car, major appliance, or home, a number of factors need to be considered and effective strategies employed to get the best deal. Youth need to learn the art of shopping; one of the most effective strategies is comparison shopping. Individuals can save a great deal of money with very little time investment if they compare price and quality of products or services between various sellers. The Internet offers a distinct advantage because consumers can now comparison shop without leaving home even if they don’t end up buying on-line, gathering important information to help them make their purchasing decisions. When purchasing a new product like an automobile, it is helpful to identify the dealer cost. This will cut back on the negotiation process, or haggling for the best price. The dealer cost can often be obtained in publications such as Consumer Reports or New Car Price Guides, or from on-line resources. To finance a major purchase, young or naïve buyers are often coerced into focusing on the monthly payment rather than the overall cost of the item, which can lead to exorbitant overcharges. Many rent-to-own companies make their business from this type of financing. It is best to negotiate the final price first and determine the monthly payments afterward. Another cost-saving decision is to buy “gently used” goods. Although a used product can save the consumer money, the consumer should have the product thoroughly examined to ensure that it is in quality condition and will work effectively. This is especially true for the purchase of automotive or other mechanical equipment. Many American consumers take pride in owning “name brand” goods that have been highly advertised. Usually, these products can be purchased with the same level of quality for less money under a generic brand. Housing decisions are a special category of major purchase because of all of the options available. Individuals can rent or lease a housing unit or purchase an apartment, condo, or house. Housinglink, an organization dedicated to providing individuals with affordable housing information, offers the following tips to housing seekers: ■ ■ ■

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Examine your credit history and correct any mistakes. Banks and rental agencies will review your credit history. Determine what you can afford to pay each month for housing and what type of downpayment you have available. Identify resources to help you look for housing, including realtors, news listings, and so on. Negotiate any fees before signing an agreement with a realtor or broker. Determine whether you are eligible for housing programs or grants. Visit the location and verify the cost of comparable units or homes in the area before signing the contract.

Federal and state governments have regulations regarding fair housing. Most of these laws cover issues of race, sex, religion, familial status, disability, national origin, and color. Individuals who feel they have experienced discrimination in their efforts to secure housing should contact local fair housing agencies or an attorney.

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Budget and Money Management The central responsibility of personal resource management is budgeting. A budget is simply a record or schedule of income and expenses. Living on a budget helps an individual or family know where money goes, plan future spending, and establish credit. Although budgeting and money management make use of some very basic mathematical skills, these skills are often not practiced effectively by the average American. By about third grade, students should be proficient in the arithmetic strategies required for money management, including addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division. Most experts recognize that the first step to budgeting is identifying personal monthly net income. This is the cash available each month after taxes and typically includes salary from all jobs as well as other regular sources of income (e.g., interest, child support, alimony, social security, and so on). Once you have identified your net income, it is necessary to identify regular living expenses. Living expenses are the items you must pay for or purchase regularly to survive and may include a mortgage or rent payment, utility payments, groceries, child care, health care, and transportation, among others. It is also important to consider less-essential and entertainment-type expenses such as eating out, having fitness club membership, getting hair styling, and taking vacations. Although these may not be survival-based expenses, they are part of the societal and cultural expectations in the United States. These costs are flexible and may be reduced if necessary. It is usually best to get a general average of income and expenses over a three-month period to determine an accurate budget, as certain months may have unusually high or low expenses or income. Once these factors have been identified, the budget can be evaluated by subtracting expenses from income. Ideally, income is greater than expenses, leaving additional money that can be utilized for other purposes. When expenses are greater than income, it is necessary for the individual to reduce any discretionary spending (e.g., fewer vacations or club memberships) or increase income (e.g., taking on a second job). It is important to live by the adage “Don’t spend it if you don’t have it.” Once the budget is balanced with enough income to cover expenses, other factors should be considered. Experts call for money management strategies such as reducing high-interest debt (i.e., credit card or loan payments) and establishing an emergency fund to cover expenses in the event of an unpredictable loss of income (e.g., illness or home repair). Investment also becomes an issue when, and if, an individual or family has the means. Investments are intended to help the individual achieve and retain financial security in the long range. The following table illustrates typical investment opportunities. Type of Investment

Characteristics

Annuities

An annuity is an asset that pays a fixed amount to the bearer for a specified period of time. Annuities are highly predictable and have relatively low risk for the investor; for this reason, they are less likely to have high payouts.

Bonds

A bond is a fixed interest asset typically issued by a government, bank, or other financial entity. A bond pays the bearer a fixed amount at the end of a specific term. Bonds are highly predictable and have relatively low risk for the investor; for this reason, they are less likely to have high payouts.

Stocks

A stock is a portion of the ownership of a company. The percentage of ownership is determined by the number of stocks available. Stock ownership gives an individual a stake in the company and its profits. Depending on market volatility, a stock can be very risky; it may also pay relatively larger profits than other types of investments.

Mutual Funds

A mutual fund is an asset that allows a group of individuals to invest their money together for a common objective. Typically, a mutual fund includes a variety of well-researched stocks and bonds. The mutual fund is less risky than a stock investment because it is balanced by the diversity of assets in the fund.

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Type of Investment

Characteristics

College Saving Plans

A college savings plan is an asset that allows a parent or guardian to contribute pre-tax dollars to the future college costs of a minor. Governmental guidelines define the amount that may be contributed annually to a plan, and the asset must be used for higher education costs if it is to remain tax free. Depending on the amount of contribution and the investment market gains over time, a student may have the costs of college covered by the plan.

Retirement Accounts

A retirement account is a tax deferred asset designed to increase financial security in retirement years. Much like the college savings plan, individuals contribute a certain amount to the account, and the money is tax deferred until dispersed in retirement. The investment depends on the amount of contribution and the investment gains in the market over time.

Futures and Options

An option gives the bearer the right, but not obligation, to buy or sell a particular asset at a particular price within a specific time period. A future requires the bearer to purchase an asset at a particular price within a specific time period. A future is much riskier than an option because of the obligation to purchase.

Individuals willing and able to invest for a more stable financial future should consider the risks and payouts for each type of investment. Investment decisions should be made based on the discretionary funds available in a personal budget, a clear set of financial goals, and comfort with the level of risk involved.

Credit There are two common definitions of the term credit that may significantly impact the financial status of an individual. First, credit refers to a financial obligation in which a borrower agrees to repay a lender at a later date. This type of credit typically involves interest and/or a fee paid to the lender for the borrowing opportunity. Interest is usually determined as a percentage of the amount borrowed. Another form of credit refers to the borrowing capacity of an individual. This capacity is determined by the credit history or past borrowing and repayment practices of an individual. Good credit is established when an individual engages in borrowing activity and meets responsibilities as stipulated in the lending agreement. Poor credit is the result of failure to meet the obligations set forth by the lender and agreed to in the borrowing process. The two forms of credit work hand in hand. Individuals wishing to enter into borrowing agreements are evaluated by lenders based on their credit histories. A good credit report increases the likelihood of loan approval and leads to lower interest rates and lender fees, whereas a poor credit report results in the denial of loan applications or in higher interest rates and lender fees.

Insurance A final consideration in personal and family financial resource management is the issue of protecting assets. Asset protection usually comes in the form of insurance. Insurance agents or brokers offer a promise of compensation for specific future losses in exchange for periodic payments called premiums. Insurance is typically secured on large ticket items such as homes or cars. Certain types of homeowner and auto insurance are required by law, while others are purchased on a voluntary basis. Health insurance covers certain costs associated with illness including doctor visits, medical testing, hospital stay, surgery, and prescription drugs. Life insurance and disability insurance are also important financial protections, as they cover a family for the loss of income when a provider passes away or is unable to earn an income.

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Review Questions 1. “Let the buyer beware” is a phrase used to describe which consumer task? A. B. C. D.

The right to service The right to be informed The responsibility to use valid information about a product or service The responsibility to take part in efforts to improve the marketplace

The correct answer is C. Buyer beware, or caveat emptor, refers to a consumer’s responsibility to protect him- or herself in the marketplace. This can be done by accessing and using the information provided about a product or service. Although consumers have rights, these rights will not protect against problems on which they have not made the effort to become well-informed. 2. Comparison shopping refers to what consumer action? A. B. C. D.

Finding the seller with the best price on a comparable product Negotiating with a seller to reduce a purchase price Contacting a local agency to report unfair or fraudulent treatment by a seller Reviewing a product warranty prior to purchase

The correct answer is A. Comparison shopping is the act of identifying the best price for a product. The act of negotiating or haggling over a price typically takes place after an individual has compared prices among various providers. Reporting the incidence of fraud would not take place until after the transfer of funds or purchase has been made. A consumer may compare product warranties while shopping for a specific good, but comparison shopping is usually directed at finding the best price. 3. Which of the following terms defines the borrowing capacity of an individual? A. B. C. D.

Mutual fund Credit Insurance Debt

The correct answer is B. One definition of the term credit is the borrowing capacity of an individual. Mutual funds are a type of investment. Insurance is designed to protect investment. Debt refers to outstanding expenses. The amount of debt may impact an individual’s borrowing capacity but is not the only element taken into consideration when assessing credit.

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Objective 0035 Understands basic principles of career development; applies processes and skills for seeking and maintaining employment; and demonstrates knowledge of workplace skills, behaviors, and responsibilities The following topics are covered under the subject area of Objective 0035: ■

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Demonstrating knowledge of the relationship of personal interests, skills, and abilities to successful employment and recognizing the relationship between the changing nature of work and educational requirements Recognizing factors to consider when evaluating careers and applying procedures for conducting career research Demonstrating knowledge of steps involved in searching for a job and recognizing factors affecting the success of a job search (e.g., writing an effective letter of application or preparing a resume) Applying skills and procedures for job interviews (e.g., personal appearance and demeanor, effective communication during an interview) Applying knowledge of effective communication principles, work etiquette, interpersonal skills, and techniques for handling stress or conflict in the workplace Recognizing rights and responsibilities in relation to employment (e.g., protection from harassment and discrimination and recognition of employer’s performance expectations)

Career Development Older elementary students experience a number of changes, both cognitive and social. They are becoming more abstract in their thinking capacity while also developing an identity, self-concept, and social skills. This time period is critical to the development of life goals, including career plans, because the concepts they acquire and the decisions they make at this stage have a lasting impact on their futures. According to Wendy Schwartz of Columbia University’s Teachers College, by the time they reach adolescence, many students have limited their career aspirations based on inaccurate beliefs or information including stereotypes about gender and occupation (ERIC document 401 351). Schwartz also documents the additional challenges faced by students from low socioeconomic backgrounds who are less likely to consider how the choices they make in middle and high school courses may limit their career options in the future. In New York State, elementary teachers are expected to combat these issues by providing a foundation in career development, including an understanding of how to connect personal interests, skills, and abilities with specific career options; how to evaluate career fields; how to conduct the job search; how to behave effectively in the workplace; and the typical rights and responsibilities of employees. This section will illustrate some of the core content that teachers should be knowledgeable of to promote this understanding in their students.

Matching Interests, Skills, and Abilities to Career Experts in the field of career counseling tend to agree that any successful job search begins with a self-assessment of skills, abilities, interests, and values. These factors help individuals identify careers that match their goals. Although elementary students may just be developing an awareness of these characteristics in themselves, it is important for teachers to help them reflect on skills, abilities, and interests so students can make important, early career-related decisions. An interest is typically defined as an activity that arouses curiosity, attention, and enthusiasm in an individual. Students can track their interests by logging the activities they choose to do in their free time. Enduring themes may arise through consistent free-choice behaviors that persist over time. An analysis of favorite times and dreams may also help in the identification of interest areas. Some interest areas are less marketable than others (e.g., water skiing vs. reading), but with some effort, many interests can be connected to a career area.

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A skill is something that an individual can do well. Skills may include behavioral competencies such as technical writing or personal qualities such as an ability to work cooperatively with others. Lawrence K. Jones, professor Emeritus from North Carolina State University, has developed a website called Career Key as a reference and guide for individuals in need of career guidance (www.careerkey.org). Dr. Jones notes 17 foundation skills for the twenty first-century workplace as identified from several government commission reports. These skills can be broken into four groups: basic skills, thinking skills, people skills, and personal qualities. Basic skills include core academic or curricular behaviors (such as reading, writing, mathematics, speaking, and listening) taught in schools. Thinking skills are less subject-specific but have recently become part of the daily component of schools. Thinking skills include creative thinking, problem solving, decision making, and visualization. With the increased implementation of cooperative learning strategies in the classroom, people skills are also enhanced. People skills include social, negotiation, leadership, teamwork, and cultural diversity skills. The “back to the basics” movement may seem to have quelled the development of personal qualities in schools, but opportunities to enhance these skills in the classroom do exist. Personal qualities include self-esteem, self-management, and responsibility. The following table provides further detail on each of the foundation skills. Skill

Related Behaviors

Reading

Identify relevant details and facts from text Locate information using books, graphs, computers, etc. Judge accuracy of reading material

Writing

Write ideas coherently in letters and reports Use proper grammar, spelling, and punctuation Edit and revise written materials

Mathematics

Use numbers to solve problems Understand tables, graphs, diagrams, and charts

Speaking

Communicate ideas clearly Use language, tone, and gestures appropriate to a specific audience

Listening

Comprehend the speaking of another, with attention to tone and gesture Respond to the speaker to demonstrate understanding

Creative Thinking

Combine information and ideas in unique ways Use imagination

Problem Solving

Identify a problem Create, implement, and evaluate potential solutions

Decision Making

Weigh pros and cons Choose from alternatives Implement decisions

Visualization

Picture and understand an object from a blue print, drawing, or sketch

Social

Be understanding, friendly, and respectful of others Show interest in what others think, say, or do

Negotiation

Comprehend multiple positions on an issue Identify common goals in a conflict situation Suggest reasonable compromises

Leadership

Motivate others through competence and honesty Communicate beliefs to justify a position

Teamwork

Work effectively with others Contribute to a group effort

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Skill

Related Behaviors

Cultural Diversity

Work effectively with individuals from different backgrounds Avoid stereotyping Help others make cultural adjustments as needed

Self-Esteem

Understand personal beliefs and how they impact behavior Identify potentially harmful beliefs and change them when necessary

Self-Management

Set reasonable personal goals and monitor progress toward these goals

Responsibility

Persist at tasks even if they are unpleasant Demonstrate optimism, honesty, and high quality work

Adapted from the work of Lawrence Jones.

Although they are sometimes treated differently in the career counseling field, abilities are very similar, if not identical, to skills. Work-relevant abilities are often measured in career inventories used to help individuals assess career plans. The following table illustrates the abilities typically assessed on career inventories. Ability

Definition

Reading

Ability to comprehend factual reading material

Numerical

Ability to do and apply arithmetic accurately and quickly

Language Usage

Ability to recognize and correct usage mistakes in language (punctuation, grammar, etc.)

Scientific

Ability to understand scientific laws

Spatial Perception

Ability to mentally manipulate a drawing of an object

Mechanical

Ability to understand the workings of simple mechanical structures and comprehend everyday mechanical laws

Clerical

Ability to quickly and accurately perform clerical tasks such as sorting, recording, researching, filing, and so on.

Adapted from the work of Dale Prediger of ACT, Inc.

A personal assessment of interests, skills, and abilities will assist individuals of all ages in making career-related decisions that will enable them to enter fields in which they can be both productive and satisfied.

Evaluating Careers Many of the tasks associated with researching and evaluating career fields are not developmentally appropriate for elementary-level students. Reviewing trade journals, networking, and contacting professional associations, for example, are steps that are best taken by individuals on the verge of entering the work world. There are, however, a number of strategies that younger students may implement that will help them in career planning. Randall Hansen, Ph.D., author of the biweekly advice column The Career Doctor, suggests the following career research strategies that can be performed by elementary level children: ■ ■

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Review books about specific careers. Search websites, like the U.S. Department of Labor’s Bureau of Labor Statistics (www.bls.gov), that identify information on what workers do on the job, what the working conditions are like, the education or training needed, expected earnings or salary, and the future job prospects within a given field. Talk with family, teachers, and neighbors about potential careers. This is the start of networking. Explore current job openings (help-wanted ads), read job descriptions, and learn requirements. Job shadow or volunteer. Take a Child to Work Day is one strategy that many elementary schools promote.

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Once they have completed the initial career research, students can implement the Gap Analysis Technique to help them determine what steps they need to take to ensure their future viability in a specific career field. The Gap Analysis Technique requires the individual to complete the following steps: 1. 2. 3. 4.

List job responsibilities, tasks, functions and duties. Identify the training, education, experience, skills, and knowledge required for the job. Become familiar with industry-specific keywords or buzzwords. After documenting this analysis of the job field, students should note differences between current status and job requirements.

This gap analysis will help even young students identify future goals and plan accordingly. (See www.collegegrade.com/ jobsearch for more information on the Gap Analysis Technique.)

The Job Search Although most elementary-aged students are a long way from completing an actual job search, they can benefit from learning about the practices associated with the search, including resume and cover letter writing and the interview process. Making students aware of these job search practices addresses some of the New York State Learning Standards associated with English/Language Arts, including writing and speaking for understanding and the standards for Career Development. This section provides helpful insights into developing the resume and cover letter and insights into the job interview. The resume is a brief summary of an individual’s education, experience, accomplishments, and skills and is usually the first thing that an employer reviews when considering applicants for a position. The table below identifies the specific sections of an effective resume and provides details to help develop each section. Resume Component

Description

Contact Information

This is the introductory section of the resume and includes name, address, telephone, e-mail address, Web site address, etc. Applicants should keep this section professional by avoiding the use of nicknames or unprofessional e-mail addresses. Web site addresses should be included only if they pertain directly to the position.

Objective or Summary

This section tells the employer what position the applicant is applying for or what area of work being sought. This information may be listed in the cover letter, but these items are sometimes separated, so it is helpful to have the objective listed on the resume. An example of an objective statement might be: To apply my organizational and research skills to an entry-level, clerical position in the legal field.

Education

This section lists the education and training that an individual has received in preparation for the position. Educational information should be presented in reverse chronological order, with more recent education listed first. For each entry, the degree, major, and institution should be identified. GPA or academic honors may also be listed if they are advantageous.

Work Experience

Professional experiences related to the position should be listed in this section in reverse chronological order. Each entry should include the title of the position, name of the organization, location, dates of employment, a summary of the responsibilities, and specific skills and accomplishments.

Other Information

This section highlights additional information that may be helpful in securing the job interview. Special skills or competencies, honors and awards, and extra-curricular activities are some examples of entries listed in the Other section.

References

References provided in this section are those individuals willing to speak on your behalf to potential employers. Teachers and past employers often serve as professional references because they can speak to your education, experience, and skills. References should be contacted by the applicant prior to being provided to the employer. In most cases, this section is completed with a statement to the effect that references will be provided on request.

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The resume reflects the candidate and how he or she can be expected to function in the workplace. In most cases, the employer is searching for ways to reduce the applicant pool, using the resume as a sorting tool. It is for this reason that the resume should conform to a specific style, using white or off-white 81⁄2 x 11-inch paper, with text printed on one side only. Spelling, grammar, and punctuation should be 100% accurate, and the resume should be clean and professional with no fancy typeface, graphics, or shading. The cover letter accompanies the resume in the application packet. It should serve as a complement, providing more of a personal interpretation of the factual information included in the resume. There are generally three types of cover letters. The first type is the application letter. This form is used when there is a known position or opening for which an individual is applying. The second type of cover letter is known as the prospecting letter because it is sent to organizations that an individual would like to work for and inquires about possible positions. The last is the networking letter, which is sent to individuals who may be able to provide assistance with the job search. The biggest mistake that individuals make when it comes to drafting a cover letter is to create a form letter instead of individually designing each cover letter with information specific to the position or employer. Experts in the field of career development recommend that the following issues be addressed in the cover letter: ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■

State the specific purpose of the letter. Do not make the reader guess what you want. Tell how you learned of the position or organization. Identify specific background experiences that may set you apart from other candidates. Provide any information requested in the job posting or announcement. Reflect affective and dispositional traits that are relevant, such as your attitude, personality, and enthusiasm. Indicate how you will follow up the letter. Will you make a phone call or send an e-mail?

The cover letter needs to convince the reader to review the resume. Like the resume, it should be word-processed and printed on the same type of paper. It needs to be well-written without grammatical or spelling errors and should follow the standard conventions of a business letter. If the resume and cover letter are successful, the typical next step in the hiring process is the job interview. The job interview involves very specific communication skills, both overt and subtle. Experts recommend the following strategies or tips for the quality job interview: 1. Preparation • Research the organization and know the requirements for the position you are interviewing for. • Review your resume and your qualifications for the position. • Practice interviewing with a trusted friend. • Prepare questions about the position and organization to ask in the interview. • Plan your travel to the interview site and arrive well before the scheduled interview time. 2. Appearance • Dress appropriately. • Be conservative in grooming (hair, makeup, cologne, etc.). • Do not chew gum, smoke, or partake in other habits that may displease a potential employer. 3. Interview Behaviors • Learn the name of your interviewer and shake hands as you meet. • Listen carefully to each question, making notes of details if needed. • Answer each question promptly and concisely. • Demonstrate enthusiasm for the position and organization. • Ask questions about the position and organization. • Use good manners, including speaking proper English and thanking the interviewer at the end of the meeting.

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4. Test (if required) • Follow the instructions carefully. • Determine if there are time limits, and budget time accordingly. • Read each question thoroughly but do not over-interpret. • Respond clearly and legibly. 5. Post Interview • Send a timely thank you note to the interviewer and anyone who participated in the interview process. Certain interview questions are considered “off-limits” because of federal and state law and social etiquette. These generally include questions about age, marital status, citizenship, and disability. If the interviewer missteps and asks or infers a question in one of these areas, it is best for the interviewee to redirect the conversation to let the individual know that the issue will not interfere with performance of the job responsibilities.

Personal or Social Factors in the Workplace Once a position has been secured, an individual must demonstrate a number of other skills and behaviors to be effective in the workplace. Workplace etiquette, interpersonal skills, communication skills, and stress/conflict management are necessary competencies for employees in today’s work world. Many of these skills are developed by students as they work with their peers in the classroom. Teachers with effective classroom management strategies promote the positive personal and social behaviors that students will need in their future careers. Workplace etiquette requires individuals to perform behaviors that are socially acceptable in the office. A quick glance at these behaviors will reveal that they are very similar to many of the behaviors expected of students in a classroom. Teachers often have one or two classroom rules dealing with respect. Respect of property is one aspect of workplace etiquette. In the classroom, this means respecting textbooks, desks and other materials, while in the workplace it means respecting the office space such as copy machine, coffee pot, computer, etc. Marjorie Brody, author of “Living Together in the Workplace” (www.princetonreview.com), offers some equipment etiquette rules such as ■ ■

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If it’s empty, fill it. This rule corresponds to the coffee pot, copier toner, copier paper tray, etc. If it’s broken, fix it or at least get it fixed. If a machine breaks down, it is your responsibility to fix it or contact someone who can. If you don’t know how to use it properly, learn. When employees misuse equipment, it is likely to break down or work less effectively. When you are finished with it, make sure it is ready for the next person. Reset the copy machine, clean off the break room table, etc.

Teachers and office managers also promote respect when it comes to relating to peers and coworkers. These social responsibilities include being patient, avoiding public accusations or criticisms of coworkers, minimizing interruptions to the work of others, and being conscious of the volume of voice, radio, and other equipment. Students and employees also need to be aware of the type of language that is acceptable in the classroom or workplace. Foul or unprofessional language and slang are not appropriate in either setting. In addition to being a central component of the English/Language Arts and Career Development Learning Standards in New York State, effective communication principles are also important for dealing with classroom management challenges. Teachers who promote communication skills are not only meeting curricular requirements and improving the classroom climate but are also preparing their students for the work world, where they will have to listen and speak effectively with coworkers, administrators, and employees. Experts in the communication principles field note that almost every major activity in the workplace (from planning and goal setting to carrying out and evaluating tasks) requires these skills. The communication process requires three components: a message sender, a message receiver, and a message. Factors related to each of these components can improve communication.

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An effective transmission has occurred when the message being sent is most similar to the message received. The message sender or speaker must seek to be clear and precise, saying exactly what is intended in a way that is most easily understood by the message receiver. The speaker must also watch out for unintentional communications that involve interpretation of such things as tone of voice and inflection, body language, facial expression, and timing. The message receiver or listener is just as important as the speaker in the communication process. Active listening behaviors include showing interest in the message, minimizing distractions, avoiding evaluation or judgment, and keeping a positive attitude toward the speaker and the message. Feedback is also an essential part of the communication process. Simply sending the message does not ensure that it was received. Requesting feedback, perhaps by allowing the message receiver to summarize or ask questions, allows the speaker to evaluate how well the message has been interpreted. Stress and conflict management have become essential skills in today’s workplace. In its earliest conceptualizations, stress was not always considered a hazard. Hans Selye, a founding father in stress research, suggested that stress could be a motivational component to task initiation and completion or could be detrimental if it shuts down the individual’s functioning. Selye felt that stress was interpreted by the individual and that its effects were dependent on how each person handled it. The more recent work of individuals such as Richard Lazarus defines stress in a more negative fashion; in these views, stress is experienced when a person perceives that “demands exceed the personal and social resources the individual is able to mobilize.” The fight or flight response is a common and natural reaction to stress; in a stressful situation, hormones that increase heart rate and blood pressure are released, improving the power to important muscles. This enhances the individual’s ability to either stay and respond to the stressful situation (fight) or quickly depart from the situation (flight). Although this type of response was effective in earlier times when humans were in constant conflict with the environment in an effort to stay alive, it is no longer acceptable in modern times, when individuals are expected to respond in logical, rational, and professional ways to workplace conflicts. Imagine the employee who challeges a coworker or boss to a fight or runs out of the office when faced with a stressful situation. The following table describes stress management skills that are more effective in the workplace. Stress Management Skill

Examples

Action-oriented skills involve the individual confronting the problem leading to the stressful situation or changing the environment in which the stress is taking place.

Using effective communication strategies to deal with a challenging coworker or seeking a transfer within the organization are examples of this type of stress-management.

Emotionally-oriented skills involve the individual changing his or her interpretation of the situation and feelings associated with it, when the power to change the situation does not exist.

Introspection, journaling, speaking with a trusted colleague, counseling, and reflection are strategies that help individuals reframe their interpretations and feelings about a stressful situation.

Acceptance-oriented skills are implemented when the individual has no power to change the situation or control emotions associated with the stressor. These skills involve behaviors to deal with the stress.

Exercise, breathing techniques, and yoga are some of the ways that individuals combat stress when they cannot control the situation or their emotional responses to the situation.

Rights and Responsibilities in the Workplace The rights of individuals can be jeopardized at any time in the hiring process or during employment. Employee rights infringement can range from unfair or illegal interview questions to sexual harassment. It is therefore important for employees and employers to be readily aware of their rights and responsibilities in the workplace. A primary employee right related to personal safety was legally granted in the Occupational Safety and Health Act (OSHA) of 1970. OSHA has developed a set of standards that organizations must comply with to guarantee that the workplace is free of serious, recognized hazards. Specifically, OSHA grants employees the right to training from the employer

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about chemicals and hazardous materials that are present in the work environment and how to protect themselves from harm. It grants workers the right to information from the employer about injuries, illnesses, and job hazards. One way companies document this information is through a Log and Summary of Occupational Injuries and Illnesses, which employees may access at a reasonable time and in a reasonable manner. In addition, OSHA provides many other employee rights, including the right to request action to correct hazards or violations, file a complaint, and be involved in workplace inspections. Employees also have responsibilities under the OSHA regulations. They are required to read the postings at the jobsite regarding potential hazards, comply with OSHA standards, follow all lawful employer safety and health policies (including wearing protective equipment when necessary), report hazardous conditions to a supervisor, and report job-related injuries and illness to the employer, seeking prompt treatment as needed. Another employee right was granted under the Family and Medical Leave Act (FMLA). Under this act, employers with 50 or more employees within a 75 mile radius must provide up to 12 weeks unpaid leave to individuals who have been employed by them for at least 12 months (at a minimum of 25 hours per week) for the following reasons: ■

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Birth, adoption, or foster care. New parents or foster parents may take leave within one year of a child’s birth or placement in the home. Employee’s serious health condition. Workers who require hospitalization, have chronic health problems, or are unable to perform normal activities for more than three days while under a doctor’s treatment are able to take leave. Family member’s serious health condition. Workers may take leave to care for ill parents, spouses, and children.

According to FMLA regulations, eligible employees are entitled to 12 weeks of unpaid leave in any 12-month period for the above listed reasons. When the leave is over, the employer must reinstate the employee to the position held before the leave. FMLA provisions also document worker responsibilities. If the leave is foreseeable (such as the birth of a child), the employee is required to give 30 days’ notice. The employer may also require proof of the conditions for requesting the leave. This may involve documentation from a doctor regarding the diagnosis, duration of the condition, and treatment prescribed. Workplace harassment is generally identified as offensive or threatening behavior directed at an employee or group of employees that makes the workplace unpleasant and intimidating and interferes with job performance. To qualify as harassment, the behavior must be unwelcome and unsolicited. Harassment is often focused on specific employees on the basis of sex, cultural or racial background, or disability; for this reason, the Civil Rights Act of 1964 is largely considered to be the federal regulation prohibiting harassment in the workplace, although many additional legislative acts have been enacted since the Civil Rights Act to prevent discrimination of employees. There are many forms of harassment, including physical, psychological, and sexual. Examples of harassing behavior may include ■ ■ ■ ■

■

the open display of offensive pictures or written material. offensive physical contact, language, or gestures. threatening or offensive phone calls, messages, or e-mails. overt or subtle suggestion that an employee must submit to an unwelcome behavior or face a negative employment consequence. unjustified comments about an employee’s work.

The most recognized form of harassment in the workplace is sexual harassment, which involves either the threat of adverse employment action if an employee does not submit to unwelcome sexual conduct (quid pro quo) or the establishment of a hostile work environment wherein an employee is faced with sexual comments or physical touching that is inappropriate and derogatory.

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Employers are in violation of an employee’s rights if they enable a harassing workplace environment to exist. It is for this reason that many organizations develop policies and procedures for dealing with allegations of harassment. An employee handbook typically outlines these procedures and identifies the process an employee should follow to file a complaint and how the employer will follow up on allegations of harassment. It is the employee’s responsibility to review these policies and procedures and to act on them in the case of a perceived violation. It is important that harassment not be confused with the normal employee evaluation process or accurate feedback on work performance. Feedback about an employee’s work or work capacity that is unjustified or unwarranted may fall in the realm of harassment, but accurate feedback is part of the normal performance evaluation expected of all employees in an organization; it helps workers know what is expected of them and how to improve their performance. Employers must be very cautious when they develop performance evaluations so that employee rights are not violated. The first step in the process requires the specification of performance standards and goals. Performance standards describe the precise expectations for any worker in the organization holding a particular position. Goals are more individualized expectations tailored to specific employees to provide growth incentives. Once the performance standards and goals have been identified, they need to be shared with employees so employees understand what is expected of them and what they will need to do to receive positive evaluations. The next step in performance evaluation is to identify and implement a process for tracking employee behaviors. Supervisors may do this by maintaining a log or periodically conducting observations of their employees. The final step involves a review of the evaluation with the employee. This review typically takes place annually and may involve decisions related to job performance such as promotion/demotion, raise, firing, and so on. The evaluation should include feedback on whether each standard and goal set for the employee has been met, along with reasons to support the assessment.

Sample Questions 1. A brief, one to two page summary of an individual’s education, experience, accomplishments, and skills provided to a potential employer is known as a A. B. C. D.

cover letter. resume. application. job test.

The correct answer is B. A resume summarizes an individual’s education, experience, accomplishments, and skills for a potential employer. The cover letter may include some of this information but is meant to personalize and tailor the information to a particular position. The application may also include some of this information but is typically provided by the employer and requests additional information relevant to the organization. A job test is sometimes part of the interview process and evaluates the applicant’s competencies on a certain job-related function. 2. Which of the following is a career research strategy? A. B. C. D.

Reviewing books about particular careers Developing a resume Identifying personal interests, skills, and abilities Drafting a cover letter

The correct answer is A. Although each of the options is part of the career search process, reviewing books about particular careers is a strategy specific to the research part of the process. Developing the resume and cover letter are necessary components of the application process, and the identification of interests, skills, and abilities happens prior to the actual career field research because it enables the individual to match possible careers to personal attributes.

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3. An individual who confronts the problem leading to a stressful situation is implementing which of the following stress management skills? A. B. C. D.

Emotion oriented Acceptance oriented Action oriented Personally oriented

The correct answer is C. Action-oriented skills involve the direct confrontation of the problem or changing of the environment where the stress occurs. Emotion-oriented and acceptance-oriented skills are used when the person does not have the power to change the problem or the environment. Personally oriented skills are not recognized in the field of stress management.

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Subarea VIII: Foundations of Reading: Constructed Response An Overview of the Written Assignment for the CST Subarea VIII: Foundations of Reading: Constructed Response follows a different format from the multiple-choice section of this test. This section calls for you to write a 150—300 word response to a given task instead of choosing an answer, as in the multiple-choice section. The constructed-response assignment is taken directly from content found in Subarea I, Objective 0001 (Understand the Foundations of Reading Development) and Subarea I, Objective 0002 (Understand Skills and Strategies Involved in Reading Comprehension). The best way to study for the written part of the exam is to first look carefully at the specific examples listed in Objectives 0001 and 0002. One example in Objective 0001 calls for “defining phonological awareness and phonemic awareness, and analyzing their role in reading development.” It is helpful to review these definitions; another way to study is to turn the focus statement into a question or task and practice writing the answer. For example, analyze and explain how children’s phonological awareness and phonemic awareness play a role in their reading development. An example in Objective 0002 wants the examinee to demonstrate “knowledge of literal comprehension skills (e.g., the ability to identify the sequence of events in a text, the ability to identify explicitly stated main ideas, details, and causeand-effect patterns in a text).” You should take time to thoroughly review each topic listed and be familiar with definitions and cue words for sequencing, main ideas, details, and cause-and-effect relationships.

Writing Tips for the Written Assignment The directions for the written assignment state that your response will be based on content. However, your essay should conform to standard American English. If the response is written in a confusing and unedited version, the graders could misinterpret your key points. Therefore, it is helpful for you to use the following five-step writing process: ■ ■ ■ ■ ■

planning or generating outlining drafting editing revising

During the planning stage, begin by rewriting the task in statement form. This becomes the focus of the essay, and you can use it to prepare the outline, which will organize the response. Sometimes an outline helps to see problems, and these problems can be eliminated before spending time writing. An outline can be little more than a list of main points. Following each main point with notations of the evidence or examples can refine the outline. This strategy, in effect, groups your notes. An outline like this is often all that is needed. It is especially valuable for timed writings. Think this approach through before beginning and jot down all thoughts. This will help you to avoid rambling and moving away from the assignment. First drafts are usually preliminary attempts to put content on paper. Few writers expect their first draft to resemble a finished product. First drafts may well be a mixture of planning and improvising. Remember that writing is not a straightforward process, that even when beginning a first draft, changes may occur in the organizational plan. These changes may occur in the second draft. In this draft, paragraphs may need to be moved around, content may need to be added or eliminated, topic sentences may need to be rewritten, and the focus of the paper may need to be tightened by ensuring that paragraphs are unified and coherent. In timed writing assignments such as this, spend a few moments planning answers and noting examples and then move ahead. Graders of these assignments are looking for substance, support for the answer, and clear organization.

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After you complete the essay, edit and revise. Editing involves looking at the grammatical and mechanical content of your work. Revising means looking not only at grammar, but also the overall effect of the essay. Editing and revising ensure that the final draft is appropriate for the assignment and audience, grammatically and mechanically correct, well organized, supported, and well crafted. Good writing often comes after revision and rewriting. View responses critically in order to improve them. Use the following checklist before the final draft is written: ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■

Does my essay fulfill all parts of the assignment? Do I adequately introduce and conclude my paper? Are my paragraphs well developed, unified, and coherent? Do I use transitions between paragraphs? Are my examples, evidence, and details in the best order? Do all proper nouns and sentences begin with a capital letter? Do all sentences end with the proper punctuation marks? Are all sentences complete sentences and not fragments? Are commas used to separate items in a series? Do all subjects and verbs match? Are all words spelled correctly? Is my handwriting neat and easy to read?

Sample Directions for the Written Assignment This section of the test consists of a written assignment. You are asked to prepare a written response of approximately 150–300 words on the assigned topic. The assignment can be found on the next page. You should use your time to plan, write, review, and edit what you have written for the assignment. Read the assignment carefully before you begin to write. Think about how you will organize what you plan to write. You may use any blank space provided on the following pages to make notes, write an outline, or otherwise prepare your response. However, your score will be based solely on the response you write on the lined pages of your answer document. Your response will be evaluated on the basis on the following criteria: PURPOSE: Fulfill the charge of the assignment. APPLICATION OF CONTENT: Accurately and effectively apply the relevant knowledge and skills. SUPPORT: Support the response with appropriate examples and/or sound reasoning reflecting an understanding of the relevant knowledge and skills. Your response will be evaluated based on the content above, not on your writing ability. The final version of the response should conform to the conventions of edited American English. This should be your original work, written in your own words, and not copied or paraphrased from some other work. Be sure to write about the assigned topic. Please write legibly. You may not use any reference materials during the test. Remember to review what you have written and make any changes you think will improve your response.

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Subarea VIII: Foundations of Reading: Constructed Response

Performance Characteristics and Scoring Scale Performance Characteristics The following characteristics guide the scoring of responses to the written assignment. Purpose:

Fulfill the charge of the assignment.

Application of Content:

Accurately and effectively apply the relevant knowledge and skills.

Support:

Support the response with appropriate examples and/or sound reasoning reflecting an understanding of the relevant knowledge and skills.

Scoring Scale Score Point

Score Point Description

4

The “4” response reflects a thorough command of the relevant knowledge and skills. The response completely fulfills the purpose of the assignment by responding fully to the given task. The response demonstrates an accurate and highly effective application of the relevant knowledge and skills. The response provides strong support with high-quality, relevant examples, and/or sound reasoning.

3

The “3” response reflects a general command of the relevant knowledge and skills. The response generally fulfills the purpose of the assignment by responding to the given task. The response demonstrates a generally accurate and effective application of the relevant knowledge and skills. The response provides support with some relevant examples and/or generally sound reasoning.

2

The “2” response reflects a partial command of the relevant knowledge and skills. The response partially fulfills the purpose of the assignment by responding in a limited way to the given task. The response demonstrates a limited, partially accurate and partially effective application of the relevant knowledge and skills. The response provides limited support with few examples and/or some flawed reasoning.

1

The “1” response reflects little or no command of the relevant knowledge and skills. The response fails to fulfill the purpose of the assignment. The response demonstrates a largely inaccurate and/or ineffective application of the relevant knowledge and skills. The response provides little or no support with few, if any, examples and/or seriously flawed reasoning.

295


Sample Writing Assignment Written Assignment In the middle of an independent reading session, a third-grade student complained to her teacher, “I just read this paragraph twice, and I still don’t understand what I read!” The teacher wanted to view what was going on in this child’s mind to improve thinking while reading.

Examinee Task Using your knowledge of how to help students monitor their own comprehension as they read, explain how Think-Alouds can be used as a method of improving comprehension.

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Subarea VIII: Foundations of Reading: Constructed Response

Response to the Sample Writing Assignment Written Assignment III In the middle of an independent reading session, a third-grade student complained to her teacher, “I just read this paragraph twice, and I still don’t understand what I read!” The teacher wanted to view what was going on in this child’s mind to improve thinking while reading.

Examinee Task Using your knowledge of how to help students monitor their own comprehension as they read, explain how Think-Alouds can be used as a method of improving comprehension.

Strong Response Think-Alouds can be used to help readers improve comprehension through self-monitoring skills. Teachers show students how to use Think-Alouds by modeling the process. For example, teachers read a difficult passage out loud and explain to students how to develop visual images, verbalize predictions, or connect this new information with prior knowledge. The students follow along with the teacher to see the process in action. During modeling, teachers might also show students how to self-question. For example, teachers might say, after reading a few pages of a confusing text, “Is this a contradiction or a paradox? Let me reread some of the passages, and then I will read on to figure out the answer to my question.” While reading content material, teachers can show children how to use Think-Alouds by saying, “I want to get an overview of what this material is going to be about. Therefore, I will first look at the headings in this chapter, then I will look at any bold words, and finally I will look at pictures, graphs, charts, maps, and questions in the margins.” In addition, students can partner with other students to practice their Think-Alouds while teachers are observing them. This helps teachers assess the thought processes that students are using. Eventually, students can independently practice using Think-Alouds to monitor and increase their reading comprehension.

Scoring Explanation This response would receive a 4 because it answers all aspects of the question. It accurately and effectively explains how to help students monitor their own comprehension as they read and how Think-Alouds can be used as a method of improving comprehension. The essay provides strong support of the examinee’s knowledge and skills regarding Think-Alouds.

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PART II

PR ACTI C E TE STS

- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - CUT HERE - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

Subarea I: English Language Arts

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20

A B C D A B C D A B C D A B C D A B C D A B C D A B C D A B C D A B C D A B C D A B C D A B C D A B C D A B C D A B C D A B C D A B C D A B C D A B C D A B C D

Subarea V: Fine Arts

70 71 72 73 74 75 76

A B C D A B C D A B C D A B C D A B C D A B C D A B C D


21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40

A B C D A B C D A B C D A B C D A B C D A B C D A B C D A B C D A B C D A B C D A B C D A B C D A B C D A B C D

41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54


A B C D


55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69

A B C D A B C D A B C D A B C D A B C D A B C D A B C D A B C D A B C D A B C D A B C D A B C D A B C D A B C D A B C D

A B C D A B C D A B C D A B C D A B C D


77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86


A B C D A B C D A B C D

Subarea VII: Family/Consumer Science and Career Development

87 88 89



Subarea VIII: Foundations of Reading: Constructed-Response Assignment Use your own lined sheets of paper for this practice constructed-response assignment.

- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - CUT HERE - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

New York State Teacher Certification Examination Practice Test 1 This test contains a multiple-choice section and a section with one written assignment. You may work on the sections in any order. The multiple-choice questions on this test have four answer choices (A, B, C, and D). Read each question carefully before making your choice. Choose the one choice that best answers the question. Answer all of the questions, even if you are unsure of the answers. There are separate directions for the written assignment. When you have completed the entire test, take the time to review and to check your answers.

Subarea I: English Language Arts (0001–0008) 1. When readers anticipate a word that comes next in a sentence, based on its grammatical connection to the rest of the sentence, they are using A. B. C. D.

graphophonemic cues. semantic cues. syntactic cues. graphic cues.

2. Which of the following contributes to making a fluent reader? A. B. C. D.

practice phonemic awareness automatic decoding skills all of the above

3. Which of the following is an example of a diphthong? A. B. C. D.

truck soil pen listen

5. Which of the following is an example of a rhyme in the word TALK? A. B. C. D.

6. A fifth-grade teacher gave the members of the Literature Circle role assignments to explore their literature book. Which of the following is NOT the name of a role assignment used in a Literature Circle? A. B. C. D.

A. B. C. D.

next if because then

connector summarizer illustrator writer

7. A learning log can be a valuable tool for students because A. B.

4. The teacher in a third-grade class wants to help students see the cause-and-effect relationship in a reading passage. The teacher tells the students to look for signal words to detect cause-and-effect text structure. Which of the following is NOT a cause–and-effect signal word?

TA ALK T LK

C. D.

students can maintain an ongoing record of their daily lessons in it. students can maintain an ongoing dialogue with the teacher in it. students can maintain an ongoing dialogue with a peer in it. all of the above

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Part II: Practice Tests

8. A teacher wants to assign a writing task. The teacher asks students to choose a topic. This is which stage of the writing process? A. B. C. D.

drafting rehearsal editing revising

13. You are applying for a teaching position that you are very interested in securing. Which of the following should you do during your interview to optimize your chances of getting this position? A. B. C.

9. A second-grade teacher encourages students to publish their written work. The main reason the teacher wants the students to publish is because A. B. C.

D.

publishing encourages students to conference with teachers. publishing encourages students to activate their background knowledge. publishing encourages students to have a sense of accomplishment and to keep writing. all of the above

10. The poem, Who Wants a Cheap Rhinoceros, by Shel Silverstein, talks about all the things a rhinoceros could do around the house if it were a pet. For example, the rhinoceros could be “a moveable ring toss.” What type of poem did Shel Silverstein create? A. B. C. D.

shape persuasive metaphor personal

11. Which of the following sentences demonstrates the weakest “voice in writing”? A. B. C. D.

The girl is nice. The sweet smelling fragrance tickled the young boy’s nose. Italy is a country that is rich in history, culinary delights, and culture. Maggie made muffins while wearing her magnificent mittens.

12. The key to becoming proficient at using eye contact in order to communicate effectively is A. B. C. D.

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rewrite the text. stand while speaking. practice. sit while speaking.

D.

Maintain eye contact when speaking. Listen carefully to what the interviewer is saying. Express yourself clearly and in an organized manner. All of the above

14. Which of the following does NOT establish effective communication in a classroom? A.

B. C. D.

The teacher should speak slowly for some children who cannot process information at a fast speed. The teacher should give information in as many modalities as possible. While doing paper work, the teacher should also converse with students. The teacher should number and write down each step of the directions.

15. A sixth-grade teacher said to the class, “Write about the most challenging incident in your life.” The teacher wants the students to write a (an) A. B. C. D.

biography. autobiography. essay. memoir.

16. Which of the following is an example of onomatopoeia? A. B. C. D.

Frank fixed his fridge on Friday. Mat sat on the rat that was fat. The bee buzzed and the dog bow-wowed. None of the above.

17. Which of the following means the same as soliloquy? A. B. C. D.

dialogue monologue group conversation none of the above

New York State Teacher Certification Examination Practice Test 1

A. B. C. D.

20. The following statement is NOT true about multicultural literature.

Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs The Wizard of Oz Cinderella Beauty and the Beast

A.

19. What genre is the book Johnny Tremain by Esther Forbes?

C.

A. B. C. D.

historical fiction biography non-fiction poetry

B.

D.

Multicultural literature affirms and empowers children. Multicultural literature helps readers appreciate and celebrate the traditions that make each culture special. Multicultural literature offers hope to children who face similar dilemmas as those in the books they read. Multicultural literature only helps children view the world from their own perspective.

Subarea II: Mathematics (0009–0015) 21. The maximum area of a rectangular yard bounded by 42 meters of fencing is A. B. C. D.

120 square meters. 110 square meters. 200 square meters. 84 square meters.

22. The next number in the sequence 1, 3, 6, 10, 15, 21, . . . is A. B. C. D.

26. 25. 28. 36.

23. Which of the following are possible angle measures of an isosceles triangle? A. B. C. D.

70, 70, 30 65, 65, 50 80, 70, 30 55, 55, 60

24. Jane has canaries and ferrets as pets. They are all canaries except 3, and all ferrets except 3. The total number of pets Jane has is A. B. C. D.

3 5 6 8

25. The cost of a pizza is directly related to its size. Which pizza would cost more, the one with a radius of 5 inches or the one with a circumference of 50 inches? A. B. C. D.

They both cost the same. The one with a circumference of 50 inches. The one with a radius of 5 inches. Unable to determine from the data.

26. The definition of a parallelogram is A. B. C. D.

a quadrilateral that has all four sides of equal length. a four-sided polygon having exactly one pair of parallel sides. a four-sided polygon having exactly two pairs of parallel sides. a four-sided polygon having all right angles.

27. Julia has an average of 70 on three mathematics tests. What score must she get on the final examination, which counts as two tests, in order for her average grade to be 80? A. B. C. D.

95 90 80 100



18. The famous quotation, “There’s no place like home” comes from which of the following stories?


28. As the number of sides of a regular polygon increases, the measure of each interior angle A. B. C. D.

decreases. increases. remains the same. alternates between increasing and decreasing.

29. A Metro North commuter train leaves Poughkeepsie station traveling to Grand Central Station in New York City at an average speed of 40 miles per hour. A half an hour later, an express train leaves Poughkeepsie station and travels at an average speed of 50 miles per hour. Both trains arrive in Grand Central Station at the same time. Based on this information, calculate the distance between Poughkeepsie and New York City. A. B. C. D.

100 miles 85 miles 58 miles 92 miles

30. The sales tax in Kent, Connecticut, is 6.25%. An Internet store advertises a 10% discount on any item in that store (not including the sales tax), plus $7 shipping and handling. The total cost T for a resident of Kent, who has to pay the sales tax, as expressed in terms of the price P and the sales tax is: A. B. C. D.

T = (P – 0.1P) + .0625(0.9P + 7.00) T = 0.0625 × (0.9P + 7.00) T = 0.0625 × 0.9P + 7.00 T = 0.0625 × 0.9P – 0.1P

31. The statement “the sum of two different integers is 24, where the larger integer is twice the smaller one minus 3” is expressed as the following mathematical sentence that has a solution: A. B. C. D.

x – 3 = 24 (2x–3) + x = 24 3x –3 = 21 x + 3x = 24

32. James is four times older than Melissa. The sum of their ages is 40. The age of Melissa is A. B. C. D.

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12 15 10 8

33. The prime factorization of the number 260 is A. B. C. D.

26 × 2× 5 2 × 2 × 5 × 13 4 × 5 × 13 all of the above

34. The number 5 (the square root of five) is A. B. C. D.

an irrational number. a real number. a number that cannot be expressed as a ratio of two integers. all of the above

35. Identify the addition and multiplication properties, in the proper order, that transform the following expression on the left into the one on the right: 2 × (3 + 4) = (4 × 2) + (3 × 2) A.

B.

C. D.

distributive property followed by commutative property of multiplication and then commutative property of addition associative property followed by commutative property of multiplication and then commutative property of addition associative property followed by the distributive property commutative property of addition followed by the commutative property of multiplication

36. What percent of 80 is 12? A. B. C. D.

96 10 15 66

37. Each number in the sequence 125/126, 126/127, 128/129,130/131. . . is A. B. C. D.

larger than the pervious number. the same as the previous number. smaller than the previous number. smaller than the first number in that sequence.

38. The number 3 billion and 145 million can be written in scientific notation as A. B. C. D.

3.145 × 103 3.145 × 106 3.145 × 109 3.145 × 1012


A. B. C. D.

200 2 million 2 × 105 2 billion


39. Simplify the expression [(5 × 108) × (12 × 10–5)] ÷ (3 × 10–2) to yield which of the following results?

40. The solution to the equation 1 1 = 3 x - 2 is c7m x + 21 c 42 m 42 A.

x= 3 4

B.

x=-3 4 4 x= 3 x=-4 3

C. D.

Subarea III: Science and Technology (0016–0020) 41. If the moon were positioned three times as far from the Earth as it is now, the gravitational attraction would be A. B. C. D.

twice as great. four times as great. one-ninth as great. one-half as great.

42. “Ninety miles per hour toward the southwest” is an example of A. B. C. D.

acceleration. rate. velocity. speed.

43. At this moment, the sun is producing energy by burning A. B. C. D.

plutonium. anthracite. hydrogen. iron.

44. The first rocks that formed on the Earth must have been A. B. C. D.

sedimentary. igneous. metamorphic. limestone.

45. The flow of energy in an ecosystem A. B. C. D.

decreases by 90% at each trophic level. is a discrete amount transferred without change. transfers from plants to carnivores to herbivores. is disrupted by the decomposers.

46. The particular location of an organism in an ecosystem is its A. B. C. D.

geosphere. trophic level. ecological niche. habitat.

47. Which one of the following statements applies to ecosystems? A. B. C. D.

All organisms get their energy from the same trophic level. Ecosystems are formed from only living parts. Matter is recycled by an ecosystem. More than one species can occupy the same niche in an ecosystem.

48. Which of the following entities does not have to contain a DNA molecule? A. B. C. D.

gene zygote gamete virus



49. Exact DNA replication is made possible by A. B.

C. D.

the acidity of the cell cytoplasm eliminating mistakes. the geometry of individual base pairs allowing only one base to form a hydrogen bond with its complement base. nucleotides bonding with each other in random combinations. uracil forming two hydrogen bonds with adenine.

50. In a cell, the process of translation A. B. C. D.

transfers DNA information from the nucleus to mRNA. transfers the mRNA code to protein synthesis. transfers DNA information from the nucleus to ribosomal RNA. duplicates RNA.

51. The difference between mRNA and tRNA is that A. B. C. D.

mRNA carries the gene sequence, and tRNA translates the gene sequence. tRNA models the message, and mRNA reads the message. mRNA is inside the cell, and tRNA is outside the cell during translation. tRNA carries the codon, and mRNA carries the anticodon.

52. An anticodon is A. B. C. D.

a binary DNA code. a set of three bases on the mRNA. a set of three bases on the tRNA. an amino acid sequence.

53. The sun and the Earth both share which of the following features? A. B. C. D.

convection currents, layered structure, nuclear fusion convection currents, layered structure, nebular hypothesis convection currents, layered structure, nuclear fission convection currents, layered structure, “big splash” hypothesis

54. Feedback is common to all of the following except the A. B. C. D.

scientific method. engineering design process. global positioning system (GPS). biological homeostasis.

Subarea IV: Social Studies (0021–0026) 55. The use of muckraking to raise public awareness of social and political problems is most closely associated with the efforts of A. B. C. D.

Upton Sinclair. Huey Long. Andrew Carnegie. Nat Turner.

56. In 1896, in the Plessy v. Ferguson decision, the U.S. Supreme Court determined that A.

B.

C.

D.

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states could not prevent African Americans from voting because their grandfathers had been slaves. states could require separate accommodations for African Americans and whites as long as the accommodations were equal. Congress could take away a state’s seats in the U.S. House of Representatives if the state refused to allow African Americans to vote in Congressional elections. poll taxes could be required for voting in national elections.


A. B. C. D.

Woodrow Wilson’s decision to enter World War I William McKinley’s decision to annex the Philippines President Roosevelt’s decision to enter World War II President Truman’s decision to send aid to Turkey and Greece

58. Historians interested in understanding the impact of French imperialism would most likely study A. B. C. D.

Algeria. Russia. India. Japan.

59. Which aspect of Chinese society was most influenced by Confucianism? A. B. C. D.

patterns of land use and development social hierarchies and familial relationships patterns of urban and rural settlement religious beliefs and practices

60. Which of the following four events in world history are listed in the correct chronological order? A.

B.

C.

D.

Iranian Revolution, Russian Revolution, Chinese Communist Revolution, French Revolution French Revolution, Russian Revolution, Chinese Communist Revolution, Iranian Revolution Russian Revolution, French Revolution, Chinese Communist Revolution, Iranian Revolution French Revolution, Chinese Communist Revolution, Iranian Revolution, Russian Revolution

61. A demographer would be most interested in studying A. B. C. D.

changes in a population due to birth rate, death rate, and migration. a shared way of living among a group of people that develops over time. the spread of aspects of one group’s customs and language to another group. the changes that occur within a society’s belief system and language over time.

62. Which of the following occurs in the lithosphere? A. B. C. D.

hurricanes tornadoes volcanoes earthquakes

63. Which statement most accurately characterizes a command economy? A. B. C. D.

Prices are determined by forces of supply and demand. Businesses are owned by individuals or groups of individuals. Prices are determined by government decisions. Competition in the free market is encouraged.

64. Which of the following statements accurately compares the price elasticity of demand for gold jewelry to the price elasticity of demand for gasoline? A. B. C. D.

Gold jewelry and gasoline both have a high price elasticity of demand. Gasoline has a greater price elasticity of demand than gold jewelry. Gold jewelry has a greater price elasticity of demand than gasoline. Gold jewelry and gasoline both have a low price elasticity of demand.



57. Which is the best example of the theory of containment?


65. The Bill of Rights guarantees all of the following EXCEPT A. B. C. D.

the right to free speech. the right to a fair trial. the right to bear arms. the right to vote.

68. Use the following chart to answer the question that follows. Election of 1860 Candidates

Party

Abraham

66. Read the following excerpt from the Fourteenth Amendment and then answer the following question: “No State shall make or enforce any law which shall abridge the privileges or immunities of citizens of the United States; ... nor deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws.” The excerpt best describes which of the following constitutional rights?

Lincoln (Illinois)

Electoral Popular Vote Vote

180

1,865,593

12

1,382,713

72

848,356

39

592,906

Republican

Hannibal Hamlin (Maine) Stephen A. Douglas (Illinois)

(Northern)

Herschel V. Johnson (Georgia) John C.

Democratic Southern

Breckinridge (Ky.) Joseph Lane

(Independent) Democrat

(Oregon)

A. B. C. D.

the right to free speech the right to due process the right against self-incrimination the right against cruel and unusual punishment

67. Which situation described here illustrates the constitutional principle of checks and balances? A. B. C. D.

The president vetoes a bill passed by Congress. The president criticizes a decision of the Supreme Court. The president delivers a State of Union address. The president appoints a cabinet.

John Bell (Tennessee) Edward

Constitutional Union

Everett (Mass.)

Which of the following statements accurately describes the Election of 1860? A. B.

C. D.

Lincoln received more popular votes than all other candidates combined. The Northern Democratic candidate received more electoral votes than the Southern Democratic electoral candidates. Lincoln received more electoral votes than all other candidates combined. Stephen Douglas received more electoral votes than John Bell.

69. In the so-called Iran Contra Scandal, the Reagan administration was A. B.

C. D.

310

arming Iranian exiles to overthrow the Ayatollah Khomeini. selling weapons to the anti-American government in Iran and using the profit to aid the Contras in Nicaragua. training Nicaraguan Contras to invade Iran to rescue American hostage. selling weapons to the Contras in Nicaragua and using the profit to aid Iran in the IranIraq war.


70. Ms. Craft’s acting class takes the stage two at a time. Ms. Craft gives each of the two students an identity and a situation; the scene then begins. The students are practicing what theatrical form? A. B. C. D.

opera farce improvisation tragedy

71. In Mrs. Pierce’s class the students are working on their annual spring theatre production. They are meeting to discuss the overall effect of the costumes, sets, and lights. This is what Aristotle called the A. B. C. D.

lot. spectacle. diction. thought.

72. The students in Mrs. Fox’s class have been learning about the mediums used in different types of art. Tom is most interested in the two-step process involving making a figure and then a mold around it. What process is Tom interested in? A. B. C. D.

clay and plaster casting clay and clay casting acrylic and clay casting clay and metal casting

74. In discussing how different cultures influence artists’ work, Miss Gardner uses the illustration of an Egyptian fresco that shows figures, trees, and a pool of water from different perspectives. Miss Gardner has explained the specific beliefs of the Egyptians that lead to which of the following answers? A.

B.

C.

D.

75. A fourth-grade classroom professional plays two selections of dance music from two different cultures, Navaho and Filipino. Although both selections have a steady beat and a vocal line, the accompanying instruments are not similar. What might the professional want the children to understand? A. B. C.

73. Pieter Bruegel, a Flemish painter, used the elements of line and direction to help us see around his paintings. In a drawing of peasants he uses the lines of the fields crossing in a series of x’s to direct our vision to specific points. Bruegel uses which of the following concepts to enhance his drawing? A. B. C. D.

lines of varying thickness and thinness colors of varying strengths diagonal forces parallel elements

Hierarchical perspective means that the Egyptians show figures in order of importance. Egyptian beliefs require that all figures are presented so that all parts of the figure are visible. Egyptians present the trees and figures in different orientations because the orientation is to permit all views to all viewers. All the above.

D.

That both cultures had dance music and that they enjoyed dancing. That both cultures employed singing while dancing. That both cultures’ music had different instruments because they liked a particular sound better than another sound. That both cultures had different instruments due to the region of the world in which they lived.

76. Happy Birthday and The Star Spangled Banner are similar because A. B. C. D.

they have the same steady beat. they have the same words. they have the same rhythm. they have the same composer.



Subarea V: The Fine Arts (0027–0029)


Subarea VI: Health and Fitness (0030–0032) 77. Maintaining a healthy immune system is important to help prevent communicable diseases. Which of the following steps should be taken to maintain a healthy immune system? A. B. C. D.

Exercise regularly and eat a healthy, low fat diet. Get eight hours of sleep each night. Wash hands often. All of the above.

78. Michael is a 13-year-old eighth grader. He is waiting for the bus after school. The bus is late, and there are only a few students left waiting outside the school. Two boys that he knows from art class ask him whether he wants to smoke marijuana with them. He tells them that he doesn’t feel like it. Next, he tells them his grandmother is at his house; she always hugs him, so he doesn’t want her to smell it on him. None of these strategies is working. The boys that are pressuring him are also known to be bullies in the school. What is the next step Michael should take? A. B. C. D.

Tell the principal of the school. Wait for the bus inside the school. Call the boys parents. Start yelling out that they have marijuana.

79. Carbohydrates, proteins, and fats are macronutrients that contain calories. Carbohydrates and proteins contain 4 calories per gram, and fats contain 9 calories per gram. What are the current daily intake recommendations for each of these macronutrients? A. B. C. D.

30 percent carbohydrate, 20 percent protein, 50 percent fat 45 percent carbohydrate, 30 percent protein, 25 percent fat 15–45 percent carbohydrate, 45 percent protein, 10–20 percent fat 45–65 percent carbohydrate, 10–15 percent protein, 30 percent or less fat

80. Trans fats have been linked to increases in LDL cholesterol levels. Trans fats are made when A. B. C. D.

81. Kaylani is a 16-year-old junior in high school. She gets good grades, has good friends, and is a forward on the soccer team. Lately she has been sleeping a lot and skipping soccer practice. She has been drinking heavily at parties after games and has even tried using ecstasy. Her friends do not do drugs. What teen issue could these behaviors be a sign of? A. B. C. D.

teen pregnancy depression or suicide anorexia nervosa a sexually transmitted infection

82. Elementary age school children should learn fundamental motor skills and movement concepts. Which of the following is an example of a locomotor skill combined with a movement concept? A. B. C. D.

twisting and throwing a ball to a target juggling a ball and walking swaying to the beat of a song walking forward and then in a zigzag pattern

83. Students should be taught the six pillars of character in order to promote a safe school environment. What are the six pillars of character? A. B. C. D.

312

saturated fats are mixed with polyunsaturated fats. HDL is added to liquid vegetable oil. monounsaturated fats are mixed with polyunsaturated fats. hydrogen is added to liquid vegetable oil to make it more solid.

safety, truth, honor, respect, selfishness, and control trustworthiness, respect, responsibility, citizenship, fairness, and caring happiness, self worth, self esteem, self confidence, self assuredness, and rest honor, respect, isolation, assertiveness, self discipline, and truth


84. A kindergarten boy in Mr. Robbins’ class is playing in the family/kitchen center with three female classmates. Another boy begins to tease him because “Boys don’t cook.” How should Mr. Robbins react? A. B. C. D.

Invite both boys to play together in the block area. Hold a class meeting in which students discuss “girl” games and “boy” games. Require the boy who is teasing to sit in “time out” for 1 minute. Join the students in the family/kitchen center and offer to help cook dinner.

85. A first-grade teacher would like to promote the use of proper hygiene with her students. Which of the following strategies would be LEAST effective? A.

B. C. D.

modeling hand-washing techniques and requiring students to wash hands before snack time inviting a dentist to speak with students about proper dental care posting a sign over the classroom sink that states “Use Proper Hygiene” reminding students to cover their mouths when they cough

87. Each of the following terms is a type of investment EXCEPT: A. B. C. D.

stock mutual fund annuity credit

88. Employees have each of the following workplace rights EXCEPT: A. B. C. D.

the right to a workplace free of serious hazards the right to unpaid leave to care for a new child or seriously ill family member the right to a workplace free of harassment the right to a promotion after a specified time period

89. Which of the following is recognized as an important first step in career planning? A. B. C. D.

identifying interests, skills, and abilities developing a resume practicing interview techniques learning stress management techniques

86. Which of the following terms defines the experience of a seller knowingly making false statements, misrepresenting facts, or omitting facts that are important to a consumer’s decision to purchase a product or service? A. B. C. D.

fraud recall liability warranty

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Subarea VII: Family/Consumer Science and Career Development (0033–0035)


Subarea VIII: Foundations of Reading: Constructed-Response Assignment Subtopic VIII: Foundations of Reading: Constructed-Response Assignment follows a different format from the multiplechoice section of this test. This section calls for the examinee to write a 150–300 word response to a given task instead of choosing an answer, as in the multiple-choice section. The constructed-response assignment is taken directly from content found in Subarea I, Objectives 0001 and 0002.

Directions for the Written Assignment This section of the test consists of a written assignment. You are asked to prepare a written response of approximately 150–300 words on the assigned topic. You should use your time to plan, write, review, and edit what you have written for the assignment. Read the assignment carefully before you begin to write. Think about how you will organize what you plan to write. You may use any blank space provided on the following pages to make notes, write an outline, or otherwise prepare your response. However, your score will be based solely on the response you write on the lined pages of your answer document. Your response will be evaluated on the basis of the following criteria: PURPOSE: Fulfill the charge of the assignment. APPLICATION OF CONTENT: Accurately and effectively apply the relevant knowledge and skills. SUPPORT: Support the response with appropriate examples and/or sound reasoning reflecting an understanding of the relevant knowledge and skills. Your response will be evaluated based on the content, not on your writing ability. The final version of the response should conform to the conventions of edited American English. This should be your original work, written in your own words, and not copied or paraphrased from some other work. Be sure to write about the assigned topic. Please write legibly. You may not use any reference materials during the test. Remember to review what you have written and make any changes you think will improve your response.

Written Assignment During the first week of school, a kindergarten teacher asked individual students to repeat the sound they hear at the beginning of a word. The teacher said the word “hat” and called on Robert, who speaks only English. Robert said, “Hat begins with the /n/ sound.” The teacher then told Robert that the words “hat” and “cat” rhyme, and asked Robert if he knew a word that also rhymes with “hat” and “cat.” Robert said, “Car.”

Examinee Task: Analyze Robert’s level of phonemic awareness, and give three examples of specific phonemic awareness instruction and activities that the teacher can provide to help students’ reading development.

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Answer Key for Practice Test 1 Multiple-Choice Section Subarea I: English 1. C

11. A

2. D

12. C

3. B

13. D

4. A

14. C

5. B

15. D

6. D

16. C

7. A

17. B

8. B

18. B

9. C

19. A

10. B

20. D

Subarea II: Mathematics 21. B

31. B

22. C

32. D

23. B

33. B

24. C

34. D

25. B

35. A

26. C

36. C

27. A

37. A

28. B

38. C

29. A

39. B

30. A

40. D

Subarea III: Science 41. C

48. D

42. C

49. B

43. C

50. B

44. B

51. A

45. A

52. C

46. D

53. B

47. C

54. C

315


Subarea IV: Social Studies 55. A

63. C

56. B

64. C

57. D

65. D

58. A

66. B

59. B

67. A

60. B

68. C

61. A

69. B

62. D

Subarea V: The Fine Arts 70. C

74. D

71. B

75. D

72. D

76. C

73. C

Subarea VI: Health and Fitness 77. D

81. B

78. B

82. D

79. D

83. B

80. D

Subarea VII: Family and Consumer Science and Career Development 84. D

87. D

85. C

88. D

86. A

89. A

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Subarea I: English 1. C. Syntactic cues use the knowledge of word order to identify an unknown word. Therefore, when using syntactic cues, readers can anticipate what part of speech would make the most sense to appear next in a sentence, based on the grammatical relationship to other words in that sentence. 2. D. A fluent reader has the ability to read text smoothly, quickly, and without word recognition problems. All of the above skills contribute to reading fluency. 3. B. Diphthongs are two vowels in one syllable where two sounds are heard. The oi in soil is a diphthong. 4. A. Next is NOT a signal word to indicate cause-and-effect text structure. Next is a signal word to indicate sequential text structure. Then is a signal word for both cause-and-effect and sequential text structure. If and because are signal words to indicate cause-and-effect text structure. 5. B. A rhyme is the part of a word from the vowel onward. 6. D. A writer is not the name of a role assignment used in a Literature Circle; a writer is called a literary reporter. In a Literature Circle, a connector connects the text to the real world, the summarizer provides a final summary of the text, and the illustrator draws a picture of the selection. 7. A. Learning logs are daily records of what students have learned. They do not include a response from the teacher or other students in the class. Dialogue journals are used for written communication between members of a class. 8. B. Rehearsal is the first stage of the writing process and where students need to choose a topic. 9. C. During the publishing stage, students feel a sense of pride and accomplishment that comes with authorship. In addition, publishing encourages students to keep writing. During the revising and editing stages, teachers have conferences with students. During the generating or rehearsing stage, students activate their background knowledge. 10. B. A persuasive poem attempts to persuade people to accept an opinion or perform a certain action. For example, in Who Wants a Cheap Rhinoceros, Shel Silverstein is trying to persuade people to get a rhinoceros as a pet because of all the useful things it can do. 11. A. Choice A is the weakest sentence because it offers no details. Also, the sentence is short and simple, and the information is vague and general. 12. C. It takes practice to maintain eye contact and not look at a computer screen, notes, visuals, writing boards, bulletin boards, and other objects in the classroom. To establish eye contact means that other people are aware that you are looking at them. Eye contact helps to establish rapport and to communicate more effectively. 13. D. The preceding statements are appropriate actions in a social situation such as a job interview. 14. C. If a teacher’s attention is scattered, the student will know that the teacher is not completely listening. The teacher’s lack of attention sends a negative message to students, which discourages student communication. 15. D. A memoir is the worthwhile reminiscences of a person that focuses on a particular period of time in the person’s life. 16. C. Onomatopoeia is the formation of words in imitation of natural sounds. Buzzed and bow-wowed are examples of onomatopoeia. 17. B. Both soliloquy and monologue mean talking alone. 18. B. At the end of The Wizard of Oz, Dorothy clicks her heels together and says, “There’s no place like home.” This has become a famous quotation.

317


Answers and Explanations for Practice Test 1


19. A. Johnny Tremain by Esther Forbes is an historical fiction book that takes place in Revolutionary-era Boston, Massachusetts. Johnny Tremain is the main character; he is a 14-year-old silversmith’s apprentice. 20. D. Multicultural literature helps children view the world from their own perspective and from other people’s perspectives, as well. Choices A, B, and C are all true statements about multicultural literature.

Subarea II: Mathematics 21. B. Begin with a square having a perimeter of 40 meters. Each side of that square would then have a length of 10 meters. But the perimeter here is 42 meters; consequently the nearest rectangle that approximates that square is one having a length of 11 meters and width of ten meters, giving an area of 11 × 10 or 110 square maters. n ^ n + 1h 3 ^ 3 + 1h = 6 , which 22. C. These are the triangular numbers expressed by . For example, when n = 3, then 2 2 7 ^ 7 + 1h = 28 . is the third element in the sequence. Therefore, the seventh element in the sequence is given by 2 23. B. An isosceles triangle contains two congruent angles and two equal sides. Also, the sum of the three angles in any triangle must equal 180 degrees. The only choice that satisfies those two conditions is B. 24. C. If t = the total number of pets, c = the number of canaries, and f = number of ferrets, then t = c + 3 and t = f + 3 and t = f + c. Therefore, c + 3 = f + 3, or c = f; t, then, is c + c or 2c, which equals c + 3. Solving for c in the equation 2c = c + 3, we get c = 3. Substituting that value into t = c + 3, we arrive at t = 3 + 3 = 6. Another way to think of it is: You are told the pets are all ferrets and canaries and that you have all canaries but 3, which means you have 3 ferrets. You’re also told that you have all ferrets but 3,which means you have 3 canaries. 3 + 3 = 6. 25. B. The area of a circle is given by π r2 and the circumference by 2πr. The circumference of the pizza with a radius of 5 is then 2π × 5 = 10π = 31.4 inches. Therefore, B is the answer. 26. C. A parallelogram is a quadrilateral. Also it has two pairs of parallel sides. Therefore, C is the only statement that satisfies that condition. 27. A. The sum of the three tests is 70 × 3 = 210. Let 2x be the value of the final examination, since it counts as two tests. Adding them altogether we get 210 + 2x; when divided by 5, the result is the average, which is 80: 210 + 2x = 80 . 5 Solving for x: 210 + 2x = 400, we get x = 95. 180 ^ n - 2 h 28. B. The interior angle of a regular polygon is given by . As n increases, this fraction increases as well. n 180 ^ 4 - 2 h 180 ^ 5 - 2 h = 90 ; when n = 5, then = 108 ; when n = 6 then For example, when n = 4, then 4 5 180 ^ 6 - 2 h = 120 , etc. 6 29. A. Let t be the time that it took for the express to reach Grand Central Station; then the time that it took the local would be t +.5 hours. Since distance = speed × time, and both trains arrive at Grand Central at the same time, we get 50t = (t + .5)40. Solving for t: 50t = 40t + 20, or 10t = 20 and t =2. The distance then is 50 × 2 = 100 miles. 30. A. A 10% discount will result in actual price of .9P. But to that one must add the tax on the price and the tax on shipping. The result is expressed in A. 31. B. Let x be the smaller integer, then the larger integer is 2x – 3. The sum of the two integers then is 2x –3 + x = 24. 32. D. Let x be Melissa’s age, then James’s age is 4x. Since the sum of their ages is 40, then x + 4x = 5x = 40 and x = 8. 33. B. The only choice that has all prime numbers is B and when they are multiplied, the result is 260. Another way of solving the problem is to factor 260 into: 26 × 10 = 2 × 13 × 2 × 5. 34. D. The square root of five is an irrational number, which means that it cannot be expressed as the ratio of two integers. But irrational numbers are also real numbers. Therefore, D is the answer. 35. A. From the distributive property: 2 × (3 + 4) = 2 × 3 + 2 × 4 From the commutative property of multiplication: = 3 × 2 + 4 × 2 From the commutative property of addition: = 4 × 2 + 3 × 2

318


37. A. As the numbers increase, the fraction gets closer and closer to the number 1. Thus, each number is larger than the previous one in the sequence. 38. C. One billion = 109, and one million = 106. Three billion and 145 million is equivalent to 3.145 billion or 3.145 × 109. 3 39. B. [(5 × 108) × (12 × 10–5)] = 60 × 103. But 60 # 10- 2 = 20 # 10 5 = 2.0 # 10 6 or 2 million. _ 3 # 10 i 1 3 2 1 40. D. 7 x x= 42 42 21 Simplifying both sides of the equation: 6 x- 3 x= - 4 42 42 42 3 x= - 4 42 42 3x = - 4 x= -4 3

Subarea III: Science 41. C. The Law of Universal Gravitation is an inverse square law with the square of the distance in the denominator. 42. C. Velocity is a vector quantity with both a direction and magnitude with the units of distance/time. Both magnitude and direction must be specified. Magnitude only with units of distance/time is speed. Acceleration has units of distance/time2 and a direction. Rate is a change with time, but it is a less specific term than velocity. 43. C. Anthracite is not an element but a fossil fuel found on earth. Iron is only formed in stars ten times larger than the sun, and elements heavier than iron are only formed in supernova explosions. 44. B. Igneous rocks are formed directly from lava/magma. The newborn Earth was very active volcanically. The formation of sedimentary and metamorphic rocks occurs through geological processes, which require large spans of geological time. Limestone is a sedimentary rock. 45. A. The ecological energy pyramid shows that for each trophic level only 10% of the energy is transferred to the next trophic level (90% loss). Thus, the amount transferred is not a fixed or discrete amount but varies with the biomass amount at the bottom of the pyramid. The transfer sequence is plants to herbivores to carnivores. Decomposers feed off all levels and do not disrupt the transfers but are included in the 10% calculation. 46. D. The habitat is the organism’s “address,” and the ecological niche is its “job”—that is, the way it obtains energy. The trophic level indicates what percentage of the sun’s energy the organism is involved in capturing. The geosphere is the nonliving part of the ecosystem. 47. C. It is impossible for all organisms to obtain their energy from the same trophic level due to their varying modes of nutrition. Ecosystems consist of living and nonliving parts. Only one species can occupy a given ecological niche. If two species attempt to occupy the same niche, one will be forced to migrate or become extinct. 48. D. A virus may be composed of DNA or RNA. A gene is composed of DNA. A zygote is formed by the fusion of genetic material—that is, DNA. Gametes are reproductive cells that by definition must contain DNA. 49. B. DNA replication occurs within the nucleus, not the cytoplasm. Nucleotides hydrogen bond with one another in a very specific fashion—AT and GC. Uracil is not present in DNA. 50. B. Translation is the process of protein synthesis. The transfer from DNA to mRNA is termed transcription. DNA does not transfer information directly to rRNA. Duplication of RNA is a form of replication. 51. A. mRNA is the message. Transfer-RNA acts like a “taxicab” for the individual amino acids during protein synthesis. Transfer-RNA carries the anticodon and mRNA the codon. Both types of RNA are within the cell during protein synthesis.

319


36. C. 12 = x or 80x = 1200, or x = 1200 = 15 . 80 100 80


52. C. The three base unit on mRNA is termed a codon. The genetic code is not binary (two bases) or an amino acid sequence. 53. B. The “big splash” hypothesis applies to the moon and the Earth, not the sun. Nuclear fusion occurs in the sun, not the Earth. Nuclear fission occurs within the Earth’s core, not the sun. 54. C. GPS functions by triangulation, not feedback. Biological homeostasis generally operates using a negative feedback loop. The scientific method and engineering design process may involve positive and/or negative feedback.

Subarea IV: Social Studies 55. A. Upton Sinclair is the author of The Jungle (1906), which exposed the horrors of the meatpacking industry and contributed to the passing of the Meat Inspection Act. Huey Long was a Senator and Governor of Louisiana during the 1930s; Andrew Carnegie was a steel industrialist; and Nat Turner led a slave rebellion. 56. B. The Plessy v. Ferguson decision supported the legality of Jim Crow laws that permitted or required “separate but equal” facilities for blacks and whites. Grandfather clauses were eliminated in 1915, in the case of Guinn v. United States. The Fourteenth Amendment allows Congress to take away a state’s seat in the U.S. House of Representatives if the state refuses to allow blacks to vote in Congressional elections. The Twenty-fourth Amendment eliminated the poll tax in national elections. 57. D. Truman’s decision was based on the strategy of containment, originally devised in 1946 by U.S. diplomat George F. Kennan, which called for containing Soviet expansion. The other answers all describe foreign policy decisions made before the Cold War. 58. A. Algeria is the only country listed that was colonized by France. 59. B. Confucius believed that individuals have mutual responsibilities and obligations in their personal and social relationships. Just as children should respect and obey their parents, so, too, should peasants respect and follow authority; and just as parents should treat their children with justice and fairness, so, too, should those in power should treat peasants with justice and fairness. 60. B. The French Revolution: 1789; the Russian Revolution: 1917; the Chinese Communist Revolution: 1949; and the Iranian Revolution: 1979. 61. A. Demography is the study of the characteristics of human populations, such as size, growth, density, distribution, and vital statistics. Answers B, C, and D describe different aspects of cultural diffusion. 62. D. The uppermost part of the Earth’s mantle is solid, and along with the Earth’s crust, forms the lithosphere. The lithosphere is brittle and can fracture, and this is the zone where earthquakes can occur. The lithosphere breaks into thick moving slabs of rock called tectonic plates. A hurricane is a violent storm; a tornado is a violent whirling wind; and a volcano is a mountain or hill from which lava, cinders, steam, sulphur, and gases are ejected. 63. C. A command economy is an economy in which supply and price are regulated by the government rather than by market forces. Answers A, B, and D all describe a capitalist, or free market economy. 64. C. The price elasticity of demand (or price elasticity) measures how demand changes in response to a price change. Gold jewelry is highly elastic—if the price increases, demand decreases. In contrast, demand for gasoline is considered relatively inelastic. Even if the price goes up, people will still need to buy gasoline. 65. D. The right to vote is addressed in the Fifteenth, Nineteenth, Twenty-fourth, and Twenty-sixth Amendments. The Bill of Rights only refers to the first ten Amendments, which include A, B, and C. 66. B. Due process refers to the equal protection of laws, as described in the Fourteenth Amendment. Free speech (answer A) is protected in the First Amendment; the right against self-incrimination (answer C) is protected in the Fifth Amendment; and the right against cruel and unusual punishment (answer D) is protected in the Eighth Amendment. 67. A. The president’s ability to veto a bill passed by Congress is the only answer that illustrates the principle of checks and balances. Answers B, C, and D describe presidential actions or powers, but not the checks or balances against those powers.

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69. B. The Iran-Contra Scandal resulted from covert actions undertaken by Reagan’s National Security Council. The NSC devised and implemented a plan to work with private arms dealers to sell weapons to Iran in order to obtain Iranian assistance in securing the release of American hostages in Lebanon. The profits were diverted to fund the anti-Sandinista, pro-American Contras in Nicaragua. The plan violated the Boland Amendment, which prohibited funding the Contras.

Subarea V: The Fine Arts 70. C. As a classroom activity, improvisation allows the student actor to tap into his spontaneous creativity. The other answers are incorrect, because they refer to scripted forms of theatre. 71. B. Aristotle, in his treatise The Poetics, described the sensory aspects of the production. The other answers are additional elements of The Poetics but do not pertain to the entire effect of the production. 72. D. Tom is interested in clay and metal casting. Tom has learned that a clay figure is made and then a mold is made around it; the mold is dried and removed from the clay, joined together, and then filled with molten metal. The other processes, although possible, are not combinations his teacher would have described. 73. C. Bruegel used the concept of diagonal forces to lead our eyes around the painting by using a subtle set of crossing diagonal lines. The other choices are methods of drawing with interest. 74. D. All of the answers are correct. The Egyptian cultural beliefs stress that the figure must be shown in full; presenting various objects from top, side, and front are ways to present the whole scene for the Egyptians. The Egyptians also believed that the figures that were the most important in society required the largest depiction in the picture. 75. D. The question revolves around culture and music. It asks the reader “How does culture influence music?” In this question two different cultures are cited, Navaho and Filipino. When cultures are specified, the reader should envision a globe and locate each culture. For this question one culture is located in North America and the other is located in Southeast Asia. Having identified where each culture is located, the reader is asked a question regarding (1) steady beat, (2) vocal singing, and (3) differences in instrumentation. D is the correct answer choice. Notice that this choice uses the word “different,” as does answer C. The question stem mentions differences as well (that is, accompanying instruments are not similar). Answer C is not the best answer because we might assume that a culture will make and use instruments that produce sounds they like to hear. Answer D is the best choice because it brings together the idea that the two cultures are “worlds apart” and that indigenous peoples would rely on readily available resources to make instruments. One culture lives in a tropical region of the world, and the other lives in a more arid and temperate part of North America. Based on our knowledge of geography and science, these two cultures would not have similar instruments. 76. C. This question addresses knowledge of the elements of music. Note that three of the answer choices are related to steady beat or rhythm. Remember that clapping the individual syllables of words creates rhythms. Realizing that three answers are similar, you can eliminate answer D. Even though you may not really know who wrote Happy Birthday or The Star Spangled Banner, you may have a suspicion that they were not written by the same person. One song is a “campy” type of tune that is usually sung without accompaniment at birthdays. The other song is usually heard with some type of accompaniment (for example, band, orchestra) and is sung at special events (for example, ballgames, patriotic ceremonies). A more obvious distracter is answer choice B. The two songs do not have the same words. This leaves choice A or choice B. Relying on our understanding of the elements of music, we can eliminate answer choice A. Steady beat relates to the tempo of the song. All songs will have a steady beat. That steady beat could indicate a quick tempo (for example, allegro) or a slow tempo (for exmaple, andante). Answer choice C is the only logical choice for one important reason. If you clap the words and syllables as you sing or chant the words of the two songs you will note that you are clapping the same rhythm, even though the melodies are completely different. If you clap the words to Baa, Baa Black Sheep, the ABC Song, and Twinkle, Twinkle you will note that each song has the same rhythm.

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68. C. C is the only possible correct answer.


Subarea VI: Health and Fitness 77. D. Moderate exercise is important to maintaining a healthy immune system, although too much exercise can break down the immune system, leaving a person fatigued and at risk for contracting communicable diseases. Eating a healthy, low-fat diet provides the necessary nutrients that your body needs to function healthfully and fight off germs. Sleep is important to maintaining a healthy immune system. The body repairs itself while you sleep. Washing your hands thoroughly gets rid of germs that could get into your body and cause you to become sick. All of the ways listed are important to maintaining a healthy immune system and fighting communicable diseases. 78. B. Michael should not go tell the principal of the school because he puts himself at risk for being bullied the next time the bus is late. He might anonymously let the principal know about the issue so that the appropriate action can be taken. Michael should walk away from the boys who are pressuring him. When all else fails, it is time to walk away from the situation. Michael should not call the boys parents; he would put himself at risk for being bullied. He might tell his parents, who might in turn call the school who could then deal with the issue. Yelling that they have marijuana would also put Michael at risk for physical harm or verbal abuse from these boys. 79. D. 30 percent carbohydrate, 20 percent protein, 50 percent fat is not the correct RDA for carbohydrates, proteins, and fats. This diet would put one at risk for heart disease, cancer, and becoming overweight. 45 percent carbohydrate, 30 percent protein, 25 percent fat is a diet that is too high in protein, which can lead to kidney problems. A diet of 15–45 percent carbohydrate, 45 percent protein, and 10–20 percent fat is also too high in protein and may be too low in carbohydrates and fat, which are needed for important body functions. 45–65 percent carbohydrate, 10–15 percent protein, and 30 percent or less fat is the current RDA for carbohydrates, proteins, and fats necessary for body function, maintenance, and repair. 80. D. Saturated fats are found naturally occurring in animal products, and some plants such as coconuts and polyunsaturated fats naturally occur in plants. HDL is the good cholesterol in found in your blood and cannot be added to foods. Monounsaturated fats are found in plants and are not used to create trans fats. To make trans fats, hydrogen is added to liquid vegetable oil to make it more solid. This process is called hydrogenation. Hydrogenated and partially hydrogenated oils listed in food’s ingredients indicate that the food contains trans fats. 81. B. All of the preceding are signs of depression and teen suicide. Some additional signs a teen might be contemplating suicide are expressing feelings of hopelessness, giving material items away, and taking about suicide. A pregnant teen might try to hide the pregnancy by wearing baggy clothes. Signs of anorexia would include rapid weight loss, obsession with appearance, not eating or going to the bathroom right after eating to throw up the food, using laxatives, and excessive exercise. Signs of sexually transmitted disease would not be visible. 82. D. Walking is a locomotor skill, and the zigzag pattern is a movement concept. Twisting is a non-locomotor skill, and throwing is a manipulative skill. Juggling is s manipulative skill, and walking is a locomotor skill. Swaying is a non-locomotor skill. 83. B. The six pillars of character are trustworthiness, respect, responsibility, citizenship, fairness, and caring. They apply to how one treats others as well as themselves. Selfishness is not a good character trait. Happiness and rest are not part of character, although they might assist in one’s maintaining good character traits. Isolation and assertiveness are not part of character.

Subarea VII: Family and Consumer Science and Career Development 84. D. As a male teacher, Mr. Robbins is a role model for students and can show them that a “boy can cook.” Responses A and B may reinforce the stereotyped gender roles, and response C does not help the student learn that it is okay for males to take on the responsibility of food preparation in the family unit. 85. C. Since many first-grade students are not developmentally ready to read the sign and do not understand the terms “proper” or “hygiene” this would be the least effective strategy. Each of the other strategies involves concrete explanation and/or demonstration of an important health-care behavior.

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87. D. Credit refers to the borrowing capacity of an individual or the obligation to repay a lender. Stocks, mutual funds, and annuities are all considered investments. 88. D. Employees are granted all of the preceding rights under federal law (with certain restrictions) except the right to promotion. This is solely determined by the employer. 89. A. Career planning involves matching personal qualifications with appropriate career fields so future employment-related decisions can be made. A necessary first step is to identify personal qualities such as interests, skills, and abilities. Resume writing and interviewing become important in the job search stage. Stress management techniques are important for dealing with pressures in the workplace.

Subarea VIII: Foundations of Reading: Constructed-Response Assignment Written Assignment During the first week of school, a kindergarten teacher asked individual students to repeat the sound they heard at the beginning of a word. The teacher said the word “hat” and called on Robert, who spoke only English. Robert said, “Hat begins with the /n/ sound.” The teacher then told Robert that the words “hat” and “cat” rhyme, and asked Robert whether he knew a word that also rhymes with “hat” and “cat.” Robert said, “car.”

Examinee Task Analyze Robert’s level of phonemic awareness and give three examples of specific phonemic awareness instruction and activities that the teacher can provide to help students’ reading development.

Strong Response Robert’s responses indicate that he lacks phonemic awareness. Phonemic awareness is the knowledge that spoken words are composed of separable speech sounds or phonemes. Robert cannot distinguish sounds in words such as the /h/ phoneme in “hat.” Moreover, at this time, he cannot manipulate larger units of sound such as words that rhyme with “hat” and “cat.” Robert needs to develop phonemic awareness in order to advance successfully in reading. Research on phonemic awareness shows that it is a powerful predictor of children’s reading achievement. When children have not mastered phonemic awareness, it is more difficult for them to identify unknown words. Three examples of phonemic awareness activities are (1) rhyming, (2) blending, and (3) segmenting. Rhyming requires children to either recognize rhymes in books, such as Cat in the Hat by Dr. Seuss, or to make a list of words that rhyme, such as fat, cat, hat, mat, sat, bat, etc. Rhyming a word is usually the easiest phonemic awareness activity to master. Blending requires children to take a series of separate sounds, such as /m/ /a/ /t/ and blend them together to form the word mat. Blending is a more difficult phonemic awareness strategy than rhyming. Segmenting requires children to isolate and distinguish sounds at the beginning and at the end of words. Teachers might ask students to say the sound they hear at the beginning of the word hat, /h/, and at the end of the word hat, /t/. Segmenting is the most difficult phonemic awareness activity. After children can successfully segment sounds in words, they are considered to be phonemically aware.

Scoring Explanation This response would receive a 4 because it answers all aspects of the question. It accurately and effectively analyzes the child’s level of phonemic awareness. The essay provides strong support of the examinee’s well-reasoned conclusion with relevant examples of instruction and activities for developing phonemic awareness.

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86. A. Consumer fraud occurs when the seller of a product or service knowingly makes false statements, misrepresents, or omits facts that are central a consumer’s decision-making process. A recall occurs when a product is deemed unsafe. A liability is a legally binding agreement to repay a debt. A warranty is a statement made by the provider of a product or service that assures it will meet certain specification. Warranties help to reduce fraud.

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Subarea I: English Language Arts

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20

A B C D A B C D A B C D A B C D A B C D A B C D A B C D A B C D A B C D A B C D A B C D A B C D A B C D A B C D A B C D A B C D A B C D A B C D A B C D A B C D

Subarea V: Fine Arts

70 71 72 73 74 75 76



21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40


41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54


A B C D


55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69

A B C D A B C D A B C D A B C D A B C D A B C D A B C D A B C D A B C D A B C D A B C D A B C D A B C D A B C D A B C D

A B C D A B C D A B C D A B C D A B C D


77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86



Subarea VII: Family/Consumer Science and Career Development

87 88 89



Subarea VIII: Foundations of Reading: Constructed-Response Assignment Use your own lined sheets of paper for this practice constructed-response assignment.

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New York State Teacher Certification Examination Practice Test 2 This test contains a multiple-choice section and a section with one written assignment. You may work on the sections in any order. The multiple-choice questions on this test have four answer choices (A, B, C, and D). Read each question carefully before making your choice. Choose the one choice that best answers the question. Answer all of the questions, even if you are unsure of the answers. There are separate directions for the written assignment. When you have completed the entire test, take the time to review and to check your answers

Subarea I: English Language Arts (0001–0008) 1. Which of the following is the most effective way to learn new vocabulary words? A. B. C. D.

looking words up in the dictionary memorizing definitions oral language activities skipping over new vocabulary words

5. A fourth-grade teacher wants to use an Anticipation Guide to help students A. B. C. D.

2. Which of the following is an example of an onset in the word TACK? A. B. C. D.

ACK T CK TA

6. After good readers identify the main ideas in a passage, they might A. B.

3. Letters represent phonemes. This is called A. B. C. D.

invented spelling. the alphabetic principle. phonemic awareness. diphthong.

4. Which of the following best describes what readers do when they demonstrate inferential skills? A. B. C. D.

predict content anticipate content fill in the gaps with content all of the above

do something automatically. plan what to write and how to write it. activate prior knowledge and set a purpose for reading. use procedures that are carried out under controlled conditions.

C. D.

speed up and skim through the rest of the passage. stop reading because they found the main ideas. reread the passage that contained the main ideas. none of the above.

7. A second-grade teacher wants to set up a Guided Reading program. Which of the following is NOT part of a Guided Reading program? A. B. C. D.

During Guided Reading, teachers work with the whole class. During Guided Reading, children engage in shared reading activities. During Guided Reading, children read sets of the same books. During Guided Reading, teachers focus on reading concepts and skills.



8. An effective way to show children the enjoyment of reading and to encourage participation in a community of readers is through A. B. C. D.

K-W-L charts. vocabulary development. book talks. self-questioning strategies.

13. Which of the following is NOT true about graphic representations in writing? A.

B. C.

9. In a fifth-grade class, the students are studying transition words and transition phrases. Which of the following is NOT an example of a transition word or a transition phrase? A. B. C. D.

revising moreover in addition in conclusion

10. A teacher in a fifth-grade class asks the students to reread their journals and correct all fragmented sentences. This falls under which phase of the writing stage? A. B. C. D.

generating developing revising editing

11. Which of the following methods is appropriate in order to narrow and focus a general topic for a research paper? A. B. C. D.

using the Internet clustering listing sources all of the above

12. A sixth-grade teacher is explaining about bias in writing. The teacher and the students are making a checklist to avoid biased writing. Which of the following statements should NOT be on this checklist? A. B. C. D.

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Authors should include their opinions. Authors should not make generalizations. Examples or facts should support all statements. Authors should be careful of words like best, worst, none, and all.

D.

Graphic representations help keep straight details that are found in long or complicated pieces of writing. Graphic representations are always self-explanatory. Graphic representations include diagrams, charts, graphs, and time lines. Graphic representations add to enjoyment of the literature.

14. A fifth-grade teacher is giving the students examples of sentence starters for a persuasive speech. Which of the following statements would NOT be a good choice to begin a persuasive speech? A. B. C. D.

It is unfair that. . . Our country would be a much better place to live in if. . . The first thing you do when you change a tire is. . . It is not right when individuals. . .

15. A first-grade teacher wants to enhance children’s listening and speaking skills. Which of the following strategies help promote these skills? A. B. C. D.

choral reading sing-along tape-recording of children’s books all of the above

16. A number of strategies can be used to help children listen more effectively during a lecture or a class discussion. Which of the following is NOT a strategy used to enhance children’s listening skills? A. B. C. D.

outlining note-taking conceptual maps test-taking

17. When you introduce time and place in a story, which story element are you teaching? A. B. C. D.

plot mood setting theme


18. A third-grade teacher asked the students to choose one of the following sentences to show an example of the poetic text alliteration: A. B. C.

D.

Lucky Lucy lent her large lion to Lenny. The cat in the hat sat on the mat with the rat. There once was a woman from Spain/who wanted to go on a plane/She sat on the plane/that was leaving from Spain/And complained ’cause her side was in pain. My neighbor’s yard is as big as a football field.

20. Shel Silverstein is a famous children’s author of which genre? A. B. C. D.

historical fiction science fiction poetry mysteries

19. Robert McCloskey wrote Blueberries for Sal. What other children’s literature book did he write? Goodnight Moon Make Way for Ducklings The Snowy Day Alexander and the Terrible, Horrible, No Good, Very Bad Day


A. B. C. D.



Subarea II: Mathematics (0009–0015) 21. The number 23 is A. B. C. D.

27. The length of the large rectangle is given by a and the width by b. The width of each of the inscribed small rectangles is given by c. The area of the gray inscribed rectangle is:

a prime number. a real number. an odd number. all of the above.

22. Through the use of a mathematical pattern, the sum of the first 50 counting numbers 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 + . . . + 49 + 50 can be found to be A. B. C. D.

A. B. C. D.

2500 1275 5050 5000

28. The symmetry group of an equilateral pentagon consists of

23. The solution to the inequality 4 – (7/3) X ≤ 25 is A. B. C. D.

bc (a – c) × b (a – 2c)b (a – c)2

A. B. C. D.

X ≤ 21 X ≥ –9 X ≤ –9 X ≥ –21

five reflections only. five rotations only. five rotations followed by five reflections. ten rotations followed by ten reflections.

29. The function X - 3 is symmetric about 2

2

24. If you replace the graph of y = 2x by y = 2x – 5, the resulting parabola A. B. C. D.

shifts upward by 5 units. shifts downward by 5 units. is compressed by 3 units. shifts downward by 3 units.

25. If the third term of an arithmetical progression is 13, and the eighth term is 33, the thirteenth term is A. B. C. D.

45 33 125 53

26. A wireless telephone company charges a flat fee of $32 per month plus 15 cents for each call made. The cost C in dollars for the user as a function of N, the number of calls made during the month, is given by the following formula: A. B. C. D.

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C = 32 + N C = 32 + 0.15N C = 32 + 15N C = 32N + 15N

A. B. C. D.

the y axis. the x axis. the origin. the line X = 3.

30. Determine the fourth coordinate of a trapezoid from the following three coordinates: (–3,0), (3,0), (–2,1) A. B. C. D.

(2,1) (–3,1) (3,1) (–2,–1)

31. In a tiling pattern, which of the following statements is true? A. B. C. D.

The number of polygons + number of vertices = number of edges + 1. The number of polygons = number of vertices. The number of edges + number vertices = number of polygons. The number of vertices = number of polygons + 3.


32. A flagpole casts a shadow of 6 meters. When a one-meter stick is placed nearby, that stick casts a shadow of 50 centimeters. The height of the pole is A. B. C. D.

6 meters. 12 meters. 24 meters. 18 meters.

33. 46712 milligrams is equivalent to how many grams? A. B. C. D.

4.6712 grams 467.12 grams 4571.2 grams 46.712 grams

A. B. C. D.

298 km. 7.55515 km. 7.7365km. 21.115 km.

35. The volume of a cylinder with a radius of 4 centimeters and height of 1 meter is 2 A. 2513 meters. B. 2513 cubic meters. C. .002513 cubic meters. D. 2.513 cubic meters. 36. The probability of rolling a sum of 8 or 10 on two dice is A. B. C. D.

5 36 7 36 2 9 1 3

A. B. C. D.

4 36 3 36 3 216 4 216

38. How many different license plates can be made where each plate has one letter followed by 5 numbers? A. B. C. D.

260,000 2.6 million 2.6 billion 2,660,000

39. Assume that the age of inmates in U.S. prisons is normally distributed with a mean of 32 years and standard deviation of 10 years. What percentage of inmates are between the ages of 22 and 42? A. B. C. D.

95% 33% 50% 68%

40. What percentage of the inmates are over 22 years old? A. B. C. D.

84% 68% 34% 50%



34. The sum of 235m + 20150 mm + 7.3 km is

37. The probability of rolling a sum of 4 on three dice is


Subarea III: Science and Technology (0016–0020) 41. According to Newton’s Second Law of Motion A. B. C. D.

applying a force will change the motion of an object. acceleration of an object is proportional to net force applied to the object. an object at rest will remain at rest unless acted on by a net force. solar system bodies have attractive forces acting on each other.

42. A stalled car is pushed to the top of a hill, allowed to roll down the hill, and started by “clutchpopping.” At what position did the car have the greatest amount of gravitational potential energy? A. B. C. D.

at the bottom of the hill at the top of the hill when restarted with the clutch being pushed to the top of the hill

43. The value of the ozone layer to Earth’s citizens is A. B. C. D.

protection from ultraviolet rays. to neutralize the NOx molecules in acid rain. to mediate temperature in the lithosphere. protection from photochemical smog

44. CFCs (chlorofluorocarbons) damage the environment by A. B. C. D.

causing acid rain. blocking sunlight. breaking O3 to create O2. increasing cloudiness.

45. Acid rain is known to cause problems by A. B. C. D.

causing population explosions of deer species. triggering glaciations and ice sheet formation. bleaching chlorophyll from green plants. destroying statues and limestone buildings

47. Which one of the following statements about DNA is not correct? A. B. C. D.

48. A codon is A. B. C. D.

A. B. C. D.

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ocean circulation. radioactive decay of nuclear particles. energy of the sun. tides.

a binary DNA code. a set of three bases on the mRNA. a set of three bases on the tRNA. an amino acid sequence.

49. A mutation may be described as A. B. C. D.

a change in the RNA of the parent gamete. damage to the cell membrane of the parent gamete. an alteration of DNA in a parent’s egg or sperm. infertility in older parents.

50. Which one of the following characteristics does the Earth share with all other bodies in the solar system? A. B. C. D.

formed from matter ejected by the sun move in circular orbits equally dense gravitationally bound to the sun

51. The “big splash” theory of the moon’s formation A. B.

C.

D. 46. Global atmospheric circulation is driven by

DNA contains phosphorus. DNA is negatively charged. RNA is the mirror opposite of DNA. Hydrogen bonds join the two strands of DNA (two sides of the DNA ladder).

was disproved during the Apollo lunar mission. states that the moon was formed elsewhere in the solar system and was captured by Earth’s gravitational force. states that the Earth was struck by a huge object, causing a large amount of mantle material to be blown into orbit. suggests that the moon was formed by light, less dense materials that floated into the orbit around the Earth.


52. All tectonic plates are A. B. C. D.

made only of basalt. comprised of crust and some mantle material. made only of granite. at least 35 km thick.

54. Evidence for evolution can be found in the A. B. C. D.

human liver. size of horse fossils. geochemistry of the hydra. compound eye of the bee.

53. The basic unit of life is the A. B. C. D.

virus. cell. gene. chromosome.

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Subarea IV: Social Studies (0021–0026) 55. The British government’s attempts to tighten the enforcement of its mercantilist policies in its North American colonies after the French and Indian War resulted in A. B. C. D.

increased tensions between the British government and the colonists. decreased tensions between the British government and the colonists. increased immigration from Great Britain to the North American colonies. none of the above.

56. What 1957 event justified a massive increase in spending for science programs in U.S. schools and research institutions? A. B. C. D.

the detonation of a hydrogen bomb by the Soviet Union the launching of Sputnik by the Soviet Union the development of the microprocessor by the Soviet Union the revelation of huge Soviet stockpiles of deadly chemical weapons

57. The Meiji government of Japan and Peter the Great of Russia were similar in that both advocated A. B. C. D.

socialism. isolationism. modernization. democratization.

58. The Industrial Revolution in nineteenth century England was stimulated by all of the following factors EXCEPT A. B. C. D.

an organized union movement. a large population to serve as a labor force. investment capital. access to natural resources.

59. The Treaty of Versailles A. B. C. D.

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forced Germans to accept blame for the war and to pay reparations. divided Berlin into four occupied zones. made clear that the war was not one country’s fault. divided Germany into East and West Germany.

60. What land features are shared by Canada and the United States? A. B. C. D.

Great Lakes Rocky Mountains Great Plains all of the above

61. The ________________________ of New York state is 42° 67' N, 73° 80' W. A. B. C. D.

physical environment relative location absolute location geographical region

62. A group of islands like the Philippines is called A. B. C. D.

a delta. an isthmus. an archipelago. a promontory.

63. Thomas Malthus worried about the impact of population growth, and according to Malthus, population tends to grow “geometrically.” Which of the following series of numbers represents the idea of geometric growth? A. B. C. D.

1, 2, 4, 8 1, 2, 3, 4 1, 2, 1, 2 1, 1, 2, 2

64. Which of the following statements best describes an oligopoly? A.

B. C. D.

The market is dominated by a small number of participants who are able to collectively exert control over supply and market prices. Many businesses are competing and no one business has dominance. There is one single large seller with no close competition and no alternate substitutes. The government controls and regulates all businesses.


65. Read the Fourth Amendment of the U.S. Constitution and then answer the following question: The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be violated, and no Warrants shall issue, but upon probable cause, supported by Oath or affirmation, and particularly describing the place to be searched, and the persons or things to be seized.

68. Which of the following sources would be most helpful in determining the socioeconomic status of immigrants who came to the United States in the 1980s and 1990s? A. B. C. D.

69. How did President Eisenhower respond to the school integration crisis in Little Rock, Arkansas?

Which of the following questions requires an interpretation of the Fourth Amendment?

A.

A.

B.

B.

D.

C. D.

He urged Congress to pass civil rights legislation. He supported Governor Orval Faubus’ position opposing integration. He issued an executive order mandating integration. He placed the Arkansas National Guard under federal command to carry out the desegregation plan.

66. The highest court in New York State is A. B. C. D.

District Court. Supreme Court. Court of Appeals. Superior Court.

67. Read the excerpt from James Madison’s Federalist 10 and then answer the following question: “Liberty is to faction what air is to fire, an ailment without which it instantly expires. But it could not be a less folly to abolish liberty, which is essential to political life, because it nourishes faction, than it would be to wish the annihilation of air, which is essential to animal life, because it imparts to fire its destructive agency.” Based on the preceding quotation, which of the following aspects of U.S. government and politics would James Madison consider to be a faction? A. B. C. D.

political parties the Supreme Court the Bill of Rights none of the above



C.

Can a public school require students to observe a moment of silence? Can the U.S. Congress pass a law regulating the sale of guns? Can the U.S. Congress pass a law banning capital punishment? Can the FBI monitor and listen to private phone conversations?

diaries and letters census data newspaper articles immigration laws


Subarea V: The Fine Arts (0027–0029) 70. Mr. Smyth’s class is studying theatre history. They are reviewing theatre forms that originated in the United States. One of those listed is A. B. C. D.

pantomime. commedia dell’arte. dark comedy. musical theatre.

71. A special guest instructor in Ms. Plumb’s class is helping the students with body awareness. The guest instructor is teaching specific posture alignment, which allows the students to use their bodies to the fullest advantage in their acting. The instructor is training the students in A. B. C. D.

stage combat. the Alexander Technique. fencing. yoga.

72. Mr. Hopkins notices in his classroom that as soon as he begins to play recorded music the students begin to hop, skip, sway, tap their toes, and move in rhythm to the tune. Mr. Hopkins is noticing A. B. C. D.

man’s natural inclination to dance. students naturally lead by imitation. balance is necessary to good dancing. all forms of dance are folk dances.

73. A second-grade class is studying sounds. Which of the following activities would best highlight the relation between length and sound for the students? A.

B. C. D.

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Providing the children with materials to manipulate to discover how length affects sounds. Providing the children with materials that show how length affects sound. Providing the children with a demonstration of how length affects sound. Providing the children with a field experience to a museum of natural science so that they can benefit from an expert showing and telling them how length affects sound.

74. A kindergarten class is moving to a selection of Western art music. Throughout the selection, the children are walking around the room and either placing their finger over their mouths (shhh) and squatting or cupping their hands around their mouths (shout) and standing as the music plays. What element of music do these motions reinforce? A. B. C. D.

pitch dynamics harmony instrumentation

75. Artists using wood for sculpture has increased recently. Traditionally wood was used for printing, furniture, and building. Recent developments involve laminating layers, turning wood, and joining pieces together. Which of the following artists used wood for their art? A. B. C. D.

van Gogh Rembrandt Vermeer None of the above

76. When artists wanted to paint on walls they discovered that the pigment would flake and fall off the wall if it was not combined with a binder. The purpose of the binder is to hold the particles of the pigment together and allow them to stick to a surface. Which of the following are paint binders? A. B. C. D.

egg, acrylic, and oil acrylic, oil, and water oil, water, and varnish acrylic, oil, and varnish


Subarea VI: Health and Fitness (0030–0032) 77. Complex carbohydrates are released more slowly into the bloodstream and sustain energy levels longer than simple carbohydrates. People should try to limit their intake of simple carbohydrates and eat more fiber-rich complex carbohydrates. A good snack should contain complex carbohydrates with a little fat and protein. Choose the best snack from the following list. A. B. C. D.

78. Jesse told a group of girls in the locker room how far Tamara went with her boyfriend Christian. Tamara is visibly upset. Tamara has told Jesse she wants to talk to her after school, and Jesse has agreed to meet with her. Choose the answer that shows that best way for Tamara to let Jesse know how she is feeling. A.

B. C. D.

I feel angry and hurt because you told the girls what I did with Christian. I feel that you should have asked me whether it was okay to tell people that because it is personal. You shouldn’t have told anyone what I did with Christian. It was a secret. I hate you for telling everyone what I did. You should have minded your own business. I am so mad at you for what you did, and I am going to tell everyone that you cheated on your science test.

79. Heart disease, cancer, and type II diabetes are some of the leading causes of death in the United States. Two actions that you can take to reduce your risk of dying prematurely from these diseases are A. B. C. D.

take vitamins and reduce your intake of complex carbohydrates. exercise regularly and eat a low-fat, high-fiber diet. eat a high-protein diet and strength train daily. reduce stress and eat more trans fats.

A.

B. C. D.

sharing needles with an infected person, getting a blood transfusion of infected blood, and having unprotected sex with an infected person. sharing a drink and using the same toilet as an infected person. childbirth and infected breast milk. A and C.

81. A common eating disorder in which a person binge eats and then purges by regurgitating the food they ate or using laxatives is known as A. B. C. D.

bulimia. anorexia nervosa. body dysmorphic disorder. type II diabetes.

82. Fundamental motor skills are made up of nonlocomotor, locomotor, and manipulative skills. Striking a hockey puck with a hockey stick while standing still is a A. B. C. D.

manipulative skill. locomotor skill. non-locomotor skill. combination of a manipulative and locomotor skill.

83. What are the five components of health-related fitness? A. B. C. D.

agility, balance, coordination, aerobic fitness, and flexibility power, speed, strength, reaction time, and body composition muscular endurance, eye-hand coordination, flexibility, motor control, and speed cardiorespiratory endurance, muscular strength, muscular endurance, flexibility, and body composition



french fries with ketchup low fat frozen yogurt with fat free chocolate syrup whole wheat bagel with apple slices and peanut butter cinnamon graham crackers with strawberry preserves

80. HIV/AIDS is a disease that affects the immune system. HIV can be contracted through


84. The FITT guidelines are important guidelines that can be used to manipulate overload when exercising. The FITT guidelines stand for A. B. C. D.

frequency, intensity, time and type fitness, injury, training, type friend, instinct, trust, team food, individuality, teacher, try

85. Health benefits that result from exercise include A. B. C. D.

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increases in LDL cholesterol. decreases in resting heart rate. decreases in body fat. B and C.

86. Choose the correct target heart rate zone for a 16 year old with a resting heart rate (RHR) of 62 based on the Heart Rate Reserve (HRR) Method. All numbers are rounded to the nearest whole number. MHR = 208 – (.7 _ age) HRR = MHR – RHR THRZ low end = (HRR _ .65) + RHR THRZ high end = (HRR _ .85) + RHR A. B. C. D.

THRZ = 148 to 174 THRZ = 150 to 177 THRZ = 165 to 190 THRZ = 143 to 166


Subarea VII: Family/Consumer Science and Career Development (0033–0035) 87. A fifth-grade teacher requires her students to carry an egg with them for one week and record their experiences in a log as a part of a sexual education unit. What is the likely primary objective of this activity? Students will learn A. B. C. D.

the roles and responsibilities associated with parenthood. to practice safe sexual behaviors. to stay in school and improve their future financial prospects. that an ovum or egg is required to conceive a child.

89. The specific requirements of a position are known as A. B. C. D.

employee policies employee rights goals performance standards or expectations


88. Which of the following strategies is intended to protect personal assets? A. B. C. D.

purchasing stock options purchasing insurance reporting a seller to the Federal Trade Commission reviewing your credit history



Subarea VIII: Foundations of Reading: Constructed-Response Assignment Subtopic VIII: Foundations of Reading: Constructed-Response Assignment follows a different format from the multiplechoice section of this test. This section calls for the examinee to write a 150–300 word response to a given task instead of choosing an answer, as in the multiple-choice section. The constructed-response assignment is taken directly from content found in Subarea I, Objectives 0001 and 0002.

Directions for the Written Assignment This section of the test consists of a written assignment. You are asked to prepare a written response of approximately 150–300 words on the assigned topic. The assignment can be found on the next page. You should use your time to plan, write, review, and edit what you have written for the assignment. Read the assignment carefully before you begin to write. Think about how you will organize what you plan to write. You may use any blank space provided on the following pages to make notes, write an outline, or otherwise prepare your response. However, your score will be based solely on the response you write on the lined pages of your answer document. Your response will be evaluated on the basis on the following criteria: PURPOSE: Fulfill the charge of the assignment. APPLICATION OF CONTENT: Accurately and effectively apply the relevant knowledge and skills. SUPPORT: Support the response with appropriate examples and/or sound reasoning reflecting an understanding of the relevant knowledge and skills. Your response will be evaluated based on the content given here, not on your writing ability. The final version of the response should conform to the conventions of edited American English. This should be your original work, written in your own words, and not copied or paraphrased from some other work. Be sure to write about the assigned topic. Please write legibly. You may not use any reference materials during the test. Remember to review what you have written and make any changes you think will improve your response.

Written Assignment A fourth-grade teacher wants the students to read a passage from a book. However, before reading the passage, the teacher wants to develop and activate students’ prior knowledge in order to enhance reading comprehension.

Examinee Task Write an essay in which you explain the importance of activating and developing prior knowledge and how teachers would use a K-W-L chart as a before reading strategy in order to increase reading comprehension.

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Answer Key for Practice Test 2 Multiple-Choice Section Subarea I: English 11. B

2. B

12. A

3. B

13. B

4. D

14. C

5. C

15. D

6. C

16. D

7. A

17. C

8. C

18. A

9. A

19. B

10. D

20. C


1. C

Subarea II: Mathematics 21. D

31. A

22. B

32. B

23. B

33. D

24. B

34. B

25. D

35. C

26. B

36. C

27. C

37. C

28. C

38. B

29. D

39. D

30. A

40. A

Subarea III: Science and Technology 41. B

48. B

42. B

49. C

43. A

50. D

44. C

51. C

45. D

52. B

46. C

53. B

47. C

54. B

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Subarea IV: Social Studies 55. A

63. A

56. B

64. A

57. D

65. D

58. A

66. C

59. A

67. A

60. D

68. B

61. C

69. D

62. C

Subarea V: The Fine Arts 70. D

74. B

71. B

75. D

72. A

76. A

73. A

Subarea VI: Health and Fitness 77. C

83. D

78. A

84. A

79. B

85. D

80. D

86. B

81. A 82. A

Subarea VII: Family/Consumer Science and Career Development (0033–0035) 87. A 88. B

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89. D


Answers and Explanations for Practice Test 2 Subarea I: English 1. C. Oral language activities increase students’ vocabulary development. Some of these activities include semantic maps, concept circles, word sorts, synonyms, antonyms, and analogies. 2. B. T is the onset in the preceding example. An onset is the initial part of the word that precedes the vowel. 3. B. The alphabetic principle states that the letters in the alphabet represent distinctive speech sounds called phonemes. 4. D. Readers make inferences when they have to put together information that is not directly written in the text. All of the preceding skills describe what readers do when they infer. 5. C. The purpose of an Anticipation Guide is to activate prior knowledge and set a purpose for reading. An Anticipation Guide is a series of statements that students agree or disagree with before they read a text. The students revisit these statements after they read the text.

7. A. During Guided Reading, teachers work with small groups and NOT with the whole class. All of the other statements are part of the Guided Reading program. 8. C. Book Talks help students attain a deeper meaning of the text and experience literature as a social endeavor. 9. A. Transition words and transition phrases help writers move from one idea to the next. 10. D. During the editing phase, students write according to the conventions of standard English usage such as eliminating sentence fragments. 11. B. Clustering involves writing a general topic in the middle of a web and then writing all related words and ideas around this topic. The focus of the research paper is driven by a few connected words around the broader general topic. 12. A. Biased writing is one-sided statements about a subject such as opinions, which are statements that are based on feelings and attitudes. 13. B. Many graphic representations include a key to interpret the information. In addition, captions, labels, and titles are added to clarify and support the data contained in the graphic representations. 14. C. A good persuasive speech begins with a position statement that sums up the speaker’s views on a topic. Choice C is a how to do something speech and not a persuasive speech. 15. D. Choices A, B, and C all encourage active participation to enhance listening and speaking skills. 16. D. Test-taking is the only choice that does NOT help students listen effectively or enhance listening skills from oral messages. 17. C. The setting gives the reader a specific time and place in the story. 18. A. Alliteration is repetition of an initial sound in two or more words of a sentence. 19. B. Margaret Wise Brown wrote Goodnight Moon, Ezra Jack Keats wrote The Snowy Day, and Judith Viorst wrote Alexander and the Terrible, Horrible, No Good, Very Bad Day. 20. C. Shel Silverstein has written many award-winning poetry books for children such as A Light in the Attic.

Subarea II: Mathematics 21. D. A prime number greater than one is a number that is divisible only by itself and 1. 23 is a prime number: It is also an odd number, as well as a real number.

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6. C. Good readers will reread the passage after they identify the main ideas because this will help the readers remember the main ideas later.


3 ^ 3 + 1h 22. B. The sum of the first n numbers is given by n(n + 1)/2. For example, when n =3 then = 6 and that is 2 50 ^ 51h the sum of 1 +2 +3. When n = 50 then = 1275. 2 23. B. Subtracting 4 from both sides of the equation we get - 7 X # 25 - 4 or - 7 X # 21. Multiply both sides by - 37 3 3 and note that when multiplying by a negative number, the inequality is reversed. We X $ - 37 # ^ 21h, or X ≥ –9. 24. B. Given the parabola y = x2, when a constant is added to it, then the parabola shifts upward by that constant, whereas when a constant is subtracted from the equation as in this case; the parabola shifts downward by that constant. 25. D. The difference between the eighth term and the third term is 33 – 13 = 20. When divided by 5—the number of terms in between—we get 20 = 4 , which is the constant added to each term in the arithmetical progression. To 5 find the thirteenth term, we multiply 4 times the number of term between 8 and 13 (13 – 8 = 5) and add it to the value of the eighth term: 4 × 5 + 33 = 53. 26. B. If N is the number of calls, then the cost in dollars is 15 # N . But that must be added to the basic charge of 100 $32 resulting in the equation in B. 27. C. The length of one side of the inscribed rectangle is a –2c, and the other is b. The area is the product of the two sides = (a – 2c)b. 28. C. An object is symmetric if its appearance remains the same under one or more sets of transformations. When the equilateral pentagon is rotated one fifth of a turn, its appearance remains the same, when rotated two-fifth of a turn, its appearance also remains the same, and so on up to five rotations. Thus, the symmetry group consists of five rotations. One must add also the mirror reflections as there are five of them as well. 29. D. The absolute value function of X, expressed by X , is symmetric along the y axis. When a constant is subtracted from X, the function shifts to the right by that amount, whereas when a constant c is added to it the shifts is to the left by c. In this case, it is shifted by 3 units to the right, and X = 3 acts like a mirror. 30. A. The two coordinates (–3,0) and (3,0) places the trapezoid on the x axis (because the y value being zero in each case). The mirror reflection of the third coordinate (–2,1) is (2,1), which is the fourth coordinate. 31. A. Consider 4 squares meeting at a point. The number of vertices is 5 and the number of polygons (for example, squares) is 4. The number of edges (lines joining two vertices) is 8. Thus, 4 + 5 = 8 + 1. Similar tiling follows the same pattern. 32. B. From similar triangles (the pole casting the shadow with the resulting hypotenuse and the meter stick also casting the shadow), we have x = 1 where x is the height of the flag pole and 1 is the length of the meter stick. 6 .5 Solving for x, we get 6 or x = 12. .5 33. D. One gram is 1000 milligram. Thus, 46712 = 46.172 grams. 1000 34. B. First we convert all measurement in meters: 20150 mm = 20.150 m and 7.3 km = 7.3 × 1000 = 7300 m. 1000 Adding them: 235 + 7300 + 20.150 = 7555.15 m, which is 7555.15 = 7.55515 km . 1000 35. C. The area of the circle is π × 4 × 4= 16 π square cm. The volume of the cylinder is that area times the height: 16 π × 50 = 2513 cubic cm. One cubic meter is 100 × 100 × 100 = 1000000 cubic centimeters. Thus, 2513 = .002513. 1000000 36. C. There are three ways of getting a sum of 10 on the roll of two dice: (4,6), (6,4), and (5,5) and five ways of getting a sum of 8. Altogether there eight ways (3 + 5) of getting a sum of 8 or 10 out of 36 possibilities. The probability then is 8 = 2 . 36 9 37. C. There are 216 possible outcomes in the roll of three dice (6 × 6 × 6). There are only three ways to roll a sum of 4: (1,1,2), (1,2,1), and (2,1,1). Thus, the probability is 3 . 216

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38. B. There are 26 possibilities for the letter, and 10 possibilities for each of the five numbers, giving a total of 26 × 10 × 10 × 10 × 10 × 10 = 26 × 100000 = 2600000 = 2.6 million. 39. D. One standard deviation to the left of the mean is 22, and one standard deviation to the right is 42. Since 68% of the normal distribution measurement falls within one standard deviation from the mean, D is the correct answer. 40. A. The normal distribution is symmetric about the mean. One standard deviation to the left of the mean contains 34% of the measurement. In this example, one standard deviation to the left of the mean is 22. Since we are looking for the percentage of inmates over 22 years old, we must add 34% to the area to the right of the mean, which is 50%, giving a total of 84% of inmates who are over 22 years old.

Subarea III: Science and Technology 41. B. According to Newton’s second law equation a = Fnet /m. Applying a force to an object does not change its motion unless it is a net force. C is Newton’s First Law, and D is explained by the Law of Universal Gravitation.

43. A. Ozone absorbs biologically harmful UV rays. The lithosphere is a layer of the Earth’s terra firma not a layer of the atmosphere. Acid rain contains nitric acid, HNO3, which requires a base for neutralization. At ground level, ozone contributes to photochemical smog. 44. C. UV radiation causes the C-Cl bond to break releasing atomic chlorine. The chlorine atoms then catalyze the conversion of O3 to O2. CFCs are organic compounds that are not acidic. CFCs absorb UV radiation but do not block visible light from the sun. Cloud formation is primarily due to water vapor in the atmosphere. 45. D. Statues and buildings made of marble and limestone will react with acid rain. Marble and limestone are both carbonates. Carbonates react with acids to produce carbonic acid. Initiation of glaciation and ice sheet formation is related to plate tectonics and Milankovitch cycles. Chlorophyll is a neutral organic molecule and is not oxidized (decolorized) by acid rain. However, acid rain can kill plant life. Thus, it may lead to a population crash rather than a population explosion. 46. C. The differential heating of the Earth by the sun drives both the atmospheric circulation and the ocean circulation. Radioactive decay occurs deep within the Earth and affects plate tectonics, not atmospheric circulation. The primary factor causing tides is the moon’s gravitational pull on the Earth. 47. C. RNA cannot be the mirror opposite of DNA because RNA is single-stranded and contains uracil and ribose whereas DNA is double-stranded and contains thymine and deoxyribose. The other three choices are correct for DNA. 48. B. By definition a codon is a three base code on mRNA. The three base code on tRNA is termed an anticodon. The three base code translates to an amino acid. The genetic code is not binary (two bases). 49. C. A mutation is an inheritable change in DNA at the molecular level. Changes in RNA, and cellular membranes are not inheritable. Infertile older parents do not pass DNA changes, occurring after their fertility period, to the next generation. 50. D. According to the Law of Universal Gravitation, all the bodies in the solar system are gravitationally bound to the sun. The solar system including the sun and the planets were formed from a cloud of dust and gas according to the nebular hypothesis. The planets move in elliptical not circular orbits. The densities of the nine planets varies with their composition. 51. C. Moon rocks from the Apollo mission support the “big splash” theory stated in C. The mean density of the moon is 3.4g/cc, which is the same as basalt on Earth. The mean density of the earth is 5.5g/cc due to its iron/nickel core. This density similarity makes B and D much less plausible than C. 52. B. Oceanic plates are composed of basalt on top of mantle rock. Continental plates are composed of granite on top of basalt on top of mantle rock. Thus, basalt-only or granite-only descriptions cannot apply to all tectonic plates. The thickness of tectonic plates varies from 10 to 100 km.

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42. B. Gravitational potential energy is directly proportional to height according to the equation PE = mgh. Restarting the clutch does not affect the potential energy. Pushing the car to the top of the hill does increase its potential energy, but it’s not maximum until the top is reached. At the bottom of the hill, the potential energy is zero, and the kinetic energy is maximum.


53. B. The cell is the simplest living entity (that is, expressing all the characteristics of life). A virus cannot reproduce outside of a host cell. Genes and chromosomes while carrying all of the information (that is, a blueprint for life) do not exhibit all of the characteristics of life. 54. B. Fossils provide the most direct evidence for the evolutionary process. The comparative anatomy and comparative biochemistry, but not the geochemistry, of living organisms can also provide indirect evidence of evolution. Study of isolated organs in any species is not comparative and does not provide evidence of evolution.

Subarea IV: Social Studies 55. A. The American colonists resented the end of salutary neglect and stronger enforcement of mercantilist taxes, leading to an increasingly organized opposition to British rule. 56. B. The launching of Sputnik triggered a sense of anxiety that American education was falling behind Soviet education and motivated Congress to allocate significant funding for scholarships encouraging students to pursue science and engineering. 57. D. Both the Meiji government and Peter the Great advocated policies of modernization. Answer A is wrong as neither advocated socialism; Answer B is wrong as both encouraged greater engagement with the world; and Answer C is wrong because neither advocated democratization. 58. A. Answers B (a large labor force); C (investment capital); and D (access to natural resources) all contributed to England’s industrial revolution. 59. A. The Treaty of Versailles, which ended World War I, had a clause requiring Germans to acknowledge their guilt for starting the war and imposed harsh reparations on the Germans. Answer C is clearly incorrect, because it is the opposite of the correct answer. Answers B and D have nothing to do with the Versailles Treaty but take place after World War II. 60. D. All of the land features listed are in both Canada and the United States. 61. C. Absolute location is the definitive location of a place using a recognized coordinate system, such as longitude and latitude. Answer B (relative location) is wrong, because relative location defines a destination in relationship to nearby landmarks. Answer A (physical environment) is wrong because the physical environment describes particular features, such as mountains, rivers, soil, beaches, and wildlife. Answer D (geographic region) is wrong because a region is an area that displays a coherent unity in terms of the government, language, or landform, or situation. 62. C. An archipelago is defined as a large group of islands. 63. A. A geometric progression is a sequence, such as the numbers 1, 2, 4, 8, in which each figure is multiplied by the same factor (in this case 2) in order to obtain the following figure. 64. A. An oligopoly describes a market dominated by a small number of participants who are able to collectively exert control over supply and market prices. 65. D. Answer D requires deciding whether the FBI’s actions have violated the right to be “secure in their persons, houses, papers, and effects against unreasonable searches and seizures.” Answer A is about the First Amendment; Answer B is about the Second Amendment; and Answer C is about the Eighth Amendment. 66. C. The highest court in New York State is the Court of Appeals. Answers A, B, and D describe courts that fall below the Court of Appeals, in both the Criminal and Civil court structure. 67. A. It is generally understood that “faction” referred to political parties. Federalist 10 does not address the issue of the Electoral College. 68. B. Of all of the sources listed, census data would have the most information about the socioeconomic status of recent immigrants. Diaries and letters would help understand individual experiences and perspectives on immigration; newspaper articles might provide clues about immigrants’ socioeconomic status but would be more anecdotal than a census; and immigration laws would tell you about public officials goals for regulating immigration but would not tell you much about the socioeconomic status of immigrants.

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69. D. In 1957, in direct defiance of the 1954 Supreme Court decision Brown v. Board of Education, Arkansas Governor Orval Faubus ordered the Arkansas National Guard to prevent African American students from enrolling in Central High School. President Eisenhower wanted to uphold the Constitution, but he also wanted to avoid a confrontation in Arkansas. Ultimately, Arkansas put the Arkansas National Guard under federal control and ordered them to restore order in Little Rock, enforce the desegregation order, and protect the African American students as they enrolled in Central High School.

Subarea V: The Fine Arts 70. D. Musical theatre is a true American art form. It originated in New York with the production of The Black Crook in 1866. The other answers are forms of theatre that although practiced in the United States did not originate in the United States. 71. B. The technique that is a procedure to align the body skeleton and inner organs helps students to have more control over their instruments (that is, their bodies). The other answers do not take into effect alignment of the body. 72. A. All humans dance, bob, or sway to music even as small children. Dance is one of the original historic theatrical forms that run through all cultures. The other answers do not explain the innate ability of man to respond to music.

74. B. This question assesses your knowledge of how music can be altered. As you recall, a song can be sung or played in many different ways. It can be performed fast, slow, loud, soft, and with different vocal timbres. This question also includes a specific grade level. Reading the question carefully, you will note that the specific age mentioned in the question stem does not relate to the answer choices. The important information in the stem is that the children are walking about the room moving their hands as the music plays. Using a “shhh” finger and cupped hands around the mouth leads the reader to the assumption that the movements must have to do something with soft (shhh) and loud (cupped hands). Relying on your knowledge of musical terms, dynamics would be the most logical and best choice. Without the ability to hear the selection, the other choices cannot be easily justified. Given the information presented in the question stem, the best answer is B. 75. D. All of the artists described were primarily painters. 76. A. Oil, acrylic, and egg are the typical binders for pigments. Varnish is not typically used as a binder. Water is used to thin paint; it does not act as a binder.

Subarea VI: Health and Fitness 77. C. French fries are a carbohydrate, but they are laden with fat. Ketchup contains sugars that are released into the blood quickly. Frozen yogurt and the chocolate syrup contain simple sugars that are released into the blood quickly. The whole wheat bagel contains complex carbohydrates, fiber, and a small amount of protein which will be released slowly into the blood. The apple slices are a simple carbohydrate, but the apple also contains fiber. The peanut butter contains fat and a small amount of protein to balance out the snack. The cinnamon graham crackers and the preserves are both simple carbohydrates that will be released quickly into the bloodstream.

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73. A. Most of the questions on the exam will refer to a specific age or grade level. This is important in determining the answer that is developmentally appropriate for the age or grade. In this question, you are asked to select a developmentally appropriate answer for a science lesson involving sounds. Second grade is considered to be at the upper end of early childhood. Since this is early childhood, you will want to identify both “best practice” and “inappropriate practice.” By eliminating inappropriate answer choices, you increase the probability that you will select the correct answer. Therefore, you might begin by looking for choices that focus on children listening to an adult or children that are passively engaged in an activity. Choice C indicates that the children will see a demonstration. Although the demonstration may be engaging, it still requires that the children sit and watch. Choice D is similar to C in that the children are watching a show and tell demonstration. The change of venue might increase their learning, but they are still sitting and watching. Choices A and B mention the inclusion of materials, possible things that could be manipulated—a hands-on experience. Looking closely at Choice B, you can see that the materials are there to “show how length effects sound.” Choice A is similar to B except that the children are expected to manipulate the materials. In a child-centered curriculum, children should have hands-on experiences. This is the best answer.


78. A. Tamara uses I statements in scenario A. Using I statement lets the person know how you feel without placing blame or putting them on the defensive. In scenario B Tamara tells Jesse what she should and should not do without explaining how she feels or why the situation should have been handled differently. This does not leave the issue open to resolution. The way of addressing the problem in scenario C does not leave it open for resolution and puts the offending party on the defensive. Revenge is not a solution to a problem, it only escalates bad feeling in the situation and causes more problems that will need to be solved. 79. B. A multi-vitamin might be necessary for making sure that you get your daily intake of vitamins ands minerals necessary for bodily functions. Complex carbohydrates are necessary for energy and other body functions and are the main source of dietary fiber, which is necessary to reduce the risk of heart disease and cancer and also to maintain optimal blood sugar levels. Regular exercise and a low-fat, high-fiber diet have been shown to reduce the risk of developing heart disease, cancer, and diabetes. High-protein diets have not been shown to reduce the risk of heart disease, cancer, and diabetes. Diets that are too high in protein can lead to kidney problems. Strength training is an important part of an exercise program, but aerobic training is more important to reduce the risk of diseases such as heart disease, cancer, and diabetes. Stress reduction is an important step to take in reducing your risk of heart disease. Trans fats have been shown to boost LDL cholesterol levels in the bloodstream. LDL is the bad cholesterol. Eating trans fats is like eating saturated fats. Both trans fats and saturated fats should be limited. 80. D. Sharing needles with an infected person, getting a blood transfusion of infected blood, and having unprotected sex with an infected person are all confirmed ways of contracting HIV. There are no confirmed cases of a person contracting HIV through using the same toilet or sharing a drink with someone who is infected. You can contract hepatitis through sharing drinks so sharing drinks is not a good idea. A child who is born to an HIV infected mother can contract the virus during child birth. An infant can also contract the virus from its mother while nursing if the mother has the virus. The answers in options A and C are all ways that HIV can be contracted. 81. A. Bulimia is an eating disorder in which one binges and purges in order to control their weight. Anorexia is an eating disorder that is characterized by self starvation. Body dysmorphic disorder is characterized by a preoccupation with how one looks. The person sees themselves as looking different than they do in reality. Type II diabetes is a disease of the pancreas. It is not an eating disorder. 82. A. This skill involves manipulating both an object (the puck) and a striking implement (the stick) so it is a manipulative skill. A locomotor skill is characterized my moving the body through space. A non-locomotor skill is characterized by moving the body in place such as twisting, turning, balancing, stretching, and curling. Answer D is a combination of a manipulative and locomotor skill. 83. D. Cardio-respiratory endurance, muscular strength, muscular endurance, flexibility, and body composition are the five components of health-related fitness and are necessary for maintaining good health and quality of life. Agility, balance, power, speed, coordination, and reaction time are elements of skill-related fitness needed for sports not general health. Eye-hand coordination and motor control are not components of health related fitness. 84. A. Frequency, intensity, time, and type are correct. Frequency is how often you perform a physical activity; intensity is how hard you perform a physical activity; time is how long you perform a physical activity; and type is the activity that you choose to perform such as running for aerobic fitness or weight lifting for muscular endurance. 85. D. LDL is the bad cholesterol. Exercise results in decreases in LDL and increases in HDL (the good cholesterol). Regular exercise results in decreased resting heart rate. Regular exercise combined with a healthy diet reduces body fat levels. Answers B and C are correct. 86. B. Answer B is the correct application of the formula. MHR = 208 – (.7 × 16)

197 = 208 – 11

HRR = MHR – RHR

135 = 197 – 62

THRZ low end = (HRR × .65 + RHR)

150 = (135 × .65 + 62)

THRZ high end = (HRR × .85 + RHR)

177 = (135 × .85 + 62)

All numbers are rounded to the nearest whole number.

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Subarea VII: Family/Consumer Science and Career Development (0033–0035) 87. A. The fragility of the egg is likely to teach students about the precautions and challenges associated with parenthood. Responses B and C may illustrate secondary learning outcomes but are unlikely to be the primary objective. Carrying an egg does not help students to understand the process of conception. 88. B. Insurance providers promise to compensate an individual for a specific future loss in exchange for a premium. This protects the consumer’s asset. Stock options are a type of investment or asset. Reporting a seller to the FTC for fraud may help resolve a consumer concern and protect future consumers, but it does not typically protect an individual for assets already purchased. Credit history impacts future borrowing opportunities but does not usually affect current assets. 89. D. Performance standards or expectations indicate the specific requirements for an employee in a particular position. Goals are often provided as part of employee performance evaluation, but they refer to more individualized or personal incentives for an employee. Employee rights refer to the required workplace conditions provided by the employer, and employee policies refer to the procedures expected of all employees in an organization.

A fourth-grade teacher wants the students to read a passage from a book. However, before reading the passage, the teacher wants to develop and activate students’ prior knowledge in order to enhance reading comprehension.

Examinee Task Write an essay in which you explain the importance of activating and developing prior knowledge and how teachers would use a K-W-L chart as a before reading strategy in order to increase reading comprehension.

Strong Response Prior knowledge is a combination of what people have experienced and learned about a specific topic. Researchers have found that the amount of prior knowledge individuals bring to their reading can determine readers’ levels of comprehension. In addition, when activating prior knowledge to help students construct meaning, it is important to include background development related to the main points or key concepts of the passage and not just general knowledge about a topic. Teachers need to know the extent of their students’ prior knowledge of a topic in order to fill in any gaps or correct misconceptions. Before reading, teachers can use a K-W-L chart as a strategy to improve comprehension. The K-W-L chart is a three-step strategy designed to activate students’ prior knowledge and set a purpose for their reading. It is used with expository text. In a K-W-L chart, the K stands for the question, what do I know; the W stands for the question, what do I want to find out; and the L stands for the question, what did I learn. The K and the W questions are asked before reading the material, and the L question is asked after reading. Teachers can ask children to state everything they know about a particular topic. All of the students’ answers are written under the K column. If a student’s comment is incorrect, it is still written down. After reading the passage, the incorrect answers are corrected. Based on the questions the students ask during the W step, teachers can also evaluate prior knowledge. Furthermore, the questions in the W step provide a framework and a focus for children to find answers while they read.

Scoring Explanation This response would receive a 4 because it answers all aspects of the question. It accurately and effectively explains the importance of activating and developing prior knowledge in order to increase reading comprehension. The essay provides strong support of the examinee’s knowledge and skills of the K-W-L strategy to activate prior knowledge and improve comprehension.

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Subarea VIII: Foundations of Reading: Constructed-Response Assignment

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